University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Why I can't see myself in school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools

(USC Thesis Other)

Why I can't see myself in school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Copyright 2023 Kimberly Sheehan

Why I can’t see myself in school?
Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools

by
Kimberly Sheehan

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2023

© Copyright by Kimberly Sheehan 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Kimberly Sheehan certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Dr. David Cash, Committee Chair
Dr. Gregory Franklin
Dr. John Garcia

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

i
Abstract
There is an urgent need for K-12 school districts in the United States to hire, support, and
retain school principals that reflect the students in the schools they serve. One of the most
important investments we make in public education is to ensure that we have well-qualified,
caring, and dedicated principals in every school. Our principal force should be excellent, but
excellence alone will not be enough. If we are to increase opportunities for students and address
the inequities that exist in our schools for the most marginalized students, it is critical that we
develop a leadership force that is also diverse and reflects the students in the schools they serve.
The number of students of color that walk through our urban public school doors increases each
year, and they need to see role models that can connect students to the world outside of the
schoolhouse and the opportunities that exist for them.
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school
success, students of color are consistently ranked at the bottom (Skiba et al., 2008). With very
few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in urban and rural school districts throughout the
United States. The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United
States have been consistent for the past 40 years (Skiba et al., 2008). One of the many methods
than can be implemented to address this gap is to implement research-based practices, strategies,
and policies in the recruitment, hiring, and retention of principals of color. This is because
students of color who have leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more
likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be accepted to
college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). The following research highlights examples of the barriers to

ii
recruiting, hiring and retaining leaders of color in public schools in Southern California, and
methods to overcoming those barriers in an aim to improve schools for administrator, teachers
and students alike

iii
Dedication
Mom, Dad, and Scotty, nothing I have accomplished in my life would have been possible
without your support. Thank you for having a home for me to always feel cared for and
protected. I know you think I am nuts. I hope you will always be proud of me. This may have
actually done it.
Danny, Annie, Ryan, Kiarra, Declan, and Jack, I admire each of you because you are
good, kind, and honest. I am so thankful that you check on me daily (I’m alive). I love our
FamBam group chat. It gives me something to look forward to and keeps me optimistic. Boys,
for so many reasons, I did this for you. You inspired me to work hard, grit it out, rub some dirt
on it, put on my big girl pants, and never quit. I love you to the moon; thanks for loving me all
the way back.
Granny (1925-2021), thank you for telling me I was smart when I was little. Thank you
for showing me that a woman can take care of herself and be professionally successful. Thanks
for modeling how to be one tough cookie. I miss you and your sarcasm.
Jenny Salberg (7th grade), Renee Garcia (4th grade), and Katy Fahey (9th grade), I hit the
friend jackpot. You guys have been my ride-or-die in all the tough times and celebrations. I
would not want to laugh or cry with anybody else. Thank you for being such good humans. I am
so lucky to have friends that are family. Porch Parties, travel, and fun, here we come. Cheers!
Linda and Rick Ruiz, thank you for celebrating every meaningful event in my life. Thank
you for being invaluable members of my family. I appreciate that you are always there to listen
and bring me back to my center. I respect and love you both so much for your unconditional
acceptance.

iv
Dave and Penny Samuelson, thank you for your friendship and support. I know you are a
safe place for me whenever I need it. Thank you, your children, and grandchildren, for being
family. I cannot wait to enjoy my free time with you.
Kathy Moore and Kelli Purpura, thank you for your support and friendship. You are
examples of strong, independent, loyal, and hardworking women.
Steve Brey, thank you for loving me and teaching me that I am enough. You entered my
life at the perfect time. Thank you for making me feel safe and promising me a forever that I
cannot wait to live with you.
I love all of you.
Fight On!

v
Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. David Cash, for his patience and support.
This was manageable and possible due to your guidance, mentorship, encouragement, and
professionalism. Thank you for being a text, call, and zoom away. Thank you to my committee
members, Dr. Gregory Franklin and Dr. John Garcia, for their time and support. I appreciate the
three of you more than you will ever know.
To Michael Romero and Shannon Wyatt, I am forever grateful to both of you for the past
three years of support, collaboration, and encouragement. I finished and did it because I had the
two of you. We are connected forever and am so lucky and proud to be part of your family. I
could not have asked for a better balance of teammates. Thanks for always having my back.
It is an honor to join the USC Trojan Family as a graduate, and I will never forget the
professors who paved the way during this journey. A special thank you to Dr. Maria Ott, Dr.
Rudy Castruita, Dr. Bradley Ermeling, Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Erin Craig, Dr. Raquel Torres-
Retana, Dr. Gail Sinatra, Dr. Julie Marsh, Dr. Frances Kellar, Dr. Christina Kishimoto, and Dr.
Briana Hinga for challenging me as personally and professionally.
Finally, I would like to thank the CEO of The Accelerated Schools, Grace Lee Chang.
You are an inspiration, and I aspire to be the leader and champion you are each day for the
students, staff, and community you represent and serve. You saved me in so many ways, both
professionally and personally. I will 8 clap with you anytime.
What an honor to be a Trojan for Life. Fight On!

vi
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ i
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................. v
Preface ............................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem......................................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 3
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 4
Data Collection and Analysis ...................................................................................................... 5
Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 5
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 6
Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 6
Delimitations ............................................................................................................................... 7
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Study ........................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of The Literature ....................................................................................... 10
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 10
Critical Race Theory in Education ............................................................................................ 12
Historical Perspective ........................................................................................................... 12
Contemporary Perspective .................................................................................................... 13
Interest Convergence ................................................................................................................. 14
Effect of Leaders of Color on Students of Color ...................................................................... 14
Principal Effect on Academic Achievement ............................................................................. 16
Principal Effect on Diversifying the Workforce ....................................................................... 17
Underrepresentation of Leaders of Color .................................................................................. 18
Underrepresentation of Teachers of Color ................................................................................ 19
Recruitment and Hiring Practices ............................................................................................. 20
Building Administrator Pipelines .............................................................................................. 21

vii
Implicit Bias and Racism in Hiring Practices ........................................................................... 22
Role District Plays in Recruiting and Hiring ............................................................................ 24
Use of Incentives to Recruit and Hire Leaders of Color ........................................................... 25
Support and Retention ............................................................................................................... 26
Job Satisfaction and the Risk of Attrition ................................................................................. 26
Strategies for Retaining and Supporting Principals of Color .................................................... 27
Barriers and Policies.................................................................................................................. 27
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 29
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 29
Purpose of Study and Statement of the Problem ....................................................................... 29
Population Sample..................................................................................................................... 31
Qualitative Instrumentation ....................................................................................................... 32
Data Collection Procedures ....................................................................................................... 34
Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 34
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 34
Validity, Reliability, and Positionality ...................................................................................... 36
Field Testing .............................................................................................................................. 36
Ethical Considerations............................................................................................................... 36
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 37
Chapter Four: Research Results and Findings ............................................................................ 38
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 38
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 38
Coding of Data .......................................................................................................................... 39
Presentation of Findings ............................................................................................................ 41
Descriptive Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 42
Interview Data ....................................................................................................................... 42
Demographics of Participating School Districts................................................................... 42
Interview Participants ........................................................................................................... 44
Research Question 1 .................................................................................................................. 46
Looking Beyond Traditional Recruiting Strategies ............................................................... 46
Application and Credentialing Requirements ....................................................................... 48

viii
Inadequate Administrator Pay............................................................................................... 50
Summary of Findings for Question 1 ..................................................................................... 53
Research Question 2 .................................................................................................................. 54
Leadership Academies ........................................................................................................... 54
Increasing Diversity and Representation of Leaders ............................................................ 56
Summary of Findings for Question 2 ..................................................................................... 59
Research Question 3 .................................................................................................................. 60
Mentorships ........................................................................................................................... 61
Diverse, Equitable, and Inclusive District Climates ............................................................. 63
Summary of Findings for Question 3 ..................................................................................... 65
A Summary of the Key Findings............................................................................................... 66
Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 69
Chapter Five: Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 71
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 71
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 71
Discussion of Findings .............................................................................................................. 73
Research Question One ......................................................................................................... 73
Research Question Two ......................................................................................................... 75
Research Question Three....................................................................................................... 78
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................... 79
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 82
Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 82
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 84
References ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Appendix I ................................................................................................................................... 105
Appendix II .................................................................................................................................. 106
Appendix III ................................................................................................................................ 108

ix
Table of Figures

Table 1 School District Demographic Data .................................................................................. 32
Table 2 Research Question Matrix ............................................................................................... 33
Table 3 Principal Research Question Matrix ................................................................................ 39
Table 4 Participating School District Student Demographic Data ............................................... 43
Table 5 District Interview Respondent Demographic Data .......................................................... 44
Table 6 Demographics of Interview Participants.......................................................................... 45

x
Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored and identified as such. While
jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a collaborative effort
reflects real-world practices. Therefore, to meet their objective of developing highly skilled
practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School and the USC
Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project with two other doctoral candidates,
Michael Romero and Shannon Wyatt. We three doctoral students met with nine urban school
districts intending to help identify and resolve Why can’t I see myself in my school?: Hiring and
Retaining Ethnically Diverse Leadership and Staff in Public Schools. However, dissecting and
resolving the problem was too extensive for a single dissertation. As a result, the three
dissertations produced by our inquiry team collectively address the needs for hiring and retaining
ethnically diverse leadership and staff in public schools (see Romero, 2023, Wyatt, 2023).

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Introduction
One of the most important investments we make in public education is to ensure that we
have well-qualified, caring, and dedicated principals in every school. Our principal force should
be excellent, but excellence alone will not be enough. If we are to increase opportunities for
students and address the inequities that exist in our schools for the most marginalized, it is
critical that we develop a leadership force that is also diverse, and which reflects the students in
the schools they serve. While the proportion of the student body made up of children of color has
increased in urban school districts year over year, the proportion of leaders of color in those
same schools has not increased, despite evidence that students of color who have leaders of color
in their schools and classrooms are statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have
higher test scores, and to be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). The systemic lack of
leaders of color in school may contribute significantly to the achievement gap between students
of color and their white peers; subsequently, increasing the diversity of school leadership may
play a role in improving the educational outcomes of all students.
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school
success, students of color have consistently been the victims of an achievement gap for the past
40 years (Skiba et al., 2008). With very few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in school
districts, regardless of location, throughout the United States. There is a need to address this gap
by identifying research-based practices, strategies, and policies in the recruitment, hiring, and
retention of principals of color that improve academic outcomes for students of color.
This study analyzes what administrators in K-12 districts in Southern California perceive
as barriers to equitable hiring and retainment strategies. It also explores what policies, practices,

2
and strategies are in place, according to principals of color, to help support and retain leaders of
color in these same districts. In its analysis, this research utilizes a Critical Race Theory (CRT)
lens to investigate how structural and institutional racism plays a role in current inequities.
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this
project. The authors are listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those
listed. In order to maintain the confidentiality of participants, this dissertation uses pseudonyms
to refer to the school, district, and community.
Background of the Problem
In February of 1946, nine years before the landmark Brown v. the Board of Education
(1954) Supreme Court case, U.S. 9th District Court Judge Paul J. McCormick ruled in favor of
Gonzalo Mendez and his family, upholding their right to go to the school they were zoned for
and not the school designated for Mexican students in the Westminster School District (Mendez
et al v. Westminster School District of Orange County, 1947). The court ruled that separate
schools for Mexican American children in Orange County, California was unconstitutional; this
was the first time a court had ruled the practice of separating students by ethnic descent was
unconstitutional. Although the Mendez decision did not garner national attention, it paved the
way for many others to advocate for their right to equal educational opportunities. Most notably,
in May 1954, the United States Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. the Board of
Education of Topeka, Kansas to end racial segregation in schools. The decision’s message
reflected that of Mendez v. Westminster– separate schools were inherently unequal. The
purported aim of these decisions was to foster equality in education by integrating schools;
unfortunately school districts experienced unintended consequences (Orfield, 1983). As school
integration was implemented across the United States, a new inequity presented itself. Children

3
of color were now being moved to previously all-white schools, but their Black and Brown
teachers and principals were not coming with them. More white teachers were hired to
accommodate increased school populations, but for the first time, students of color did not see
themselves reflected in the role models around them.
While the racial and ethnic make-up of the student body has diversified in the years since
Brown, the same cannot be said for the diversity of the teaching and administrative staff. From
the implementation of desegregation policies, the education system has seen a slow but
consistent increase in the proportion of public-school students of color; however the racial and
ethnic makeup of teaching and administrative staff has not followed such a trend (National
Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2018 and Boser, 2011). Research has indicated that this
inequity may have a substantial and tangible effect on student outcomes and the achievement gap
(Skiba et al., 2008). Students of color who have leaders of color in their classrooms and schools
are statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and to be
accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). African American students account for over
seventeen percent of the total K-12 student population in schools nationwide, yet only eight
percent of teachers and ten percent of principals are from similar backgrounds (Boser, 2011).
Statement of the Problem
There are disproportionately few leaders of color in K-12 schools, which has a tangible
effect of the achievement gap. In 2002, 40% of students nationwide were students of color and
by 2018 that percentage had grown to 53%. In that same time span, the proportion of leaders of
color has only grown from 11% to 22%. Over half of the student population is now students of
color yet less than one quarter of the leadership is (NCES, 2018).

4
Moreover, several factors, including culturally biased discipline practices and low
socioeconomic status, appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem (Skiba et al., 2008).
The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United States have been
consistent for the past 40 years. There is a need to address this gap by identifying research-based
strategies in the hiring, support, and retention of principals of color that improve academic
outcomes for students of color—a strategy proven to have a positive effect (Grissom, J. A., et. al
2021).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine, through the lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT),
what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retention of leaders and
principals of color and, according to principals of color, what policies, practices, and strategies
are in place to help support these same leaders.
This research investigated school principals’ and district administrators’ perceptions and
practices and shed light on successful strategies for recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals.
These strategies were then connected to CRT ideologies. This study also investigated what
district administrators report as perceived barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of principals
and, according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help support
and retain school principals of color.
The results of this study highlight the effective hiring, support, and retainment practices
in K-12 Districts in Southern California used to ensure that principals of color were assigned to
schools to support students of color.

5
Data Collection and Analysis
In qualitative research, data is collected from various sources and in a multiplicity of
ways that enable the researcher to make sense of a complex phenomenon (Patton, 2002). For this
study, data was collected from two central sources, principal and district administrator
interviews. High School principals and district administrators from three K-12 Districts in
Southern California were selected to participate in the study.
Interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data on the research questions. The data
were analyzed using a thematic approach, where themes, categories, and patterns were identified
to answer the guiding research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Analysis of the qualitative
data collected in the study highlighted several key findings. Principal and district administrator
perceptions gathered from this study aligned with the Critical Race Theory, which encouraged
district administrators to use highly effective strategies in the hiring, support, and retention of a
group of principals that reflected the demographics of the students they served.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. According to district administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and retaining
leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
2. According to district administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are in
place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of
color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?

6
3. According to school administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies used to
ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Significance of the Study
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school
success, African-American students are consistently ranked at the bottom (Schott, 2010). With
very few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in urban and rural school districts throughout the
United States. Students of color continue to receive disproportionate disciplinary consequences
while on campus; African American students are three to seven times more likely to receive
suspensions for disciplinary infractions or to be referred for special education services for
disruptive behaviors than non-African American students (Raffaele Mendez & Knoff, 2003;
Skiba et al., 2008). Research in the field demonstrates that Black students who are constantly
reprimanded for disciplinary infractions become less motivated to achieve academic success in
school (Gregory et al., 2010).
This study is significant because it critically analyzed and identified effective strategies to
recruit, hire, support, and retain principals of color serving students of color in their schools.
Students of color who have leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more
likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be accepted to
college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). Therefore, these strategies can be implemented to make school
more equitable for administrators and students alike.
Limitations
This study focused on effective district strategies to effectively hire, support, and retain
principals of color in K-12 school districts in Southern California. This limited its

7
representativeness because it did not include information from districts that worked with students
of color outside Southern California schools.
Delimitations
A delimitation of this study was the geographic boundaries. Principals and district
administrators who participated in this study worked in schools in K-12 Districts in Southern
California.
Definition of Terms
• The Achievement Gap: Observed, persistent disparities in measures of educational
performance among subgroups of U.S. students, especially groups defined by
socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and gender (Haycock, K. 2001).
• Administrator Pipelines: Districtwide strategies to develop a large, ongoing supply of
effective school leaders. The administrator pipeline should include strategies to recruit,
hire, evaluate and support cohorts of promising talented teacher leaders, assistant
principals, and principals, and should include preservice preparation opportunities and
on-the-job induction, evaluation, and support (Gates, et al., 2019).
• Critical Race Theory (CRT)- A theoretical framework that examines society and culture
related to race, power, and law. It proposes that laws and policies have supported white
supremacy over time. CRT argues that schools that serve poor students of color are
unlikely to have equal access to resources (Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. 1998).

8
• Cultural Mismatch: The cultural differences and lack of cultural synchronization between
teachers and students can lead to devastating learning experiences for ethnically diverse
students (Antó n, 1999; Cho & Reich, 2008; Monroe & Obidah, 2004).
• Culturally Responsive Teacher: A teacher able to recognize the need to modify their
knowledge and training through the use of variations in teaching modalities while paying
attention to classroom contexts and individual student needs (Gay, 2002; Irvine et al.,
2001; Ladson-Billings, 1995).
• Diversity: The range of identities that exist in a group of people. Common identity
categories referenced when discussing diversity include race, class, gender, religion, and
sexual orientation. Diversity represents a broad range of ideas and initiatives to create
learning environments that are safe, inclusive, and equitable for as many identities as
possible (Shaw, E.J., 2005).
• Equity: Educational equity means that each student receives what they need to develop to
their full academic and social potential. This means that no matter what a student’s
background, language, race, economic profile, gender, learning capability, each student
can get the support and resources they need to achieve their educational goals (Foster, F.
et al., 2021).
• Ethnic Matching: The process of matching the race of a student to that of a teacher or
principal.
• Implicit Bias: A form of bias that occurs automatically and unintentionally, that
nevertheless affects judgements, decisions, and behaviors (Sanchez, J. E., et al., 2009).

9
• Inclusion: A state of being valued, respected, and supported. It is about focusing on the
needs of every individual and ensuring the right conditions are in place for each person to
achieve their full potential (Romansky, L. et al. 2021).
• Leader of Color: Any individual who holds a site level or district level administrative
position who is a race other than White.
• Teacher of Color: Teachers who are a race other than White.
• Principal: A chief or head of a school
• Retention: Employee retention is defined as an organization's ability to prevent
employee turnover, or the number of people who leave their job in a certain period, either
voluntarily or involuntarily. Increasing employee retention has a direct impact on
performance and success.
Organization of the Study
This study was organized into five chapters. The first chapter introduced the study and
included a statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions that
guided the research. The second chapter contains a literature review that focuses on exploring
effective practices for hiring, supporting, and retaining principals that a district can use to
improve the academic achievements of students of color in their urban classrooms. The third
chapter introduces the methodology used for this study, including data collection, protocols, and
the rationale for this study. The fourth chapter discusses the results and outcomes of this study.
The fifth chapter serves as the study's conclusion; it includes the implications of this study and
recommendations for further research.

10
Chapter Two: Review of The Literature
The objective of this literature review is to synthesize and apply a body of knowledge and
research regarding the recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals of color in K-12 educational
institutions. More specifically, the aim is to summarize previously identified barriers that inhibit
equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color and highlight any strategies, policies, or
practices that are in place to help ensure the retention of these leaders.
The literature review was approached through multiple phases, including by initially
reviewing the literature related to the underrepresentation of leaders of color in K-12 public
schools. Next recruitment and hiring practice trends were studied, with an emphasis on
reviewing the implicit bias of such strategies. In parallel, literature was also reviewed on support
and retention of leaders of color, including the factors that lead to persons of color seeking and
accepting administrative positions and the reasons that they continue to work in K-12 education.
Additionally, literature was reviewed on the effect of leaders and teachers of color on students of
color. Specific emphasis was placed on the academic and social-emotional effect on same-race
teachers and leaders of color on students to highlight the importance of recruiting, hiring, and
retaining leaders of color on student success. Finally, barriers and policy implications were
researched.
Theoretical Framework
The conceptual framework for this study is based on the Critical Race Theory (CRT). CRT is
a theoretical framework that examines society and culture related to race, power, and law. It
proposes that laws and policies have supported white supremacy over time. CRT argues that
despite the mandate for educational standards, schools that serve poor students of color are
unlikely to have equal access to resources (Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. 1995). Those

11
who are CRT scholars identify the following tenets as hallmarks of CRT (Delgado & Sefanic,
2012):
● Belief that racism is normal, not aberrant, in US society;
● interest convergence or material determinism;
● race as a social construction;
● intersectionality and anti-essentialism; and
● voice or counter-narrative.
The first tenet of CRT is that racism is not random, but rather a normal order of things in
U.S. society. For the second tenet, Dr. Derrick Bell--who is considered the father of CRT--argues
that White people will seek racial justice only to the extent that there is something in it for them.
In other words, interest convergence is about alignment, not altruism. The third tenet, race as a
social construction, states that race is a structure that has constructed and reconstructed through
world history, from the enormous historical shift represented by the rise of Europe, the founding
of modern nation-states and empires and empires, the “Conquista,” the onset of African slavery,
and the subjugation of much of Asia (Winant, 2001). The fourth tenet of intersectionality and
anti-essentialism states that we see things as black or white, east, or west, rich, or poor, right or
left. When we talk about the complexities of real life, we recognize that we each represent
multiple identities – race, class, gender, sexuality, ability, and religion. However, since race has
been such a hot spot in society, we always believe that our challenges stem solely from racial
injustice. The final CRT tenet of voice or counter-narrative is about the importance of
storytelling to illustrate and underscore broad legal principles regarding race and racial/social
justice (Calmore, 1995).

12
Over the last few decades, CRT has gained substantial momentum as a tool for researchers to
look at many different aspects of K-12 education, including and not limited to representation.
CRT is a framework used to theorize, examine, and challenge the ways race and racism
implicitly and explicitly impact social structures, practices, and discourses (Yosso, 2004).
Leadership is rooted in social justice and is critical to the fundamental principles of
contemporary education (Witherspoon & Mitchell, 2009). Therefore, CRT was applied in this
study to examine the influence racism has had in shaping policies and social practices in hiring in
the K-12 educational system.
Critical Race Theory in Education
Over the last few decades, Critical Race Theory (CRT) has gained substantial momentum
as a tool for researchers to look at many different aspects of K-12 education, inclusive of but not
limited to representation. Grounded in the pioneering work of previous researchers (Ladson-
Billings & Tate, 1995, Solarzano, 1998, Ladson-Billings, 2005, Dixon & Rousseau, 2005, Tate,
2005) researchers use CRT as a lens to help analyze the experiences of historically marginalized
populations across the K-12 educational landscape. Scholars who study CRT in education look at
how policies and practices in K-12 education contribute to persistent racial inequalities in
education and advocate for ways to change them.
Historical Perspective
As described by Crenshaw et al. (1995), CRT embraces a movement of left scholars
whose works challenged the ways in which race and racial power are constructed and
represented in American legal culture and more generally in American society as whole. Walker
and Byas (2003) remark that the work of Black educators is historically and culturally
significant. A tradition of excellence in Black school leadership and an agenda for the education

13
of Black individuals dates to the 1860s. Education was one of the few vocations open to middle-
class Black people in the pre-Brown era, and, because of their profession, Black principals
served as models of “servant leadership.” The Brown decision was intended to remedy the
inequities of segregated schooling; however, desegregation had a devastating impact on the
closed structure of Black education and thus the professional lives of thousands of Black
principals. In the decade following the landmark Brown v. Board decision, an estimated 90% of
Black principals across eleven southern states lost their jobs. Fultz (2004) found many instances
of discriminatory firings and demotions of Black principals. For example, of the 467 districts that
were observed in his research, 34 districts dismissed their Black principals, and 60 percent had
been demoted. In his book Ethical Ambition (2002), Dr. Derrick Bell emphasizes the underlying
tendencies that hinder progress in the advancement of relationships, racial and otherwise. In
particular, he notes the absence of truthfulness and a shortage of courage as two primary
impediments. He states (2002):
Telling the truth can be hard and even painful work, but lying, keeping the truth secret, is
far more painful. When we think lying isn’t hard and painful, it’s rarely because it’s
become easy and pleasant; more likely it’s because we have put up a wall between
ourselves and our awareness of our captivity.
Contemporary Perspective
Yosso (2004) points out that CRT shifted the research lens away from a deficit view of
communities of color as places full of cultural poverty and disadvantages, and instead focuses on
the array of cultural knowledge, skills, and abilities possessed by socially marginalized groups
that often go unrecognized. Yosso (2004) asserts the following,

14
This CRT approach to education involves a commitment to develop schools that
acknowledge the multiple strengths of Communities of Color in order to serve a larger
purpose of struggle toward social justice.
Interest Convergence
In describing the flaws of the Brown vs Board of Education decision, Bell (2008) argues
that the interest convergence is as follows:
The interest of blacks in achieving racial equality will be accommodated only when that
interest converges with the interest of whites in policymaking positions. This
convergence is far more important for gaining relief than the degree of harm suffered by
blacks, or the character of proof offered to prove that harm (p.6). And even when the
interest convergence results in an effective racial remedy, that remedy will be abrogated
at the point that policy makers fear the remedial policy is threatening the superior social
status of whites (p. 69).
Bell (1980) contends that the decision in Brown to break with the court's long-held
position on these issues cannot be understood without some consideration of the decision’s value
to White people and the value of the economic and political advances at home and abroad that
would follow the abandonment of segregation. Also, there were White people who realized that
the South could make the transition from a rural, plantation society to the sunbelt with all the
potential and profit only when it ended its struggle to remain divided by segregation.
Effect of Leaders of Color on Students of Color
The achievement gap persists. After decades of research, reform, policy, programs, and
intervention, the disparities in achievement between White students and students of color

15
remains present. Recently, the lens has shifted from policy and programs to people--human
capital. Initially focused on the value of authentic relationships with students, now there is a real
call to action for a more diverse teaching and leadership force. Teachers of color positively affect
students of color, but research is now telling us that there is a need for leaders of color. Leaders
of color hire more teachers of color, and teachers of color are more likely to stay and feel
accomplished if they work for leaders of color. Bartanen and Grissom (2021) assert that:
exploiting variation from principal and teacher transitions over long administrative data
panels from Missouri and Tennessee, estimate the effects of principal race on the racial
composition of a school’s teachers. Evidence from the two states is strikingly similar.
Principals increase the proportion of same-race teachers in the school by 1.9–2.3
percentage points, on average. Both increased hiring and increased retention of same-race
teachers explain this compositional change. Further, leveraging longitudinal student-level
data from Tennessee, I find that having a same-race principal improves math
achievement but that this effect largely operates through avenues other than the racial
composition of the teaching staff.
Students of color who have leaders of color in their classrooms and schools are
statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more
likely to be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). Eddy and Easton-Brooks (2011) focused
on the long-term contributions of African American student–teacher ethnic matching to
mathematical test scores of 1,200 African American students from the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Kindergarten through fifth grade. Egalite et al. (2015) found academic benefits
when students and teachers share the same race or ethnicity because such teachers can serve as
role models, mentors, advocates, or cultural translators.

16
Research shows additional positive effects of same-race principals on teachers and
students of color. Some of these positive effects include lower suspension rates, fewer requests
for special education assessment for students of color, and equitable hiring of teachers of color
(Easton-Brooks, 2014). However, the principal workforce remains overwhelmingly White. Using
Critical Race Theory (CRT) as a lens, this review of the literature will examine the positive
effect of leaders of color on teachers and students of color.
Principal Effect on Academic Achievement
For over a half century, researchers and educators have been grappling with, and coming
up with proposed solutions to close, the achievement gap. Most have been met with little
success. Research points to the importance of students of color having teachers and leaders who
look like them, who come from similar backgrounds or share similar stories. Students of color
who have a teacher or leader of color at some time during their K-12 journey experience
significantly better academic and social-emotional outcomes (Carver-Thomas, 2018). Principals
most influence student learning by fostering strong learning climates that are defined as safe and
supportive, with high, consistent, and clear expectations for students, and by supporting teacher
leadership around school-wide goals. Allensworth et al., (2018); Grissom et al., (2021) found
that students learn substantially more in both math and reading in schools with more effective
principals. Principals also have effects on students beyond achievement as measured by
standardized tests. They have documented impact on other student outcomes (e.g., attendance
and discipline) that are important for students’ long-term outcomes. Almost 60 percent of a
school’s influence on student achievement is attributable to teacher and principal effectiveness,
and principals alone account for 25 percent (Marzano, R.J., 2005).

17
Brockmeier et al., (2013) found that principal tenure was a significant predictor across
subject areas tested in elementary schools. As the length of the principal’s tenure at a school
increased, the schools mean scale scores increased.
In 2021, The Wallace Foundation published an updated version of their landmark 2004
literature review on how leadership effects learning. They found that replacing a below average
school principal with an above average school principal gains an additional three months of
learning in reading and mathematics for the average student. These effects are nearly as large as
teacher effectiveness (Hanushek & Rivkin, 2010), which found that replacing a below average
teacher with an above average teacher gained four months of learning in reading and math for the
average student. Because the principal’s effectiveness is felt by more students, it is larger in
scope.
Principal Effect on Diversifying the Workforce
The retention of teachers is heavily influenced by their teaching conditions, with
administrative support playing a crucial role. Recent research has highlighted the importance of
administrative support in retaining teachers of color (Carver-Thomas, 2018). A national analysis
of data collected between 1999 and 2011 revealed that teachers of color in schools where over
90% of teaching staff were White were more likely to switch schools than their White colleagues
when they perceived a lack of administrative support. However, when they received strong
support from school administrators, their retention rates were comparable to those of White
teachers. School leaders who provide strong support may be addressing some of the challenges
that teachers of color face when they are the minority among their professional peers.
In their 2021 work, Bartanen and Grissom estimate the effect of principal race on the
racial composition of a school’s teachers. They found evidence from the two states, Missouri and

18
Tennessee, strikingly similar. Findings asserted that principals increase the proportion of same-
race teachers in the school by 1.9–2.3 percentage points, on average. Engel et al. (2018) found
that principals have had greater influence over hiring teachers over the past 25 years, that can
empower them to hire a more diverse teaching workforce. At the same time, the research
suggested that local teacher labor market dynamics can contribute the inequitable sorting of
teachers across schools. Hopper et al. (2021) used federal survey data to demonstrate that Black
teachers were 10 percentage points more likely to leave the classroom within the first five years
than the average teacher, and that attrition was highest in their fourth year, when most schools
are no longer thinking of retention support. The researchers found that teachers were more likely
to stay in the classroom long-term when the principal’s behavior towards the staff was supportive
and encouraging, when the principal knew what kind of school they wanted and communicated it
to the staff, and when staff members were recognized for a job well done.
Underrepresentation of Leaders of Color
While the Mendez and Brown decisions had many positive outcomes for students, such as
higher high school graduation rates and greater college enrollment, the effects of the decisions on
teachers and leaders of color were far reaching (Murrun et al., 2021). The focus of these cases
was the integration of schools, not the integration of educators. As a result, many educators of
color were fired, demoted, or reassigned, and faced unfair hiring practices when trying to obtain
other positions (Fultz, 2004; McCray et.al., 2007). In the decades following Brown, resistance to
desegregation continued to be high. In many places desegregation resulted in the removal of
Black teachers and administrators from predominantly Black public schools and the loss of
positions of authority of many Black educators (Green, 2004). However, in those same decades
the diversity of the student population of public schools increased dramatically. According to the

19
National Center for Education Statistics, as of the 2017-2018 school year, approximately 79% of
public school teachers were White, while only seven percent were African American and nine
percent Hispanic. The situation is starker for school administrators, with only eleven percent of
principals and five percent of superintendents identifying as people of color. This lack of
diversity at the highest levels of school leadership has significant implications for the
experiences of students of color as well as for the broader idea of achieving educational equity in
the United States.
Even as the role of school principal has changed significantly, from building manager to
coach and aspirational leader, one thing remains the same: school leaders are predominately
White. Anderson (2016) and Hartlep & Baylor (2016) state that although they agree that the lack
of diversity in leadership is one of the biggest issues facing education, the push for more
educational leaders of color needs to be more nuanced than what is currently being advocated for
in mainstream educational institutions. They identify programs like Concordia University’s
Southeast Asian Teacher (SEAT) Program and Clemson University’s Call Me MISTER
(Mentors Instructing Students Toward Effective Role Models) as exemplar programs in wherein
people of color can be “mentored and promoted to positions of leadership in more socially just
and inclusive ways” (pp. 100).
Underrepresentation of Teachers of Color
The greatest source of potential principals of color are teachers of color. Several studies
have reported the major factors that affect the retention of teachers of color include teacher
background, dissatisfaction with school environment, schools with discipline problems,
collaboration with colleagues, and interactions of social class and race as reasons teachers left
the classroom (Achestein et. al. 2010, Bristol and Mentor, 2018; Farinde-Wu & Fitchett, 2016).

20
Turnover rates for new teachers are skyrocketing and the rates for teachers of color are higher
than White teachers (Achinstein et. al., 2010). To support the retention of teachers of color,
research suggests more administrative support, higher salaries, and more opportunities for
professional advancement. (Farinde & Lewis, 2016).
Studies have shown that Black teachers who are highly qualified possess a unique
advantage due to their understanding of their students’ home and community life (Easton
Brooks, 2013; Milner, 2006). The ability of Black teachers to connect the curriculum with
culture can be attributed to their content knowledge, pedagogical training, and shared cultural
identity with their students (Villegas, Strom & Lucas, 2012). This may improve the educational
experiences and academic outcomes for Black students. Additionally, Black teachers have higher
retention rates in high-needs, culturally diverse urban schools compared to White teachers
(Scafidi, Sjoquist & Stienbrickner, 2007), suggesting a greater dedication to teaching Black
students (Dixson & Dingus, 2008).
Recruitment and Hiring Practices
African American students account for over 17% of the total K-12 student population in
schools across the nation, yet only 8% of teachers and 10% of principals are from similarly
diverse backgrounds (Boser, 2011). Therefore, it is critical that Districts have specific and well-
implemented plans to recruit and hire administrators of color. Dedicated staff must be assigned
to focus on the specific actions that allow for a welcoming and streamlined hiring process, with
hiring incentives. Recruitment targets that are aggressive, measured, and time bound must also
be established. Teacher pipelines must exist beginning in high school and continued with local
universities and colleges.

21
Building Administrator Pipelines
The administrator pipeline, which are district wide strategies to develop a large, ongoing
supply of effective leaders, should include strategies to recruit, hire, evaluate, and support
cohorts of promising talented teacher leaders, assistant principals, and principals, and should
include preservice preparation opportunities and on-the-job induction, evaluation, and support
(Gates, et al., 2019).
In the National Conference of State Legislatures forum on Preparing a Pipeline of
Effective Principals (2012), it was found that an importance needed to be placed on the state
legislature's responsibility for establishing a comprehensive framework to identify, prepare,
evaluate, and support principals. Through state policy, legislatures can support districts in how
they recruit, hire, and retain a pool of aspiring principals. The state’s role in building the pipeline
of effective principals would greatly assist districts with promising policies to foster a steady
supply of school leaders, particularly leaders of color.
An example of states’ efforts to target principal recruitment, selection, and retention is
Arkansas’ S.B. 46 (2003) that created the Master Principal Program, a voluntary three-phase
program that provides bonuses to participating principals who achieve master principal
designation. Master principals receive $9,000 annually for five years, while those serving full-
time in “high need” schools receive $25,000 annually for five years. Another example is
Oregon’s H.B. 3619a (2010) that established the career preparation and development task force
to identify the strengths of, needs for, and gaps in practices and procedures used to recruit and
retain teachers and administrators.
In addition, the research suggests that principal pipeline preparation programs should be
more focused on improvement of instruction, closely tied to the needs of the district, and provide

22
more residency-based experiences that provide opportunities for aspiring principals to experience
leadership firsthand from proven sitting principals. The curriculum of these preparation programs
should link theory with practice, and should combine the coursework on instructional leadership
and the ability to change school culture and improve teacher effectiveness. These leadership
preparation programs should not end when new principals are hired but should continue with
high-quality mentoring and career-long growth opportunities (National Conference of State
Legislatures forum on Preparing a Pipeline of Effective Principals 2012).
The Wallace Foundation’s 2017 report on Building Principal Pipelines (Grissom et. al.,
2021) brings together research found to be important in shaping the following effective school
leadership pipeline strategies: standards that spell out what principals need to know and do and
that drive all principals’ trainings and support; pre-service training that equips participants with
the knowledge and skills they will need; and supports that serve to help new principals in
becoming strong instructional leaders. In building administrator pipelines, it is important to
recognize that the hiring leaders of color without “seeing” race runs counter to notions of the
centrality of racism in U.S. institutions (Delgagdo, 2000; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
The research also found that it is good practice for districts to establish partnerships with
local universities to assist in the recruitment and selection of potential candidates, and in the
continued development of acting school leaders throughout their career. Another promising
practice for districts to implement is the enactment of school-based residencies that combine
coursework and opportunities for meaningful mentoring (Gates, et al., 2019).
Implicit Bias and Racism in Hiring Practices
Research has shown that some districts may take a slower, traditional route of requiring
aspiring administrators to teach for a certain number of years, then take on assignments outside

23
of the classroom for several more years, before having the opportunity to apply for an entry level
school administration position such as assistant principal. Other districts feel that this traditional
approach, based on an age bias, could reduce the pool of aspiring school leaders that do not want
to wait as long to becoming a school leader, and will search out districts that do not take this
traditional slower approach.
As Tallerico (2000) refers to, connecting to CRT, the “prior relevant experience”
selection criterion are the professional norms that exist for prior experience in positions in which
women and people of color are underrepresented, that contribute to the predominance of White
males in educational administration. In the area of hiring, placement, and promotion, dominant
White America deploys what Marger (2012) describes:
As techniques of dominance and subordination to promote and confirm prejudices and
discrimination. This prejudice is often reinforced within the presence of racial
stratification with negative assumptions about place, status, and attributes of members of
the minority group.
Research shows that more women report experiencing age discrimination in their
workplace than men, especially in male-dominated professions. This type of discrimination can
affect job retention and satisfaction. (Parker, 2018).
As mentioned in “Actively Addressing Unconscious Bias in Recruiting” (Carnahan,
2020), it is important for districts to ensure they write inclusive job descriptions, so a diverse
range of candidates enter the application pool and that they standardize the interview process, so
each candidate answers the same questions and performs the same work test. “Employment
policies and practices do not exist in a vacuum, they operate in a society whose racial divisions
overlap those of class and structure” (Weis & Fine, 1993 pp24). For many years, discussion

24
about individual or institutional racism or other forms of racialized inequalities in public
schooling have been transient. The practice is to mute the conversation and participate in a
colorblind narrative (Gooden, 2012).
Role District Plays in Recruiting and Hiring
Although more teachers of color are being recruited across the nation, the pace of
increase is slow and attrition rates are high. Recruiting more teachers of color will eventually
strengthen the bench of potential principals of color. Carver-Thomas (2018) shares that
increasing the number of teachers of color requires intentional preparation, and that hiring and
providing ongoing support to candidates of color with such intention can build a diverse and
stable workforce. The study further reveals that districts can implement their Grow Your Own
programs that recruit teacher candidates from nontraditional populations (e.g., high school
students, paraprofessionals), as well as offering comprehensive induction programs to support
teachers of color in their first years of teaching to provide ongoing professional learning
opportunities for school leaders to develop the skills to support teachers effectively.
Superville, D. R., (2021) shares that research continues to show the benefits of educators
of color on all students and the positive effects of same-race principals on students and teachers
of color, including more Black students in advanced courses, higher math scores, and the hiring
of more Black teachers. Still, while 54 percent of students in public schools nationwide are
nonwhite, nearly 80 percent of principals are white. Superville’s (2021) research gives an
example of districts, such as Winston-Salem/Forsyth County in North Carolina, that have
adopted racial equity policies that list recruiting and retaining an effective diverse workforce
among their goals. This district works with historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs)

25
in the state to train a pipeline of equity-centered teachers and leaders for the school system and
provide professional development for current district leaders.
A study conducted by Hancock and Scherff (2010) revealed that school climate can be a
deterrent for early career teachers and contribute to higher attrition rates. Walker, Goings and
Wilkerson (2019) postulate that for schools and districts to create healthy school climates for
Black male preservice teachers, school administrators should be present. Walker, Goings and
Wilkerson (2019) explained that:
The “presence” of a positive school administrator, providing a word of encouragement, a
kind, gentle, and patient listening ear, or serving as a sounding board to solve problems
can help create a healthy ecosystem capable of supporting Black male preservice
teachers.
Use of Incentives to Recruit and Hire Leaders of Color
It is well known that recruiting and hiring more teachers of color will eventually
strengthen the bench of potential principals of color. Carver-Thomas (2018) shares that an
effective strategy to recruit and hire more in-demand Black candidates of color may be to hire
earlier in the year. Districts can offer monetary incentives for teachers to announce their
resignation and transfer intentions in early spring so that they can recruit new hires earlier in the
season. In addition, districts can offer comprehensive induction to support teachers of color in
their first years of teaching. Further, being matched with a veteran mentor teacher and can also
include classroom assistance, time to collaborate with other teachers, and coaching support.
Feng and Sass (2015) refer to Florida’s Critical Teacher Shortage Program and the positive
effects that providing subsidies to teachers who took coursework that could lead to certification
in a designated shortage area had. In addition, the program offered retention bonuses to teachers

26
in designated shortage areas in a single year. Beng, et al. (2020) argue that the strongest
recruitment evidence suggests that targeted money can encourage people into teaching but does
not necessarily keep them in the teaching profession. The money needs to be large enough to
compensate for the disadvantages of working in certain schools and areas, and competitive
enough to offset the opportunity costs of not being in more lucrative occupations. Their research
found that continuing professional development and early career support could be promising
approaches for retaining teachers in the profession.
Support and Retention
The recruitment and hiring of teachers and principals of color is critical. Still, we must
also focus our efforts on how well they are supported throughout their careers and ultimately
retained. Sutcher et al., (2016) point out that by reducing attrition by half could virtually
eliminate teaching shortages.
Job Satisfaction and the Risk of Attrition
Ingersoll and May (2011) found that organizational conditions, like faculty decision-
making influence and teacher autonomy, have a more significant impact on job satisfaction for
teachers of color than for White teachers, and that factors like student demographics, including
rates of low socioeconomic status or population of minority students, did not influence turnover
of teachers of color. When studying job satisfaction of administrators of color, White et al.
(2011) identified how factors like student demographics, school climate, parent support, and
school location influenced the job satisfaction of principals of color.

27
Strategies for Retaining and Supporting Principals of Color
Cheung & Gong (2022) argue that educational institutions must do more than hire leaders
of color. In their case study of the Leaders of Color Network they found that the key elements
needed to reduce attrition were to reduce racial and professional isolation, promote collective
sense making, and develop coalitions. They also identify a need for “systematic strategies that
uplift, empower and amplify the needs of diverse leaders” (pp. 112). Brown (2021) states that it
is not enough to only appoint people of color as principals; it is equally important to provide
support to enable principals of color to excel in their jobs. This support can be in the form of
professional learning and development, mentorship from peers, and guidance in navigating
chaotic job that the principalship sometimes can be.
Rodela and Rodriguez Mojica (2020) remind us that when new leaders of color, in
particular Latinx leaders, enter White dominated administrative spaces, their visions of equity
sometimes conflict with district initiatives. They call for more research on how to support and
sustain leaders of color as they work to upend the systems of injustice that prevailed during their
own educational experiences.
Barriers and Policies
Effective school leaders of color can greatly impact school improvement and successful
learning for all students. Furthermore, carefully planned educational leadership programs must
be implemented to provide highly qualified school leaders from under-represented groups access
to these programs. It is safe to say that there are not enough principals of color, and the
enrollment of prospective principal of color candidates in educational leadership preparation
programs must become a priority. As the need to recruit candidates for principalship continues,
specific barriers also continue to serve as challenges for the educational system. Research by

28
Vegas et. al. (2001) found that many students of color reach tenth grade without strong academic
skills, which prevents them from graduating from high school and preparing for college. An
extensive review of literature on minority teacher recruitment, development, and retention
highlighted the educational pipeline as a major barrier to increasing minorities in education
(Torres, Santos, Peck, & Cortes, 2004). Those minority students that do make it to college and
pursue teaching careers and could strive for the principalship still face several barriers. Quicho
and Rios (2001) share some of the barriers that are connected to teacher certification that include
testing and admission into teacher education programs, lack of promotion opportunities, and
failure of others to recognize their leadership skills. Inadequate salaries also constitute a critical
barrier. Minority students entering college are attracted to business, science, or math degrees that
can lead to more lucrative jobs in the future (Torres et al. 2004). In addition, many minority
students who have become teachers have not advanced into leadership positions. Principals are
uniquely positioned to affect the racial composition of the teachers at a school site.
Bloom and Erlandson (2003) discuss approaches that can be used for education
leadership preparation programs to recruit and retain minority graduate students. They discuss
barriers contributing to low incidents of minority principals and minority principal candidates,
and recommendations for creating pathways for under-represented minorities to enter school
leadership preparation programs.

29
Chapter Three: Methodology
Introduction
This chapter describes the problem statement, the purpose of the study, and the research
questions that steered the study. This chapter also includes an overview of the study's design and
a description of the instrumentation, methodology for data collection and analysis, and the
precautions used to address ethical considerations. Finally, this chapter ends with a summary of
the research design and a preview of the following chapters.
Purpose of Study and Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of the Critical Race Theory
(CRT), what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of
principals, and according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help
support and retain principals.
The results of this study highlight the effective hiring, support, and retainment practices
that districts in Southern California use to ensure that principals of color were hired and assigned
to schools to support students of color. Scholarly research demonstrates a need for K-12 public
school systems to hire and retain more principals and teachers of color. According to the
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), as of 2018, fifty-three percent of the students in
K-12 public schools are students of color; however, teachers of color make up just twenty-one
percent of the teaching force, and principals of color twenty-two percent of principals in the
United States. According to the California Department of Education, in 2021, 79% of California
students were students of color while only forty percent of teachers were teachers of color.
(California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data System [CALPADS], 2021). The racial

30
interaction between principals and students can influence student performance by employing
practices that improve the academic achievement of students of color (Easton-Brooks, 2014;
Barton & Grissom, 2021). Research continues to demonstrate that students of color perform at
lower proficiency and receive high rates of suspension when compared to those of their White
peers (Smith 2010).
Moreover, several factors, including culturally biased discipline practices and low
socioeconomic status, appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem (Skiba et al., 2008).
The disproportionate student outcomes of students of color within the United States have been
consistent for the past 40 years (Smith 2010). There is a need to address this gap by identifying
research-based strategies in the hiring, support, and retention of principals of color that improve
academic outcomes for students of color.
A comprehensive review of the literature provided justifications for researching the barriers
to hiring and retaining leaders of color and the effective use of strategies to recruit, hire, support,
and retain principals of color serving students of color in their schools. Students who have
leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more likely to graduate from
high school, have higher test scores, and be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014).
Therefore, the following questions guided this study:
1. According to District Administrators, what are the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders
of color in school districts in Southern California?
2. According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are
in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders
of color in school districts in Southern California?

31
3. According to Elementary Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies
used to ensure the support and retention of leaders of color in school districts in Southern
California?
Population Sample
The participants in this research study were selected from three urban school districts
within Southern California. Through the lens of CRT, this study focused on examining the
barriers that exist to hiring and retaining leaders of color and the effective policies, practices, and
strategies used to ensure the support and retention of leaders of color in the school districts. Data,
tasks, and collection were divided to gather the information that identified and compared
recurring themes, patterns, and relationships in elementary, middle, and high schools (Patton,
2002).
The interview group consisted of three superintendents, three district administrators that
oversee human resources, and five middle school principals from each district, for a total of
eleven participants. Participants were interviewed to better understand their perceptions on the
barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color and what policies, practices, and strategies are in
place to overcome those barriers to ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color.
By acquiring respondent data from interviews, the researchers were able to bring to light the
effective policies, practices, and strategies used to ensure the hiring, support, and retention of
leaders of color.
The research was led ethically, and all participants were informed via email and during
the interview protocols that participation in the interview was optional and informed that all

32
responses would remain confidential and protected from recognition by potential readers
(Glense, 2011).
Table 1
School District Demographic Data
District
Number of
Students
Percentage of
students identifying
as BIPOC
Number of
Administrators
Percentage of
Administrators
identifying as BIPOC
District A 6,039 99% 31 100%
District B 22,261 95% 59 85%
District C 12,704 43% 34 11%
BIPOC = Black, Indigenous, or other Person of Color
Qualitative Instrumentation
This study utilized a qualitative instrumentation approach. All interview questions
included in the process were connected to the research questions (Table 2). Qualitative face-to-
face interview procedures were conducted to understand district administrator and principal
perspectives (Maxwell, 2013). According to Malloy, interviews are a common source of data in
descriptive and interpretive studies and have become prominently used in educational research
(Tierney & Dillard, 2002). The qualitative interview for Superintendents and Human Resource
Personnel consisted of two questions that focused on background information and included nine
open-ended questions aligned with the three guiding research questions. The qualitative
interview for principals consisted of two questions that focused on background information and
included seven open-ended questions aligned with the three guiding research questions. Each
interview lasted approximately 60 minutes, and informed consent before conducting the
interviews explained that participation in the study was voluntary (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).

33
Table 2
Research Question Matrix
According to District
Administrators, what are the
barriers to hiring and
retaining leaders of color in
school districts in
Southern California?
According to District
Administrators, what policies,
practices, and strategies (if
any) are in place to overcome
the barriers and ensure
equitable recruitment and
hiring of leaders of color in
school districts in Southern
California?
According to Elementary
Administrators of color, what
are the policies, practices, and
strategies used to ensure the
support and retention of
leaders of color in school
districts in Southern
California?
In your perspective as a leader
in the district, describe how
diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented
throughout the system?
In your perspective as a leader
in the district, describe how
diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented
throughout the system?
Did any direct experience
motivate you to go into
education?
What is the organizational
strategy that drives the district’s
selection of leaders?
What is the organizational
strategy that drives the district’s
selection of leaders?
Did you have a teacher or leader
of the same race in your K-12
experience? If yes, did they have
a significant impact on your
journey?
What are the leaders' significant
knowledge skills and abilities
that you look for when hiring?
How does your district evaluate
non-traditional professional
experiences in the hiring
process?
What are the leaders' significant
knowledge skills and abilities
that you look for when hiring?
How does your district evaluate
non-traditional professional
experiences in the hiring
process?
In your experience, does your
district earnestly work to recruit
leaders of color?
What actions have you utilized
to retain your most talented
leaders?
What actions have you utilized
to retain your most talented
leaders?
What activity and initiatives at
the district level has encouraged
you to stay for so long?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
What role does mentorship play
in education? Have you been
mentored by other leaders?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
Does race factor into your
educational experience? How
has race and ethnicity effected
your professional career
regardless of position?
What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion
recruitment?
What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion
recruitment?
In your experience what
barriers have you seen that keep
people of color from going into
the education system? Do you
have any suggestions to
eliminate them?

34
Data Collection Procedures
An Institutional Review Board (IRB) application was submitted to the University of
Southern California to confirm that the researchers followed ethical guidelines for participants in
the study. Approval to conduct the study was obtained by connecting with superintendents of
School Districts A, B, and C, at which time interviewers shared information about the study
procedures and research questions. Upon receiving the superintendents’ approvals, a list of
district administrative staff and principal emails was supplied to begin the selection process for
interview participants.
Data Collection
Interviews were conducted with five middle school principals from the participating
school districts. In addition, six district administrators were also interviewed from the three
participating school districts. All five middle school principals and district administrators agreed
to participate in a face-to-face interview to explore the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of
color and what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to overcome the barriers and ensure
equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color. Informed consent was given before
conducting each interview. The use of informed consent ensured that all participants understood
the nature of the research and the risks and provided transparency related to the interviews
(Rubin and Rubin, 2012; Merriam and Tisdell, 2016).
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative data approach. Interview data gathered from the
participants was analyzed using a multi-layered data analysis process, multiple data sources, and
data collection methods to identify trends and patterns (Miles et al., 2014). Triangulation of data

35
was used to increase the quality and trustworthiness of the study, as it ensured that data were not
collected using a single artifact, method, or source (Patton, 2015). A coding process was used to
sort and categorize the data (Lichtman, 2013). This process led to the identification of emergent
trends, which assisted with understanding perceptions towards the barriers to hiring and retaining
leaders of color, and what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to overcome the barriers
and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color. The body of literature was
compared to the research findings to further confirm the significance of this research study.
Triangulating the data from each point on the triangle (superintendent, Human Resources
administrator, and middle school principals) ensured that a different point of view was analyzed
on the identification of barriers in hiring leaders of color, and on the identified practices, policies
and strategies that were used to overcome the barriers. This produced a robust set of data that
came from the district administrators and principals, as they each held a different, but important
experience in the hiring process for their district. The triangulation of data helped to identify
barriers that were strong enough, and present enough to be seen by leaders in different areas of
the hiring chain, not just being unique to one position.
Data analysis aims to make sense of the data and consolidate, reduce, and interpret the
information (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). The face-to-face interview data was interpreted and
coded. The coding process included sorting, separating, and categorizing data. Each transcript
was analyzed to identify themes using open and priori codes responsive to the research questions
(Lichtman, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

36
Validity, Reliability, and Positionality
I interviewed superintendents, Human Resource personnel, and site principals. My
interviews took place in three districts. There could possibly be an unintended or unseen power
dynamic present due to my positionality as a student at University of Southern California and a
Director of Operations at a district level. Milner (2007) asks us to move through four distinct
phases when conducting research: researching the self, researching the self in relation to others,
engaging reflection and representation, and shifting from self to system. I also need to be careful
that my own biases do not affect my interpretation of the interview data.
Field Testing
Interview questions were field tested. The twelve interview questions were discussed
with two district administrators and one site level principal, who are individuals with expert
knowledge of the research topic. These individuals provided feedback on the appropriateness of
the questions, the flow of the interview and the repetitiveness of some of the questions. This
feedback helped to refine the questions and create a more comprehensive instrument.
Ethical Considerations
Focus was placed on various ethical concerns when conducting the study, and Patton’s
(2002) ethical issue checklist was used. Multiple data sources were used to increase credibility in
qualitative research (Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). A clear explanation of the purpose of the study
and a request for permission to record the interview were provided to all participants at the
beginning of the data collection process. All participant responses remained confidential, and
researchers protected participants’ personal information and all district information by using

37
pseudonyms to ensure confidentiality (Glense, 2011). Informed consent was obtained from the
participants before conducting interviews.
Summary
This chapter outlined the study’s statement of the problem, research questions, sample
and population, instrumentation, data collection procedures, data analysis process, and the
precautions used to address ethical considerations. The research questions of this study shaped
the use of a mixed-methods approach, which included quantitative and qualitative data collection
methods. Chapter four will present an analysis of the data collection process and the significant
findings that surfaced as a result of this study.

38
Chapter Four: Research Results and Findings
Introduction
Presented in this chapter is an analysis of the collected data to understand, through the
lens of Critical Race Theory (CRT) (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995), what district administrators
report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of leaders of color, and, according to district
leaders and principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help support and
retain leaders of color. This study also investigated district leaders' and school principals’
perceptions and practices related to successful recruitment, hiring, and retention strategies for
district and site leaders of color.
The following results and findings from this study provide valuable insight and
considerations for current school system leaders seeking to hire, support, and retain school
principals that reflect the students in the schools they serve.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of Critical Race Theory
(CRT) (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995), what district administrators report as barriers to equitable
hiring and retaining of district and site leadership and, according to district and site leaders, what
policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help support and retain leaders of color.
This research investigated site principals' and district administrators' perceptions,
practices, and successful strategies for recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals. This research
focused on the barriers found by urban districts that hampered the recruitment, hiring, and
retention of school leaders of color, as well as to identify policies, strategies, and practices that

39
helped the districts overcome these barriers. The results of this study highlight the effective
hiring, support, and retainment practices in K-12 Districts in Southern California used to ensure
that principals of color were assigned to schools to support students of color.
Coding of Data
A multi-layered data analysis process was used to interpret the qualitative data to increase
understanding related to the research questions. The goal of the data analysis was to make sense
of the data to consolidate, reduce, and interpret the information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To
begin this process, first, this study conducted an evaluation of the interview data from the
participants. Each question on the interview instrument used to collect data was aligned with one
or more of this study’s research questions. Transcriptions of responses were reviewed for
accuracy. The following is a matrix of the research questions and the correlation to the interview
questions that were asked to the participants:
Table 3
Principal Research Question Matrix
According to District
Administrators, what are the
barriers to hiring and retaining
leaders of color in school
districts in Southern
California?
According to District
Administrators, what policies,
practices, and strategies (if any)
are in place to overcome the
barriers and ensure equitable
recruitment and hiring of
leaders of color in school
districts in Southern
California?
According to Middle School
Administrators, what are the
policies, practices, and
strategies used to ensure the
support and retention of
leaders of color in school
districts in Southern
California?
1. In your perspective as a
leader in the district, describe
how diversity, equity and
inclusion initiatives are
implemented throughout the
system?
1. In your perspective as a leader
in the district, describe how
diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented
throughout the system?
1. Did any direct experience
motivate you to go into
education?

40
2. What is the organizational
strategy that drives the district’s
selection of leaders?
2. What is the organizational
strategy that drives the district’s
selection of leaders?
2. Did you have a teacher or
leader of the same race in your K-
12 experience? If yes, did they
have a significant impact on your
journey?
3. What are the leaders'
significant knowledge skills and
abilities that you look for when
hiring?
How does your district evaluate
non-traditional professional
experiences in the hiring
process?
3. What are the leaders'
significant knowledge skills and
abilities that you look for when
hiring?
a. How does your district evaluate
non-traditional professional
experiences in the hiring process?
3. In your experience, does your
district earnestly work to recruit
leaders of color?
4. What actions have you
utilized to retain your most
talented leaders?
4. What actions have you utilized
to retain your most talented
leaders?
4. What role does mentorship
play in education? Have you
been mentored by other leaders?

5. What are some barriers that
you have encountered when
actively seeking candidates of
color?

5. What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?

5. What activity and initiatives at
the district level has encouraged
you to stay for so long?
6. What are some barriers that
you have encountered when
actively seeking candidates of
color?
6. What are some barriers that you
have encountered when actively
seeking candidates of color?
6. Does race factor into your
educational experience? How has
race and ethnicity effected your
professional career regardless of
position?
7. What diversity policies have
been implemented successfully
at the district level and how do
you measure that success?
7. What diversity policies have
been implemented successfully at
the district level and how do you
measure that success?
7. In your experience what
barriers have you seen that keep
people of color from going into
the education system? Do you
have any suggestions to eliminate
them?
8. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion
recruitment?
8. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion recruitment?

9. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion hiring?
9. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion hiring?

10. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion retention?
10. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you
have that could impact diversity,
equity, and inclusion retention?

41
Maxwell’s (2013) strategies for qualitative data analysis were employed in identifying
specific passages relevant to the three research questions and this study’s conceptual framework.
Using an analytical coding method (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) as recommended by Miles
(Huberman, and Saldana, 2014), the data aligned to each research question was analyzed further
for themes, sub-themes, and patterns supported by the literature that emerged across participants.
Although trends were detected after reviewing the data first, the data was re-evaluated to identify
additional themes and commonalities (Miles et al., 2014). Emergent themes were classified and
used to describe the findings, make assertions, and connect to the research questions (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007; Harding, 2013).
Presentation of Findings
The presentation of findings in this chapter begins with a description and analysis of the
interview results collected during the study. Next, analyzed are the recurring themes and
findings related to the research questions.
The research questions that guided the study are as follows:
1. According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and
retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
2. According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are
in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of
color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
3. According to School Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies used
to ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern
California?

42
Descriptive Characteristics
Interview Data
The participants in this research study were selected from three urban school districts
within Southern California. Through the lens of Critical Race Theory, this study focused on
examining what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of
principals and, according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help
support and retain principals. This study investigated site principals' and district administrators'
perceptions and practices and successful strategies for recruiting, hiring, and retaining principals.
Demographics of Participating School Districts
In the 2020-2021 school year, School District A served students in transitional
kindergarten through twelfth grades, in five elementary schools and one middle school. The
district had a total enrollment of 6,039 students. More than 91% of the students who attended
School District A qualified for free or reduced-price meals.
In the 2020-2021 school year, School District B served students in transitional
kindergarten through twelfth grades, in thirteen elementary schools, four middle schools, and
three high schools. The district had a total enrollment of 22,261 students. Approximately 69% of
the students who attended School District B qualified for free or reduced-price meals.
In the 2020-2021 school year, School District C served students in seventh through
twelfth grades and in five middle schools and five high schools. The district had a total
enrollment of 12,704 students. 19% of those students who attended School District C qualified
for free or reduced-price meals.
Table 4 contains the student demographic data for School District A, School District B,
and School District C.

43
Table 4
Participating School District Student Demographic Data
District A District B District C
Total Enrollment 6,039 22,261 12,704
Number of Schools 6 20 12
High Schools 0 3 5
Middle Schools 1 4 5
Elementary Schools 5 13 0
Total Students Enrolled
in Free and Reduced
Lunch
5,503 15,421 2,474
Student Population by Race/Ethnicity
Afircan American 54 672 98
American Indian 4 22 24
Asian 19 387 2175
Filipinio 0 170 99
Hispanic/Latino 5,496 19,765 2,093
Pacific Islander 9 52 11
White 49 1,027 7,263
Two or More Races 0 164 0
Not Reported 403 2 0
Source: California Department of Education, 2021, Demographics.

I obtained approval to conduct the study by directly contacting the respective
superintendents of School District A, School District B, and School District C and sharing
information about the study, including the research questions and protocols. I asked the
superintendent to identify the following interview participants, who included: 1) a Human
Resources employee that has direct responsibility for recruiting and hiring site principals; 2) at
least one site administrator who identifies as being a person of color or non-white and have been
a school site administrator within the last school year; and 3) the district superintendent.

44
All participants were informed that participation and completion of the interview were
optional to ensure that I ethically conducted the interviews. In addition, the participants were
informed that all responses, including any identifying characteristics, would remain confidential
and protected from recognition by future readers (Glense, 2011).
Table 5
District Interview Respondent Demographic Data
School District A School District B School District C
Total Interview
Respondents
3 6 3
Gender (count)
Male 0 4 2
Female 3 2 1
Leadership Experience (years)
0-5 Years 0 0 0
6-9 Years 0 2 0
10+ Years 3 4 3
Residence (count)
Live Within District 2 5 0
Live Outside District 1 1 3
Interview Participants
To conduct the qualitative study, I interviewed staff from the three participating school
districts. Three Superintendents, three Assistant Superintendents of Human Resources, and five
middle school principals agreed to participate in face-to-face interviews to understand, through
the lens of Critical Race Theory, what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring
and retaining of principals and, according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies
are in place to help support and retain principals. Interview respondents were provided with
informed consent prior to participating in the interview. Participants also received an overview of

45
the study, which provided transparency and pertinent information related to the interview
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Table 6 represents the demographic data of the interview
respondents. To ensure confidentiality, the researchers used pseudonyms to protect the identity
of the interview respondents.
Table 6
Demographics of Interview Participants
Interview Participants Gender Title Ethnicity
AA Female Superintendent
Hispanic/Latina
AB Female
Assistant
Superintendent Human
Resources
Hispanic/Latina
AC Female Principal
Hispanic/Latina
BD Male Superintendent
Hispanic/Latino
BE Female
Assistant
Superintendent Human
Resources
Hispanic/Latina
BF Female Principal
Hispanic/Latina
BG Male Principal
Hispanic/Latino
BH Male Principal Caucasian
CI Female Superintendent
Hispanic/Latina
CJ Female
Assistant
Superintendent Human
Resources
Hispanic/Latina
CK Male Principal African American

46
Research Question 1
According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and retaining
leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
While analyzing data from district administrators, themes emerged as barriers to hiring
and retaining leaders of color. First, district administrators' data showed barriers to hiring leaders
of color and the need to look beyond traditional recruiting strategies. The second theme is the
application and credential requirements for administrative positions. Finally, a third theme
emerged: the inadequate administrative pay scale was identified as a barrier to drawing top-tier
candidates out of the classroom and retaining them in districts.
Looking Beyond Traditional Recruiting Strategies
Data uncovered that district administrators want to seek candidates of color to apply for
open positions. The barrier is that they must find new ways to reach the desired population of
qualified and interested candidates because traditional strategies have yet to yield the candidate
pool of color they want. CJ Stated, “Our local universities seem like a great option, but they are
not diverse. The candidates in teaching and administrative credentialing programs are not
students of color. In addition, they are not actively seeking careers in education due to the
demands of credentialing and the lack of respect the field of education sometimes elicits.”
Data from administrators uncovered that families of color do not encourage students of
color to choose careers in education. Administrators shared that other professions are perceived
as a more respected career choice. In an essay published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1897,
"Strivings of the Negro People," Du Bois wrote that Black Americans should instead embrace
their African heritage even as they worked and lived in the United States. Du Bois emphasized
the necessity for higher education to develop the leadership capacity among the most able ten

47
percent of Black Americans. Administrators spoke of the talented tenth and the need to reach and
recruit the most gifted students and encourage them to enter a career in education.
AC stated, “When I was accepted to college, the last major my parents wanted me to
pursue was teaching. I was expected to be a doctor, engineer, or lawyer. They said I would make
a lot more money and it would be a more respected profession. My parents did not want to take
out loans that I could never repay due to the salary I would earn. I was too smart to be a teacher.”
Administrators shared that a lack of representation in the education field also presents a
barrier to students of color aspiring to enter the field of education. Data showed that
administrators are passionate about their careers and would like to encourage students of color to
pursue a career in education. Yet, persuading students to consider a career in education is
challenging because they want to make more money than entry-level teachers. Even
administrators shared that they can always get a credential if they change their minds after an
alternative career.
“I think many Black American students look at the economics of a career in education
and the profession's respect compared to other professions that require a degree. You will not be
paid as well to be an educator as you are if you are going to be a lawyer or a doctor. So salary
and the perception that education can be a fallback career because anyone can do it. Black
Americans also know that 70 to 75% of the teachers and administrators across this country are
white. With a lack of representation, a career in education is often not even considered an option
when choosing a major. So how do we find a diverse candidate pool and encourage them to
become lifelong educators?” shared CK.

48
Application and Credentialing Requirements
In researching the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color in three K-12 districts
in Southern California, data consistently showed that district administrators believe there is an
increasing shortage of candidates of color entering careers in education. That has led to a shallow
pool of administrative candidates, especially when efforts to hire leaders of color are the goal.
AB summed up many reasons for the shortage in their district. “There are various reasons for our
shortage, including low pay, perceived lack of resources, and poor working conditions.
Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has made a career in education more difficult, leading to
some teachers leaving the profession. The retirement and golden handshake of the baby boomers
are also a factor. Finally, we have noticed a lack of incentives for people to enter the field of
education and the rollercoaster of funding for education which has led to budget cuts, reduction
in force (RIF), and hiring freezes. If you can overcome all those obstacles, then you have the
additional credentialing requirement and the pay scale for future administrators.” stated AB.
The district administrators believe credentialing requirements are a critical barrier to
hiring and retaining administrators of color. Tallerico (2000) reported that there is a connection
between Critical Race Theory (CRT) and what is referred to as “prior relevant experience.” This
is the selection criterion and professional norms for prior experience in positions where people of
color are underrepresented and contribute to the predominance of White males in educational
administration. BE stated:
I feel the biggest barrier is dealing with the credential system. The CTC [Commission on
Teacher Credentialing] does not consider any experience or credentials outside the
United States. They do not accept university or higher education work because they do
not get the same credentials. Candidates are asked to jump through hoops, expensive
hoops. The expense and hoops are even bigger when additional credentialing and master's

49
degrees for administrative credentials are required. The CTC is also slower than molasses
to make changes or address concerns. There is no encouragement for non-traditional
candidates to enter the education profession.
Another respondent, AB, noted:
When candidates, including candidates of color, are interested in open and often much-
needed positions in our district, I have to look at their credentials or lack of credentials.
Then, I have to make sure they are credentialed for the position. I run into other issues
trying to get people emergency credentials, and if they are too far along in the process
and cannot get one, the district is back to square one. I think the biggest barrier is the
credentialing system.
The application process in each district is unique and does not necessarily encourage or
attract applicants of color. In Actively Addressing Unconscious Bias in Recruiting (Carnahan,
2020), it is noted that districts must ensure they write inclusive job descriptions so a diverse
range of candidates enters the application pool. Districts should also standardize the interview
process so each candidate answers the same questions and performs the same work test. CJ
shared, “I think the application process is archaic. We ask for a letter of intent but never a
picture. So, you are basing paper screening for interviews on little information, even if you
actively seek candidates of color.”
BE stated that when actively seeking a diverse pool of applicants,
You cannot tell from a piece of paper. So many names are unique. I have a unique name,
and I do not think anybody would know what race I am until you meet me. Even then,
you may not know; you can make an assumption. So it is hard because an application
does not allow you to ask those questions. It gets challenging because you are going

50
literally off the paper to screen them. How do you know by their name and where they
live that they are a candidate of color? It is hard when you want to create that diverse
population. Then when diversity, equity, and inclusion align with an applicant, I also
have credentials that I have to clear for that person to have that job, and the credentials
require additional schooling and financing.
CK further shared:
Leadership of a school, specifically the principal, can significantly impact the quality of
teaching and learning in their schools. Effective school leadership is closely linked to
improved student achievement, higher levels of teacher satisfaction, and better school
culture. Principals play a critical role in setting a school's vision, goals, and culture and
creating conditions that allow teachers and students to succeed. They are also responsible
for hiring and evaluating teachers, developing and implementing curriculum, and
managing the school's resources. Effective principals can create an environment where
teachers feel supported, valued, and empowered to do their best work, which benefits the
students.
Inadequate Administrator Pay
In researching the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in
Southern California, the pay scale emerged as a barrier to drawing top-tier candidates out of the
classroom and retaining them in districts. “What we find right now in terms of monetary
compensation is there are so many districts outspending us that we cannot compete. So, I see the
big obstacle for hiring and retaining leaders is our salaries,” stated AA.
Administrators contribute to the effectiveness of schools. Effective principals can impact
several school outcomes, including student achievement, recruiting, and motivating highly

51
qualified teachers, identifying and articulating school goals, and allocating resources
appropriately to support teaching and learning (Goldhaber, 2007; Hope, 2002; Rice, 2010;
Schneider, 1983). All district administrators agreed that pay should increase to attract effective
site and district leaders and that pay should be significant enough to retain them. AA shared:
One of the things that I first discovered when I got here is that all of my cabinet members'
and site administrators' salary scales were among the lowest in Southern California. I
wanted the most qualified administrators in the state, and I wanted them to feel valued.
Quality employees want to feel that the district wants to retain them. So I went to the
board of education and recommended an upgrade in administrative salaries, giving each
of them a three-year contract. For me to be consistent, I need to have a consistent team. I
was given a three-year contract, so I asked for the same for all administrators. The board
of education approved the three-year contracts and increased salaries.
Papa et al. (2002) tracked principal salaries over 25 years and indexed the salaries using
the Consumer Price Index. They found that for school administrators, salaries in the last ten
years have been consistent in most regions, and salaries paid to principals in urban schools are
typically less than or slightly greater than salaries paid to principals working in surrounding
suburbs. In suburban settings, working conditions are typically better. Administrative data
showed that there needs to be an incentive to leave the classroom for longer work years and the
increased pressure and accountability of becoming an administrator. BD stated:
One of the things we did after my first couple of years is reorganize the administrators'
salary schedule. Our teachers are paid greatly in our district. In total compensation, we
are in the top 1, 2, or 3 in L.A. County. We discovered that due to our administrative
salary schedule, there was not enough incentive for our people to leave the classroom to

52
go into leadership. I worked with our union leadership, who agreed because unions are
strongly interested in having good leaders at the site. They want their members to be
happy, and the better leaders the teachers have, the easier it is for the union, too. We
agreed on the common cause that it was in our best interests to incentivize our top people
to leave the classroom and get into leadership roles. So, we readjusted the salary schedule
and created a bigger differential between the teacher and administrative pay. That has
greatly incentivized our best people to go into leadership.
The National Association of Elementary School Principals’ fact sheet on the principal
shortage reaffirms the concern about compensation for principals stating that salaries for new
principals can be as little as 10% more than for veteran teachers. Between highly experienced
teachers and new administrators, the average daily pay rate may be less for new principals.
“I find that salaries are sometimes the number one reason many teachers do not take on
leadership roles. Administration requires more time commitment, is highly stressful, and is
packed with daily pressure. The role should be highly compensated. We need to ensure we are
competitive, which would help ensure that salary is not a barrier to recruitment, whether for an
inside or outside applicant,” stated CJ.
As Pijanowski (2009) indicates, salary can make a difference in offsetting other factors
and may even go so far as to compensate for a wide range of school and student population
characteristics that traditionally harm a district’s ability to attract and retain qualified school
principals. In addition, there is administrative support for additional compensation, and it is
believed it would improve the candidate pools for the principalship. In a study by Whitaker
(2003) salary is reported as the top priority for encouraging better applicants to apply for the
principalship.

53
Summary of Findings for Question 1
The findings show that the barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color in K-12
districts in Southern California are complex. They involve a combination of hiring leaders of
color and the need to look beyond traditional recruiting strategies, the application and credential
requirements for administrative positions, and the inadequate administrative pay scale. To draw
top-tier candidates out of the classroom and retain them in districts, you must pay them and
support them in obtaining the needed application requirements and additional credentials. As
highlighted by the statement from AA, “Principals are such an important factor in the success of
a school, including the fact that principals directly improve student performance based on
curriculum choices, and principals indirectly improve student performance. They significantly
shape a school environment and culture and influence teachers' quality.”
The credential requirements play an essential role in the hiring and retention of
administrators. The field of education, including leadership positions, should be inclusive and
equitable throughout the application and credentialing process. Participant responses from this
study lead to a discussion of the importance of a credential beyond teaching for the site and
distinct leaders. Are additional credentials needed?
In analyzing the connections between the themes presented in the data for research
question one, education needs to recognize the barrier of the perception of a career in education
and explore strategies to attract candidates of color to a career in education. In addition,
application and credentialing requirements must be analyzed for equity, inclusion, and relevance.
Finally, all administrators agreed that pay for administrative positions at the site and district
levels needs to be significant to make it attractive to leave the classroom for a longer work year
with more high-profile challenges and accountability.

54
Research Question 2
According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are in
place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of color in
K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Two themes emerged in researching the policies, practices, and strategies to overcome
the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color. First, districts should
have leadership academies to grow their talent of teachers into future school and district leaders.
A second theme is that policies and practices should be in place to increase diversity and
representation of leaders that mirror student populations.
Leadership Academies
In researching the policies, practices, and strategies in place to overcome the barriers to
and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern
California, the data uncovered that districts must grow their talent of teachers; an effective
strategy through which to achieve this is through leadership academies. “We have great teacher
leaders, and the cream will always rise to the top. The question is, does it rise to the top in our
organization, or does it rise to the top in somebody else's organization? Through our leadership
academy, we can ensure a pathway to leadership opportunities where principals are supported
and set up for success,” stated BD.
All district administrators provided data that they use leadership academies as a strategy
to identify the next pool of site leaders and the assurance that there are opportunities for growth
within their district. All district administration felt they needed to develop a deep bench of talent
within their own districts to enable future leaders a path toward site and district leadership and
retain them in their top talent in their district.

55
“We are starting a leadership academy for future leaders to start perpetuating the growth
mindset where you can go and explore what you can do as a leader in this district. That is a big
area that helps guide staff. I have had people ask about career trajectories, and a leadership
academy is the next step in the growth of teachers and future administrators,” stated CJ.
The data showed that a significant part of a district administrator's job is to allow future
administrators to explore what leadership looks like and the commitment it takes to serve as an
administrator. In addition, all district administrators shared that what they focus on improves and
that they must be intentional in identifying future site and district administrators. BD stated:
A big part of my job is ensuring we have opportunities within our organizational structure
to facilitate people learning and growing constantly and consistently. So, when we have
openings, we've got three or four people who'll be easily qualified for that position. And
then it's just picking the best one for that specific position.
All district administrations shared that they need principals with high-level leadership
skills. The districts’ strategies uncovered in this study are to ensure supportive and intentional
leadership academies that help recruit and retain new and future leaders. These leadership
academies help develop the talent of promising teacher leaders, assistant principals, and
principals. As AA emphasized:
We asked ourselves, how do we build from within? We have a lot of diamonds in the
rough. We have teachers that have great leadership qualities. How do we develop them so
they feel like they will stay here, that they can be a principal, or move up to the district
office? A leadership academy gives quality employees a pathway and lets them know our
district has opportunities to grow. It also makes it clear that they have to put in the work
to promote and grow within our district.

56
All district administration agreed that a critical component of leadership academies is
giving talented teachers opportunities at their sites for leadership opportunities, such as
department chair or committee representative. Additionally, data showed that growing their own
teachers into competent administrators is a practice that is critical to retention. BD shared,
We have a leadership academy where people early in their careers can explore their
potential by learning about the organization, and we can start to spot top talent right
away. We can put them in leadership roles and give them leadership opportunities.
Whether it's on their site instructional leadership team, a different position with the
district, or a committee, we want this person to be on there because we want them to
begin to shape and evaluate their leadership possibilities.
CL further shared, “Leadership training and support are critical. We have instituted a
leadership academy for aspiring leaders. It is essential to show people what it looks like to be an
administrator. That way, people can make an informed decision before the commitment to leave
the classroom.”
Reinforcing the shared sentiment, AB stated, “We work to create pathways and continue
challenging people so they know they can grow their careers. Creating pipelines and creating
avenues is how we've done it over time. Over the years, we've created different opportunities
where those top-notch, talented future leaders have a place to go within our organization.”
Increasing Diversity and Representation of Leaders
Research into what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to overcome the barriers
and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring of leaders of color pointed directly to the fact that
there is a need for increasing diversity and representation of school leaders, such as principals
and assistant principals of color. Administrators felt a lack of representation of leaders of color is

57
a barrier for future administrative candidates. Administrators believe that candidates need to see
themselves in the role of a site or district administrator by seeing representation in those roles.
“When people of color see themselves represented in administrative roles, they are more
likely to see themselves in those roles, and therefore more likely to pursue careers in school
administration. Additionally, a diverse teaching staff can help create a more inclusive and
culturally responsive school culture, making the school more attractive to potential
administrators of color,” shared AC. In research conducted by Camburn, Huff, Goldring, & May
(2010) and Chance & Anderson (2003), a correlation between diverse teaching and
administrative pools has been identified. This study found that schools and districts with more
diverse teaching staff are likely to have a more diverse pool of administrators.
Districts must ensure a diverse staff and that the district culture promotes equity and
inclusion in its leadership positions. This models for potential administrative candidates of color
that leadership positions are attainable and that there is a commitment to support and retain them
in the district. CK stated, “Diversity and representation are important because administrators of
color are more likely to feel that their unique perspectives, experiences, and cultural background
are valued and respected. Furthermore, having diverse teachers can also positively impact the
students’ learning by providing role models and breaking stereotypes, which can positively
impact the student’s academic achievement and motivation.”
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the percentage of principals
identifying as Hispanic was 8.9% in 2017-2018, while the percentage of students identifying as
Hispanic was 55.8%.
“When you hire a teacher, it is a job for 30-plus years. The turnover is slow, but there are
connections in this district of people, relatives, or kids that went through our schools. With our

58
schools being more than 80% Hispanic, I think the representation of our student population
mirroring our teachers is occurring because our graduates are coming back to live and teach in
our community. So, it's naturally happening. They're coming back to help the same kids that they
were. I see that as a motivator, and I think we need to continue tapping into that resource,” stated
BE.
Increasing diversity and representation of school principals and administrators, who
represent the broader community populations they serve has been highlighted as a necessary step
toward achieving a more equitable and effective operation (Hunte, 2010; Tallerico, 2000).
BS shared, “Most of our graduates for many years now have been Hispanic or Latinos, so that is
the demographic coming back to work in our schools, which is awesome. We are at a tipping
point where almost 80% of our student population is Hispanic or Latino, and 90% of our
applicants will be as well at some point in the very near future. So, the applicant and hiring
process is beginning to mirror our population.”
BD shared, “So many of our staff members come from within our district, and many of us
grew up here. For many of us, this is our hometown. So as the demographic shifts have taken
place, the graduates we are beginning to come back and hiring is now becoming much more
reflective of our community than they used to be.” Research has also shown that a diverse
workforce at all levels of the organization is linked to improved organizational performance and
effectiveness (Deitch et al., 2003; Tallerico, 2000).
“With the pandemic, the teacher shortage continues to increase at an even greater and
more concerning rate. There is a shortage in the United States and California of teachers. I don't
see the same shortage in our district because people care about coming back and giving back to
their community. Our teachers and administrators are a mirror of our student demographics

59
because we value diversity and representation in our staff. This has helped the overall
achievement of the students in our district,” stated AA.
Summary of Findings for Question 2
According to the Wallace Foundation’s report on Building Principal Pipelines (2017):
Leadership Academies piece together the research and fieldwork essential to shaping
effective school leaders. Leadership pipeline strategies include standards that outline a
principal’s required knowledge, identify a principal’s responsibilities, and drive their
training. A Leadership Academy should educate leaders in hiring, evaluation, and
support. It should include pre-service training that equips enrollees with the knowledge
and skills districts need and is given by providers with selective admissions policies.
Participants should gain an understanding of hiring procedures that consider only well-
qualified professionals for the jobs; and on-the-job evaluation and support that are linked
to one another and that serve to help principals, especially novices, and improve in
bolstering instruction.
For the three participating districts in this study, it starts with a pool of teachers that then
become administrators.
“The bottom line is if you're not creating avenues for leadership for your high-potential
people, somebody else is, and they're going to leave for those opportunities,” BD stated. A
thorough analysis of the data gathered from superintendents and district leader interviews
showed that participants strongly agreed that districts must develop and implement Leadership
Academies. BD added, “Leadership academies for school administrators and teachers provide
valuable opportunities for professional development and growth. They help future administrators
acquire the skills and knowledge needed to lead schools effectively, including organizational

60
management, instructional leadership, and communication strategies. These academies also
provide a supportive network of peers and mentors who can offer guidance and feedback as
administrators face challenges and opportunities in their roles. By participating in a leadership
academy, leaders can enhance their abilities and contribute to the success of their schools.” All
superintendents and Human Resource directors interviewed voiced that districts must build
administrator pipelines that incorporate strategies to recruit, hire, evaluate, and support a pool of
promising, talented teacher leaders, assistant principals, and principals.
With almost 60 percent of a school’s influence on student achievement attributable to
teacher and principal effectiveness, principal effectiveness accounts for 25 percent (Marzano,
2005). Marzano’s research (2005) has also shown that the effects of leadership are considerably
more significant in the most struggling schools. Research indicates that schools that have highly
effective leaders can be turned around. In addition, all superintendents and Human Resource
directors interviewed shared the vision is ideal when the demographics of the administrative and
teaching staff mirror that of the student population. They want all students, including students of
color, to see leaders of color. All research participants seek to recruit, hire, support, and retain
school leaders of color.
Furthermore, data from administrators uncovered that families of color do not encourage
students of color to choose careers in education. Administrators shared that other professions are
perceived as a more respected career choice. In addition, educational careers have never been a
profession people enter to become wealthy, but there is an expectation of making a livable wage
comparable to other equally educated professions.
Research Question 3

61
According to School Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and strategies used to
ensure the support and retention of leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Two themes emerged in researching the strategies used to ensure the support and
retention of leaders of color. First, each leader had a mentor that impacted their career and choice
to become a school leader. A second theme that emerged was that having a diverse, equitable,
and inclusive school climate played an invaluable role in the trajectory of each leader's decision
to not only choose education as a career but to serve in leadership roles.
Mentorships
In researching the policies, practices, and strategies used to support and retain leaders of
color in K-12 districts in Southern California, the data showed that mentorships for new
administrators are critical to supporting and retaining leaders of color. It is vital to have strong
leadership in schools to support student success. When the leaders were classroom teachers and
new administrators, a veteran administrator provided mentorship and guided them into leadership
roles, including becoming site administrators.
“At the beginning of my administrative career as an assistant principal, my principal
became my mentor. We met almost daily. She was my sounding board for curriculum,
evaluations, master schedules, and data. I am a principal because of her leadership and guidance.
I sometimes felt that I was her full-time job. She is retired, but I still call her when I need
guidance or support,” stated AC.
The data showed that all leaders were guided and supported by a mentor who
encouraged them to make a difference by becoming strong school leaders to support
student success. “My mentor helped me find the balance between my career and family.
That balance is an essential part of my district's culture. I know my superintendent values a

62
sense of support and belonging, allowing me to take risks without fear of failure.” shared
BH.
CK shared, “I began a relationship with my mentor in 2000 as a teacher. He told me
you should be a school leader, and that conversation and relationship changed my life. He
said you could go into your classroom and close your door. You can do your own thing or
make a real difference. He convinced me of the importance of making a broader difference
for students by being at the administrative level. He said I would influence hiring and
evaluating teachers. I could communicate with homes more frequently and help kids and
teachers problem-solve. In general, you will have this opportunity to be more global in
your approach to a school site by being in leadership.”
Each leader provided data that showed they had a mentor that was a person of color,
and they could identify with seeing themselves as a site or district leader because of the
mentor's support. AC shared, “I was teaching at a middle school, and the first principal
taught me how to be a school administrator. He modeled professionalism and how school is
a people business. He was admired and respected. As a result, I learned how to build a
school community and create an inclusive culture while building relationships and
supporting teachers academically and emotionally.” BD further shared:
I have had two mentors, one who taught me how to be a site administrator and one who
taught me how to be a district administrator. They were both Hispanic males. My site
administrator and I are essentially the same age. He was ahead of me in my career
trajectory. I had a lot of compatibility with both of those individuals. The first principal I
worked for was a Latina female who coincidentally grew up in the same town and
graduated from the same high school. I had administrators of the same race, particularly

63
my two mentors, who showed me a path forward and were role models.
Each administrator shared that having a mentor and one of color influenced each of them
to pursue a career as a leader. Their mentors showed them that leadership was not only possible
but that they could be successful as a leader, and they would be supported throughout their
journey as site and district leaders. AA remembered:
When I was hired as a teacher at the middle school level, my mentor was the vice
principal. Two years later, he became my principal, and I became his vice principal. He is
still a dear friend. He was that full package of knowledge and wisdom. The kids loved
him, the staff respected him, and everybody wanted to do everything for him because he
was such a great leader and person. He told me one day; you are going to run a district.
The best lessons I learned from him were always value people don't ever let your
emotions take over because then you lose all the credibility and suck it up, and don't ever
let them see you sweat.
Diverse, Equitable, and Inclusive District Climates
In researching what policies, practices, and strategies are used to ensure the support and
retention of leaders of color in K-12 districts in Southern California, the data uncovered that
having a diverse, equitable, and inclusive district climate played an invaluable role in the
trajectory of each leader’s decision to not only choose education as a career, but to serve in
leadership roles. As a result, these leaders now ensure diverse, equitable, and inclusive climates
for their teachers and students. Additionally, all data uncovered that every leader loved school
growing up but not for academic reasons; they loved school because of the relationships they
formed with teachers, extracurricular activities, and social aspects.

64
“I wasn't a student who was devoted to the academic world. I loved school because I had
fun, my friends were there, it felt safe, and there were sports. I hope it is okay in the 21st century
to say this, but I'll go and throw it out there; the girls were at school. Those were the driving
factors that kept me in school,” shared CK.
CK continued to explain about a relationship that changed his life:
I had the privilege last summer of visiting my seventh-grade history teacher. She's 87
years old. She lives in Arizona but was on vacation with her family in California. I found
out on Facebook she was in town. I wrote her daughter a message and said I would love
to see her. I spent an evening with Mrs. Lyons and her family. Before I left, I asked her,
‘Do you remember how often I came to your classroom after school?’ She acknowledged
that she did. I said, ‘I came to your classroom because of this sense of peace, and it was
structured. I knew I would be in this whirlwind of chaos the minute I got home.’ And I
just wanted her to know the difference she made in my life. It was people like her, and I
could identify. Five or six others were educators, including my high school football coach
and ASB director. These are the people that shaped who I have become. I want to say that
I do that for others. Hopefully, there will be some students out there in the days ahead
that will, and when I'm celebrating my 87th birthday, they will want to come and hang
out.”
All data uncovered that each leader participated in an inclusive school climate that played
an invaluable role in their decision to not only choose education as a career, but to serve in
leadership roles beginning in their secondary schooling. “I found school boring at times, but I
liked playing sports and enjoyed that aspect of school. I loved school for the extracurriculars, and
school is where I saw my friends,” shared BH.

65
“I loved school because of one teacher who impacted me the most. He was Mexican-
Latino and my music teacher in high school. The music teacher and program significantly
impacted me and made school worth attending. In the music program and marching band, I was a
section leader. I was trusted by my teacher and given leadership roles,” commented CJ. The
connection and relationships formed with a teacher, a coach, or a teacher have a profound impact
on every leader interviewed. Those relationships left a lasting impression on each. They each
shared that it is creating a diverse, equitable, and inclusive climate is a priority and they want to
pay that forward for all student, staff, and communities that they serve.
“I talked too much in school. I was bored and would get done with stuff, finish early, and
start chatting; I paid my consequences. I liked school because I liked being with people and
being involved in all the social and extracurricular activities. All through high school, I was on
student council, in the Girls Athletic Association, played sports, I was highly involved,” stated
BE.
Summary of Findings for Question 3
In Good Principals Aren’t Born – They’re Mentored (Southern Regional Education
Board), David Spence shares:
Today’s new principals need to hit the halls running, ready to lead their staff to accelerate
the improvement of teaching and learning. But too many new leaders are left to “learn on
the job.” (Imagine training a surgeon that way.) Their first opportunity to plan and
implement school improvement actions will be as head of a school, typically without
much guidance from successful peers. In an environment of increasing accountability
from the statehouse to the schoolhouse, this “sink-or-swim, stumble through it” approach

66
to principal leadership development is counterproductive and helps explain why school
reform efforts so often sputter and die out.”
Data from all principals uncovered that none were left to sink or swim. They all had
guidance and built relationships with a mentor either formally or informally assigned to them.
Everyone had someone who encouraged them to take a leadership role and become an
administrator. All data collected showed that the leaders still have relationships with their
mentors.
The principal responses aligned with the CRT framework used to theorize, examine, and
challenge how race and racism implicitly and explicitly impact social structures, practices, and
discourses (Ladson-Billings, 2006). All leaders interviewed shared that they participated in a
diverse, equitable, and inclusive climate in secondary school. They also shared that they are
committed to continuously improving their policies, practices, and strategies to uphold diversity,
equity, and inclusion that support and retain leaders of color in their schools and districts.
All data showed that connections and relationships formed with a teacher or a coach had a
profound impact on every leader interviewed. Those relationships left a lasting impression on
each of them. They are all committed, and it is a priority to create diverse, equitable, and
inclusive climates. The want to give back to their students, staff, and communities what they
received. Diverse, equitable, and inclusive climates changed their lives and career choices and
they all want to pay that forward.
A Summary of the Key Findings
Analysis of the data revealed several key findings related to the research questions that
guided this study. Key findings for Research Question One involve a combination of hiring

67
leaders of color and the need to look beyond traditional recruiting strategies, the application and
credential requirements for administrative positions, and the inadequate administrative pay scale.
In analyzing the connections between the themes presented in the data for Research
Question One, the educational system needs to recognize the barrier to the perception of a career
in education and explore strategies to attract candidates of color. As Du Bois (1996) emphasized,
there is a necessity for higher education to develop the leadership capacity among the most able
10 percent of Black Americans. Administrators spoke of the talented tenth and the need to reach
and recruit the most gifted students and encourage them to enter a career in education. In
addition, application and credentialing requirements must be analyzed for equity, inclusion, and
relevance. Districts must hire the best and most capable school leaders, regardless of traditional
experiences, years of service, gender, and age (Tallerico, 2000; Parker, 2018; Marger, 2012). All
administrators shared that the goal is to hire a population that mirrors their district demographic
while at the same time hiring the best candidate for the administrative position.
All administrators agreed that pay for administrative positions at the site and district
levels needs to be significant to make it attractive to leave the classroom for a longer work year
with more high-profile challenges and accountability. To draw top-tier candidates out of the
classroom and retain them in districts, you must pay them and support them in obtaining the
needed application requirements and additional credentials. Salary can make a difference in off-
setting other factors and may even go so far as to compensate for a wide range of school and
student population characteristics that traditionally have a negative impact on a district’s ability
to attract and retain highly qualified school principals (Pijanowski, 2009; Whitaker, 2003).
The key finding for Research Question Two included that districts should all have
Leadership Academies. All data collected from participants showed that preparing a pipeline of

68
principals is essential in recruiting and hiring effective school leaders of color. When looking
through the lens of hiring leaders of color that mirror student populations, leadership preparation
programs should not end when new principals are hired but should continue with high-quality
mentoring and career-long growth opportunities (Clayton et al., 2013; Honig, 2012; Skinner,
2010; Wallace Foundation, 2004).
Data showed that administrators needed more representation of leaders of color to serve
as a mirror for future administrative candidates. In addition, administrators believe that
candidates need to see themselves in the role of a site or district administrator by seeing
representation in those roles. Increasing diversity and representation of school principals and
administrators, who represent the broader community populations they serve, has been
highlighted as a necessary step toward achieving a more equitable and effective operation
(Tallerico, 2000).
The key findings for Research Question Three include data from all principals and
uncovered that none of the administrators interviewed were left to “sink or swim.” They all had
guidance and built relationships with a mentor either formally or informally assigned to them.
Each administrator had someone who encouraged them to take a leadership role and become an
administrator. All data collected showed that the leaders still have relationships with their
mentors.
The principal responses aligned with the CRT framework used to theorize, examine, and
challenge how race and racism implicitly and explicitly impact social structures, practices, and
discourses (Ladson-Billings, 2006). All leaders interviewed shared that they participated in a
diverse, equitable, and inclusive climate in secondary school. They also shared that they are
committed to continuously improving their policies, practices, and strategies to uphold diversity,

69
equity, and inclusion that support and retain leaders of color in their schools and districts. When
the districts make deliberate efforts to reach and serve the traditionally underserved and
disenfranchised, the districts improve on providing for a diverse, equitable and inclusive district
climate that is more effective in recruiting, hiring, supporting and retaining leaders of color
(Ladson-Billings, 2006; Unrealized Impact – The Case of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion, 2017;
Welborn, 2019).
Discussion
Chapter Four presented the findings from this qualitative research study. It shared the
results of the analysis of the qualitative data collected, via interviews from the participating
Superintendents, Human Resources directors, and middle school principals from School District
A, School District B, and School District C, all of which are in Southern California. All
respondents voluntarily participated in face-to-face interviews so that barriers (if any) to hiring
and retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California could be identified.
Further, these interviews revealed, according to district administrators and principals, what
policies, practices, and strategies (if any) are in place to overcome the barriers and ensure
equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of color including the support and retention the
administrators require.
Chapter Four commenced with an explanation of the approach used to analyze and code
respondent data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and then described the descriptive characteristics of
the interview respondents. The data collected from the interviews were then aligned to the
overarching research questions that guided this study. As presented in the findings, there was
clear evidence of recurring themes that emphasized the importance of looking beyond traditional

70
recruiting strategies, the application and credentialing requirement, and inadequate administrator
pay.
Moreover, the data collected in this study revealed the importance of Leadership
Academies to incorporate strategies to recruit, hire, and support future site and district leaders
and to increase diversity and representation of leader of color. Administrators contribute to the
effectiveness of schools. Effective principals can impact several school outcomes, including
student achievement, recruiting and motivating highly qualified teachers, identifying and
articulating school goals, and allocating resources appropriately to support teaching and learning
(Goldhaber, 2007; Hope, 2002; Rice, 2010; Schneider, 1983).
In addition, the criticality of mentorships was highlighted, as was the importance of
helping leaders of color be more successful in their early administrative careers in an effort to
encourage them to remain in the profession and in their districts. Finally, the data collected in the
interviews revealed how critical it is for districts to ensure diverse, equitable, and inclusive
climates. Increasing diversity and representation of school principals and administrators, who
represent the broader community populations they serve, has been highlighted as a necessary
step toward achieving a more equitable and effective operation (Tallerico, 2000).

71
Chapter Five: Conclusion
Chapter five provides a summary of the study, including the purpose of the study,
research questions, and discussions of findings. Finally, it concludes with study limitations,
implications for practice, and recommendations for further research.
Statement of the Problem
There is a need for K-12 public school systems to hire and retain more principals and
teachers of color. While seventeen percent of the students in K-12 public schools are Black,
Black teachers make up just eight percent of the teaching force and ten percent of principals in
the United States (Boser, 2011). The racial interaction between principals and students can
influence student performance via the employment of practices that improve the academic
achievement of students of color. Research continues to demonstrate that students of color
perform at lower proficiency and receive high suspension rates compared to their White peers
(Gregory et al., 2010). Further, several factors, including culturally biased discipline practices
and low socioeconomic status, appear to contribute to the persistence of this problem (Skiba et
al., 2008). The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United States
have been consistent for the past 40 years. There is a need to address this gap by identifying
research-based strategies in hiring, supporting, and retaining principals of color who can employ
culturally relevant and effective strategies to improve academic outcomes for students of color.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of Critical Race Theory
(CRT), what district administrators report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of

72
principals and, according to principals, what policies, practices, and strategies are in place to help
support and retain principals. This research investigated school principals' and district
administrators' perceptions and practices and shed light on successful strategies for recruiting,
hiring, and retaining principals of color. This study also investigated what district administrators
report as barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of principals and what policies, practices, and
strategies are in place to help support and retain school principals of color. The results of this
study highlight the effective hiring, support, and retainment practices K-12 school districts in
Southern California used to ensure that principals of color were assigned to schools to support
students of color.
Chapter 4 commenced with an explanation of the approach used to analyze and code
respondent data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and then described the descriptive characteristics of
the interview participants. The data collected from the interviews were aligned to the overarching
research questions that guided this study. As presented in the findings, there was clear evidence
of recurring themes that emphasized: first, the need to look beyond traditional recruiting
strategies; second, the application and credential requirements for administrative positions; and
third, the inadequate pay for potential leaders of color. In addition, the data collected in this
study uncovered that having Leadership Academies that help prepare a pipeline of the future site
and district leaders is a way to identify talent early in careers. Data also showed that
administrators needed more representation of leaders of color to serve as a mirror for future
administrative candidates. In addition, the data indicated that administrators believe candidates
need to see themselves in the role of a site or district administrator by seeing representation in
those roles. Another key finding was the criticality of mentorship. The respondents all had built a
relationship with a mentor that guided them into leadership and throughout their careers.

73
Furthermore, all leaders interviewed shared that they participated in diverse, equitable, and
inclusive climates in secondary school. The relationship they experienced in their school years
led them to commit to continuously improving their policies, practices, and strategies to uphold
diversity, equity, and inclusion that support and retain leaders of color in their schools and
districts.
The following questions guided this research:
1. According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if any) to hiring and
retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
2. According to district administrators, what policies, practices, and strategies (if
any) are in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and
hiring leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
3. According to School Administrators, what are the policies, practices, and
strategies used to ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12
Districts in Southern California?
Discussion of Findings
Research Question One
Research question one asked, According to District Administrators, what are the barriers (if any)
to hiring and retaining leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California?
Qualitative data of district administrator interviews for Research Question One
illuminated three findings. First, the need to look beyond traditional recruiting strategies; second,
the need to analyze the application and credential requirements for administrative positions; and
third, the need to investigate inadequate administrative pay scale.

74
The first finding was looking beyond traditional recruiting strategies to find qualified
administrators. The need for the most talented administrators found in this study was consistent
with existing research (Goldhaber, 2007; Hope, 2002; Rice, 2010; Schneider, 1983), which
found that effective principals can impact several school outcomes, including student
achievement, recruiting and motivating highly qualified teachers, identifying and articulating
school goals, and allocating resources appropriately to support teaching and learning. Attracting
effective leaders to the education field will involve looking beyond traditional recruiting
strategies. All data uncovered that district administrators want to seek candidates of color to
apply for positions, but they must actively go out and find those candidates using new strategies.
When a diverse pool of candidates enters the pool of applicants, the second finding
uncovered is that the application and credential requirements plays an essential role in hiring and
retention. The field of education, including leadership positions, should be inclusive and
equitable throughout the application and credentialing process. In Actively Addressing
Unconscious Bias in Recruiting (Carnahan, 2020), the research noted that districts must ensure
they write inclusive job descriptions, so a diverse range of candidates enters the application pool.
This conclusion encourages the consideration of the importance of a credential beyond teaching
for the site and distinct leaders. Are additional credentials needed? Tallerico (2000) shared and
there is a connection between CRT and what is referred to as “prior relevant experience.” Data
showed that each administrator interviewed came up through a traditional route to become a site
or district leader, and they each took a traditional educational path through teaching to become
an administrator. The district administrators believe credentialing requirements are a critical
barrier to hiring and retaining administrators of color. Administrative candidates are required to

75
obtain credentialing beyond teaching, including master's degrees and administrative credentials.
Those requirements are expensive.
The third finding in relation to Research Question One was the inadequate pay for
administrators. The pay scale emerged as a barrier to drawing top-tier candidates out of the
classroom and retaining them in districts. As Pijanowski (2009) indicates, salary can make a
difference in offsetting other factors and may even go so far as to compensate for a wide range of
school and student population characteristics that traditionally harm a district’s ability to attract
and retain qualified school principals. In addition, there is administrative support for additional
compensation, and it is believed it would improve the candidate pools for the principalship. In a
study by Whitaker (2003), salary was reported as the top priority for encouraging better
applicants to apply for principalship. All administrators in this study agreed that pay for
administrative positions at the site and district levels needs to be significant to make the positions
attractive for potential candidates to leave the classroom in exchange for a longer work year with
more high-profile challenges and accountability. Interview responses from district administrator
participants revealed it is difficult to attract potential administrators, let alone administrators of
color, because starting salaries can be among the lowest in the county. The National Association
of Elementary School Principals’ fact sheet on the principal shortage reaffirms the concern about
compensation for principals, stating that salaries for new principals can be as little as 10% more
than for veteran teachers. Between highly experienced teachers and new administrators, the
average daily pay rate may be less for new principals.
Research Question Two
Research question two asked, According to District Administrators, what policies, practices, and
strategies (if any) are in place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and

76
hiring leaders of color in K-12 Districts in Southern California? Qualitative data for research
question two produced two findings.
The first finding that emerged in relationship to Research Question two was that districts
should have leadership academies to grow their talent of teachers into future school and district
leaders. According to the Wallace Foundation’s report on Building Principal Pipelines (2017):
Leadership Academies piece together the research and fieldwork essential to shaping
effective school leaders. Leadership pipeline strategies include standards that outline a
principal’s required knowledge, identify a principal’s responsibilities, and drive their
training. A Leadership Academy should educate leaders in hiring, evaluation, and
support. It should include pre-service training that equips enrollees with the knowledge
and skills districts need and is given by providers with selective admissions policies.
Participants should gain an understanding of hiring procedures that consider only well-
qualified professionals for the jobs; and on-the-job evaluation and support that are linked
to one another and that help principals, especially novices, and improve in bolstering
instruction.
For the three participating districts in this study, it starts with a pool of teachers that then
become administrators. A thorough analysis of the data gathered from superintendents and
district leader interviews showed that participants strongly agreed that districts must develop and
implement Leadership Academies. Leadership academies for school administrators and teachers
provide valuable opportunities for professional development and growth. All superintendents and
Human Resource directors interviewed voiced that districts must build administrator pipelines
that incorporate strategies to recruit, hire, evaluate, and support a pool of promising, talented
teacher leaders, assistant principals, and principals.

77
The second finding that emerged in relationship to Research Question Two confirmed
that there is a need for increasing diversity and representation of leaders of color. Administrators
felt a lack of representation of leaders of color is a barrier for future administrative candidates.
The research was validated by a review of the existing literature (Tallerico, 2000). Such research
found that increasing diversity and representation of school principals and administrators, who
represent the broader community populations they serve, has been highlighted as a necessary
step toward achieving a more equitable and effective operation. In addition, administrators
believe that candidates need to see themselves in the role of a site or district administrator by
seeing representation in those roles. All superintendents and Human Resource directors
interviewed shared that the vision is ideal when the demographics of the administrative and
teaching staff mirror that of the student population. They want all students, including students of
color, to see leaders of color. All research participants seek to recruit, hire, support, and retain
school leaders of color. The research by Deitch et al. (2003), and Tallerico (2000) has also
shown that a diverse workforce at all levels of the organization is linked to improved
organizational performance and effectiveness. Furthermore, data from administrators uncovered
that families of color do not encourage students of color to choose careers in education.
Administrators shared that other professions are perceived as a more respected career choice. In
addition, educational careers have never been a profession people enter to become wealthy, but
there is an expectation of making a livable wage comparable to other equally educated
professions. Research from Camburn, Huff, Goldring, & May (2010) and Chance and Anderson
(2016) has shown a correlation between diverse teaching and administrative pools. Their work
found that schools and districts with more diverse teaching staff likely have a more diverse pool
of administrators.

78
Research Question Three
Research question three asked, According to School Administrators, what are the policies,
practices, and strategies used to ensure support and retention of leaders of color in K-12
Districts in Southern California? Qualitative data for Research Question Three produced
two findings.
The first finding that emerged related to Research Question Three was the
importance of mentoring new administrators. Each leader had a mentor that impacted their
career and choice to become a school leader. They also provided data that showed they had
a mentor that was a person of color, and they could identify with seeing themselves as a
site or district leader because of the mentor's support. In Good Principals Aren’t Born –
They’re Mentored (Southern Regional Education Board), David Spence shares:
Today’s new principals need to hit the halls running, ready to lead their staff to
accelerate the improvement of teaching and learning. But too many new leaders are
left to “learn on the job.” In an environment of increasing accountability from the
statehouse to the schoolhouse, this “sink-or-swim, stumble through it” approach to
principal leadership development is counterproductive and helps explain why
school reform efforts so often sputter and die out.
Data from all principals uncovered that none were left to sink or swim. They all had
guidance and built relationships with a mentor either formally or informally assigned to
them. Everyone had someone who encouraged them to take a leadership role and become
an administrator. All data collected showed that the leaders still have relationships with
their mentors.
The second finding that emerged in relation to Research Question Three was that having
a diverse, equitable, and inclusive school climate played an invaluable role in the trajectory of

79
each leader's decision to not only choose education as a career, but to serve in leadership roles.
The principal responses aligned with the CRT framework used to theorize, examine, and
challenge how race and racism implicitly and explicitly impact social structures, practices, and
discourses (Ladson-Billings, 2006). All leaders interviewed shared that they participated in a
diverse, equitable, and inclusive climate in secondary school. In addition, data showed that
connections and relationships formed with a teacher or a coach profoundly impacted every leader
interviewed. Those relationships left a lasting impression on each of them. They are all
committed to, and are currently, creating a diverse, equitable, and inclusive climate as a priority.
They want to give back what they received to their students, staff, and communities. Diverse,
equitable, and inclusive climates changed their lives and career choices; they all want to pay that
forward.
Implications for Practice
This research has implications for district practice in middle schools. The purpose of this
study was to contribute additional research to the current scholarly literature on what are the
barriers to hiring and retaining leaders of color and what policies, practices, and strategies are in
place to overcome the barriers and ensure equitable recruitment and hiring leaders of color in K-
12 districts in Southern California. Study findings established themes that inform educational
practitioners at the school site and district level and provide valuable information for school
principals and district leaders regarding ways to recruit, hire, and retain school leaders of color.
The policies, practices, and strategies identified in the research can help school sites, and districts
overcome the barriers to recruiting, hiring, and retaining leaders of color.
The first implication for practice by school district leaders emphasizes looking beyond
traditional recruiting strategies to increase diversity and representation of leaders of color.

80
Effective principals can impact school outcomes, including student achievement. Attracting
effective leaders to the education field will involve looking beyond traditional recruiting
strategies. All data uncovered that district administrators want to seek candidates of color to
apply for positions, but they must actively go out and find those candidates using new strategies.
Administrators felt a lack of representation of leaders of color is a barrier for future
administrative candidates. Administrators believe that candidates need to see themselves in the
role of a site or district administrator by seeing representation in those roles. All administrators
shared that the goal is to hire a population that mirrors their district demographic while at the
same time hiring the best candidate for the administrative position.
The second implication for practice by school district leaders highlights the importance of
administrator pay. All administrators agreed that pay for administrative positions at the site and
district levels needs to be significant to make it attractive to leave the classroom for a longer
work year with more high-profile challenges and accountability. To draw top-tier candidates out
of the classroom and retain them in districts, you must pay them and support them in obtaining
the needed application requirements and additional credentials. Salary can make a difference in
off-setting other factors and may even go so far as to compensate for a wide range of school and
student population characteristics that traditionally have a negative impact on a district’s ability
to attract and retain highly qualified school principals (Pijanowski, 2009; Whitaker, 2003).
The third implication of practice by school district leaders addresses the importance of
Leadership Academies in building an administrative talent pipeline. All data collected from
participants showed that preparing a pipeline of principals is essential in recruiting and hiring
effective school and district leaders of color, especially when looking through the lens of hiring
leaders of color that mirror student populations. All superintendents and Human Resource

81
directors interviewed voiced that districts must build administrator pipelines that incorporate
strategies to recruit, hire, evaluate, and support a pool of promising, talented teacher leaders,
assistant principals, and principals. As BD stated, “The bottom line is if you are not creating
avenues for leadership for your high-potential people, somebody else is, and they are going to
leave for those opportunities.”
A fourth implication of practice by school district leaders highlights the critical
role of providing mentors for new administrators. It is vital to have strong leadership in
schools to support student success. When the leaders were classroom teachers and new
administrators, a veteran administrator provided mentorship and guided them into
leadership roles, including becoming site administrators. The data showed that all
leaders were guided and supported by a mentor who encouraged them to make a
difference by becoming strong school leaders to support student success. In addition,
each administrator shared that having a mentor of color influenced them to pursue a
career as a leader. Their mentors showed them that leadership was possible and that
they could be successful as a leader, and they would be supported throughout their
journey as site and district leaders. They could identify with seeing themselves as a site
or district leader because of the mentor's support.
A final implication of practice is ensuring diverse, equitable, and inclusive climates.
The data uncovered that having a diverse, equitable, and inclusive district climate played an
invaluable role in the trajectory of each leader's decision to not only choose education as a
career, but to serve in leadership roles. In addition, data uncovered that each leader participated
in an inclusive school climate that played an invaluable role in their decision to not only choose
education as a career but to serve in leadership roles beginning in their secondary schooling.

82
Finally, all data uncovered that every leader loved school growing up, but not for academic
reasons; they loved school because of the relationships they formed with teachers, extracurricular
activities, and social aspects. As a result, these leaders now ensure diverse, equitable, and
inclusive climates for their teachers and students.
Limitations
This study was impeded by some limitations. First, this study only focused on barriers to
hiring and retaining leaders of color, and the policies, practices, and strategies to overcome these
barriers in K-12 districts in Southern California. This presents an issue of representativeness
because it only includes information from school and district administrators in Southern
California. Additionally, this study interviewed only three superintendents, three leaders of
Human Resource departments, and five principals. A higher participation rate would have
garnered a more extensive data sample and provided a richer and more informative data analysis.
Finally, the survey responses were more susceptible to potential bias because of the relatively
low participation rate.
Future Research
To emphasize the importance of overcoming barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of
principals of color and implementing policies, practices, and strategies to help support and retain
principals, this study’s review of literature noted a need for further research regarding specific
district leadership initiatives and practices to develop and implement diverse, equitable, and
inclusive district climates that support the hiring and retaining of principals of color. Therefore,
additional research is recommended to address three areas related to this study.
The first recommendation for future research is to provide a further study on the level of
administrative salaries. Salary can make a difference in offsetting other factors. It may even go

83
so far as to compensate for a wide range of school and student population characteristics that
traditionally have a negative impact on a district’s ability to attract and retain highly qualified
school principals (Pijanowski, 2009; Whitaker, 2003). Future research to provide further study
on the level of administrative salaries ideal for attracting a more significant number of potential
leaders of color is critical. Study findings revealed that higher starting salaries appear to attract a
more significant number of potential leaders. It would be beneficial for future research to
investigate further the specific ranges that increased recruitment and retention rates for leaders of
color.
The second recommendation for future research is to study recruiting strategies and the
perceptions of a career in education. Education needs to recognize the barrier to the perception of
a career in education and explore strategies to attract candidates of color to a career in education.
As Du Bois (1996) emphasized, “there is a necessity to develop the leadership capacity among
the most able Black Americans.” Administrators spoke of the talented tenth and the need to reach
and recruit the most gifted students and encourage them to enter a career in education.
The final recommendation for future research is to study diverse, equitable, and inclusive
school climates and how they contribute to recruiting, hiring, and retaining leaders of color, and
how those leaders increase student achievement. For example, data uncovered that when people
of color see themselves represented in administrative roles, they are more likely to see
themselves in those roles and, therefore, more likely to pursue careers in school administration.
Additionally, a diverse teaching staff can help create a more inclusive and culturally responsive
school culture, making the school more attractive to potential administrators of color. Finally,
further investigation of practices in school districts could add to the body of knowledge

84
describing specific actions taken to build the capacity of principals to build diverse, inclusive,
and equitable school climates.
Conclusion
This study contributes to the existing body of literature by examining how districts are
overcoming barriers to equitable hiring and retaining of principals of color and implementing
policies, practices, and strategies to help support and retain administrators that align with Critical
Race Theory in K-12 public school districts. Research indicates that schools with highly
effective leaders support student achievement and create diverse, equitable, and inclusive
climates. In addition, it is ideal when the demographics of the administrative and teaching staff
mirror that of the student population. Administrators of color need to see themselves in the role
of a site or district leader by seeing representation in those roles. Districts want all students,
including students of color, to see leaders of color. All research participants sought to recruit,
hire, support, and retain school leaders of color. Increased administrative pay is an opportunity to
attract and encourage teachers of color to leave the classroom. In addition, districts must also
build administrator pipelines that incorporate strategies to recruit, hire, evaluate, and support a
pool of promising, talented teacher leaders, assistant principals, and principals. Finally, new
administrators must have influential mentors. These mentors must provide their mentees with the
vision and confidence needed to be a leader, guidance, and support throughout their careers. The
above findings will help attract leaders of color to a career in education and be more successful
in their administrative careers, which will help retain them in the profession.

85
References
Achinstein, B., Ogawa, R.T., Sexton, D. & Freitas, C. (2010). Retaining Teachers of Color: A
Pressing Problem and a Potential Strategy for “Hard to Staff” Schools. Review of
Educational Research. March 2010, Vol.80, No.1, pp. 71-107.
Ainscow, M., (2020). Promoting inclusion and equity in education: lessons from international
experiences. Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy. Vol. 6(1).
Allen, S. J., & Shehane, M. R., (2016). Exploring the Language of Leadership Learning and
Education. National Library of Medicine. (151): 35-49.
Allensworth, E. M., & Hart, H. (2018). How do principals influence student achievements?
University of Chicago Consortium on School Research. Chicago, IL.
Alston, J. A., (2000). Missing in Action: Where Are the Black Female School Superintendents?
Urban Education 35(5).
Anderson, M. D., (2016). Where Are All the Principals of Color? The Atlantic from
http://theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/06/principals-of-color/488006/.
Anderson, R. A. (2009). Staff perceptions of African-American male principals in an urban K
12 school district. Cardinal Stritch University.
Anderson, S. E. (2003). The school district role in educational change: A review of the literature.
International Centre for Educational Change, 34(2), 25-45.
Antón, M. (1999). The discourse of a learner-centered classroom: Sociocultural perspectives on
teacher-learner interaction in the second-language classroom. Modern Language Journal,
83(3), 303–318. Doi:1015765924135.
Arkansas State Assembly, SB 46 (2003), Second Extraordinary Session 2003-2004.
Bartanen, B., & Grissom, J. A. (2021). School Principal Race, Teacher Racial Diversity, and
Student Achievement. The Journal of Human Resources.

86
Barton, N., & Grissom, C. K., (2021). On the Journey Toward Health Equity: Data, Culture
Change, and the First Step. New England Journal of Medicine. Vol. 2 (7).
Bason, M. (2002). Selection, retention, and a great place to work. Educators’ Learning Network.
Bell Jr, D. A. (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma.
Harvard law review, 518-533.
Bell, D. (2002). Ethical Ambition. New York, Bloomsbury.
Bell, D. (2008). Ethical ambition: Living a life of meaning and worth. Bloomsbury Publishing
USA.
Bell, D.A., (2004). Silent covenants: Brown vs. Board of Education and the unfulfilled hopes for
social reform. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Bertrand, L. A., Stader, D., & Copeland, S. (2018). Supporting New Leaders Through
Mentoring. School Leadership Review. Vol. 13(2).
Beng, H.S., Morris, R, Gorard, S. & El Soufi, N. (2020). What Works in Attracting and
Retaining Teachers in Challenging Schools and Areas? Oxford Review of Education.
Vol 46. Issue 6.
Bizzell, B., & Creighton, T. (2010). Using a leadership practice field to develop aspiring
principals. Retrieved from the OpenStax CNX website:
http://cnx.org/content/m35638/1.1.
Bloom, C. M., & Erlandson, D. A., (2003). African American Woman Principals in Urban
Schools: Realities, (Re)constructions, and Resolutions. Educational Administration
Quarterly. Vol. 39(3).
Brezicha KF, Fuller EJ. Building Teachers’ Trust in Principals: Exploring the Effects of the
Match Between Teacher and Principal Race/Ethnicity and Gender and Feelings of Trust.

87
Journal of School Leadership. 2019.
Briggs, K., Cheney, G.R., Davis, J. and Moll, K. (2013). Operating in the Dark: What Outdated
State Policies and Data Gaps Mean for Effective School Leadership. Dallas, Texas:
George W. Bush Institute.
Bristol, T. J., & Mentor, M., (2018). Policing and Teaching: The Positioning of Black Male
Teachers as Agents in the Universal Carceral Apparatus. The Urban Review. 50(6).
Brockmeier, L. L., Starr, G., Green, R., Pate, J. L., Leech, D. W. (2013). Principal and school
level effects on elementary school student achievement. International Journal of
Educational Leadership Preparation. 8(1), 49-61.
Brown, F. (2021). HOW CAN WE SUPPORT LEADERS OF COLOR?. The Learning
Professional, 42(2), 10-10.
Boser, U. (2011). Teacher diversity matters: A state-by-state analysis of teachers of color. Center
for American Progress, Washington, DC.
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theories and methods (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson A & B.
Burghardt, D. B. W. E. (1897). Strivings of the negro people. The Atlantic Monthly.
Building Principal Pipelines: A Job That Urban Districts Can Do. (2017). The Wallace
Foundation.
Burns Thomas, A., (2020). “Please Hire More Teachers of Color”: Challenging the “Good
Enough” in Teacher Diversity Efforts. Equity & Excellence in Education. Vol53(1-2) pp.
216-228.
California Department of Education, Demographics (2019). Los Angeles County, CA.
California Department of Education, Demographics (2021). Los Angeles County, CA.

88
Call me mister®. The Call Me MISTER® Initiative's goad is to increase the pool of available
teachers from a broader more diverse background. (n.d.), from
https://www.clemson.edu/education/programs/programs/call-me-mister.html.
Calmore, J. O. (1992). Critical race theory, Archie Shepp and fire music: Securing an authentic
intellectual life in a multicultural world. Southern California Law Review, 65, 2129-
2230.
Camburn, E. M., Huff, J. T., Goldring, E. B., & May, H. (2010). Assessing the validity of an
annual survey for measuring principal leadership practice. The Elementary School
Journal, 111(2), 314-335.
Carver-Thomas, D. (2018). Diversifying the Teaching Profession: How to Recruit and Retain
Teachers of Color. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute.
Carnahan, B., & Moore, C., (2020). Actively Addressing Unconscious Bias in Recruiting.
Harvard Business School.
Chance, P. L., & Anderson, R. B. (2003). The Principal's Role in Standards-Based Reform:
Linking Accountability to Instructional Improvement.
Cheung, R., & Gong, N. (2022). Understanding How a Leaders of Color Network Supports the
Retention of a Diverse Leader Workforce. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 21(1), 112
125.
Cho, S., & Reich, G. A. (2008). New immigrants, new challenges: High school social studies
teachers and English language learner instruction. The Social Studies, 99(6), 235–242.
doi:10.3200/TSSS.99.6.235-242.

Colvin, G. (2010). Defusing disruptive behavior in the classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA:

89
Corwin Press.
Clayton, J.K., Sanzo, K.L. & Myran, S. (2013). Understanding mentoring in leadership
development: Perspectives of district administrators and aspiring leaders. Journal of
Research on Leadership Education, 8(1), 77-96.
Connery, L. A., & Frick, W. C., (2021). A Formal Administrator Mentoring Program:
Perceived Learning Benefits and Insights into Leadership Well-being. i.e.: Inquiry in
education: Vol. 13(3).
Craig, C. L., & Perryman-Clark, S. M. (2016). Troubling the Boundaries Revisited: Moving
Towards Change as Things Stay the Same. Writing Program Administration, 39(2), 20+.
Crenshaw, K., ed. (1995). Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings the Formed the Movement.
New York, NY: The New Press.
Crenshaw, K. (1995). Mapping the margins. Critical race theory: The key writings that formed
the movement, 357-383.
Creswell, J. W., (2014). Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deitch, E. A., Barsky, A., Butz, R. M., Chan, S., Brief, A. P., & Bradley, J. C. (2003). Subtle yet
significant: The existence and impact of everyday racial discrimination in the workplace.
Human Relations, 56(11), 1299-1324.
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J., (2012). Hallmark Critical Race Theory Themes. New York
University Press.
Dixon, A. D., & Rousseau, C. K. (2005). Toward a CRT of education. CRT in education: All
God’s children got a song, 11-30.
Drane, C. J., (2018). Racial Disproportionality as Experienced by Educators of Color: Job

90
Satisfaction of Teachers and Administrators of Color. Boston College, Lynch School of
Education.
Du Bois, W. E. B. (1996). Strivings of the Negro people. University of Virginia Library.
Easton-Brooks, D. (2014). Ethnic-maGtching in urban schools. Handbook of urban education,
97-113.
Easton-Brooks, D. (2019). Ethnic matching: Academic success of students of color. Rowman &
Littlefield.
Easton-Brooks, D., Gomez, K., Lubbes, T., & Johnson, K. Villagómez, A. A., (2016). Oregon
teacher pathway: Responding to national trends. Equity & Excellence in Education,
49(1), 100-114.
Echols, C. (2006). Challenges facing Black American principals: A conversation about coping.
Retrieved January, 10, 2007.
Eddy, C. M., & Easton-Brooks, D. (2011). Ethnic matching, school placement, and mathematics
achievement of African American students from kindergarten through fifth grade. Urban
Education, 46(6), 1280-1299.
Education Department’s National Center for Education Statistics (2016)
Engel, Cannata & Curran (2018). “Principal Influences in Teacher Hiring: Documenting
Decentralization Over Time”. Journal of Educational Administration 56(3), 277-296.
Engel, M. & Curran, F. C., (2015). Toward Understanding Principals’ Hiring Practices.
Egalite, A. J., Kisida, B., & Winters, M. A. (2015). Representation in the classroom: The effect
of own-race teachers on student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 45, 44-
52.
Farinde, A. A., Allen, A., & Lewis, C. W. (2016). Retaining Black teachers: An examination of

91
Black female teachers’ intentions to remain in K-12 classrooms. Equity & Excellence in
Education, 49(1), 115-127.
Farinde-Wu, A., & Fitchett, P. G., (2016). Searching for Satisfaction: Black Female Teachers’
Workplace Climate and Job Satisfaction. Urban Education. V53 n1 p.86-112.
Feng, L. & Sass, T. R. (2015). The Impact of Incentives to Recruit and Retain Teachers in “Hard
to Staff” Subjects: An Analysis of the Florida Critical Teacher Shortage Program.
Foster, L., Peoples, L. Q., D’Andrea-Martinez, P., & Martin, J. (2021). How to Address
Educational Equity: Research-based Recommendations for Educators. Students at the
Center.
Frank, T. J., Powell, M. G., & Williams, A. (2021). Exploring Racialized Factors to Understand
Why Black Mathematics Teachers Consider Leaving the Profession. Educational
Researcher. Vol. 50(6).
Freedberg, L., & Colvin, R. (2014). Reforming Testing and Accountability: Essential Principles
for Student Success in California. Report. EdSource.
Fultz, M. (2004). The Displacement of Black Educators Post-Brown. History of Education
Quarterly. Vol. 44(1), pp. 11-45.
Gates, S., Baird, M., Master, B., & Chavez-Herrerias, E. (2019). Principal Pipelines: A
Feasible, Affordable, and Effective Way for Districts to Improve Schools. RAND
Corporation.
Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of teacher education,

92
53(2), 106-116.
Glense, C. (2011). Crafting your story: Writing up qualitative data. In P. Smith (Ed.), Becoming
qualitative researchers (4th ed.; pp. 218–240). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Gleason, C. (2022). Considering Equity and Inclusion in District Communications. Finalsite.
Goldhaber, D. (2007). Principal compensation: More research needed on a promising reform.
Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress.
Goldhaber, D., & Anthony, E. (2007). Can teacher quality be effectively assessed? National
board certification as a signal of effective teaching. The Review of Economics and
Statistics, 89(1), 134-150.
Gooden, M. A. (2012). What does racism have to do with leadership? Countering the idea of
color-blind leadership: A reflection on race and the growing pressures of the urban
principalship. Educational Foundations, 26, 67-84.
Good Principals Aren’t Born-They’re Mentored: Are We Investing Enough to Get the School
Leaders We Need? Southern Regional Education Board. Atlanta, GA.
Green, P. (2004). The paradox of the promised unfulfilled: Brown v. Board of Education and the
continued pursuit of excellence in education. Journal of Negro Education, 268-284.
Grissom, J. A., Egalite, A. J., & Lindsay, C. A. (2021). How principals affect students and
schools. Wallace Foundation.
Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap:
Two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68.
doi:10.3102/0013189X09357621.
Hall, L. & Klotz, J. (2001). A Regional Study of Gender Differential Perceptions of Mentoring
Functions in Accessing the Superintendency.

93

Hancock, C. B., & Scherff, L. (2010). Who will stay and who will leave? Predicting secondary
English teacher attrition risk. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(4), 328-338.
Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2010). Generalizations about using value-added measures of
teacher quality. American economic review, 100(2), 267-271.
Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative data analysis from start to finish. London, England: SAGE.
Harless, E. (2020). New Research: More Principals of Color May Be the Key to Diversifying
the Teacher Workforce. New Schools Venture Fund.
Hartlep, N. D., & Baylor, A. A. (2016). A Critical, Racial, and Theoretical Examination of the
“We-Need-More-Leaders-of-Color” Discourse. Envisioning a Critical Race Praxis in K-
12 Education Through Counter-Storytelling, 87.
Haycock, K. (2001). Closing the Achievement Gap. Educational Leadership v58 n6.
Hillard, A. G., III. (2001). “Race,” identity, hegemony, and education: What do we need to
know now? In Watkins, J. Lewis, & V. Chou (Eds.), Race and education: The role of
history and society in educating African American students (pp. 7-33). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Hill-Collins, P. (1990). Black Feminist thought in the Matrix of Domination. In P. H. Collins
(Ed.), Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and Politics of
Empowerment (pp. 221-238). Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Hitt, D., & Tucker, P. (2016) Systematic review of key leader practices found to influence
student achievement: A unified framework. Review of Educational Research, 86(2).
Honig, M. I., (2012). District Central Office Leadership as Teaching: How Central Office

94
Office Administrators Support Principals’ Development as Instructional Leaders.
Educational Administration Quarterly Vol. 48(4).
Hooper, E. B., Robinson, D., & Fitchett, P. (2021). Early Career African American Teachers
and the Impact of Administrative Support. Equity & Excellence in Education. Vol.
49(1). https://www.calpads.org.
Hope, W. C. (2002). Implementing educational policy: Some considerations for principals.
Clearing House, 76(1), 40-43.
Hulme, M. & Wood, J. (2012). The importance of starting well: the influence of early career
support on job satisfaction and career intentions in teaching. Journal of Further and
Higher Education. Vol. 46(4).
Hunt, J. W. (2011). The care and feeding of assistant principals: Leadership development or
squandered potential. Journal of Philosophy and History of Education, 61(1), 163-173.
Ingersoll, R., & May, H. (2011). Recruitment, retention and the minority teacher shortage. GSE
Publications. Philadelphia: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. (CPRE
Research Report #RR-69).
Irvine, J. J., & Armento, B. J. (2001). Culturally responsive teaching: Lesson planning for
elementary and middle grades. Education Review.
Jackson, T., (2002). The management of people across cultures: Valuing people differently.
Human Resource Management. Vol 41(4). pp. 455-475.
Jang, S. T., & Alexander, N. A. (2022). Black women principals in American secondary schools:
Quantitative Evidence of the link between their leadership and student achievement.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 58(3), 450-486.
Kaufman, J. H. (2017). ‘Principal Pipelines’ to Develop School Leaders Can Be Affordable Way

95
to Improve Schools. Rand Corporation.
Khalifa, M., Dunbar, C., & Douglas, T. R. (2013). Derrick Bell, CRT, and educational
leadership 1995–present. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(4), 489-513.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a nice field
like education? International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11, 7-24.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding
achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher 35(7)3-12.
Ladson-Billings, G. & Tate, W. F., (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers
College Record 97 (1), 47-68.
Leaders We Need Now. (2021). National Association of Elementary School Principals
(NAESP).
“Len on Me”: The Power of Principal Mentorship and Support. (2019). Wallace Foundation.
Learning Policy Institute & Public Leadership Institute. (2008). Teaching profession playbook:
Building a strong and diverse teaching profession. Partnership for the Future of Learning.
https://www.teachingplaybook.org/digital#chapters.
Leithwood, K., et.al. (2004). How Principals Affect Students at Schools: A systematic synthesis
of two decades of research. The Wallace Foundation
Leithwood, K., Seashore, K., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). Review of research: How
leadership influences student learning.
Lichtman, M. (2014). Qualitative research for the social sciences. London, England: SAGE.

96
doi:10.4135/9781544307756.
Lochmiller, C. R., & Lester, J. N. (2015). An introduction to educational research: Connecting
Methods.
Lovely, S. (2004). Staffing the Principalship: Finding, Coaching, and Mentoring School
Leaders. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Alexandria, VA
Malloy, C. L., & Wohlstetter, P. (2003). Working conditions in charter schools: What’s the
appeal for teachers? Education and urban society, 35(2), 219-241.
Malloy, W. W., & Allen, T. (2007). Teacher retention in a teacher resiliency-building rural
school. The Rural Educator, 28(2).
Marger, M. (2012). Race and ethnic relations (9th ed). New York, NY: Wadsworth
Marzano, R. J., Waters, T. & McNulty, B.A. (2005). School Leadership That Works: From
Research to Results. Alexandria, VA.: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Maxwell, J. L., (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
McCann, T. M., & Johannnessen, L., (2009). Mentoring Matters; The Challenge for Teacher
Education. National Council of Teachers of English. Vol. 98 (5). Pp. 108-111.

97

McCray, C. R., Wright, J. V., & Beachum, F. D. (2007). Beyond Brown: Examining the
Perplexing Plight of African American Principals. Journal of Instructional Psychology,
34(4).
Mendels, P. (2017). Building principal pipelines: A job that urban districts can do. Perspective.
Wallace Foundation.
Mendez v. Westminster School Dist., 64 F. Supp. 544 (S.D. Cal. 1946).
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Milner, H. R. (2007). Race, culture, and researcher positionality: Working through dangers
seen, unseen, and unforeseen. Educational Researcher, 36(7), 388-400.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07309471.
Monroe, C. R., & Obidah, J. E. (2004). The influence of cultural synchronization on a teacher’s
perceptions of disruption: A case study of an African American middle-school classroom.
Journal of Teacher Education, 55(3), 256–268. doi:10.1177/0022487104263977.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods
sourcebook (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Murrun, N. A., Plachowski, T. J., Mauldin, D. A. R., & Clark, C. (2021). “Teachers don’t really
encourage it”: A critical race theory analysis of high school students’ of color perceptions
of the teaching profession. Multicultural Education Review, 13(1), 3–24.
https://doi.org/10.1080/2005615x.2021.1890313.

98

National Association of Elementary School Principals. (n.d.). NAESP Fact Sheet on the
Principal Shortage. Retrieved May 2, 2008, from
http://www.naesp.org/ContentLoad.do?contentId=1097.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2018). [Washington, D.C.] :[NCES],
National Council of Professors of Educational Administration (2014). “Where are all the
principals of color?” March 2014.
New Playbook: Building a strong and diverse teaching profession. Partnership for the Future of
Learning. (2021, May 3), from https://futureforlearning.org/2021/teaching-playbook/.
New Playbook: Building a strong and diverse teaching profession. Partnership for the Future of
Learning. (2021, May 3), from https://futureforlearning.org/2008/teaching-playbook/.
OR HB3619 | 2010 | 1st Special Session. (2010, March 18). LegiScan. Retrieved March 05,
2023, from https://legiscan.com/OR/bill/HB3619/2010/X1.
Orfield, G., (1983). Public School Desegregation in the United States, 1968-1980. Joint Center
for Political Studies, Washington DC.
Ortiz., F. I., & Marshall, C. (1986). The Issue of Gender in Educational Enterprise. Feminist
Teacher. Vol. 2(2), pp. 18-25. University of Illinois Press.
Padamsee, X., & Crowe, B. (2017). Unrealized Impact – The Case for Diversity, Equity, and
Inclusion. Foundation Working Group.
Padamsee, X., Crowe, B., Hurst, L., Johnson, E. T., Louie, L., Messano, F., & Paperny, T.
(2017). Unrealized impact: The case for diversity, equity, and inclusion. Foundation
Working Group, 89.
Papa, F. C., Lankford, H., & Wyckoff, J. (2002). The attributes and career paths of principals:

99
Implications for improving policy. Report submitted to the New York State Education
Department. Albany, NY: University of Albany.
Parker, K., (2018). Women in majority-male workplaces report higher rates of gender
discrimination. Pew Research Center.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Patton, M.Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
Perrone, F., & Meyers, C. V., (2020). Teacher Hiring in the United States: A Review of the
Empirical Research (2001-2020). Annenberg Brown University. EdWorkingPaper No.
21-459.
Pijanowski, J. C., & Brady, K. P., (2009). The Influence of Salary in Attracting and
Retaining School Leaders. Education and Urban Society. Vol. 42(1). pp. 25-41.
Quicho, A., & Rios, F. (2000). The power of their presence. Minority group teachers and
schooling. Review of Educational Research. 70(4), 485-528.
Raffaele Mendez, L., & Knoff, H. M. (2003). Who gets suspended from school and why: A
demographic analysis of schools and disciplinary infractions in a large school district.
Education and Treatment of Children, 26(1), 30–51. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/42900535.
Rice, J. K. (2010). The impact of teacher experience: Examining the evidence and policy
implications. (Brief no.11.) National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in
Education Research.
Rice-Boothe, M. (2022). 4 ways to support principals of color. Edutopia.

100
https://www.edutopia.org/article/4-ways-support-principals-color.
Rice-Boothe, M., & Marshall, T. R. (2022). Defining, measuring, and supporting the success of
equity officers. Phi Delta Kappan, 104(3), 18-21.
Riley, R. (1998). Our Teachers Should be Excellent and They Should Look Like America.
Education and Urban Society, v31 n1.
Rodela, K. C., & Rodriguez-Mojica, C. (2020). Equity leadership informed by community
cultural wealth: Counterstories of Latinx school administrators. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 56(2), 289-320.
Romansky, L., Garrod, M., Brown, K. & Deo, K., (2021). How to measure inclusion in the
workplace. Harvard Business Review. Review 27.
Rubin, H. J. & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. 3
rd

Edition, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.
Samuels-Watkins, A. (2019). Black Certified Educators’ Lived Experiences Seeking
Employment in Connecticut’s Public Education System. University of New England.
Sanchez, J. E., Thornton, B., & Usinger, J. (2009). Increasing the ranks of minority principals.
Western Michigan University. Educational Leadership: Developing School Leaders, 67,
96-103.
Scafidi, B., Sjoquist, D. L., & Stinebrickner, T. R. (2007). Race, poverty, and teacher mobility.
Economics of education review, 26(2), 145-159.
Schneider, F. (1983). Merit pay for teachers. Mobile, AL: Mobile County Public Schools.
Schott Foundation of Public Education. (2010). Yes we can: The Schott 50 state report on public
education and black males. Retrieved from http://www.blackboysreport.org/bbreport.pdf.

101
Sezgin, F., Sonmez, E., & Naillioglu Kaymak, M., (2020). Mentoring-Based Learning Culture
in Schools: Learning from School Administrator Mentoring. Research in Educational
Administration & Leadership. Vol. 5(3).
Shelton, S. (2012). Preparing a Pipeline of Effective Principals: A Legislative Approach.
National Conference of State Legislatures.
Simon, N.S., Johnson, S.M., & Reinhorn, S.K., (2015). The Challenge of Recruiting and Hiring
Teachers of Color: Lessons from six high-performing, high-poverty, urban schools. The P
roject on the Next Generation of Teachers.
Skiba, R., Graham, S., Sheras, P., Conoley, J., & Garcia-Vazquez, E. (2008). Are zero tolerance
policies effective in the schools: An evidentiary review and recommendations. The
American Psychologist, 63(9), 852–862.
Skinner, T. (2010). Exploration of barriers and solutions for women in the pathway to the high
school principalship. Doctoral dissertation. Old Dominion University.
Shaw, E. J. (2005). Researching the Educational Benefits of Diversity. College Bound Research
Report No. 2005-4. College Entrance Examination Board, New York.
Shelton, S. (2012). Preparing a Pipeline of Effective Principals: A Legislative Approach.
National Conference of State Legislatures.
Smith, M., & Lemasters, L. (2010). What happened to all the Black principals after Brown.
International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 5(4), 1-9.
Smith, P. A. (2016). Does Racism Exist in Hiring and Promotion of K-12 School
Administrators. Urban Education Research and Policy Annuals. Vol 4(1).
Solórzano, D. G. (1998). Critical race theory, race and gender microaggressions, and the

102
experience of Chicana and Chicano scholars. International journal of qualitative studies
in education, 11(1), 121-136.
Southeast Asian teacher licensure program. Concordia St. Paul. (2022, May 20), from
https://www.csp.edu/academic-programs/seat/.
Sun, A. Q. & Miller, R. R. (2020). Associations Between Principals of Color and Recruiting
Teachers of Color In New Jersey Schools. American Association of School
Administrators. AASA Journal of Scholarship & Practice (Vol.16, Issue 4).
Sutcher, L., Darling-Hammond, L., & Carver-Thomas, D. (2016). A Coming Crisis in
Teaching? Teacher Supply, Demand, and Shortages in the U.S. Learning Policy
Institute.
Superville, D. R., (2021). Principals of Color Are Scarce. Here’s What Districts Are Doing
About It. Education Week, Dec. 2021.
Tallerico, M. (2000). Gaining access to the superintendency: Headhunting, gender, and color.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(1), 18-43.
Tate, W. ( 2005). Ethics, engineering and the challenge of racial reform in education. Race,
Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 121-127.
Tierney, W. G., & Dilley, P. (2002). Interviewing in education. Handbook of interview research:
Context and method, 2, 453-472.
Tierney, W. G. (1991). Utilizing Ethnographic Interviews to Enhance Academic Decision
Making. New directions for institutional research, 18(4), 7-22.
Torres, J., Santos, J., Peck, N. L., & Cortes, L. (2004). Minority teacher recruitment,

103
development, and retention. The Education Alliance at Brown University. Northeast and
Islands Regional Educational Laboratory (LAB). U.S. Department of Education.
Washington, DC: Institute of Educational Sciences (ED).
U.S. Department of Education. Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education
Statistics.
U.S Department of Education (2016). “The State of Racial Diversity in the Educator
Workforce”. Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Policy, and
Program Studies Service. Washington D.C.
Vegas, E., Murnane, R. J., & Willett, J. B. (2001). From high school to teaching: Many steps,
who makes it? Teachers College Record, 103(3). 427-449.
Villegas, A. M., Strom, K., & Lucas, T. (2012). Closing the racial/ethnic gap between students of
color and their teachers: An elusive goal. Equity & Excellence in Education, 45(2), 283-
301.
Walker, L. J., Goings, R. B., & Wilkerson, R. D. (2019). The Role School Administrators Play
in Creating Healthy Ecosystems for Black Male Preservice Teachers. The Journal of
Educational Foundations. Vol. 32. pp. 114-141.
Walker, V. S., & Byas, U. (2003). The Architects of Black Schooling in the Segregated South:
The Case of One Principal Leader. Journal of Curriculum & Supervision, 19(1).
Welborn, J. E., (2019). Increasing Equity, Access, and Inclusion through Organizational
Change: A Study of Implementation and Experiences Surrounding a School Distrit’s
Journey Towards Culturally Proficient Educational Practice. International Council of
Professors of Educational Leaders. Vol. 20(1).
Weis, L. & Fine, M., (2002). Writing the ‘wrongs’ of fieldwork: Confronting our own

104
research/writing dilemmas in urban ethnographies. In Being Reflexive in Critical and
Social Educational Research (pp. 22-44). Routledge.
Whitaker, K. S., (2003). “Principal role changes and influence on principal recruitment and
selection: An international perspective”. Journal of Educational Administration, Vol.
41(1). Pp.37-54.
White, B. R., Brown, K. S., Hunt, E., & Klostermann, B. K. (2011). The view from the
principal’s office: Results from the IERC principals survey. Edwardsville, IL.: Illinois
Educational Research Council.
Winant, H. (2001). White racial projects. The making and unmaking of whiteness, 97-112.
Witherspoon, N. & Mitchell, R. W., (2009). Critical Race Theory as ordinary theology of
African American principals. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education.
Vol. 22(6).
Yosso, T. J., (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth, Race Ethnicity and Education, 8:1, 69-91.
Yosso, T. J. (2014). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community
cultural wealth. In Critical race theory in education (pp. 181-204). Routledge.
Yosso, T. J., Parker, L., Solorzano, D. G., & Lynn, M. (2004). Chapter 1: From Jim Crow to
affirmative action and back again: A critical race discussion of racialized rationales and
access to higher education. Review of research in education, 28(1), 1-25.

105
Appendix I
Protocols:
Introduction
Thank you for your participation.
Participation in this study is voluntary. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want
to answer. If at any time they do not wish to continue with the interview, you may decline. All
names will be coded, all districts will be coded and not revealed in my study. Your time and
involvement is profoundly appreciated. The entire interview will take approximately 1 hour. I
will record the information to maintain the essence of the participant’s words for the research.
Participants may request to see or hear the information I collect at any time.

106
Appendix II
QUESTIONS FOR SUPERINTENDENTS AND HUMAN RESOURCE PERSONNEL

1. First, tell me about your background in education. (Q: Background)
a. How did you become interested in the field of education?
b. How long have you worked in the field?
c. What roles or positions have you held?

2. When did you become interested in district/school leadership? (Q: Background)
a. Is there a person in your career that encouraged you to pursue a career in leadership?
b. What was the most challenging barrier you faced in becoming a leader?
c. What would have made your decision to become a leader easier?
3. In your perspective as a leader in the district, describe how diversity, equity and inclusion
initiatives are implemented throughout the system? (Not specifically for hiring and
retention). (CF: Practices, Q: Interpretive)
1. What is the organizational strategy that drives the district’s selection of leaders?
2. What are the leaders' significant knowledge skills and abilities that you look for when hiring?
(CF: Hiring Administration Q: Interpretive)
a. How does your district evaluate non-traditional professional experiences in the hiring
process?
6. What actions have you utilized to retain your most talented leaders? (CF: Strategies, Q:
Practices?
7. What are some barriers that you have encountered when actively seeking candidates of
color?

107
8. What diversity policies have been implemented successfully at the district level and how do
you measure that success? (CF: Policies Q: Interpretive)
9. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you have that could impact diversity, equity, and inclusion
recruitment? (CF: Strategies Q: Interpretive)
10. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you have that could impact diversity, equity, and inclusion hiring?
(CF: Strategies Q: Interpretive)
11. What are the 2 to 3 ideas you have that could impact diversity, equity, and inclusion
retention? (CF: Strategies Q: Interpretive)
Closing Question:
What other insight would you like to share about our conversation about Equitable, Recruitment,
Hiring, and Retention Practices of Leaders of Color today that I might not have covered, if an

108
Appendix III

QUESTIONS FOR SITE MIDDLE SCHOOL PRINCIPALS
1. First, tell me about your background in education. (Q: Background)
d. How did you become interested in the field of education?
e. How long have you worked in the field?
f. What roles or positions have you held?
2. When did you become interested in district/school leadership? (Q: Background)
a. Is there a person in your career that encouraged you to pursue a career in leadership?
b. What was the most challenging barrier you faced in becoming a leader?
c. What would have made your decision to become a leader easier?
3. Did any direct experience motivate you to go into education? (Q: Background)
4. Did you have a teacher or leader of the same race in your K-12 experience? If yes, did they
have a significant impact on your journey? (Q: Background)
5. In your experience, does your district earnestly work to recruit leaders of color? (CF:
Practices Q: Interpretive)
6. What role does mentorship play in education? Have you been mentored by other leaders?
(CF: Practices, Background, Q Background)
7. What activity and initiatives at the district level has encouraged you to stay for so long? (CF
Practices, Background Q: Background)
8. Does race factor into your educational experience? How has race and ethnicity effected your
professional career regardless of position? (Q: Background)
9. In your experience what barriers have you seen that keep people of color from going into
the education system? Do you have any suggestions to eliminate them? (Q: Background)

109
Closing Question:
What other insight would you like to share about our conversation about Equitable, Recruitment,
Hiring, and Retention Practices of Leaders of Color today that I might not have covered, if any?
Closing Comments:
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today. I appreciate your time. At this
point we have concluded the structured portion of this interview. Everything that you have
shared is beneficial for my study. If I find myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you.
Again, thank you for participating in my study.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract There is an urgent need for K-12 school districts in the United States to hire, support, and retain school principals that reflect the students in the schools they serve. One of the most important investments we make in public education is to ensure that we have well-qualified, caring, and dedicated principals in every school. Our principal force should be excellent, but excellence alone will not be enough. If we are to increase opportunities for students and address the inequities that exist in our schools for the most marginalized students, it is critical that we develop a leadership force that is also diverse and reflects the students in the schools they serve. The number of students of color that walk through our urban public school doors increases each year, and they need to see role models that can connect students to the world outside of the schoolhouse and the opportunities that exist for them.
Reviewing all indicators of academic achievement, educational attainment, and school success, students of color are consistently ranked at the bottom (Skiba et al., 2008). With very few exceptions, these dismal patterns exist in urban and rural school districts throughout the United States. The disproportionately poor outcomes of students of color within the United States have been consistent for the past 40 years (Skiba et al., 2008). One of the many methods than can be implemented to address this gap is to implement research-based practices, strategies, and policies in the recruitment, hiring, and retention of principals of color. This is because students of color who have leaders of color in their schools and classrooms are statistically more likely to graduate from high school, have higher test scores, and are more likely to be accepted to college (Easton-Brooks, 2014). The following research highlights examples of the barriers to recruiting, hiring and retaining leaders of color in public schools in Southern California, and methods to overcoming those barriers in an aim to improve schools for administrator, teachers and students alike

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Why can’t I see myself in my school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools

PDF

Equitable hiring practices: “Why can’t I see myself in my school?”: Hiring and retaining ethically diverse leadership in public schools

PDF

The attributes of effective equity-focused elementary school principals

PDF

Problems and solutions for school counselors supporting Black and Latinx students in the 21st century

PDF

The attributes of effective equity-focused elementary principals

PDF

The principal's perspective: essential factors when implementing integrative STEM in middle school

PDF

Leading the new generation: principal leadership practices that promote retention of millennial teachers

PDF

Retaining racially minoritized students in community college STEM programs

PDF

Impressions of diversity: frontline fundraiser hiring in higher education

PDF

How principals lead Title I schools to high academic achievement: a case study of transformative leadership

PDF

Ethnic studies as critical consciousness and humanization

PDF

Building leadership capacity from the top: how superintendents empower principals to lead schools

PDF

Addressing the education debt: how community college educators utilize culturally relevant pedagogy to support Black and Latinx student success

PDF

Inclusive gender practices in high schools: a study on supports and practical solutions for California administrators

PDF

K-12 public school district principals in California: strategies for preparation, recruitment, and retention

PDF

Culturally responsive principal leadership and its influence on teachers in urban settings.

PDF

An examination into leadership strategies that stop perpetuating the equity gap of historically marginalized students in high schools

PDF

The positionality and power dynamics of high school math departments

PDF

The opportunity gap: culturally relevant pedagogy in high school English classes

PDF

Developing aspiring school leaders to address the diverse racial equity needs in school communities: an evaluation study

Asset Metadata

Creator Sheehan, Kimberly Joann (author)

Core Title Why I can't see myself in school? Hiring and retaining ethnically diverse leadership in public schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/02/2023

Defense Date 04/10/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag administrator pipelines,critical race theory,diversity,equity,hiring,inclusion,leader of color,OAI-PMH Harvest,recruitment,retention,teacher of color,the achievement gap

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cash, David (committee chair), Franklin, Greg (committee member), Garcia, John (committee member)

Creator Email kjsheeha@usc.edu,ksheehan@me.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113095831

Unique identifier UC113095831

Identifier etd-SheehanKim-11753.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-SheehanKim-11753

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Sheehan, Kimberly Joann

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230503-usctheses-batch-1035 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu