University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions

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Knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions

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Content Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Factors That Influence
Diversity in Volunteers in Animal-Assisted Interventions
by
Amy Conley
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2024
Copyright 2024 Amy Conley

© Copyright by Amy Conley 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Amy Conley certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Monique Claire Datta
Richard J. Grad
Kenneth Yates, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California 2024

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI). This
research addressed the persistent problem that while AAI programs serve diverse populations,
the volunteer base, which is predominantly composed of White, middle-aged women, does not
reflect this diversity. Using a qualitative research design, the study employed semi-structured
interviews with 20 participants to explore their motivations, experiences, and perceptions
regarding volunteering. Data were analyzed using a modified gap analysis framework, focusing
on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Key findings revealed that both diverse
and nondiverse volunteers had similar motivations, but systemic barriers, such as limited
recruitment efforts and insufficient organizational support, hinder the participation of diverse
groups. The study concluded that addressing organizational gaps, such as enhancing cultural
competence and targeted recruitment efforts, is essential to fostering a more inclusive and
supportive volunteer environment in AAI programs. These findings offer practical implications
for improving diversity and inclusivity within AAI and other volunteer-driven therapeutic
programs.
Keywords: Diversity, Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAI), Volunteer Recruitment, Systemic
Barriers

v
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, whose unwavering support and
encouragement have been my greatest source of strength throughout this journey. You have been
my biggest cheerleader, always pushing me forward when I doubted myself and celebrating
every milestone with me. Your love, patience, and belief in me have sustained me through the
most challenging moments, and I am eternally grateful. From the late nights to the moments of
self-doubt, you were there, offering not just encouragement but the kind of steadfast
companionship that made this journey bearable and even joyful. Your sacrifices, both big and
small, have allowed me to pursue this dream, and I could not have done it without you by my
side.
To my son, who inspires me every single day. Your joy, curiosity, and resilience are my
constant motivation to strive for greatness. You are a remarkable person, and you fill me with
immense pride. Your determination, integrity, and commitment to your own path inspire me
every day. As you continue to carve out your future, watching you grow into the person you are,
has been one of my greatest joys, and I dedicate this dissertation to you, in honor of the journey
we have both taken.
And a dedication to my own therapy dog, Sam, who forever changed my life and passion.
Through your work, you have touched countless lives, and your calming presence has helped me
more than words can express. Thank you, Sam, for being my steadfast companion throughout
this journey.

vi
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dissertation chair,
Dr. Kenneth Yates, whose expertise, guidance, and unwavering support were invaluable
throughout this process. I am incredibly grateful for the mentorship and insight he provided,
always steering me in the right direction and challenging me to think critically and grow as a
researcher. I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to my committee members, Dr.
Monique Datta and Dr. Richard Grad, for their thoughtful feedback, encouragement, and
commitment to my academic journey. Their input was instrumental in shaping this dissertation
into its final form.
I am immensely thankful to the participants who contributed to this study as well as to
those who expressed a willingness to participate. The overwhelming response to this research
was deeply appreciated, and I am grateful for the enthusiasm, passion, and support from this
incredible community of volunteers. A special acknowledgment goes to all the therapy animals
who make a difference every day through their healing presence, and to the volunteers and
handlers who work tirelessly to facilitate their efforts. Their dedication and compassion are truly
inspiring, and the impact they have on the lives of others is immeasurable.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.............................................................................................................................. iv
Dedication............................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. vi
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study...............................................................................1
Context and Background of the Problem.................................................................1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions.......................................................3
Importance of the Study...........................................................................................4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .........................................6
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................7
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .............................................................................11
The Distinction of Animal-Assisted Interventions from Other .............................11
Forms of Support Animals
The Human-Animal Bond......................................................................................13
Animal-Assisted Interventions...............................................................................14
The Role of Volunteers in Animal-Assisted Interventions....................................20
Need for Diversity in Animal-Assisted Interventions ...........................................21
Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................22
Summary................................................................................................................27
Chapter Three: Methodology.............................................................................................28
Research Questions................................................................................................28
Overview of Design ...............................................................................................28

viii
The Researcher.......................................................................................................29
Data Sources ..........................................................................................................30
Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................33
Data Analysis.........................................................................................................34
Credibility and Trustworthiness.............................................................................35
Ethics......................................................................................................................36
Chapter Four: Findings......................................................................................................39
Participants.............................................................................................................39
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences.......................................43
Summary................................................................................................................76
Chapter Five: Recommendations.......................................................................................79
Discussion of Findings...........................................................................................79
Recommendations for Practice ..............................................................................81
Implementation and Evaluation .............................................................................95
Challenges and Mitigation Strategies ..................................................................101
Limitations and Delimitations..............................................................................102
Recommendations for Future Research...............................................................105
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................106
References........................................................................................................................109
Appendix A: Interview Protocol......................................................................................134

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Demographics of Interview Participants .........................................................................42

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
This dissertation addresses the problem of the lack of diversity in volunteers in animalassisted interventions (AAI). AAI is an intervention that incorporates animals in a therapeutic
process (Kruger & Serpell, 2006) and complements conventional forms of therapy (Koukourikos
et al., 2019). To provide appropriate and effective AAI, volunteers must be culturally sensitive
(Doney, 2021), yet volunteers in AAI do not reflect the diverse population they serve (Pet
Partners, 2022). Further, evidence highlights that cultural identity is critical in facilitating
effective animal-assisted interventions (American Counseling Association Code of Ethics, 2014).
Because diversity creates positive outcomes that impact volunteers and patients (Gill et al.,
2018), this problem warrants dedicated study.
Context and Background of the Problem
AAIs are therapeutic or educational approaches that involve animals as a part of the
treatment or learning process (Bert et al., 2016). These interventions are designed to improve the
physical, emotional, social, or cognitive well-being of individuals, often in a controlled and
structured environment (Bert et al., 2016). AAIs can be used in various settings, including
healthcare, education, and rehabilitation (Brelsford et al., 2017). The effectiveness of AAIs can
vary depending on the individual and the specific goals of the intervention (Brelsford et al.,
2017). Trained professionals work alongside the animals to ensure the safety and well-being of
both the individuals receiving the intervention and the animals themselves; the animals and their
handlers are typically volunteers (Glenk, 2017). Additionally, ethical considerations, hygiene
standards, and animal welfare are essential aspects of any AAI program (Glenk, 2017).
Research has shown that animal welfare is an important consideration in AAIs. Glenk
(2017) discussed potential welfare threats that therapy dogs may encounter during AAIs. The

2
study identified physiological and behavioral welfare indicators for therapy dogs and highlights
the importance of considering factors such as frequency and duration of AAI sessions, novelty of
the environment, and familiarity of recipients in assessing animal welfare (Glenk, 2017).
However, due to the heterogeneity of programs and methodological limitations, clear
conclusions about the impact of AAIs on the well-being of dogs are lacking (Glenk, 2017).
In the classroom setting, animal-assisted interventions have shown promising findings
and potential benefits (Brelsford et al., 2017). A systematic review by Brelsford et al. (2017)
suggests that animals in school settings can have positive effects on students’ well-being.
However, the review also highlights the need for larger and more robust studies to further
explore the benefits of AAIs in educational settings (Brelsford et al., 2017).
However beneficial AAI may be, diversity among AAI volunteers—which is crucial to
promoting inclusivity, cultural competence, and effectiveness—is lacking (Pet Partners, 2022).
Having diverse volunteers ensures that interventions are respectful and effective (Santaniello et
al., 2020). Considering potential disparities in volunteer participation signals that a priority is
being placed on having AAIs that are accessible and beneficial to individuals and communities
of various cultural, linguistic, and socioeconomic backgrounds, promoting inclusivity and
encouraging a wider range of participants to engage in the interventions (Fine, 2010; Santaniello
et al., 2020). Additionally, diverse volunteers can offer different perspectives and insights into
adapting AAIs to suit the unique needs of various populations, leading to more customized and
effective interventions (Beetz, 2017). Moreover, diversity among volunteers in AAIs
communicates that these interventions welcome everyone, reassuring vulnerable participants,
increasing their likelihood of participating in the interventions (Wijnen & Martens, 2022), and
enhancing the therapeutic outcomes for participants.

3
The diversity of volunteers in animal-assisted interventions is crucial for making AAI
programs more inclusive, culturally competent, and effective. It promotes access, understanding,
and trust, ultimately benefiting a broader range of individuals and communities. Having diversity
of volunteers in AAI is essential for delivering patient-centered, equitable, and high-quality care.
It improves communication, trust, and engagement while addressing health disparities and
fostering innovation in the healthcare field. Moreover, it aligns with ethical and legal imperatives
to ensure that healthcare services are accessible and responsive to the needs of all individuals and
communities.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
This study sought to examine the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organization and
potential best practices associated with a lack of diversity in AAI. In addition, this study assessed
the need to increase racial and ethnic diversity in volunteers in AAI, a persistent problem in the
composition of volunteers (Pet Partners, 2022). This analysis focused on the volunteers
themselves and the organization that evaluates and certifies therapy teams in the field. The
following research question guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence
diversity in volunteers in AAI?
Importance of the Study
Diversity among volunteers in AAI is crucial for providing inclusive, culturally sensitive,
and effective services. The presence of diverse volunteers reflects the broader community and
the participants in AAI programs, leading to a more welcoming and effective environment for all
individuals and communities they serve (Maran et al., 2022). Volunteers from diverse
backgrounds bring unique cultural insights and sensitivities to AAI programs, ensuring that

4
sessions are culturally sensitive and respectful of the values, traditions, and beliefs of participants
(Simonato et al., 2020). Additionally, diverse volunteers can help tailor interventions to better
address health disparities among different demographic groups, ultimately enhancing the
effectiveness of AAI programs and producing more positive outcomes. AAI programs emphasize
the connections between human, animal, and health, highlighting the significance of diverse
volunteers in promoting integrated medicine and addressing the complex needs of participants
(Hediger et al., 2019). Furthermore, recommendations for transdisciplinary professional
competencies and ethics for animal-assisted therapies and interventions underscore the
importance of diverse volunteers in upholding ethical standards and delivering high-quality AAI
services (Trevathan-Minnis & Shapiro, 2021). Having a diverse body of volunteers in AAI
programs is essential to promoting inclusivity, cultural sensitivity, and effective outcomes,
ultimately enhancing the therapeutic relationship and overall experience for participants.
This dissertation addresses an issue that is deeply rooted in the concept of health equity.
The need for diversity in healthcare teams is critical for improving patient outcomes, fostering
trust, and addressing disparities in care. Research increasingly shows that healthcare systems that
prioritize diversity and inclusion are better equipped to meet the needs of a varied patient
population, leading to improved clinical outcomes and a more patient-centered approach to care.
One of the key benefits of diversity in healthcare is its direct impact on patient outcomes.
Diverse teams—those that include differences in race, gender, and cultural backgrounds—are
more likely to develop innovative solutions to complex health issues and improve
communication with patients (Gómez & Bernet, 2019; Johnson et al., 2018). Patients treated by
healthcare providers who share similar backgrounds are often more satisfied with their care, as

5
they feel understood and respected. This sense of understanding leads to increased adherence to
treatment plans, which is crucial for long-term health management.
Diversity within healthcare teams enhances patient-centered care, which prioritizes the
unique needs and preferences of individuals. Diverse providers are often more attuned to the
social determinants of health, such as cultural, socioeconomic, and environmental factors, which
play a significant role in patient well-being (LaVeist & Pierre, 2014; VanPuymbrouck et al.,
2020). By recognizing and addressing these factors, diverse teams can tailor care to better meet
the specific needs of their patients, improving health outcomes and fostering trust.
Another significant aspect of health equity is the concept of provider-patient
concordance—when patients are treated by providers who share their racial, ethnic, or cultural
backgrounds. This alignment has been shown to enhance communication, build trust, and lead to
better patient outcomes (Taylor, 2023; Nair & Adetayo, 2019). When patients feel that their
healthcare providers understand their cultural contexts, they are more likely to engage in open
communication, leading to better treatment adherence and improved overall satisfaction (Crites
et al., 2022).
The role of gender concordance in healthcare also demonstrates the importance of
diversity. Research suggests that female patients often experience better surgical outcomes when
treated by female surgeons, potentially due to stronger communication and adherence to patientcentered care practices (Wallis et al., 2017; Wallis, 2023). These findings underscore the value of
having a healthcare workforce that reflects the diverse identities of the patient population it
serves.
At a systemic level, the presence of diverse healthcare providers helps address health
disparities and ensures that care is more equitable. A healthcare workforce that mirrors the

6
population it serves brings a range of perspectives and experiences, which leads to more
effective problem-solving and innovation in patient care strategies (Johnson et al., 2018).
Patients are more likely to seek care and adhere to treatment when they feel that their providers
understand their unique challenges and circumstances, thereby reducing barriers to access and
improving long-term health outcomes (Cipollina & Sanchez, 2021; Cipollina & Sanchez, 2023).
Diversity in healthcare is not just a matter of representation; it is a health equity issue.
The alignment of healthcare providers' backgrounds with those of their patients significantly
enhances communication, builds trust, and leads to more culturally competent care. As the
healthcare system continues to evolve, fostering a diverse and inclusive workforce will be
essential for addressing health disparities and improving outcomes for all patients.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
This study utilized a modified gap analysis framework. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis Framework (KMO model) provided a systematic model to identify root causes and
potential barriers and influences to address the lack of diversity in volunteers in AAI. The key to
achieving organizational goals is increasing knowledge, skills, and motivation (Clark & Estes,
2008). In this case, the framework was modified because the presence of a gap was not assumed
from the outset. Instead, the analysis involved comparing two groups, diverse and nondiverse
participants, to determine whether a gap existed in their knowledge, motivation, or
organizational influences. Knowledge can come from various sources, including information, job
aids, training, and education (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivated performance focuses on active
choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008). This model evaluates whether the
problem is related to gaps in knowledge, motivation, or organizational factors.

7
Definition of Terms
This section provides comprehensive definitions of the critical terms and concepts central
to AAI. Defining these terms aims to eliminate vagueness and arrive at a mutual understanding
to help ensure both the accuracy and consistency of the discussions and that the reader is
equipped to engage with the research’s nuanced content and findings.
Animal-Assisted Interventions are structured therapeutic approaches in which healthcare
professionals use therapy animals to facilitate patient interactions aimed at achieving specific,
measurable outcomes (Miller, 2020).
Animal Handlers are individuals responsible for the care, management, and welfare of
animals, particularly in therapeutic and service contexts. Their primary role includes advocating
for the animals they handle, ensuring their well-being, and facilitating positive interactions
between the animals and clients or participants in various settings, such as therapy sessions or
educational programs. This advocacy is crucial, as handlers must be attuned to the animals’
needs, recognize signs of stress or discomfort, and intervene appropriately to safeguard their
welfare (Cooke et al., 2022; Kuzara et al., 2019; Fine et al., 2019).
In therapeutic environments, such as animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), handlers are
often the owners of the animals and are required to have significant familiarity with them before
they can act as handlers. This familiarity is essential to establishing a strong bond, which is a
predictor of successful interactions during therapy (Kuzara et al., 2019; Fine et al., 2019).
Handlers are trained to understand animal behavior, including reading body language and
recognizing stress signals, vital factors in maintaining a safe and supportive environment for both
the animals and the participants (Brelsford et al., 2020; Mignot et al., 2021).

8
Diversity, for the purposes of this study, among volunteers is defined as encompassing a
variety of individuals with different backgrounds, experiences, and characteristics who
participate in volunteer activities within communities or organizations. This diversity includes
variations in race, ethnicity, age, gender, religious beliefs, socioeconomic status, and other
personal attributes (Ecklund & Park, 2007; Lockstone‐Binney & Ong, 2021). Additionally,
diversity in volunteers extends to a range of perspectives, motivations, and skills that individuals
bring to their volunteer roles, contributing to a rich tapestry of experiences and talents (Andereck
et al., 2011; Moczek et al., 2021).
Studies have indicated that volunteers from diverse backgrounds can enhance the
effectiveness and impact of volunteer initiatives by offering unique insights, approaches, and
problem-solving skills to various projects (Mellor et al., 2007; Smith et al., 2020). Embracing
diversity in volunteerism can increase social inclusion, broaden community engagement, and
foster comprehensive representation of the population served by volunteer efforts (Lor-Serrano
& Salvador, 2021). Furthermore, recognizing and valuing the diversity of volunteers can help
organizations tailor volunteer experiences to meet the needs and preferences of a wide range of
participants, fostering a more inclusive and welcoming volunteer environment (O’Neil et al.,
2022; Warburton & Winterton, 2010).
Nondiversity, in contrast to diversity, refers to a lack of variety in backgrounds,
experiences, and characteristics among their members of volunteer groups. This absence of
diversity may be evident in a homogeneous volunteer base concerning race, ethnicity, age,
gender, socioeconomic status, and other personal attributes (Dover, 2010). Nondiverse volunteer
groups may demonstrate limited perspectives, skills, and approaches, potentially resulting in a
narrower range of ideas and solutions within volunteer initiatives (Jost, 2006).

9
Research indicates that while certain sociodemographic characteristics like gender, age,
education level, and income have been traditionally linked to higher volunteer rates, the primary
indicators of volunteer participation are the desire to contribute, participate, and help others
(Dover, 2010). Settings with nondiverse volunteers can lack a range of motivations and interests
among participants and lead to a less dynamic and inclusive volunteer environment (Haski‐
Leventhal et al., 2018).
Furthermore, the non-diversity of volunteers can impact the effectiveness and reach of
volunteer programs, impeding an organization’s ability to engage with a broader cross-section of
the community and address the diverse needs of the populations it serves (Kruppa-Jakab &
Kővári, 2023). Additionally, nondiverse volunteer groups may struggle to adapt to changing
circumstances and encounter challenges in fostering innovation and creativity within their
initiatives (Stevens et al., 2008).
Therapy Team refers to a collaborative group that includes trained professionals and
animals working together to facilitate therapeutic outcomes for individuals. This team typically
consists of a handler, who is often the animal’s owner, and a licensed therapist or healthcare
provider, such as a psychologist, occupational therapist, or social worker. The synergy between
the human team members and the animal is essential for achieving the therapeutic goals of the
intervention (Kim et al., 2015; Sahin et al., 2018).
Volunteer is an individual who willingly offers their time and effort to support
therapeutic activities involving animals without monetary compensation. These volunteers often
work alongside trained professionals, such as therapists or healthcare providers, to facilitate
interactions between clients and therapy animals, enhancing the therapeutic experience (Mignot
et al., 2021; Vroman & Collins, 2015). Volunteers in AAIs can take on various roles, including

10
handlers who manage the animals during sessions as well as support personnel who assist in
planning and executing activities that involve animal interactions. Volunteer participation is
crucial, as they help create a welcoming and safe environment for both the clients and the
animals, ensuring that the interactions are beneficial and aligned with therapeutic goals (Glenk,
2017; Scopa et al., 2019).
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is organized in five chapters. Chapter 1 provides the reader with core concepts
and terminology commonly used when discussing animal-assisted interventions and discusses
the need for diversity in the field. This chapter also introduced some initial concepts of gap
analysis. Chapter 2 provides a detailed review of the literature surrounding the scope of the
study, including the history of AAI and justifications associated with a need for more diversity in
volunteers. It also discusses concepts that support racial and ethnic diversity, the critical need for
inclusion in implementing diversity initiatives, and barriers that could impact diversity. Chapter
3 details the assumed gap analysis elements as well as the methodology utilized for participant
selection, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter 4, the specific outcomes of the data are
assessed based on an analysis of interviews, observations, and documents. Chapter 5 provides
recommended solutions based on research and literature for closing the gaps in diversity as well
as presenting a recommended implementation plan.

11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This chapter comprehensively reviews the literature on the lack of diversity in animalassisted interventions (AAI) volunteers. After describing AAI, the difference between AAI and
other forms of support from animals, the importance of the human-animal bond, and the various
forms of AAI, this chapter reviews the research and concepts supporting a need for more diverse
volunteers in AAI as well as the benefits of having more diversity in the volunteers. The chapter
will conclude by reviewing the relevant research related to the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis and the multiple KMO influences that affect organizations from effectively recruiting
and retaining diverse volunteers. Identifying KMO influences will be critical to addressing
barriers to volunteer diversity in AAI.
The Distinction of Animal-Assisted Interventions from Other Forms of Support Animals
Understanding the distinctions between animal-assisted interventions, service animals,
guide dogs, and emotional support animals is crucial. Pet Partners (2022) identified AAIs as
structured interventions that incorporate animals in health or educational approaches for
therapeutic gains, improved health, and wellness. These interventions are designed to achieve
specific goals related to health, well-being, or education (Corsetti et al., 2019). This domain
consists of animal-assisted therapy (AAT), animal-assisted education (AAE), and animalassisted activities (AAA), all of which constitute different facets of animal-assisted interventions
and will be discussed in detail. In these various modalities, the animal may either be a member of
a volunteer therapy animal team operating under professional guidance or an animal owned by
the professional overseeing the intervention (Pet Partners, 2022).
AAIs are distinct from service animals, guide dogs, and emotional support animals in
their purpose, structure, and application. While service animals and emotional support animals

12
serve specific roles for individuals with disabilities or mental health conditions (SchoenfeldTacher et al., 2017), AAIs are formal, goal-oriented interventions that intentionally incorporate
animals into therapeutic or educational processes (Menna et al., 2019).
Service Animals
Service animals are categorized into guide dogs for individuals with visual disabilities,
hearing dogs for individuals with hearing disabilities, and service dogs for individuals with other
disabilities (Yamamoto et al., 2015). Pet Partners (2022) clarified that service animals, in
compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), encompass dogs and, in specific
cases, miniature horses, which undergo individual training to perform tasks or duties for
individuals with disabilities. Notable examples are guide dogs aiding people who are blind,
hearing dogs assisting people who are deaf or hard of hearing, and dogs trained to offer mobility
support or relay medical alerts (Pet Partners, 2022).
Service animals are working companions, not pets. The tasks they are trained to carry out
must be closely related to the specific disability of the individual they serve. Consequently, under
the ADA, guide, hearing, and service dogs are authorized to accompany individuals with
disabilities in almost any public space, including restaurants, commercial establishments, and
even aboard airplanes (Pet Partners, 2022).
Emotional Support Animals
Joshi (2021) defined emotional support animals (ESA), sometimes known as comfort
animals, as companion animals that offer therapeutic assistance to individuals dealing with
mental health issues, such as anxiety or depression. ESAs provide comfort and support to
individuals with emotional or psychological conditions. Unlike service animals, which are
specifically trained to perform tasks for individuals with disabilities, ESAs do not require

13
specialized training to perform specific tasks. Instead, their primary role is to offer
companionship and alleviate symptoms associated with mental health issues, such as anxiety,
depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Ferrell & Crowley, 2021; Howell et al.,
2022).
Legal recognition of ESAs varies by jurisdiction, but they are generally considered a
form of assistance animal that can help individuals cope with emotional challenges. This
recognition allows individuals with ESAs certain rights, such as living in housing that typically
does not allow pets (Ferrell & Crowley, 2021; Foster et al., 2020). However, the lack of formal
training requirements for ESAs can lead to confusion regarding their roles compared to service
animals, which are trained to perform specific tasks related to a person’s disability (Howell et al.,
2022; Joshi, 2021; Schoenfeld-Tacher et al., 2017).While dogs are the most common choice,
mental health professionals may prescribe other species as emotional support animals (Pet
Partners, 2022).
The Human-Animal Bond
The human-animal bond (HAB) has many human health benefits, including mental wellbeing, social support, and physical health. Additionally, it has direct implications for the lives of
animals, contributing to their well-being and quality of life. HAB is a significant factor in human
and animal well-being, potentially shaping human relations and directly influencing animal lives
(Amiot & Bastian, 2015). Research has shown the salutatory impact of the HAB on human
health and well-being, particularly in household HABs with companion dogs, cats, and horses
(Macauley & Chur-Hansen, 2022). Carver (2022) identified protecting and supporting the HAB
in stressful times, such as a pandemic, as an essential mental and physical health protective
strategy that warrants government support.

14
Yorke et al. (2015) found that close relationships with companion animals have
positively affected individuals’ well-being by reducing anxiety and improving social
interactions. This bond also contributed to human mental well-being, partly through nature
connectedness (Yerbury & Lukey, 2021). Amiot et al. (2020) noted that the bond has been linked
to empathy, compassion, and solidarity with animals, leading to a greater desire to help animals
and engage in collective actions on their behalf. Evidence suggests that HAB can have physical
benefits to humans, such as decreasing the risk of death by cardiovascular disease (Rook, 2018).
González-Ramírez (2019) presented empirical evidence that relationships between humans and
animals benefit not only human health but also the health of the animals.
Animal-Assisted Interventions
Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) encompass a wide range of activities and settings
designed to improve the well-being of individuals, often in a clinical or educational context, such
as hospitals, nursing homes, veterans’ centers, courtrooms, schools, universities, libraries, and
workplaces (Pet Partners, 2022). These interventions involve interactions between humans and
animals to achieve specific therapeutic, educational, or emotional goals. Benefits of AAI include
decreasing anxiety and stress (Barker et al., 2015), maintaining a sense of wellness in work and
school settings (Abat-Roy, 2021), and cultivating social skills to help reduce loneliness (Barker
et al., 2015). AAI can also help individuals recover from crisis events, decrease perceptions of
pain in patients, improve recovery rates, and lessen fear and worry in patients (Barker et al.,
2015).
AAI enlists trained therapy animals and their handlers to enter a setting and provide
therapeutic support to the individuals within it (Cooke et al., 2022). AAI aims to improve
psychological well-being, particularly for younger people experiencing mental health or

15
academic difficulties (Chadwick et al., 2022). The employment of AAI has become increasingly
popular, especially among pediatric patients (Bert et al., 2016). Dogs are the most common
companion animal and a popular choice for AAI in healthcare (Lundqvist et al., 2017), although
other animals include felines, equines, rabbits, and birds. AAI represents interventions that
incorporate the human-animal relationship and teams in formal human services, such as animalassisted therapy (AAT), animal-assisted education (AAE), and animal-assisted activities (AAA)
(Santaniello et al., 2020). AAI is goal-oriented and structured, intentionally including animals in
health, human services, or education for therapeutic, educational, or recreational gains in humans
(Scopa et al., 2019). AAI has been found to enhance physical and communication skills in
children with severe and multiple disabilities (Lobato-Rincón et al., 2021).
Since the 1960s, interest in the potential therapeutic benefits derived from the bond
between humans and animals has grown, leading to the application of AAI for special
educational purposes (Antonucci, 2022). Wijker et al. (2020) found that AAI showed promising
results for stress-related outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). AAI is
increasingly used to improve the social participation of children with ASD (Ávila-Álvarez et al.,
2020). A systematic review has been conducted on animal-assisted and robotic animal-assisted
interventions within dementia care, emphasizing the human-animal bond and its influence on
health and well-being (Shoesmith et al., 2023). Animal-assisted therapy is effective in the
treatment of patients with traumatic brain injury, leading to improved health and wellness
(Horton et al., 2023). AAI can positively influence motivation, self-efficacy, attention, selfcontrol, and group-related competencies (Molnár et al., 2019). Extant research indicates that AAI
can be beneficial, and more controlled studies have added to the evidence base supporting their
effectiveness (Grajfoner et al., 2017).

16
Notably, researchers have not yet extensively studied the significance of animal welfare
in AAI settings, even though ensuring thorough health checks for animals involved in these
interventions is crucial to lessening zoonotic risk (Maurelli et al., 2019). Additionally, the choice
of control conditions in AAI research needs more randomized controlled trials (Chubak et al.,
2021). Because integrating animals into healthcare is a rapidly growing research field (Hediger et
al., 2019), recognizing and mitigating potential stress in animals involved in AAI is vital
(Townsend & Gee, 2021).
The benefits of animal-assisted interventions (AAI) are well-documented and encompass
various positive outcomes for multiple populations. Reed et al. (2012) found associations
between AAI and improved health and psychosocial wellness, particularly among children and
older persons, in settings such as hospitals and therapeutic, educational, and assisted living
environments. AAI has been found to have a buffering effect on stress and to reduce pulse and
salivary cortisol levels in individuals with schizophrenia and has been linked to improved quality
of life for people who have had strokes, potentially positively affecting stress reduction and
offering therapeutic value for individuals with chronic diseases and long-term hospitalizations
(Hawkins et al., 2019).
In summary, AAI involves purposeful and structured interventions integrating animals
into healthcare, education, and human services to enhance therapeutic outcomes and promote
better health and well-being. However, further research is required to ensure the welfare of the
animals involved, establish adequate control conditions, and mitigate potential stress in animals
during these interventions. The human-animal bond, a central aspect of AAI, has been shown to
have implications for physical health and well-being, shaping human relations and directly
influencing the lives of animals.

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Animal-Assisted Therapy
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is a formal, structured intervention involving animals as
part of the therapeutic process, aiming to improve individuals’ physical, social, emotional, and
cognitive functioning (Nimer & Lundahl, 2015). Golan-Shemesh et al. (2022) clarified that AAT
is distinct from animal-assisted activities (AAAs), which encompass a broader range of contexts
in which animals support people, including less-structured activities. Trained health
professionals often facilitate AAT and have specific, measurable goals for individual patients
(Golan-Shemesh et al., 2022). Nimer and Lundahl (2015) found that, while AAT has been in use
for many years, interest in demonstrating its efficacy through research is increasing.
AAT has been utilized to promote health in various situations, including adolescent
mental health treatment, outpatient pain management clinics, and older individuals (Cherniack &
Cherniack, 2014; Marcus et al., 2012; Santaniello et al., 2020). Cherniack and Cherniack (2014)
found that AAT provides subjective benefits to critically ill patients in intensive care units. AAT
has positive effects on individuals experiencing depression, anxiety, and dementia as well as
those with fibromyalgia and those that have had strokes (Filan & Llewellyn-Jones, 2006; Marcus
et al., 2012; Wilson et al., 2016). Additionally, AAT has been used to improve social interactions
and reduce behavioral and psychological symptoms in individuals with dementia (Nordgren &
Engström, 2012).
The efficacy of AAT depends heavily on the reciprocity of animals, patients, and team
members (Wijnen & Martens, 2022). It is a complementary intervention with animals, usually
dogs trained to be obedient, calm, and comforting, for therapeutic benefit across various medical
conditions (Marcus et al., 2012). Wilson et al. (2016) found that AAT may overcome some

18
limitations of traditional therapies as it does not rely exclusively on language as a medium for
change.
Animal-Assisted Education
Animal-assisted education (AAE) has emerged as a valuable approach to enriching the
educational experience and promoting holistic development among students. Incorporating
animals in educational settings has shown potential in improving cognitive, emotional, and social
outcomes. As such, it is essential to continue exploring the ethical and practical considerations
associated with this approach. AAE, which involves using animals in educational settings to
enhance learning, social and emotional development, and the overall educational experience, has
gained attention in recent years. Research has shown that animal-assisted interventions in
educational settings can positively affect students’ cognitive, emotional, and social development
(Brelsford et al., 2017; Bruce et al., 2015; Lobato-Rincón et al., 2021). Lobato-Rincón et al.
(2021) found that these interventions are structured to achieve specific goals, such as improving
cognitive function, social skills, and motivation. Studies have also demonstrated that animals in
educational settings can attract and maintain children’s attention, leading to increased
engagement and improved learning outcomes (Rodrigo-Claverol et al., 2018). Animal-assisted
education is closely related to science education, providing students with hands-on learning
experiences and facilitating skill development (Koda et al., 2013; Martin et al., 2014).
Using animals in educational settings has been associated with various positive outcomes,
including increased empathy, improved self-esteem, and enhanced affective skill development
(Bruce et al., 2015; Martin et al., 2014). Additionally, animal-assisted education can help meet
student needs, including their reading, social skills, and affective needs (Abat-Roy, 2021).
Animal-assisted interventions have also become popular in special education practice, showing

19
their potential to support the educational needs of diverse student populations (Zhi et al., 2020).
While AAE has shown promise in enhancing the educational experience, ethical considerations
regarding the treatment and welfare of animals in educational settings are crucial (Ahn et al.,
2022) and should develop appropriate guidelines and ethical standards to ensure the animals’
well-being.
Animal-Assisted Activities
Animal-assisted activities refer to a broad range of interactions between animals and
individuals in various settings for therapeutic purposes. AAAs are generally less formal and may
not necessarily involve specific therapeutic goals for individual participants. In AAA, animals
provide people emotional support, companionship, and enjoyment, often in settings such as
hospitals, nursing homes, and other community or recreational programs. Mills and Hall (2014)
defined AAAs as encompassing a broad range of contexts in which animals support people for
therapeutic, motivational, or educational benefits. Unlike animal-assisted therapy, AAAs are less
structured and may not necessarily involve specific therapeutic goals for individual patients
(Mills & Hall, 2014). AAAs are often used in various settings, including pediatric hospitals,
long-term care facilities, and primary school classrooms, to enhance the well-being, social
functioning, and quality of hospitalization of individuals (Nilsson et al., 2019; O’Haire et al.,
2015; Pitheckoff et al., 2016). Ichitani and Cunha (2016) specified that these activities can
involve different types of animals, such as dogs, guinea pigs, and rabbits, and provide substantial
benefits for patients with chronic diseases and long-term hospitalizations. Furthermore, AAAs
have a positive effect on children’s well-being and hospital stay experiences as well as on the
social skills and physical and communication skills of children with severe and multiple
disabilities (Lobato-Rincón et al., 2021). Additionally, AAAs have been used to improve the

20
quality of life in people with stroke symptoms and to reduce anxiety ratings of hospitalized
psychiatric patients (Barker & Dawson, 1998; Hawkins et al., 2019). In pediatric hospitals,
AAAs benefit children with cancer by alleviating distress due to medical procedures,
hospitalization, and fear of medical procedures (Chubak & Hawkes, 2015).
The Role of Volunteers in Animal-Assisted Interventions
Volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI) are crucial agents in successfully
implementing and delivering these programs. They play a significant role in facilitating animalassisted therapy (AAT), animal-assisted education (AAE), and animal-assisted activities (AAAs)
and contribute to the well-being of both humans and animals involved in these interventions.
They also have a positive impact on various aspects of healthcare, including patient satisfaction,
health-related outcomes, and the overall experience of older patients in healthcare settings (Ellis
et al., 2020; Friedmann et al., 2019).
Volunteers in AAI can also contribute to the well-being of animals involved in these
interventions. Lundqvist et al. (2017) highlighted that animals used in interventions exhibited
behavior interpreted as happy, friendly, and affectionate, making them suitable for use in
interventions with a therapeutic aim. Additionally, the study emphasized the importance of
animal-friendly interventions to stimulate the animal’s cooperation and motivation (Wijnen &
Martens, 2022).
Children in pediatric hospital care reported positive experiences with the volunteers in
AAI (Nilsson et al., 2019). Hill et al. (2019) also proposed animal-assisted therapy as an
intervention modality to facilitate the development of social behaviors in children on the autism
spectrum.

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The role of volunteers in AAI is multifaceted, encompassing benefits for both humans
and animals involved in these interventions. Volunteers contribute to the successful
implementation of AAI programs, positively impacting patient satisfaction, health-related
outcomes, and the overall well-being of humans and animals. Therefore, the active involvement
of volunteers is essential for the effective delivery of AAI programs.
Need for Diversity in Animal-Assisted Interventions
Addressing health equity and disparities in marginalized communities requires a
multifaceted approach comprising cultural competency, allyship, program accessibility, and realworld impact. Organizations can make significant strides in improving health equity and
reducing disparities by implementing community-engaged lifestyle medicine and increasing
workforce diversity. Evidence suggests a lack of diversity among volunteers in the health and
human services domain, such as animal-assisted therapy (Vroman & Collins, 2015). Health
equity and disparities in marginalized communities are critical issues that require purposeful
improvement efforts. To address diversity challenges, Placide et al. (2023) identified three
initiatives that must be included in diversity initiatives: program accessibility, cultural
competency, and real-world impact.
Recognition of healthcare disparities and calls for health equity-related work are growing
(Das & Drolet, 2023). Smith et al. (2021) outlined the centrality of cultural competence in
addressing health disparities including understanding and having skills to care for culturally and
ethnically diverse populations. Increasing the cultural competency and capacity for allyship
among staff and volunteers at all levels is crucial for promoting health equity (Martinez et al.,
2021). Allyship—a supportive association between identities with power and privilege and
marginalized identities—provides an optimal framework for enhancing education about health

22
equity (Martinez et al., 2021). A diverse workforce with varied experiences in leadership roles
can aid in shaping research and policy agendas that promote health equity (Duma et al., 2022).
In addition to cultural competency, addressing issues of program accessibility for
marginalized communities is vital. For instance, in the Native American context, cultural safety
encompasses examining power structures that erode equity and recognizing the social
determinants of health that result in disparities (Wilson et al., 2022). Recognizing the impact of
colonialism on the health and well-being of Indigenous people is foundational (Wilson et al.,
2022). Improving racial and ethnic equity in clinical trials is essential to achieving health equity
and improving patient outcomes (Louis‐Jacques et al., 2023).
Conceptual Framework
The purpose of this study was to conduct a modified gap analysis to determine the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) factors that influence diversity in volunteers
in AAI. To this end, a modified KMO framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) supported the study. A
modified gap analysis is an adapted evaluation process that identifies discrepancies between the
current and desired states of a system, process, or organization, incorporating custom metrics,
stakeholder input, and context-specific factors. According to Clark and Estes (2008), once an
organizational goal is established and gaps are determined, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences are examined to close the gaps to effect organizational change within
that organization. In this study, the organizational goal of increasing the diversity of AAI
volunteers was more generalized and not limited to one specific organization. However, the
KMO was retained to examine the influences that contribute to the diversity of volunteers. This
section provides a conceptual framework to illustrate how knowledge, motivations, and
organizational influences worked within this study.

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The conceptual framework provides a structure for understanding, analyzing, and solving
complex problems. It serves as a foundation for research, guiding the development of theories,
models, and methodologies (Jabareen, 2009). Building a conceptual framework involves taking a
systematic approach based on grounded theory methods to theorize and construct the framework.
This approach enables researchers to expose the attributes, characteristics, expectations,
constraints, perceptions, and individual functions (Jabareen, 2009) to address complex problems
across various disciplines.
The theoretical framework proposed by Clark and Estes (2008) is highly relevant to
understanding knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors in achieving performance
goals. This framework provides a comprehensive lens through which knowledge, motivation,
and organizational factors can be understood. The work of Clark and Estes (2008) is centered
around gap analysis and presents a framework that serves as a foundational structure for
exploring the causes of problems and potential solutions, emphasizing the significance of
knowledge and skills in meeting performance goals. Using the Clark and Estes gap analysis as a
conceptual framework for exploring factors influencing problems and solutions highlights the
relevance of this theoretical approach in understanding performance-related outcomes (Wilkens,
2020).
Clark and Estes (2008) can be applied to the context of knowledge, motivation, and
organizations in the lack of diversity among volunteers. The framework emphasizes the
significance of knowledge and skills in meeting performance goals. In the absence of diversity
among volunteers, this framework can be instrumental in understanding and addressing the
challenges associated with knowledge acquisition, motivation, and organizational influences.

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Work by Kumar and Hamer (2012) on knowledge management and organizational
culture provides a theoretical integrative framework, which can be instrumental in understanding
the importance of organizational culture and values. Wu et al. (2009) explored the effects of
individual altruism and social interaction environment on interpersonal trust and knowledge
sharing, offering insights into how trust and social dynamics can influence knowledge exchange
in volunteer settings. The theoretical framework proposed by Clark and Estes (2008) is also
supported by the study of Siemsen et al. (2007), which suggests that the interaction among
motivation, opportunity, and ability drives knowledge-sharing behavior, thus reinforcing the
interconnectedness of motivation and knowledge within organizational contexts.
Knowledge
The concept of knowledge significantly influences the theoretical framework proposed by
Clark and Estes (2008) within the context of gap analysis. Clark and Estes underscore the pivotal
role of knowledge, which can be applied to addressing the lack of diversity among volunteers,
fostering inclusivity, and leveraging diverse perspectives for enhanced organizational
performance and social impact.
The importance of knowledge in the theoretical framework proposed by Clark and Estes
(2008) is crucial to addressing the lack of diversity among volunteers. Knowledge plays a pivotal
role in fostering understanding within volunteer organizations. Nkomo et al. (1998) emphasized
the significance of diversity in organizations, highlighting the role of knowledge in promoting a
more inclusive and equitable environment. Kragt and Holtrop (2020) yielded insights into the
psychological well-being and social capital gained through volunteering, underscoring the
importance of knowledge in fostering a supportive and enriching volunteer environment.

25
The theoretical framework proposed by Clark and Estes (2008) is supported by Guo et al.
(2021), who explored fostering team creativity through diversity, highlighting the role of
knowledge in leveraging diversity for enhanced team performance and innovation. Additionally,
Harwell et al. (2022) delved into the personal dimensions of engaging lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender, queer, or questioning volunteers, emphasizing the importance of diversity, equity,
and inclusion strategies, which are underpinned by knowledge and understanding (Harwell et al.,
2022). Furthermore, Schech et al. (2019) explored international volunteerism and capacity
development, highlighting the role of knowledge in fostering effective volunteer contributions
and organizational capabilities in the Global South.
Motivation
The theoretical framework proposed by Clark and Estes (2008) emphasizes the crucial
role of motivation in addressing the lack of diversity among volunteers. Motivation drives
volunteer engagement, commitment, and satisfaction, particularly in diverse volunteer groups.
Clary et al. (1998) provided insights into understanding and assessing the motivations of
volunteers, emphasizing the active role of individuals in setting and pursuing plans that reflect
important features of self and identity, which is pertinent to understanding motivation within
diverse volunteer organizations. Gottlieb and Gillespie (2010) looked at the motivation for older
adults to volunteer and the health and morale benefits they derive from this expression of
altruism, underscoring the multifaceted influence of motivation within the context of
volunteerism and diversity.
The theoretical framework proposed by Clark and Estes (2008) is underpinned by a study
by Chen et al. (2022), which presented a knowledge mapping of volunteer motivation, providing
a clear framework for research on volunteer motivation and offering guidance and support for

26
understanding the connotation of volunteer motivation within diverse volunteer groups. Stukas et
al. (2014) explored the motivations to volunteer and their associations with volunteers’ wellbeing, highlighting the importance of tailoring recruitment messages to attract diverse volunteers
based on their motivations. Pepper and Rogers (2021) identified how the will to improve things
and help others are the most common motivations for volunteering, emphasizing the diverse
motivational factors that drive volunteer engagement across different contexts.
Organization
The significance of organization in Clark and Estes’ (2008) theoretical framework as
applied to the lack of diversity in volunteers is multifaceted. Structure, culture, and management
play a pivotal role in fostering inclusivity, equity, and effective engagement within volunteer
organizations. Research has highlighted the significance of organizational support, role clarity,
and self-efficacy in influencing volunteers’ satisfaction and attitudes toward volunteering (Bang
et al., 2022). Organizations must provide opportunities for volunteers with various skills,
interests, and experiences to enhance diversity in volunteerism (Warburton et al., 2007).
Understanding the positioning of the organization (Haski-Leventhal & Meijs, 2010), cultivating
a motivated volunteer population, and considering age diversity (Caldwell et al., 2007) are also
essential for effective volunteer management and promoting diversity in volunteerism.
Organizational support is crucial for volunteer retention and psychological well-being (Walker et
al., 2015). Additionally, the influence of authentic leadership and organizational climate in
influencing volunteering behavior underscores the organizational factors that can contribute to
promoting diversity among volunteers (Wu & Xu, 2022).

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Summary
Diversity among volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI) is crucial for
providing inclusive, culturally sensitive, and effective services. The presence of diverse
volunteers reflects the broader community and the participants in AAI programs, leading to a
more welcoming and effective environment for all individuals and communities they serve. The
presence of diverse volunteers in AAI programs is essential for promoting inclusivity, cultural
sensitivity, and effective outcomes. By valuing diversity, organizations can create a more
equitable and inclusive environment, ultimately enhancing participants’ therapeutic relationships
and overall experience.
This study was supported by a modified gap analysis framework based on Clark and
Estes (2008). According to this framework, three key factors influence the likelihood of
organizational change: knowledge, motivation, and organizational dynamics, all of which
interact in ways that can either support or hinder one another (Clark & Estes, 2008). This chapter
introduced the conceptual framework that illustrates these interactions. Chapter 3 provides
detailed insights into the study’s methodology, including the methodological approach,
instrumentation, and sampling procedures. Additionally, it outlines the data collection and
analysis processes.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter describes the methodology employed to explore the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions
(AAI). The fundamental purpose of this study was to examine these facets and reveal the
potential best practices and potential needs for fostering inclusivity within the AAI community.
This chapter is organized by delineating the research design and justification for its selection.
Subsequently, it details the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and instruments used for
analysis. By adopting a systematic approach, this chapter ensures the study’s strength and lays
the groundwork for generating insights that will inform the subsequent discussions and
recommendations in later chapters.
Research Question
Research shows that diversity among volunteers in AAI is vital for providing inclusive,
culturally sensitive, and effective services. It can lead to better outcomes for participants and
contribute to a more equitable and inclusive society; however, the volunteer pool remains
woefully under-diverse. This study sought to determine the barriers that prevent diverse
volunteers from participating. To this end, the following question guided this research study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence
diversity in volunteers in AAI?
Overview of Design
I collected data via interviews with selected volunteers who participate in AAI. For my
methodological design, I used a qualitative method, gathering qualitative data through semistructured interviews with volunteers currently participating in AAI. The interviews yielded

29
insights for an in-depth examination of the complexity of influences on diversity among AAI
volunteers and reveal areas for future research.
The Researcher
Villaverde (2008) defined positionality as “how one is situated through the intersection of
power and the politics of gender, race, class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, language, and other
social factors” (p. 10). Considering this definition, I would define positionality as how my values
and views influence how I see the world. One segment of my positionality is that I am the oldest
daughter in a military family. My father was a high-ranking officer, and my mother wrote a book
on etiquette. I was expected to be the “good kid,” to follow the rules, and to set an example for
others, never getting in trouble and always doing the right thing. I have always occupied the role
of being a good kid, even now into adulthood. I am the dependable one that people turn to in
need. As a result, I live under pressure to succeed and be the one who takes care of others. I
come from privilege. While never wealthy, my family never went without. My father held power
on base, and I shared that privilege as his child.
At the intersection of my identity, I see privilege. I do not and have not experienced
racism, color bias, or national origin discrimination, although I have witnessed it. I do not
pretend to know how that feels. I do not and have not experienced religious hate or disability
discrimination, although I have seen it. Once again, I do not pretend to know how that feels. I
cannot imagine the hurt and anger others experience.
I have been a volunteer with AAI for about 6 years now. With one exception, I do not see
people of color in volunteer positions in AAI. The volunteers serve diverse populations, but the
volunteer force does not represent those populations. Gordon (2017) defined epistemology as the
“theory of knowledge” (p. 27). My knowledge of this problem was obtained through firsthand

30
experience. I have volunteered dozens of times and seen only one other volunteer from an
underrepresented group volunteer, specifically a Black female. I am unaware of any other Black,
Indigenous, or people of color (BIPOC) in the program, and there are very few men. The
volunteers in the program are primarily White females.
One of the experts on this problem is Taylor Chastain Griffin, PhD, the national director
of AAI for Pet Partners, a leading organization that believes in the power of the human-animal
bond and promotes AAI. It is also the lead organization that certifies AAI teams (the handler and
the animal). The centered voices are White women, including Dr. Griffin’s, and the voices that
are both missing and needed are BIPOC and men.
Data Sources
This section outlines the data sources for the study as well as the data collection
procedures utilized during the study, the participants, instrumentation, data collection
procedures, and data analysis.
Interviews
This section delves into the cornerstone of my research, the rich and nuanced insights
gleaned through interviews, serving as the primary data source for exploring the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in AAI. Interviews,
as a qualitative research method, offer a unique opportunity to engage directly with individuals
deeply involved in the AAI community, fostering a profound understanding of their perspectives
and experiences. Interviews are a useful tool when a researcher is seeking information that may
not necessarily be observable or understood without garnering information to gain perspectives
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015). Incorporating interviews serves to capture the intricate
nuances of perspectives, motivations, and organizational practices that quantitative data alone

31
may overlook (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). By embracing interviews as a robust data source, this
research aimed to unravel the multifaceted dimensions of diversity-related challenges in AAI,
providing a comprehensive foundation for subsequent analysis.
The decision to employ interviews as a primary data collection method stemmed from the
recognition that the multifaceted nature of knowledge, motivation, and organizational dynamics
requires a depth of understanding that quantitative measures alone may fail to capture. Interviews
provide a unique platform for engaging with individuals directly involved in AAI. As such, I
conducted 20 semi-structured interviews that consisted of 15 open-ended and structured core
questions to help address the research question.
Participants
This research employed purposeful sampling to ensure a comprehensive and diverse
representation of voices within the animal-assisted interventions (AAI) community. Purposeful
sampling allows for the deliberate selection of participants with unique insights and experiences
relevant to the study’s objectives. So that I achieved a balanced and diverse sample, I recruited
participants by reaching out to various AAI practitioners, professionals, and stakeholders. Efforts
were directed toward engaging individuals from diverse backgrounds, including but not limited
to race, age, gender, ethnicity, professional roles, and geographical locations. One criterion was
that volunteers must have served for at least 1 year. By intentionally seeking participants with
diverse demographic characteristics, the study aimed to enrich the data set with a breadth of
perspectives. Recruitment was conducted through targeted outreach to AAI organizations,
practitioners, and professionals, utilizing established networks and online platforms dedicated to
the AAI community. A transparent and inclusive invitation process ensured that potential

32
participants were informed about the study’s objectives, ethical considerations, and voluntary
participation.
Instrumentation
This study took a qualitative approach, using an interview protocol to obtain relevant
information about the primary issue I was researching and maximizing findings and insight
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I asked semi-structured questions to elicit meaningful insights into
the interviewees’ experiences. The interviews consisted of 15 open-ended and structured core
questions (see Appendix A), with probing follow-up questions. Clarification questions were
posed as needed. The prepared questions were directed from Patton’s (2002) method to gather
detailed descriptions of the interviewees’ experiences, opinions, and knowledge. Using openended questions during interviews, and not using leading questions, permitted the interviewees to
share experiences, beliefs, and knowledge on the need for diversity in AAI (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
The primary instrument for data collection in this research was a semi-structured
interview protocol (Appendix A) carefully designed to explore knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in AAI. A semi-structured format
balances flexibility and consistency, enabling in-depth exploration of participants’ perspectives
while maintaining a standardized framework aligned with the research questions and conceptual
framework. I used open-ended questions to assess participants’ understanding of diversity within
the context of AAI. Probing inquiries helped explore the sources of knowledge about diversity
and its implications for AAI practices. Questions also covered the personal motivations and
values related to diversity in AAI and perceived barriers influencing motivation for fostering
diversity.

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Data Collection Procedures
To minimize any perceived inconvenience to the interviewees, Patton (2015)
recommended conducting the interviews at days and times that are most convenient to the
interviewees. To maintain the confidentiality of the interviewees (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016),
names were not captured or recorded. Interviewees were given numbers and abbreviations
identifiable only to me. I did not anticipate needing any translation or interpretation services.
Interviews were scheduled throughout a couple of months to accommodate the availability of
participants. Each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes, allowing for in-depth exploration
while minimizing participant fatigue (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). I conducted the interviews using
video conferencing, ensuring geographical flexibility and participant comfort. Virtual interviews
have been widely used in qualitative research, offering advantages such as convenience and costeffectiveness (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Participants received detailed information about the study,
the interview process, and ethical considerations in advance. Informed consent was obtained
before the interviews. Creswell and Creswell (2018) recommended employing pilot testing to
refine questions, ensure clarity, and provide accurate data capture. I piloted two interviews as
tests.
With participants’ consent, interviews were audio-recorded to capture nuances and
facilitate accurate data analysis (Tam et al., 2015). In addition to recordings, detailed notes were
taken during the interviews to capture nonverbal cues and contextual information (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). After the interviews were completed, audio recordings were transcribed verbatim
(Guest et al., 2013), and participants were offered the opportunity to review and verify the
accuracy of their transcripts, ensuring participant validation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

34
Data Analysis
Data analysis makes meaning of data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data analysis began
with the initial stages of data collection. After each interview, I performed a detailed review of
the transcripts, identifying key statements and pulling relevant quotes into a separate document
to streamline the coding process. This preliminary review allowed me to focus on themes that
were emerging directly from the data. I then engaged in an iterative coding process, assigning
codes to quotes that reflected recurring patterns, sentiments, and experiences related to the
research questions. This approach followed the guidelines set out by Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
for qualitative data analysis, where the identification of categories or themes arises naturally
from the participants' responses.
I adopted an open coding strategy initially, labeling concepts and ideas that surfaced from
the interviews. As I progressed, I refined these codes into more defined categories or themes,
looking for patterns and relationships across the data. For example, quotes reflecting
participants’ knowledge of diversity in AAI, their motivations for volunteering, and the
organizational factors influencing their involvement were systematically grouped under broader
thematic categories. This thematic analysis involved multiple phases of coding, which allowed
me to draw deeper insights into the factors influencing diversity among AAI volunteers.
Throughout this process, I ensured that the coding was consistent and aligned with the
research objectives, regularly reviewing the data to confirm that the themes accurately
represented the participants' experiences. By organizing the data in this manner, I was able to
create a structured narrative that formed the foundation for the findings presented in this
dissertation.

35
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Essential to my dissertation was ensuring credibility and trustworthiness concerning my
bias and positionality. To help maximize credibility and reliability, I used interviewee transcript
review (ITR). ITR is a qualitative research technique that involves providing participants with
verbatim transcripts of their interviews for the purpose of verifying accuracy, correcting errors,
and offering clarifications. This process is designed to enhance the credibility and validity of
qualitative research findings by allowing interviewees to confirm that their perspectives and
statements have been accurately captured (Hagens et al., 2009; Mero-Jaffe, 2011; Rowlands,
2021).
The practice of ITR serves several important functions in qualitative research. First, it
empowers participants by giving them control over their own narratives, allowing them to ensure
that their voices are accurately represented (Mero-Jaffe, 2011; Rowlands, 2021). This protection
can be particularly significant in sensitive research contexts, where participants may feel
vulnerable discussing personal experiences (Mero-Jaffe, 2011; Rowlands, 2021). By reviewing
their transcripts, participants can identify any misinterpretations or omissions, thereby
contributing to the overall integrity of the research (Hagens et al., 2009; Rowlands, 2021).
ITR can improve the quality of the data collected. Researchers can gain insights into
participants’ thoughts and feelings that may not have been fully articulated during the interview,
as individuals may recall additional details or provide further context upon reviewing their
transcripts (Hagens et al., 2009; Keyes et al., 2023). This iterative feedback loop can lead to
richer, more nuanced data, ultimately enhancing the depth of analysis and interpretation (Hagens
et al., 2009; Rowlands, 2021).

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Ethics
The ethical considerations for this research were central to its design and implementation.
The study involved human subjects, and thus, ensuring the rights, privacy, and well-being of
participants was of paramount importance. To adhere to the highest ethical standards, the
research was conducted following the guidelines established by the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) at the University of Southern California (USC).
Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval
Prior to commencing the study, I submitted a comprehensive protocol for review by the
USC IRB, detailing the objectives, methodology, and ethical safeguards. The study received
approval from the Social Behavioral IRB at USC, which determined that it posed minimal risk to
participants due to its focus on interviews and non-invasive data collection procedures. The
approval helped ensure that all research activities complied with ethical guidelines for human
subject research, including participant recruitment, informed consent, and data protection
Informed Consent
All participants provided informed consent prior to their participation in the study. I
utilized an information sheet and consent form that outlined the purpose of the study, the
voluntary nature of participation, and the rights of the participants, including the right to
withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. The informed consent process was
conducted prior to interviews through verbal confirmation.
The information sheet highlighted that participation was voluntary, and all participants
were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any point without any negative
repercussions. Participants were also informed of the interview procedures, including the
recording of interviews for accuracy purposes, and assured that their identities would remain

37
confidential. If a participant preferred not to be recorded, handwritten notes were taken during
the interview.
Confidentiality and Data Protection
To protect the confidentiality of participants, all data collected during the interviews were
de-identified before being analyzed. Each participant was assigned a unique code, helping to
ensure that no personally identifiable information was linked to the research findings.
Recordings and transcripts were securely stored on the USC server, accessible only by me.
Recordings will be destroyed to further protect participant privacy. Data will be retained as
required by the university but will be securely erased afterward. Additionally, all personal
identifiers were removed and pseudonyms (participant numbers) were used in this study. These
measures helped ensure that all collected data adhered to ethical standards for privacy and
confidentiality in research.
Voluntary Participation and Minimizing Harm
The voluntary nature of the study was emphasized throughout the recruitment and data
collection processes. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw at any stage without
providing a reason. Recruitment emails and interview protocols were crafted to ensure that
participants did not feel coerced into participating and were aware of their autonomy in the
research process.
To show appreciation for their participation, participants were offered a $20 gift card to
Starbucks upon completion of the interview. Those who declined the gift card were given the
option of having an equivalent donation made to the SPCA. These incentives were small enough
to avoid undue influence, ensuring that participation remained voluntary and that participants felt
no pressure to complete the interview solely to receive compensation.

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Ensuring No Conflicts of Interest
As the principal investigator, I did not have any authority or influence over the
participants that might have coerced them into participation. While I am a volunteer in this field,
I did not hold any supervisory role that could create a conflict of interest and did not know any of
the participants in volunteer experience.
The ethical considerations for this study were thoroughly addressed through careful
planning and adherence to IRB protocols. By obtaining informed consent, ensuring
confidentiality, and emphasizing voluntary participation, this research was conducted in a
manner that prioritized the dignity and rights of the participants while striving to contribute
valuable insights to the field of animal-assisted interventions.

39
Chapter Four: Findings
There is a lack of diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI) and
volunteers in AAI do not reflect the diverse population being served (Pet Partners, 2022). AAI is
an intervention that incorporates animals in a therapeutic process (Kruger & Serpell, 2006) and
complements conventional forms of therapy (Koukourikos et al., 2019). To provide appropriate
and effective AAI, volunteers need to be culturally sensitive (Doney, 2021). Evidence indicates
that cultural identity is critical in facilitating effective animal-assisted interventions (American
Counseling Association Code of Ethics, 2014). This problem warrants exploration because
diversity creates positive outcomes that impact volunteers and patients (Gill et al., 2018).
The purpose of this study was to examine the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in AAI. The problem is related to the
persistent lack of racial and ethnic diversity in the composition of volunteers (Pet Partners,
2022). The focus of this analysis was on the volunteers themselves, their knowledge of the field,
their motivations behind volunteering, and their experiences with the organizations in which they
volunteer. The focus was to identify the barriers, if any, to volunteering in AAI in general but for
a diverse population in particular. My research question was: “What are the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in AAI?”
Participants
The absence of diversity in the homogeneous volunteer base is evident in that most
volunteers in AAI are middle-aged White women. As such, for purposes of this study, the
nondiverse group is defined as the volunteer base consisting of middle-aged White women, while
the diverse group is defined as those not part of the volunteer base.

40
This researcher recruited both diverse and nondiverse participants willing to participate in
the study. The intent was to interview diverse and nondiverse participants to identify potential
gaps in their responses for the motivation, knowledge, and organizational factors that influence
diversity in volunteering in AAI. Both diverse and nondiverse participants were selected so that
findings could reveal the perceptions of these two groups that influence diversity.
The study involved a total of 20 participants recruited from two large organizations
responsible for the education, evaluations, certification, registration, support, and insurance for
volunteers. Recruiting from the first organization included distributing my query via the
organization’s newsletter. Recruiting for the second came from forwarding my query via email to
their volunteers. The query identified who I am and a description of the study. It further
explained that interested participants would be asked to take part in a confidential interview in
which they would discuss their motivations, experiences, and perspectives. Those who
completed the interview, as a token of appreciation, received a gift card to Starbucks. If the
participant declined the gift card, a donation was made to the SPCA. Interested individuals were
asked to contact the researcher directly. The researcher received responses from 138 different
individuals interested in participating in the interview. The researcher interviewed 26
respondents (six did not meet the minimum selection criteria) using the selection criteria
described in the sections that follow; the other 115 individuals were thanked for their willingness
to participate.
Selection Criteria
Individuals who met the selection criterion were eligible to participate. The selection
criterion was defined as any AAI volunteer that has been volunteering for at least 1 year. A 1-
year threshold was chosen as it helped ensure that volunteers had experience volunteering in the

41
field, which allows for a more accurate assessment of their perceptions and the impact of their
involvement. Volunteers with less than 1 year of experience were not selected because they may
not have had enough experience or familiarity with AAI to provide comprehensive insights.
Their limited time in the role might not reflect a full understanding of the challenges, benefits,
and dynamics involved in animal-assisted interventions. Recruiting individuals with more than 1
year of experience ensured that volunteers have exposure and familiarity with AAI. This duration
has allowed them to develop a deeper understanding of the challenges, benefits, and dynamics
associated with AAI, leading to more informed and reliable insights. Volunteers with over a year
of experience are more likely to provide valuable perspectives on the effectiveness and cultural
sensitivity required for successful interventions.
Demographic Information
The 20 participants were selected based on a diversity criterion and expertise relevant to
the study’s focus. Table 1 provides an overview of the participants. The first column indicates
the number that the participant was given as an identifier. The second column identifies
participants as diverse (“D”) or nondiverse (“ND”). Nondiverse volunteers (“ND”) are defined as
the volunteer base consisting of middle-aged White females, while the diverse group is defined
as those not part of the volunteer base (males, Hispanic, and Asians). The third column indicates
whether the participants qualified (“Q”) or did not qualify (“DNQ”) for the study. Qualifying
participants are individuals who have been AAI volunteers for at least 1 year. Participants who
did not qualify are individuals who have been AAI volunteers for less than a year or those who
are not yet volunteers. The fourth, fifth, and sixth columns indicate ethnicity, gender, and age,
while the last column indicates the level of experience of the volunteer in AAI.

42
Table 1
Demographics of Interview Participants
Participant
#
Diverse/
Nondiverse
Qualify/
Did not qualify
Race/
Ethnicity
Gender Age range Volunteer
experience
(years)
1 ND DNQ White Female 55–64 None
2 ND DNQ White Female 35–44 <1
3 ND DNQ White Female 55–64 <1
4 ND Q White Female 55–64 1–3
5 D Q White Male 45–54 1–3
6 ND Q White Female 55–64 5–10
7 D Q Hispanic Female 35–44 5–10
8 ND Q White Female 65–74 10+
9 ND DNQ White Female 35–45 <1
10 ND DNQ White Female <18 <1
11 ND Q White Female 55–64 3–5
12 D Q White Male 55–64 3–5
13 ND Q White Female 65–74 10+
14 ND Q White Female 65–74 10+
15 ND Q White Female 55–64 10+
16 D Q White Male 65–74 5–10
17 D Q Hispanic Female 25–34 1–3
18 D Q White Male 25–34 1–3
19 ND Q White Female 55–64 10+
20 ND Q White Female 65–74 1–3
21 D DNQ White Male 55–64 <1
22 ND Q White Female 45–54 5–10
23 ND Q White Female 55–64 10+
24 D Q White/Asian Female 45–54 3–5
25 D Q Hispanic Female 55–64 1–3
26 D Q Hispanic Female 65–74 1–3

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Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The Clark and Estes (2008) model suggests that individuals’ behaviors are influenced by
their knowledge, motivation, and organizational culture and context. The sections that follow
report the findings for each in response to the research question. Each section is organized by the
specific interview question posed to the participants.
Knowledge Findings
This section summarizes the findings related to the knowledge participants held related to
AAI programs and volunteer opportunities. Both diverse and nondiverse participants commonly
cited personal connections, word of mouth, and direct experiences as key factors in their
awareness. Diverse participants often highlighted professional settings or direct suggestions from
individuals in their networks, such as veterinarians or community officers, while nondiverse
participants frequently mentioned structured programs, community visits, and educational
institutions as their sources of information. Despite these different pathways, the influence of
personal connections and firsthand experiences emerged as a central theme in knowledge and
awareness about AAI programs among all participants.
Knowledge Question 1: How did you become aware of AAI programs and the opportunity to
volunteer in this field?
Diverse and nondiverse participants were introduced to AAI programs and volunteer
opportunities through various channels, including personal recommendations, professional
networks, and community resources. Both groups often cited word of mouth and direct
experiences as key factors in their awareness.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents often highlighted personal connections and
experiences that led them to become aware of AAI programs. Participant 5, a school district

44
superintendent, shared, “I’m a school district superintendent. And pre-COVID we had 2 therapy
animals that came into our kindergarten a couple times. Saw huge value in it.” This experience
allowed them to witness firsthand the significant impact of therapy animals in an educational
setting, which sparked their interest in the AAI programs.
Similarly, Participant 12 mentioned, “She [vet] said, ‘have you thought about doing this?’
That’s what got me involved.” This suggestion from a trusted veterinarian was the catalyst for
their involvement in the program. Participant 16 described their introduction to AAI as a result of
a customer at the store where they work, saying, “One of our regular customers in a store I work
in was heavily involved in this. She suggested I look into it.” This personal connection played a
crucial role in their decision to explore volunteering opportunities.
Participant 17 found out about AAI programs through the Ventura Police Department’s
website, stating, “The Ventura Police Department. Web page. And one of their community
officers.” This direct encounter with law enforcement resources provided them with the
necessary information to get involved. Last, Participant 18 noted, “It’s basically been other
people who were therapy dog handlers referred me,” indicating that their awareness was
influenced by the involvement of others in their network.
These responses suggest that diverse participants were often introduced to AAI programs
through direct interactions with individuals already involved in the field or through their
professional experiences.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also frequently mentioned personal
referrals and experiences as key drivers of their awareness. Participant 7 discovered AAI
programs through a structured activity, explaining, “So through the public puppy socialization
class.” This experience provided them with early exposure to the idea of volunteering in AAI.

45
Participant 14 found out about the program when their grandson was a patient at a
hospital, recalling:
When my 1st grandchild was 2 years old, he was diagnosed with leukemia. And all of a
sudden we found ourselves in Phoenix Children’s Hospital. And he’s 14 now and he’s
good as gold. And So aside from when there was a knock on the door and someone said,
do you want to see a dog? When the pet therapy team came in, I was crying. Basically, I
didn’t know anything about pet therapy and I really didn’t understand it. That’s how I
found out.
Participant 18 shared, “Some of my friends have registered therapy animals,” highlighting the
role of personal connections in their decision to volunteer. Additionally, Participant 13 noted that
they learned of the programs “from the woman that volunteered in my classroom” and
Participant 20 mentioned, “We had a program here at a more informal program here. Um, many
years ago. And so I was aware of it through that,” indicating that educational institutions play a
role in raising awareness about the program. These quotes communicate that nondiverse
participants were often introduced to AAI programs through structured programs, community
visits, and personal connections.
In conclusion, both diverse and nondiverse participants were introduced to AAI programs
and volunteering opportunities primarily through personal connections and experiences. Diverse
participants often cited professional settings or direct suggestions from individuals in their
networks, such as veterinarians, customers, or community officers. On the other hand,
nondiverse participants frequently mentioned community programs, events, educational
institutions, and media as key sources of information. Despite these differences, the common
thread across all participants is the significant influence of word of mouth and direct personal

46
experience in raising awareness about AAI programs, underscoring the importance of personal
connections in volunteer recruitment.
Knowledge Question 2: Can you describe your understanding of AAI’s goals, benefits, and
potential impact?
Both diverse and nondiverse participants recognized the fundamental goals of AAI,
emphasizing the emotional support, comfort, and the unique human-animal bond that these
programs foster. They also acknowledged the significant impact AAI has on individuals’ wellbeing, particularly in providing comfort, emotional relief, and a sense of companionship.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents often emphasized the emotional and
supportive aspects of AAI, reflecting a deep understanding of the program’s goals and benefits.
Participant 5 explained, “It’s really just an opportunity to support the students emotionally.” This
perspective highlights the role of AAI in providing emotional support, particularly within
educational settings.
Participant 7 described the profound impact AAI can have on both volunteers and
recipients, saying, “She looks at you like the best thing alive. And she’s right there with you in
that moment. That connection is just incredible.” This quote underscores the powerful bond that
forms between the animal and the person, which is central to the therapeutic effects of AAI.
Another participant, Participant 12, shared a specific instance of AAI’s impact, recalling, “A 5th
grader about a month and a half ago said, ‘This is the first time I have felt safe in a long time.’”
This poignant example illustrates the sense of safety and comfort that AAI can provide to
vulnerable individuals. Participant 16 succinctly captured the essence of AAI’s mission by
stating, “We bring comfort and support. We give people a reason to smile.” This remark
encapsulates the primary goal of AAI: bringing emotional relief and joy to those in need. Finally,

47
Participant 17 highlighted the broader purpose of AAI, explaining, “The main goal is to help
with the human-animal bond and improve people’s lives.” This statement reflects the
overarching aim of AAI to enhance well-being by fostering meaningful connections between
humans and animals. These responses suggest that diverse participants view AAI as a program
primarily focused on emotional support and the cultivation of the human-animal bond, which has
a profound impact on the well-being of individuals.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also recognized the emotional and
supportive benefits of AAI but often framed their understanding within the context of specific
outcomes and broader societal benefits. For example, Participant 19 explained, “It’s about giving
people a chance to experience joy and comfort, especially in places where they might not have
that otherwise.” This remark highlights the role of AAI in providing comfort in environments
where emotional support is often lacking.
Participant 20 emphasized the therapeutic benefits of AAI, noting, “I believe it’s meant to
reduce stress, give emotional support, and make a real difference in people’s lives.” This
understanding reflects the widespread recognition of AAI’s potential to positively influence
mental health and emotional well-being. Participant 22 articulated the dual benefit of AAI,
saying, “It’s not just about helping people, but it’s also about the animals. They get to be with
people and feel a sense of purpose too.” This response highlights the reciprocal nature of AAI,
where both the human participants and the animals experience benefits from the interaction.
Participant 25 further highlighted the calming effect of the animals, sharing, “He definitely has a
calming effect. You know, he’s super, super fluffy and soft. That’s comforting. He just tends to
put his head in your lap. Overall, he brings joy. Calmness and joy.” This example illustrates the
immediate emotional impact that the presence of a therapy animal can have on an individual.

48
Additionally, Participant 28 noted the role of AAI in enhancing mood and reducing anxiety,
offering, “A lot of our visits are just enhancing their mood and giving them a break from their
hospital stay. You just make everybody happy.” This input highlights how AAI contributes to the
overall well-being of individuals by providing them with a much-needed emotional respite.
These comments indicate that nondiverse participants often view AAI through the lens of
its tangible benefits, such as stress reduction, emotional support, and mood enhancement, while
also recognizing the mutual benefits for both humans and animals. Both diverse and nondiverse
participants have a strong understanding of AAI’s goals, benefits, and potential impact, with a
shared emphasis on the emotional and supportive aspects of the program. Diverse participants
often focus on the personal and emotional connections fostered by AAI, highlighting the sense of
safety, comfort, and joy that the program provides. Nondiverse participants, while also
recognizing these emotional benefits, tend to articulate a broader understanding of AAI’s impact,
including its therapeutic effects, mood enhancement, and mutual benefits for humans and
animals. This shared understanding underscores the importance of AAI in enhancing emotional
well-being and fostering meaningful human-animal connections.
Knowledge Question 3: Have you encountered any misconceptions or misunderstandings
about AAI that have influenced your volunteering experience?
Both diverse and nondiverse participants have encountered misconceptions about AAI
that have influenced their volunteering experiences. These misconceptions often revolve around
the nature of the animals involved, the expectations of the program, and the understanding of
AAI’s purpose and impact.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents frequently encountered misconceptions
related to the nature of the animals involved in AAI and the expectations placed on the

49
volunteers. Participant 5 shared, “The biggest misconception that I’ve encountered period is the
difference between an emotional support dog, a therapy dog, and a service dog.” This comment
underscores a common misunderstanding of what therapy animals are, rather than recognizing
their specific training and purpose within AAI programs. Participant 7 noted a similar issue,
stating, “They don’t realize that our dogs are still dogs.” This observation reflects the challenge
of educating the public that therapy animals, while trained, still have natural behaviors and are
not perfect or robotic in their actions. Participant 12 mentioned breed-specific misconceptions,
saying, “But then it’s like, what breed? And I’m like. It’s not about the breed, it’s about the
training and temperament.” This observation underlines the misunderstanding that certain breeds
are inherently better suited for therapy work, rather than focusing on the individual animal’s
capabilities. Participant 16 expressed,
The misconceptions are largely the public’s general ignorance about the difference
between what a therapy dog is and what a service dog is, what an emotional support
animal is, etc. We’re ambassadors for therapy work and it’s our job to help the public
understand.
This remark reflects the lack of knowledge volunteers often feel from the public about the
program and the animals. Participant 17 encountered a misunderstanding about the nature of
their volunteering, sharing, “Someone was thinking that it was like a job that you just go to, like
a paid position.” A common misconception is that AAI volunteering is a professional job rather
than a voluntary service. These responses communicate that diverse participants often encounter
the public’s lack of understanding of the nature of therapy animals and the expectations
surrounding AAI programs.

50
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also managed various
misconceptions that influenced their experiences as volunteers. Participant 19 shared, “People
think they’re service dogs. Which they are not. They’ll think they’re emotional support dogs,
which they are not.” This input signals a misunderstanding between AAI and service dogs or
emotional support animals. Participants 4, 6, 8, 13, 14, 10, and 23 had a similar sentiment,
indicating that they frequently encountered misconceptions about the role and nature of therapy
animals.
In sum, both diverse and nondiverse participants encountered various misconceptions
about AAI that have influenced their volunteering experiences. Diverse participants often face
challenges in correcting public assumptions about the nature of therapy animals, such as the
belief that these animals are simply pets or that certain breeds are better suited for therapy work.
Nondiverse participants, on the other hand, frequently address misconceptions related to the role
of the animals and the nature of AAI programs. These shared experiences underscore the
importance of public education in reducing misunderstandings about AAI and supporting the
work of volunteers in this field.
Motivation Findings
The findings on volunteer motivations highlight that both diverse and nondiverse
participants are driven by a love for animals, a desire to help others, personal fulfillment, and a
community connection through AAI. Diverse respondents often emphasized the transformative
impact of their pets and their passion for making a difference, while nondiverse respondents
similarly found joy and purpose in volunteering, often influenced by their pets’ friendly nature
and the positive impact on others. Both groups shared experiences of overcoming barriers, with
diverse participants frequently encountering systemic challenges like cost, time constraints, and

51
geographical limitations, while nondiverse participants often faced personal or procedural
challenges. Despite these obstacles, both groups demonstrated strong commitment, adaptability,
and resilience, underscoring the universal appeal of pet therapy and the importance of fostering
inclusive, supportive environments for volunteers.
Motivation Question 1: What drew you to volunteer in this field?
For both the diverse and nondiverse participants, the motivation to volunteer in pet
therapy is driven by a deep love for animals and a strong desire to help others, with volunteers
finding personal fulfillment and community connection through their work.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse volunteers often cited their long-standing passion for
volunteering and the transformative impact of their pets on their lives. For instance, Participant 4
noted, “I’ve always just wanted to reach out, serve others.” Participant 6 shared, “I wanted to do
something that felt good inside. We both feel like we’re giving and you know it just feels good.”
Participant 7 highlighted the need to feel a purpose, “I think it’s just an internal drive to want to
fulfill a purpose.” Participant 16 emphasized the emotional connection and therapeutic benefits,
stating, “It was that relationship with my dog and knowing the kind of joy that she brought to my
life—I said this is something I got to share with the world.” Participant 5 noted that in a
classroom setting seeing the impact on student success brought them to volunteer, “Seeing some
students that were just unable to function in a complete meltdown and watching them be able to
sit because a dog was next to them and listen to a teacher lecture or complete an assignment.”
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse volunteers similarly highlighted the joy and
purpose they found in volunteering, often influenced by their pets’ friendly nature. Participant 8
said, “I have this awesome dog who is super friendly... it would be good for her to have regular
exposure to multiple people and also something good for me because I retired a couple of years

52
ago.” Participant 20 mentioned the influence of community connections, “Some of our friends
are registered therapy animals... so I thought that would be perfect for us.” Participant 8
expressed the desire to continue helping others even after retirement, “It’s something fun for me
to do. That’s not a lot of pressure and I really feel that it’s been very rewarding.” Additionally,
Participant 22 spoke about the impact of their work, “I love animals... I think they’re very
therapeutic and I wanted to share that with others.” Another nondiverse volunteer, Participant 11,
shared, “It’s just a wonderful way to spend my time post-retirement, knowing that I’m making a
difference in people’s lives.” Participant 8 also noted, “Some people don’t really want a dog in
the office, but once they see the positive impact, their perspective changes.”
The primary motivation for volunteers in pet therapy is a combined love for animals and
a desire to make a positive impact on others’ lives. Both diverse and nondiverse volunteers are
driven by personal experiences and community influences, finding joy and fulfillment in their
roles. This shared motivation underscores the universal appeal of pet therapy and highlights the
importance of fostering opportunities for volunteers to connect with their communities through
their pets.
Motivation Question 2: Have you encountered any barriers or challenges in your journey to
volunteer in AAI? If so, can you describe those challenges?
When asked about the barriers or challenges they encountered in their journey to
volunteer in AAI, participants provided a range of responses, evincing both personal and
systemic issues. Among both diverse and nondiverse participants, challenges related to time
constraints, organizational limitations, and specific personal roles were commonly cited;
however, the nature and emphasis of these challenges varied between the two groups.

53
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents often highlighted challenges that were
closely tied to their roles and responsibilities, as well as systemic barriers such as cost and
accessibility. For instance, Participant 5, who serves as a school superintendent, mentioned, “No,
as the superintendent, our policies are clear. The biggest barrier was making the school board
aware.” This remark suggests that their role itself may shield them from some challenges, though
this privilege is not universally applicable to all diverse participants. Participant 7 cited the “cost
and the time involved with it” as significant barriers, pointing to both financial and temporal
constraints. Another participant, Participant 16, reflected, “Boy, I tell you, honestly, none that I
can think of,” indicating a relatively smooth experience. However, Participant 17 highlighted a
different issue: “I couldn’t find any places close to me to volunteer,” indicating geographic
limitations as a barrier. Additional challenges were noted by Participant 18, who shared, “One
initial challenge was just not really knowing where to start,” indicating a lack of clear guidance
as a barrier to entry. Participant 24 pointed out access to opportunities, which helps the process:
“We’re very fortunate that there are a number of different organizations in our area that are kind
of really well known.” Participant 26, however, pointed out an obstacle related to the complexity
of the process, stating, “Well, I think it’s very confusing for people. The process could be
clearer.” This feedback reflects a diverse set of challenges, with some participants experiencing
minimal barriers due to their professional roles, while others faced more structural challenges
such as cost, geographical limitations, and initial entry hurdles.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also cited challenges, though these
were often related to their specific roles rather than to systemic issues. Participant 4, for instance,
noted, “Maybe not so much for me personally, I think because of my role [as a college
counselor],” indicating that their professional position might have mitigated potential barriers.

54
Participant 13 also indicated few obstacles, stating, “I really haven’t. It’s been such a positive
experience.” Participant 14 noted:
The one barrier I’ve been noticing lately is that in a couple of places that have switched
activity directors, this field is quite mobile, and they switched jobs quite a bit. And
they’re not into volunteers or they just simply forget to tell the people that were coming.
We need to know that we’re wanted. That we’re valued, that we’ve made a difference.
That’s what we work for instead of money.
Participant 15 noted:
The process of certifying your dog is labor intensive. And also, monetarily intensive at
times. But I’m retired. We do have, in our program at the hospital, people that are
working age and they’re working full time. I’m not quite sure how they do it. Because it
takes so much time. But as a retired person, I have the time. And luckily I have the
money. So, no, I don’t think I’ve had any barriers.
Last, Participant 20 noted the critical importance of the safety of the animals as a barrier, “Rigor
and safety of different therapy animal programs. And that people don’t know that the handlers
don’t know that the facilities don’t know the right things to ask. To make sure that they’re
getting a safe team coming to visit them.” While nondiverse participants may experience fewer
systemic challenges, personal or organizational barriers still affect their volunteer experience.
In sum, diverse and nondiverse participants encountered challenges in their journey to
volunteer in AAI, though the nature of these challenges varied. Diverse participants were more
likely to mention systemic barriers such as cost, time, geographical limitations, and lack of
guidance. In contrast, nondiverse participants often referenced challenges related to their specific
roles or the clarity of the process. These findings suggest that while both groups face obstacles,

55
the experiences of diverse participants may be shaped more by external factors, while nondiverse
participants may experience more personal barriers. This distinction highlights the need for
tailored support to address different groups’ unique challenges within the AAI volunteer
community.
Motivation Question 3: How have time constraints, financial limitations, or personal
circumstances influenced your ability or willingness to volunteer?
Participants discussed how time constraints, financial limitations, and personal
circumstances have influenced their ability or willingness to volunteer. These factors played a
significant role in shaping their experiences, with both diverse and nondiverse participants
sharing how they navigated these challenges. Time management emerged as a common theme,
while participants mentioned financial constraints and personal circumstances less frequently.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse participants often highlighted the challenge of balancing
time commitments with their desire to volunteer. Participant 5 expressed:
You know, I’ve been fortunate. I don’t have any real financial constraints. It was really
just getting her [their spouse] to agree to get another dog because at one point she was
done with dogs. But that was probably my biggest hurdle.
This indicates that personal circumstances, rather than financial or time constraints, were the
primary influence for this participant. Participant 7 discussed the impact of personal
circumstances on their ability to volunteer: “So when I was married with young children, I didn’t
have time for anything else. But now, it’s easier to manage my schedule.” This remark highlights
how life changes can affect one’s ability to commit to volunteering. Participant 16 noted the
importance of scheduling to manage volunteering alongside work: “I’m not retired yet. So I have
to work around my job. It’s not always easy, but I make it work.” This input emphasizes the need

56
for careful time management when juggling multiple responsibilities. Participant 17 also
acknowledged time constraints as a significant barrier: “Definitely time constraints were a big
deal. But once I found a routine, it became more manageable.” The participant pointed out that
establishing a routine can help volunteers overcome initial difficulties. Participant 18 shared that
financial barriers were not a significant issue, stating, “I think financially there wasn’t really a
barrier for me. It was more about finding the time to fit it all in.”
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse participants also shared how they navigated time
constraints and personal circumstances in their volunteer work. Participant 8 mentioned the
importance of setting priorities: “I have a busy schedule, so I had to really make it a priority.
Once I did, it became part of my routine.” Participant 11 discussed the challenge of balancing
work and volunteering: “Working full-time makes it tough. I had to cut back on some other
activities to fit this in, but it was worth it.” This input underscores the sacrifices some volunteers
must make to maintain their commitment. Participant 13 reflected on retirement’s impact: “Since
retiring, I have more time, but I also want to make sure I’m not overcommitting myself. It’s a
balancing act.” This participant emphasized the ongoing need to balance time, even after
retirement. Participant 15 shared how personal circumstances can influence volunteering: “There
were times when family obligations made it hard to volunteer consistently, but I always tried to
stay involved as much as I could.” Participant 20 noted, “Financially, I’m stable, so that wasn’t
an issue. But finding the time was always the biggest challenge.”
Ultimately, time constraints emerged as the most significant factor affecting participants’
ability to volunteer, with both diverse and nondiverse respondents emphasizing the importance
of time management and routine. Financial limitations were less commonly cited, and when they
were, they did not seem to be a major barrier for most participants. Personal circumstances, such

57
as family obligations and work schedules, also shaped the volunteers’ experiences. While
challenges exist, diverse and nondiverse participants found ways to navigate them,
demonstrating a strong commitment to their volunteer work despite these obstacles.
Motivation Question 4: Have you experienced discomfort or concerns about volunteering in
therapeutic or educational settings? If yes, how did you address or overcome these challenges?
Both diverse and nondiverse participants shared their experiences regarding discomfort or
concerns when volunteering in therapeutic or educational settings. Their responses varied, with
some participants acknowledging initial discomfort while others reported no significant
challenges.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse participants had varied experiences with discomfort in
volunteering in therapeutic or educational settings, with some facing challenges in specific
situations. Participant 7 stated:
We had the dogs, and they were all petting them and saying hi, and you know it
inevitably there’s one person [the dog] is not comfortable with. And so that makes me
uncomfortable. It’s uncomfortable for me because I have to, like, then navigate that
situation, and sometimes it’s hard to make conversation.
Participant 12 noted, “Fortunately, no. Aside from COVID,” indicating that there were no
significant concerns outside of the pandemic. Participant 16 mentioned, “Once in a great while,
we are visiting a venue or a facility where there’s not a lot of staff support. So without staff
support, you know, it can be a bit more stressful and a bit more trying and it does create some
barriers.” Participant 17 shared, “Of course. At the hospital, we were visiting a patient. But then
in another room, there was another patient, and I’m not sure why but she was screaming
constantly. Like, get me out of here. I did not feel I could continue after that.” Participant 18

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expressed, “Short answer is no. Yeah. I’m pretty outgoing. I feel like I’m able to read a room
pretty well and sense if someone wants me there or not. I can’t immediately think of any
prolonged situations of discomfort.” Participant 26 also noted, “We did have to temporarily stop
some of our visits to the memory care place that we were going to just because it got to the point
where there wasn’t necessarily someone on staff.”
While diverse participants generally felt comfortable in their volunteering roles, specific
challenges and discomforts arose in particular situations. These included navigating interactions
when animals or patients were distressed, dealing with limited staff support, and facing
disruptions due to the pandemic. Despite these occasional difficulties, most participants adapted
and continued their volunteering efforts with resilience.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse participants also reflected on their experiences
with varying levels of discomfort. Participant 6 shared:
No, but when my kids were growing up, I was a substitute teacher, so I’m really
comfortable in that environment. Like I prefer an independent living senior environment.
If it’s too clinical, I feel like he [the dog] doesn’t enjoy it as much.
Participant 11 was straightforward, stating, “Yeah. No, not at all,” indicating no discomfort.
Participant 13 highlighted a more challenging environment, saying, “Medicaid patients. That’s
pretty rough and grim. The people [volunteers] are, you know, grossed out by the patients.”
Participant 14 mentioned, “I didn’t, but I wasn’t a stranger to the hospital either,” showing
comfort due to prior familiarity. Participant 19 recounted, “A couple of times, I might have
thought [my dog] wasn’t in a totally safe situation. Another time she did get hurt and it was
totally my fault,” reflecting concerns for safety. Participant 20 described a challenge with their
dog’s comfort: “Well, I, my first intention was to volunteer at a hospital. I’ve brought [my dog]

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in for an interview. And she just was not happy there... this dog seems to really thrive with
children. And so that’s what I’ve focused on.” This feedback from nondiverse participants
indicate a range of experiences, from no discomfort to concerns about their therapy animals’
environment and safety; however, like their diverse counterparts, nondiverse participants found
ways to address or adapt to their challenges.
In sum, diverse and nondiverse participants reported varying levels of discomfort when
volunteering in therapeutic or educational settings. Diverse participants sometimes experienced
nervousness, particularly in unfamiliar or challenging environments, but they generally found
ways to manage these concerns. Nondiverse participants shared similar experiences, ranging
from no discomfort to specific concerns about the environment or their animals’ safety. Both
groups demonstrated adaptability and resilience in overcoming the challenges they faced,
ensuring they could continue their volunteer work effectively.
Motivation Question 5: Did you encounter any barriers related to accessing AAI programs or
facilities? If yes, what were those barriers?
When asked about the barriers they encountered related to accessing AAI programs or
facilities, participants provided a variety of responses. Both diverse and nondiverse participants
identified specific challenges, ranging from logistical issues to environmental factors.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents shared various barriers they faced when
accessing AAI programs or facilities. For example, Participant 12 discussed logistical
challenges: “Children’s Museum. We could only make it once or twice a month,” indicating that
limited access to specific venues created barriers to consistent participation. Participant 16
pointed out difficulties related to institutional settings: “Yeah, our local VA hospital. That was
during the pandemic; it was hard to navigate with all the restrictions,” highlighting how external

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factors, such as pandemic restrictions, can impede access. Participant 17 mentioned challenges in
managing interactions between therapy animals: “Because I guess what happens is when two
dogs show up, and they don’t know each other, sometimes the interaction can be a bit stressful,”
indicating that managing animal interactions in specific settings was a barrier. Participant 18
reflected on the limited availability of suitable volunteer opportunities: “When I started doing the
search [to volunteer] there were three or four places only, and it was hard to find one that fit our
schedule,” suggesting that the scarcity of opportunities that fit their needs was a significant
barrier. Participant 26 added:
There are some facilities where it’s hard to get structure in place. We have two major
healthcare systems... and one of them has had a long-standing animal therapy program in
their facilities for, I don’t know, 20 years, or 25 years, or something like that. And the
other one has it sometimes, and it’s just not very coordinated.
This response emphasizes that not having structured programs in place can also be a barrier.
These remarks generally illustrate that diverse participants experienced barriers related to
logistical challenges, restrictive environments, animal management, limited opportunities, and
communication issues with facility staff.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also encountered barriers, though
their experiences differed somewhat. For instance, Participant 9 shared, “The one thing I thought
would really be fun for him [the dog] would be the library reading to children. And the only
drawback at that facility was that they just had too many already.” Participant 11 pointed out
challenges specific to certain environments: “Well, I’ll tell you, schools are really hard to work
with sometimes,” indicating that navigating the particular requirements of educational settings
posed a barrier. Participant 12 reflected on issues related to the suitability of facilities: “Two

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years ago, a brand new facility, a senior living place opened up, but they weren’t really set up for
our type of work,” highlighting how the physical setup of a facility can limit access. Participant
13 mentioned procedural barriers:
Sometimes you have to go through their rigmarole, which is fine. We volunteered at the
[organization] for like 10 years, but we had to wait a long time for them to get the
program itself. They didn’t really have too many therapy dog teams approach them to
come in. So I was among the first, so I had to kind of be the pioneer and tell them this
will be okay and it really will go great.
These comments indicate that bureaucratic hurdles can delay or prevent access. Contrary to these
experiences, Participant 20 shared their experience of not facing significant barriers: “No, not for
me. I’ve been, yeah, I’ve had more than I’ve wanted. I try to stick, there’s so many opportunities
here, but I try to stick with ones that I could get to easily,” indicating that not all nondiverse
participants experienced substantial barriers to access. These remarks suggest that nondiverse
participants encountered barriers related to facility staff communication, environmental
challenges, procedural hurdles, and the physical setup of facilities, although some participants
did not face significant barriers.
In summary, diverse and nondiverse participants alike encountered barriers to accessing
AAI programs or facilities, though the nature of these barriers varied. Diverse participants
reported logistical challenges, restrictive environments, difficulty managing therapy animals,
limited availability of opportunities, and communication issues with facility staff. Nondiverse
participants highlighted barriers related to facility staff communication, specific environmental
challenges, procedural hurdles, and the suitability of facilities. These findings suggest that
organizations should consider addressing these barriers through improved communication, more

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flexible and inclusive facility setups, and streamlined processes to ensure better access for all
volunteers.
Organizational Findings
The findings described in the sections that follow reveal that volunteer organizations
could enhance their effectiveness by improving training, support, and access as well as fostering
a culture of inclusion. Participants expressed mixed experiences with organizational training,
with diverse respondents sometimes benefiting from structured or informal training. In contrast,
many nondiverse participants found the training insufficient, relying on personal effort to feel
prepared. Both groups emphasized the need for better outreach, continuous support, and
mentoring programs. Diverse respondents notably advocated for creating supportive cohorts,
hands-on mentoring, and financial assistance to foster a sense of belonging, while nondiverse
respondents stressed the importance of recognition and appreciation through simple gestures like
thank you notes and volunteer appreciation events. To improve access for individuals from
diverse backgrounds, participants suggested that organizations enhance communication, partner
with communities, and remove financial barriers. The findings indicate that organizations should
focus on comprehensive training, ongoing support, inclusive outreach, and regular recognition to
create a more welcoming and inclusive environment for all volunteers.
Organization Question 1: Did you receive any training or support from the organization or
program where you volunteered? If so, how helpful was this training in preparing you for
your role?
Participants provided mixed feedback when asked about the training or support they
received from the organization or program where they volunteered. Some reported receiving

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helpful training, while others noted a lack of formal preparation, relying instead on personal
experience or external resources.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents shared a variety of experiences regarding
training and support. Participant 5, for example, noted that their experience with the school board
provided some preparation: “I’m gonna say yes. You know, my school board had to be on board
with everything,” indicating that they did receive support, which was critical. Participant 7
mentioned receiving support through personal connections: “So just through friends, you know,
dog training, the whole [dog] world,” suggesting that while they did not receive formal training
from the organization, they could access resources through their network. Participant 16
highlighted a comprehensive approach: “Yeah, all of them in one form or another. And
sometimes that support comes from continuing at opportunities,” showing a proactive approach
to utilizing available resources. Participant 24 noted a requirement for hospital volunteering:
“The hospital required that we have three shadowing sessions before starting,” indicating
structured training within a specific setting, which helped them prepare for their role. Participant
26 also noted requirements from the hospital where they volunteered:
We don’t get training for things like how to handle your dog or whatever kind of animal
you’re working with. But they do require training like for volunteers and most healthcare
settings, where you have to do infection control and HIPAA, and those sorts of things.
These quotes illustrate that while some diverse participants received structured or informal
training, others had to rely on self-directed learning or fulfill specific requirements to feel
prepared for their roles.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also shared mixed experiences
regarding the training and support they received. Participant 4 remarked, “No, I didn’t really get

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any training,” signaling that they did not receive formal preparation from the organization.
Participant 6 also noted a lack of support: “[The organization] did not. I’ve never brought him
anywhere else,” suggesting that they did not receive any structured training from the
organization. Participant 8 mentioned a different approach: “Yeah, they would train. You had to
train as a volunteer, but they didn’t train to do pet therapy,” indicating that while training was
provided, it was more about general training as a volunteer rather than comprehensive
preparation for the role. Participant 11 discussed gaining experience through testing: “just
through the testing process,” highlighting that their preparation came primarily from evaluating
rather than formal training. Participant 20 noted the absence of organizational support: “So, no,
no training or anything. We’ve kind of worked it through,” which reflects a common theme
among nondiverse participants of needing to supplement organizational training with personal
effort. These additional quotes suggest that nondiverse participants often found organizational
training insufficient and had to rely on personal experience or external resources to feel prepared
for their roles.
Ultimately, diverse and nondiverse participants reported varying levels of training and
support from the organizations where they volunteered. Diverse participants sometimes received
helpful training through formal or informal channels, but many had to rely on self-directed
learning or external networks. Nondiverse participants frequently reported insufficient training,
necessitating additional personal effort to feel adequately prepared. These findings underscore
the importance of providing comprehensive and accessible training programs to ensure that all
volunteers feel confident and equipped for their roles, regardless of their background or
experience.

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Organization Question 2: How do you think organizations could better support volunteers in
terms of training, preparation, and ongoing support? Would a mentoring or shadowing
program be helpful?
Participants offered a range of suggestions when asked how organizations could better
support volunteers in terms of training, preparation, and ongoing support. Key areas of focus
include the need for improved training, ongoing support, and the implementation of mentoring or
shadowing programs. Diverse participants emphasize the importance of outreach and continuous
training, while nondiverse participants highlight the value of regular meetings and personalized
support. Both groups see mentoring as a beneficial tool to enhance volunteer experiences.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse participants expressed several ideas on how organizations
could enhance volunteer support, emphasizing the importance of outreach, continuous training,
and mentoring. Participant 5 suggested that “there definitely should be some type of outreach”
and criticized the current offerings by saying, “I don’t think that any of the organizations do
enough. To get in front of at least the K-12 educational front.” This highlights the need for
organizations to build better connections with educational institutions. Participant 7 also saw
room for improvement, stating, “Yeah, I think organizations could do definitely more with
training,” especially when volunteers face challenges like a dog not passing an evaluation. They
added, “helping us come together and support each other” and “mentoring or shadowing
programs would be very helpful,” underlining the value of peer support. Participant 16
acknowledged the need for ongoing support, stating, “The training takes place prior to the
registration. The support takes place after the registration. You know, if that support isn’t
ongoing, these people don’t re register, and these people don’t continue.” This remark points to
the need for sustained support beyond initial training. Another participant, 17, expressed support

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for mentoring, stating, “a volunteer mentoring program would be very nice. And then once
you’re a volunteer... maybe just having someone with you throughout the first time and just help
you. Guide you on how to get your first places to volunteer.”
Participant 25 shared that there is a mentoring program where they volunteer, “At the
hospital, I followed someone. So I watched them. I saw what they did, and that was very
helpful,” emphasizing that a support network is helpful. Additionally, Participant 26 mentioned:
There should be training for volunteers in high-stress situations. This varies by facility. A
hospital system that’s been doing this for like 25 years, they do have a very structured
mentor program. You start in like a low-stress environment like a clinic, or maybe, and
then you maybe make your way up to like the infusion center, and then you make your
way into inpatient, and then maybe, like an ICU or emergency room. So, they have a very
structured mentored program. But not every place has a mentored program.
These remarks reveal that diverse participants generally see mentoring and continuous training as
essential for volunteer success. They believe organizations could do more to create supportive
networks and ongoing educational opportunities.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse participants also highlighted the need for
improved support and the potential benefits of mentoring programs. Participant 6 appreciated the
idea of mentoring, saying, “I would have loved that [a mentoring or shadowing program],”
indicating that such a program would have been beneficial during their volunteer experience.
Participant 8 expressed the positive impacts of routine meetings with volunteers, “I will have a
meeting regularly with all the volunteers to share what we’re doing. Let’s show you any
problems that you’re having.” This suggests a need for regular communication and support
among volunteers. Participant 13 emphasized the varying needs of volunteers, noting, “Probably

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depends on the therapy team. I’m very much of a self-starter and someone that’s got a lot of
people’s skills, I guess you would say. So I never feel like I’m, you know, left out.” This input
implies that while some volunteers may not feel the need for additional support, others could
benefit greatly from it. Another participant, 14, noted the importance of organizational support,
“the facility can provide an activities director or someone like that. Most of the mentoring just
goes on between our group or between each other. There has to be a person representing the
facility.” Participant 16 noted the role of employers in the ability to volunteer, “It helps when
employers give employees time off to volunteer. We would see more and more volunteers if that
happened.” Participant 18 highlighted the benefits of a more involved approach, sharing:
For me, I really enjoyed developing the program myself. But I do know when I’ve been
at some of the, at some of the volunteer opportunities, I’ve met other dog owners who
were struggling a little bit trying to figure out where to go, what to do, and when they get
there what they should do.
Finally, Participant 19 emphasized the need for a support system:
So there isn’t a lot of support out there in the community for becoming a pet therapy
team. And a lot of people don’t know that it exists. And if they do, they kind of fumble
on their own to find out that everybody does that and start researching.
These responses from nondiverse participants underscore the importance of personalized
support, with some volunteers needing more guidance and structure while others may require
less. However, the consensus is that mentoring or shadowing programs could provide valuable
assistance, especially for those who might otherwise feel isolated or underprepared.
In sum, diverse and nondiverse participants identified areas where organizations could
improve their volunteer support. Diverse participants emphasized the need for greater outreach

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and continuous training, with a strong preference for mentoring or shadowing programs to help
volunteers navigate challenges. Nondiverse participants echoed these sentiments, with many
suggesting that regular meetings, personalized support, and mentoring could enhance their
volunteer experience. Overall, participants from both groups believe that more robust support
systems could help volunteers feel more confident and prepared, ultimately leading to a more
effective and fulfilling experience.
Organization Question 3: How could organizations improve access to volunteering
opportunities in AAI for individuals from diverse backgrounds or circumstances?
When asked how organizations could improve access to volunteering opportunities in
AAI for individuals from diverse backgrounds or circumstances, participants shared a range of
suggestions. Both diverse and nondiverse participants emphasized the importance of outreach,
education, and removing barriers to participation.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents highlighted the need for better outreach and
awareness to improve access to volunteering opportunities. Participant 5 noted, “I just feel like
there’s not a lot of therapy teams around me. There’s not a lot of access. I don’t hear much about
it,” suggesting that more effective communication and outreach are needed to increase awareness
of opportunities. Participant 7 emphasized the importance of training:
It just comes back to training. What I think would be a wonderful thing to do is to
provide free training for people who have a dog who maybe can’t afford the training
because it’s so expensive. You know, people of diverse backgrounds don’t always have
that means... so I think it’s just education and exposure.
These remarks signaled a need for programs to better connect with and serve diverse
communities. Participant 16 discussed the extensive work required to improve access:

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It’s not that we don’t embrace diversity, but I think there’s probably some more creative
strategies, work towards reaching people of different backgrounds, whether it be
socioeconomic, whether it be racial, whether it be spiritual. I’d love to do those things. I
don’t know how. I don’t know where to look, where to go, how to reach, what platform is
going to be more widely accepted by certain groups. Maybe we need to gear those public
talks towards different organizations other than the Rotary Club, you know, that kind of
stuff. So I don’t think there’s a chapter out there that couldn’t benefit from that
information.
This response underscores the need for organizations to create welcoming environments for
diverse volunteers.
Participant 18 shared their observations about the existing barriers:
Making clear what steps are needed to do something would go a long way and basically
lowering the barrier to entry by not obscuring what’s required or making someone be
interested enough to do the research themselves. If they’re able to clearly, step one is to
get registered with an organization. Step two is then sign up using this form at our
organization, and then step three is to shadow three times. If you make it very clear, that
can go a long way. I think, you know, finances can help in the grand scheme of things;
owning a dog requires money. It takes money to actually get that dog registered as a
therapy dog. [My organization] has recently started reimbursing the actual registration fee
as long as you hit a minimum number of visitor hours. So I think reimbursing specific
costs associated with the therapy aspect could go away towards lowering barriers to entry
and just clearly conveying what it takes to go in.

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Participant 25 suggested that education could be key:
I think, just getting the word out. I actually have an article coming out in Modern Dog. I
don’t know when, but in the next few months about "Could you be a therapy team? And
kind of talking about this is how you do it. This is what you should look for in your dog,
and because I want to encourage people to do it, I’d like to see more people. So the
answer is just awareness. More articles about it, more on Facebook, more, you know
Instagram, just more. But I think it’s awareness just getting the word out that that’s
available.
These remarks suggest that diverse participants believe organizations could improve access by
enhancing outreach efforts, fostering inclusivity, and providing clear educational resources.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also yielded insights into how access
to volunteering opportunities could be improved. Participant 4 emphasized the importance of the
need for diversity:
I absolutely think it’s invaluable. That if we could get more people to have this training. I
feel like it’s super, super, super valuable... I think people would be willing to do it if they
were really easily accessible and affordable.
Participant 6 pointed out the need to get the word out:
Advertise that this exists more. I think it would help. I don’t know if it’s the organization
or like the teams could make an effort to go to diverse areas and situations where then
people are sort of aware of that even exists, you know, but that would be wonderful if, for
instance, in the English language program, it would be great to have they were Russian
children. It would have been great to have a Russian handler where they felt really
comfortable. If I had known what to suggest, except maybe spread the word.

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This response implies that increasing the availability of information about opportunities is
crucial. Participant 12 highlighted the need for outreach:
I think some of it’s the PR. I mean, if I were in charge, I’d be going to a lot of churches,
and presenting at some of the churches like, hey. We need volunteers that, you know,
how many of y’all have dogs? How many of you might be interested? Let us tell you
about the opportunities. It’s, you know, a kind of word of mouth. We need volunteers,
and we need them in these places. But I don’t think there’s any coordinated effort to
reach different, to be more diverse in particular. Working with local community centers
or schools to spread the word.
Collaboration with community organizations could help reach more diverse populations. By
extension, Participant 14 discussed the importance of language barriers:
We might have a few Hispanic people, but mostly it’s elderly white women. The hospital
has a very large number of Spanish-speaking patients. The visit was completely different
with the Spanish-speaking family because there’s nodding a lot and the parent asking the
child to translate. I don’t think the hospital does any actual recruiting at any one place.
Participant 16 pointed out the need for recruitment and role models: “There are more men than
before, which is good for role models. You have to recruit. You have to mirror where you live.
Husband and wife teams,” suggesting that organizations should actively target areas where
access to information and opportunities may be limited. Participant 19 noted the need for
diversity but did not feel it was an organizational responsibility:
Being a registered pet therapy team volunteer is a unique niche market. And not a lot of
people do it. And not a lot of people can do it, so when it comes to diversity, it’s not
necessarily an organizational responsibility. So, those who are not very stable in the

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socioeconomic world. They have to feed their families, right? I will tell you a majority of
volunteer teams are retired Caucasian women. Very few, very few men, but they are out
there. Very few African Americans and very few Latinos.
Last, Participant 20 recommended targeted outreach:
I think a lot of it is just lack of awareness. We do a lot of events at local open houses and
other places to try and get information out there. I think you could have some
scholarships for the workshops, and then, you know, just increasing awareness across
different communities. For people who might not normally think about this. In a sense,
you’re an ambassador a lot of times when you go out. You’re not just a volunteer, but an
ambassador for the program and pet therapy in general.
This response reveals that providing financial support could make volunteering more accessible
for those who face economic challenges. Clearly, nondiverse participants believe organizations
could improve access by increasing information availability, partnering with local communities,
and offering financial support and flexibility in requirements.
In conclusion, diverse and nondiverse participants offered valuable insights into how
organizations could improve access to volunteering opportunities in AAI for individuals from
diverse backgrounds or circumstances. Diverse participants emphasized the need for better
outreach, inclusivity, and educational resources, while nondiverse participants highlighted the
importance of increasing information availability, community partnerships, and financial
support. These findings suggest that organizations should consider implementing these strategies
to create more accessible and inviting volunteering opportunities for all individuals, regardless of
their background or circumstances.

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Organization Question 4: In your opinion, what steps could organizations take to foster a
culture of inclusion and a welcoming environment for volunteers?
Participants provided various suggestions when asked about the steps organizations could
take to foster a culture of inclusion and create a welcoming environment for volunteers. Both
diverse and nondiverse participants emphasized the importance of mentoring, recognition, and
creating supportive environments.
Diverse Respondents. Diverse respondents focused on the need for more inclusive
practices and support systems. For example, Participant 7 highlighted the lack of representation
and its impact:
You know, there’s that lack of a cohort. I did feel isolated a lot. Once the training classes
end, like what do we do? So, if the volunteer organization could provide that process
from beginning to end. And then with the additional support after you’ve passed. Then
it’s like a full circle, and then you have a community. And then that would foster
inclusion of, like, for any race background or whatever, you know, it’s just that. It just
didn’t feel like a community.
This response communicates that organizations could build cohorts to prioritize inclusion.
Participant 12 suggested a more hands-on approach to inclusion: “Have someone either walk
with them, shadow them, or just be available,” emphasizing the importance of support systems
like mentoring or shadowing to help new volunteers feel welcome. Participant 16 pointed out the
significance of financial support in making volunteers feel that financing costs are not a barrier:
They reimburse us our costs for producing a therapy team. We went through the
registration process, and by the time we were done, I had spent almost $500. And as soon

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as we were successfully registered and accepted by the hospital, I got a check. So
finances.
Participant 18 mentioned that their organization made them feel included by clearly identifying
the volunteers with badges, the same as they do staff: “They identify me by the badge as a
member of that organization even as a volunteer. I think it is very great for feeling like I belong
there and feel like I’m a natural person.” They emphasized that an organization’s volunteers
should “match the diversity... the diversity of their staff and patients.” Participant 25 mentioned
the need for ongoing support and recognition: “They send out emails, and that is helpful and
supportive. And they send out articles and their newsletter. So I think just continuing to do that
really helps,” expressing how valuable continuous engagement and recognition are to fostering a
welcoming environment. Participant 26 recognized the challenge of a lack of resources, “It takes
a lot of resources to provide good access and support mechanisms. And there’s, you know,
money is a challenge.”
The interview findings reveal that diverse respondents strongly advocate for enhanced
inclusive practices and support systems in volunteer organizations. Key areas identified include
the need for creating supportive cohorts to prevent isolation, offering hands-on mentoring and
shadowing, providing financial assistance to reduce participation barriers, and ensuring visible
identification to foster a sense of belonging. Continuous engagement and recognition were also
cited as essential to maintaining a welcoming environment, though resource limitations were
acknowledged as a significant challenge.
Nondiverse Respondents. Nondiverse respondents also provided insights into fostering a
culture of inclusion. Participant 11 discussed the impact of recognition: “They do thank you
notes; they have a volunteer appreciation day,” indicating that simple gestures of appreciation

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can make volunteers feel valued and included. Participant 14 expressed a similar sentiment: “It’s
a very positive environment, and they let us know all the time that we’re so valuable, and we
provide so much value to their patients. They thank us all the time.” Participant 19 also shared
that simple gestures of appreciation make a difference, stating, “They always make a fuss when
we walk in,” and they were “graciously welcomed anywhere.” Participant 16 had had a similar
experience: “Like as soon as we walk in. The whole staff is just so happy that we’re there,”
suggesting that organizations should focus on recognition during the volunteer experience.
Likewise, Participant 15 emphasized the importance of meeting the needs of the volunteers,
“volunteer recognition once a year and this way the volunteers can visit with one another. They
love meeting each other. What is the currency for volunteers? Appreciation and recognition,”
suggesting that meeting the needs of the volunteers enhances the sense of inclusion.
The findings from nondiverse respondents elucidated the importance of recognition and
appreciation in fostering a culture of inclusion. Participants emphasized that simple gestures,
such as thank you notes, volunteer appreciation events, and warm welcomes, make volunteers
feel valued and included. They noted that creating a positive environment where volunteers are
regularly acknowledged for their contributions enhances their sense of belonging. Additionally,
meeting the social needs of volunteers, such as providing opportunities for them to connect with
each other, was identified as key to fostering inclusion and ensuring volunteers feel appreciated.
In summary, the findings reveal that diverse and nondiverse respondents emphasize the
importance of inclusive practices in volunteer organizations, though their focuses differ. Diverse
respondents strongly advocate for creating supportive cohorts, providing hands-on mentoring,
financial assistance, and visible identification to foster a sense of belonging and prevent
isolation. Continuous engagement and recognition were also highlighted as essential, though

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resource limitations were recognized as challenging. On the other hand, nondiverse respondents
emphasized the role of recognition and appreciation in fostering inclusion. They noted that
simple gestures like thank you notes, volunteer appreciation events, and warm welcomes make
volunteers feel valued and included. Fostering a positive environment in which volunteers are
regularly acknowledged for their contributions and meeting their social needs through
opportunities to connect with others were cited as key strategies for enhancing the sense of
inclusion.
Summary
This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting
diversity among volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI). It revealed that both diverse
and nondiverse participants often become aware of AAI programs through personal connections
and experiences. Diverse participants typically gained knowledge about AAI through
professional settings or direct recommendations from individuals in their networks, such as
veterinarians or community officers. In contrast, nondiverse participants frequently learned about
AAI through structured programs, community visits, and educational institutions. Despite these
different pathways, a common theme is the significant role of personal connections in raising
awareness about AAI opportunities. Further, both groups encountered misconceptions about
AAI, particularly confusion between therapy animals and service animals or emotional support
animals. These misconceptions influence the volunteering experience and underscore the need
for better public education about the specific roles and expectations of AAI.
The motivation to volunteer in AAI is driven by a love for animals and a deep desire to
help others, shared by both diverse and nondiverse participants. Diverse volunteers often
emphasized the transformative impact of their pets and their passion for making a difference,

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seeing AAI as a way to share the joy and comfort their animals bring into their lives. Nondiverse
participants found personal fulfillment in volunteering, often influenced by their pets’ friendly
nature and the positive impact their animals had on others. Despite these shared motivations, the
study highlights that diverse participants frequently encountered systemic barriers, such as cost,
time constraints, and geographical limitations, which at times hindered their participation in
AAI. In contrast, nondiverse participants typically faced more personal or procedural challenges.
The study also looked at how organizational factors influence the participation of diverse
volunteers in AAI. It identified that organizational structures and cultures often do not
adequately support or encourage diversity among volunteers, which manifests in limited
recruitment efforts targeting diverse groups and insufficient training or resources to address the
unique needs and challenges these groups may face. The study suggests that fostering an
inclusive and supportive organizational environment is crucial for attracting and retaining a more
diverse volunteer base. By addressing these organizational gaps, AAI programs can better reflect
the diverse populations they aim to serve, ultimately leading to more effective and culturally
sensitive interventions.
These interviews revealed no significant differences between the diverse and nondiverse
respondents in terms of their motivations, experiences, or understanding of AAI. Both groups
were driven by a passion for animals and a desire to help others, and both had encountered
similar misconceptions about AAI that they had to address in their volunteering experiences.
Participants, regardless of their backgrounds, encountered misconceptions primarily related to
the roles of therapy animals, the expectations of the programs, and the public’s understanding of
AAI’s purpose. These misconceptions sometimes posed challenges in their volunteering work
but also provided opportunities for public education and advocacy.

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Overall, the chapter highlights that while diverse and nondiverse respondents might have
different pathways to discovering AAI, their motivations and experiences in the field are
remarkably similar. This finding suggests that efforts to increase diversity in AAI volunteering
should focus on addressing systemic barriers rather than differences in knowledge or motivation
between diverse and nondiverse groups.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This final chapter examines the findings from the research in the context of the study’s
objectives and provides recommendations for addressing the gaps in diversity among animalassisted interventions (AAI) volunteers. The chapter begins with a discussion of the key findings
from the data analysis, exploring how these findings align with the theoretical framework and the
existing literature. Based on these findings, specific recommendations are made to improve
knowledge, volunteer recruitment and retention, and to foster diversity and cultural competence
within AAI programs. This chapter also addresses the limitations of the study and proposes
directions for future research.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of this study align closely with the literature reviewed and the conceptual
framework guiding this research, providing meaningful insights into the problem of practice;
namely, the lack of diversity in AAI. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework, which
focuses on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences necessary to achieve goals,
served as the foundation for understanding the barriers to diversity in AAI. This section
addresses how the findings connect to the extant literature and the conceptual framework, and
how they inform the identified problem of practice.
The literature reviewed in Chapter 2 emphasized the importance of diversity in
volunteerism, particularly in fields like AAI, where cultural competence and inclusivity are
critical for delivering effective services. Studies have shown that diverse volunteer groups can
offer unique perspectives, improve cultural sensitivity, and enhance the overall effectiveness of
interventions (Trevathan-Minnis & Shapiro, 2021). The findings of this study corroborate these
claims, demonstrating that both diverse and nondiverse volunteers share a deep commitment to

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the goals of AAI, and that their motivations and experiences are fundamentally aligned,
regardless of their backgrounds.
The findings revealed that both diverse and nondiverse participants encountered similar
misconceptions, which supports assertions in the scholarship that public education is essential in
promoting a better understanding of AAI. These findings suggest that addressing these
misconceptions could be a key strategy in reducing barriers to diversity in volunteering.
The conceptual framework, based on the Clark and Estes (2008) model, posits that
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors are crucial in influencing behavior and
outcomes in organizational settings. The findings of this study align well with this framework.
Participants’ knowledge of AAI, largely gained through personal connections and direct
experiences, played a significant role in their decision to volunteer. These data underscore the
importance of targeted outreach and education in increasing awareness and participation among
diverse groups, as highlighted by the framework. Motivation was another key factor examined in
this study. The findings revealed that both diverse and nondiverse volunteers are motivated by
similar factors: a love for animals, a deep desire to help others, and a sense of personal
fulfillment. These insights suggest that the motivational barriers to volunteering in AAI are not
significantly different between diverse and nondiverse groups, thus corresponding with the
conceptual framework’s emphasis on motivation as a driver of behavior.
Organizational influences, such as the support and resources provided by AAI
organizations, were also explored. Although the findings pointed to systemic barriers such as
cost and time constraints, the overall organizational support for volunteers was perceived
positively by participants. This information supports the framework’s assertion that
organizational factors can either facilitate or hinder diversity efforts.

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Findings of this study directly address the problem of practice by highlighting the need
for more systemic efforts to increase diversity in AAI. While the motivations and experiences of
diverse and nondiverse volunteers reveal parallels, the obstacles to participation, particularly
those related to knowledge and organizational factors, need addressing to create a more inclusive
volunteer base. The study illuminates that improving public understanding of AAI, enhancing
outreach efforts, and addressing systemic barriers could significantly impact the diversity of
volunteers in AAI programs.
By aligning the findings with both the literature and the conceptual framework, this study
contributes to a deeper understanding of the factors influencing diversity in AAI. It also provides
practical recommendations for organizations to enhance their diversity efforts, thereby
addressing the persistent problem of a lack of racial and ethnic diversity among AAI volunteers.
Recommendations for Practice
Based on the findings of this study and their support for the extant literature and
conceptual framework, several practical recommendations can be made to enhance diversity in
AAI. These recommendations seek to address the systemic barriers identified in the study, such
as lack of awareness, misconceptions about therapy animals, and organizational challenges that
may hinder the recruitment and retention of diverse volunteers. By implementing these
recommendations, AAI organizations can create a more inclusive environment that not only
reflects the diversity of the populations they serve but also enhances the overall effectiveness of
their programs. The recommendations in the sections that follow are organized according to the
Clark and Estes (2008) framework of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.

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Knowledge Recommendations
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that gaps in procedural knowledge can be solved through
training, which includes demonstrations, practice, and the opportunity for feedback. However,
when individuals already know how to perform a task, the knowledge gap can be addressed by
providing information that the individual can use to take action when motivated. The findings
show that the knowledge challenges fall into this latter category and are addressed as such.
Knowledge Recommendation 1: Enhance Outreach and Education Efforts
The study found that both diverse and nondiverse volunteers learned about AAI through
personal connections or direct experiences. However, the lack of diversity among volunteers
suggests that these opportunities are not reaching a broad enough audience. By expanding
outreach efforts to include communities that are underrepresented in AAI, organizations can
increase awareness and participation among diverse groups.
The literature emphasizes the importance of targeted outreach in promoting diversity and
inclusivity in volunteerism. Effective outreach can demystify the roles and responsibilities of
volunteers, making AAI more accessible to a wider range of individuals (Trevathan-Minnis &
Shapiro, 2021). This recommendation corresponds with the Clark and Estes (2008) framework
by addressing the knowledge gap within underrepresented communities. By providing targeted
education and outreach, organizations can close this gap and motivate a more diverse group of
individuals to participate in AAI.
AAI organizations should enhance their outreach and education efforts to raise awareness
about volunteer opportunities, particularly targeting underrepresented groups. To begin,
organizations should identify communities that are underrepresented in their current volunteer
base by using demographic data and community profiles. This step will help pinpoint specific

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areas where outreach efforts should be concentrated. Once these communities are identified,
tailored outreach materials should be developed that resonate with the target audiences. These
materials, which could include brochures, flyers, videos, and social media posts, should highlight
the benefits of volunteering in AAI, the impact on the community, and the personal fulfillment
that comes from working with therapy animals. These materials should be culturally sensitive,
accessible, and available in multiple languages, if necessary.
To effectively reach these communities, AAI organizations should partner with local
community organizations, churches, schools, and cultural centers with strong ties to the target
populations. Collaborating with these partners to host informational sessions or workshops can
provide firsthand experiences, such as meeting therapy animals, which can help demystify the
volunteering process and generate interest. In addition to in-person efforts, leveraging social
media and digital platforms is crucial for reaching younger audiences and tech-savvy individuals.
Targeted social media campaigns, featuring stories of diverse volunteers and their experiences,
can be particularly effective. Creating a dedicated landing page on the organization’s website,
optimized for search engines, will further support these digital outreach efforts.
Organizing outreach events in targeted locations, such as community centers, libraries, or
during popular community gatherings, is another effective strategy. These events should be
accessible, family-friendly, and held at convenient times for the target communities. Engaging
existing volunteers, especially those from underrepresented groups, as ambassadors for outreach
efforts is also potentially powerful. These ambassadors can share personal stories and
experiences, acting as mentors for new recruits and providing support during the onboarding
process. Finally, monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of these outreach efforts is
essential. By tracking metrics such as the number of inquiries received, new volunteer sign-ups,

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and the demographic data of new volunteers, organizations can assess the impact of their
initiatives. Follow-up surveys or focus groups with new volunteers can provide valuable
feedback to refine and improve future outreach strategies. By implementing these steps, AAI
organizations can create a more inclusive and diverse volunteer base, ensuring that their
programs reflect the communities they serve and are enriched by a wide range of perspectives
and experiences.
Knowledge Recommendation 2: Implement Ongoing Public Education Campaigns
AAI organizations should implement ongoing public education campaigns to address
misconceptions about therapy animals and the role of volunteers in AAI. The study revealed that
both diverse and nondiverse participants encountered misconceptions about therapy animals and
the nature of their work, which can hinder public understanding and acceptance of AAI.
Addressing these misconceptions through public education is essential for improving volunteer
recruitment and retention.
The literature supports public education campaigns as an effective strategy for reducing
misconceptions and increasing public awareness (Kim et al., 2011). Educating the public about
the distinct roles of therapy animals, as opposed to service animals, can clarify expectations and
encourage more individuals to consider volunteering. The confusion surrounding the definitions
and roles of various types of assistance animals—such as therapy dogs, service dogs, and
emotional support animals—can lead to misconceptions that may deter potential volunteers from
engaging with therapy animal programs (Parenti et al., 2013; Schoenfeld-Tacher et al., 2017).
Public education initiatives that clearly delineate these roles can elucidate the functions of
therapy animals, fostering a more informed public that is more likely to participate in volunteer
opportunities.

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Many people may not realize the positive impact that therapy animals can have on mental
health and well-being, both for the individuals they assist and for the volunteers themselves
(Glenk, 2017). By highlighting the rewarding experiences of volunteering alongside therapy
animals, educational efforts can inspire more individuals to engage in these programs, thereby
increasing the pool of volunteers available (d’Ingeo et al., 2022; Vroman & Collins, 2015) to
support animal-assisted interventions.
Research indicates that public perceptions of therapy animals are often confused due to
the overlapping terminology used in the field (Schoenfeld-Tacher et al., 2017). This
recommendation aligns with the knowledge influences components of the Clark and Estes (2008)
framework. Organizations can reduce knowledge gaps by educating the public and creating a
more informed and supportive environment for AAI volunteers.
AAI organizations should implement ongoing public education campaigns to address
misconceptions about therapy animals and clarify the roles of volunteers in AAI. Organizations
should strategically design campaigns to educate the public on the differences among therapy
animals, service animals, and emotional support animals, as well as volunteers’ specific roles in
AAI. Organizations should develop clear, accessible educational materials that dispel common
myths and explain therapy animals’ distinct responsibilities and benefits. These materials can
include brochures, infographics, videos, and blog posts that can be distributed both in person and
online. These materials must be culturally sensitive and available in multiple languages to reach
a broad and diverse audience.
AAI organizations can also leverage digital platforms to extend their educational
outreach. Creating dedicated social media campaigns that highlight the work of therapy animals
and volunteers featuring real-life stories and testimonials can humanize the program and attract

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public interest. Additionally, partnerships with local media outlets, hospitals, schools, and
community centers can broaden the reach of these campaigns. Hosting regular informational
events, such as webinars, workshops, or open houses where the public can interact with therapy
animals and volunteers, will further enhance public understanding. These events could be offered
both in person and online, providing a hands-on experience and making information accessible to
people who cannot attend in person.
Ensuring the effectiveness of these campaigns requires continuous evaluation.
Organizations should track key metrics such as website traffic, social media engagement,
inquiries about volunteering, and volunteer sign-ups to measure the impact of their public
education efforts. Additionally, gathering feedback from volunteers and the general public
through surveys or focus groups can yield insights into how well educational messages are being
received and understood, thereby helping refine future campaigns. By implementing ongoing
public education campaigns, AAI organizations can improve public awareness, dispel
misconceptions, and encourage broader participation. These efforts will ultimately create a more
informed and supportive community, making recruiting and retaining diverse volunteers easier
and ensuring that therapy animals are utilized most effectively.
Motivation Recommendations
Clark and Estes (2008) provided an in-depth examination of motivation, particularly
within performance improvement. Motivation is a key determinant of individuals’ engagement
and persistence in learning and work-related tasks. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation must
be leveraged to create a productive learning environment. Intrinsic motivation, an individual’s
internal desire to learn or achieve, is often more sustainable and effective in driving long-term
engagement than extrinsic motivation, which is driven by external rewards or pressures. Learners

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who find personal meaning and relevance in their tasks are more likely to invest deeply in their
efforts and persist through challenges (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
Motivation can be influenced by several factors. The first is expectancy, or the belief that
effort will lead to the desired performance. The second is value, or the perceived importance or
value of the outcome of the performance (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Last, self-efficacy is the
confidence in one’s ability to perform the task successfully (Bandura, 2006).
Clark and Estes (2008) advocated for a comprehensive approach to performance
improvement, whereby motivational interventions are tailored to address specific motivational
barriers. They suggested that solutions consider how to enhance expectancy, increase the
perceived value of the task, and build self-efficacy to effectively motivate individuals and
improve their performance.
Motivation Recommendation 1: Develop Culturally Competent Training Programs to
Enhance Intrinsic Motivation
To enhance intrinsic motivation, AAI organizations should design training programs that
connect volunteers to the deeper, personal impact of their work. Research shows that intrinsic
motivation is reinforced when individuals perceive their efforts as meaningful and aligned with
their values (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Training should emphasize empathy, cultural understanding,
and the emotional rewards of making a difference in the lives of diverse communities.
Incorporating real-life stories and testimonials can help volunteers see the societal value of
culturally competent interventions, making their roles more personally fulfilling (Clary et al.,
1998). Recognizing the efforts of volunteers and providing feedback that connects their
contributions to positive community outcomes will further motivate them to stay engaged.

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AAI organizations should incorporate personal testimonials from individuals served by
AAI to show the emotional and societal impact of cultural competence. Organizations can create
training modules highlighting empathy and the broader significance of inclusivity in volunteer
roles, focusing on the personal satisfaction to be gained from helping others. Last, organizations
can develop recognition programs that regularly celebrate the contributions volunteers make and
reinforcing their sense of purpose and connection to the community they serve.
Motivation Recommendation 2: Develop Culturally Competent Training Programs to Foster
Expectancy-Value
Expectancy-value theory suggests that individuals are motivated when they believe they
can succeed and when they value the outcomes of their efforts (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). AAI
organizations should provide clear, structured training with explicit learning objectives to
increase success and perceived value. Interactive modules, scenario-based learning, and roleplaying can help volunteers practice with real-world cultural experiences, making them feel more
competent and prepared. Furthermore, organizations should communicate the importance of
cultural competence in achieving better outcomes for therapy recipients, helping volunteers
understand how their efforts directly impact both the individuals they serve and the broader
community (Simonato et al., 2020). By linking cultural competence to success in therapy
outcomes, volunteers are more likely to see high value in their roles, enhancing their motivation.
AAI organizations should implement interactive and scenario-based learning in training
programs, allowing volunteers to practice real-world cultural interactions with guidance from
trainers. Organizations should set clear, measurable training goals so volunteers can track their
progress and gain insight into any corrections that need to be made and the steps to success. Last,
organizations that communicate the positive impact of cultural competence on therapy outcomes

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help volunteers feel and value the tangible difference their work makes in the lives of therapy
recipients.
Motivation Recommendation: Develop Culturally Competent Training Programs to Build
Confidence and Self-Efficacy
Building confidence and self-efficacy is essential for volunteers to feel capable of
navigating cross-cultural interactions. According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is developed
through mastering experiences. Culturally competent training programs should incorporate
hands-on learning, such as simulations and role-playing, where volunteers have an opportunity to
practice with their animals in a safe environment. Ongoing mentorship and peer support groups
foster confidence by allowing volunteers to discuss their experiences and receive feedback
(Gottlieb & Gillespie, 2010). Regular evaluations and constructive feedback help volunteers
improve their skills, further strengthening their self-efficacy. Providing opportunities for
volunteers to advance to leadership roles within the organization, where they can mentor others,
reinforces their confidence (Bandura, 1997).
AAI organizations can implement peer-led training sessions in which experienced
volunteers lead smaller groups of new volunteers. This process allows new volunteers to learn
directly from those who have already navigated challenges in real-world settings. Seeing peers
who have succeeded fosters self-efficacy, as volunteers learn how others have navigated
complex situations and build confidence that they can do the same. Offering self-paced learning
resources, such as online modules or recorded training videos, allows volunteers to revisit
concepts and practice cultural competence skills on their schedule. This method caters to
different learning styles and paces, helping volunteers build confidence by allowing them to
master the material comfortably.

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Organization Recommendations
Clark and Estes (2008) explored organizations as dynamic systems that continuously
evolve through the interactions of their members and the knowledge they generate.
Organizations are not static structures. They play a critical role in creating the environment that
supports or hinders individual and group performance. Organizations can influence performance
in many ways. First, organizational culture is important in shaping the behaviors and attitudes of
employees. A positive culture that aligns with the organization’s goals can foster motivation,
collaboration, and continuous learning—all of which are crucial for improving performance
(Howard-Grenville et al., 2020). Organizations that provide the necessary resources and support
systems—such as facilitating access to information, technology, management, and support—
empower people to apply their knowledge and skills effectively. Organizations need to establish
policies and procedures that facilitate rather than hinder performance; poorly designed or overly
bureaucratic processes create barriers to effective performance.
Leadership is a critical factor in organizational performance; leaders are responsible for
setting clear goals, providing feedback, and creating an environment in which members feel
valued and motivated to perform at their best (Zaidi & Bellak, 2019). Last, managing change
effectively within organizations is of critical importance. For initiatives to succeed, organizations
must be adaptable to the external environment and willing to modify internal processes and
behaviors. Organizations must continually adjust to internal and external pressures to survive,
thrive, and succeed. Organizations are complex systems that require the careful alignment of
various elements—such as culture, leadership, resources, and policies—to support and sustain
high performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).

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Organizational Recommendation 1: Address Systemic Barriers to Volunteering
AAI organizations should identify and address systemic barriers preventing diverse
individuals from volunteering, such as time constraints, financial costs, and geographical
limitations. The findings revealed that such systemic barriers were significant factors that could
discourage potential volunteers from diverse backgrounds. Addressing these barriers is crucial
for creating a more inclusive volunteer environment. The literature suggests that removing
barriers to participation is essential for increasing diversity in volunteerism. Research indicates
that structural barriers, such as transportation, rigid scheduling, and financial constraints,
significantly hinder individuals from engaging in volunteer activities (Hyde & Knowles, 2013;
Lu et al., 2020). Providing stipends, transportation assistance, or flexible volunteering hours, for
example, can enhance accessibility, encouraging more participants to volunteer (Aslan &
Tuncay, 2023; Brudney et al., 2019).
To begin, organizations should thoroughly assess the common barriers potential
volunteers face, particularly those from underrepresented groups. Assessments could involve
surveys, focus groups, or interviews with current and prospective volunteers to gather insights
into their challenges. Once these barriers are identified, organizations can develop targeted
strategies to mitigate them.
Studies have shown that organizations that implement supportive measures effectively
increase participation rates among underrepresented groups (Paat, 2021). These measures can
alleviate financial burdens and demonstrate a commitment to inclusivity, fostering a sense of
belonging and encouraging individuals to volunteer (Aslan & Tuncay, 2023). Offering flexible
volunteering hours, thereby accommodating individuals with fluctuating schedules (such as
caregivers or working individuals) or those living in remote areas, can broaden the volunteer

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base (Brudney et al., 2019). Individuals who have access to necessary resources are more likely
to participate in volunteer activities (Dury et al., 2014). This finding highlights the need for
organizations to actively consider and implement strategies that reduce barriers to participation,
thereby promoting a more diverse and inclusive volunteer workforce.
Efforts to reduce financial and logistical barriers have been shown to increase volunteer
participation among diverse groups (Wilson et al., 2022). This recommendation is closely
aligned with the organizational influence component of the Clark and Estes (2008) framework.
For example, organizations can offer reimbursement for training expenses and the costs of
registering and insuring the therapy animals, reducing the financial burden of volunteering and
making it more accessible to individuals from lower socioeconomic brackets. Organizations
could establish partnerships with local businesses or community groups to support these efforts
or partner with local transportation services to offer discounted or free rides to make
participating easier for individuals without personal transportation or providing mileage
reimbursement to help offset transportation costs. Similarly, organizations could collaborate with
childcare providers to offer support during volunteer hours, helping to address one of the
common challenges parents who wish to volunteer may face.
AAI organizations must continuously evaluate the effectiveness of these strategies.
Organizations can assess whether the implemented changes reduce barriers and increase
diversity by tracking volunteer participation rates, demographic data, and volunteer feedback.
Regularly reviewing and adjusting these strategies based on volunteer feedback will ensure they
remain relevant and effective. Through these initiatives, AAI organizations can create a more
inclusive volunteer environment that supports the participation of individuals from all

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backgrounds, ultimately leading to a more diverse and representative volunteer base that
enhances the effectiveness of their programs.
Organizational Recommendation 2: Foster a Supportive and Inclusive Organizational Culture
AAI organizations should actively foster a supportive and inclusive organizational culture
that values diversity and promotes the retention of diverse volunteers. The study findings
indicate that while organizational support was generally perceived positively, more deliberate
efforts are needed to create an inclusive environment that supports the retention of diverse
volunteers. A supportive organizational culture is essential to sustaining volunteer engagement
and satisfaction.
Research highlights the critical role of organizational culture in promoting diversity and
inclusion. Organizations prioritizing inclusivity improve recruitment efforts and create
environments where volunteers feel recognized and appreciated (Alrashdi & Al Thobaity, 2024;
Farny et al., 2018). This sense of belonging is crucial, as it directly influences volunteers’
commitment to the organization and their likelihood of staying involved over time (Farny et al.,
2018). Volunteer programs require effective recruitment strategies and retention efforts that
recognize and celebrate the contributions of volunteers (Alrashdi & Al Thobaity, 2024). This
recognition can mean acknowledging volunteer efforts and achievements. Emotional
connectivity in volunteer retention is also critical, suggesting that forging strong interpersonal
relationships within the volunteer community can significantly enhance member commitment
(Farny et al., 2018).
Creating specialized forums and opportunities for social interaction can promote a sense
of belonging, particularly among adults who may seek social connections through volunteer
activities (Mukherjee, 2010). A sense of belonging is critical for engagement in social and civic

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activities (Mukherjee, 2010). This recommendation is tied to the organizational influences aspect
of the Clark and Estes (2008) framework. By cultivating an inclusive culture, organizations can
address the motivational and organizational gaps that may hinder diverse individuals from
continuing their involvement in AAI.
Organizational leadership must demonstrate a clear commitment to diversity and
inclusion through policies and practices. This effort might involve developing a diversity
statement communicating the organization’s values and goals, which should be reflected in
volunteer recruitment, training, and operations. Leadership should also provide regular diversity
and inclusion training to staff and volunteers, ensuring that everyone understands the importance
of creating an inclusive environment and is equipped to contribute to this goal.
Creating a culture of inclusivity means actively supporting volunteers from all
backgrounds. This aim can be met by establishing mentorship programs where experienced
volunteers, particularly those from diverse backgrounds, are paired with new recruits to offer
guidance and support. Additionally, creating spaces for open dialogue, such as regular diversity
forums or feedback sessions, can allow volunteers to share their experiences and suggest
improvements in the organization’s practices. Ensuring that these forums are safe, respectful, and
productive is essential to fostering a sense of belonging among volunteers.
Another critical aspect of building an inclusive culture is recognizing and celebrating
diversity within the organization. Organizing volunteer appreciation events that honor the
contributions of volunteers from underrepresented groups can strengthen the sense of
community. These initiatives create an atmosphere in which all volunteers feel valued and
supported.

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Regular evaluation of the organizational culture is crucial for ensuring its inclusivity.
This can involve conducting anonymous surveys to gather volunteer feedback about their
experiences and using these data to identify areas for improvement. Organizations should also
establish clear policies for addressing any issues related to discrimination or exclusion, ensuring
that volunteers feel safe and supported in reporting concerns.
By fostering a supportive and inclusive organizational culture, AAI organizations can
keep a diverse volunteer base and ensure that all volunteers feel valued, respected, and
empowered to contribute. This inclusive culture will enhance volunteer satisfaction and improve
the overall effectiveness of AAI programs by reflecting the diversity of the communities they
serve.
Implementation and Evaluation
The recommendations outlined in this chapter are designed to address critical issues
related to the lack of diversity in AAI volunteers. Implementing these recommendations requires
a structured approach to systematically embed the changes into an organization’s operations,
culture, and volunteer management practices. This section outlines a detailed plan for
implementing the proposed changes and provides a framework for evaluating their success. A
well-executed implementation and evaluation plan supports efforts to meet diversity and
inclusivity goals and enhances the effectiveness of AAI programs, benefiting both volunteers and
the communities they serve.
Implementation Strategy
The implementation strategy will focus on implementing the recommendations through a
structured and phased approach (Patton, 2017). The primary goal of this implementation is to

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increase the diversity of volunteers in AAI programs. Achieving these goals requires clear,
measurable objectives, careful planning, and the allocation of appropriate resources.
Key strategies include recruiting a more diverse volunteer base by targeting
underrepresented communities, particularly individuals from different racial, ethnic, and cultural
backgrounds. Other methods involve implementing diversity and cultural competence training
for current volunteers and staff, equipping them with the knowledge to provide culturally
sensitive services. Last, the organization should foster an inclusive environment in which diverse
volunteers feel welcome, supported, and valued. These objectives align with the broader goal of
creating an AAI program that better reflects the community it serves.
The implementation will take place in three distinct phases. Phase one will set the
foundation through planning and preparation, which includes conducting an organizational
assessment to understand the current state of diversity within the volunteer base and identifying
any resource gaps. A thorough needs analysis will determine the required training and
recruitment materials. During this phase, key stakeholders, such as organizational leadership,
volunteer coordinators, and diversity advocates, will be identified and involved in planning the
rollout (Shulha et al., 2016). The organization will need to create a clear communication plan to
apprise all stakeholders of the upcoming changes and their roles in the process. This phase will
also involve creating partnerships with external organizations, such as community centers or
diversity-focused nonprofits, to support recruitment efforts.
Phase two of the implementation will introduce training and development. The
organization will prepare current and incoming volunteers to embrace change in this phase. The
organization will also develop a comprehensive training program focusing on diversity, equity,
and inclusion (DEI) principles, cultural competence, and unconscious bias. This training will be

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offered to all current volunteers and staff and will be incorporated into the onboarding process
for new volunteers. The training will use a mix of in-person workshops, online modules, and
interactive activities to ensure that participants understand and can apply these concepts in their
volunteer work. In addition, the organization will launch recruitment efforts, targeting specific
underrepresented groups through outreach campaigns, partnerships, and online platforms. These
efforts may include developing culturally tailored marketing materials that resonate with diverse
communities.
Phase three will shift to execution and rollout. This phase marks the full-scale
implementation of the strategies. The organization will implement recruitment campaigns and
roll out diversity training across all levels of the organization. The organization will launch a
pilot program to test the effectiveness of these strategies in a small, controlled setting before full
deployment. Organizations will establish benchmarks for success during this phase, such as the
number of diverse volunteers recruited, the completion rates of training programs, and the
feedback from both volunteers and AAI recipients. Adjustments will be made based on input
from the pilot phase, and any lessons learned will inform the broader rollout.
Successful implementation will depend on the availability of both internal and external
resources. Internally, staff time and ability will be critical, particularly for developing training
materials, facilitating workshops, and managing new recruitment efforts. The organization will
need to dedicate financial resources to fund the creation of marketing materials, pay for external
trainers or consultants, and support outreach efforts in diverse communities. Technology
resources will also be essential, especially for online training platforms and data tracking systems
to monitor progress.

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External resources will include partnerships with community organizations and advocacy
groups that can promote AAI volunteer opportunities to diverse populations. These partnerships
will provide valuable access to potential volunteers. Partnerships also build trust within
underrepresented communities.
Engaging stakeholders is crucial to the success of the implementation plan. Internally,
organizational leaders must champion the initiative and provide visible support to encourage
participation. Current volunteers and staff should be involved through regular updates and
opportunities to provide feedback. External stakeholders, such as community leaders, advocacy
groups, and diversity-focused organizations, will be critical partners in reaching new volunteers
and ensuring that the recruitment efforts are culturally relevant and effective. Throughout the
implementation process, maintaining open lines of communication with all stakeholders will be
essential to fostering buy-in and ensuring the program’s success. Regular meetings, progress
updates, and opportunities for feedback will help keep everyone engaged and invested in the
initiative.
Evaluation Plan
A robust evaluation plan is essential to assessing the effectiveness of the diversity and
inclusion strategies implemented in the AAI programs. Drawing from Patton’s (2017) principles
of embedding evaluative thinking into organizational culture, Kirkpatrick’s (1998) Four-Level
Training Evaluation Model, and the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model, this evaluation
plan provides both immediate feedback on training and long-term insights into organizational
impact. By addressing KMO factors (Clark & Estes, 2008), this plan ensures that the necessary
resources and structures are in place for the program’s success, fostering a dynamic learning
environment that supports ongoing improvement in diversity recruitment, training, and volunteer

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retention. The evaluation metrics will include a mix of key performance indicators (KPIs),
evaluated through both short-term and long-term assessments. Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level
Evaluation Model and the Clark and Estes KMO model will yield insights into how the
organization performs at multiple levels. At level 1, Reaction (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016),
participants’ immediate reactions to the diversity training and recruitment initiatives will be
evaluated through post-training surveys. This level helps determine whether participants were
engaged and motivated by the program. Short-term metrics will include satisfaction rates,
perceived relevance of the training materials, and the program’s ability to address participants’
motivational factors.
At level 2, Learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), the focus will be on assessing
how well participants have acquired knowledge and skills from the diversity training. This stage
aligns closely with Clark and Estes’ emphasis on addressing knowledge gaps within
organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Pre- and post-training assessments will be used to measure
the participants’ retention and understanding of cultural competence concepts. The key metrics at
this level will be increased scores on post-training assessments and reported confidence in
applying cultural competence concepts in practice.
At level 3, Behavior (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), the evaluation will assess
whether participants successfully apply their newly acquired knowledge and skills in their
volunteer work. Clark and Estes (2008) emphasized that behavior change requires organizational
support to reinforce the learned skills in practice. Long-term metrics at this level will include
observed behavior changes in volunteers, volunteer retention, and improvements in AAI service
delivery, as reported by therapy recipients.

100
Finally, level 4, Results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), will focus on evaluating the
initiative’s overall success in achieving its diversity and inclusion goals. This level relates to
Clark and Estes’ (2008) organizational factor, assessing how well the organization’s systems and
structures support the desired outcomes. Long-term metrics will include increased volunteer
diversity, improved retention rates of diverse volunteers, and enhanced therapy recipient
satisfaction. These results will help determine whether the organization’s changes effectively
support diversity goals and foster a more inclusive environment.
In terms of tools and methods for evaluation, this plan will utilize both quantitative and
qualitative approaches, which align with Patton’s (2017) evaluative thinking and Clark and
Estes’ (2008) KMO model. Quantitative tools will include surveys to assess participants’
motivation, satisfaction, and knowledge acquisition. Pre- and post-training assessments will
measure learning outcomes, while regular surveys will capture immediate reactions and longerterm behavior changes. Data tracking systems will monitor volunteer demographics, recruitment
numbers and training completion rates, providing continuous data to inform decision-making.
The organization will use qualitative methods to glean deeper insights into the program’s
impact. Interviews and focus groups with participants will assess their motivations for engaging
in the program and gather insights into the organizational factors that support or hinder behavior
change. The organization will gather testimonials from therapy recipients to assess whether
culturally competent training translates into improved service delivery. This combination of
methods will ensure a comprehensive evaluation, balancing the need for numerical data with indepth personal perspectives.
In line with Patton’s (2017) focus on embedding evaluative thinking, the evaluation will
take place on an ongoing basis, incorporating both formative and summative assessments.

101
Formative evaluations will occur throughout the implementation process, particularly after the
initial rollout of the diversity training. Feedback gathered during these formative assessments
will help the organization adapt its strategies to better meet participant needs and address
emerging challenges. Patton’s emphasis on adaptive decision-making will ensure that the
organization remains flexible and responsive to real-time feedback. Summative evaluations will
occur regularly (e.g., annually), in alignment with Kirkpatrick’s level 4 (Results), to assess longterm impacts such as increased diversity, improved retention, and therapy recipient satisfaction.
A key aspect of this evaluation plan is its focus on continuous improvement and
organizational learning, as both Patton (2017) and Clark and Estes (2008) have emphasized.
Regular feedback loops will be established, allowing for ongoing reflection and program
adaptation. By embedding evaluative thinking within the organizational culture, the evaluation
process will track the initiative’s success and drive continuous improvement and long-term
sustainability. This approach ensures that the diversity and inclusion goals are achieved and
maintained over time, leading to a more inclusive, culturally competent, and effective AAI
program.
Challenges and Mitigation Strategies
While implementing these strategies is expected to bring about positive change,
anticipating potential challenges and developing strategies to mitigate them are also necessary
steps. One of the most significant challenges may be resistance to change from current
volunteers or staff, which may stem from a lack of understanding of the importance of diversity
or discomfort with new training requirements. To mitigate this response, the organization must
provide clear, transparent communication about the benefits of diversity and cultural competence
for volunteers and AAI recipients. Training sessions will include opportunities for open

102
discussion, allowing participants to voice their concerns and gain a deeper understanding of the
initiative’s goals.
Another significant and fundamental challenge is limited resources, particularly in
funding and staffing. If organizations do not have sufficient internal resources to support the
implementation, the organization will need to seek out external funding sources, such as grants.
Partnerships with other organizations can divide the burden of recruitment and outreach efforts.
Additionally, geographical limitations may affect the ability to recruit volunteers from diverse
communities in certain areas. In such cases, online recruitment and virtual volunteer
opportunities may be explored to broaden the program’s reach.
Stakeholder engagement will also play a critical role in mitigating challenges. By
involving key stakeholders early in the planning process and maintaining open lines of
communication, the organization can address concerns and ensure that all voices are heard
throughout the implementation process. Continuous feedback loops will allow for ongoing
adjustments, maintaining the initiative’s flexibility and responsiveness to challenges.
Implementing these recommendations requires careful planning, strategic resource
allocation, and continuous evaluation. By following a phased approach, engaging stakeholders,
and addressing potential challenges, the organization can create a more inclusive and culturally
competent AAI program. Regular evaluation will ensure that progress is tracked and necessary
adjustments are made to maintain momentum. Ultimately, the goal is to build a volunteer base
that better reflects the communities served and enhance the quality and effectiveness of AAI
programs through culturally sensitive interventions.

103
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations and delimitations of the study are crucial for understanding the
boundaries within which the research was conducted. Limitations refer to factors beyond the
researcher’s control that may impact the results or generalizability of the study (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Delimitations, on the other hand, are choices made by the researcher to narrow
the scope of the research, ensuring that it remains manageable and focused (Bloomberg & Volpe,
2018).
Limitations
One of this study’s most notable and significant limitations was the lack of racial
diversity among the participants. Despite efforts to recruit volunteers from underrepresented
groups, no Black or Indigenous individuals were available or willing to participate in the
interviews. The few racially diverse participants primarily represented Hispanic or Asian
backgrounds. This absence limits the ability to fully capture the perspectives of racially diverse
volunteers, mainly from groups that are historically underrepresented in volunteer and AAI
settings. As a result, the study’s findings reflect the experiences of nondiverse volunteers,
particularly White women, who comprise the majority of AAI volunteers. This gap could have
restricted the study’s ability to explore the specific barriers and motivations experienced by
Black, Indigenous, and other marginalized groups when participating in AAI programs.
Another limitation arises from the data collection method. Semi-structured interviews
were the primary means of gathering qualitative data, which, while rich and detailed, are subject
to participant recall bias (Maxwell, 2013). Participants may not accurately remember past
experiences or may provide answers they believe are socially desirable rather than entirely
candid (Patton, 2015). This reliance on self-reported data may lead to over-representing positive

104
experiences and under-representing negative ones, particularly when discussing sensitive issues
related to race, diversity, and inclusion in AAI.
The generalizability of the study’s findings is also limited. The research focused on a
specific group of AAI organizations. Consequently, the findings may not apply to all AAI
programs or volunteer settings, particularly those with different organizational cultures (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). The limited number of participants further restricts the extent to which the
findings can be extrapolated to other settings.
Finally, time constraints posed a limitation. The study was conducted within a specific
timeframe, limiting the depth and breadth of data collection. While the study aimed to capture a
wide range of volunteer experiences, a more extended data collection period could have allowed
for more participants, including potentially Black and Indigenous volunteers, and provided a
more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing diversity in AAI programs.
Delimitations
The delimitations of this study were intentional choices I made to narrow the scope of the
research. One such delimitation was including only volunteers with at least 1 year of experience
in AAI programs. This criterion aimed to ensure that participants had sufficient familiarity with
the volunteer environment to generate meaningful insights into the barriers and opportunities
related to diversity. Volunteers with less than 1 year of experience were excluded because they
may not have developed a deep enough understanding of the program dynamics to contribute
valuable perspectives. However, this choice may have limited the study’s ability to explore the
initial challenges that newer volunteers face—particularly those related to onboarding and early
engagement in AAI.

105
Another delimitation was the focus on the KMO factors influencing diversity in AAI,
using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model as the primary theoretical framework. This
focus aimed to offer a structured approach to analyzing the root causes of AAI’s lack of
diversity. However, this choice meant that other potentially relevant factors, such as societal
influences, psychological aspects of volunteering, and broader economic barriers, were not
explored in depth.
The study was also delimited by its focus on specific organizations within the AAI field.
While this approach allows for a focused exploration of organizational practices and volunteer
experiences, it also limits the generalizability of the findings to organizations with different
structures, cultures, or missions. These delimitations were necessary to keep the research
manageable and aligned with the study’s objectives but should be considered when interpreting
the findings and applying them to broader contexts.
The limitations and delimitations of this study provide a context for understanding its
findings. While the lack of racial diversity among participants and reliance on self-reported data
pose certain restrictions, they do not diminish the significance of the research. The delimitations,
including the focus on experienced volunteers and the use of the Clark and Estes (2018) gap
analysis framework, were intentional choices designed to align the study with its objectives.
Despite these constraints, the study offers valuable insights into the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors influencing diversity in AAI. Most importantly, it provides a foundation
for future research and practical applications in this and other fields.
Recommendations for Future Research
To further address the problem of practice explored in this study, future research should
focus on expanding the demographic diversity of participants, particularly by prioritizing the

106
inclusion of Black, Indigenous, and other racially diverse individuals in AAI programs. This
study’s findings revealed a gap in representation and yielded only a limited view of the
experiences of underrepresented groups. Future studies could explore the unique barriers these
groups face in accessing volunteer opportunities and the strategies that could attract and retain a
more diverse volunteer base. Investigating the motivations of underrepresented groups would
garner critical insights into tailoring recruitment and retention efforts, thereby addressing the
issue of volunteer diversity more effectively.
Additionally, further research should delve into the long-term impact of cultural
competence training on volunteer behavior. This study touched on the importance of
organizational support in sustaining behavioral changes. Still, more research is needed to
understand how ongoing training, mentorship, and organizational culture influence long-term
inclusion efforts. Longitudinal studies that track behavior change over several years would
produce a clearer picture of the sustainability of diversity initiatives, helping organizations
understand whether current interventions have lasting effects or require continuous adaptation.
Research in these areas would build on the limitations of this study, such as the short-term
timeframe and lack of racial diversity among participants, ensuring that future efforts to improve
diversity in AAI programs are comprehensive and effective.
Conclusion
This study set out to explore the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that
influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI). The primary focus was
on understanding the barriers to diversity in the volunteer base, which has historically lacked
representation from various racial and ethnic groups. Using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap

107
analysis framework, the research aimed to provide recommendations for increasing diversity in
AAI programs and fostering cultural competence within volunteer organizations.
The importance of this study lies in addressing the persistent lack of diversity in AAI,
which is crucial for ensuring culturally competent and inclusive care in therapy-based
interventions. By analyzing the motivations and organizational factors affecting participation, the
study highlighted the significance of aligning volunteer diversity with the populations being
served. This alignment improves the effectiveness of the interventions, increases trust between
volunteers and clients, and enhances the overall experience for both parties involved.
Data were gathered through qualitative interviews with 20 participants who were both
diverse and non-diverse volunteers in AAI programs. The selection of participants aimed to
capture a broad range of experiences and motivations. The interviews were designed to identify
knowledge gaps, organizational influences, and the motivational factors driving participation in
AAI.
The findings revealed that both diverse and non-diverse volunteers shared similar
motivations, such as a love for animals and a desire to help others. Diverse volunteers faced
unique systemic barriers, including lack of organizational support and access to resources.
Organizational factors such as insufficient recruitment efforts targeting diverse groups and
inadequate training to meet their needs were also identified as barriers to increasing diversity
within AAI programs.
Recommendations were made to address these barriers by improving outreach strategies,
offering cultural competence training, and providing targeted support for diverse volunteers.
These recommendations emphasize the importance of creating an inclusive environment that
reflects the diversity of the communities served by AAI programs. Additionally,

108
recommendations for future research include exploring the long-term impacts of diversity
initiatives on volunteer retention and program effectiveness.
The benefits of implementing social justice in healthcare go far beyond mere
representation; they form the cornerstone of equitable and effective care. A diverse healthcare
workforce is crucial for fostering environments where patients feel understood, respected, and
valued. Research shows that patients are more likely to trust healthcare providers who reflect
their own cultural, racial, and ethnic backgrounds, leading to improved communication, greater
adherence to treatment plans, and ultimately better health outcomes (Gómez & Bernet, 2019;
Johnson et al., 2018). This alignment, often referred to as "concordance," helps break down the
barriers that historically marginalized communities face in accessing care, particularly in
addressing the social determinants of health that disproportionately impact them (LaVeist &
Pierre, 2014).
Diverse healthcare teams bring a broader range of perspectives and problem-solving
abilities, which enhance innovation and the overall quality of care. By integrating social justice
principles into healthcare, organizations not only tackle health disparities but also empower
communities through inclusive care models that respect and address the unique needs of all
individuals, regardless of background. In therapeutic programs like AAI, fostering a diverse
volunteer base that mirrors the populations they serve ensures that these programs are culturally
competent, compassionate, and effective. This approach not only improves health equity but also
strengthens the healthcare system by creating a more inclusive, responsive, and equitable
environment for all. This study highlights that by embracing diversity, healthcare systems can
advance social justice, reduce disparities, and build trust with historically underserved

109
communities, ultimately leading to better patient outcomes and more equitable healthcare
delivery.

110
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Good afternoon. My name is Amy Conley, and I’m a doctoral student at the University of
Southern California. I want to express my gratitude for taking the time to meet with me today.
The purpose of our meeting today is to discuss your experiences with pet therapy and the need
for diversity of volunteers within pet therapy. I’m conducting this research as part of my studies
and your insights and experiences will be invaluable in helping me gain a better understanding.
This interview will take less than an hour and I assure you that all the information you
provide will be kept strictly confidential and will be used solely for the purposes of this research
project. With your consent, I’d like to record our conversation for accuracy and reference
purposes. This recording will be securely stored and will not be shared with anyone.
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, the interview process, or the
recording, please do not hesitate to ask. You are free to withdraw your consent at any time
during this interview without any consequences.
May I kindly request your permission to record this interview?
If the interviewee agrees to the recording:
Great, thank you for your consent. I will now start the recording. [Start the recording]
Your identify will remain confidential.
[If the interviewee prefers not to be recorded: That’s perfectly fine. I’ll respect your preference
and take written notes during our conversation.]
Thank you for your cooperation. Your insights are greatly appreciated and will contribute
significantly to the success of this research project.
With that, if you’re ready, we can begin our discussion. I’ll start with some general
questions, and then we can explore more specific topics.

135
1. How long have you been volunteering? Where do you volunteer? How often?
2.What drew you to volunteer in this field?
3. How did you become aware of AAI programs and the opportunity to volunteer in
this field?
4. Did you receive any training or support from the organization or program where
you volunteered? If so, how helpful was this training in preparing you for your role?
5. Can you describe your understanding of AAI’s goals, benefits, and potential
impact?
6. Have you encountered any misconceptions or misunderstandings about AAI that
have influenced your volunteering experience?
7. Have you encountered any barriers or challenges in your journey to volunteer in
AAI? If so, can you describe those challenges?
8. How have time constraints, financial limitations, or personal circumstances
influenced your ability or willingness to volunteer?
9. Have you experienced discomfort or concerns about volunteering in therapeutic or
educational settings? If yes, how did you address or overcome these challenges?
10. Did you encounter any barriers related to accessing AAI programs or facilities? If
yes, what were those barriers?
11. How do you think organizations could better support volunteers in terms of
training, preparation, and ongoing support? Would a mentoring or shadowing
program be helpful?
12. How could organizations improve access to volunteering opportunities in AAI for
individuals from diverse backgrounds or circumstances?

136
13.In your opinion, what steps could organizations take to foster a culture of
inclusion and a welcoming environment for volunteers?
14.What advice or recommendations would you offer to individuals considering
volunteering in animal-assisted interventions but facing barriers or uncertainties?
15. Is there anything else you would like to add to our conversation today that was
not already covered?
Thank you for sharing your insights and experiences with me today. I genuinely
appreciate your time and participation in this research project. During our conversation, you
provided valuable insights on pet therapy. Your perspective has contributed significantly to the
research project. Your willingness to participate in this interview is truly appreciated. Your input
is a crucial part of our research, and it helps us make a more informed and comprehensive
analysis.
I would also like to express my gratitude for granting permission to record this interview.
Having a recording ensures that I can accurately capture and analyze the details of our
discussion, and it will be a valuable resource for this research project. Please rest assured that the
information you shared will be handled with the utmost care and confidentiality. Your identity
and any sensitive data will be protected. The data I’ve collected from this interview will be an
essential part of my research analysis. If there are any additional points or thoughts you’d like to
share after this interview, please feel free to reach out to me.
Once my research is complete, I’d be happy to share the findings with you, so you can
see how your input has contributed to our work. Before we conclude, is there anything else you
would like to add or any questions you have for me regarding the research or this interview?

137
Thank you once again. Your participation and insights have been invaluable. I wish you a
wonderful day, and I look forward to the possibility of connecting with you in the future.
[End the Recording]
With that, I’ll bring our interview to a close. Have a great day!

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions (AAI). This research addressed the persistent problem that while AAI programs serve diverse populations, the volunteer base, which is predominantly composed of White, middle-aged women, does not reflect this diversity. Using a qualitative research design, the study employed semi-structured interviews with 20 participants to explore their motivations, experiences, and perceptions regarding volunteering. Data were analyzed using a modified gap analysis framework, focusing on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Key findings revealed that both diverse and nondiverse volunteers had similar motivations, but systemic barriers, such as limited recruitment efforts and insufficient organizational support, hinder the participation of diverse groups. The study concluded that addressing organizational gaps, such as enhancing cultural competence and targeted recruitment efforts, is essential to fostering a more inclusive and supportive volunteer environment in AAI programs. These findings offer practical implications for improving diversity and inclusivity within AAI and other volunteer-driven therapeutic programs.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Conley, Amy (author)

Core Title Knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence diversity in volunteers in animal-assisted interventions

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-12

Publication Date 11/05/2024

Defense Date 11/05/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag animal-assisted interventions (AAI),diversity,OAI-PMH Harvest,pet therapy,systemic barriers,volunteer recruitment

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Grad, Richard (committee member)

Creator Email amyconley@usc.edu,directionalme@gmail.com

Unique identifier UC11399DBCW

Identifier etd-ConleyAmy-13615.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-ConleyAmy-13615

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Conley, Amy

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20241108-usctheses-batch-1221 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu