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Examining how teacher pre-service/credential programs prepare teachers to teach BIPOC students

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Examining how teacher pre-service/credential programs prepare teachers to teach BIPOC students

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Examining How Teacher Pre-Service/Credential Programs Prepare Teachers to Teach
BIPOC Students

By Pete Bland

The USC Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

A dissertation submitted to the faculty in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2023

© Copyright by Pete Bland 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Pete Bland certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Dr. Morgan Polikoff - Committee Chair
Dr. Gregory Franklin - Committee Member
Dr. Colleen Hawkins - Committee Member

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023
Abstract
This study seeks to investigate the influence of teachers on the academic performance of
BIPOC students and explore the utilization of culturally relevant teaching practices by teachers
in urban settings. While numerous studies have examined the impact of teachers on student
achievement, many have highlighted the significance of teacher training and continuous
professional development in effectively educating BIPOC urban youth. This research aims to
assess the extent to which teachers perceive their pre-service teacher credentialing programs as
adequately equipping them with the necessary tools to navigate urban school systems and teach
BIPOC students. Additionally, it aims to examine how teachers address issues such as culturally
responsive pedagogy and systemic, structural inequities in their teaching practices.
This study will focus on early career teachers who have completed a teacher credentialing
program and are currently teaching BIPOC students in urban settings, with 0-5 years of teaching
experience. The research will involve conducting interviews with these teachers to gather their
reflections on their teacher credentialing programs. Additionally, teachers will be asked to share
their experiences at their school sites, particularly regarding the post-credential program support
and professional development they have received. The aim is to explore the level of support
provided and the relevance of these trainings in enhancing their professional teaching practice to
effectively support BIPOC learners.
The data collected for this study will be primarily qualitative in nature. Analyzing this
data will yield valuable insights and information regarding teachers’ perceptions of their
preparedness to teach BIPOC students in urban environments. It will also allow for an
examination of the ongoing support they receive at their school sites through professional
development opportunities.
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to the invaluable friends and colleagues who stood by my side
throughout this chapter. To my parents, for whom I express my deepest gratitude for laying the
foundation and providing unwavering support throughout my life. To my twin sons, Jak and
Charlie, who have been a constant source of inspiration, propelling me to embark on this
academic endeavor. Above all, my heartfelt dedication goes to my amazing wife, Stacy, who has
been my rock and unwavering, ride-or-die counterbalance. I love you!

Fight On!
Table of Contents
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ......................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................................... 3
Research Questions ...................................................................................................................... 3
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................ 3
Significance of the Study ............................................................................................................. 4
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................................... 5
Organization of the Study ............................................................................................................ 7
Chapter Two: Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 9
Research Questions: ..................................................................................................................... 9
The Racial Mismatch between Teachers and Students ................................................................ 9
The Impact of Racial Mismatch On Students ............................................................................ 10
Why Teacher Mismatch Matters ................................................................................................ 14
Improving the White Teaching Force ........................................................................................ 17
Pre-Service Teaching Programs ................................................................................................. 18
Alternative Teacher Preparation Pathways ................................................................................ 21
Understanding Racism & Privilege Through the White Lens ................................................... 23
The Need for Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices .......................................................... 24
Systems of Support and Purposeful Professional Development ................................................ 28
Induction Support ................................................................................................................... 28
Professional Learning Communities ...................................................................................... 29
Peer Equity Coaching for Educators ...................................................................................... 30
Professional Development ..................................................................................................... 32
Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................................. 33
Figure 1: ................................................................................................................................. 33
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 36
Chapter Three: Methods ................................................................................................................ 37
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 37
Sample and Population .............................................................................................................. 38
Site Selection .......................................................................................................................... 39
Participant Selection ............................................................................................................... 40
Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedures ...................................................................... 41
Interviews ............................................................................................................................... 41
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 50
Credibility & Trustworthiness ................................................................................................... 51
Ethics ......................................................................................................................................... 53
Limitations ................................................................................................................................. 54
Delimitations .............................................................................................................................. 55
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 56
Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................. 57
Participant Profile ...................................................................................................................... 58
Results ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Overview of Results ............................................................................................................... 60
The Convenience of Pre-Service Teaching Programs ............................................................ 61
Overly Theoretical Program Focus ........................................................................................ 66
Real-life Application of Learning .......................................................................................... 71
Post Program Support ............................................................................................................ 76
Post Program Support Participants Received ......................................................................... 81
Post Program Support Participants Wanted ........................................................................... 82
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 84
Chapter Five: Discussion ............................................................................................................... 85
Findings ..................................................................................................................................... 86
Implications for Practice ............................................................................................................ 89
Future Research ......................................................................................................................... 93
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 95
References ..................................................................................................................................... 96

List of Tables
Table 1: Interview Questions and Conceptual Framework Alignment …………………………43
Table 2: Participant Profile ...……………………………………………………………………60
Table 3: Post Program Support Received vs. Post Program Support Desired …..………………78

List of Figures

Figure 1: BIPOC Student Achievement …………………………………….……………… 34
1

Chapter One: Overview of the Study
1

People emphasize the importance of quality teachers and the many factors that contribute
to a student’s academic performance, including individual characteristics, family, and
neighborhood experiences. But among school-related factors, hiring and retaining quality
teachers directly impacts a student’s academic achievement and educational experiences
(Gershenson & Papageorge, 2018). While we know that there are differences in the quality of
teachers, there is little dispute that teachers are impactful agents in students’ educational pursuits.
The U.S. Department of Education defines effective teachers as those who can generate
acceptable student achievement outcomes, at least one grade level of student growth in an
academic year (Kaplan, 2013). But effective teachers produce more than high student test scores;
they have long-term personal impacts. Having an effective teacher can dramatically alter
students’ educational outcomes (Adnot et al., 2016).
Closing the achievement gap for students of color continues to be challenging for
educators across America, including in urban centers. Having diverse educators in our school’s
classrooms benefits all students and helps to prepare them to succeed in our multicultural society
(U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Many indicators suggest that a diverse teacher workforce
benefits Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) students through congruence in teacher-
student relationships and prepares all students for successful democratic and economic
participation in a diverse global society (Sleeter et al., 2014). Further, research on social justice-
oriented teacher education and culturally responsive teaching shows the connection between
teacher effectiveness and the positive impact teachers of color have on students’ academic and
social-emotional development (Ladson-Billings, 2000).

1
Portions of this proposal were written collaboratively with David Keys and Arielle Miller
2

Public school students of color overall now make up slightly more than 50% of all school
enrollment; yet, our teacher workforce is more than 80% White and female (Goldring &
Bitterman, 2013). In many of America’s urban schools, more than 80% of the students are of
color, with 70% being BIPOC students (Geiger, 2018). The data from Pew Research Center
suggests that our BIPOC students need more educator representation in their schools. For BIPOC
students, having a diverse teaching staff provides a familiar and relatable learning environment.
According to the U.S. Department of Education: The State Of Racial Diversity In The
Educator Workforce (2016) experiences and perspectives foster intellectual growth for BIPOC
students. Students can see role models who reflect their identities while breaking down negative
stereotypes and preparing students to live and work in a multiracial society in our urban schools.
While teachers from all backgrounds are needed across education, BIPOC students need to see
themselves represented in their teachers (Geiger, 2018).
The need for more BIPOC educators has never been greater. BIPOC educators are
underrepresented in education throughout American urban schools. The lack of BIPOC educators
is a disservice to students of color, and those teachers are needed to close the educational gap
among minority students.
Background of the Problem
In public schools today, minority students are no longer the minority. Based on the
statistics of the changing student demographics and responsiveness of urban youth to minoritized
teachers, there is an urgency for teacher pre-service credential programs play a critical role in
preparing teachers to teach a diverse student population.
Teaching is a noble profession that requires a significant amount of training, skill, and
expertise. In today's multicultural classrooms, teaching diverse learners is a complex task with
3

high demands for teachers’ proficiency (Ladson-Billings, 2013). Teachers must be equipped with
the necessary tools to effectively differentiate instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners
(Weinstein, 2004). Teachers who enter the classroom with an understanding of the cultural,
linguistic, and social diversity of their students are more likely to be effective in their teaching. It
is essential that pre-service/credential programs prepare teachers to understand how students’
differences affect learning and align pedagogies that effectively address those differences while
appreciating the unique cultural experiences of their students, especially those of color, to ensure
they can create a safe and welcoming learning environment for everyone.
Purpose of the Study
This study aims to examine if pre-service/credential courses prepare teachers to educate
BIPOC students in urban areas, and whether those teachers have support systems to create and
sustain culturally responsive teaching practices for their students. Teacher pre-service/credential
programs and their associated courses need to be designed to enhance teachers' cultural
competence, reduce achievement gaps, and address issues of social justice and equity in
education. By examining teacher interviews, this study is aimed at determining whether their
pre-service/credential programs adequately equipped them to teach BIPOC students in urban
settings.
Research Questions
This study investigates one research question: “How, if at all, have pre-service/credential
courses prepared teachers to teach BIPOC students in urban areas?”
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework maps out the need for more adequate teacher training and
supports to educate BIPOC urban youth by examining two major factors at the K-12 school site:
4

external and internal. External factors begin with pre-service/credential programs and
acknowledge that teacher diversity can directly affect BIPOC student achievement. Research
suggests that when a student has at least one teacher of color who looks like them, the students of
color do better (Camera, 2018). Internal factors this framework recognizes how teacher in-
service training informs the growth of educators and supports them in delivering meaningful,
culturally relevant instruction. These factors, in conjunction with educational policies, and
historical systemic racism also play a direct role in the achievement of BIPOC students. Since at
the core, BIPOC student achievement is being examined through the lens of teacher pre-service
programs, it is important to consider any other factors that can affect student achievement in
urban communities such as the neighborhood context, systemic racism, and educational policies
that can and will frame the teacher’s experiences.
Significance of the Study
There is a need for research, as this study will provide insight into how teacher pre-
service programs and credential courses prepare educators to teach BIPOC students in the urban
setting. This study will add to the literature by highlighting the support systems teachers need in
order to create and sustain culturally responsive teaching practices for BIPOC students. The
objective is to examine the role credentialing programs play in the development of teachers’
capacity to support BIPOC students through culturally responsive teaching practices. The results
of this study can assist school districts and teacher credentialing programs in evaluating current
curricula, training and the applicability given the changing landscape of students in American
public schools. As well as contributing to evolving said programs to appropriately match the
learners that educators in urban sectors are responsible for teaching by highlighting the skills and
5

practices teachers must possess to successfully foster BIPOC student development and
achievement.
Definition of Terms
Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC): According to Smith of Greatist (2021),
BIPOC is, essentially, a political term used to categorize and display solidarity between Black
people, Indigenous people, and people of color in the United States:
BIPOC has developed as a term to highlight the fact that, in North America, Black and
Indigenous folks have a specific relationship to racism and white supremacy. “Black” denotes
the hypervisibility of Black people in American society, while “Indigenous” is included to
highlight the erasure of Indigenous people. Many people prefer BIPOC to POC due to the belief
that POC has been watered down by White institutions. BIPOC is also more often used by
activists and organizers, who are more cognizant of the language that they use. This is why we
emphasize that BIPOC is a political term, along with a categorical one. It’s important to
emphasize that BIPOC is a US-centric term, although Canada also has a similar history
concerning its Black and Indigenous populations.
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: As defined by the California Department of Education
(2022), Culturally Relevant Pedagogy is a theoretical model that focuses on multiple aspects of
student achievement and supports students to uphold their cultural identities. Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy also calls for students to develop critical perspectives that challenge societal
inequalities. Gloria Ladson-Billings proposed three main components of Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy: (a) a focus on student learning and academic success, (b) developing students’
cultural competence to assist students in developing positive ethnic and social identities, and (c)
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supporting students’ critical consciousness or their ability to recognize and critique societal
inequalities. All three components need to be utilized.
Culturally Responsive Teaching: Culturally responsive teaching has been defined as “the
process of using familiar cultural information and processes to scaffold learning, emphasizes
communal orientation, focused on relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social
awareness” (Hammond, 2015, p. 156).
Educational Equity: Educational equity means that each child receives what he or she
needs to develop to his or her full academic and social potential.
Working towards equity involves:
● Ensuring equally high outcomes for all participants in our educational system;
removing the predictability of success or failures that currently correlates with
any social or cultural factor
● Interrupting inequitable practices, examining biases, and creating inclusive
multicultural school environments for adults and children
● Discovering and cultivating the unique gifts, talents, and interests that every
human possesses (National Equity Project, 2018).
Equality: Equality is described by the Equality and Human Rights Commission (2018) as
ensuring that every individual has an equal opportunity to make the most of their lives and
talents. It is also the belief that no one should have poorer life chances because of the way they
were born, where they come from, what they believe, or whether they have a disability. Equality
recognizes that historically certain groups of people with protected characteristics such as race,
disability, sex and sexual orientation have experienced discrimination.
Transformative Research Paradigm: Set of assumptions and procedures used in research:
7

● Underlying assumptions that rely on ethical stances of inclusion and challenging
oppressive social structures.
● An entry process into the community that is designed to build trust and make goals and
strategies transparent.
● Dissemination of findings that encourage the use of the results to enhance social justice
and human rights (Creswell, 2013).
Urban Community/Setting: As defined by Rutledge, et al. (2022) in National Geographic,
“An urban area is the region surrounding a city. Most inhabitants of urban areas have non-
agricultural jobs. Urban areas are very developed, meaning there is a density of human structures
such as houses, commercial buildings, roads, bridges, and railways”.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters.
Chapter One introduces the problem, outlines the purpose of the study and its importance
in education, and defines the research problem that guided the study.
Chapter Two summarizes the literature examining the teacher-diversity gap in America
by specifically looking at the importance of teachers and their impact on students. It highlights
the need for culturally responsive teaching practices and the connection between teachers and the
positive impact teachers have on BIPOC students’ academic and social-emotional development.
It also examines pre-service/credential programs and their importance in preparing teachers to be
equipped to teach BIPOC students in urban settings.
Chapter Three presents the research methods that were employed in this qualitative study.
It describes the research design, population and sampling, and instrumentation that will be used
8

during the study. The procedures for data collection and analysis are also covered and address
issues of maintaining credibility, trustworthiness, and ethics during the study.
Chapter Four presents the results of the study.
Chapter Five discusses the findings with recommendations and future studies.

9

Chapter Two: Literature Review
The main focus of this dissertation is to investigate the preparedness of teachers in
educating BIPOC students in urban areas through their pre-service credential programs. The
literature review will specifically explore the shifting demographics of urban schools in the
United States and the effects of teacher expectations and racial biases on the academic
achievement of students from diverse backgrounds.
First, I will review the literature on the racial mismatching of teachers and students in
America. Then, I will explore diversity in the teaching force and how teachers’ expectations
impact BIPOC student achievement. Next, I will present information on how the teaching force
is not diversifying rapidly enough to match the student demographics of America. I will then
discuss the need for culturally responsive teaching practices. Then I will explore the connection
between teacher effectiveness and the positive impact teachers have on students’ academic and
social-emotional development. Pre-service teacher programs will also be closely examined as
well as how culturally responsive curriculums and one’s teaching practices contribute to the
achievement of BIPOC students. Lastly, I will discuss the need for culturally responsive teaching
practices and review ongoing, relevant professional development at school sites.
Research Questions
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared BIPOC teachers to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas?
The Racial Mismatch between Teachers and Students
The existing teaching workforce, which is predominantly White, lacks a deep
understanding of themselves and their students as racial individuals within a racially stratified
society, which limits their ability to go beyond the superficial tools provided in standard teaching
10

programs and training. According to DiAngelo (2012), White individuals contribute to
maintaining the status quo by lacking an understanding of themselves and their students' racial
identities in a society that is racialized. This means that relying on surface-level teaching
methods and training programs is not enough to go beyond complicity. The issue of racial
identity is particularly significant for teachers and students. Research by Utt and Tochluk (2020)
strongly suggests that a primarily White teaching force with little critical understanding of race
and racism can lead to negative consequences. The National Center for Education Statistics
(2020) reports that in schools where the majority of students were Hispanic (54%), Black (54%),
Asian (60%), or American Indian/Alaska Native (61%), most teachers were White, with a higher
percentage of White teachers than teachers of the same race/ethnicity as the majority of students.
This data indicates that the racial and ethnic diversity of the teaching force is much lower than
the diversity of the nation as a whole (Geiger, 2018).
The Impact of Racial Mismatch On Students
The impact of racial matching on student achievement are supported by education
researchers across the social sciences, who have established and expanded these results in the
past two decades (Edmonds, 2022, p. 6). Gladwell (2017) references the University of Duke’s
Behind the Veil study which suggests that Black students perform better academically when
taught by Black teachers. Gladwell (2017) also notes that schools with BIPOC teachers have a
positive impact on white students. Research on racial matching, which pairs students with
teachers of the same racial or ethnic background, supports these findings and shows resoundingly
positive outcomes for Black students, helping to close the educational achievement gap (Rosen,
2018). In addition to academic achievement, having at least one Black teacher in elementary
school has been linked to increased high school graduation rates and college enrollment, with
11

even greater benefits observed when students have two Black teachers (Camera, 2018). One
possible explanation for these outcomes is the role model effect, specifically in regard to
academic achievement (Edmonds, 2022).
The U.S. Department of Education released a report which indicated that BIPOC teachers
serve as positive role models for all students, breaking down negative stereotypes and preparing
them for life in a multiracial society (The U.S. Department of Education: The State of Racial
Diversity in the Educator Workforce, 2016). The report went on to show that both quantitative
and qualitative data indicate that BIPOC teachers improve the academic outcomes of all students
while also serving as strong role models. Furthermore, White students benefit from having
BIPOC teachers as role models as they are able to unlearn racist stereotypes they may have
internalized in other settings (Sleeter et al., 2014).
Although teachers from diverse backgrounds are valuable in education, it is crucial for
BIPOC students to have representation in their teachers, according to Gieger (2018). It is a
powerful visual representation for students to see role models who reflect their identities in urban
schools. This role-modeling hypothesis suggests that minority teachers make a difference with
African-American and Hispanic students as the findings show that minority teachers serve as
role models for students.
Despite ongoing challenges in closing the achievement gap for BIPOC students in urban
areas across the United States, research indicates that a diverse teacher workforce can positively
impact these students by fostering congruent teacher-student relationships and connectedness by
preparing all students for successful participation in a diverse global society both economically
and democratically (Sleeter et al., 2014).
12

Given the numerous obstacles and disparities, BIPOC teachers continue to have a
significant impact on students, particularly BIPOC students. BIPOC teachers possess valuable
cultural knowledge that can facilitate connections between themselves and their students (Sleeter
et al., 2014). Their success in education and presumably in their home culture, enables them to
be more empathetic and skilled in crossing cultural and linguistic barriers in educational settings.
BIPOC teachers utilize shared social and cultural experiences (Carrasco et al., 1981; Nieto,
1998), cultural mediation skills, and building relationships between school and home (Irvine,
1989; Meier, et al., 1989), which strengthens their potential for effectiveness in teaching.
Pitts (2007) conducted a study in Texas that examined the relationship between teacher
representation and the academic achievement of African-American and Hispanic students. The
results showed that both groups of students benefited from having teachers who shared their
racial or ethnic background, supporting the "role model hypothesis." Specifically, when the
ethnic composition of the teachers matched that of the students, African-American and Hispanic
students performed better on the TAAS exam. These findings highlight the importance of
experiences and perspectives that can facilitate intellectual growth for minority students and
support the notion that BIPOC students benefit from interacting with teachers who come from
similar backgrounds.
To summarize, teachers play a crucial role in students' academic and social-emotional
development. When examining the lack of diversity in the teaching profession, it is important to
consider the impact teachers have on student outcomes and the positive effect that BIPOC
teachers have on their students. BIPOC students benefit from seeing and interacting with
teachers who share their background (Brown, 2014). It is also crucial for teachers to hold high
13

expectations for all students and foster social responsibility, moral preparedness, and an
understanding of and ability to deal with racism.
The research indicates that there are significant disparities in the expectations that
teachers have for students of different races (Gershenson & Papageorge, 2018). Specifically,
Gershenson and Papageorge (2018) found that there is a significant bias among white teachers in
their expectations for Black students, with little to no bias for white students. They also
discovered that this bias is slightly more pronounced for Black male students than for Black
female students (p. 67). White students are generally given higher levels of optimism than their
Black peers, and while Gershenson and Papageorge (2018) acknowledge that "all teachers are
optimistic" (p. 69), this means that white teachers' lower expectations for Black students are
selectively applied, putting Black students at a disadvantage.
According to Gershenson (2016), focusing solely on teachers' effects on test scores may
lead to misclassifying effective teachers as ineffective and vice versa. Ahmad and Boser's (2014)
study titled "America's Leaky Pipeline for Teachers of Color" found that minority teachers have
higher expectations for minority students, provide culturally relevant teaching, build trusting
relationships with students, confront racism through teaching, and act as advocates and cultural
brokers. Teachers must create a positive climate by providing emotional support, being warm
and helpful, and sensitive to students' needs (Kim et al., 2018). Kim et al. (2018) conducted a
meta-analysis on various occupational areas, including teaching, and found that teacher
personality traits such as respect for students, ability to challenge them, and organizational and
presentation skills are largely personality-based and associated with job performance and job
satisfaction. Furthermore, the study found that teacher personality traits such as
conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability are more important for student socio-
14

emotional outcomes than academic achievement. These factors are all critical to consider for
improving the achievement of BIPOC students.
In conclusion, teacher expectations are a crucial factor in determining student outcomes,
particularly for urban BIPOC students. Improving student attainment among BIPOC students
necessitates increasing teacher expectations, removing racial bias, and promoting a more diverse
teaching workforce (Gershenson & Papageorge, 2018). To address this issue, Gershenson and
Papageorge (2018) recommend several steps. First, policymakers and school administrators must
strive to increase diversity in the teaching profession, which currently does not reflect the
demographic makeup of BIPOC students. They argue that this requires recruiting and retaining
more teachers of color. The second step involves building on the first:
While creating a more diverse teaching force is clearly a long-term goal, there are steps
schools and districts can take right away to reduce teacher bias and support positive
expectations for all students. Schools can improve pre-and in-service training on
expectations and bias…Programs that encourage empathy and cross-cultural
understanding, for example, may help reduce bias-driven disparities in expectations for
student outcomes (p. 70).
Why Teacher Mismatch Matters
The pace of diversification in the teaching force is not keeping up with the changing
demographics of student populations. According to The State of Racial Diversity in the Educator
Workforce report by the U.S. Department of Education (2016), students of color are expected to
make up 56 percent of the student population by 2024, while 82 percent of the teacher workforce
in elementary and secondary education will identify as white. The National Center for Education
15

Statistics (NCES, 2020) also projects that the student population will become increasingly
diverse, underscoring the importance of having a diverse teaching force.
Research has shown that students who have a teacher from their own racial or ethnic
background are more likely to become engaged and have increased effort, interest, and
confidence, which can lead to enhanced academic performance (Ahmad & Boser, 2014). In Miss
Buchanan’s Period of Adjustment, a podcast episode of Revisionist History with Malcolm
Gladwell (2017), Gladwell addresses the significance of BIPOC students having a teacher from
their community and the long-reaching effects it can have on their long-term success:
If you’re Black, having a Black teacher makes a difference and not just for getting into
gifted programs. Having a Black teacher raises the test scores of Black students, it
changes the way Black students behave, and it dramatically decreases the chances a
Black male student will be suspended.
A recent study conducted by a group of social scientists analyzed the academic records of
100,000 Black students in North Carolina over a 5-year period (Ahmad & Boser, 2014). Their
findings revealed that having just one Black teacher between the third and fifth grade
significantly decreased the likelihood of an African-American male student dropping out of high
school. Specifically, the dropout rate decreased by 39% with the presence of a single Black
teacher.
Does this imply that white teachers are intentionally discriminating against Black
students? No, that is not necessarily the case. The point is that teachers hold a significant amount
of power as they control the classroom and make important decisions regarding students'
academic and disciplinary futures. Teachers can inspire or discourage a child through their
attention and actions, such as recommending students for gifted programs or issuing suspensions.
16

By directing their attention to a child, a teacher can inspire. By ignoring another or sending him
more often the principal’s office, teachers can discourage. Additionally, the lack of racial and
cultural representation among teachers means that BIPOC students may not feel adequately
understood or supported in their learning environments. Therefore, it is crucial to increase the
presence of Latino/a and Black teachers in urban schools to better serve and represent the student
population.
While having BIPOC teachers can greatly benefit BIPOC students, it is important to
acknowledge the predominance of white teachers in the education system. Therefore, white
teachers can improve their teaching practice by being mindful of their own racial identity as well
as the racial identities of their students. According to Tochluk and Utt (2020), "whiteness" is not
a culture, but a socially constructed identity based on skin color, and understanding how certain
behaviors can impede the transformation into culturally responsive, anti-racist educators can lead
to better outcomes for diverse student populations. White teachers who actively work to
recognize and address these issues can effectively educate urban youth.
The existence of social and racial inequalities will continue to be systemic unless there is
representation of Latino/a and Black educators in our classrooms. It is crucial to diversify the
teacher workforce because "good" multicultural practices, as described by Carrim (1998), would
explicitly address issues regarding power dynamics of racism and cultural disparities among all
individuals, including those within marginalized groups who would receive equal consideration.
This is significant because it encourages and mandates teachers to acknowledge their
intersectionality and whiteness while integrating them into their teaching practice (p.316).
17

Improving the White Teaching Force
It is surprising that teachers' impacts on students' character skills are often overlooked.
Identifying effective teachers is crucial, and there is a growing consensus that providing high-
quality teachers to all students plays a significant role in closing achievement gaps between
students of different demographic and socioeconomic backgrounds (Harris, 2011; Rivkin et al.,
2005). Crenshaw's work (1993) highlights the importance of acknowledging intersectionality and
how each person's various identities interact with one another on multiple levels over time.
White educators with an intersectional identity must also commit to anti-oppressive identity
development with feminist analysis, class-consciousness, and anti-heterosexist practices
(Tochluk & Utt, 2020, p. 139).
Despite their good intentions, many white educators try to relate to students of color by
sharing stories of their own experiences with poverty. However, this approach fails to address
issues of race and systemic inequality. Instead, white teachers tend to view identity through other
lenses such as gender, religion, or sexual orientation, while ignoring the impact of race and
racism (Tochluk & Utt, 2020). In order to improve their teaching practice, white educators must
engage in self-reflection and authentic dialogue, as well as develop an understanding of systems
of oppression, privilege, inequity, and identity. This process must also involve an examination of
"what's going on with Whiteness" as suggested by Hooks (1999) and reiterated by Tochluk and
Utt (2020). By doing this, white educators can reshape and redefine their white identity and work
towards an anti-racist teaching practice. It is also important to recognize that the analysis of
white identity should also include an understanding of how patriarchy and capitalism intersect
with whiteness, further complicating the role of white people in the United States and impacting
the education of students of color.
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Pre-Service Teaching Programs
Considering the previously mentioned factors, pre-service training holds a significant
responsibility. As we are not currently on track to have the diverse teaching workforce necessary,
it is important to understand how pre-service education can better prepare teachers. One
approach to improving the readiness of new teachers to serve diverse students is to emphasize
pre-service teacher education. According to Agee (2004), many programs are implicitly designed
with traditional-age white students in mind, which may go unnoticed by those in the program but
can be evident to those who feel out of place. Agee also notes that teacher education texts often
assume that the teachers are white and make recommendations for using diverse texts or teaching
diverse students based on this assumption (p. 31).
Currently, pre-service teacher programs do not align with the evolving needs of the
educational profession and the changing demographics of future educators. Many teacher
education programs demonstrate that diversity is only superficially respected and not supported
by practices, instruction, curriculum, policies, and teacher dispositions (Brown, 2014).
Additionally, studies on social justice-oriented teacher education and culturally responsive
teaching reveal that teacher preparation programs have neglected the needs of teachers of color,
despite evidence showing the positive impact that teachers of color have on students' academic
and social-emotional development (Ladson-Billings, 2000).
Teacher preparation programs and school districts across the United States face
tremendous challenges in helping teachers gain the skills needed to teach all students effectively.
Teacher preparation programs are seen as a contributing factor to the increasing teacher-diversity
gap. Pre-service teachers need strong master teachers while being supervised in the field to
provide the critical support that novice teachers need (Ahmad & Boser, 2014) and teacher
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candidates need better clinical field experiences throughout their undergraduate careers and
student teaching.
Sleeter (Sleeter et al., 2014) conducted a study on teacher preparation programs and
found that programs intended to recruit and prepare BIPOC teachers often operate in isolation
due to their geographical location. Boyd et al. (Sleeter et al., 2014) found that teacher candidates
generally prefer to teach close to home, but the available teacher education programs are often
located outside of urban areas. Additionally, for teachers seeking their first job, distance plays a
significant role in their decision-making (Sleeter et al., 2014). Most prospective teachers search
for jobs in their hometowns or regions similar to where they grew up, which creates a preference
for suburban or rural areas rather than urban areas (Sleeter et al., 2014). As a result, districts
struggle to fill positions in urban schools, despite the number of teacher recruits who come from
urban areas. Boyd et al. (Sleeter et al., 2014) also suggests that teacher candidates from suburban
or rural areas may not receive adequate preparation to face the challenges of teaching in urban
environments, particularly for teachers of color.
Currently, pre-service teaching programs do not support the kind of learning future
educators need to be successful in urban environments. Milner (2007) found that traditional
curricula, assessments, and pedagogical practices overlook alternative approaches and
perspectives to advance the common dominant interests in the preparation of teachers (as cited
in Gist, (2017). Additionally, teachers who stay in suburban and/or rural areas might not
embrace inclusive teaching approaches such as bicultural and bilingual experiences or critical
views of learning. Districts fall short of the number of positions being filled in urban school
districts because distance from what the teacher’s life experience is important with teachers’
preferences, combined with fewer teachers whose hometown is in an urban area (Sleeter et al.,
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2014).
The diversity gap in the teaching profession is exacerbated by teacher preparation
programs that fail to address the unique challenges faced by contemporary BIPOC teachers.
These teachers often find themselves in a difficult position, torn between their personal
commitment to educational justice and systemic barriers within schools that devalue the
critical pedagogical and culturally responsive instructional approaches that drew them to the
profession (Gist, 2017). To bridge this gap, teacher education programs must prioritize the
voices and perspectives of BIPOC teachers and focus on developing institutional policies,
pedagogical practices, and preparation experiences that will effectively equip and sustain them
in overcoming these challenges.
Despite efforts made by teacher preparation programs, districts, and schools to recruit
BIPOC teachers, a study conducted by Jackson and Kohli (2016) found that there are still
many obstacles to creating a diverse teaching workforce. The study revealed that BIPOC pre-
service teachers in US public schools had lower pass rates on credential entrance tests, were
not adequately supported within teacher education programs, and left the profession at a rate
24% higher than their White peers each year. The research suggests that several factors
contribute to the pushout of BIPOC teachers, including the challenges of working in a
predominantly White profession, lack of mentorship, teaching at schools with limited
resources, less job stability, and higher teacher turnover rates.
Teacher preparation programs need to prioritize developing their students'
sociopolitical and critical consciousness to empower them to challenge the systemic inequities
experienced by themselves and their communities, particularly for BIPOC individuals (Tandon
et al., 2014). As the student population continues to become more diverse, it is increasingly
21

important to explore how pre-service teaching programs can effectively increase the diversity
of the teaching force, support BIPOC teachers, and retain them in the profession.
Alternative Teacher Preparation Pathways
The underrepresentation of BIPOC teachers in American urban schools is a critical issue
that needs to be addressed urgently. Compared to their White counterparts, the need for more
BIPOC teachers has never been more crucial. The teacher diversity gap does a disservice to
BIPOC students, and their presence is necessary to close the educational gap among minority
students.
To attract and prepare BIPOC teachers, teacher education programs and pre-service
teaching programs must be transformed. The current lack of representation of BIPOC teachers in
the education system may deter potential candidates from pursuing a career in teaching.
Therefore, it is crucial to create a welcoming and inclusive environment that encourages and
supports BIPOC individuals to become educators.
Many universities have begun to diversify their faculty and their curriculum to attract
Black, Latino, and BIPOC teachers. According to Sleeter and Milner (2011), teaching programs
have begun to recruit and prepare BIPOC teachers because they have addressed the issues that
have pushed away many BIPOC teachers in the past. Universities have recognized that many
teachers prefer to teach close to home, thus “growing your own” BIPOC teachers has been
recommended as a promising strategy (Boyd, et al., 2005). In addition to cultivating teacher
preparation programs such as Sacramento State University’s Multilingual/Multicultural Teacher
Preparation Center (M/M Center), universities need to hire a diverse staff.
At the M/M Center their program is designed around student diversity. According to SSU
statistics, “75 percent of its teacher candidates are of color and are bilingual, a mix the program
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attracts because of its focus, diverse faculty, and commitment to working with communities of
color and social justice (Wong et al., 2007). SSU has taken steps to diversify its program to meet
the needs of the area's student population and also understands the importance of placing BIPOC
teachers in Sacramento area schools.
Alternative teacher certification programs that serve as a way to diversify the teaching
population are often viewed as “grow your own” programs (Sleeter et al., 2014). These small
programs that depend on external funding involve collaborations between communities of color,
school districts, and universities to prepare and certify residents who otherwise lack access to
teacher preparation programs (Sleeter et al., 2014). Nadler & Pederson state that “grow your
own” alternative certification programs produce a larger number of non-White teachers than
traditional certification programs (Sleeter et al., 2014).
Sleeter and Milner (2011) describe two different types of approaches; those that
organize to bring candidates of color into and through existing teacher education programs,
and those that involve redesign or alternative versions of teacher education programs (Ball et
al., 2011). Programs designed to bring candidates of color into and through existing teacher
education programs build pipelines and support systems that may start as early as elementary
or middle school (Ball et al., 2011). Pipeline programs for youth match them with mentor
teachers of their same race or ethnic background, offer academic support workshops, visit
university campuses, and involve them in teaching activities with younger children (Sleeter et
al., 2014). Programs focused on supporting BIPOC students on predominantly White
campuses offer financial assistance such as scholarships, academic support, and social and
cultural support to combat alienation (Sleeter et al., 2014).
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Grow Your Own programs are seen as viable pathways for increasing the racial diversity
of teachers (Gist et al., 2018). Grow Your Own programs, create high school pipelines with
articulation programs to offer college credit, community-based organizations offered social and
professional support as a buffer against structural obstacles, and district paraprofessional
programs partnered with teacher education programs to offer student teaching hours during work
time in schools (Gist et al., 2018). “Grow your own” alternative teacher certification programs
such as The Oakland Partnership and the CSU/Hayward-Oakland Public School District
Partnership have had a direct impact on teacher diversity with 60 to 80% of candidates of color
in their programs, contributing to Oakland’s relatively high proportion of BIPOC teachers
(Sleeter et al., 2014).
Finally, “grow your own” alternative certification programs can help individuals who
cannot afford to work for a year for free by earning a salary while learning to teach. Traditional
credentialing programs are generally housed in a university while an alternative certification is
often housed in a school district or community facility and often involves a partnership with a
university that enables teachers to serve as interns and choose to practice teaching in a paid
position while studying to complete their certification program. (Ellis & Epstein, 2014).
Understanding Racism & Privilege Through the White Lens
Many white educators face challenges in developing a positive, anti-racist identity and an
effective anti-racist teaching practice due to the cultural loss resulting from prioritizing the
privileges available in a white supremacist system over their ethnic traditions (Tochluk & Utt,
2020, p. 135). It is important for these educators to examine their relationship to systems of
whiteness and white culture to make conscious choices about how they relate to them. However,
this process can be complicated for white educators, as they may struggle to identify and align
24

themselves with a specific culture, leading to a sense of not belonging and a lack of cultural
identity.
By exploring their ethnic and familial origins, white educators can establish a deeper and
more meaningful cultural foundation that enables them to acknowledge their ongoing connection
to whiteness and complicity with systemic oppression without escaping reality (Giroux, 1997).
Failure to reconcile these tensions can lead to problematic behavior among white teachers in
urban schools (Tochluk & Utt, 2020, p. 135).
Lopez (2003) argues that white educators and leaders lack a sufficient understanding of
the various forms of racism and how they are perpetuating it in their schools. According to
Tochluk and Utt (2020), teachers who proselytize or disdain limit their ability to influence their
school communities to adopt a culturally responsive and anti-racist pedagogy (p. 142). Lopez
(2003) further explains that this approach requires new tools, mindsets, and dispositions that are
not commonly taught in leadership and teacher preparation programs. White teachers need to
learn how to recognize and address harmful microaggressions, privilege, emotional reactions,
and unexamined issues in the classroom and on campus. Lopez (2003) warns that without
changes, these programs will continue to produce mostly white, middle-class educators who have
little understanding or interest in the institutionalized system of white privilege, oppression, and
racism. Therefore, educators have an ethical responsibility to raise questions about race and
racism in society and to question systems, organizational frameworks, and leadership theories
that favor certain groups or perspectives over others.
The Need for Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices
Despite the lack of teacher diversity, it is crucial for educators to implement culturally
responsive teaching practices. Teaching diverse students is a challenging task that requires high
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levels of student proficiency (Ladson-Billings, 2011). According to Tomlinson (2017), teachers
must differentiate their instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners. To effectively plan for
instruction, educators should consider their students' readiness to learn, interests, and learning
profile, including their strengths and challenges. Each student's background and experiences,
both inside and outside the classroom, shape their learning. To make a difference for all learners,
educators should be aware of how students' differences affect learning and align pedagogies that
effectively address those differences. Failing to recognize how culture and experience can impact
learning may lead to disproportionate representation in special education and the risk of
“conflating disability with diversity” (Gay, 2002, p. 614). Here is an excerpt from Ladson-
Billings (1998):
“a telling mismatch between what schools’ measure and what students know and can do
is that of a 10-year-old African American girl who was repeatedly told by the teacher that
she was a poor math student. However, the teacher was unaware that the girl was living
under incredible stresses where she was assuming responsibilities her drug-addicted
mother could not. To ward off child welfare agents the child handled all household
responsibilities, including budgeting and paying all the household bills. Her ability to
keep the household going made it appear that everything was fine in the household.
According to the teacher, she could not do fourth-grade math, but the evidence of her life
shows she was doing just fine at ‘adult’ math (p. 20)!”
The importance of viewing teachers as intellectuals who exercise judgment in the
classroom and teach in culturally responsive ways is not always reflected in the literature on
practice (Zeichner, 1993). It is crucial to utilize practices that are tailored to the cultures of the
students being served.
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Some of the practices to leverage is the knowledge that teachers have about cultural
diversity goes beyond mere awareness of, respect for, and general recognition of the fact that
ethnic groups have different values or express similar values in various ways. Another practice
suggested is that developing a knowledge base for culturally responsive teaching is acquiring
detailed factual information about the cultural particularities of specific ethnic groups (e.g.,
African, Asian, Latino, and Native American) (Gay, 2002). Knowledge of the cultures is needed
to make school more interesting and stimulating for, representative of, and responsive to
ethnically diverse students. Teachers need to be conscious that there is a space for cultural
diversity in all subjects at school.
Effective teachers continually need to pay careful attention to their own racial identity as
well as their students. Many White teachers often frame identity through every lens other than
race such as gender, religion, sexual orientation, etc. (Tochluk & Utt, 2020). While White
educators may attempt to connect with BIPOC students by sharing how they grew up in poverty
too, this does not address race and issues concerning racism and systemic inequality.
‘Good’ multicultural practices, as defined by Carrim (1998) would overtly confront
questions about the power dimensions of racism and cultural differences among all people,
including those within radicalized groups, which would receive equal attention. This is of
particular importance because it suggests and requires teachers to embrace their intersectionality
and Whiteness whilst juxtaposing them against their teaching practice (p.316). When White
teachers understand and recognize that certain behaviors undercut their abilities to successfully
transform into culturally responsive, anti-racist people, they can then start to adopt practices in
order to successfully educate diverse student populations. Not understanding their implicit bias
will continue to reinforce their White supremacy.
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However, seeing as the teaching force is White-dominated, White teachers can elevate
their practice to improve the education of urban youth. For example, research shows that
effective White teachers pay careful attention to their own racial identity as well as their
students.
Not preparing teachers to effectively teach all students is an act of Whiteness, integral to
the race-based system of White supremacy (Hayes & Juarez, 2012). White supremacy happens,
very significantly, not behind the backs of Whites, but off the backs of individuals and
communities of color. This happens as others (oftentimes White people though not in every
instance) enact processes of White racial domination by drawing on and applying White
institutional authority to act and make decisions in ways that support the continuing and systemic
privileging of Whiteness in teacher education and other important public institutions (Gillborn,
2005).
Teaching programs and their approaches to instructing future teachers in urban
environments must acknowledge this and offer knowledge for learning about cultural and racial
diversity. If BIPOC teachers are not serving students who look like them, then the eighty-two
percent of teachers who are White need to be prepared to teach in an urban environment.
Racial identities of teachers and students are significant issues. As evidenced by Tochluk
and Utt (2020), the research profoundly supports the negative consequences of having a
primarily White teaching force with little critical understanding of race and racism. BIPOC
students benefit greatly by having racial representation in their teachers.
The emphasis is to transform U.S. teacher education, so it more adequately addresses the
need to prepare teachers capable of providing a high-quality education with access to a rich and
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broad curriculum, and culturally and community responsive teaching for everyone's children
(Zeichner, 1993). This emphasis will hopefully address the gap in culturally responsive teaching.
Systems of Support and Purposeful Professional Development
There are many factors that contribute to a student’s learning and academic performance,
but among school-related factors, teachers are the single most important internal school factor
that impacts student learning and achievement and their educational experiences. While we know
that there are differences in the quality of teachers, there is little dispute that teachers are
impactful agents in students' educational pursuits. Therefore, all students must be taught by
effective teachers (Ridge & Lavigne, 2020).
Post-program support such as induction programs, professional learning communities,
peer equity coaching, and quality professional development can have a positive impact on both
teachers and their BIPOC students. When these supports are aligned with pre-service/credential
program coursework, early career teachers can be better equipped to address the educational
needs of BIPOC students in urban areas.
Induction Support
As the demographics of classrooms continue to shift, it is increasingly important that new
teachers are equipped to meet the needs of all their students. This is especially true for teachers
working with BIPOC students, who often face unique challenges in the classroom. Teacher
induction programs can play a critical role in ensuring that new teachers are prepared to meet
these challenges and provide equitable opportunities for all their students.
Induction programs can be a valuable support system for novice teachers by offering
guidance and assistance that can help new teachers navigate the complex and daunting landscape
of teaching. Teacher induction programs can help new teachers develop cultural competence and
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better understand the needs of their BIPOC students by helping them understand the unique
cultural, linguistic, and social experiences of students from diverse backgrounds, and develop the
skills and knowledge needed to create inclusive classrooms (Roegman et al., 2021). By providing
new teachers with training and resources focused on culturally responsive teaching and anti-bias
practices, induction programs can help ensure that all students feel seen, heard, and valued in the
classroom.
Overall, teacher induction programs can play a critical role in ensuring that new teachers
are prepared to meet the needs of their students of color and provide equitable opportunities for
all students. New teacher induction is important for addressing social justice issues in education
and for promoting equity and excellence in schools (Roegman et al., 2021). By investing in
teacher induction programs, we can work to create more equitable and inclusive schools and help
ensure that all students have access to high-quality, culturally responsive education.
Professional Learning Communities
Professional Learning Communities provide new teachers with access to a wealth of
knowledge and expertise. PLCs can serve as a means of ongoing professional development for
educators, particularly new teachers who are still developing their skills and knowledge
(Desimone & Pak, 2017). By engaging in discussions with more experienced colleagues and
sharing best practices, new teachers can expand their understanding of effective teaching
strategies, instructional design, and classroom management techniques.
In addition to these benefits, PLCs can also help to improve student learning outcomes.
According to Desimone & Pak (2017), PLCs can have a positive impact on student achievement,
particularly when teachers engage in collaborative lesson planning and share resources and ideas.
By working together to develop effective instructional strategies, teachers can ensure that all
30

students have access to high-quality instruction and support, regardless of their background or
individual needs.
In conclusion, PLCs are a valuable means of providing support to new teachers by
promoting collaboration, providing access to knowledge and expertise, and improving student
learning outcomes. As noted by Desimone & Pak (2017), PLCs have the potential to provide
teachers with a sense of community, collaboration, and ongoing professional development, all of
which can lead to improved instructional practices and increased student achievement. As such,
PLCs are an essential component of any school’s professional development program, particularly
for new teachers who are just starting their careers in education.
Peer Equity Coaching for Educators
Ridge & Lavigne (2020) studied the format and definition of peer observation and
feedback as to how peer observation and feedback may be a useful vessel in instructional
improvement within teacher evaluations. This feedback typically comes in the form of
administrator-to-teacher feedback, but another alternative is peer-to-peer feedback. Programs
like Race to the Top (RTTT) created competitive programming which toggled teachers’ test
scores to school funding, and ultimately their evaluations. As a result, Ridge & Lavigne (2020)
found that principals coped with RTTT by completing fewer observations, cutting observations
short, and were unavailable to address teacher concerns. Additionally, principals were spending
more time writing evaluations than observing and guiding teachers. Subsequently, as Ridge &
Lavigne (2020) acknowledge, only half of the teachers indicated that the feedback and coaching
they received from their principals was useful. The feedback was normally about a generalized
instructional practice.
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Collaborations can take many forms. The general idea is to address the form of a
collaboration called peer coaching, defined by some scholars as a confidential, voluntary,
reciprocal, and non-evaluative process whereby teaching professionals work together to observe
and reflect on curriculum and instruction. Peer coaching has been shown to have positive effects
on teachers and educational institutions (Hohensee & Lewis, 2019).
To further enhance the idea of collaboration, equity coaches have also been instituted
among schools. Peer Equity coaching is a variation of peer coaching that has also been instituted
among many schools and found to be a highly effective form of professional development
(Bussman & Louis, 2021). It is built on trusting relations and is focused on student learning
where equity coaches provide professional learning opportunities for staff. While equity coaches
had defined duties, their mission was to disrupt racism and create systemic change through the
practice of “courageous conversations” about racial equity using relevant articles or current
events to support staff. One equity coach, when asked what they loved about being an equity
coach, stated the ability to develop the capacity, desire, and skills of educators to disrupt racism
that will impact and improve the achievement and experiences of students (Bussman & Louis,
2021).
The research discusses that many schools use equity coaching as a means to build
capacity among all teachers who are in schools that serve BIPOC students. In addition, a way to
ensure continuous effective teaching strategies for all students is by improving instruction
through observation and feedback, i.e. peer and equity coaching. Ridge & Lavigne (2020) reveal
that peer-coaching facilitated collaboration among teachers and was reported as one major
benefit of peer-to-peer feedback. Other data gathered showed that environments ripe for the
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implementation of peer coaching determined the success of peer coaching and growth in the
teacher’s practice.
Professional Development
Professional Development (PD) refers to a range of intentional learning experiences that
benefit individuals, groups, or schools and contribute to improving the quality of education in the
classroom (Phetla & Newman, 2020). Teacher Professional Development courses are designed to
enhance teaching skills and promote innovation while improving teachers' knowledge, expertise,
and professional behavior (Phetla & Newman, 2020). Successful programs involve teachers in
learning activities that are similar to ones they use with their students and encourage teachers to
develop professional learning communities (Ahmad & Boser, 2014).
Currently, prevailing Professional Development models are often one-off, ‘top-down’ in
nature, and focus on interventions as opposed to proper teacher development. According to
Phetla & Newman (2020), many teacher PD programs are ineffective because they do not take
into account teachers needs and will continue to remain as such until they address two crucial
factors:
1. What motivates teachers to engage in professional development and
2. The process by which change in teachers typically occurs (p. 3).
Traditional approaches to Professional Development include workshops, seminars, and
conferences that adopt a technical and simplistic approach to teaching and believe that teachers’
knowledge and skills can be improved through the use of experts from outside the school system
(Phetla & Newman, 2020). Newborn & Huberty (Phetla & Newman, 2020) add that the problem
with this approach is that it is ineffective at changing teachers’ subject knowledge or pedagogical
skills which is why it is believed that teacher PD programs in actuality do not lead to the
33

improvement of teaching and learning. Effective PD must be structured learning that leads to
drastic changes in teachers’ knowledge and practices and improvement and learning outcomes
(Phetla & Newman, 2020). Therefore, these PD opportunities must lend themselves to a change
in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes. It is only then that teachers will understand the process of
teaching and learning and thus transfer it to their classroom practice.
Professional development can play a role in helping teachers develop culturally
responsive teaching practices. Teachers need to be exposed to issues of race, racism, and racial
politics and demonstrate how these issues permeate the educational landscape. Teachers and
school leaders must also have an awareness of how the effect of racism intersects with other
areas of difference such as gender, sexual orientation, disability, and class oppression. Educators
must be taught how to cultivate the courage to envision different possibilities of schooling,
particularly for our most marginalized communities (Lopez, 2003).
Conceptual Framework
In this section, the focus will be on the conceptual framework that underpins this study.
The framework is centered around the relationship between external factors at K-12 school sites,
such as pre-service/credential teacher programs and teacher diversity, as well as internal factors
such as the implementation of a culturally relevant curriculum and post program support for
educators. The aim of this conceptual framework is to answer the following research questions:
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared BIPOC teachers to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas?
Figure 1
BIPOC Student Achievement
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This framework incorporates four significant factors that support BIPOC student
achievement. Teacher pre-service/credential programs, the teacher diversity gap, culturally
responsive teaching practices and post program support are core features supporting and
informing BIPOC student achievement. A diverse teaching force has positive effects on students,
but this is most evident in our BIPOC learners. Hence why it is crucial to recruit BIPOC teachers
and keep them in the profession. There are several explanations for the positive effects of
teachers of color on educational outcomes for students of color. Wilkins, et al., (2014) examined
how the beliefs and aspirations of individual minority students were linked to the overall
representation of Latino/a and Black teachers in their schools. First, since school connectedness
has been tied to improved outcomes for students, the presence of minority teachers was
examined to see if it increased how ‘connected’ minority students felt to their school. Second,
the data tested whether the representation of minority teachers improved a minority student's
35

expectations for the future. The data tested two possible explanations for why minority students
may perform better when minority teachers are well-represented at their schools. This positive
result and association are likely due to the teacher serving as a role model for the students; thus,
influencing the choices that students made about their future in turn positively impacting their
success.
Post pre-service/credential program support is a top priority for continuing the
development of improving instruction, which is why it is featured in this conceptual framework,
along with its direct impact on student achievement. Post program support needs to be connected
preservice/credential programs and focus on supporting teachers in their ongoing professional
growth. Teachers understand the need for professional development, but often feel unfulfilled by
the experience due to its delivery and irrelevance (Reist, 2021).
The conceptual framework for supporting BIPOC student achievement centers on four
key concepts: Teacher pre-service/credential programs, the teacher diversity gap, culturally
responsive teaching practices and post program support for teachers in implementing a culturally
relevant curriculum. These concepts are interconnected and require ongoing development of
teachers to become reflective and responsive to their own teaching practices, while being
mindful of their positionality and implicit bias. The framework recognizes that teacher pre-
service and credential programs play a crucial role in developing culturally responsive teaching
practices. Additionally, the framework emphasizes the importance of teacher diversity and
research has shown that students of color tend to perform better when they have at least one
teacher of color (Camera, 2018).
The conceptual framework acknowledges that other contextual factors such as
neighborhood context, systemic racism, and educational policies can impact student
36

achievement, in addition to pre-service teacher programs, teacher diversity, and support systems
for teachers. These independent variables have a direct effect on the success of BIPOC students
if appropriate structures are established to support teachers before and during their tenure in the
classroom. Furthermore, integrating other factors such as racial matching of teachers and critical
race theory (CRT) into the framework's external and internal features can further narrow the
achievement gap for BIPOC students.
In addition, the framework recognizes the significance of in-service training for teachers,
which informs their growth and enables them to deliver culturally relevant instruction. It
emphasizes the role that students' neighborhoods, policies, and systemic racism play in
influencing the achievement of BIPOC students. The conceptual framework highlights the need
for more effective teacher training and support to educate BIPOC urban youth.
Conclusion
The research presented in this chapter highlights the significant impact that teachers have
on the academic success of BIPOC students. Teacher preparation programs that focus on
increasing teacher diversity and developing culturally relevant teaching practices can lead to
improved academic outcomes for BIPOC students. The conceptual framework aligns the
literature with the need for teacher preparation programs to reflect the changing demographic of
students, and continuous support systems for teachers to support BIPOC students. As many
teachers may lack the cultural knowledge needed to effectively teach historically marginalized
BIPOC students, providing post-program support can further enhance their implementation of
culturally responsive and relevant teaching strategies, which are crucial for the academic success
of BIPOC students.
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Chapter Three: Methods
This chapter outlines the qualitative approach, instrumentation, and data collection
methods I used to conduct this study. The following research questions are the basis of my study:
1. How, if at all, have pre-service/credential courses prepared teachers to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas?
This chapter comprises five main sections. First, I will elaborate on the rationale for choosing a
qualitative case study design for this research. Second, I will provide a description of the
proposed population and sample for this case study. Third, I will elucidate the data collection
methods employed. Fourth, I will outline the data analysis process. Finally, I will examine the
credibility, trustworthiness, limitations, delimitations, and ethical considerations that
underpinned this study.
Research Design
To examine the preparation of pre-service/credential courses in educating BIPOC
students in urban areas, this research study used a basic qualitative methodological approach in
the form of multiple case studies. Qualitative methods were appropriate for this study as they
enabled exploration of how teachers interpret their experiences in pre-service programs and
attribute meaning to them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) describe
qualitative research as a means of uncovering the meaning of perceived experiences of
phenomena. In this study, the phenomenon is the experience of teachers in their pre-service
teaching program.
This study aimed to investigate the preparedness of teachers in delivering culturally
responsive instruction in urban classrooms. The study focused on ten elementary and secondary
teachers who completed a credential program and had 0-5 five years of teaching experience in an
38

urban setting. The use of interviews provided a first-hand account of the phenomenon.
Interviews provided insight into the perspectives, thoughts, and intentions of the participants. In
the following sections, I will outline my approach for gaining a deeper understanding of this
phenomenon.
Sample and Population
The aim of my study was to gain insight into teachers' perspectives by exploring how
their pre-service training equipped them to teach and work with BIPOC students in an urban
school setting. According to Lochmiller and Lester (2017), a qualitative study's optimal sample
is one that allows researchers to make informed interpretations of data and provide a detailed
account of their findings. As Patton (2002) notes, interviews serve as a means to elicit
information that is not directly observable.
For this research study, a non-probability and purposeful sampling technique was
utilized. Since the aim of this qualitative methodological approach was not to generalize to a
population, probability sampling is not justified (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, the
researcher purposefully selected participants who are the most qualified to answer the research
questions and provide valuable insight into the phenomenon being studied. In this case, the focus
was on teacher pre-service programs aimed at meeting the needs of BIPOC students in urban,
public K-12 schools with a diverse student population categorized as predominantly BIPOC
learners. To gain a better understanding of these issues, participants for the interviews were
teachers with 0-5 years of service spanning various grade levels from kindergarten through
twelfth grade.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest deciding on a set of criteria that are fundamental in
choosing the respondents and the sites to be studied in order to obtain thorough information that
39

directly reflects the purpose of the study. I will discuss the criteria necessary for my site and
participant selections.
Site Selection
Milner et al. (2015) developed a framework that defines urbanism by population density,
diversity of peoples, and availability of resources along a continuum of intensive, emergent, and
characteristic. According to their framework, an urban district will reside in an area that will
have a population either close to or exceeding one million. There will also be a wide range of
student diversity in terms of racial, ethnic, linguistic, and socio-economic composition (Milner et
al., 2015). Urban school districts in California were selected using these criterion.
The selection criteria for the sites were schools within urban areas of California with a
high level of diversity in its student population (i.e., Black, Latino/a, Asian, bi-racial). These
sampling criteria identified relatively heterogeneous, diverse schools within urban school
districts that were demographically diverse. Schools in which teachers instruct and participate in
this study were selected based on the school’s and district’s publicly released demographic data.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state that a typical or a model sample “describes how typical the
program, event, or individual is compared with others in the same class, so that users can make
comparisons with their own situations” (p. 257-258). I use the word “typical” here to describe
the school’s environment with respect to any active agendas or district initiatives to implement or
dissuade culturally responsive curriculum and instructional practices, not to explain ethnic,
racial, or Socio-Economic Status (SES) demographics as there is no “typical” school in that
respect.
Criterion: The criterion for my study are public K-12 schools located in urban areas of
California.
40

Participant Selection
Purposeful network sampling was used to determine the participants. Since purposeful
sampling was based on the assumption that the investigator wanted to discover and gain an in-
depth understanding of a specific issue, this criterion-based selection was fitting to garner the
best results from the teachers in the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, to better
understand the issues of teacher pre-service programs and how they prepare teachers for meeting
the needs of BIPOC students; Ten teachers were sampled for this study.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest that for qualitative studies, it is important to have a
large enough sample to cultivate new information, but not too many at which saturation of
information is exceeded. Since the focus of my study was early career teachers ranging from 0-5
years of service spanning various grade levels from kindergarten through twelfth grades
instructing BIPOC students in urban areas, it was necessary to select only those teachers who fit
the criteria. The following criteria were used to select the ten teachers:
Criterion 1. The first criterion was that respondents must be currently employed as K-12
public school teachers in an urban area of California. The reason for seeking K-12 public school
teachers, in particular, was because the focus of this study was to examine teachers’ perceptions
of how prepared they are to work with BIPOC students based on the coursework in their
credential programs.
Criterion 2. The second criterion was teacher selection. Specifically, teachers with 0-5
years of teaching experience who were able to discuss and reflect upon the work completed in
their pre-service/credential programs. Since I sought to understand the ways that teachers feel
their pre-service/credential programs prepared them to instruct BIPOC students, the teacher piece
was crucial to this study.
41

Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedures
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), qualitative research uses words and data
collected in various ways. More specifically, the use of questions via interviews provided the
researcher with an understanding regarding the participants’ experiences in the preparedness of
their pre-service teaching programs to plan and deliver culturally responsive lessons for BIPOC
students in urban settings.
The literature on contemporizing pre-service teacher programs showed that teachers and
their teaching practices were ineffective and lacked core values in their classrooms aligned to
that of their students and communities (Hollins, 2015). Interviews were an appropriate data
collection method to gather information about participant perspectives and experiences which
sought to understand meaning-making which further explored professional development
opportunities provided for teachers (Maxwell, 2013). The following sections will present
additional information about the purpose and content of each instrument.
Interviews
This study examined teacher preparedness to educate BIPOC students and how teacher
positionality, implicit bias, in conjunction with the aforementioned pre-service programs, and
ongoing professional development affect the achievement of BIPOC students.
Each participant was interviewed on their personal experiences in their pre-service
teacher programs with respect to their preparation for education BIPOC students and their
continued professional development and learning to offer culturally relevant teaching to urban
students. The interview questions were open-ended questions based on my conceptual
framework. Interviews occurred on Zoom based on a predetermined time. Interviews lasted
approximately 1-hour in duration and were recorded and transcribed for later analysis.
42

Table 1
Interview Questions and Conceptual Framework Alignment
Opening:
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take about
an hour, does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC and am conducting a study on pre-service
teacher programs and ongoing professional development at school sites and how they prepare
educators to teach students of color in urban environments. I am particularly interested in
understanding how pre-service teacher and credentialing programs impact instructional practices
to support BIPOC students, in conjunction with ongoing professional development at school sites
to support the learning of teachers. I am talking to multiple teachers to learn more about this all
within five years of earning their teaching credential.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What this means
is that the nature of my questions are not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how
you are performing as a teacher. My goal is to understand your perspective.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet I provided to you previously, this interview is
confidential. What that means is that your name will not be shared with anyone outside of the
research team. I will not share them with other teachers, the principal, or the district. The data for
43

this study will be compiled into a report and while I do plan on using some of what you say as
direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect
your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data I gather from you. I am
happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password protected
computer and all data will be destroyed after 3 years.
Do you have any questions about the study before we get started? I have brought a recorder
with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for
my purposes to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the
research team. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
*Opening protocol and questions adapted from Dr. Artineh Samkian
Interview Questions Systems/Concept from
CF
Type of Question
Transition: I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
Introduction: Setting the Stage
1. First, tell me about your
background in education.
a. How did you become
interested in the field of
education?
Meaning-making

Background/Demographic
s (Patton, 2002)

44

b. How long have you worked
in the field?
c. What roles or positions
have you held?

2. What subject(s) do you teach?
a. Tell me about your role in
the program/school.

Meaning-making

Background/Demographic
s (Patton, 2002)
[Pre-service teachers in credential programs/Reflecting on pre-service credential program]
Transition:
Thank you for sharing about your background and journey into education. Now, I’d like to ask
you to think about your credentialing program.
Heart of the Interview:
3. First, tell me about where you
earned your teaching credential?
a. Probes: What factors did
you consider while
selecting your pre-
service/credentialing
program?

Pre-service Teacher
Programs

Experience & Behavior /
Feeling (Patton, 2002)

45

4. Tell me about a class, specific
professor, or experience in your
pre-service teaching program that
resonated with you.
a. Probes: Tell me about some
of the positive elements of
your pre-service teaching
program.
b. Tell me about some areas of
your pre-service teaching
program that you feel could
be improved.
5. Discuss how your pre-service
teaching
program incorporated
contemporary
issues such as, but not limited to,
discussions of race, Critical Race
Theory,
systemic inequality, and more.
a. Probes: I’d like to know
more about the courses in
your pre-service program.
Pre-service Teacher
Programs

Culturally relevant
curriculum

Establishes practical
application of pre-
service teaching
programs

Experience & behavior /
Feelings / Opinion
(Patton, 2002)

Experience & Behavior
(Patton, 2002)

Ideal position (Strauss et
al., 1981)

46

What types of classes were
you required to take?
b. Were any required courses
exclusively dedicated to
teaching in urban
communities?

6. How did your pre-service teaching
program prepare you for educating
youth in urban environments?
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Experience & behavior /
Feelings / Opinion
(Patton, 2002)

Transition: I’d like to start by asking you about your teaching and practices in your classroom.
7. Tell me about a time when
something you learned in your pre-
service/credentialing program
carried over into your classroom.
Pre-service Teacher
Programs
Ideal Position (Strauss et
al., 1981)
BIPOC: BIPOC is an acronym that connotes Black Indigenous People of Color
8. Can you tell me about the
discussions you had in your
credential program about educating
BIPOC students, if any?
Pre-service Teacher
Programs

Experience & Behavior /
Knowledge (Patton, 2002)

Culturally Responsive Teaching:
47

Culturally responsive teaching has been defined as “the process of using familiar cultural
information and processes to scaffold learning, emphasizes communal orientation, focused on
relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social awareness” (Hammond, 2015, p. 156).
9. Tell me how equipped you feel you
are to teach BIPOC students.

10. What does culturally responsive
teaching mean to you?
a. How would you describe to
someone what a culturally
responsive classroom may
look, sound, and feel for
both students and the
teacher/s.

11. Tell me about the support you
receive as a teacher to teach in
ways you just described, if any?
a. What support would be
more helpful to you?
Culturally relevant
curriculum

Culturally relevant
curriculum

Professional
Development

Opinion & Values (Patton,
2002)

Feelings (Patton, 2002)

Ideal position (Strauss et
al., 1981)
Transition: Now, I’d like to ask you some questions about how these practices are promoted at
your school.
48

b. Think about a professional
development you found
meaningful, tell me about it.

c. In the last year, tell me
about the kinds of
professional development
offered at your school site.
d. How have these
professional developments
supported your teaching
and the students in your
classroom?

e. Please describe any
professional learning
opportunities you have
received in the last year
related to culturally
responsive teaching and
learning conditions, if any.
f. How were you informed
about this/these
Professional
Development

Professional
Development

Professional
Development /
Culturally relevant
curriculum

Professional
Development
Ideal Position (Strauss et
al., 1981)

Ideal Position (Strauss et
al., 1981)

Experience / Knowledge /
Opinion & Feelings
(Patton, 2002)

Opinion & Values (Patton,
2002)
49

professional learning
opportunities?
g. What were some reasons
you decided to attend?
h. Ideally, what kind of
professional development
would you like to receive?
i. What are some specific
things you are hoping to
gain that would be
particularly useful to you
and your students?

Conclusion:
12. What other insight would you like
to share about our conversation
about how pre-service teacher
credentialing programs impact
instructional practices to support
BIPOC students that I might not
have covered, if any?

NA NA
50

13. Is there anything else that you
would like to share regarding what
we’ve spoken about?
Closing Comments:
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time
and willingness to share. The information you shared is really helpful for my study. If I find
myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you, and if so, is email ok? Again, thank you for
participating in my study. As a thank you, please accept this small token of my appreciation (gift
card, school supplies, etc. if appropriate).

By asking specific questions, I aimed to gather evidence that shed light on the
experiences of the participants in their pre-service teacher programs, as well as their beliefs
about how well-equipped they were to teach students from BIPOC backgrounds in urban
schools. I also dove into their professional practice to understand their perspectives on the post-
program support they received at their school sites, and how it relates to their pre-
service/credential program, the demographics of their students, and the relevance of cultural
factors.
Data Analysis
This study utilized qualitative data from interviews. Data from this qualitative study
included interview transcripts from the teachers in the study, field notes, and all memos I wrote
during the study. The research questions guided the data analysis for this study. Bowen (2009)
suggests that data analysis is a systemic procedure for reviewing a qualitative study. Data
51

analysis is the process of giving meaning to the data by identifying and looking closely at its
various components to realize their relationship with each other (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).
As I collected data from the interviews, I wrote separate reports documenting my
findings, categorizing thematic patterns in the data. The interviews existed in a social context.
Seidman (2013) suggests that interviewing is both a research methodology and a social
relationship that must be nurtured, sustained, and then end gracefully. After each interview, I
transcribed the audio recordings and field-coded transcripts accordingly, then I coded and sorted
the data. According to Stuckey (2015), one of the more practical uses of memos is to record how
you are developing the codes and making decisions about coding. This enhanced the audit trail to
demonstrate to the reader how decisions were made, and conclusions were reached. When
memos were written, I decided to combine or split codes and wanted to write conceptual notes
about how the codes told the storyline or the context in which a certain code could be applied.
Consistently applying a strict data analysis method enabled me to identify patterns of
words and ideas that emerged from the interviews, with these concepts presenting themselves
during my exploration of the data. I then produced individual reports that documented the
common themes among the participants, with the analysis informed by the information provided
by the participants. Additionally, I compared and contrasted the ideas and themes of the
interviewed teachers to better understand their pre-service programs and the students they serve.
Throughout the data analysis process, I developed a qualitative narrative that presented my
findings in relation to my research question and conceptual framework.
Credibility & Trustworthiness
Maxwell (2013) implies the existence of any objective truth to which an account can be
discovered and measured in qualitative research is notwithstanding. However, Maxwell (2013)
52

suggests the idea of objective truth is not essential to a theory of validity that does what most
researchers want it to do, which is to give them some grounds for distinguishing accounts that
are credible from those that are not. I took the necessary steps to maintain validity throughout the
data collection. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest that it is important to establish rigor and
trustworthiness in qualitative studies through ethical practices often associated with terms
validity and reliability.
As the interviewer, I maintained validity for the interviewees. Seidman (2013) suggests
the interviewer might attempt to isolate the interviewing relationship from the context and make
it unique to the interviewer and participant, the social forces of class, ethnicity, race, and gender,
as well as other social forces of class, ethnicity, race, and gender, as well as other social
identities, impose themselves. Understanding my positionality as I interviewed and collected
data was vital to the research.
To begin, I am a former elementary teacher. At the core of the material we studied when I
was a classroom teacher, the literature was diverse and carefully selected to align with the
cultural pluralities of my students. I led my classroom and school site as a leader, sitting on
various leadership committees, and championing funding and equity for my students. However, I
am a White middle aged male. Constant self-reflection, awareness of my positionality and
privilege, as well as seeking to listen to the voices of systematically marginalized populations
has been crucial to my continued work in education. I have operated under the assumption that
all teachers, regardless of their race and backgrounds, consider their students’ culture and race in
planning, lesson implementation, and interactions with students. While I am aware that as a
researcher and educator I possess implicit biases, and classroom teachers do too. With my
interviewees, I strived for equity because it was not only an ethical imperative, but it was also a
53

methodological one (Siedman, 2013). While I approached my study with an open mind and a
willingness to engage in ongoing dialogue and growth, I was aware of the possibility of
uncovering and addressing any implicit biases that I may have held in relation to my participants.
Throughout the study, I took multiple steps to ensure strong validity and reliability, in
line with Patton's (2002) emphasis on conducting research with intellectual rigor, professional
integrity, and methodological competence. These steps included member checking, devoting
adequate time to data collection, engaging in self-reflection to identify any personal assumptions,
worldviews, or biases that may have influenced the study, peer review, creating an audit trail,
and intentionally seeking variation in the sample selection process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
Ensuring research ethics involves practitioner-scholars behaving responsibly and fairly,
while keeping in mind the interests, needs, and protection of both current and future research
participants (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). As the researcher, I bore the responsibility of acting
ethically and communicating the data clearly. The purpose of the study was transparent and
explicitly communicated to the participants, who were asked to sign a statement acknowledging
that they were informed. During the interview, participants were reminded that they could
choose to rescind their participation at any time, decline to answer specific questions, or request
that the audio recording be stopped. To maintain confidentiality, pseudonyms were used in
presenting the findings, and all data was kept confidential (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
To ensure ethical conduct throughout the study, I followed Patton's (2015) checklist and
provided ongoing explanations of the purpose of the questions and methods used to collect data
from the teachers. I also adhered to all Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocols, guidelines,
and requirements for safeguarding the participants in the study. Whenever questions or concerns
54

arose, I consulted with my committee chair for guidance. Throughout the study and data
collection process, I made a concerted effort to maintain ethical behavior.
Limitations
Factors outside of my control constitute the limitations of this study which can be
classified into two categories: generalizability due to the specificity of the sample size and
requirements; and validity given that participant narratives and claims are self-reported. The
study was limited to ten credentialed teachers with 0-5 years of experience but with a larger
number of participants, more data could have been collected, representative of more teachers.
The perspectives shared by the ten teachers in this study are not necessarily generalizable to all
newly credentialed teachers.
Generalizability, truthfulness, and credibility may have affected the results and/or
interpretation of the study. The findings can only be generalized to the teachers and classrooms
that were studied. Although I relied on the trustworthiness of the participants, there is always the
possibility of respondents not being completely truthful during interviews (Weiss, 1994). The
truthfulness of the information provided by the participants during the interviews cannot be
controlled due to privacy concerns or the sensitivity of the matter. Respondents may have
presented a particular image based on their own positionality (Weiss, 1994). It is assumed that
the data collected during the interviews represents each teacher’s actual perceptions of effective
culturally responsive instruction and their choices regarding curriculum and pedagogy.
Additionally, it should be noted that the recruitment process for this study did not yield
any Black teachers, which limits the generalizability of the findings and may not fully capture
the diverse perspectives and experiences of racially diverse teachers. The primary objective of
this study was to highlight the level to which pre-service credential programs equip teachers with
55

the necessary skills to effectively teach BIPOC students using culturally responsive teaching
practices.
Finally, the scope of this dissertation was limited to the analysis of ten case studies,
located in the State of California. As a result, the perceptions of their credentialing programs
may be different than those with more years of experience, or located elsewhere beyond
California, therefore, the results may not be generalizable in other US states and countries, which
restricts the generalizability and transferability of the findings to similar school contexts.
Delimitations
Delimitations are factors that the researcher can control and may influence the
interpretation and results of the study. As a primary instrument in qualitative research, my
personal biases and limited research experience were among the delimitations that could have
impacted the data collection process and analysis. Specifically, my biases may have influenced
the questions asked and how I interpreted and analyzed the data. Additionally, being a novice
researcher, I may have missed important cues and opportunities to ask probing questions during
the interviews. Although some modifications were made to the proposed instrument, every effort
was made to preserve the original protocol and maintain the same categories. Some categories
were divided into more cohesive sections, questions were moved to more appropriate parts of the
interview, and some questions were rephrased for clarity. The time constraint of approximately
two months during one semester of school in the spring of 2023 limited the depth and scope of
the data collected, providing only a glimpse of the phenomenon present at the teachers' school
sites and pre-service credential programs.
56

Conclusion
In this chapter, the focus was on the qualitative study's design and implementation.
Systematic inquiry was employed to gather data and identify patterns that would help understand
the phenomenon under investigation - the preparation of teachers in pre-service/credential
courses to teach BIPOC students in urban areas. To collect data, semi-structured interviews were
conducted with ten general education elementary and secondary teachers from diverse school
sites in urban districts in California, and documents and artifacts were gathered.
Acknowledging the constraints of the study, including my positionality, biases, and
limitations, I implemented strategies to enhance the validity and reliability of the data collection
and methods used. Ethical considerations guided my decisions throughout the research process,
from the outset to the final presentation of findings. Additionally, the conceptual framework that
guided the data analysis served as the foundation for this research.

57

Chapter Four: Findings
Thematic analysis was employed in this chapter to examine the responses of ten teachers
to interview questions aimed at determining whether their pre-service/credential programs
adequately equipped them to teach BIPOC students in urban settings. The study seeks to address
the research question: How have pre-service/credential courses prepared teachers to teach
BIPOC students in urban areas?
The interview data was analyzed using thematic analysis and compared to the conceptual
framework presented in Chapter Two. Thematic analysis was chosen as it helps to identify
patterns and meanings in the data that inform the research questions (Braun & Clarke, 2006,
p.82, cited in Kiger and Varpio, 2020). The framework highlights pre-service teacher programs,
teacher diversity, and on-site professional development and coaching as essential concepts that
support the achievement of BIPOC students through culturally relevant teaching practices.
Throughout the research process, it is crucial to prioritize participant voice and
experience, particularly as common themes emerge. According to Trahar (2009), narratives can
be collected through various methods and represented in different ways. Narrative inquiry is
founded on the belief that humans comprehend and give meaning to their lives through stories.
Qualitative research involves gathering narratives in written, oral, and visual forms that
concentrate on the meanings that individuals attribute to their experiences. Narrative inquirers
strive to scrutinize the ways in which a story is constructed, unearthing the cultural discourses in
which they are drawn, and for whom and why they exist (Trahar, 2009). This approach gives
voice to the individuals' experiences and their meaning-making of said experiences. By
presenting the findings in this manner, the individual teacher's experience and sense-making is
prioritized, embracing the complexity and particularity of their lived experience (Carless &
58

Douglass, 2016). This approach adds value by giving a “voice” to the individual teacher, not
only in sharing their experiences but also in how they made sense of them (Brooks, 2016).
This chapter presents the results of 10 interviews conducted with teachers from various
urban areas of California. The chapter commences with a brief overview of the participants and
then delves into the common themes that emerged during the interviews, highlighting the
influence of pre-service credentialing programs on teachers' effectiveness in educating BIPOC
students.
Participant Profile
Ten participants were recruited and interviewed for this study via Zoom in February
2023. The study sought a diverse pool of teacher participants to share their experiences in their
pre-service/credential programs and how they felt they were prepared to teach BIPOC students in
the urban setting. Emphasis was placed on selecting participants with 0-5 years of experience
post-credential program to ensure they were able to recall their programs in detail and for
relevancy rooted in contemporary topics, issues, and pedagogy. There was no targeted grade
level or discipline in participant selection; however, it was important to this study that
participants reflected an array of experiences from all over the urban landscape of California.
The study's participants were a diverse group of individuals from various racial and
ethnic backgrounds, living across California. Out of the ten participants, nine completed a
credential program, while one obtained their credential through the Career Technical Education
program pathway. All participants were teaching in urban school settings and had 0-5 years of
teaching experience. To protect their anonymity, pseudonyms were used to describe and present
the participants in the table provided below.

59

Table 2
Participant Profile
Participant
Pseudonym
Gender Age Race Years
Teachi
ng
Title/Position Preservice/Credential
Type
Teacher 1 -
Christina
Female 34 White 2 English
Teacher
Postgraduate
Teacher 2 -
Eyepea
Male 30 Latino 4 Math Teacher Postgraduate
Teacher 3 -
June
Female 25 Hispanic <1 Math Teacher Postgraduate
Teacher 4 -
Josué
Male 23 White/
Hispanic
1 Math Teacher Postgraduate
Teacher 5 -
Daniel
Cisgend
er Male
26 Mixed 3 Social
Studies
Postgraduate
Teacher 6 -
Emily
Female 25 White/
Latina
3 English Postgraduate
Teacher 7 -
Joe
Male 27 Latino/
Hispanic
1 Social
Science
Postgraduate
Teacher 8 -
Saida
Female 26 Latina 3 Spanish Postgraduate
Teacher 9 -
Ms. Gee
Female 27 White/
Hispanic
2 English Postgraduate
Teacher 10 -
Brian
Male White 1 Computer
Science
Career Technical
Education

Results
During the interviews, the participants were questioned about their pre-service teaching
programs and their level of preparedness to apply what they learned in their classrooms.
Specifically, they were asked to reflect on the relevance of their coursework to the diverse
students they teach. This information is vital to both this study and the education field, as it
60

closely examines how pre-service/credential programs prepare educators to teach BIPOC
students and the applicability of these programs. Additionally, participants were questioned
about the post-program support and professional development they receive at their school sites
and its relation to their pre-service/credential program. The insights gained from these interviews
highlight the need for alignment between teacher pre-service/credential programs and the post-
credential program support available to teachers entering the profession. This alignment should
offer learning experiences and approaches that cater to the needs of urban BIPOC students.
Overview of Results
Consistently throughout the interviews, participants expressed that their pre-
service/credential programs did not prepare them sufficiently to teach BIPOC students in urban
settings. The interviews revealed that most participants selected their pre-service credential
programs based on two factors: convenience and cost. The data also showed what participants
learned in their programs and what they wished they had learned in hindsight, once they were in
the classroom. Many Participants noted that their programs focused too much on general
research and theory, leaving them wanting more practical application for teaching BIPOC
students. The participants interviewed also felt their programs failed to provide real-life
application of knowledge to the students they teach. In conclusion, most participants in this study
reported feeling unprepared by their pre-service/credential program to teach BIPOC students in
urban settings.
Based on the interviews, the teachers in this study reported that the post-program support
and professional development they received did not align with the focus of their credential
program. Instead, the support provided was often focused on program compliance, state testing,
and data analysis, leaving little time for teachers to apply theory into practice. Furthermore, most
61

participants felt that the post-credential program support did not adequately address the
development and maintenance of culturally responsive teaching practices.
After analyzing the interview data, four major themes emerged in response to the
research question: (1) Teachers' choice of pre-service/credential programs was primarily based
on convenience rather than the substantive focus of the programs, (2) The focus of pre-
service/credential programs was largely on theoretical knowledge rather than practical
application, (3) Pre-service/credential programs failed to provide real-life application of
knowledge to the students they teach, and (4) Post-program support was not adequately
connected to pre-service/credential programs.
The Convenience of Pre-Service Teaching Programs
The interviews aimed to uncover the reasons why the participants selected their pre-
service programs. Out of the ten participants interviewed, eight indicated that the primary factor
in their program selection was convenience. While the participants expressed a preference for
programs with a social justice focus and a desire to learn more about teaching BIPOC students,
the location of the program and its proximity to their homes and schools were the primary drivers
in their decision-making process. Their priority was to earn their credential quickly while
minimizing their commute. Based on the interview data, the quality of the program was a
secondary, sometimes even tertiary, factor in their decision-making process.
During the interviews, most of the participants revealed that they prioritized convenience
and ease of completing the program. Bryan, for instance, disclosed that he chose his program
primarily for its short and intensive course schedule. He explained:
I just wanted to get it out of the way right away. I was able to take two or three
courses right after the other, in short, 8-week sessions. I didn’t have to go the whole
62

semester to complete the classes, I was done faster, and my classes were scheduled
around a person’s work schedule.
Bryan further added that the program's online format allowed him to manage his daily work
schedule effectively. Maatuk et al. (2022) discuss that because of e-learning, participants can
save time and effort living in distant places from universities where they are registered, so many
scholars support online courses.
The decision of convenience of location over program reputation were also diving forces
for Christina, Saida and Joe. When asked why Christina chose her program, she bluntly stated,
“honestly, it was local. I didn’t have to commute.” The convenience of living close to her
university’s location was the deciding factor over her credential programs focus, reputation and
cost. Saida selected her credentialing program for no other reason than “it was close to home.”
Similarly, Joe selected his credential program out of convenience of location but factored in that
“I [he] wanted to go to a school that would tailor the program towards teaching in Los Angeles.
In the end it just came down to the commute.” Again, none of them based their decisions on
program selection due to its reputation or ability to prepare them to teach BIPOC students in
urban environments.
Another participant that selected their program due convenience over a social justice
oriented program was Ms. Gee. She indicated her main reason out of familiarity with the
university. She said, “One of the main factors I [she] chose my credential program was that I had
earned my bachelor’s degree there.” She also added, “it was really helpful to already be familiar
with many of the professors that were going to be teaching me in the credential program.”
Having those established relationships outweighed the desire for a reputable program for Ms.
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Gee. She stated that having that rapport with her professors would help her as she “felt that they
had an inside scoop on what was in the future of education.”
While some teachers interviewed indicated their decisions in selecting their credential
programs were predicated on the commonality around convenience, some indicated other factors
that influenced their decisions. For about a third of the participants, affordability was a desirable
characteristic that overshadowed the need for a program with a social justice focus.
Eyepea, for example, stated his reason for selecting his preservice/credential program
was less about the quality of the program but more about the convenience and the cost of the
program. Eyepea stated, "I was already familiar with the location as I had already earned my
undergraduate degree from the university.” This familiarity coupled with the financial cost of the
program influenced his decision making over a credential program that focused on incorporating
social justice education into their curriculum. He stated, “It was the easiest and cheapest route for
me. I was already there, so I just ended up doing the program there.” He said, “I didn’t want to
spend extra time and money and just wanted to get it done.”
Daniel stated a major factor in selecting his credentialing program was financially
focused. He shared that as a low-income first-generation college attendee, he wanted to find a
program to give him the most financial aid. The university he found participated in a program
partnered with a consortium that specifically assists first-generation, low-income students in
applying to colleges. Daniel stated that he felt that:
…if a program was serious about having people of color, who are low income, go
through their pipeline, one way you can see that is if they put their money where their
mouth is by providing financial aid to these aspiring educators and focus on their goal of
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becoming a teacher without having to worry about finishing being thirty thousand dollars
in debt.
Since Daniel also knew he wanted to teach “back home in California,” location was a
secondary factor for him. Daniel stated, “even though I researched reciprocity laws, when it
came to credentials, it was just easier to be at a school in California.” Interestingly third on
Daniel’s list of considerations was the program's focus on providing its students with hands-on
experience and providing feedback. Selecting a pre-service credential teaching program that
focused on educating BIPOC urban students was not a priority for Daniel.
Emily shared similar reasons around her credential program selection. For Emily, both
convenience of location and the focus of preparing her to teach BIPOC students in urban
environments were important factors in her credential program selection. She wanted to stay
local to where she grew up in Santa Ana, but at the same time to attend a credential program that
would help her grow as a teacher in a predominantly Latino, low income, immigrant community.
Emily shared that she always knew that:
I [she] wanted to pursue a program that was very social justice oriented. I wanted the
opportunity to ensure that I could be the teacher who could connect with the young
people and sort of affirm them of their identities.
A third and important factor in Emily’s program consideration was cost. Finding a
program that was affordable, while also filling her other two top considerations of a socially
justice oriented focus and close proximity to her home were “far and few between.” In the end,
Emily elected a program that would afford her a master’s degree and teacher credential through a
private university that offered her financial assistance, over a program to prepare her to educate
BIPOC youth in urban schools.
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Contrary to the majority of the participants interviewed, June and Josué shared that their
pre-service/credential program selection was primarily based on the program’s reputation and
focus on preparing teachers to instruct BIPOC students in urban communities. Factors such as
placement in an urban setting during student teaching assignments, working with diverse student
populations, and addressing teaching strategies that would be effective in the real world, urban
settings were influential factors that helped them choose the programs they did.
For June, she knew she wanted to work in an urban setting in the greater Los Angeles
area, so learning that her credential program focused on strategies for integrating multicultural
perspectives into the curriculum and creating an inclusive learning environment along with
placing student teachers in those settings, she was sold. June shared:
I wanted to work in LAUSD, and my program placed us in schools in the areas where I
wanted to teach, so it really connected my practice to my learning. I was able to take
what I learned in my program and put it to use in real life.
Josué shared very similar sentiments. Based on advice he received from other educators,
he chose his program that would enable him to be an effective educator. Josué shared, “other
educators recommended my program because it would give me context into the role of teaching
and education in a more global sense.” Like Layla, Josué knew he wanted to work with BIPOC
students in an urban setting, so “finding a program that was addressing that type of teaching that
would be effective in that setting was important for me.”
From the study we see that people’s behaviors are often affected by their use of time, and
that part of most adults’ daily schedules are determined by their work, including time spent
working and commuting to the workplace (Halonen, 2020). It's no surprise that the study showed
the majority of the participants selected where to earn their credential based on proximity to
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where they resided and/or worked over placing an emphasis on selecting a program that focuses
on preparing teachers to teach BIPOC student in an urban setting by providing a foundation of
knowledge and skills that are specifically tailored to the needs of diverse student populations.
Overly Theoretical Program Focus
The focus of a teacher credential program is an essential aspect that determines the
quality and effectiveness of teacher preparation. The focus of a teacher credential program plays
a critical role in shaping the learning outcomes of future teachers. One of the significant
advantages of having a clear focus for a teacher credential program is that it provides a
framework for teacher candidates to develop their skills and knowledge. It determines the extent
to which teacher candidates are prepared to handle the challenges of the modern classroom and
ensure that their students receive a quality education. The interviews in this study revealed that
not all credential programs placed an importance on the focus to ensure that teacher candidates
are adequately prepared to meet the needs of diverse learners.
Among the ten interviewed teachers, four conveyed their dissatisfaction with their
programs, with a shared concern of inadequate attention towards social justice issues and a
preference for a more practical approach instead of a theoretical one. If teachers are not properly
trained to understand the complex issues of social justice and equity, they may unintentionally
perpetuate systemic biases and discrimination in their classrooms. Furthermore, if the emphasis
is too heavily on theoretical approaches, teachers may struggle to effectively apply their
knowledge in real-world situations. The participants recounted experiences of encountering a
single book on recognizing different cultures or integrating multicultural education topics into
their required English Learners class, or sometimes even encountering a complete absence of
culturally responsive teaching practices. This lack of attention to social justice issues and a
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preference for theoretical approaches can have serious consequences, both for individual teachers
and the broader education system. As such, it is essential for credential programs to take a more
comprehensive approach to teacher training that prepares educators to effectively address the
complex issues of social justice and equity in their classrooms.
Christina was one of those teachers who were disappointed with their program's focus.
Christina shared that she felt like she hadn't learned any practical strategies that would be useful
when working with diverse students. She cited examples of “watching videos that only
superficially addressed cultural differences”, and how “integrating cultures into the curriculum
was only briefly covered in my [her] single course on teaching English Learners.” According to
Christina, “the course only touched on SDAIE strategies and how to integrate culture into my
lessons which mainly focused on language, rather than cultural relevance or responsive teaching
strategies.” She mentioned that her credential program, “…never really focused on topics such as
culturally responsive teaching or issues related to race, gender, or other forms of identity.” When
asked about this, she stated that “I [she] didn't know anything about culturally responsive
teaching until I [she] got my [her] first teaching job.” Consequently, Christina felt that her
credential program's attempt to prepare teachers to teach BIPOC youth was only done to meet
compliance requirements.
Similar to Christina's experience, Eyepea also shared the same feelings about how his
credential program addressed topics such as race and culturally responsive teaching. He
commented that the program only touched upon these issues at a very superficial level.
According to him, they were given “articles to read about race, bringing culture into the
classroom, social-emotional learning, and being part of the community, but that was about it.”
Eyepea felt that the program “did not connect these topics to real-life classroom situations and
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that the articles were merely included as food for thought. No real substance.” He recalled
having more in-depth discussions with his classmates outside of the classroom rather than with
his instructors within the program.
Teaching in today's diverse and multicultural classrooms requires teachers to have the
appropriate skills to effectively educate students from a variety of backgrounds. As a result,
credential programs must stay up-to-date on research that equips teachers with the knowledge
and skills necessary to teach BIPOC students. Both Bryan and Ms. Gee expressed their
realization that their program was outdated and not current on best practices for incorporating
social justice education into the curriculum. Bryan shared that he became aware of this when he
realized that the books he was assigned to read were outdated, which left him with no choice but
to “pretty much do the research on his own.” Bryan also spoke of his class session experiences as
being out of touch, where “we [they] didn’t really discuss current events.” He added that if there
were opportunities, those discussions took place outside of the structured classroom through the
forum chats, which were not monitored or facilitated by teaching staff. Bryan recalls that his
program placed more emphasis on the technical aspects of teaching rather than developing a
deeper understanding of students' cultural backgrounds, recognizing and addressing biases and
stereotypes, and utilizing culturally relevant materials and teaching strategies.
Ms. Gee talked about how her program “needed to be updated. Certain classes felt like
they were using outdated textbooks that had no correlation of how they connected to today’s
times. Some things just didn’t seem accurate today.” Ms. Gee revealed that her program was
lacking in addressing topics such as biases and stereotypes. She recounted an instance when a
professor in her program discussed the topic of students with tattoos. The professor stated, “if
you see a student with tattoos, some of those tattoos may be gang-affiliated or under the control
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of a pimp” Ms. Gee stated that this is just one example of how her program was “not up to date
in 2020.” Considering this, Ms. Gee stated that her classes and coursework did not prioritize the
needs of today's BIPOC students. Instead, the program placed more emphasis on the technical
skills of teaching, such as delivering the curriculum and managing classroom structures. When
asked about how her credential program addressed culturally responsive teaching, she could not
recall the program ever mentioning the acronym BIPOC or addressing the needs of students of
color.
In contrast to the teachers who felt that their credential programs lacked a social justice
focus or were outdated, the majority of the respondents indicated that their programs were
aligned with preparing teachers to educate BIPOC students in today's classrooms. Notably, all
participants who attended private, seemingly progressive universities and shared their program's
focus had a social justice-related component. These interview participants recalled discussions
and coursework centered around race, systemic inequality, and culturally relevant teaching
practices compared to those who attended public instructional institutions and were interviewed.
Daniel’s experience was vastly different from the aforementioned participants. He
explained in addition to selecting his program for financial reasons, he also found that the
prestigious private university he attended had courses specifically dedicated to culturally
responsive teaching, social justice education, race, and implicit bias. He stated, “There was a lot
of emphasis on culturally sustaining practices.” Daniel remembers having conversations about
topics such as positionality as a teacher and how it relates to students of color. He felt confident
and prepared going into his first year of teaching, thanks to the coursework and discussions he
had during his credential program. Daniel spoke of the hands-on focus of his program where
credential students were required to take tours of the neighborhood where they would be
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teaching classes. He remembers thinking to himself, “I’m going to be teaching these students. It's
important for me to understand them as a whole people in a community, in a neighborhood city.”
Daniel's program had an immersive experience that included a goal-setting model. He would set
instructional goals, observe model teachers in urban settings, have discussions about the
practices observed, receive coaching and feedback, and discuss how to apply the feedback given.
June and Josué attended a private university for their credential program, similar to
Daniel's experience. June shared that she found it easier to relate to her professors of color, who
were current teachers in urban settings, instructing BIPOC students. June recalls that the term
"CRT" was used throughout his program and how socially justice-oriented topics were integrated
throughout the curriculum. June remembers that even though the course content was math, her
program taught her how to have conversations about social justice in the classroom. June stated:
…it was like my program sprinkled it throughout all of the different subjects. It was not
just a flavor of the month or something you do once in a while. We learned that culturally
relevant teaching practices are something to be done throughout the whole year.
Josué's experience was similar to June's in terms of how his credential program addressed
the needs of students in urban settings and integrated culturally relevant teaching practices into
every subject matter. Josué recalls his coursework would “emphasize the importance of
culturally relevant pedagogy when teaching students of color in an urban setting.” Josué recalls
how his credential program provided an in-depth understanding of complex concepts like racism
and systemic inequality, which were integrated into all of his courses. He particularly remembers
learning about the neuroscience research on literacy for English language learners and how this
learning was reinforced in other classes. Moreover, the discussions in his program were raw and
rich, addressing the issues faced by BIPOC learners and communities nationwide.
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Joe’s credential program incorporated a course dedicated to culturally responsive
teaching practices, social justice education, and multicultural education each semester. He said
his program “talked a lot about” culturally responsive teaching and how to create student
connections. Joe credits his student teaching experience as the main source of his credential
program's social justice focus. He explained that he “learned a lot through his placement in a
predominantly Latino classroom” and applied those learnings firsthand. Joe mentioned how his
experience aligned with his coursework around culturally relevant teaching practices,
understanding student's cultural backgrounds, and addressing biases and stereotypes.
In summary, the focus of a teacher credential program is crucial for preparing effective
and culturally responsive teachers. A clear program focus provides a framework for teacher
candidates to develop their skills and knowledge to meet the diverse needs of their students. The
interviews conducted in this study revealed that some credential programs lack a social justice
focus, and as a result, teacher candidates feel inadequately prepared to teach BIPOC students. In
contrast, those who attended private universities with a social justice-related component recalled
rich discussions and coursework centered around race, systemic inequality, and culturally
relevant teaching practices. It is essential for teacher credential programs to address social
justice-related topics to ensure that all teacher candidates are prepared to educate students from
diverse backgrounds in today's classrooms.
Real-life Application of Learning
The interview data collected provided valuable insights into the participants' perceived
level of preparedness to teach BIPOC students in urban settings. The findings revealed that many
participants felt that their programs did not adequately prepare them for the practical application
of their learning. A common theme that emerged from the interviews was the lack of real-life
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preparation on how to teach effectively. This left teachers struggling in their first year, trying to
manage the day-to-day requirements of their job and making it difficult to incorporate cultural
responsiveness as much as they would have liked. The interviewees had varying opinions about
their level of preparedness when they first began teaching, with some expressing a mix of
emotions and others feeling completely unprepared and having to figure things out on their own.
One of the participants who expressed a mixed perspective about their program was June.
While she feels that her program did prepare her for culturally relevant teaching practices, she
realizes that it did not equip her with the skills to address the academic needs of her students.
According to June, her students are academically behind, and her school district requires her to
focus on standardized testing. She shared:
I was not prepared on how behind my students would be and how to integrate what I
learned in my program with the abilities with which my students came to me. Like how
do I merge what I have learned with the students I got? So, I guess I felt my program did
prepare me to work with my students and how to make those connections with them, but
what I wasn’t prepared for was what I actually faced.
She wished that her program had a balance of social justice-oriented topics merged with
applicable tools and skills to address the academic needs of her students. When reflecting on his
credential program, Joe has conflicting emotions. He recalls having class discussions about the
importance of meeting the needs of BIPOC students and their history, but he did not recall
receiving any specific applicable training that could help him teach BIPOC students in urban
schools. Instead, he relied on his own cultural background and upbringing. Joe stated:
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I am lucky, I am Latino, and it was kind of easy to get in that mindset of like how we’re
going to connect to the kids. I don’t think it was as easy for my classmates who were
White.
Joe, who grew up in an urban area, felt comfortable in the setting he teaches in. However,
he pointed out that:
the problem occurs in people assuming that they will just automatically walk in a place
and just think Oh because I am the same, I’m from the same community, that it overlaps,
that I will just automatically relate to them. I have learned that I am older, and my
experiences are different from theirs, but I did not learn that in my program. I had to
figure that out on my own.
He concluded by expressing that he believed it was even more challenging for his White
classmates to navigate this issue.
Ms. Gee's experience with her credential program was a mixed one. While she found the
program to be lacking in its focus on social justice issues and outdated curriculum, she felt that
her connection with a few professors and her student teaching placement adequately prepared her
to work with her BIPOC students. According to her, “my student teaching experience was really
focused on creating connections with your students, and I truly believe that is what has helped
me in my urban school setting.” Ms. Gee also mentioned that her Master Teacher modeled the
same type of environment for her. During her student teaching assignment, she had students who
discussed “sexual assault experiences and, you know, questioning their identity, just topics like
that.” She now applies those same strategies in her own classroom where “we’ve talked about so
many things, so many different themes, we’re just talking about them having actual discourse.”
Ms. Gee attributed her feeling of preparedness to teach BIPOC students to her student teaching
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experience, saying, “I think a large portion of what I learned was talking to them or with them,
not at them. That was the biggest thing I picked up from my credential program.”
While he felt well-prepared during his program, Daniel discovered that nothing can truly
prepare you for teaching in the real world. Daniel shared, “even though I felt like I was prepared
to teach coming out of my student teaching, nothing prepares you to teach in the real world. I
wanted to do these cool things I had learned at [my university] and my students were not
engaging. I had to be really creative.” Having his own classroom, Daniel found that the hands-on
observation opportunities provided by his program did not translate into the real-world
classroom. He wished that his program had given more opportunities for hands-on experience
with applying the things they learned. Daniel realized that theory and discussions are only
effective to a certain extent until they are applied in the real world with actual students.
Several participants felt that their program lacked practical application on how to
implement the practices they learned. Some individuals stated that their credential programs did
not equip them adequately to cater to the requirements of their diverse students. While some of
them felt that they were on their own in figuring things out, others shared similar experiences.
Emily was among the participants who believed that their program lacked practical
application. According to her, there was an abundance of “theory and philosophy around
teaching and instruction” but little guidance on how to implement it in practice. Emily also noted
that looking back on her student teaching experience, she recalled that even her master teacher's
focus was on teaching her how to adhere to the prescribed curriculum of the school. She found
no practical link between the coursework in her credential program, her student teaching
experience, and applying what she learned in a real-world classroom setting.
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Looking back on his credential program, Eyepea shared that he did not feel equipped
with the skills needed to create a culturally responsive learning environment for his students. He
stated, “Once I started teaching, I found that most of what I learned in my program does not even
resonate today.” Eyepea felt that the program only superficially integrated culturally responsive
teaching topics, leaving him underprepared to teach in-person classes to urban BIPOC youth. He
realized that he had to figure out how to create an inclusive classroom environment on his own.
According to Josué, during his pre-service coursework, he was:
equipped with the knowledge of BIPOC students and their needs but not prepared with
skills to actually put it into practice. My classes included the concepts of working with
students of color in urban schools. Still, I don’t feel like we discussed real-life skills to
work with them.
Josué also expressed that he could go back to review what was discussed in his courses,
but he finds it overwhelming to put the strategies into practice because he lacks confidence. He
stated, "how would I put the strategies into practice now when I don’t feel confident in actually
using them?" Josué further added that he feels disheartened because he is left to figure it all out
on his own.
During the interview, Bryan shared his pre-service experience through the CTE program,
stating that his experience was very similar to the other participants, despite taking a different
pathway than the traditional credential program. According to him, the CTE program did not
prepare him for working with BIPOC students or in schools located in urban areas. Instead, the
program was mainly focused on classroom management techniques. Bryan reflected on his
experience as a student himself and remembered having teachers who used to just sit at their
desks all day. He added:
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My program did not mention how to work with students of color. It was just managing a
classroom itself and making it so it's not something that would be like, monotone or kind
of something where the kids just tune out. We learned how to engage students simply by
walking around the classroom.
Bryan further expressed that he had to learn how to understand a student’s point of view
on his own. He stated:
I had to learn the lingo and habits and things like that. My program didn’t prepare me to
be a teacher with students with different backgrounds, races, or ethnicities. I just kinda
picked up on it because I am around teenagers all day.
Bryan felt that he was left to figure it out on his own, just like the other participants. The
insights gained from the interviews offered valuable information on how prepared the
participants felt to teach BIPOC students in urban settings. In summary, the interview data
indicated that the programs the participants attended did not adequately equip them with
practical application skills. Participants who attended programs that emphasized social justice-
oriented education or culturally responsive teaching practices found that there was a lack of real-
world preparation on how to implement them. As a result, teachers were left feeling frustrated
and struggling to incorporate cultural responsiveness into their teaching practices as much as
they would have liked.
Post Program Support
A fourth theme that emerged in the interviews was that the participants felt their
credential programs lacked post-program support. They mentioned that this lack of support left
them feeling ill-prepared to engage with and meet the needs of their BIPOC students. This
resulted in responses from interviews that explored the support new teachers received at their
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school sites post their credential programs and the professional development opportunities they
would like to receive. The findings suggest that there is a gap between the support provided by
teacher pre-service/credential programs and that offered by school districts. It is important that
preservice/credential programs align their focus with the needs of the student populations that
teachers are encountering in real world classrooms. The table below shows that school districts
are not providing new teachers with the necessary support to sustain culturally responsive
teaching practices for BIPOC students. More than half of the participants mentioned that they
would have to seek professional development opportunities on their own to advance their
practices in assisting culturally diverse students they work with, such as attending trainings
outside of school hours or through universities.
The following table presents a comparison between the post pre-service/credential
program support and professional development that the study's participants currently receive at
their school sites and the preferred support or professional development they would like to
receive regularly:
Table 3
Post Program Support Received vs. Post Program Support Desired
Participant Post Program Support Teachers
Received
Post Program Support Teachers Would
Like
Christina ● Induction program
● Testing results and data
● ELA & Writing Scores
● Culturally responsive instructional
practices
● Induction program that supports
credential program focus
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Eyepea ● Incorporating English into Math
● Data teams
● Test scores
● SEL
● Classroom management
● How to connect with students of
different cultures
● How to plan lessons to meet the
needs of diverse students
● Diversity training
June ● Managing student behaviors
● Induction and Ed-TPAs
● SEL
● Classroom management

● Foster care student support
● ELL’s (English Language Learners)
● Special Education
Josué ● Writing IEPs
● Induction program
● Classroom management
● Science based professional
development
● Hands on experience with strategies
and theories learned
● Observations of what good
instruction looks like
● Ways to integrate IEP goals
● Culturally relevant teaching practices
● How to manage working with
colleagues who don’t see the same
needs you do
Daniel ● University fellowship ● Building a plan to address equity
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● Culturally sustaining practices
● Teaching the whole child - student
centered lesson design
● Induction program
● Coaching & feedback
● PLCs
● Engaging students who are
chronically absent
● Meeting the needs of students with
major issues such as drug
dependency, chronic absenteeism
Emily ● Induction mentor
● PD on developing culturally
relevant lessons
● Weekly PD connections to student
demographic they serve
● Testing/SBAC
● Evaluating student work
● Mindfulness
● Classroom management
● English instruction
● Access points to literacy
● More teacher voice integrated into
PD
● Anti-biased teaching strategies
● Addressing issues of race, gender,
sexual orientation
Joe ● Student engagement
● Understanding and addressing
biases and stereotypes
● Kagan learning structures
● Classroom management
● Collaboration time
● Training in culturally responsive
teaching practices
● Consistency of PD
● Follow through and revisiting of PD
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● SEL
● Testing results and data
concepts
● Understanding the cultural
backgrounds of students
Saida ● Student engagement
● Number Talks
● Kagan Learning Structures
● District mandated online training
modules
● Student to student engagement
● How to integrate multicultural
perspectives into the curriculum
● Creating an inclusive learning
environment.
● How to engage students in academic
conversations
Ms. Gee ● Cal TPA support
● Induction Workshops
● Technology
● Schoolwide assessments
● Data analysis
● Lesson planning & delivery of
instruction
● Observations of other teachers
● SEL
● Integrating trainings into subject
matter taught
● Addressing the needs of EL’s
Bryan ● Classroom management
● Student engagement
● Teaching ESL students
● Application of real world strategies
● Assisting students who are foster
youth

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It is evident from the table that there is a disconnect between the support and professional
development currently being provided at school sites and the support and professional
development that the participants desire to receive. The participants expressed a strong desire for
regular and ongoing professional development focused on culturally responsive teaching
practices, recognizing and addressing biases and stereotypes, using culturally relevant materials
and teaching strategies, and addressing issues of race, gender, sexual orientation, and other forms
of identity. The participants also expressed a need for regular mentoring and coaching,
opportunities for collaboration and sharing best practices, and access to up-to-date, culturally
relevant resources and materials.
Post Program Support Participants Received
When asked about post credential program support that Christina found helpful, she said,
“Not much really. Right now in our district they want us to teach our students to write a certain
way because of the test on the SBAC or whatever state exam they have.” She added, “I’ve gotten
more culturally responsive information and instruction from the UCLA PD’s I have attended.
I’m like, I should have gone to UCLA for their credential program.”
During the interview, Joe stated, “My induction mentor emphasized the importance of
clearing my credential and focusing on the California Standards for the Teaching Profession.
There was little to no emphasis on culturally relevant teaching practices or multicultural
education.” Joe expressed his desire to learn more strategies on how to meet the diverse needs of
his students. To address this gap, he enrolled himself in an after-school professional development
webinar series hosted by an outside agency. He found this professional development to be
helpful in creating a learning environment that respects and reflects the cultural diversity of
students. However, he also expressed concern that new teachers should not have to seek and pay
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for professional development opportunities on their own. He stated, “This support should be
embedded in all new teacher support as an important component of preparing teachers to work
with diverse student populations.”
During the interview, some participants, including Christina, Josué, Emily, and Ms. Gee,
shared their experiences with induction mentors. While they received support, it seemed to be
more focused on fulfilling requirements to clear their credential rather than on the importance of
incorporating multiple perspectives and cultures into the curriculum. As Ms. Gee stated, “We
just do a lot of assignments for the induction program to get our credentials cleared and work
towards completing the Cal TPAs. It seems really repetitive. There is nothing centered around
culturally responsive teaching practices.” This indicates that the support they received did not
effectively connect back to their credential programs and did not prioritize culturally responsive
teaching practices.
Overall, the participants in the study did not feel that there was any post-credential
program professional development that supported culturally relevant teaching practices. Nearly
every participant reported that they were not provided with opportunities to plan and collaborate
with others regarding culturally relevant practices for BIPOC students.
Post Program Support Participants Wanted
The interviews revealed that a majority of the participants wished to receive support that
aligns with what they learned in their pre-service/credential programs and to provide more
meaningful assistance to their teaching practice beyond what was being offered through their
Induction program or school district. They expressed a need for support in implementing
culturally responsive teaching practices, recognizing and addressing biases and stereotypes,
using culturally relevant materials and teaching strategies, and addressing issues related to
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identity, including race, gender, and sexual orientation. The objective is to create an inclusive
and welcoming classroom environment for all students.
Daniel shared an interesting insight about a fellowship program offered by his credential
program's university. The program is designed for teachers who have been teaching for two to
five years and aims to address the complexities of education by providing them with
opportunities to deepen their content-specific instructional practices and create equitable access
for all learners. The fellowship is highly motivating and is funded by the university, making it
free for teachers who are accepted.
During the interview, Bryan expressed his dissatisfaction with the school site's
professional development, stating that it was “useless - spewing theory and a bunch of case
studies.” He further added that it was "not really helpful when you're not shown how to actually
practice it." Despite this, Bryan felt personally prepared to work with his students by
“understanding and relating to the students.” However, this frustration was not unique to Bryan,
as other participants interviewed felt a disconnect between the support they were receiving and
what they felt they needed.
The participants' experiences indicate a stark contrast between the types of support they
feel would be valuable and the support they are actually receiving. The available support by and
large lacks any connection to teacher pre-service/credential programs or culturally responsive
instructional practices for BIPOC learners. As shown in Table 3 and shared by participants, the
support primarily focuses on technical tasks and does not provide the necessary support for
culturally responsive teaching, social justice education, multicultural education, and anti-bias
education to work with diverse student populations in urban settings. By equipping teachers with
the necessary skills and knowledge to create an inclusive and equitable learning environment,
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teacher pre-service/credential programs and school districts can promote educational equity and
improve outcomes for BIPOC students.
Conclusion
The study revealed a discrepancy between the coursework offered in pre-
service/credential programs and the lack of applicable teaching strategies for urban BIPOC
students. While some pre-service/credential programs were found to have themed coursework
focused on culturally responsive teaching, social justice education, and creating an inclusive and
equitable learning environment for BIPOC students, not all participants were equally exposed
and prepared to teach urban BIPOC youth. Although some participants expressed more comfort
in teaching BIPOC students in urban areas due to their program exposure or personal
identification, the majority felt unprepared to teach such students.
In this study, participants were interviewed to determine the support and professional
development they receive, as well as their needs for improving their practice to meet the needs of
their diverse students. The results revealed a disconnect between pre-service/credential teaching
programs and the support received at school sites. The support and professional development
offered at most school sites did not align with the applicable needs of early career teachers and
their students. While some participants received support in creating culturally relevant lessons
and connecting with their students, this was not the norm. Post-program support and professional
development opportunities were also inadequate in equipping teachers with the skills and
knowledge necessary to create an inclusive and equitable learning environment for BIPOC
students.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
In chapter five, the research findings are summarized, highlighting their significance for
teachers who are newly credentialed and teaching in urban areas, as well as the professional
development opportunities available to them within the educational community to maintain
culturally relevant teaching practices for BIPOC students. The main goal is to inform current and
future educational leaders that teachers require sufficient and suitable coursework and support in
their pre-service credentialing programs to effectively serve the needs of BIPOC learners in
urban areas. Additionally, based on the study's context, recommendations for further research are
suggested. The study was guided by the following question: How, if at all, have pre-
service/credential courses prepared BIPOC teachers to teach BIPOC students in urban areas?
Through the use of interviews with each participant, this study employed a qualitative
research approach. Qualitative research is used to gain insights into people's beliefs, experiences,
attitudes, behavior, and interactions, and it typically yields non-numerical data. One of the main
advantages of qualitative research is that it allows participants to share their experiences and
perspectives in their own words, giving them a voice in the study (Pathak et al., 2013).
Qualitative analysis of teacher interview findings revealed four major themes: (1) Teachers'
choice of pre-service/credential programs was primarily based on convenience rather than the
substantive focus of the programs, (2) The focus of pre-service/credential programs was largely
on theoretical knowledge rather than practical application, (3) Pre-service/credential programs
failed to provide real-life application of knowledge to the students they teach, and (4) Post-
program support was not adequately connected to pre-service/credential programs.
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Findings
According to the study's results, the primary factor that motivated participants to choose a
particular pre-service credential program was its proximity and cost-effectiveness. The majority
of teachers interviewed in the study indicated that they based their program selection on these
two factors. This supports the research found by Boyd et al. (Sleeter et al., 2014) that teachers
generally prefer to teach close to home. This consideration of distance also plays a significant
role in the decision-making of teachers seeking their first job, according to Sleeter's research.
Prospective teachers tend to search for jobs in their hometowns or regions similar to where they
grew up, creating a preference for suburban or rural areas over urban areas.
The data also revealed what participants had learned in their programs and what they
wished they had learned in hindsight once they were in the classroom. Some participants
mentioned that they had received positive feedback about the programs they ultimately selected,
and one participant even actively sought out a program based on its perceived quality and
reputation. Overall, the study findings indicated that convenience and proximity were the
dominant considerations in choosing pre-service credential programs.
Credentialing programs dedicate extensive time to studying the theoretical and
pedagogical aspects of teaching. However, according to the teachers interviewed in this study,
this emphasis on theory is impractical in the field. While acknowledging the importance of some
theoretical and pedagogical study, participants felt that their programs should have placed more
emphasis on practical skills such as ongoing professional development in culturally responsive
teaching practices, recognizing and addressing biases and stereotypes, using culturally relevant
materials and teaching strategies, and addressing issues of identity.
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In addition, participants highlighted the importance of receiving regular mentoring and
coaching, opportunities to collaborate and share best practices, and access to culturally relevant
and up-to-date resources and materials. Research has shown that peer coaching can have a
positive impact on teachers and educational institutions (Hohensee & Lewis, 2019). Peer
coaching implemented among schools has proven to be a highly effective form of professional
development, with the potential to assist teachers in developing culturally responsive teaching
practices (Bussman & Louis, 2021).
Participants repeatedly emphasized the need for more practical training in their programs.
This disconnect in teacher education programs may be due, in part, to teacher educators
becoming out of touch with K-12 classrooms as they progress in their careers. It is important for
teacher educators to remain connected to the realities of teaching in schools to better prepare
their students for the challenges they will face (Powell, 2016).
For instance, according to the teachers I interviewed, most of their credential programs
either failed to take a progressive stance on racial issues or chose to ignore them altogether,
providing only superficial coverage. Only two university programs were found to prioritize
amplifying the voices of systematically marginalized groups, while the pre-service courses
offered by the remaining eight participants primarily focused on theory, classroom management
and the technical aspects of teaching. Participants reported that their programs only provided
articles on topics such as race, systemic equality, urban communities, and teaching BIPOC
students, but did not feel they were prepared to teach the diverse student population they faced in
their classrooms.
The findings revealed that many participants felt that their programs failed to provide
real-life application of knowledge to the students they teach. This left teachers struggling in their
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first year, trying to manage the day-to-day requirements of their job and making it difficult to
incorporate cultural responsiveness as much as they would have liked. The interviewees had
varying opinions about their level of preparedness when they first began teaching, with some
expressing a mix of emotions and others feeling completely unprepared and having to figure
things out on their own.
The vast majority of participants expressed feeling disconnected from the post-program
support they received and stated that it did not meet their needs. Many felt that the professional
development opportunities offered were repetitive and overly focused on improving test scores
and analyzing test data. Furthermore, teachers felt that the support they received lacked
relevance, applicability, and value, with little consideration for their specific needs and
experiences. Therefore, post pre-service/credential program support must become a top priority
to continue improving instruction. It should be connected to pre-service/credential programs and
focus on supporting teachers in their ongoing professional growth. Although teachers understand
the need for professional development, they often feel unfulfilled due to the delivery and
irrelevance of the experience (Reist, 2021).
Participants indicated their general displeasure and disinterest with the support options
and choices they receive at their school sites. However, what stood out more was not the kinds of
support they are receiving, but the kinds that they are not. According to Will (2020) with
teachers across America, teachers indicated that professional development is often done to, rather
than with, or by teachers. It can lack continuity and be disconnected from classroom realities.
The type and method of professional development is taught matters. Just as good teaching
differentiates instruction, good professional development is personalized to fit teacher needs. It is
assessed throughout the process, and the focus of the content is continuously adjusted to fit the
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needs of the teacher. Rather than emphasizing theoretical ideas, quality PD actively engages
participants in learning something relevant and meaningful for them that can be directly applied
to the classroom. In addition to participants in this study indicating a disconnect between the
kinds of post-program support offered in their districts; the absence of culturally relevant
professional development and coursework speaks volumes about the disconnect between
university programs and the support provided for new teachers.
The majority of participants revealed that their school sites do not provide ongoing,
culturally responsive professional development. Even though some participants mentioned that
their schools prioritize it, the lack of emphasis on this crucial aspect at the credential program
level carries over to school sites. Given that teacher beliefs can significantly affect student
behavior and learning outcomes (Mellom et al., 2018), it is crucial for professional development
to focus on how teacher attitudes and beliefs impact instruction. By doing so, teachers can
become more culturally responsive, creating a respectful and positive classroom environment
that acknowledges and values students' diversity.
Implications for Practice
This study examined how credentialing courses prepared educators to teach BIPOC
students in urban areas and how prepared teachers felt to educate BIPOC students in urban areas
using culturally relevant teaching practices. Study findings established themes that provided
insight into what compelled participants to select their pre-service programs, their perceptions of
quality, and how applicable the learning was in a real life classroom setting. This information
provides valuable information for new teacher support programs, school site administrators, and
meaningful feedback for practitioners of credential programs. Regarding the thematic findings of
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this study, implications for pre-service programs and existing post program support at school
sites were established.
The first implication for practice is that teacher credentialing programs need to be
updated to reflect the actuality of teaching in the 21st Century. In California, individuals aspiring
to become teachers can enroll in approved institutions that offer authorized programs to obtain a
credential or authorization to teach in the state's public schools (CTC, 2022). The Commission
on Teacher Credentialing (CTC) is responsible for accrediting these institutions and approving
programs that meet the established standards of quality and effectiveness. These educator
preparation programs are sponsored by various entities, including universities, colleges, school
districts, and county offices of education. They cover a wide range of credential areas, such as
subject matter programs, educator preparation programs, and educator induction programs.
The accredited agencies are required to adhere to the adopted California Program
Standards for each specific credential, which can be categorized into preconditions and common
standards (CTC, 2022). While the standards do not explicitly outline a separate standard for
culturally responsive teaching practices, the requirements related to this concept are integrated
into the narrative descriptions within the standards. The accredited agencies have the freedom to
design courses that address these standards in the manner they deem appropriate. Some programs
may dedicate specific courses to the concept of culturally responsive teaching, while others may
incorporate it across multiple courses.
Since most of the teachers interviewed felt unprepared for the teaching profession after
completing their credentialing programs, this could include surveying and interviewing newly
credentialed teachers, then using the findings to revamp and overhaul current programs. Newly
credentialed teachers do not feel set up for success. Combined with the variability of pre-service
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programs - new teachers are ill-prepared. Their frustration peaks and new teachers ultimately
leave the profession. One clear consequence of this issue is the persistent problem of attrition in
the teaching profession. However, more urgent is the reality that teachers are graduating from
their programs without the necessary skills and qualifications to be truly effective, particularly in
the high-needs context of teaching in urban areas.
Many researchers and educators have studied the impact of teacher preparation in pre-
service credential programs and findings often reveal that teachers are not adequately prepared
for their teaching roles, as evidenced by Bayar (2014) and the National Commission on Teaching
and America's Future (1996). The result ends but being that students are often taught by under-
prepared teachers who have gone through inadequate pre-service programs.
The second implication of this study is that teacher credentialing programs should
consistently model best teaching practices to provide effective pathways for engagement,
planning, preparation, and delivery of instruction for teachers in these programs. The study's
interviews revealed that relationship-building in these programs is critical. To be a true adult
learner, one must be an active learner. Understanding the typical activities that characterize an
adult engaged in active learning can help teachers/facilitators appreciate and implement what
makes the adult learner "tick" and "bring out" the true adult learner (Mahan & Stein, 2014). The
relationship between student and professor is an integral part of adult learning theory, with
working professionals feeling valued, respected, and that their time investment is worthwhile.
Just as the participants educate their students, as students themselves in credentialing programs,
the manner in which they are dignified and taught is crucial to successfully implementing
strategies in their classrooms. Therefore, teacher credentialing programs must retain rosters of
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highly qualified K-12 educators steeped in rapport building while imparting valuable content to
ensure the success of newly credentialed teachers.
Each participant in this study was able to recall at least one professor who had a positive
impact on their learning during their program. While all participants had fond memories of their
instructors and how they contributed to their growth and learning, only one participant could
discuss the impact of only one professor. This highlighted the importance of having dynamic,
experienced, and well-versed professors teaching in credentialing programs. The quality of
professors hired and teaching in these programs plays a vital role in the learning process and can
greatly impact students' preparedness to enter the teaching field. The reciprocity between
teachers and students is a well-known and accepted fact in K-12 education, and it also applies to
college students and adults continuing their education.
Academic success is significantly enhanced by positive relationships between teachers
and students. Research shows that when students feel cared for by their teachers, they attend
class more frequently, earn higher grades, and are more likely to graduate (Kissam, 2022).
Participants in this study overwhelmingly reported feeling a connection with their credentialing
program professors. Many of these positive relationships were characterized by a sense of being
seen, valued, and supported in terms of mental health and well-being. Some BIPOC participants
also noted the importance of cultural connection and racial representation among their
professors. Teachers of color can bring unique practices and strategies to the classroom that align
with culturally responsive pedagogy (CRP), which uses students' cultural and linguistic
backgrounds as a resource for learning (Lindsay et al., 2021).
The third implication is that teachers need post-program support aligned with credential
program instruction and culturally relevant teaching practices. Kwakman (2001) emphasizes the
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importance of professional development programs for the growth and development of teachers.
Similarly Starkey et al. (2009), stresses the importance of professional development activities for
teachers, stating that in-service teacher education is often considered as a continuation of pre-
service teacher education, aimed at ensuring that both new and experienced teachers have current
knowledge and skills necessary to be effective (p. 186). Furthermore, professional development
programs are essential not only for new teachers but also for experienced teachers (Starkey et al.,
2009). In addition, Rogers et al. (2007), highlighted the importance of professional development
programs for experienced teachers to promote self-renewal. Thus, the literature leaves no doubt
about the potential of professional development activities to support both inexperienced and
experienced teachers in refining their current skills and acquiring new ones (Bayar, 2014, p. 3).
The findings of this study reveal that all participants expressed the need for further
training both in their pre-service programs and at their school sites. Teachers desire training
opportunities that are directly applicable to their professional work and classroom instruction.
However, current training programs lack opportunities for teachers to develop and maintain
culturally responsive practices that benefit their BIPOC students. This misalignment between
training programs and the needs of urban school sites in California is counterproductive.
Future Research
In this study, the literature review examined various factors related to the teacher
diversity gap in education, the impact of culturally responsive teaching on BIPOC student
learning, the influence of high-quality instruction on student learning, and pre-service teacher
preparation programs. However, it concludes that further research is necessary to address the
critical state of the education system. Specifically, research is required to investigate how
teachers are trained in their pre-service programs and to ensure that early career teachers receive
94

post-program support that aligns with the changing demographic landscape of urban education.
In addition, more research is needed on creating accessible pathways for BIPOC students to enter
the teaching profession. The study recommends conducting additional research to explore these
areas of the teaching profession and their implications for urban BIPOC students.
The first recommendation for further research is to conduct an in-depth analysis of
teacher credentialing programs to ensure their relevance and applicability to 21st-century urban
schools. Future studies should focus on examining credentialing programs that align their
objectives with the specific needs of teachers who will be teaching in urban schools. It is also
important to align these programs with national and statewide coursework requirements found in
the private sector and to make them more accessible to students in public universities.
To address the lack of teacher diversity, the second recommendation is to conduct further
research on how to specifically recruit and support BIPOC teachers. This includes examining the
pathways needed for BIPOC students to enroll in teaching universities and credentialing
programs. More research is needed to understand why the Black teaching force is declining,
particularly in urban school districts. It is important to investigate the motivations and methods
needed to urgently diversify the teaching force, improve racial matching, and elevate the
teaching profession.
The third recommendation is to conduct research on how post-credential program support
can be better planned and implemented. The study revealed that teachers felt overwhelmed by
the amount of professional development they received and found it disconnected from their
credential program coursework. More research is needed to identify how to offer meaningful
professional development that supports urban areas with BIPOC learners and helps teachers
sustain culturally relevant teaching practices. By expanding our knowledge through further
95

investigation, we can transform the teaching profession by attracting, training, and retaining
high-quality educators who are equipped with the knowledge and skills gained from dynamic
and relevant pre-service teaching programs and professional development opportunities that
support their learning and growth, particularly in the area of culturally responsive teaching
practices.
Conclusions
In conclusion, there is a significant discrepancy between what is taught in credential
programs and the realities of teaching in urban schools, leaving teachers ill-prepared for their
roles. Despite receiving professional development, there is an overwhelming focus on raising test
scores in math and ELA, with little attention given to developing culturally responsive
approaches to teaching. All participants, regardless of race, felt unprepared to teach BIPOC
students. While some programs briefly address the needs of BIPOC students, they are often
treated as an afterthought. There is a clear deficit in the support teachers are receiving, and they
are struggling to effectively teach their students, particularly those in urban BIPOC communities.
Further research is needed to identify and address these gaps in teacher preparation and support,
so that all students can receive high-quality education.

96

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Creator Bland, Peter (author)

Core Title Examining how teacher pre-service/credential programs prepare teachers to teach BIPOC students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 06/16/2023

Defense Date 05/18/2023

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Tag BIPOC,Credential,culturally,OAI-PMH Harvest,pre-service,relevant,Students,Teachers

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