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A phenomenological study of the impact of English language learner support services on students’ identity development

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A phenomenological study of the impact of English language learner support services on students’ identity development

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A Phenomenological Study of the Impact of English Language Learner Support Services
on Students’ Identity Development

Carol Loayza Castro

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Carol Loayza Castro 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Carol Loayza Castro certifies the approval of this Dissertation

David Cash
Robert Filback
Christina M. Kishimoto, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
As schools establish support programs for English learners (ELs), administrators and teachers
face a challenge as adolescent identity developmental needs intersect with language support
needs. Generally, EL programs are designed based on academic outcomes, assessing students’
academic ability based on English language development (ELD) progress. The purpose of this
study was to explore how high school ELs’ experiences with support services affect their identity
formation, specifically in college and career planning. A phenomenological approach was used
through qualitative student interviews, teacher surveys and classroom observations to understand
the student experience. Findings suggest that schools must be intentional about designing EL
support services, considering factors that impact adolescent identity development. Also, results
suggest that power dynamics around language impact how students view themselves
academically and perceive their home language.

v
Dedication
To Cameron, Isabella, and Carlos, your identity is something that you will continue to develop
and grow over time. It wasn’t until the start of this dissertation that I truly realized how a part of
my identity had been taken from me and through this study, I decided to take it back. I am
honored to be a part of your lives, in shaping and protecting your identity. I hope to continue to
show you that growing, learning and taking a stand for yourself is never too late.

To my husband, Sal, you are the bravest person I know and you have quietly held my hand when
I was scared to take the next step towards my doctoral degree. I couldn’t have done this without
your support.

To my parents and sister, thank you for believing in me and always pushing me to excel. I work
to honor your sacrifices in moving to this country everyday by supporting and helping other
families like us.

vi
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to the dedicated faculty and staff of the
USC Rossier School of Education program. Your support and dedication to helping doctoral
students pursue educational equity for students has truly helped me improve as a leader.
This endeavor would not have been possible without the guidance of my dissertation
chair, Dr. Christina M. Kishimoto. Your invaluable feedback and encouragement helped keep me
moving forward during this process. Additionally, I am grateful for members of my defense
committee, Dr. David Cash and Dr. Robert Filback, for their knowledge and expertise.
I am grateful to my colleagues and classmates for their moral support, and friendship. We
all entered this program in the midst of a pandemic, and together learned new ways to interact
and connect via virtual, online systems. Our cohort camaraderie kept me going through this
challenging yet rewarding journey.
I would be remiss if I did not thank the site leaders, teachers and students who
participated in this study. I appreciate your willingness to openly and honestly share your time
and experiences. I hope that this study helps to elevate your voices and, shapes the way that
future students discover their identity.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................. 2
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................ 5
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 5
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 6
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ......................................................................... 6
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 7
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ......................................................................................... 11
The Components of Adolescent Development Theory ..................................................... 11
English Learner Support Services ..................................................................................... 21
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 28
Summary of Literature Review ......................................................................................... 31
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 33
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................... 33
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 34
Selection of the Population ................................................................................................ 34
Design Summary ............................................................................................................... 37

viii
Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 37
Instrumentation and Protocols ........................................................................................... 38
Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 41
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 42
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 43
Ethical Considerations ....................................................................................................... 50
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 50
Chapter Four: Results or Findings ................................................................................................. 51
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 51
Results ............................................................................................................................... 53
Results Research Question 1 ............................................................................................. 53
Results Research Question 2 ............................................................................................. 64
Results Research Question 3 ............................................................................................. 71
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 76
Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................................... 79
Findings ............................................................................................................................. 80
Limitations ......................................................................................................................... 86
Implications for Practice .................................................................................................... 87
Future Research ................................................................................................................. 89
Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 91
References ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Appendix A: Interview Questions ............................................................................................... 103
Appendix B: Survey Protocol ...................................................................................................... 112
Appendix D: Informed Consent .................................................................................................. 121
Appendix E: Classroom Observation Protocols .......................................................................... 123

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Characteristics Framed by Identity Statuses 13
Table 2: Side-by-Side View of Helms’s People of Color Identity Theory and Marcia’s Identity
Statuses 20
Table 3: Survey Categories for Teacher Participants 36
Table 4: Variety of English Learner Population in District X 47
Table 5: Student Interview Participants 51
Table 6: Teacher Survey Participants Content Area Breakdown 52
Table 7: Classroom Observations 53
Table 8: Based on the Factors Listed, What Would You Consider Are the Top Influences on
Identity Development for English Learners? 62
Appendix C: Audit Trail Sample 116
Table E1: Classroom Observation Protocol 122
Table E2: Classroom 2: Academic English II 124
Table E3: Classroom 2 Observations 126

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for English Learners’ Identity Development As College-
Going Students 30
Figure 2: Audit Trail Process for EL Support Services Phenomena 49
Figure 3: Teacher Survey Responses in Ranking Top Priorities for English Learners 56
Figure 4: The Curriculum Has Activities and Lessons Engaging Students With Future Plans
in an Exploratory Manner. 59
Figure 5: The Curriculum Asks Students to Reflect on Their Identities 60
Figure 6: Factors That Teachers Believe Inhibit Identity Development in EL Students 63

1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Who am I? Whom do I want to be? These fundamental questions are the core of the
adolescent experience and necessary to understand the self. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development suggests that identity development is the primary component that bridges the gap in
moving from childhood to adulthood, often challenged by a period of confusion and
experimentation (Flum & Kaplan, 2012; Kaplan & Flum, 2009). Furthering Erikson’s theory,
Marcia’s identity statuses defined adolescence as a period of “both exploration and commitment
with respect to ideologies and occupations” (Arduini-Van Hoose, 2022, para 8). Schools are
essential in creating the communal and educational setting that sets the stage for adolescent
identity development, providing experiences that make pivotal meaning to students’ identity
(Flum & Kaplan, 2012).
The intersectionality of adolescent identity development and the support needs of an
English learner creates a challenge for schools as administrators and teachers establish support
programs. The design for schools’ English learners’ programs primarily focuses on academic
outcomes, measuring students’ academic abilities via English language development (ELD)
progress. Established by Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, ELD programs are intended to
support language acquisition for students with limited English proficiency (LEP), also known as
English learners (ELs). The ELD programs are leveled into the following three categories
depending on their language acquisition abilities: Emerging (limited), Expanding (moderate),
and Bridging (well-developed). These programs, known as designated ELD, are intended to
support students in ELD in core content instruction, such as science and history. Students are
considered successful when they are assessed as fluent English proficient (FEP) in a process
known as reclassification. In turn, schools create structures to support these language goals,
2

statutorily defined through state and federal education laws, often implementing EL support
services focused on improving academic achievement and reclassification rates.
Thus, integrating identity development needs in the EL programming experience is not a
primary consideration since the primary focus relies on the education code requirements that
must be met. Each school and district are responsible for designing structures that consider the
intersectionality of legal requirements and identity development priorities. Notably, ELs have
additional challenges in their adolescent years, navigating multilingual, multicultural, and
multiliterate processes in the context of schooling (Harklau & Moreno, 2019). Several studies
suggest that slow academic progress among ELs might be connected to social-emotional issues
(Castro-Olivo et al., 2011; Moná & Gómez Rodríguez, 2019; Vera et al., 2021). The lack of
focus on social-emotional needs in EL support services can adversely affect the adolescent’s
view of self and motivation to succeed (Castro-Olivo et al., 2011; Kaplan & Flum, 2009). This
study argues that the experience of the institutional and societal contexts of schooling may have
both intentional and unintentional consequences on EL students’ essence of being: their identity.
Furthermore, these experiences can create perceptions that affect the present self and whom EL
students aspire to be in the future.
Background of the Problem
In the last 10 years, California rolled out several initiatives to support ELs in K–12
schools. Currently, ELs make up 17.7% of California’s student population and are expected to
increase in the coming years (California Department of Education Data Reporting Office, 2022).
In 2014, the state adopted new EL frameworks and standards to support improved pedagogical
classroom practices and ensure students were college and career ready by the end of high school
(California Department of Education, 2015). At the same time, the local control funding formula
3

(LCFF) required school districts to write local accountability plans with an emphasis on
improving academic outcomes for ELs, such as reclassification rates, graduation rates,
attendance, and college and career outcomes (California Department of Education, 2021).
Local control accountability plans (LCAP) enable school districts to provide additional
resources and create comprehensive systems to support EL students (Umansky et al., 2015). As
noted by the mission of the California Department of Education’s guide for ELs, the goal of
California schools is to “prepare graduates with the linguistic, academic, and social skills and
competencies they require for college, career, and civic participation” (California Department of
Education, 2017). Due to those efforts, California developed a roadmap in 2017 for the best ways
to support ELs, providing schools with tips and guidance on designing and implementing EL
support services. As a result, school districts have created EL support services, such as
designated time for language instruction, increasing the school day, extended school year, and
professional learning specific to best classroom practices for ELs (Callahan & Shifrer, 2016;
Hart & Lee, 2003; Richardson Bruna et al., 2007).
Yet despite the flexibility that comes with local control, current research finds weak
evidence of systemic changes and improved outcomes for ELs based on LCAP goals in the last 5
years (Zarate & Gàndara, 2019). For example, reclassification rates for students have shown
minimal growth, averaging 13.8%, with a sharp decrease to 6.7% in 2021 (California
Department of Education, 2022a). Graduation rates for ELs continue to be low, with only 67.1%
of cohort graduation rates and 27% meeting admission requirements for public state universities
(California Department of Education, 2022a). Thus, ELs are often limited in their post-graduate
outcomes due to structural as evidenced by course-taking patterns, with a reduced number of EL
4

students accessing higher level coursework in either math or Advanced Placement (Kanno &
Kangas, 2014; Thompson, 2017).
As evidence, there is a disconnect between academic design efforts to support ELs and
the subsequent results achieved by these programs to support these students’ needs. Thus,
researchers have taken a closer look at how adolescent development theories affect student
outcomes, noting that “identity work, and its construction in school settings and as part of the
educational process, is intertwined with motivation, learning, and knowledge construction”
(Flum & Kaplan, 2012), p. 240). For high school EL students, defined as Grades 9–12, the
adolescent development years are critical in identity formation, particularly in the contextual
settings of school, community, and culture (Flum & Kaplan, 2012). This study examined the
impact of current EL support systems on adolescent identity development, highlighting specific
high school experiences.
Statement of the Problem
English learner (EL) students are not graduating at the same rate as non-EL students. The
California Department of Education (2021) reported that 83.6% of all students graduated high
school, yet only 67.1% of ELs graduated, a significant differential of 16.5%. This study focused
on District X School District, a medium-sized district outside of Los Angeles, California, with
approximately 20,000 students. The EL enrollment in District X is at 15%, below the Los
Angeles County enrollment of 16.9% and the state enrollment of 17.7% (California Department
of Education Data Reporting Office, 2022). In District X, only 76% of ELs graduate high school
in 4 years, 3% complete CTE pathways, and only 30% are eligible to attend a 4-year university
(California Department of Education, 2022a).
5

Previous research about these disparities has focused on academic outcomes and policies
that categorize ELs, such as reclassification (Callahan & Shifrer, 2016; Carlson & Knowles,
2016; Johnson, 2019). Although the literature indicates a causal relationship between
reclassification and EL graduation rates, research falls short of identifying the key components in
the design of EL services that can improve student outcomes. Research shows that adolescent
identity development impacts long-term goals (Feldman & Whitcomb, 2005; Flum & Kaplan,
2012; Marcia, 1987). There is a need to understand further the EL student experience in
secondary schools that may shape graduation rates.
There is a dearth of research about the influence of EL support programming and services
on the EL’s identity, specifically related to college and career goals. Therefore, this study
examined the extent to which high school ELs’ experiences with support services shape their
identity formation, specifically regarding their college and career goals.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined the experiences of ELs in the high school environment, specifically
as they interact with EL support services. Through a phenomenological approach, the study
focused on the experiences themselves and how they shaped consciousness, primarily through
identity development (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative surveys and interviews of service
providers and EL students were the primary data sources to conduct what is known as
phenomenological reduction, a process of “continually returning to the essence of the experience
to derive the inner structure or meaning in and of itself” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 27).
Research Questions
This study addressed three research questions:
6

1. How are adolescent identity development concepts embedded into the design of EL
support services for high school students?
2. What are students’ perceptions of how their experiences with EL support services
have shaped their identity?
3. How do these perceptions impact their identity as college-going students?
Adolescent identity development theory is the core theoretical framework that guided how I
examined the EL student experience, specifically through the intentional or unintentional design
of EL student support services. This framework connects the process of defining the self in the
context of the experiences that may shape an adolescent, of which schooling is a significant
component in the high school years (Arduini-Van Hoose, 2022).
Significance of the Study
This study examined how EL support services can shape how students perceive
themselves in the school setting. It sought to better understand the internalized assumptions that
may impact EL outcomes specific to college and career readiness and make recommendations
that could improve the design of EL support services offered by schools. For policymakers, the
outcomes of this study could help inform ways to ensure that educational structures and services
promote positive identity development. For practitioners at the school site, the study can help
improve understanding of how to design practices for support services to encourage a college-
going identity for EL students.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The study was limited to a medium-sized suburban district located in an area outside of
Los Angeles, creating limitations on the applications of the study’s findings to EL populations in
urban or rural areas. Another anticipated limitation was the contribution of family, cultural
7

backgrounds, and previous school experiences on EL students’ perspectives as they reach the end
of their K–12 experience as juniors and seniors in high school. These factors may influence
student performance, and further examination of these considerations may need to be examined.
The study’s delimitations include the students’ grade level and prior years of schooling in
their native language. This study was limited to the representative EL population in District X,
predominantly Hispanic EL students, and reflects their experience in high schools with EL
support services. In addition, this study was limited to 12th-grade students classified as EL and
enrolled in school for a minimum of 2 years. This limited the scope of the study as it does not
include reclassified students (RFEP) or newcomer students who have recently entered schooling.
Language levels are another important consideration in conducting this research.
Participants may need access to a translator or use translation tools, such as Google Translate, to
ensure clear communication between the researcher and participant during the interviews.
Definition of Terms
Adolescent development theory: The process of identity development as an individual and
social phenomenon where cognitive development allows for the formation of the self through the
exploration of various choices and the context of the social structures (Arduini-Van Hoose,
2022)
Bridging EL students: students who can apply a variety of high-level English language
skills in several contexts, including comprehension and production of texts (California
Department of Education, English Learner Division, 2012).
Emerging EL student: Students use English for immediate needs, developing vocabulary
in academic language (California Department of Education, English Learner Division, 2012).
8

English learner: A student in kindergarten through grade 12 for whom there is a report of
a language other than English on the home language survey and who, upon initial assessment in
California using an appropriate state assessment (California Department of Education, 2022b).
English language development (ELD) standards: when used in tandem with state content
standards, assist EL students to build English proficiency, refine the academic use of English,
and provide students access to subject area content (California Department of Education, 2015).
Expanding EL student: Students increase their English skills within linguistic structures
and a variety of vocabulary applications (California Department of Education, English Learner
Division, 2012).
Designated EL standards: instruction provided during a protected time in the regular
school day for focused instruction on the state-adopted ELD standards (California Department of
Education, 2015).
Fluent English proficient (FEP): EL students who have attained a high level of reading
comprehension and language arts literacy skills (California Department of Education, 2015)
Identity achievement: an individual has committed to a specific identity after exploration,
typically occurring in early adulthood (Kroger et al., 2010)
Identity diffusion: known as the least mature status, where there has been little to no
exploration of options nor a commitment to an identity (Kroger et al., 2010)
Identity foreclosure: state in which an individual commits to an identity but has not
explored other options (Kroger et al., 2010)
Identity moratorium: a condition in which an individual is exploring options and have not
made a commitment (Kroger et al., 2010)
9

Integrated EL standards: instruction in which the CA ELD standards are used in tandem
with the state-adopted academic content standards (California Department of Education, 2015)
Limited English proficiency (LEP): students who are still developing comprehension
skills in English language literacy (California Department of Education, 2015).
Local control accountability plan (LCAP): a 3-year plan that describes the goals, actions,
services, and expenditures to support positive student outcomes that address state and local
priorities (California Department of Education, 2021)
Local control funding formula (LCFF): a finance system for funding schools in California
based on student characteristics that include populations identified as ELs, socioeconomic status,
and homeless/foster youth (California Department of Education, 2021)
Marcia’s four identity statuses: The processes for establishing a sense of identity that
includes two variables: commitment and crises. These statuses include identity diffusion, identity
foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement (Kroger et al., 2010).
Reclassification: process in which a student is reclassified from EL to fluent English
proficient (RFEP) status based on specific local and state criteria (California Department of
Education, 2022b)
Reclassified fluent English proficient (RFEP): the classification given to EL students who
have met academic criteria indicating successful obtainment of English language mastery
(California Department of Education, 2022b)
Organization of the Study
A phenomenological study of the impact of English language learner support services on
students’ identity development is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides an
overview and background of the educational policies and practices affecting ELs in the academic
10

setting, including state and local data and the definition of terms relevant to the study. Chapter
Two presents a literature review in three specific areas: adolescent development theory, EL
support services, and factors affecting college and career outcomes. A description of the sample
and population selection, interview questions, data collection, and data analysis is provided in
Chapter Three. Chapter Four reports the results of the study. In Chapter Five, the conclusion and
recommendations are provided with a summary of findings, implications for practice, and
findings. The conclusion of this study includes references and appendices.
11

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Identity development is a core function of the adolescent years, shaping students’
experiences that may support or hinder their future college-identifying goals (Verhoeven et al.,
2019). High school EL programs focus on academic outcomes rather than identity development.
This study examined how the design of EL support services shapes and determines ELs’ high
school experiences. It is essential to study this issue to support and improve the design of EL
support services offered by schools in a way that shapes positive identity development. This
chapter will review the components of adolescent development theory, including the connection
between identity theory and school settings. Additionally, I examined the intersectionality of EL
identity experiences with ethnic identity development. Next, I reviewed federal and state laws
and policies that have guided and impacted the implementation of EL support services. Third, I
looked at the research around a significant system component of EL support services called
reclassification. Finally, I examined the research surrounding key factors that impact EL student
success in high school and aspiration for college. I then present the conceptual framework,
connecting theory and practice in a comprehensive overview.
The Components of Adolescent Development Theory
Psychosocial development theory proposes that as the human mind develops and evolves,
individual and social experiences shape one’s perspective of the larger world and the self
(Hamman & Hendricks, 2005). The primary goal shifts toward evolving the self and
understanding one’s identity upon entering adolescence. The questions of “Who am I?” and
“Whom will I be in the future?” become the drivers for exploring interests, career aspirations,
political beliefs, social identity, religious beliefs, familial relationships, etc. Erikson’s research
on psychosocial development refers to this time as a crisis period in which adolescents struggle
12

to accept or affirm the views of their family or culture or identify their own (Hamman &
Hendricks, 2005).
Further expanding on Erikson’s theory (1959), Marcia’s identity statuses provide an in-
depth framework for the crises that adolescents face (Kroger et al., 2010). Four specific styles are
identified in this framework from which adolescents progress or regress: identity achievement,
identity diffusion, foreclosure, and identity moratorium. Table I provides an overview of the
characteristics associated with each identity status (Eccles, 2009). The common thread among all
these statuses is the level of exploration and commitment involved. In identity diffusion, the
adolescent neither explores nor commits to an identity. For identity foreclosure, there is a
commitment to an identity without exploration, usually resulting in adapting identities formed by
their culture or families. In the identity moratorium, adolescents continue to explore various
forms of their identity but never commit. Finally, identity achievement is the outcome of both
exploration and commitment, a final stage of development that arguably has researchers
examining further options for the impact on adulthood (Kroger et al., 2010).

13

Table 1
Characteristics Framed by Identity Statuses
Identity status Characteristics
Identity diffusion Low self-esteem, easily influenced by peers,
lack of meaningful relationships, little
commitment, self-absorbed, self-indulgent
Identity foreclosure Well-behaved, obedient, high need for
approval, authoritarian parenting style, low
levels of tolerance for change, high levels of
conformity
Identity moratorium Rebellious, uncooperative, procrastinating, low
self-esteem, anxiety, and uncertain about
decisions.
Identity achievement Self-acceptance, stable self-definition, a strong
sense of purpose, and commitment to future
goals

Note. Adapted from “Who Am I, and What Am I Going to Do With My Life? Personal and
Collective Identities As Motivators of Action,” by J. Eccles, 2009, Educational Psychologist,
44(2), 78–89. (https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520902832368). Copyright 2009 by Taylor &
Francis.

From these statuses of identity, identity diffusion is known as the least mature and can
cause young adults to feel aimless, with little to no purpose. It is often characterized by low self-
esteem, influenced by peers, with little commitment and lack of follow-through or persistence in
tasks. In subsequent sections of this literature review, further exploration of these characteristics
and their impact in an educational setting are explored.
Next, it is essential to consider how adolescents can move from one form to another and
identify the factors that may help in this shift. In a meta-analysis of identity development
theories, Kroger et al. (2010) noted that progressive identity change could continue to occur in
14

young adulthood. During various life events cycles, adolescence with some level of identity
formation may be shifted back into identity moratorium or foreclosure, depending on the
experiences that occur (Kroger & Marcia, 2011). Kroger et al.’s (2010) analysis grounds their
work in Waterman’s (1982) research on antecedent conditions that can impede identity
development (Kroger et al., 2010). These conditions include identification with parents, range of
identity alternatives in each context, availability of role models, and how individuals managed
prior identity crisis periods (Waterman, 1982). As in the case of EL students, significant life
events, including a change in environment, occur for immigrant students who enter the United
States (Wickens et al., 2019).
Eccles (2009) proposed a theoretical frame focused on developing personal and social
identities. Personal identity is “those aspects of one’s identity that serve the psychological
function of making one feel unique” (Eccles, 2009, p. 78). On the other hand, collective identity
is “those personally valued parts of the self that strengthen one’s ties to highly valued social
groups and relationships—such as one’s gender, race, religion, social class, culture and family”
(Eccles, 2009, p. 78). According to this identity construct, personal and collective/social
identities interact and are affected by various influences in content, situations, and behaviors.
More importantly, there are three distinct ways that both personal and collective identities are
influenced: social and psychological experiences, the choice individuals have in interpreting and
creating these social experiences, and the co-construction with the people that individuals
interact with (Eccles, 2009). From this framework, it is clear that choice and voice in the
meaning of experiences help progress both personal and collective identities.

15

Schools play a primary role in identity development and the interplay of contextual
factors for adolescents (Verschueren et al., 2017). However, research on the connection between
identity development and school contextual settings is scarce, often placing a greater emphasis
on factors outside of the school day. With the need becoming greater, particularly post-
pandemic, schools have begun to focus on the whole-child approach, engaging with students’
social-emotional, behavioral, and academic support.
Verhoeven et al. (2019) conducted a literature review of studies and found three
categories of how schools affected identity development. These are intentional, unintentional,
and unaware ways schools impact identity dimensions. Findings indicate that most educational
processes produced unintentional impacts on identity. The literature noted that the processes
include selection practices and differentiation, teaching strategies and use of curriculum, lesson
planning, and classroom experiences based on teacher expectations and peer norms (Verhoeven
et al., 2019). More alarming is that most educational processes are considered the norm and
unproblematic, allowing schools to continue to foster these unintentional impacts on identity
(Yoder, 2000). Furthermore, the literature review concluded that “adolescents can be stimulated
to explore new identity positions through in-breadth exploration” (Verhoeven et al., 2019, p. 57),
which should be part of a supportive classroom environment.
One of the instructional strategies highlighted in the literature refers explicitly to
collaborative, meaningful interactions. Flum and Kaplan’s (2012) research concluded that if
students can engage in academic learning and identity development simultaneously, a reflective
shared meaning is created that is “likely to contribute to their self-efficacy in future identity-
related work” (p. 244). Students who engage in exploratory, self-reflective experiences can be
better prepared for the challenges that they will face in the larger context of society. The
16

intentional design of such activities can make a difference in how students cope with future
transitions, particularly in the later years of schooling (Verschueren et al., 2017).
Researchers have also examined how peer relationships in instructional settings affect
identity development. Yeager et al. (2012) longitudinal study found that the influence of peers
increases with age in schooling while teachers’ influence decreases. The outcomes of this study
point toward the use of collaborative exploration as an educational process that can help
students’ identity formation, leveraging peer relationships within the classroom context. Wentzel
et al. (2021) completed a meta-analytic study that further examined the role of peers in academic
achievement and possible future outcomes. Findings suggest that peer social acceptance is
significantly and positively related to academic achievement (Wentzel, 2021). Significant are the
ways that peers can affect the academic self-efficacy of individuals, influencing the perceived
academic abilities of students, which in turn affect engagement with school tasks. In other words,
students who internalized that social peers believed and supported their academic goals had
higher academic outcomes. Teachers can leverage these peer relationships in the classroom to
support ELs, highlighting the possible role of school culture and climate on students’ identity
formation. These two studies note that purposeful activities designed to promote the
development of “Who am I?” and answer the question of “Whom can I be in the future?” can
significantly impact adolescent identity development. In this study, it was essential to consider
the schooling age as it correlates with peer influences in identity development.
The Intersectionality of Identity Formation and English Learners’ School Experience
Additional contextualization that can influence identity development occurs for students
labeled as ELs in the U.S. public school system. Representation and how individuals manifest
and internalize in the context of their settings is a part of the human meaning-making process in
17

identity formation. Researchers found that ELs’ identities are impacted by the attitudes reflected
through adult interactions, curriculum, local policies over course placement and assessment, and
school culture (Estrada & Wang, 2018).
In an ethnographic case study of U.S. immigrants, Harklau (2000) focused on the
institutional images of EL student identities that were appropriated and recreated by students and
educators. Two contrasting case studies examined the differences between ELs and immigrant
representations in high schools and community colleges. In high schools, the representation of
ELs as “enduring emotional and material hardship in order to strive, through education, for a
better life in the United States” (Harklau, 2000, p. 61) is continually reconstructed by both
teachers and students. However, at the same time, teachers and students did not consider ELs’
bilingualism an asset or positive attribute to their academic abilities. Instead, ELs are viewed
academically as disabled or disadvantaged due to their language abilities (Galloway & Uccelli,
2019). The duality of the hardworking immigrant who struggles academically due to language
and hence, a perceived academic ability perpetuates students’ views of themselves that are
carried onto their college year.
Power dynamics and social interactions within the classroom are two key factors
affecting EL students’ identity development. Moná and Gómez Rodríguez (2019) found that the
social relationships in a classroom influenced academic investment in learning and identity
construction. Specifically, perceived power dynamics created two groups of students: high
investors and low investors, in their academic outcomes, both based on how those power
dynamics internalized representations of their identity. Furthermore, Harklau and Moreno (2019)
examined how multilingualism and multiculturalism shaped identity development in EL youth,
emphasizing how group perceptions and dynamics impacted the individual’s self-perception. In
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other words, the individual psychosocial processes consistently reconstructed and reorganized
the meaning of the self based on sociocultural, political, and institutional beliefs that prevailed in
the school context. For instance, perceived discrimination not only had a negative psychological
impact, and additionally, but was also associated with a greater degree of ethnic separatism
(Harklau & Moreno, 2019). Consequently, EL students may have a poorer sense of personal
efficacy and accept perceptions of limited social and academic access.
In a fast-paced, global, and connected society, this is a challenge for any adolescent and
an additional layer of complexity for an adolescent EL. Institutional policies intentionally or
unintentionally create perceived othering for ELs and may affect academic student outcomes. In
a study by Maneka Brooks (2022), EL students’ perceived understanding of how two routine EL
practices affected their educational trajectory and how schooling practices are adult-centered
rather than student-centered. English learner assessments and then subsequent course placements
created notions of the self that students deemed as “not being good at English” or “better at
speaking English than reading English” (Brooks, 2022, p. 18). Students constructed this
knowledge based on their own experiences of schooling and how these classifications affected
graduation requirements. The implications of this study focus on developing structures that help
raise awareness of how EL classification shapes academic trajectories, considering structures that
examine nonverbal ways that students conceptualize information. It connects to Verhoeven et
al.’s (2019) research, where school leaders need to think critically about the intentional and
unintentional ways that school contextual structures, policies, and practices shape identity
development in adolescence.
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The Intersectionality of Identity Formation and Internalized Racism
Externally imposed identities, such as stereotypes of ethnic identities, can hinder the
ability of EL students to form identities as worthwhile and competent members of the host
society (Thompson & Carter, 2013). Ethnic identity is “the degree to which an individual
understands and associates with his or her ethnic heritage” (Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2014).
Ethnic identity development refers to perceived notions of culture and race that affect one’s
association with ethnicity (Phinney & Chavira, 1992). Internalized racism is a construct of the
self formed from biased beliefs that their ethnicity is inferior (Hipolito-Delgado, 2016). In the
case of EL adolescents, their multiple identities based on ethnicity and language can dominate
how identity development takes place, creating additional layers of challenges students must
face.
Helms proposed that for students of color, the main goal of identity development is to
overcome notions of internalized racism (Thompson & Carter, 2013). In Helms’s people of color
identity model, there are five statuses to identity development, all connected to associations with
ethnic identity (Thompson & Carter, 2013). The five statuses are in progression from low ethnic
identity to high ethnic identity: conformity, dissonance, immersion, emersion, internalized, and
integrated awareness. Although these statuses are distinct from Marcia’s Identity Statuses of
identity development, both have a parallel and complex interplay on an individual’s
conceptualization of the self. Table 2 demonstrates the parallel yet separate phases for each.
Notably, EL students must navigate both forms of identity, one as separating themselves as
individuals and one as separating themselves from the internalized racism experienced in the
societal context as related to their ethnicity.

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Table 2
Side-by-Side View of Helms’s People of Color Identity Theory and Marcia’ s Identity Statuses
Helms people of color
identity theory
Descriptor Marcia’s identity
statuses
Descriptor
Conformity Identity internalized
by Whites
Foreclosure Commitment to
identity is based on
parents or
environmental
inputs- accepted
without question
and exploration.
Dissonance The realization that
one cannot live fully
as part of White
society
Diffusion Neither explore nor
commit to identity,
can become socially
isolated
Immersion Struggle for a new
identity, rejection of
Whites
Moratorium Amid the crisis of
identity
characterized by the
active exploration
of identity
Emersion A fuller embrace of
one’s socioracial
values
Identity achievement Commits to identity
and willing to
continuously
explore options
Internalization Commitment to own
racial group

Integrated awareness Expression of a
positive self-identity

Hipolito-Delgado et al.’s (2014) linear regression research on the effects of ethnic
identity development on Latinos and Latinas aligned with Helm’s identity model. Internalized
and perceived racism is inverse to ethnic identity, where the higher the form of internalized
racism, the further students identify with their ethnic heritage. More significantly, findings noted
21

that it affects the individual and perpetuates stereotypes about ethnic heritage. Like Phinney and
Chavira (1992), Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2014) found that students with high ethnic identities
worked to counteract negative stereotypes; those with low ethnic identities were likely to support
stereotyped beliefs about their culture as faithful and constant. Moreover, students with high
ethnic identity development achieved higher educational attainment and self-esteem. Quintana’s
(2007) research correlates with these findings as adolescence who experienced higher levels of
perceived or internalized racism were increasingly disengaged with the school system and
structures or individuals that were part of the system.
English learner adolescent students have several layers of intersectionality with an
identity that forms their understanding of the self. These include the identity of self in
relationship to their family, sociocultural and political context, and schooling structures. In
addition, ELs must navigate the development of their ethnic identity, further complicated by the
school context of how adults and structures view academic language abilities or disabilities.
Internalized racism, either through adult or peer interactions in schooling or through school
structures and systems, such as testing and course placement, has an inverse effect on their ethnic
identity. This factor has the unintended consequence of causing students to construct negative
stereotypes as they navigate schooling in public schools (Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2014). Further
examination of the national, state, and local policies that affect EL student academic trajectories
and how those, in turn, impact their college-going identities is reviewed in the next section.
English Learner Support Services
In schools, support services provided to English learner students is formed from a
combination of factors. Federal and state court cases, legislation, and funding programs impact
the current state of English Learner support services. The subsequent section examines the
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historical context of the policies governing English learner protections and expectations in school
services designs.
EL Legal Protections and Implementation Expectations
Federal and state policies have shaped program services and attitudes toward ELs in K–
12 school systems. These policies have reflected the political landscape nationally and locally,
with implications affecting decades of EL immigrants in California schools. A focus on federal
EL policies began with Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, explicitly
providing staff and curriculum development funding for students with limited English skills
(Orum & Yzaguirre, 1986). The enactment of this law set the stage for two court cases, one at
the U.S. Supreme Court (Lau v. Nichols) and one at the U.S. Court of Appeals (Castañeda vs.
Pickard). These laws clarified that “appropriate education” for ELs meant that additional needs
must be addressed, including research-based programs implemented to fidelity and evaluated
after some time (McLaughlin et al., 1995).
Following the ruling in Lau v. Nichols, California was the first state to adopt legislation
that mandated ELs receive equal education opportunities through the Chacon-Moscone
Bilingual-Bicultural Education Act of 1976 (Hill et al., 2021). Hence, funding for bilingual
education for EL students began, creating elements of the classification policy of ELs that still
exists today. For example, the home language survey is still administered in California schools to
identify potential EL students who are required to take English language proficiency assessments
in California (ELPAC; California Department of Education, 2015). This program
implementation expectation sets an identity marker for students, noting that students who speak
multiple languages at home or who began their early years with a language other than English
must be provided additional support and programming (Hsu, 2020).
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In the 1980s, during the Reagan administration, Secretary of Education William Bennett
introduced a bilingual initiative to amend the Bilingual Education Act by changing the civil
rights enforcement of the guidelines for EL students. These limitations were, in part, to limit the
fiscal support of Title VII, emphasizing greater flexibility and a focus on English-only
instruction (Orum & Yzaguirre, 1986). Secretary Bennett renegotiated and interpreted Lau v.
Nichols compliance plans to indicate that the “school district’s only responsibility to limited
English proficient children is to teach them English” (Orum & Yzaguirre, 1986, p. 247). In this
political climate of English-only perspectives, Californians passed proposition 63 in 1986,
declaring English the official state language (Hill et al., 2021). The following year, Governor
Deukmejian allowed the Chacon-Moscone Bilingual-Bicultural Education Act to sunset,
eliminating protective rights for thousands of ELs in California (Hill et al., 2021). About a
decade later, Californian voters passed Proposition 227, discouraging bilingual education in most
districts and creating a system of English-only structures in public schools (Rumberger &
Gándara, 2004). Decades of debate between bilingual and English-only education led to
unintended consequences, with impacts on graduation requirements, assessment achievement,
and general confusion on what schools valued for their students. As Hsu stated (2020), California
EL policies were initially intended to secure a sense of educational equality. Instead, they created
a structure that “rendered students as non-native and foreign to the body politic, thereby
constructing an imagined category of linguistic immigrants” (p. 234).
In the early 2000s, the national education conversation shifted toward No Child Left
Behind policies and accountability assessments. Again, the narrative of English-only and ELD
was fostered through the English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic
Achievement Act (Linquanti & George, 2007). Using high-stakes testing replaces the focus on
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maintaining a student’s culture and home language with an emphasis on English language
instruction and assimilation into regular classrooms as quickly as possible. Around the same
time, the California Department of Education established ELD standards, creating a structure of
annual ELD assessments that emphasized addressing EL language objectives. This set the stage
for the current form of reclassification in California, where students must achieve high levels in
the annual language development test and the high-stakes literacy assessments provided by the
state (Linquanti & George, 2007).
In 2011, the tide shifted back toward valuing bilingualism, honoring culture and home
language, and an asset-driven approach for EL students. Several federal and state initiatives
created the conditions to support this movement. First, the National Common Core Standards
(Kendall, 2011) emphasized college and career readiness literacy skills. California began to
adopt these standards, weaving them into the state framework and initiatives. Around the same
time, California Superintendent of Public Schools Tom Torlakson introduced the Blueprint for
Great Schools. This document set forth a framework for focusing on biliteracy and recognizing
students for dual language abilities through the State Seal of Biliteracy (Torlakson, 2011),
recognized by the state legislature in 2012. Then, in 2016, Californians repealed proposition 227
with Proposition 58, allowing districts to implement bilingual programs without waivers. The
California Department of Education released the designated and integrated standards framework,
signaling that all educators in California, not just bilingual instructors, are responsible for ELs’
academic and linguistic success (California Department of Education, 2017). With the federal
reauthorization of the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, new accountability models for
English language proficiency were introduced, setting forth the new ELPAC established to align
with these federal models. The ELPAC assessment brings literacy in the content areas to the
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forefront, testing students’ language abilities within the context of courses such as math, science,
and history. Finally, in 2017, the California Department of Education adopted the English
Learner Roadmap, a comprehensive guide for districts and school sites o to create welcoming
environments based on research-based core principles (California Department of Education,
2017).
The changes in political attitudes toward ELs were reflected in policy changes and fiscal
support. In 2015, the LCAP provided districts with the funding flexibility to address local needs
with a specific focus on low-income, foster, homeless, and EL youth (Lavadenz et al., 2019).
California’s effort to reform finance to create more significant equity for ELs lacks coherence.
There is relatively little evidence that research-based practices are being used to create better EL
support systems (Lavadenz et al., 2019). The ongoing efforts to improve outcomes for ELs at the
federal and state level may or may not impact the design of EL support systems. The following
section examines the factors that limit the effectiveness of EL support services.
Research Findings on Factors That Hinder the Effectiveness of EL Support Services
The limits placed on English learners towards college and career outcomes is
combination of factors. These factors impact the effectiveness of EL support services and is
examined in the research through the lens of reclassification, school structures, and program
design.
Research Related to the Impact of Reclassification
English learner reclassification has been one of the main factors measuring the success of
student outcomes. Research has found that the grade level at which students reclassify affects
their post-secondary outcomes (Carlson & Knowles, 2016; Johnson, 2019). Johnson (2019)
found that eighth grade was the most critical transition point for reclassification, as the services,
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college access, and career opportunities shifted from middle to high school. Similarly, Carlson
and Knowles (2016) noted that for students to successfully achieve the coursework and college
preparation needed in the 11th-grade year to prepare for college applications, students must
reclassify prior to 10th grade. Other factors must also be considered, but both studies found that
students who entered high school and continued with the EL label were given fewer college and
career access opportunities. For ELs in K–12 education, reclassification processes and policies
determine whether they graduate on time or reach college and career goals in high school.
Schools’ Structural Systems That Affect Students’ Access to College and Career Options
In K–12 education, secondary ELs’ course access to a higher level, rigorous coursework
is limited by enclosures created by school policies and structures that benefit and maintain
current power structures. Two areas of higher level coursework are mathematics pathways and
Advanced Placement course options. Thompson (2017) examined the disparity in access to
secondary math courses for ELs, focusing specifically on the institutional and classroom factors
that created a pattern of math course-taking ecology for ELs. The study identified a lack of
intervention programs specific to EL students as part of the institutional factors. For the
classroom factors, a lack of personalization of learning impacted EL student outcomes, limiting
their ability to access higher level math courses.
In addition to these findings, Kanno and Kangas (2014) studied high school processes
that limited ELs’ ability to access higher level courses, such as Advanced Placement. The
author’s analysis highlighted several reasons that severely restricted ELs from coursework to
prepare them for college better (Kanno & Kangas, 2014). One such reason was that counselors
routinely scheduled students in remedial classes once they moved out of EL support courses to
continue to shelter or protect them. Based on the results of standardized assessments, there is an
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underlying assumption that EL students must have full linguistic command before access to such
rigorous courses. Therefore, EL students that could not demonstrate a high level of language
abilities, regardless of the accessibility of other assessments, were not scheduled for high-level
college coursework. Kanno and Kangas (2014) contended that ELs are continually denied
opportunities to participate in advanced college preparatory courses, resulting in reduced college
entrance and career success opportunities. However, without access to these opportunities, ELs’
high-level language classroom experiences are limited. As such, Callahan & Shifrer (2016)
found that disparities in high school course-taking patterns for EL students were linked with less
academic exposure to the linguistic status of EL students and, in turn, determining course
tracking toward graduation or college preparatory.
Academic Language as a Factor Affecting College and Career Goals
The K–12 emphasis on academic language as a success criterion for content courses
creates barriers and a deficit perspective for ELs, affecting their ability to access college
preparatory courses. Compared to White monolingual students, ELs are expected to achieve
academic language standards equal to or higher than English-only students, labeling them as
deficient in language, despite being bilingual (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2016). This viewpoint
creates a perspective that looks at what is absent in ELs, such as academic vocabulary in content
areas. It does not build upon the knowledge from ELs’ experiences and cultures. Galloway and
Uccelli (2019) examined the developmental relationship between core academic language skills
and reading comprehension for ELs and their peers. Their findings counter the standard narrative
by exploring parallel reading comprehension growth rates of ELs and English-only students.
Although initial levels are much lower for ELs, their growth rates are comparable and often
accelerated due to their baseline for language skills in their home language.
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Nevertheless, an emphasis on academic language as the primary driver that determines
academic outcomes persists. Richardson Bruna et al. (2007) examined teachers’ emphasis on
academic language in a science course and its impact on ELs. The case study found a negative
correlation between the focus on academic language instruction and ELs’ ability to engage in
discourse as scientists. Teachers emphasize that specific vocabulary words be used, removing
ELs’ ability to participate in scientific discourse. EL students’ limited participation in science
courses, by default, limits their exposure and experiences in STEM fields and their opportunities
in post-secondary college and career. In a further study, Richardson Bruna (2010) noted that
teachers’ limited understanding of the goal of academic language in scientific discourse and its
impact on ELs must be considered in science teacher development, stating, “lack of information
about explicit skills instruction in the language of science can actually sabotage EL’s
opportunities to not only talk but think, like scientists” (p. 31). Students will not build and
develop their identity in the context of possible careers if they cannot build on those classroom
experiences.
Conceptual Framework
Grant and Osanloo (2014) noted that “the researcher’s choice of theory provides structure
to the entire dissertation” (p. 15). As indicated by Figure 1, adolescent development theory is the
study’s theoretical foundation, with ELs’ sense of identity serving as the center point. Adolescent
development theory is defined by Erikson (1959) as the fifth stage of identity development in
which the adolescent’s primary role is to find one’s own identity while navigating various
relationships and systemic complexities. Erikson’s theory (1959) was then expanded upon by
Marcia’s Identity Statuses (1987) that contextualize the limited choices adolescents must make
within the confines of their social context (Feldman &Whitcomb, 2005). For ELs, their social
29

context includes the additional development of their cultural identity as EL adolescents navigate
the intersectionality of internalized racism and cultural development in the context of their
communities (Thompson & Carter, 2013).
Figure 1 demonstrates the intersection of adolescent identity development with Helms’s
(1995) people of color identity theory, which provides a model of the progression of ethnic
identity development from low to high. The progress and level of an individual’s ethnic identity
development are linked to higher educational attainment, self-esteem, and engagement with
schooling (Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2014; Quintana, 2007). Hence, identifying students as ELs in
the school setting creates an internalized representation that is further impacted by adult
interactions with curriculum, local policies on course placement, and school culture (Harklau,
2000).

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Figure 1
Conceptual Framework for English Learners’ Identity Development As College-Going Students

The unique experience of ELs in this model (Figure 1) is focused on students
experiencing the school context in which their academic language abilities are viewed as a
deficit, further internalized by policies, structures, and support systems (Hipolito-Delgado et al.,
2014). Flum and Kaplan (2012) contextualized identity development within the educational
environment and the core relationships formed in this community. Parents and peers provide the
communal culture that sets the context for how ELs identify as members (Flum & Kaplan, 2012).
Teachers and administrators provide academic performance feedback to ELs based on
31

reclassification metrics, school programming, and other regulations. The building blocks of
identity status and ethnic identity formation in the larger context of schooling set the stage for the
larger framework affecting ELs.
Summary of Literature Review
Experiences influence personal and collective identities in the contextual setting. For
ELs, the context of schooling has the most significant impact on identity formation as it provides
experiences with peers and adults in ways that can either accelerate or hinder identity
development (Elfers & Stritikus, 2014; Flum & Kaplan, 2012; Verschueren et al., 2017; Wickens
et al., 2019). The curriculum, lesson planning, and classroom experiences can significantly affect
how students interact with identity (Kibler et al., 2014; Quinlan & Curtin, 2017; Verhoeven et
al., 2019). Specifically, choice and co-construction of meaning with peers are identified as key
strategies to help progress identity development (Eccles, 2009; Kaplan & Flum, 2009; Wentzel et
al., 2021). Kaplan and Flum (2009) noted that the simultaneous engagement of learning and
identity development can increase self-efficacy in future identity-related work. These planned
activities include dedicated time for self-reflection and collaboration with peers, which are
central to EL support services (Yeager, 2012; Wentzel et al., 2021; Wickens et al., 2019).
However, the literature is also clear that most educational processes lead to unintentional
consequences without consideration of identity development. This study explored the design of
EL support activities, looking for the research-based strategies identified in this literature review,
classroom observations, and teacher survey responses.
The historical and current federal and state policies are also essential factors affecting EL
students’ future outcomes. Since Lau v. Nichols in 1974, there has been a back-and-forth
between centering the rights of ELs and focusing on English-only policies. Policy shifts are
32

currently centered on bilingualism in California with the Seal of Biliteracy. Funding increases
through the LCAP and Proposition 58 repealed the English-only policies (California Department
of Education, 2015 2017, 2021, 2022b; Estrada & Wang, 2018). Despite the implementation of
these new policies, remnants of the preference for English-only are demonstrated in
reclassification structures and home language survey models (Castro-Olivo et al., 2011; Callahan
& Shifrer, 2016; Carlson & Knowles, 2016; Estrada & Wang, 2018; Hopkins et al., 2022; and
Hsu, 2020). The structures of reclassification, with an emphasis on academic language, limit EL
students’ access to rigorous coursework and perceived ability to develop language skills. These
limitations, which include restricting access to advanced STEM pathways and Advanced
Placement courses, can limit students’ experiences and access to adults and peers with a strong
college-going identity (Galloway & Uccelli, 2019; Johnson, 2019; Kanno & Kangas, 2014).
Therefore, based on this literature review, understanding the EL student experience through
classroom observations and student interviews can help illuminate how policies and structures
affect EL support services design, influencing students’ identity development.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
English learner (EL) students in California do not graduate high school at the same rate
as non-EL students. The California Department of Education (2021) reported that 83.6% of all
students graduated high school, yet only 67.1% of ELs did, a significant differential of 16.5%.
Previous research about these disparities has focused on academic outcomes and policies that
categorize ELs, such as reclassification (Callahan & Shifrer, 2016; Carlson & Knowles, 2016;
Johnson, 2019). Although the literature indicates a causal relationship between reclassification
and EL graduation rates, research falls short of identifying the components in the design of EL
services that can improve student outcomes. Moreover, research shows that adolescent identity
development impacts long-term goals (Feldman & Whitcomb, 2005; Flum & Kaplan, 2012;
Marcia, 1987). There is a need to understand further the EL student experience in secondary
schools that may shape graduation rates. Therefore, this study examined the extent to which the
experiences of high school ELs with support services shape their identity formation, specifically
when it comes to college and career goals.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined the experiences of ELs in the high school environment, specifically
as they interact with EL support services. Through a phenomenological approach, the study
focused on the experiences themselves and how those experiences shape consciousness,
primarily through identity development (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative interviews of
service providers and EL students are the primary method of data collection to conduct what is
known as phenomenological reduction, a process of “continually returning to the essence of the
experience to derive the inner structure or meaning in and of itself” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p.
27).
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Research Questions
This study addressed three research questions:
1. How are adolescent identity development concepts embedded into the design of EL
support services for high school students?
2. What are students’ perceptions of how their experiences with EL support services
have shaped their identity?
3. How do these perceptions impact their identity as college-going students?
Adolescent identity development theory is the core theoretical framework that guided
how I examined the EL student experience, specifically through the intentional or unintentional
design of EL student support services. This framework connects the process of defining the self
in the context of the experiences that may shape an adolescent, of which schooling is a
significant component in the high school years (Arduini-Van Hoose, 2022).
Selection of the Population
This study focused on District X School District, a medium-sized school district outside
of Los Angeles, California, with approximately 20,000 students. The EL enrollment in District X
is at 15%, with only 76% of ELs graduating high school in 4 years, 3% completing CTE
pathways, and only 30% eligible to attend a 4-year university (California Department of
Education, 2022). There are three comprehensive high schools in District X, with varying student
populations and EL population enrollment (see Table 2 under Validity and Reliability). A
sampling of students from all three high schools is included in the study.
Since this study was limited to specific participant attributes at a few high school sites,
purposeful selection was used to determine participant selection. As Maxwell (2013) noted,
purposeful selection or sampling is used when “particular settings, persons or activities are
35

selected deliberately to provide information that is relevant to your questions and goals, and that
can’t be gotten as well from other choices” (p. 97). Criterion-based selection led to a purposeful
sample, as the criteria are explicitly related to this study’s purpose (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In
this case, to better understand the EL student experience related to high school graduation goals,
five 12th-grade students were selected for interviews. Additional criteria for this population
include being classified as an EL in the student information system and receiving EL services for
2 years or more. English learner services are defined as being enrolled in a designated English
language course specific to EL students.
To speak to commonalities of the EL student experience with support services, I chose 2
years as a baseline criterion to better capture a pattern of experience from the participants and
reduce variances due to contextual influences. Had I required only 1 year, possible variances due
to the anomaly of experience resulting from a specific teacher or a specific context in that school
year could affect outcomes. In addition, California Assembly Bill 2121 requires that EL students
who enter high school after the beginning of the 11th-grade year must be allowed to either have
reduced graduation requirements or have the option of becoming a 5th-year senior (California
Office of Legislative Counsel, 2018). Changing graduation requirements may affect EL services,
so this study examined students entering high school before the 11th grade.
Teachers of selected EL student interviewees were asked to complete a survey regarding
the EL classroom and curriculum experience. Again, these teachers were purposefully selected
per the specific criteria of the student participants limited to the three comprehensive high
schools in District X. Those surveyed were content-specific teachers in addition to the designated
EL specialist teacher. Since high school students typically attend six or more classes a day, a
comprehensive understanding of their experiences in a variety of courses, including in subjects
36

like science, history, social science, math, electives, and language arts, was an essential part of
this study. Teachers were divided into two categories: integrated and designated classroom
support. Table 3 reflects the differences between the two categories, as defined by the California
Department of Education (2015).

Table 3
Survey Categories for Teacher Participants
Integrated EL teachers Designated EL teachers
Instruction in which the state-adopted ELD
standards are used in tandem with the state-
adopted academic content standards.

Focused on learning academic content
Instruction is provided during the regular
school day for focused instruction on the
state-adopted ELD standards.

Focused on developing English language
skills necessary for learning academic
content

Note. Adapted from English Language Development Standards by California Department of
Education, 2019.

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Design Summary
For this phenomenological study, a triangulated qualitative research design was
employed to ensure that there was “an added advantage to the exploratory capability that
researchers need to explore and investigate” (Alase, 2017, p. 9). The triangulated approach using
interviews, surveys, and observations to describe the phenomenon of the EL experience with
support services is essential as there are multiple perspectives of a lived experience. As Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) pointed out, a person’s understanding of the world and their own reality can
have multiple meanings and ways that have made meaning in their lives. Therefore, triangulating
of these various multi-dimensional viewpoints increased the internal validity of the research
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Methodology
A phenomenological research design focuses on the lived experiences of others, or more
importantly, how to learn from the experience of others. Known as the “science of examples,”
the qualitative research approach for a phenomenological study is based on the type of
philosophical approach adopted (Farrell, 2020). A transcendental (descriptive) phenomenology
philosophy is employed in this study, in which the essence of the experience is the focus of the
data collection. Specifically, as outlined by Moustakas (1994), the methodology of
transcendental phenomenology was utilized to understand the underlying meaning of the EL
experience as it impacts identity development.
Also known as the interactive phenomenology approach, in this methodology, I have a
dual position. Since the study centers on the human being experience, I had to make meaning of
the participants’ experiences and of their own experiences associated with the topic. Before
embarking on the study of others, I engaged in a process referred to as epoche, a Greek term
38

meaning to refrain from judgment. By examining my biases and assumptions about the EL
experience, I can then seek to understand the phenomenon differently, with a new perspective.
The primary data sources were semi-structured one-on-one interviews of 12th-grade EL
students (18 years or older) to help provide first-hand accounts of experiences to capture their
essence or meaning. To further contextualize these experiences, surveys were administered to the
teachers of EL students. These qualitative surveys ask teachers to respond to questions and
statements that examine the integration of adolescent development theory in curriculum and
classroom activities. The survey results were then used to help inform coding themes for the
classroom’s focus group observations.
Instrumentation and Protocols
The interview protocol begins with a reminder of the purpose of the study, reassurance of
confidentiality in responses, and an opportunity to ask questions. During the interview,
participants were told that if they felt uncomfortable at any point, they could pass on the question
or end the interview. Due to potential language limitations, participants were reminded of tools
available to help support translation or increased communication, such as Google Translate.
Interviews
The one-on-one interviews with five 12th-grade EL students consisted of 15 questions
(Appendix A). For each question, additional follow-up questions were embedded to further probe
students to improve the richness of the student experience descriptions. These interviews were
held at the student’s school, a place familiar and more comfortable for students participating in
the study. A challenge with phenomenological interviews is establishing rapport with
respondents without asking them about their lived experiences. Therefore, ensuring participants
are comfortable with the location and environment of the interview is essential in establishing
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rapport. These interviews are semi-structured and guided by the respondent’s answers to the
questions. The interview time ranges from 60 to 90 minutes (about 1 and a half hours). The range
of time was due to differences in language abilities and the use of translation tools in the
interview. With permission granted by the participant, interview notes were taken, and audio
recordings were utilized to accurately capture the respondent’s answers.
Interview questions are designed in three sections: contextualization of schooling,
students’ perceptions of self, and the student’s perception of self in the future. The
contextualization of schooling examined the experience of the student’s school day. For the
student’s perception of self, the experiences of classroom activities and support services were
closely examined. Finally, the last series of questions ask students to consider their future selves
and to examine the relationship between schooling experiences and their expression of self.
These thematic sections relate to the research questions for this study by uncovering the essence
of the participant’s lived experiences through the varying perspectives offered in the three
sections of the interview (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Surveys
Surveys were administered to 31 teachers with expertise in either designated or integrated
EL curricula. Google Forms were utilized as the survey interface. District X already uses this
type of instrumentation to survey teachers and students, making this tool the most familiar for
participants. Teachers were contacted via email on the study’s purpose, the importance of the
information they could provide, and a confidentiality reminder. Although teachers were
specifically contacted, survey results did not collect identifiable information from respondents
other than essential overall demographic items in the survey.
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To better contextualize ELs’ schooling environment, a survey was used to illuminate
specific aspects of their experiences. Those include components of the support services in the
curriculum and classroom activities that align with adolescent development theory. The survey
consists of three parts: demographic questions, a set of ordinal scale questions, and two open-
ended questions (Appendix B). Survey questions are cross-referenced to the research question by
focusing on identity development for students in the classroom setting. The survey focused on
the first research question, highlighting teachers’ input on adolescent identity development
concepts embedded into the design of EL support services. The survey also seeks to understand a
teacher’s perspective on the third research question, examining attitudes and perceptions about
EL students as college-going.
Focus Group Observations
Observations were completed in five classroom settings representing a cross-section of
student participants. Three of the five classrooms are at one specific high school in District X, as
this site has the highest number of EL students across the district. Before the observation, I met
with the school’s EL teacher and administrators to review the study’s purpose and the
observation protocol and provide reassurance on the confidentiality of observation notes. Both
formal and informal protocols for interacting with the classroom and school were discussed.
These did not have identifying classroom information associated with the observation.
Prior to the classroom observation, coding themes were identified via the survey
administration. These coding themes were used to help facilitate field notes to capture specific
experiences observed. They were also used to identify the interaction between students and
movement across the classroom. Reflections were captured in field notes and identified as
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observer comments in the running narrative. As Merriam and Tisdell noted (2016), this
interactive process of observation and data analysis is a key component of qualitative research.
Data Collection
The primary method for data collection is semi-structured one-on-one interviews of 12th-
grade EL students (18 years or older) to help provide first-hand accounts of experiences to
capture their essence or meaning. To further contextualize these experiences, surveys were
administered to the teachers of EL students. These qualitative surveys ask teachers to respond to
questions and statements that examine the integration of adolescent development theory in
curriculum and classroom activities. The survey results were used to help inform coding themes
for the classroom’s focus group observations.
Field Testing of Instruments
As recommended by Maxwell (2013) and Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the field testing or
piloting of interview questions is an essential step in ensuring that interview questions work as
intended and to determine any necessary revisions in the protocol process. For this study, two
recent graduates from District X were asked to field test the interview questions and protocol
process. From these initial pilot interviews, several questions were revised for clarity, and the
protocol order was adjusted to provide greater ease in the interviews. The field test also provides
insight into the necessity of translation tools, such as Google Translate, for accurate
communication during the interviews. Students were provided with this option ahead of time. In
addition, the location of the interview was adjusted to a neutral area on the school campus. That
is, neither the classroom nor the school office was an ideal location for the interview since both
held ideations of positionality for participants.
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Surveys were field-tested using two teachers who were not part of District X but were
familiar with EL students in their own classrooms. These field tests included a short
questionnaire at the end of the survey to rate the ease of the instrument for participants and any
comments or questions regarding the survey itself. These responses were used to adjust the
ordering and quantity of survey questions. These field tests create greater validity and reliability
in the data collection process (Maxwell, 2013), as discussed in subsequent sections in this
chapter.
Furthermore, since the study involved interviewing high school students, ensuring that
the students were 18 years or older and had full autonomy to participate was key. Documents for
informed consent were provided in multiple languages. There was also the protection of
autonomy for these students, as research participation was voluntary and not required. Ensuring
voluntary participation was important, as students might have been asked to participate by people
they consider authority figures.
Data Analysis
This study’s data analysis approach is grounded in the concept of transcendental
phenomenology, as outlined by Moustakas (1994) and Creswell et al. (2007) and the tenets of
interpretive phenomenological analysis. The analysis begins with the process of epoche or
bracketing, in which I outline my own experiences with the phenomenon of EL support services
through a reflective process that examines my own power, positionality, and biases with the
experience.
Next, the strategy of phenomenological reduction begins, involving a “process of
continually returning to the essence of the experience to derive the inner structure or meaning in
and of itself” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), p. 27). This reduction begins with the horizontalization
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of the data, in which all of it is examined and treated with equal weight to develop a list of non-
repetitive and non-overlapping statements (Creswell et al., 2007). This horizontalization process
is conducted early on with one-on-one interviews and teacher surveys to form meaning units or
coding themes for the classroom observations. Thematic analysis is created by reviewing
interview notes and survey comments and constructing categories in direct relationship with the
research questions. Microsoft Word comment feature and Excel documents with interview
transcriptions, notes, and survey documents, were utilized to capture the major themes of the
phenomenon of the EL experience. Although statistical tools such as pivot tables help to identify
the most common themes for descriptive coding, because a phenomenological study focuses on
the meaning derived by participants, these themes should not eliminate the essence and detailed
description of the participant’s experience (Farrell, 2020).
Creswell (2016) recommended that following the identification of themes, the researcher
should write a description of how the participant in the study experienced the phenomenon. Here,
the classroom observations serve the purpose of what is known as structural descriptions of the
participant’s experiences, using verbatim examples of what EL students experience with EL
support services in the classroom setting. Creswell (2016) defined structural descriptions as how
the experience happens, allowing the researcher to reflect on “the setting and context in which
the phenomenon was experienced” (p. 37). This leads to the last step of the data analysis in
phenomenological research, which consists of a composite description that incorporates both
textural and structural descriptions of the EL experience (Alase, 2017).
Validity and Reliability
As mentioned earlier, epoche is an important process of phenomenological research in
which the researcher engages in ongoing reflexivity on the experience, their biases, and their
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recognition of positionality. Furthermore, the mechanisms to create credible findings focus on
trustworthiness, member checking, triangulation, and auditing (Alase, 2017). Ethical
considerations are also discussed and particularly important to note, as the data collection
focused on EL students. The following section outlines each of these areas to improve the
validity of this specific study on EL student experiences with support services.
Trustworthiness: Examining Positionality, Biases, and Power
The philosophical roots of phenomenological research force the researcher to engage in
the process of knowing one’s inner connection to the experience, acknowledging its effect on the
researcher’s experience, and preparing to suspend judgment as a result. Milner (2007) proposed
that “multiple and varied perspectives about the same phenomena can bring about
understandings that either advance a field or that present dangers to individuals or communities
in a field” (p. 389). Therefore, it is important to go within and examine my own experiences as
an EL student and as an educator.
As an immigrant EL, I have several experiences with language support services in
schooling. However, my experience was in elementary school and did not affect my academic
outcomes as a secondary student. I did experience the disenfranchisement of having to navigate a
new system that was unfamiliar to my family. Navigating post-secondary options was an
extremely challenging journey that motivated me to make sure students do not have the same
struggles as I did. I acknowledge that there is a strong assumption on my part that high school
ELs are not receiving support or services that would help with college and career options. These
assumptions are based on local data showing that high school ELs continue to have the highest
percentage of Ds and Fs during the semester grading periods in District X.
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As a Hispanic female from Santiago, Chile, who grew up in the United States in the mid-
1980s, I have an immigrant experience that is vastly different from the students I serve. First,
both of my parents were college graduates and came to the United States seeking professional
work in engineering and education. Although I witnessed that they both held many jobs
associated with manual labor, their goal of working in the fields of their degrees was ultimately
achieved. Next, I also immigrated to the United States at a time when adopting Americanized
culture was a source of survival, changing my name from its original form, Carola, to the
American version, Carol. Lastly, the Hispanic cultural emphasis on close family ties and
community was not as strongly emphasized in school as was succeeding in a career and the
expectation of attending college in the United States.
My positionality within District X is important to denote, as I have worked for this
district for 22 years in various positions and roles in which I have observed and worked with
teachers on EL support services. As a high school teacher and later middle school administrator,
I realized in greater depth the structures that impede EL students from accomplishing their
secondary goals. For example, I understood the delay in reclassification between elementary and
middle school. From my perspective as a middle school administrator, those transitional years
were extremely challenging for many students. Now, in my current position as a Supervisor of
Curriculum and Instruction for Secondary schools, I can observe systemic challenges that impact
ELs, including their academic outcomes in high school. In District X, students who are not
reclassified by high school have more Ds and Fs in content areas. My involvement with shaping
teachers’ curriculum and professional learning is based on the outcomes generated by grades,
benchmark assessments, and standardized assessments.
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My current professional position at the district level may also create power dynamics in
my interactions with teachers and students that can affect the study’s outcomes. As Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) pointed out, one cannot observe a phenomenon “without changing it, and it can no
longer be considered single faceted” (p. 242). So, although I do not directly evaluate teachers or
students, the reality is that they may feel that they must act or respond in a particular way during
the interviews and observations. This can affect research outcomes and affect the essence or
meaning derived from the data.
The combination of my professional and personal experience may bias the expected
outcomes in the study, as I acknowledge that many of these are based on student challenges and
negative outcomes for students. I also acknowledge my own power dynamics at the organization
that could affect research outcomes and must be accounted for in the data analysis. I recognized
that I had to be mindful of these biases as I shaped the interview questions and looked for themes
in the responses.
Member Checking
Another strategy to improve this study’s internal validity or credibility was applying
member checks (also known as respondent validation). As Maxwell stated (2013), this strategy is
the “single most important way of ruling out the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of
what participants say” (p.126). Phenomenological research must ensure proper interpretation, as
it heavily relies on units of meaning to create the essence of the experience. In this study, five
member checks were conducted. Randomly selected participants were asked to review key
phrases or words used in the interview transcript and either clarify the meaning or reflect on its
correctness.
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Triangulation
Data triangulation is another method to improve the validity of this study. However, there
are two forms of triangulation to consider. First, data triangulation, “collecting information from
a diverse range of individuals and settings using a variety of methods” (Maxwell, 2013 p. 135),
was accomplished by using three data collection methods interviewing, surveys and
observations. In addition, the EL participants are from a variety of backgrounds and cultures and
are not limited to a singular ethnic or language group. District X School District extends across a
number of neighborhoods with varying levels of socioeconomic status and student population
groups. The three comprehensive high schools involved in this study also provide varied
perspectives due to the differences in programming and communities served. Table 4 shows the
diversity that was part of this study, contributing to data triangulation (California Department of
Education Dashboard, 2022).

Table 4
Variety of English Learner Population in District X
High School A High School B High School C
Total student
population
1,458 2,231 1,892
EL enrollment as
compared to the
total population
22.7% 5% 9.9%
Language group data
(percentage of
language group as
per total enrollment)
54.8% Spanish
3.3% Filipino
10.7% Spanish
7.3% Korean
4.2% Mandarin
22.54% Spanish
7.5% Filipino
SES enrollment 82.6% 44.8% 65.9%

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Auditing
The fourth strategy for improving the validity of the results and ensuring consistency or
reliability in the results in a qualitative study is auditing, specifically the audit trail (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The audit trail is defined as “how data was collected, how categories were
derived, and how decisions were made throughout the inquiry” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p.
252). Figure 2 shows the various points of the audit trail process. Appendix C contains the tables
and logs of the audit trail as it relates to the processing of coding and thematic analysis.

Figure 2
Audit Trail Process for EL Support Services Phenomena

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50

Ethical Considerations
Lochmiller and Lester (2017) noted that the American Educational Research Association
has four main ethical principles that guide research practices. These four principles include
professional competence; integrity, professional, scientific, and scholarly responsibility; respect
for people’s rights, dignity, and diversity; and social responsibility. All must be applied in the
research process, but since this study focused on a specific population, it was essential that the
participants’ rights and dignity and were respected and valued. As a researcher, I ensured that I
was aware of any sensitivities to interview questions based on culture, individual, and role
differences (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Furthermore, since EL students were selected due to
specific criteria based on information from the student information system, there had to be
heightened protection of their data and information during sampling and data collection. It was
also important to protect student anonymity in the dissemination of findings.
Summary
This study used an interactive phenomenology approach (IPA) with qualitative data from
surveys, interviews, and classroom observations. The data were analyzed to target the three
research questions: how identity development concepts are embedded into the design of EL
support services, the EL student’s perceptions of how the support services shaped their identity,
and how these perceptions impacted their identity as college-going students. These findings will
be presented in Chapter Four, with a discussion of the findings in Chapter Five.

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Chapter Four: Results or Findings
This study examined ELs’ experiences in the high school environment, specifically as
they interact with EL support services in a suburban school district in Southern California,
District X. Through the insights of the student experience, the findings can help inform how
schools can best design EL support services to meet the identity development of EL students.
The research questions for this study focus on adolescent identity development concepts and on
how student perceptions of these in their school experiences may or may not impact their identity
as college-going students.
Participants
There were two groups of participants in this study: students and teachers. The student
participants met the criteria for being an EL for a minimum of 2 years and at least 18 years old.
Initially, 18 students qualified for the study, but only 10 were available during school site visits.
Five of the 10 students agreed to be interviewed. The students’ EL levels varied, as did the years
they were designated as ELs (Table 5).

Table 5
Student Interview Participants
Student pseudonym Grade range entering EL classification
Student A K–3 Long-term English learner (LTEL)
Student B 9–10 EL Level 2
Student C 4–6 LTEL
Student D K–3 LTEL
Student E 4–6 LTEL

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The teacher participants met the criteria for teaching either a content area or language
development (integrated and designated EL). Thirty-one teachers responded to the survey.
However, three surveys were incomplete and thus were removed from the data set. The
demographic data show that most teachers were English-only speakers, female, and of
Hispanic/Latinx descent, followed by White/Caucasian. In addition to this demographic
information, data regarding their teaching content area were also gathered. Most teachers were
English language arts credentialed, followed by math (Table 6). Consequently, five classroom
observations were conducted in English language arts courses (Table 7).

Table 6
Teacher Survey Participants Content Area Breakdown
Content areas Percentage of teachers
English language arts 28.6%
Math 17.9%
History-social science 14.3%
Science 10.7%
Electives 10.7%
World languages 3.6%
Physical education 7.1%
Visual and performing arts 7.1%

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Table 7
Classroom Observations
Class Course name EL student levels
Class 1 English IV LTEL
Class 2 Academic English II Level II
Class 3 English advanced ELD elective LTEL, Level III
Class 4 Academic English III Level III
Class 5 English advanced ELD elective LTEL, Level III

Results
This section presents the results of the research organized by research question. A brief
literature review and results previews are provided for each research question. Results are then
presented in two to three themes related to each question. A summary of the results related to
each research question is shown at the end of this chapter. This study is guided by the following
research questions:
1. How are adolescent identity development concepts embedded into the design of EL
support services for high school students?
2. What are students’ perceptions of how their experiences with EL support services
have shaped their identity?
3. How do these perceptions impact their identity as college-going students?
Results Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “How are adolescent identity development concepts
embedded into the design of EL support services for high school students?” Research shows that
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schools set the context and framework for adolescent development (Verschueren et al., 2017).
Eccles’ (2009) research on identity noted that an individual’s identity is influenced by three
concepts: their social and psychological experiences, their interpretations and creations of these
experiences, and their relationships with others. School culture, curriculum, local policies
regarding course placement, and adult or peer interactions are identified as ways that students
experience identity development in schooling (Estrada & Wang, 2018). Moreover, researchers
identified classroom power dynamics and social interactions as affecting EL students’ identity
development (Harklau & Moreno, 2019; Moná & Gómez Rodríguez, 2019). Verhoeven et al.
(2019) noted that most educational processes unintentionally impact identity. In this study,
teacher surveys, classroom observations, and student interviews provide insight into how some
identity development concepts are embedded in EL support services.
Assessments and Graduation Policies Dominate EL Support Services Design
A new accountability model for English language proficiency was introduced with the
reauthorization of the Every Student Succeeding Act of 2015; the ELPAC was designed to align
with this federal model (California Department of Education, 2015. Students’ language abilities
are tested in math, science, and history courses via the ELPAC. The ELPAC and the California
assessment of student performance and progress (CAASPP) in English are requirements for
reclassification in District X School District. To reclassify as fluent in English, students must
score a 4 on the ELPAC and achieve a 3 on the CAASPP for English language arts. The
emphasis of these exams in the design of EL support services was apparent in the classroom
observations and identified by students as a component of their English language progress. In all
five classroom observations, some test preparation for these assessments occurred, regardless of
the EL students’ level or course placement. The English 11/12 course observed heavily
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emphasized the CAASPP assessment, using at least 50% of instructional time on assessment
practice. The teacher of Class 3 explained to the students that this assessment was critical in
showing their understanding of English language concepts and then stated, “This exam does not
define who you are as a person, and I will still think you are great no matter what.”
Students made similar statements in interviews when asked, “What does the term English
learner mean to you, and when did you first hear it?” Four of the five students interviewed
referred to an assessment as part of their understanding of the label “EL.” Student A stated,
Being an [EL] means I have to take this test every year to show if I know English. I can’t
pass that test, so that’s why I know my English isn’t very good. It’s my reading. I don’t
like it, and I am not very good.
Similar observations occurred in a classroom course entitled Academic English II, which
mainly consisted of students identified as Expanding EL Students, scoring at a Level 2 on the
ELPAC assessments (Table 7). In two separate instances, students were asked to log into the
ELPAC practice portal for students to engage for 45 minutes with practice questions similar to
the actual assessment. It should be noted that data collection occurred two times in the Fall
Semester.
Similarly, data indicates that graduation requirements for ELs are a vital component of
EL support services. The following question was posed to teachers of ELs: “In your classroom,
please rank from highest (1) to lowest (5) your overall priorities for your students.” According to
Figure 3, teachers’ top two priorities were passing their content coursework (47.1%) and meeting
graduation requirements on time (41.2%). Developing a solid sense of self before students
graduate was ranked as a top priority by 35.29% of teachers. Classroom observations confirmed
these priorities, as EL students were observed to be engaged in what was termed “academic
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chats.” Bilingual tutors reviewed EL students’ current grades and their progress toward
graduation requirements in a one-on-one meeting held in the hallway.

Figure 3
Teacher Survey Responses in Ranking Top Priorities for English Learners
Note. This figure demonstrates the ranking priorities of teachers of EL students, and ranking
priority is determined by the most significant percentage in that column.

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Similarly, classroom bulletin boards were noted in EL support services classrooms with
data and charts that described student progress with class grades, even ranking how a specific
period performed compared to others. In both Emerging EL classrooms observed, a portion of
the room was dedicated to math content and skills. When the teacher was asked about this area,
the teacher noted that math was the course that most students were struggling with or failing, so a
portion of class time was used to help support students with this material. The tutors also
articulated this concern, stating that they spent much of their time supporting students with math
to ensure they could graduate high school. A clear priority for meeting state and local policy
requirements for reclassification and graduation was evident in the EL support services
classrooms, creating a context for students whose identity was linked to their ability to reclassify
or meet graduation requirements.
Schools Rely Primarily on the Curriculum to Embed Identity Development Concepts in
Designated English Learner Classrooms
During the 2016 school year, the California Department of Education released the
designated and integrated standards framework, indicating that educators of English language
learners throughout California, not just bilingual instructors, are responsible for their academic
and linguistic success (California Department of Education, 2016). Designated EL courses
promote ELD while supporting core content instruction, such as science and social sciences. All
English language arts core curricula in California must have designated EL components.
Districts have the option to add supplemental curricula to help support literacy development. In
District X, teachers are provided with the Read180 Universal program to embed literacy support
for students in designated EL support courses. The program includes an online application for
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individual student practice, reading libraries appropriate for student reading levels, and a
textbook that supports whole or small-group instruction.
Students can interact with identity development through the careful design of curriculum,
lesson planning, and classroom experiences. Specifically, research shows that co-constructing
meaning with peers and providing opportunities for reflection and choice help students explore
identity (Eccles, 2009; Kaplan & Flum, 2009; Wentzel et al., 2021). In the teacher survey
(Figures 4 and 5), 28 participants were asked to respond to statements regarding identity
development concepts as they have noted or experienced in the curriculum. Overall, 55.56% of
teachers Somewhat Agreed, and 27.78% Strongly Agreed that the curriculum engaged students
with their plans for the future (see Figure 4). However, when teachers were asked if the
curriculum allowed students to reflect on their identities, a broader range of responses occurred,
with 21.05% stating they somewhat disagreed and 10.53% stating they strongly disagreed (see
Figure 5). Research shows that when students engage in self-reflective, exploratory approaches
to learning, they are better prepared for the challenges they will face in society (Verschueren et
al., 2017). The inconsistent implementation of these experiences in the EL support services
curriculum design may create unintentional outcomes for identity development in students
(Verhoeven et al., 2019).

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Figure 4
The Curriculum Has Activities and Lessons Engaging Students With Future Plans in an
Exploratory Manner.

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Figure 5
The Curriculum Asks Students to Reflect on Their Identities

Note. In this case, “reflect” means that they must process and think about who they are now and
how they feel about specific topics in their community.

Further exploration of the intentionality in the classroom experiences around reflection
occurred through classroom observations, revealing low implementation (evident in one out of
five classrooms). Classroom observations of designated EL courses revealed three components
of the curriculum utilized with students; the Read 180 Content Workshops, the Read 180 student
apps, and the independent reading library. Students were assigned to a specific rotating schedule
in each of these areas. Out of the three components, the Content Workshops were whole or small
groups, while the student app and reading library were personalized to student needs or choices.
Three of the five classrooms observed were in Workshop 3, titled “It is Your Right.” Students
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read government-related materials around the Bill of Rights and discussed questions about
individual rights. Students working in the app segments were paced at different points,
depending on their language level, and topics ranged from astronomy and environmental science
to history and influential leaders. Students could explore app topics based on student interests.
For the independent libraries, students selected from a pre-determined library of books that
ranged based on their English reading levels. Students could select books but were limited by the
library’s choices. It was observed that the curriculum library did have handouts and graphic
organizers that directed students to engage in reflective practices, but the majority of those
centered around reading comprehension and ELD (i.e., Reflect on what you read and summarize
in a sentence).
English Learner Support Services Focus on English Language Development, Dominating
Students’ Experience
Galloway and Uccelli (2019) found that ELs are considered academically disabled or
disadvantageous due to their language ability and that these perceptions place a heavy emphasis
on language. Classroom observations were consistent with this research as most of the activities
in the classroom were explicit to language development, especially with the content in the
student app (noted in all five classrooms). When participants were asked what they would say to
new students entering their classroom or school, English language practice was a common
theme. Student C noted, “I would tell other students to try and practice the language. Yeah, even
though I see some words and probably doesn’t make sense but practice the language.”
In the teacher surveys, respondents identified the top influences on identity development.
Table 8 shows that respondents selected connection with peers most, indicating that teachers
understood that peer experiences were essential for identity development. Conversely, teachers
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were asked to identify the factor that may contribute the most to hindering identity development
in ELs. Figure 6 shows that the most significant factor identified by 35% of teachers was the
disconnect from school or community culture. However, classroom observations heavily
emphasized English language ability, specifically at academic language levels, without using
peer interaction in the design.
None of the students interviewed indicated that their home language was valued in
school. However, when EL students were asked about the importance of knowing multiple
languages, they responded by explicitly highlighting mastering reading and writing skills in
English. When asked about the types of activities they did in class, student respondents described
reading and writing activities, specifically around vocabulary and reading comprehension. There
was no evidence of intentionality in utilizing connections to the home culture in the design of
classroom learning experiences.

Table 8
Based on the Factors Listed, What Would You Consider Are the Top Influences on Identity
Development for English Learners?
Factors 1 2 3 4
Connection with peers at school 47.1% 29.4% 23.5% 0%
Connection with adults at school 16.7% 25.0% 41.7% 16.6%
Perception of self as a language
learner
36.4% 27.3% 36.3% 0%
Perception of self as connected to
their home culture
27.2% 36.4% 36.4% 0%

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Figure 6
Factors That Teachers Believe Inhibit Identity Development in EL Students

Discussion of Research Question 1
In examining how identity development concepts are embedded in EL support services,
the teacher surveys and classroom observations indicate that there is a strong priority on
addressing state policies on reclassification and, consequently, the state assessments. Estrada and
Wang (2018) concluded that how local districts implement state policies and assessments can
create contextual conditions that impact student identity development. In this study, schools’
emphasis on state assessments and policies in EL achievement practices affected students’
identity as both language learners and academic learners. Additionally, the increased emphasis
on graduation requirements caused teachers to focus on the content needed to achieve these
requirements rather than intentionally thinking about identity development.
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Next, teachers relied heavily on the English language curriculum to embed identity
concepts in the classroom. However, there was insufficient evidence of the consistent
implementation of the curriculum and, therefore, of students’ possible exposure to these
components. Inconsistent implementation of these experiences in the EL support services
curriculum design may create unintentional outcomes for identity development in students
(Verhoeven et al., 2019).
One such unintentional consequence of lack of design is that by creating a focus on the
development of the English language, EL students do not see themselves as competent as
students in general. Since their achievement on assessments defines their ability with language,
students begin to internalize that they are not successful at basic school-related skills. This is
confirmed by a study by Galloway and Uccelli (2019), in which ELs are perceived to be
academically disabled due to their language ability.
Results Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “What are students’ perceptions of how their experiences
with EL support services have shaped their identity?” The results were that participants’ identity
development is influenced by power dynamics and social interactions within the classroom
(Harklau & Moreno, 2019; Moná & Gómez Rodríguez, 2019). The amount of academic interest
that a student invests increases if there are meaningful relationships that help support their
academic growth. How students perceive how others view them through sociocultural and
institutional beliefs can construct identities that limit their sense of efficacy and future access to
social and academic options (Harklau & Moreno, 2019). Brooks’s (2022) research found that
students constructed deficit identities related to “not being good at English” due to experiences
with EL assessments. An EL’s identity is further complicated by the intersectionality of their
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language identity (as an EL) and their ethnic identity. Hipolito-Delgado (2014) found that there
was an inverse relationship between internalized racism and ethnic identity, increasing the
negative stereotypes created by ELs of the school system as an unintentional consequence.
Helms’s (1995) people of color identity model further describe how internalized perceptions of
one’s ethnicity can impact the connection with home culture and language.
Impact of Test Preparation and Assessment Emphasis on Student Identity
Verhoeven et al. (2019) examined how school contextual structures, including policies
and practices, impact adolescent identity development on a conscious and unconscious level.
Test prep practices in schools can provide messages to students about their value and impact on
their identity. Through the classroom observations, it was noted that some form of test
preparation occurred in all five classrooms. The test preparation was either regarding the
California Assessment of Student Progress and Proficiency for English Language Arts or focused
on the ELPAC. There are four domains in the ELPAC in which ELD is monitored: speaking,
listening, reading, and writing. In District X, only 10% of EL students were identified as well-
developed in the reading domain, with 48% scoring somewhat/moderately developed (California
Department of Education, 2022b). An emphasis on reading comprehension was the test
preparation topic observed in the classrooms.
Brooks (2022) found that students created a sense of self related to their language ability
from their performance on EL assessments. Similar findings emerged during the EL student
interviews, where the focus of assessments was a clear common theme. It should be noted that
three out of the five classes observed were designated for long-term ELs (LTELs), and four out
of five students interviewed were designated LTEL, which meant that the students had the EL
designation for 6 years or more. When students were asked to define the term “English learner,”
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one responded, “It means I have to take a test every year that my friends don’t have to take. I am
called that because I can’t pass it.” Another student stated, “I can’t pass the test because I can’t
read English so good. I don’t like reading.” A third student emphasized, “I am not good with
tests.” Students demonstrated anxiety and stress over these assessments, which they had to
engage in year after year. As a result, students had clear messages about their performance since
it was perceived that they could not pass these annual exams.
Marcia’s statuses of identity development describe how students with high levels of stress
or anxiety can remain in identity foreclosure, where they take on a prescribed identity from either
environmental inputs or adult interactions without question (Eccles, 2009). Student interviews
further illuminated how participants accepted their status with the English language in either one
of two ways: being good or not good with the language based on the results of these assessments
and the value placed on them in the school setting. Students directly spoke to their English
language abilities based on the input from adults because of these assessments. One student
stated, “My counselor told me I needed to read more, and my teacher, too.” Another student
stated that when her classroom provides reading time, she does not like it “I am not good at it
and then they want us to read but I don’t like it [because] I am not good at it.” Students
represented their identity around literacy based on their performance on the assessment, thus
affecting how they viewed their abilities around reading.
School Relationships and Identity Development
Eccles (2009) noted that one-way students developed personal or collective identities
through meaningful interactions with adults and peers. Although it is widely understood that
relationships are essential in school settings, emphasizing meaningful interactions must be
clearly defined across school sites (Eccles, 2009; Moná & Gómez Rodríguez, 2019). Moná &
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Gómez Rodríguez (2019) found that social relationships in the classroom influence academic
investment in learning. In the survey of English support services teachers in District X (Table 8),
47.1% of teachers identified peer connections as a factor that could affect their identity
development. Similarly, Figure 4 shows that 25% of teachers also noted that peer stigmatization
could hinder identity formation.
EL student interviews had common themes around group work with peers. When
students were asked what classroom-based activities helped them learn the best, variety and
group work were the top two strategies. Student B described EL support services during class
around math, including small groups with a college-age tutor stating, “they help us with our
work a lot, and it’s a stress reliever to work with my friends.” Student C discussed how middle
school activities were enjoyable because they got to “do presentations and work in groups.” This
same student noted that he did not like to talk much but preferred activities where writing and
speaking took place in groups.
Interestingly, students only sometimes felt comfortable with content or specific skills
(such as speaking in front of the class). However, when a peer or group effort was involved,
students felt empowered to accomplish a task. These findings are confirmed through a study by
Wentzel (2021), highlighting peer social acceptance as positively related to academic
achievement.
The EL student interviews also highlighted supportive adults for students to see
themselves as capable. Student A gave a specific example in response to what a supportive
teacher does. She said her teacher motivated her to do better in history by giving her extra points
to participate:
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I would get points off my test, but the teacher said if I kept trying and participating, then
it would be okay. … So, I kept trying, and it made me feel better because I could see I
was passing the class.
Similarly, Student B described how EL tutors would make the work less challenging and
stressful, especially since they could help translate it. Student B stated, “The tutors can explain it
better since our teachers don’t speak Spanish, and they can tell us in Spanish, and then I can try
and do the work.” As a result of adult support and connection, students identified as being able to
do the work or be successful.
Influence of Power Dynamics Around the Home Language on Students’ Experience
English learners work to develop their personal identity and their collective identity,
specifically in the form of ethnic/cultural identity (Eccles, 2009). A key aspect of EL students’
cultural identity stems from the home language (in this case, Spanish). Power dynamics of what
is allowed and not allowed in their home language is part of how the school structures EL
students’ experience. In this study, classroom observations, EL student interviews, and teacher
surveys provided evidence of the power dynamics of language.
In the survey, 25% of teachers noted allowing students to engage with their home
language in school learning activities as needed. One teacher stated in the comments that
nurturing the home language was necessary. However, student interviews contradict this
statement. All five students interviewed answered “No” when asked if they were allowed to
speak Spanish in class sometimes. One student elaborated: “One of my teachers don’t care if I
speak Spanish or not,” describing that Spanish was mainly spoken on a social level. When
further asked about the use of Spanish at school, students described it in either one of two ways:
to speak to friends about social topics they did not want their teachers to understand or to
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translate for a parent in the office. Student E noted that office staff ask him to translate when his
mother comes to see his counselor, but it was often difficult for him to provide her with complete
information since he did not always understand the terms used.
Through a series of case studies, Harklau (2000) noted that students’ images of EL
identities were recreated based on messages received from experiences. Classroom observations
confirmed similar patterns. Students engaged with each other in Spanish to talk about their day
or weekend, then switched to English for coursework. Often, students asked each other, “What
did the teacher say?” and someone would repeat it in Spanish. In one of the classrooms, handheld
signs were available in one area of the room that stated, “I speak only English.” When the
students were asked about the signage, they indicated that sometimes the teacher or tutor would
hold up the signs, letting students know that they could only respond to a question or speak in
English. The use of the signs was not observed during the classroom visit. In these experiences,
students received the message that English was academic and Spanish was not.
In a study by Quintana (2007), adolescents who experienced racism, implicit or systemic,
were often more disengaged with the school system. Helms’s (1995) people of color identity
model proposes that, for students of color to overcome notions of racism, ethnic identity mirrors
the progressions of personal identity development. To gauge how they perceived the use of the
Spanish language, the interviewees were asked if they thought it was important to speak more
than one language. Many students responded in specific reference to the English language and
less about the importance of Spanish stating things such as “If I can speak English better, then I
can communicate better.” Another student described the different roles of the two languages by
stating, “Spanish is for my friends and home, and English is for school.” The distinct separation
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of the role of language in pedagogy and learning and the power of one language over the other
sent messages regarding the language hierarchy at school.
Discussion of Research Question 2
Overall, students’ perceptions of their identities were based on their experiences with
school structures around assessments, connections with adults or peers, and the internal duality
of their home language. Students’ identification as ELs mainly came from the assessment
structures, affecting whether or not students saw themselves as excelling in language
development. The data showed a correlation between the domain in which students scored lowest
(reading) and whether they saw themselves as capable readers and, thus, learners. These findings
confirm the research of Brooks (2022), in which adult-centered practices around assessments and
reclassification affected students’ notions of the self as a learner and their academic trajectories
in school.
Relationships of EL students with peers and adults in school systems provided ways to
explore the self by exploring aspects of their identity. In this study, peers were likely to help EL
students become academically invested in a task, while adults helped EL students develop their
academic skills. A teacher or tutor typically helps students build a better relationship with a
content area they were struggling with and, therefore, find ways to overcome challenges to
understanding concepts or improving a grade. EL students’ academic investment in learning was
increased by the social relationships with adults or peers, similar to findings in the work of Moná
and Gómez Rodríguez (2019).
Finally, the intersectionality between identity development and internalized racism was
evident for EL students in how they identified with their home language. Phinney and Chavira
(1992) defined ethnic identity as the perceived notions of culture and race that affect one’s
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association with ethnicity. From the student interviews and classroom observations, EL students
internalized the environmental constructs of their home language as belonging only to a social
category and English being part of their academic identity. These students must then navigate
both forms of identity, one that separates them as a student and the other as a member of their
cultural heritage and home life (Thompson & Carter, 2013).
Results Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How do these perceptions impact their identity as college-
going students?” This study was conducted to explore how school systems affected the
experience of EL students as it related to their current identity development and the possible
impact on their future identity as college-going students. Research has identified how school
systems create limited opportunities for ELs, specifically in course access (Kanno & Kangas,
2014; Thompson, 2017). School structures that limit EL students’ ability to take rigorous courses
such as higher level math or Advanced Placement (AP) deny students access to advanced college
preparatory courses. The emphasis on academic language in content courses, such as science, is
another example of how EL students are limited in their exposure to science concepts
(Richardson Bruna, 2010). The research indicates that a lack of exposure or information can limit
a student’s options for the future. Through interviews and classroom observations, I examined
how students begin to explore and identify with a possible future self, regardless of course
placement or classroom experiences.
Peer Interactions Influence on Opportunities or Experiences for Students’ Future Selves
As noted by Eccles (2009), peer connections can help determine a student’s self-efficacy
in academic structures, as seen recently by the exploration of Research Question 2. However, can
these peer connections also lead to enhanced exploration, regardless of the school structure
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limits? Patterns in EL student interviews revealed the peer connections’ role in exploring other
areas that may lead to a future self. Each student mentioned a peer who guided or encouraged
them to try something new, whether academic or extracurricular. Student C described how to get
academic support after school at the Student Union at the high school. When further asked what
made that support helpful, group work was cited as one of the reasons, along with the fact that
you could go with friends. Student E described how a family member encouraged him to get a
work-study job; “He said it would be fun and easy. He did it, too.”
Student A said her friends told her to join the cheer squad, and another student mentioned
the same about soccer. In these instances, peer connection was a common factor for EL students
participating in tutoring or afterschool activities, such as work or sports. As noted in Table 8,
college and career goals were rated low priorities for EL students’ teachers. Therefore, how are
EL students exposed to a possible career for their future? During EL student interviews, many
noted that exposure through an elective course or work experience provided them with ways to
consider a future career. In the student interviews, several students were told by a friend or
joined a friend in an elective course such as graphic design, automotive, or welding. One student
claimed that he wanted to be a mechanic, and when asked how he had decided on this as a future
career, he described how his friend made him take the automotive class with him. Another
student talked about owning a painting business and getting a business degree. When asked
about his interest in this field, he talked about joining his friend on painting jobs on the weekend.
In these instances, peers encouraged the entry point to what could be a future career for students.
Consequently, Yeager et al.’s (2012) longitudinal study found that the influence of teachers
decreased over time while the influence of peers increased.
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Role models in the same age range and therefore seen or identified as a peer can also
make a difference for students in their career or college aspirations. At both schools, EL tutor
services are available throughout the school day. These are college-aged students who provide
support to EL students with content coursework. EL students spoke positively about their
interactions with these tutors, calling them “helpful” or “supportive.” In one classroom
observation, an EL tutor reviewed students’ semester grades with them and encouraged them to
improve to meet college or career aspirations. One student approached the tutor after his
semester grades review and asked, “So, I can really go to college with my grades?” The tutor
reassured the student that he could but needed to keep working on his math grade, saying, “My
grades were like yours, too, and I am in college.”
In the interview, this student (Student B) cited the tutors as helpful because “they were
like me before.” It should also be noted that a peer or role model can also influence students in
another direction, away from college. Notably, Student D described how an older sibling, who
had completed his first year in college, dropped out due to stress and financial difficulties.
Student D wanted to do a career pathway in the medical field, possibly as a medical assistant or
dialysis technician, stating, “my brother did that, and he says it’s way better than going to
college.”
Influence of Positive and Supportive Adult Interaction
Kroger and Marcia (2011) found that students can move from one form of identity
developmental stages, depending on life event cycles and experiences, with progressive identity
change continuing through adulthood. The students interviewed for this study talked about their
experiences as either pre-pandemic or post-pandemic. Due to their ages and grades, all students
interviewed were in ninth grade when California closed schools in March 2020 due to the
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COVID-19 pandemic. This significant life event shifted students as they navigated a period of
crisis. The availability of role models and identification with parents significantly affect
adolescents’ emergence from crises (Waterman, 1982). Hence, the role of supportive adults
became an emerging theme when students talked about the motivation for their future selves,
especially after the pandemic.
EL students who desired to please a significant adult in their lives cited this as the reason
to attend college. Students B and D discussed the promises made to their respective mothers to
attend college as a significant motivating factor in applying. Student C described a promise made
to his father to improve the family business by attending college. Likewise, EL students who felt
that there was constant support and a genuine belief in their abilities from adults also cited this as
a reason for wanting to attend college. Student A noted,
My ninth-grade counselor always told me that she wanted me to apply to college. That
was the pandemic year, and I didn’t do so good, but I didn’t want to let her down, so I
kept trying when I came back.
Another student talked about a mental health counselor who had an open-door policy during
lunch after the pandemic. The student started going to have lunch with friends at the counselor’s
classroom and noted that the counselor kept “bugging me about college and what I was going to
do. Mr. Jesse cares.” These instances demonstrate the connection between the student and adults
allows students to see themselves as future college students.
In examining how adults influenced ELs, a central theme of approval emerges, as
students talked about making sure they did not let the adults down who cared for them, whether
it was a counselor, parent, or teacher. In reviewing Marcia’s Identity Statuses (Kroger et al.,
2010), the framework of identity foreclosure is reflected in student responses regarding the
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influence of the adults in their lives. In identity foreclosure, students commit to an identity
without fully exploring options, usually as a way of seeking approval from their environment or
their families (Eccles, 2009). High school students typically have various options to explore their
identity and progressively shift from the different statuses of identity diffusion, foreclosure,
moratorium, and achievement. However, moments of crisis can create shifts in the contextual
environment that do not allow a student to progress from one level to the next. Shifts in the
environment can include the availability of role models, the range of opportunities afforded to
students, identification with parents, and how the individual student has managed crises in the
past (Waterman, 1982). For these groups of EL students, the relationship post-pandemic with
families and adults seems to be a key influence in constructing their identity as college-going
students.
Discussion of Research Question 3
In examining the student interview responses and correlating them with classroom
observations, two central themes emerged around student perceptions as college-going students.
The first theme involved the influence of peers in providing opportunities or exposure to college
or career opportunities. EL students saw themselves in a career or going to college if a friend or
similar age range role model provided support and influence toward this outcome. The second
theme focused on how adults’ relationships with students can provide college access and career
pathways. These themes highlighted contextual influences in the environment, as emphasized by
Erikson’s theory of adolescent identity development (1959) and Marcia’s Identity Statuses
(1987). These theories provide a framework for understanding adolescents’ limited choices
within their social context (Feldman & Whitcomb, 2005).
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Research indicates that the influence of peers increases with age and likely helps with a
sense of self-efficacy in the future (Flum & Kaplan, 2012; Yeager et al., 2012). In regard to
relationships with peers and their perceived influence on their college and career outcomes,
students’ trajectories were shaped by a peer or peer-like role model exposing and supporting an
EL student’s interest. A peer recommending a specific course or job allowed EL students to see
themselves as capable or empowered to access that course or job. In this study, even role models
perceived as peer-like allowed students to see themselves as future college students or see
themselves in a career pathway.
Waterman’s (1982) research on how identity evolves in moments of crisis reveals the
importance of the contextual setting, such as the availability of adults and role models as a vital
component to overcoming moments of hardship. In the EL student interview for this study,
students often brought up the COVID-19 pandemic as a significant crisis that brought a pivotal
adult to the forefront of their identity development. Marcia’s Identity Statuses (1987) reveals that
students need to approve or please the significant adults in their lives, which places EL students
interviewed in this study in the stage of identity foreclosure. This stage is characterized by high
levels of conformity, a high need for approval, and low tolerance for change (Eccles, 2009). The
interviewees often referred to making sure they “didn’t let anyone down” or that they had made a
“promise to my mom” as the reason they would pursue a college or career goal. The personal
identity of EL students in this study was associated with the context of peers and adults that
influenced their choices for college and career outcomes.
Summary
Research Questions 1 and 2 focused on the design of EL support services and their
perceived influence on identity development for students. Findings indicate that there needs to be
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more intentionality in designing EL support services connected to identity development
concepts. Instead, schools rely on state-approved curricula and state assessments for EL students
in California (ELPAC). In addition, a push to reclassify students as English proficient creates a
focus on language skills rather than a holistic approach to these students’ experience. Students’
identity of self was then framed around their school-defined status with ELD.
EL students interviewed for this study had been repeatedly told they needed to pass the
ELPAC to qualify for reclassification. Therefore, their perception of their abilities with English
and schooling revolved around this specific focus. Research on the intersectionality of identity
formation and the ELs’ school experience support this study’s findings that local policies around
assessment, school culture, and curriculum impact student identities (Estrada & Wang, 2018;
Harklau, 2000). Additionally, externally imposed identities can inhibit EL students’ perceptions
of competence and self-efficacy (Thompson & Carter, 2013). The EL student experience as it
pertained to their level of English language ability with reading and writing skills affected
whether they saw themselves as a reader or writer in general (Galloway & Uccelli, 2019). The
context of language also added power dynamics to the student experience, as the home language
was viewed as non-academic while English was academic. Literature on Helm’s identity model
(Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2014; Thompson & Carter, 2013) supported these findings as students
identified distinctly with their cultural identity through their home language, which was seen as
separate from their school context.
Research question three focused on how their identity perceptions affected EL students’
ability to see themselves as college or career-going students. Through classroom observations
and student interviews, findings pointed toward the role of school-based relationships with peers
and adults. Opportunities and experiences with college and career were enhanced through the
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influences of peers, while adults catalyzed support and motivation. Marcia’s Identity Statuses
(1987) provide a framework from the literature that explains how students respond in various
stages of identity development. Identity foreclosure, in which students are limited in exploration
and, therefore, commit to an identity based on relationships with families or peers, explains the
patterns of behaviors found in this study. The conditions in which EL students have these
experiences, such as with the COVID-19 pandemic, can create additional challenges as students
use moments of crisis to progress or regress through the stages of identity development
(Waterman, 1982).

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes the findings of this study and suggests considerations for
practice within educational settings. A summary of these research findings is intended to assist
current and future educators in embedding adolescent identity concepts holistically across
learning and social experiences for ELs. In addition, future research recommendations are
provided.
The study examined how ELs interact with EL support services in two high schools in a
suburban California district. In 2017, California provided an updated framework to improve
support for students’ academic and language goals, social development, and skills needed for
success in college and career (California Department of Education, 2017). The framework,
known as the English Learner Roadmap, provides schools with guidance on designing and
implementing EL support services. Despite these efforts, ELs have needed help to meet
graduation requirements (67.1% graduate) and access college or career options (California
Department of Education, 2022). Therefore, the design of EL support services is essential in
supporting ELs in the current academic setting and for their future endeavors.
Erikson’s adolescent identity development theory was used in this research to guide the
examination of the intentional or unintentional design of EL student support services (1959). A
significant component of adolescence is the context of schooling, where relationships with adults
and peers can help drive factors that impact personal and collective identity (Arduini-Van Hoose,
2022). Marcia’s Identity Statuses (1987) are part of the identity framework, providing the four
stages adolescents could experience as experiences begin to shape who they are now and who
they will become. This study aimed to understand the EL student experience better and uncover
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how these impact identity as college-going students. The following questions guided this
research:
1. How are adolescent identity development concepts embedded into the design of EL
support services for high school students?
2. What are students’ perceptions of how their experiences with EL support services
have shaped their identity?
3. How do these perceptions impact their identity as college-going students?
This study used a phenomenological perspective to examine EL students’ experiences
and how they shape consciousness, especially regarding identity development (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Data were collected primarily through qualitative interviews with EL students and
surveys of EL support services (primarily teachers). After conducting a thematic analysis,
classroom observations were completed to understand EL students’ daily experiences better.
Findings
Study findings suggest that schools must intentionally design EL support services,
considering factors that affect adolescent identity development in the classroom experience.
Schools emphasize ELD, reclassification, and state assessments. These driving forces define the
EL student’s experience in the school setting, limiting how they see themselves now and in the
future. Findings further suggest that power dynamics around language impacted how students
viewed themselves academically and how the home language was portrayed as non-academic.
EL students’ relationships with peers and adults aided in identifying their future selves. Eight
themes emerged in response to the study’s three research questions. This section summarizes the
study’s findings concerning current literature and school practices.
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Research Question 1
Qualitative data from EL student interviews, teacher surveys, and classroom observations
produced three findings in response to Research Question 1. The first finding indicated that the
California accountability models for English language proficiency and graduation requirements
dominated the design of EL support services.
Student interview responses revealed their understanding of the term “EL” centered
around the annual California English language proficiency exams. A student’s English
proficiency was related to no longer taking these exams. This was confirmed by classroom
observations, where every class was involved with some test practice and preparation for state
assessments. Similarly, local and state graduation requirements were at the forefront of the
design of EL support services. Teacher surveys revealed that the top two priorities for educators
were passing content coursework and meeting graduation requirements. Again, classroom
observations confirmed this as students were engaged in grade reviews and academic chats
regarding their progress toward graduation.
The second finding regarding Research Question 1 revealed that schools relied on
curriculum to embed identity development concepts, with little intentionality toward identity
exploration. Literature on identity development focused on the co-construction of meaning with
peers, opportunities for reflection, and choice in student exploration as best practices (Eccles,
2009; Kaplan & Flum, 2009; Wentzel et al., 2021). Verschueren et al. (2017) found that when
students consistently engaged in reflective and exploratory opportunities, they were increasingly
prepared for future challenges. These research studies highlight an intentional design of
experiences for EL students in the classroom.
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Teacher surveys revealed that the curriculum was used to help students explore their
plans, but there were inconsistencies when teachers were asked about the curriculum’s
opportunities for reflection. Student interviews indicated that the classroom experience was
focused on using the curriculum, in this case, Read180 Universal (HMH Intervention, 2022).
Classroom observations showed that although students were given opportunities to choose
learning experiences in the application portion of the Read180 program and the choice of reading
materials, there was little self-reflection concerning these choices or embedded best practices,
such as peer co-construction. EL students often worked alone on the program components, and
handouts provided with the program asked students to reflect on whether they understood or
liked the story.
The third finding for Research Question 1 is that the classroom practices and focus were
on ELD with no defined focus on identity development. This is different from what teachers
understood as necessary for identity development in students. Research indicates that schools
often consider EL students as academically disabled, and this perception creates a heavy
emphasis on language to counter this belief (Galloway & Uccelli, 2019). The lack of
intentionality in designing experiences for EL students that enhance their identity development
while practicing language is evident in classroom practices. Instead, schools intentionally
designed the classroom for language purposes, with the possibility of career exploration
intermittently used in the classroom experience.
Teacher surveys showed that teachers understood the importance of students developing
a strong sense of self prior to graduation. Teacher surveys even revealed a clear understanding
that a connection with peers and EL students’ home culture was meaningful in their development
of the self. Yet, these practices were not seen or evident in classroom observations. Student
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interviews also highlighted how language development was clearly at the forefront for students
as they emphasized engaging in English language practice. The following section discusses how
this lack of intentionality and emphasis on language contributed to or hindered EL students’
identity development.
Research Question 2
Findings from Research Question 2, classroom observations and student interviews were
analyzed and produced three findings. The first finding indicated that the heavy emphasis on test
preparation and assessments in the classroom affected the student’s identity related to the
English language. This finding is consistent with work by Brooks (2022), in which students’
sense of self was created by their performance on EL assessments and formulated their
perception of their language abilities.
Interview responses from EL students revealed that students represented their identity
around literacy from the assessment results. Students perceived they still needed to pass the
assessment because they were still considered ELs. Therefore, they began to internalize that they
were not “good at English” if they needed to continue to take these assessments year after year.
Furthermore, students based their ability to accomplish literacy tasks on these assessments. Most
students struggled with the reading comprehension portion of the ELPAC assessments and, in
student interviews, internalized this by associating this with “not liking” reading or “not being”
good at reading. Marcia’s Identity Statuses (1987) characterizes this internalization as identity
foreclosure, where students take on a prescribed identity without question due to additional
anxiety or stress.
The second finding for Research Question 2 is that relationships with peers and adults in
the school setting can help support identity development in ways that help students build
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academic skills. This is consistent with the work of Eccles (2009), which noted that meaningful
interactions with adults and peers are one of the ways adolescents develop their personal or
collective identity. This finding also addressed Wentzel et al.’s (2021) research that examined
the positive relationship between peer acceptance and academic achievement. Additionally, this
is consistent with the work of Moná and Gómez Rodríguez (2019), which found that
relationships affect academic investment in learning.
EL student interviews highlighted that working with peers around academic content
provided a sense of efficacy and motivation. Students B and C noted that working with peers
relieved stress and made the academic work seem more manageable. EL student interviews also
revealed that students were likely to engage in academic tasks in group settings over individual
settings (for example, speaking in front of a class). Similarly, students cited how supportive
adults helped them feel motivated to continue to improve or accomplish a task. Teacher surveys
supported the idea that connections with peers and adults are perceived to enhance the EL
student experience.
The third finding for Research Question 2 was that power dynamics around the language
affected how students perceived and used the home language. Research indicates that students’
images of EL identities were recreated based on messages received from their experiences
(Harklau, 2000). Quintana (2007) highlighted how perceived and internalized racism led students
to feel disconnected and disengaged from school. Helm’s people of color identity theory
(Thompson & Carter, 2013) parallels the work of Marcia’s Identity Statuses, indicating that
students internalize the representations of whom they are by those considered dominant in
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society. Specifically, these studies indicate that EL students will conform their identity to others’
representation of the value of their home language.
Teacher surveys showed that educators understood the importance of the home language
and culture connection. However, classroom observations did not demonstrate purposeful
activities using their home language and culture. Student interviews further illuminated how they
perceived their home language and, therefore, internalized it. Students articulated that their home
language was for social interactions rather than academic purposes. Students noted that they
were not allowed to speak in their home language in the classroom, and it was only acceptable
for social purposes. The power differential and distinction between English and their home
language was a clear message received by students.
Research Question 3
Qualitative methods, specifically EL student interviews and classroom observations,
resulted in two findings. The first finding related to Research Question 3 is that peers can help
influence the opportunities EL students are exposed to. Yeager et al.’s (2012) longitudinal study
found that peer influence increased with age while teachers’ influence decreased. This is also
noted by Eccles (2009), as it was found that students’ academic self-efficacy increased with
strong peer connections. Students could likely see themselves accomplishing a career or college
path if a peer had a similar experience.
Student interviews demonstrated peers’ role as related to Research Question 3. Students
were likely to engage in additional academic activities or work options outside the school day if
a peer or same-age role model encouraged them. Teacher surveys indicated that helping students
develop a college or career goal was not a top priority; therefore, students had to explore careers
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through other means. Students described how a peer helped them become interested in a field or
take a class that led to a specific college or career goal.
The second finding for Research Question 3 emerged as positive and supportive adult
interactions elevated students’ identity toward college and careers. This finding also highlighted
the possible impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the availability of positive adult interactions.
Waterman’s (1982) research on identity development and crisis aligns with this finding. Role
models and how students identify with parents are two essential components determining how
adolescents emerge from moments of crisis. This second finding also links to Marcia’s identity
statuses (Kroger et al., 2010), as research shows that students' need for approval causes them to
adopt an identity, even if it has not been fully explored. This stage of identity development is
known as identity foreclosure, which is influenced by the environment and relationships with
adults (Eccles, 2009).
Student interviews demonstrated a common theme around the role of adults in helping
students identify with attending college, especially post-pandemic. Students consistently
described affirming interactions with an adult as informing why they wanted to attend college.
Often, students commented that they did not want to disappoint this vital adult in their life,
ranging from a parent to a school counselor. Teacher surveys confirmed the role of adult
interactions with students. Classroom observations also noted how students interacted with key
adult figures with discussion on college-going goals.
Limitations
The limitations of this study’s findings are categorized in three ways: generalizability,
internal validity, and the researcher’s positionality and potential bias. The study was conducted
in a medium-sized suburban district in Southern California, with an immigrant population that
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primarily represented the Latino/a/x perspective. Therefore, the study’s findings may have varied
depending on the experiences of other immigrant groups and even if there were considerations
for differences in the immigration background among Latino/a/x student populations.
Furthermore, most of the research was conducted at a specific time of year, possibly affecting the
types of classroom observations or teacher survey responses that would be provided. The internal
validity of the qualitative instruments also limited data reliability. The two primary forms of data
collection were EL student interviews and teacher surveys, which relied on the validity of
respondents. Triangulation of data with a specific audit trail, in which themes from EL student
interviews and surveys helped to inform a focus in classroom observations, addressing these
possible limitations. Random member checking of EL student interviews and classroom
observations, in which follow-up questions clarify the meaning and purpose of specific topics,
was also utilized to increase the validity of findings.
Furthermore, the researcher’s positionality and experiences within the school district may
have limited the study, affecting the validity of outcomes. During the study, the researcher’s
position in the district changed, affecting teacher responses to surveys and classroom
observations. Although both were voluntary, the limited availability of classrooms and teacher
survey responses to analyze narrowed the scope of the study.
Implications for Practice
This study examined the design of EL support services related to identity development
concepts for EL students and how students internalized this experience to affect their current and
future identity. The themes established by this study may help guide district and site leaders as
they guide and support teachers in designing EL support services. Additionally, study findings
88

can help teachers develop an intentional focus on adolescent identity development. As a result,
implications for both administration and classroom educators were established.
The first implication for practice pertains to the benefits of intentionally designed
classroom experiences focused on best practices for adolescent identity development. The study
found that school systems emphasized state assessments and ELD as a significant focus for the
classroom experience of EL students. There needed to be more intentionality in embedding
identity theory concepts. Therefore, this resulted in unintentional consequences to students’
identity as language learners and their relationship to their home language. Educators must be
made conscious of how assessments define student performance and the resulting
communication with students. District leaders must emphasize identity development concepts in
curriculum adoption processes, lesson plan design, and professional learning sessions.
Reclassification processes and how they are communicated should be carefully revisited given
their role in students since internalizing their identities as multilingual students.
The second implication for practice is that site leaders should work to create school
cultures that challenge inequitable language structures. In order to truly emphasize a whole-child
approach, students must be able to explore academic knowledge in both their home language and
in English. To accomplish this, site and district leaders must provide teachers with resources to
increase the use and connection to the home language and culture. Teachers should help design
academic experiences in which both English and the home language can be used to address
academic skills and knowledge, valuing both forms of language in myriad ways. Students should
be given a choice in their learning to truly support their identity development, and the choice of
preferred language should be a main component of the EL experience.
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The third implication for practice is that peer and adult connections must be further
leveraged and supported to help build students’ identity toward college-going. District and
school site leaders can work to develop mentorship programs for EL students to help connect
students to a positive adult role model that can enhance and motivate students’ perception of
their college and career identities. Greater exposure of EL students to careers and colleges
beyond field trips and readings in the curriculum is required. Connecting to mentors who can
relay their experiences and provide tips on overcoming personal challenges can better support
students’ identity development for future goals. Teachers must develop greater awareness of
their potential to mentor students and structure peer classroom activities. Through shared
meaning-making and reflection with content and language, peer connections impact students’
self-efficacy and identity. Purposefully incorporating these practices into the design of student
services in consistent ways can elevate students’ potential for college and career outcomes.
Future Research
This study’s findings highlighted adolescent development concepts in school. The
literature review noted a dearth of research regarding how EL students’ experiences impact their
perception of themselves in the present and future. Although this study contributed to
understanding how classroom and school-based experiences can impact EL students’ concept of
themselves, further research is needed. There are four specific recommendations based on this
study’s findings.
The first recommendation for future research is to examine student experiences from a
longitudinal perspective. This study captured only a moment in the EL student experience,
confining the classroom experience to a portion of the school year. Future research should
examine students’ experiences over time to further identify and solidify patterns around using
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identity development concepts in the classroom. Furthermore, research can examine identity
development concepts’ longitudinal impacts on EL students who attended college or achieved
career outcomes.
The second recommendation is to examine how teacher development or training
programs inform educators on the best practices for identity development. This study examined
the ways that educators intentionally designed experiences for students. However, is there an
intentionality with teachers’ training on these concepts? Teacher education programs discuss
services for EL students in the context of language development and strategies. Examining how
courses for educators are designed around the developmental needs of ELs can illuminate ways
to improve resources for teachers. Professional learning modules can be examined to explore if
best practices for identity development are emphasized and embedded in the recommendations
for classroom activities.
The third recommendation is to further explore the components of mentorship programs
explicitly designed for EL students. More than simply creating mentorship programs is required
to support these students’ identity development. Mentorship programs must be carefully
designed to improve the value of the home language and culture and help students see
themselves as college-going. The first consideration is to know if EL-specific mentorship
programs exist. The second consideration is to know those components of mentorship programs
that assist with identity development. School and district leaders can then build mentorship
programs at school sites to enhance students’ progression through identity development.
The final recommendation is to expand the knowledge base of this study by conducting
this study or a similar one in other school districts across California with various EL populations.
Examining how other districts design EL support services can help to provide a broader picture
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of EL student experiences and needs. Furthermore, understanding how EL students from diverse
backgrounds process and internalize experiences in the classroom toward their identity will help
inform policy and resulting practices in the classroom. EL students are not a monolith; the
research should reflect the diversity of immigrants across the state.
Conclusions
This study found that more identity development concepts need to be embedded in the
design of EL support services. As a result, school leaders create unintentional messages about the
student’s home language and ability to achieve college outcomes. Additionally, this study
emphasizes utilizing identity development concepts in school settings (Flum & Kaplan, 2012;
Kroger et al., 2010; Marcia, 1987; Verhoeven et al., 2019). Study findings suggest that students’
perception of themselves as language learners can impact how they see themselves as capable
students. Findings further suggest that peer and adult connections can be powerful influencers in
developing EL students’ future selves. This study offers practitioners insights into how the
components of adolescent development concepts and practices can be leveraged in both school
and classroom settings to enhance the EL student experience and accelerate students’ growth
toward identity achievement.
In re-examining the theoretical framework (Figure 1) in relation to the study findings, the
critical connection point between adolescent identity development and Helm’s (1995) people of
color identity theory stems from the EL students relationship with their home language. Power
dynamics around language in school settings can create a differential between the home language
and the English language, inhibiting EL students’ progress in their sense of self (Thompson &
Carter, 2013). The internalization of the home language as non-academic while English was
experienced as academic, was reinforced in this study by how student’s experienced learning,
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primarily through a heavy emphasis on assessments. This study urges educators to reconsider the
use of home language in academic learning, and create intentional experiences for English
learners that removes hierarchal structures and values true multilingualism in students. By
designing EL support services with intention towards identity development, students can then
begin to truly answer Who am I? and Whom do I want to be?
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Appendix A: Interview Questions
Thank you for being a part of my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside to
answer my questions. This interview should take about an hour to complete, is that okay with
you?
You have already received a Study Information Sheet but I want to take a moment to
review a little bit about what this study is about and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC conducting a research study on student
experiences in high school specifically related to English language learner students and how it
shapes their identity. I really want to understand how students feel about support services and
will be interviewing several students at different high schools.
It's important that you know that this interview is confidential. “Confidential” means that
your name and answers will not be shared with your teacher, principal, or parents. There are no
right or wrong answers and if at any point you do not feel comfortable with the questions, you
can skip the question, ask for clarification, or stop the interview.
I will provide you with a brief, demographic survey prior to the interview.
I also want to make sure you are comfortable during the interview process. If you need to,
google translate tools are available to use at any time or you may provide your response in the
language you are most comfortable with and I can translate your responses later.
I will be using the responses from this interview along with others to write a report.
However, I will be using a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and make sure that you
cannot be identified in any way in the report. I am happy to provide you with a copy of the final
research study when I am done.
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As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data on a password-protected
computer and all data will be destroyed after 3 years. Also, I use a recorder so that I can
accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is so that I can listen to your responses
and use them as my notes afterward. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
Do you have any questions or concerns about the interview?
Demographic Survey Questionnaire
Given to participants prior to the interview
This brief survey is to collect demographic information for the study. Answers will be
confidential and used only for the purposes of this study.
1. What is your gender?
● Male
● Female
● Non-binary
● Prefer not to state
2. Which of the following best describes you?
● Asian or Pacific Islander
● Hispanic or Latino
● Black or African American
● Native American or Alaskan Native
● White or Caucasian
● Multiracial or biracial
● Other
● Prefer not to state
105

3. What is the preferred language spoken at home?
● English
● Spanish
● Filipino
● Korean
● Chinese
● Other
4. Did you attend school outside of the United States?
● Yes
● No
5. What grade level did you enter schools in the United States?
● Grades K–3
● Grades 4–6
● Grades 7–8
● Grades 9 - 10
● Grades 11–12
Questions
First, I am going to ask you various questions about your typical school day, specifically
related to your schedule and what you experience during the day.
1. First, let’s start with, What grade did you start at this high school? Where did you go
to school before?

106

2. Tell me about your school day
• What classes do you have on your schedule?
• How long is your day (start time, end time)?
3. What about extracurricular activities that you are involved with.
• What sports do you play or enjoy watching?
• What clubs are you involved in or interested in joining?
• What dances or music events are you involved with at school?
• What type of leadership activities are you involved with? Associated Student
Body? Club leadership?
Now we are going to look at questions that are about what you do in your classes. I may
need to ask some follow-up questions in order to understand your classroom environment better.
4. Suppose there is a new student in your English class. Your teacher asks you to tell
them about the different learning activities you do in class. What would you say to
this new student?
• Are these activities in groups or individuals or both?
• Tell me more about these activities. Describe what……means….
5. Let’s talk a little bit more about the activities in class and your opinion about them.
These questions can be about any class that you have, not just your English class
• Tell me more about the classroom activities that you enjoy,
• Tell me about the classroom activities that you don’t enjoy.
• Give me an example of a time when you did something in class that made you
think “I really like this.”
• How often do you get to do those activities?
107

6. Think about those classroom activities that you just described. Do these activities help
you feel more or less confident about your abilities as a student?
• Are the activities in multiple languages? How often do they occur in multiple
languages?
• Can you think of an example of a time when you felt that your language skills
were valued at school? How did that make you feel?
• Do you believe that your ability to speak multiple languages has helped you or
hurt you in the school environment and why?
7. Suppose a friend needed help with an assignment for school. What support services
would you point them to if any?
• Who would you tell them to go to? (background)
• Where would you tell them to go?
• When can students get help?
• Tell me more about how students can get help at this school, if at all.
8. What support services are available to you at school to help with language
development?
• How often have you used these services, if at all?
• In what ways did these support services help you?
• Are these services for both your home language and English, or just geared
toward English language development?
• Did these support services help improve your confidence in learning?
• Please describe the different ways that support services may have helped build
your confidence over time.
108

9. Please describe how the English learner support services help you connect with your
classmates, if at all.
• Are there opportunities in class or outside of class to work together on
learning experiences?
• How often would you say that you are able to talk and connect with your
peers through English learner support services?
• Tell me about the friendships that you have developed in high school.
10. Please describe any learning activities or experiences you have that help you connect
with your ethnicity.
• Do you feel that your ethnicity or race are valued in your classroom? In your
school?
• What are the aspects of your ethnicity that you are most proud of ?
• Are you given opportunities to share these in your classroom?
These next set of questions have to do with how you see yourself now and in the future.
Again, you don’t have to answer questions that you don’t want to and this will be confidential.
4. What has been the most significant learning experience you have had so far in high
school?
• Tell me about that experience
• Who were you with?
• What did it feel like?
• In what ways did it shape you as a person today?
5. In schools, they have a term for students who are learning English, known as “English
learner.” Describe a time that you heard this term being used, if at all.
109

• Where were you?
• Who were you with?
• Who used that term?
• What was happening at the time this term was used?
• Was the term used in a positive, negative or neutral way?
6. One of the goals schools have for students is to develop college and career readiness.
Tell me about a time that someone spoke to you about….
• Your college goals?
• Your career goals?
• How did that make you feel?
• How often has an adult at your school reviewed your post-secondary goals
with you?
7. Many times, counselors at school have meetings with students to talk about the
courses they will be taking and talk about their plans for college and careers. Describe
a time when you spoke to your counselor about your classes and future goals, if at all.
• Do you know your school counselor?
• How often do you meet with your school counselor?
• Is your counselor that person that you can talk to about college and career
goals or is there another adult on campus?
• How do you know who to go to for post-secondary information?
8. You are now a senior and almost ready to graduate. Describe for me what you may be
doing in a year.
• What type of career or job do you want to pursue?
110

• How do you think you can get to that career goal?
• Did someone help you with that decision for your career or college goals?
9. In school, whom would you say has most impacted or influenced your thinking about
college and careers?
• Why do you think that person impacted you so much?
• Describe something specific that they did that helped you in thinking about
college and career options.
• Have you had an experience where you felt limited in your career options?
What made you feel limited?
10. How do you feel when someone, like a teacher, a counselor or another adult at school,
talks to you about your post-secondary options (either college or career)?
• Do you agree or disagree with their recommendations for your post-secondary
options?
• Do you feel that they listen to what you are interested in first before making
recommendations?
• Do you believe that your multiple language skills is an advantage that you
have in pursuing your career goals?
• Do you feel that they value your ethnicity or race when they make
recommendations about your future?
Closing
Thank you so much for taking the time to meet with me today! I really appreciate you
sharing your thoughts with me. Your participation has been very helpful to my study. Thank you
again for participating. Please accept this small token of my appreciation.
111

Appendix B: Survey Protocol
Please answer the following questions.
Section 1: Demographics
1. What is your gender?
● male
● female
● non-binary
● prefer not to state
2. Which of the following best describes you?
● Asian or Pacific Islander
● Hispanic or Latino
● Black or African American
● Native American or Alaskan Native
● White or Caucasian
● Multiracial or biracial
● Other
● Prefer not to state
3. What is the preferred language spoken at home?
● English
● Spanish
● Filipino
● Korean
● Chinese
112

● Other
4. What is the grade level of the students you teach? (Check all that apply)
● Grade 9
● Grade 10
● Grade 11
● Grade 12
5. How many years have you been a classroom teacher?
● 5 years or less
● 6 to 10 years
● 11 to 15 years
● 16 to 20 years
● Over 21 years of classroom experience
6. Based on the California definition of levels of English learners, which group best
identifies the majority of your classroom population:
• newcomer (in the country 12 months or less)
• emerging (developing oral language, with some reading and writing)
• expanding (fluent oral language, developing reading and writing)
• bridging (fluent in at least two of the three areas: oral, reading, and writing)
Section 2: Identity development for English learners
7. Define what “identity development” means to you as a classroom teacher (1–2
sentences).
8. In supporting English learners in your classroom, please rank from highest (1) to
lowest (5), your EL support services priorities for your students:
113

● developing a career goal for after graduation
● meeting graduation requirements on time
● understanding options to attend college
● passing their content coursework
● developing a strong sense of self before they graduate
9. Based on the list provided below, what would you consider are the top three
influences on identity development for English learners? (Please rank 1, 2, and 3 with
1 being the highest priority.)
● connection with peers at school
● connection with adults at school
● perception of self as a language learner
● perception of self as connected to their home culture
● perception of self as a valued member of their immediate community
● identification of post-secondary goals
● confidence as a contributing member of their classroom
● support from school staff on post-secondary options
10. Which factor may be the greatest contributor to hindering positive identity
development in English learners at your school?
● stigmatization by peers on English Language or academic skills
● lower expectations by some school staff of English Language learners
● lack of value placed by the school on multilingualism
● lack of resources for ELs to explore post-secondary options
● lack of comprehensive EL support services design at the school
114

● lack of parent participation or engagement in the school setting
● lack of EL student's self-efficacy
● teacher expectations of student performance for ELs
● lack of quality training for teachers, administrators and staff on ELL supports
● I believe the school has a well-designed system of supports for ELs that helps
them develop positive identity development.
Section 3: Classroom activities and lessons
11. As a classroom teacher, what do you think are the top two most important types of
teaching activities that you implement to support identity development?
● developing learner confidence through group projects and hands-on activities
● helping students to develop academic language in their home language and in
English
● exposure to a variety of interests and topics through exploratory activities
● In-depth experiences with career topics
● stimulating self-reflection through writing activities
● discussing inequities and allowing students to problem-solve issues of injustice
● discussions about current events in the community and student relationships to
those events
● allowing students to engage with their home language in school learning
activities
For Items 12–19, the statements relate to the curriculum and activities used in the classroom
with English Learner students. Please note that the terms “activities and/or lessons” include small
group discussion, whole class lessons, writing activities, and/or reading activities.
115

Please note the scale below for these items:
1 2 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

12. The curriculum asks students to reflect on their individual identities. In this case,
“reflect” means that they must process and think about who they are now and how
they feel about specific topics in their community.
13. . The curriculum regularly includes activities and/or lessons that have students discuss
or write about their individual identities.
14. The curriculum provides students with multiple opportunities to think about their
future plans.
15. The curriculum encourages students to regularly think about the sources of
information that they rely on to form opinions about self, others, and their
community.
16. The curriculum has activities and/or lessons that engage students with their future
plans in an exploratory manner.
17. The curriculum provides students with a variety of options and/or choices to explore
academic content.
18. The curriculum provides students with meaningful learning experiences that connect
in-school life to out-of-school experiences, including culturally based experiences.
19. Would you like to add any final comments regarding the identity development of
English language learners in K-12 schools?

116

Appendix C: Audit Trail Sample
Student
interviewed
Statement from
interview General notes/ideas Concept/theme
Identity
development
component or
factor
Student A Just cheer. Just cheer
and how did you get
involved in cheer?
Um, I had a friend who
don't want a kid on
Starbucks. We've been
friends since freshman
year. And then
sophomore year. It was
like during like, the
COVID and
everything. And so,
you want to join until
junior year? So, I
joined cheer.
Did an extracurricular
activity because of
peer influence.
Peer influence Identity
foreclosure
Student B They help us with our
work a lot, and it’s a
stress reliever to work
with my friends.
Relieved to work with
friends in class.
Peer connection Connection
with peer
Student B My friend said to take
the Auto class....so I
did. I want to be a
mechanic.
Took a CTE class
because of peer
influence.
Peer influence Identity
foreclosure
Student B I used to play soccer
with my friends in
school. I was on the
team with them.
Did an extracurricular
activity because of
peer influence.
Peer influence Identity
foreclosure
Student C When that helps me
connect with my
classmates. Because I
understand like, more
often, when we do
like, like, projects
because we like know,
my part of the project,
and what to do. Okay.
Prefers to work with
classmates.
Peer connection Connection
with peer
Student D I like to draw. My friend
made me take graphic
design with her. I
figured if I like to
Took a CTE class
because of peer
influence.
Peer influence Identity
foreclosure
117

Student
interviewed
Statement from
interview General notes/ideas Concept/theme
Identity
development
component or
factor
draw then this is good
for me.
Student E My cousin told me about
the job. He said it
would be fun and easy.
He did it, too
Cousin encouraged
student to apply for
job.
Peer influence Identity
foreclosure
Student E I have welding with my
friends. They told me
it was a good class to
take so I did.
Took a CTE class
because of peer
influence.
Peer influence Identity
foreclosure

Student A I would like ask him, I'll
be asking for help.
Because I wasn't used
to like actually trying,
you know, so I asked
him to help. And I he
really did help me a
lot. Like he showed
me part of the method.
But then he showed
me the method of
summarizing each
paragraph. And I just
highlighted everything
on my own. So we I
found it easier for me
to summarize a
paragraph highlighting
the text, where he
taught me that part
where to like,
summarize each
paragraph I just
highlighted.
Support from teacher
on a writing and
reading skill -
summarizing
paragraph.
Supportive adult Connection
with adults
Student A But my English teacher
then, and my history
teacher. They're both
very supportive, and,
like they'll give me
like, to try my best and
everything. But it was
Described two teachers
that really supported
this student.
Supportive adult Connection
with adults
118

Student
interviewed
Statement from
interview General notes/ideas Concept/theme
Identity
development
component or
factor
still like, my head was
like, my brain still
wasn't there. But it was
like, kind of getting
there. Right? Yeah.
Student A I would get points off
my test, but the teacher
said if I kept trying
and participating, then
it would be okay. …
So, I kept trying, and it
made me feel better
because I could see I
was passing the class.
Support from teacher
with effort and
participation, even
when test scores are
low.
Supportive adult Connection
with adults
Student A My ninth-grade
counselor always told
me that she wanted me
to apply to college.
That was the pandemic
year, and I didn’t do so
good, but I didn’t want
to let her down, so I
kept trying when I
came back.
Role model support
and encouragement.
Role
model/supportive
adult motivating
Connection
with adults
Student B “The tutors can explain
it better since our
teachers don’t speak
Spanish, and they can
tell us in Spanish, and
then I can try and do
the work.”
EL tutors helping in
classes. Student B
verified that tutors
are looked up to like
role models.
Supportive adult Connection
with adults
Student C I told my Dad I would
go. I want to get a
business degree so I
can help him with our
business (painting
houses).
Student wanting to
support role model
by attending college.
Role model Connection
with adults
Student D I saw what it did to my
brother. He was
miserable so instead he
got a certificate to
work in a dialysis
Different view than
others. Does not want
to go to college due
to role model's
different experience.
Role model Connection
with adults
119

Student
interviewed
Statement from
interview General notes/ideas Concept/theme
Identity
development
component or
factor
center. My brother did
that, and he says it’s
way better than going
to college.
Student verified that
brother was
considered a role
model after
reviewing the
definition of role
model.
Student E I want to go at least two
years free. I told my
mom, I promise you
now can I go to
college and graduate.
It's a good promise.
Student made a
promise to an
admired adult to
attend college.
Supportive
adult/role model
Connection
with adults

120

Appendix D: Informed Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy Ste 1100, Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: Impact of English Language Learner Support Services on Students’
Identity Development

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study will be assessing the role of English learners (EL) support services in the identity
development of EL students. It will examine teachers’ attitudes towards identity development
practices in the classroom. It will also examine teachers' perceptions of the design of the EL
support services related to identity development. The knowledge gained will be used to better
understand the English learner's experience with these services. The study is being conducted
with the purpose of improving the experience with EL support services for students as a source
of identity development as college-going students.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to take an online survey that will take
about 20 minutes. You will not be required to answer any questions that you do not want to.
After taking the survey, you may volunteer to participate in classroom observations that will last
the length of a class period but no longer than one hour. The classroom observations will be
scheduled ahead of time and will focus on the EL support services.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate in the study. Your status and relationship with the researcher
will not be affected in any way if you choose or do not choose to participate in the study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no information collected in this study that will make you identifiable as a
participant. The online survey will be anonymous, and a trained interviewer will conduct the
observation groups to protect confidentiality. Your names and any other identifying information
121

will be removed from the transcripts when the audiotapes are transcribed. After the audiotapes
are transcribed, they will be destroyed.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator, Carol Castro via email at clcastro@usc.edu or phone at 562-577-2859 or
Faculty Advisor, Dr. Christina Kishimoto
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

Appendix E: Classroom Observation Protocols
Based on components of sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP) model and outcomes of themes from teacher
surveys.

Table E1
Classroom Observation Protocol
Components Observer comments
Seating chart and classroom layout

Strategies
Students engaged in a variety of strategies for learning
Students posed questions to each other or to the teacher
Students used higher order thinking skills during the class

Interaction
Students were able to work with peers to discuss lesson

122

Components Observer comments
concepts
Students were in groups that promoted language levels
Students were able to have choice in the activities
Classroom activities related to racial identity
Affirming student home language (HL)
Affirming or representation of students ethnic identity (EI)
Variety of student representation in either activity or in
classroom displays (SR)

Classroom activities related to college and career goals
Exploratory Activities related to college and career goals
Students have long term and short term understanding of
lesson and learning goals

Additional themes based on survey responses

123

Table E2
Classroom 2: Academic English II
Components Observer comments
Seating chart and classroom layout

Strategies
Students engaged in a variety of strategies for learning
Students posed questions to each other or to the
Students were in small groups working on two main activities:
practice of ELPAC (English Language Proficiency Assessment)
and online language practice with Read 180.
Main Teacher
Display

Display #2
(Screen)

Stude
nt
desks

Math
Corn
er:
Easel
s
Data Walls - Student
scores on tests by ID
#’s and color coded
with green (4), yellow
(3 or 2), red (1)
Classr
oom
Entran
ce

124

Components Observer comments
teacher
Students used higher order thinking skills during the
class
Some students were being called to have one on one conferences
with the EL tutor regarding grades.
Interaction
Students were able to work with peers to discuss lesson
concepts
Students were in groups that promoted language levels
Students were able to have choice in the activities

Students were seated in small groups but working individually on
software, online programs. Discussion between peers were to ask
questions related to what they were supposed to do next. Students
did not have a choice in activities during the lesson.
Classroom activities related to racial identity
Affirming student home language (HL)
Affirming or representation of students ethnic identity
(EI)
Variety of student representation in either activity or in
classroom displays (SR)
There was no evidence of HL, EI, or SR during the classroom
observation. Students were using home language to help each
other out with classwork or in asking tutors questions about the
assignment or academic chats.
Classroom activities related to college and career goals
Exploratory Activities related to college and career goals
Students have long term and short term understanding of
lesson and learning goals
Students were participating in academic chats with EL tutors.
Tutors spoke to students about grades in other classes since it was
the change in the semester (from Fall to Spring). Progress towards
graduation was also reviewed.
Additional themes based on survey responses

There was a math corner due to the high number of low grades in
math. Tutors were available to help students with math as needed
in class after assignments were finished. There was no evidence of
cognates in math or support of language instruction in math.

125

Table E3
Classroom 2 Observations
Time Observation notes Observer comments
10:10:00
AM PST
Students told to work on filing in Agenda Planner. Students sit in pre-assigned
seats and start filling in agenda planners.

10:14:00
AM PST
Teacher discuses ELPAC practice after system 44. Students receive support on
what to do next in home language (Spanish)
Students put headphones on and begin
ELPAC practice.
10:16:00
AM PST
Students are told to go onto ELPAC practice in one area. Teacher then moves
to the other area to have students start on Reading program (Read
180/system 44)
Student goes back to ELPAC practice.
10:20:00
AM PST
Timer bell rings - tutors are walking around supporting students. It is unclear what the timer signifies
but this is the point where the tutors
start circulating.
10:23:00
AM PST
Some students still in hallways with Tutor having academic chat. What is the topic of the academic
chat? Who has trained tutors on
academic chat?
10:28:00
AM PST
Students speak to each other in spanish. Asking questions about what they are
supposed to be working on.

10:35:00
AM PST
Student C walks back in to class. Student is quiet and slow to restart program. Student C was interviewed as part of
the study and is also part of this
classroom.
10:37:00
AM PST
Tutor advocates for Student C with teacher in regards to a specific assignment.
Tutor given guidance to work on Math. Tutor explains in Spanish to Student
C what they should work on.

10:40:00
AM PST
Student asks to use the airpods and teacher told them to use the ones provided
by the class. Student starts back on program.
Student C has not engaged with peers
and directions are always provided
in Spanish.
10:44:00
AM PST
Tutors guide students on how to log into program. Students guided in Spanish.

126

Time Observation notes Observer comments
10:50:00
AM PST
Teacher sits with one student and guides student to read the questions and
examine the choices given.
Room is quiet. All students on
ELPAC practice and students not
interacting
10:55:00
AM PST
Teacher states that they will review the answers after class completes
assignment.
Teacher walking around the room.
10:57:00
AM PST
Two students looking around and drinking water while doing work.

11:05:00
AM PST
Observer asked tutor for content of academic chats - tutor explained they
discussed in spanish what classes student is struggling in

11:10:00
AM PST
Student again asks questions regarding D grades for college. Teacher tells
students that that is good to pass the class but not enough for college.
No peer discussion about content
other than asking for peers for help
when they didn't understand the
teacher.
11:14:00
AM PST
As students begin to finish, teacher directs them to either pick a book from the
library or go to the math area to get homework help from bilingual tutors.

11:20:00
AM PST
3 students move to math area, 2 students are selecting books, other students
are working on programs

11:25:00
AM PST
Classroom observation ends

Summary and reflections

127

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Castro, Carola Loayza (author)

Core Title A phenomenological study of the impact of English language learner support services on students’ identity development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 04/28/2023

Defense Date 04/03/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adolescent development theory,college-going identity,English learner,high school EL experiences,identity development,identity formation,language support services,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kishimoto, Christina (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Filback, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email carolacastro76@gmail.com,clcastro@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113089344

Unique identifier UC113089344

Identifier etd-CastroCaro-11738.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-CastroCaro-11738

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Castro, Carola Loayza

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230501-usctheses-batch-1033 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu