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Navigational leadership - a robust framework for leading in dynamic conditions
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Content
Navigational Leadership
A Robust Framework for Leading in Dynamic Conditions
by
Robert F. Frechette
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2024
© Copyright by Robert F Frechette 2024
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Robert F Frechette certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Katherine Bihr
Maria G. Ott
Eric Canny, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
September 10, 2024
i
Abstract
Using sailing as a laboratory, this dissertation aims to expand contemporary knowledge
about leadership in volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. After
conducting a qualitative analysis of interviews with 13 veteran business leaders who were also
longtime sailors, the limitations of traditional leadership methodologies were uncovered. As a
response, the Navigational Leadership framework is proposed, merging key leadership lessons
from sailing with classical leadership approaches. The results suggest that Navigational
Leadership is a comprehensive model, combining resilience, adaptability, teamwork, strategic
acumen, composure, and assured leadership, making it ideally aligned with the needs of today's
dynamic world. The framework is complemented by an inclusive set of leadership attributes and
actionable insights that provide a foundation for developing leaders in any dynamic environment.
Ultimately, this dissertation argues for the inclusion of Navigational Leadership in organizational
leadership development and training programs as a requirement for leading in today’s complex
world.
ii
Dedication
To my wonderful wife and amazing children. I am profoundly grateful for your support,
patience, and love that have sustained me throughout this endeavor. I cannot imagine my life
without you.
iii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee members, professors and
fellow students at the University of Southern California for their guidance and support,
especially my dissertation chair, Dr. Eric Canny. His dedication to academic excellence and
commitment to my personal growth were instrumental in shaping this dissertation. Additionally,
the completion of this work was aided by a variety of tools and individuals. I would like to
recognize professional editor, Dr. A. Murdock, for her feedback and corrections. I also used
several digital tools to streamline research, enhance writing productivity, and improve grammar
and flow, including Grammarly, Consensus.ai, ChatGPT by OpenAI, Rev.com, and Zotero.
Table of Contents
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures................................................................................................................................. v
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem........................................................................................................................4
Field Context and Mission ..........................................................................................................................5
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ..........................................................................................6
Importance of the Study.............................................................................................................................6
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology ............................................................................7
Definitions ..................................................................................................................................................8
Organization of the Dissertation ..............................................................................................................11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 12
Section One: The Intersection of Business Forces and Leadership Theory Over Time.............................13
Mid-20th Century (1946-1980)..................................................................................................................17
Late-20th Century (1981-2000) .................................................................................................................23
Early-21st Century (2001 – Mid-2020s).....................................................................................................30
Section Two: Leadership Development Approaches................................................................................36
Transferring Insights from Sailing To Leadership Development: Application of Learning Theory ...........44
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................45
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 49
Research Questions..................................................................................................................................49
Overview of Methodology........................................................................................................................49
The Researcher.........................................................................................................................................50
Data Sources.............................................................................................................................................51
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................................54
Credibility and Trustworthiness................................................................................................................56
Ethics ........................................................................................................................................................56
Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................................... 58
Study Execution ........................................................................................................................................58
Study Participants.....................................................................................................................................59
Research Question 1 - What are the types of leadership experiences encountered in sailing? ..............60
Research Question 1: Summary ...............................................................................................................76
Research Question 2 - How do the leadership experiences encountered in sailing compare to the
business leadership environment? ..........................................................................................................79
Resilience, Composure – George, Mary ...................................................................................................83
Comparison of Sailing Leadership Themes to Contemporary Literature Theory .....................................84
Summary: Research Question 2 ...............................................................................................................87
Research Question 3 – What actionable insights, if any, can be garnered from sailing that can be used
for leadership training and development? ..............................................................................................87
Summary: Research Question 3 ...............................................................................................................93
Summary of Chapter 4..............................................................................................................................94
Chapter Five: Core Findings and Recommendations ................................................................... 96
From Research to Practice: Establishing Navigational Leadership as a Comprehensive Framework.......96
The Imperative for Navigational Leadership in a VUCA World...............................................................100
Implementing a Navigational Leadership Framework............................................................................102
Limitations and Delimitations.................................................................................................................108
Recommendations for Future Research.................................................................................................109
References................................................................................................................................... 113
Appendix A................................................................................................................................. 146
Appendix B................................................................................................................................. 147
Appendix C................................................................................................................................. 148
Appendix D................................................................................................................................. 149
iv
List of Tables
Table 1 Participant Overview....................................................................................................... 59
Table 2 Leadership Themes and Attributes Derived from Sailing Experiences........................... 77
Table 3 Comparison of Sailing-Inspired Leadership Themes with Contemporary Leadership
Frameworks................................................................................................................................... 86
Table 4 Actionable Insights from Sailing and Their Alignment with Leadership Development
Practices........................................................................................................................................ 94
Table 5 Leadership Competency Assessment Framework: Tools, Strategies and References... 103
v
List of Figures
Figure 1 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework........................................................................ 47
Figure 2 Integration of Literature Review, Research Questions, and Navigational Leadership.. 97
Figure 3 Navigational Leadership Framework ............................................................................ 99
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
The challenges facing organizations today are greater than ever and often referred to as
VUCA (Volatile, Uncertain, Complex, Ambiguous) (Lawrence, 2013). More specifically, forces
such as rapid technical advances, ethical scandals, productivity challenges, and societal shifts,
are profoundly reshaping the global business environment; the need for effective leadership
remains a significant priority (Bennis, 2007). Developing leaders who can navigate these
complexities with agility and foresight is critical for organizational success and sustainability. In
fact, research highlights the pivotal role of adhocratic leadership skills in addressing these
dynamic shifts, emphasizing the importance of flexibility, rapid decision making, adaptability,
and employee autonomy (Karneli, 2023). Comprehensive literature reviews (Lundqvist et al.,
2023; Megheirkouni & Mejheirkouni, 2020) underscore the robustness of leadership research,
demonstrating the impact that leadership styles have on organizational performance and
employee well-being. Nevertheless, as businesses and societies evolve, there is an ongoing need
to ensure that leadership research remains relevant and keeps pace. According to Northouse
(2015), leadership has been a highly valued commodity for decades, and companies continue to
believe that leadership ability improves business performance. Research by Liao (2022)
demonstrates this sentiment, suggesting that external forces such as economics, social
responsibility, and environmental sustainability pressure new leadership styles to emerge.
Leadership as a field, while thoroughly studied, remains an important area for continued
research.
In a comprehensive literature analysis, Megheirkouni and Mejheirkouni (2020) identified
five categories of challenges facing leaders today, including skills needs, unethical behaviors,
individual leadership, training costs, and crises and disasters. While all are important, skills
2
needs is essential. Empirical research supports the argument that leaders must possess a
comprehensive set of capabilities to understand and lead their organizations (Schoemaker et al.,
2023). Research refers to this as the “leadership skills strataplex” (Mumford et al., 2007, p. 155),
a recognition that leadership skill requirements vary based on respective management levels in
an organization. It can be inferred from Mumford’s work that leaders must be multi-skilled.
Exposure to a broad set of experiences is a reasonable and obvious way to achieve this goal.
While these can come from professional roles and focused training, social learning theory
illuminates an additional approach.
In his seminal work, (Bandura, 1977), highlighted the significance of the social context in
learning, emphasizing that individuals learn from their surroundings and the actions of others
within it. Bandura also demonstrated that learning can be transferred from one environment to
another, a concept particularly relevant in understanding how skills and behaviors in one context
can be applied to a different context (Bandura et al., 1961). This transferability is a crucial aspect
of social learning theory and underscores the reciprocal dynamic between individuals, the forces
within their environments, and how effectively they learn. An important question then follows: Is
there an ideal VUCA environment where leadership skills can be effectively developed, learned,
and transferred to contemporary business challenges?
In this context, sports have often been used for research. Gould and Voelker (2012)
explored how intentional training, coaching, and positive reinforcement could be used for youth
leadership development. Arnold et al. (2012) used leaders and managers of elite sports
organizations to develop recommendations for enhancing the leadership performance of Olympic
programs, and Hall et al. (2008) demonstrated how undergraduate students developed a wide
array of leadership skills, including organizing, problem-solving, and mentorship through
3
participation in recreational sports on campus. However, studies like these, while valuable, are
often based on structured sports in predictable settings. They do not capture the volatility,
uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity associated with modern business challenges. A more
targeted and applicable model is needed, an environment that demands a blend of performance
under pressure, adaptability, critical thinking, precise teamwork, and resilience.
This is where the sport of sailing offers a unique and novel opportunity for contemporary
leadership research. It is an exemplar of the VUCA environment and has been used successfully
to study leadership development. McCulloch et al. (2010) conducted a multi-national study of
the sailing characteristics of young people. Their findings demonstrated that sail training had
positive effects on participants’ self-efficacy, and their beliefs about working collaboratively
with others. They concluded that sail training is a powerful educational experience.
Furthermore, Karp (2012) posits that leadership development is not simply training or
intelligence. His work argues that leaders must expose themselves to environments where their
willpower, beliefs, social strategies, and principles are deeply challenged to develop
meaningfully. Sailing embodies these principles with its unpredictable nature, varying
conditions, complex systems, and the need for self-efficacy and resilience. It provides a valid
ground for empirical research.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd United States president, is often credited for saying
“Smooth seas do not make skillful sailors.” The same can be said about leadership. This
dissertation aims to explore leadership development through the lens of sailing and draw out
lessons that can offer fresh insights into contemporary business challenges while enriching the
leadership body of knowledge.
4
Background of the Problem
The global volume of literature on leadership is vast and continues to grow. A simple
search in the books section of Amazon.com yields 60,000 hits covering 72 pages. The majority,
if not all, Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs contain leadership modules, and
many leading academic institutions now offer this as a degree focus (Brook, 2023). It is
important not just for students but also for businesses. In the 2022 Graduate Management
Admissions Council (GMAC) Corporate Recruiters Survey, 62% of respondents identified
leadership skills as the most important for business school graduates to possess. In addition, 61%
stated interpersonal skills were important, 60% cited strategy and innovation, and 56% said
decision-making. These areas, while not explicitly called leadership, fall squarely into a broader
set of skills associated with leadership capabilities (Schoemaker et al., 2023). A clear takeaway
from this data is that there is a vast repository of leadership publications, more than anyone could
ever read, and leadership remains a vital skill and subject of intense global interest. It transcends
all fields, including sports, business, religion, military, and government.
However, leadership remains a paradox. The more organizations focus on leadership
development, the more they realize a growing skill gap exists. According to Forbes, leadership
development is a 366-billion-dollar industry, and most programs fail to achieve their objective
(Westfall, 2019). Research by Petrie (2014) concluded that leadership development methods
were not keeping up with the challenges being faced by business leaders today. Work by
Iordanoglou (2018) argued that new leadership development approaches were needed in a
rapidly changing world. A survey conducted by Deloitte (Schwartz et al., 2016) concluded that
only 7% of organizations rated themselves as “excellent” at building millennial leaders. It was
also found that traditional development methods were not keeping pace with business needs, and
5
leadership was deemed a critical skill in every major region globally. In short, there is a pressing
and continuous need for leadership research, and it is fallacious to believe otherwise.
A case in point, Makridakis (1989), in his work on management predictions and forecasts
in business, recognized the fallacy of underestimating the pace and impact of technological
change. However, in his conclusion, he seemed to do just that. He asked, “What will happen
after the Information Revolution?” (Makridakis, 1989, p. 53). He answered, “Not much
(Makridakis, 1989, p. 53).” In this paper, he argued that intelligent computers and algorithms
were so far off in the future that human skills in problem-solving, learning, and giving adequate
feedback would reign supreme in the 21st century. This is not accurate. Current research predicts
that Artificial Intelligence (AI) will take over fundamental business processes such as strategy
formulation and application (Namaki, 2019), one of the hallmarks of human thinking in business.
The point here is not to criticize excellent scholarly work. The point is that leadership research
needs to keep pace with the rapidly changing world. No matter how small, new insights and fresh
perspectives must be encouraged. No one can predict the future, and leadership will continue to
matter.
Field Context and Mission
The field for this research included sailing and business communities, focused primarily
on the greater United States. The criteria for participation were adult sailors with sailing
experience and business leadership experience. While this was the primary qualifier, other
factors such as the total years of experience, depth of knowledge, professional certifications,
level of training, and captain status were considered and noted. A total of 13 participants were
qualified with robust and meaningful sailing and business leadership experience. There were no
restrictions on race or gender.
6
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore the intersection of sailing and leadership and
specifically examine how the challenges and experiences encountered in the sailing environment
can inform and enhance leadership skills in a business context. The research questions which
underpinned this study were as follows:
1. What are the types of leadership experiences encountered in sailing?
2. How do leadership experiences encountered in sailing compare to the business leadership
environment today?
3. What actionable insights, if any, can be garnered from sailing that can be used for
leadership development and training?
Importance of the Study
The importance of this research is underscored by the continuing need for agile,
adaptable, and resilient leaders in today’s rapidly changing business environment. As
organizations grapple with the complexities of digital transformation, globalization, and social
change, traditional leadership models are increasingly inadequate; a “radical shift” in leadership
perspectives is needed (Allen et al., 1999). This study aims to enhance leadership research
through the unique lens of sailing, a discipline that has been used successfully to understand
leadership styles in formative settings (Martínez-Moreno et al., 2018).
Failure to continue building knowledge in the leadership domain would be consequential.
Organizations may continue to struggle with leadership approaches that are misaligned with the
challenges of the modern world, potentially leading to poor decision-making, low adaptability,
and, ultimately, organizational collapse (Paulienė, 2021).
7
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The proposed theoretical framework for this study was Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
which posits that learning occurs in a social context and is a dynamic interplay of personal,
behavioral, and environmental factors (Bandura, 1977). Central to SCT is self-efficacy, which
refers to an individual’s belief in their capability to execute actions required to achieve specific
outcomes. This theory emphasizes observational learning and underscores the importance of
cognitive processes in determining behavior. It acknowledges that individuals can exert control
over their actions and environment while being reciprocally influenced. This idea occupies a
vital role because efficacy beliefs affect the human ability to adapt to change and be resilient,
individually, and collectively.
In the context of sailing, SCT is a reasonable theoretical framework. The sailor relies
heavily on self-efficacy. Their belief in their capability to navigate challenges, make critical
decisions, and ensure their safety is paramount. This belief mirrors the confidence leaders require
in the business world, where decision-making, strategy formulation, and team management are
critical. Observational learning, a key component of SCT, can be seen in how sailors learn from
the experiences of their predecessors. They observe strategies others employ, learn from their
successes and mistakes, and adapt these learnings to their unique circumstances. Similarly, in
leadership, observing seasoned leaders and understanding their decision-making processes can
be a source of learning and development. Integrating lessons learned from sailing through the
lens of SCT offers the opportunity to build on the existing body of leadership research where
lessons learned can be potentially applied in novel ways. In fact, Fairhurst and Grant (2010)
describe leadership through the lens of social constructionist theory, where leadership is viewed
8
as a complex set of interactions between leaders, followers, managers, and their surrounding
environments. This perspective is well-aligned with SCT.
The methodology deployed for this research was qualitative, semi-structured interviews.
Creswell and Creswell (2018) describe this as a flexible yet guided approach to data collection,
allowing researchers to explore complex human behavior in depth. It was particularly valuable
for capturing nuanced perspectives, emotions, and experiences that would not be easily
quantifiable. This method also allowed the interviewer to adapt questions based on interviewee
responses, facilitating a more organic and context-sensitive discussion. In the context of this
research, semi-structured interviews were appropriate to capture the tacit knowledge and soft
skills often developed in sailing but difficult to quantify, such as decision-making under
pressure, team dynamics, and adaptability to changing conditions.
Definitions
● Adaptability describes the ability and willingness to adapt to changing situations. This
definition was developed by the author using Uhl-Bien & Arena (2018) as guidance.
● Artificial Intelligence (AI) describes a machine-based system that can, for a given set of
human-defined objectives, make predictions, recommendations, or decisions influencing real
or virtual environments (Kissinger et al., 2022).
● Assured Leadership describes the ability to confidently and decisively lead, inspiring trust
and respect. This definition was developed by the author using Axelrod (2017) as guidance.
● Authentic Leadership describes a leadership style that emphasizes open and honest
relationships with followers by valuing their input and being transparent (George, 2022).
9
● Composure describes the ability to handle stressful situations with clear directives and
communication. This definition was developed by the author using Llopis (2024) as
guidance.
● Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) describes organizational strategies, policies, and
practices to promote varied demographic representation, fair treatment for all individuals,
and an inclusive and welcoming environment (Nishii & Leroy, 2022).
● Leadership describes a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2015).
● Mental Endurance describes the ability to maintain cognitive performance and effective
decision-making over extended periods, especially during challenging or stressful situations
(McNab, 2013).
● Observational Learning describes a method of learning that occurs through observing the
behavior of others (Bandura, 1977).
● Resilience describes the capacity to recover from difficulties quickly. In a leadership context,
it often refers to the ability to bounce back from setbacks or challenges (Duggan & Theurer,
2017).
● Scientific Management describes a theory of management that emphasizes the optimization
of labor productivity through the analysis and standardization of work processes (Taylor,
2008).
● Self-Efficacy describes a concept from Social Cognitive Theory that refers to an individual’s
belief in their capacity to execute actions required to achieve specific outcomes (Bandura,
1977).
10
● Self-Leadership describes the process where individuals intentionally influence their
thinking, feelings, and behaviors to achieve their objectives. It emphasizes the development
of self-awareness, self-regulation, and proactive behaviors (Neck & Houghton, 2006).
● Self-Reliance describes the ability of an individual to rely on their power and resources rather
than those of others; in the context of leadership, it refers to the ability to make decisions and
act autonomously (Northouse, 2015).
● Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes a theoretical framework developed by Albert
Bandura that posits learning occurs in a social context with a reciprocal influence between
personal, behavioral, and environmental factors (Bandura, 1977).
● Sailing describes the act of navigating and operating a sailboat with or without the assistance
of crew members (Buchan, 2019).
● Stakeholder describes any individual, group or organization that can affect, be affected by, or
perceive itself to be affected by a decision or activity (Project Management Institute, 2021).
● Strategic Acumen describes the ability to see the bigger picture, plan, execute and adjust as
needed to execute a strategic plan. This definition was developed by the author using
Schoemaker et al., (2023) as guidance.
● Teamwork describes the ability of a leader to build collaboration and trust among a team
(Northouse, 2015).
● Triadic Reciprocal Determinism describes a concept from SCT that refers to the continuous
interactive relationships between the individual, behavior, and environment (Bandura, 1977).
● VUCA is an acronym for Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity. It describes the
challenging conditions or situations often faced by leaders in a modern business environment
(Bennis & Nanus, 2007).
11
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One of this study includes the introduction to the problem of practice, context,
and background surrounding leadership challenges and sailing as a formative experience for
leadership skills development. Also included are the purpose of the dissertation, the research
questions, the importance of conducting this study, an overview of the methodology, and
definitions of the keywords and phrases. Chapter Two is a comprehensive review of the
literature, including the historical context of leadership development, its evolution, and the
leadership challenges businesses face today. Chapter Three outlines the qualitative research
methodology, participant qualifications, sampling criteria, and the interview protocols and
approach. Chapter Four presents the study results, aligning the interview responses and analysis
to directly answer the research questions. Chapter Five presents a comprehensive conclusion to
the study, including the key findings and recommendations, limitations, and suggestions for
future research.
12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review is designed to provide a comprehensive analysis of business
leadership in the United States, focusing on its evolution in parallel with business challenges
since the early-20th century. The review is organized into two main sections.
Section one describes the historical overview of business challenges across four distinct
periods, from the early-20th Century to the mid-2020s. It highlights how significant forces like
the Industrial Revolution and the digital era have shaped the business landscape, leadership
theories, and corresponding leadership research.
Section two explores leadership development, contextualizing its evolution alongside the
shifts in leadership theories and business challenges outlined in section one. The section begins
with foundational definitions of leadership development, setting the stage for a review of
methods and activities within the field. Within this framework, sailing is introduced as a unique,
formative experience that serves as a microcosm for real-world leadership challenges,
highlighting opportunities for immediate skill acquisition and long-term growth. The section
concludes by identifying gaps in the existing literature, explicitly addressing the rapidly evolving
business landscape, emerging leadership paradigms, and the largely unexplored potential of
experiential learning through sailing.
The review concludes by summarizing the key findings, discussing their implications for
future research, and presenting the conceptual framework that will be used for this dissertation.
Overall, this literature review is a comprehensive guide to understanding the multifaceted nature
of leadership in business, its historical development, and the need for research responsiveness in
an ever-changing business environment.
13
Section One: The Intersection of Business Forces and Leadership Theory Over Time
Section one of the literature review is structured to facilitate a comprehensive
understanding of the evolution of the business environment in the United States and its impact on
leadership theories from 1900 to the mid-2020s. It is organized into four temporal subsections,
each designated with a level one heading. In each level one section, the dominant forces shaping
the United States business landscape are identified, including societal, economic, political,
technological, globalization, and environmental influences. Following this discussion, the
prevalent leadership theories and research that emerged and evolved in response to these forces
are discussed as level two headings. Each temporal section closes with key connections,
demonstrating a cohesive narrative that traces the reciprocal influence between business
dynamics and leadership evolution over time.
Early-20th Century (1900-1945)
Scientific research on business leadership is limited during this period. However,
historical texts paint a vivid picture of the challenges. The early-20th century was a
transformative period, primarily shaped by the American Industrial Revolution and two World
Wars (Licht, 1995). The American Industrial Revolution, which began in the 19th century,
reached peak influence during the early-20th century, fundamentally altering the scale and
complexity of business operations. Mass production techniques were introduced, leading to the
growth of large-scale enterprises that required new forms of organizational structure and
management (Chandler, 2002).
The onset of World War I and World War II further shaped the business landscape. These
massive conflicts necessitated rapid industrialization and mass production of goods. The wars
catalyzed technological innovation and organizational efficiency, as businesses had to adapt to
14
meet the global demand for everything from weaponry to household goods (Koistinen, 2004).
The war efforts also drove the emergence of the multidivisional business, a significant departure
from the traditional single-unit structure. Research demonstrated that multidivisional designs
allow for more efficient allocation of resources and better managerial control, as each division
can operate semi-autonomously but still contribute to the overall objectives of the organization
(Natividad, 2013). These new, more complex entities gave rise to management hierarchies and
reporting relationships; during this era the construct of the business leader accelerated (Chandler,
2002).
This dynamic was further elaborated by Acemoglu and Restrepo (2018). Their work
highlighted the technological advancements that revolutionized production, including lathes,
milling machines, automobiles, and the widespread use of gas and electricity. These
“automations” drove the reduction of skilled artisans and threatened to displace workers (Mokyr,
1992). Consequently, challenges in labor and social dynamics emerged. Zinn (2017) offered a
critical perspective. He portrayed labor as a class with interests, not simply a means of
production, an idea often conflicting with business owners. His work described labor
exploitation, harsh working conditions, and the labor movements that arose in response.
Other challenges emerged during this period. Piketty and Goldhammer (2014) described
how the social and economic structures of the 19th century allowed for the preservation of
generational wealth, creating a permanent upper class with significant social and political
influence. The heavy reliance on coal and other non-renewable resources led to pollution and
environmental damage (Melosi, 1985), and the rise of industrialists gave birth to monopolistic
practices, stifling competition (Chernow, 2004).
15
There were also positive forces. The Industrial Revolution drove unprecedented
economic expansion, transforming the United States into a global economic powerhouse
(Chandler, 2002). The rise of factories created numerous job opportunities, price competition,
and generally raised the standard of living in Western nations (Ashton, 1997). The industrial
capabilities of the United States positioned the country as a global leader, with major political
and economic influence (Licht, 1995) that still exists today.
During this era, the American Industrial Revolution ushered in sweeping changes in
business structures and means of production. The transformation of industries from small-scale
operations to large, complex enterprises illuminated the need for new approaches to leadership.
The concept of the business leader emerged, and the need for continuous improvement in
leadership strategies became paramount. This period marked a structured beginning to leadership
theory and gave birth to some of the earliest organized research in this field.
The Dawn of Scientific Management
In response to mass production and the growth of large-scale factories, Taylor introduced
“Scientific Management”, to optimize worker productivity through time-motion studies and
standardized procedures (Taylor, 2008). This research involved timing workers with a stopwatch,
measuring the duration required to execute a specific task, and then determining the optimal
ways to reduce waste. His work gained significant attention and was widely adopted during this
period. One of the most prominent examples was the assembly line production method
introduced by the Ford Motor Company in the early 1900s (Heizer, 1998).
During the Industrial Revolution, scientific management was important in maximizing
output and reducing waste, both vital for economic growth. In contemporary business, it is still
an influential theory. Elements of scientific management continue to drive practices such as
16
process optimization and performance metrics. Six Sigma continuous improvement, pioneered
by Motorola, embodies these principles (Hild et al., 2001). Moreover, research demonstrates that
scientific management has potential applications in contemporary knowledge management work
(Paton, 2012). In contrast, some researchers have argued that scientific management
dehumanized workers and failed to consider the human side of corporations (McGregor &
Bennis, 1960). Others, however, argued that Taylor’s work was misinterpreted and failed to
acknowledge his goal to improve management as an extension of science (Chung, 2013). Despite
the debate, the ideas behind scientific management set the stage for more human-centric
approaches to leadership.
Human-Centric Theories Emerge
In a counter to scientific management, Mayo (2010) conducted a series of research
experiments called the Hawthorne Studies at Western Electric in Chicago, IL, United States. The
initial objective was to examine the impact of lighting on worker productivity, but the scope
expanded to include working conditions, group dynamics, and social interactions. Mayo’s work
suggested that social factors and human behavior in the workplace were as important as financial
incentives in maintaining employee morale and job satisfaction.
Mayo’s observations formed the basis for Human Relations Theory, which continues to
significantly influence modern leadership practices today. Contemporary leaders increasingly
adopt participative and democratic leadership styles, recognizing that employee engagement is
critical for optimal productivity and organizational success (Chan, 2019). Mayo’s principles have
been integrated into various human resource practices, including team-building exercises,
employee feedback mechanisms, and work-life harmony (Boxall et al., 2008). These practices
17
align with a shift towards a more human-centric approach as leaders seek to create environments
that focus on a healthy balance between task execution and employee well-being.
Early-20th Century: The Key Connections
The early-20th century marked a transformative era in the American business landscape.
The introduction of mass production and multidivisional organizations necessitated new forms of
management (Makridakis, 1989). The employer-employee relationship was established,
characterized by specialized roles and hierarchical structures. The complexity and scale of these
changes illuminated the need for multifaceted leadership, individuals capable of driving
operational efficiency while simultaneously building a human-centric culture. This period laid
the groundwork for the leadership theories and practices that would follow in the coming
decades.
Mid-20th Century (1946-1980)
The American business landscape during this era was shaped by a complex set of
societal, political, economic, and technological trends. These forces presented unique challenges
that businesses had to navigate. In parallel, there was an explosion of qualitative and quantitative
leadership research as scholars and businesses alike labored to find an ideal definition and
universal theory to adapt to this turbulent period (Northouse, 2015).
In the immediate post-World War II era, the Baby Boom generation, born between 1946
and 1964, led to a dramatic increase in population, igniting rapid consumption growth and
expansion (Yoo, 1994). This demographic shift significantly impacted various sectors, from
housing and education to consumer goods and services. The expanding middle class, buoyed by
economic prosperity and increased access to higher education drove the rise of suburban
communities, the mass adoption of automobiles, and the ubiquity of household appliances
18
(Samuel, 2022). These changes were pivotal in shaping the American business landscape, as
companies had to adapt to increasing demand and the evolving needs of a more affluent society.
Population growth and economic prosperity were important during this period as they set the
stage for the social, political, and economic developments that would define the latter half of the
20th century (Cohen, 2004; May, 2017).
The era’s political dynamics also played a pivotal role in shaping business strategies and
operational priorities. Increased government intervention in the form of regulations and antitrust
laws were created to curb corporate monopolies and promote fair competition (Baker et al.,
2018). Yet, their value and impact were heavily debated by legal scholars (Bork, 2021).
Concurrently, the Cold War led to boosted defense spending and the formation of the “militaryindustrial-complex” (Melman, 1997), benefiting aerospace and electronics industries. However,
it also led to a climate of geopolitical tension. The Vietnam War further complicated the political
environment, leading to public unrest and skepticism toward government agencies and policies
(Karnow, 1997).
Economically, the Bretton Woods system and the oil crises of the 1970s created both
opportunities and challenges. The Bretton Woods system, established in 1944, created a new
international monetary order by pegging global currencies to the United States dollar, which in
turn was anchored to the price of gold. This system was crucial as it provided economic stability
and facilitated international trade, solidifying the United States dollar’s role as the world’s
reserve currency and attracting foreign investment to American businesses (Eichengreen, 2021).
However, the Bretton Woods system was effectively ended in 1971 by President Nixon. While
this change allowed the United States more flexibility in monetary policy, it also amplified the
impact of geopolitical shocks (Hamilton, 1983). A significant example of this dynamic was the
19
oil crisis, triggered by the OPEC oil embargo in 1973. This event led to skyrocketing oil prices
and disrupted the global economy. In the United States, the result was stagflation, a condition
characterized by stagnant growth, high unemployment, and soaring inflation (Jiménez-Rodríguez
& Sánchez, 2010) forcing businesses to reduce staff, cut costs, and focus on efficiency.
Another major force, the computer revolution, marked a transformative period for
businesses in this era, giving rise to new industries such as software development, computer
hardware manufacturing, and information technology services (Makridakis, 2017). Companies
such as Microsoft and Apple were born. The advent of personal computers and enterprise
software solutions revolutionized how businesses operated, enabling automation, data analysis,
and global communications (Acemoglu & Restrepo, 2018). However, this technological shift
also rendered some traditional business models obsolete, particularly those that relied heavily on
manual labor and outdated processing methods, while simultaneously creating new career
opportunities (Browne, 2017).
One of the most significant forces impacting the American business landscape during this
period was the push for civil rights (Goodman, 1964). This movement challenged the status quo
of racial segregation, leading to the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964. Through “affirmative
action”, this act prohibited employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or
national origin. The impact on corporations was significant, particularly those with federal
contracts, as they were mandated to implement policies aimed at increasing the representation of
minorities and women in the workforce (Ladenson, 1995). This led to a shift in recruitment and
promotion practices and set the stage for the modern focus on diversity, inclusion, and social
responsibility, elements that are now considered essential for global competitiveness (Hunt et al.,
2020 Lytle, 2014).
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To conclude, the mid-20th century saw the American corporate environment molded by
various social, political, and technology driven factors. These elements posed distinct obstacles
that companies were challenged to overcome. Concurrently, there was a surge in both qualitative
and quantitative studies on leadership as academics and corporate entities endeavored to identify
a universally applicable leadership model suitable for these volatile times. Theories on leadership
traits, skills, situational analysis, and leader-follower interaction came into focus.
The Leadership Trait Approach
Trait theory was one of the first attempts to study leadership systematically. It posits that
certain traits or characteristics are inherent in leaders and that possessing these traits increases
the likelihood of effectiveness (Jago, 1982). Northouse (2015) defines traits as a “set of
distinctive characteristics, qualities or attributes that describe a person” (Northouse, 2015, p. 91),
which tend to be fundamentally stable parts of an individual’s personality. This theory was
widely studied throughout the mid-20th century as the idea is straightforward. Organizations will
be more successful if their leaders have the right trait profile.
Under this premise, a significant amount of research has been carried out. Yeh et al.
(2016) showed that personality traits under certain leadership conditions were related to higher
performance efficiency. Smith and Foti (1998) demonstrated that traits such as dominance,
intelligence, and self-efficacy were accurate predictors for emergent leadership. Rule and
Ambady (2011) even revealed that traits related to leadership such as competence, dominance,
and maturity, manifest in individuals’ faces, influencing the performance of the organizations
they lead. While individual studies are insightful on their own, Stogdil (1948, 1974) conducted
two comprehensive surveys where he analyzed 124 trait studies between 1904 and 1947,
followed by another analysis of 163 studies conducted between 1948 and 1970. His findings
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validated that traits such as drive, self-confidence and accountability are an essential part of
leadership. More importantly, his work demonstrated that situational factors are as crucial in
shaping leadership behaviors as inherent traits. For illustration, a leader with consistent
leadership traits may be effective in one type of situation but not necessarily in another.
Stogdill’s work also implied that leadership could be learned and was not fixed. Essentially,
leaders could learn skills that would improve their capabilities, an idea that would spurn deeper
research into leadership skills theory.
Leadership Skills Theory
Unlike trait theory, the skills approach to leadership emphasizes that leaders can gain new
knowledge and learn new skills to make them more effective (Northouse, 2015). The seminal
article in this field was written by Katz (1955) where he posited that effective leadership depends
on technical, human, and conceptual skills. Strength in these areas, he argued, indicates a
leader’s ability to effectively solve problems and perform, and the research that followed
supported his position. A study by Englefield et al. (2019) demonstrated that competencies that
relate to interpersonal skills are key for effective leadership, particularly building trust among
followers. A literature review and case study analysis concluded that a skills-based perspective
on leadership enabled the characterization and instruction of fundamental skills applicable across
diverse managerial contexts (Wright & Taylor, 1985). Moreover, an observational study
suggested that complex problem-solving skills, social judgment and leader knowledge partially
mediate the relationship of cognitive abilities, motivation and personality to leader effectiveness
(Connelly et al., 2000). In summary, the skills approach views leadership through the lens of
competency development where leaders can become more effective through training and
22
experiences, an idea that would underpin the significant number of leadership training programs
that would follow.
Behavioral, Situational and Leader-Member-Exchange (LMX) Theories
While behavioral, situational and Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theories offer
distinct frameworks for studying leadership, they share the common themes of relationship
dynamics, adaptability, and context-specificity. Behavioral theory argues that leaders engage in
both task behaviors and relationship behaviors, and how they combine these skills determines
their level of effectiveness (Northouse, 2015). The strengths of behavioral theory are twofold.
First, it has been extensively studied, and survey instruments such as the Leadership Behavior
Description Questionnaire (Carter et al., 1958) have been developed that have significant
predictability for leader success (Judge et al., 2004). Second, it is convenient as many leadership
development programs are based on these principles (Cooper & Wakelam, 1999).
Similarly, situational theory posits that effective leadership is contingent upon the
situation, requiring leaders to adapt their style (i.e., change their behavior) to meet the needs of
their followers and context (Blanchard et al., 2013). The situational approach views leadership as
a relationship between supportive behavior, directive behavior, and competencies in these areas.
Blanchard’s situational leadership (SLII) model is based on these principles and has been widely
used in corporate training for Fortune 500 companies (Bishop, 2023).
LMX theory also has relationship and behavioral components. It emphasizes the dyadic
exchanges between leaders and followers, highlighting the quality of these interactions as a
determinant of leadership effectiveness (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). While each theory can be
viewed on its own, the intersection between how leaders behave, how they adapt to changing
situations, and how they treat their followers provides a more unified perspective.
23
Mid-20th Century: The Key Connections
Societal, political, economic and technological trends significantly influenced the
business environment and leadership research during the mid-20th century (Langlois, 2023; Pew
Research Center, 2016; Telang, 2023). The Baby Boom generation and the Civil Rights
Movement led to shifts in consumer behavior and workforce diversity (Cohen, 2004; May, 2017;
Samuel, 2022). Government intervention and geopolitical tensions like the Cold War and
Vietnam War reshaped the regulatory environment (Baker et al., 2018). The Bretton Woods
system and its dissolution created both stability and economic shocks (Eichengreen, 2021;
Hamilton, 1983; Jiménez-Rodríguez & Sánchez, 2010). The computer revolution began
transforming business strategies and operations (Acemoglu & Restrepo, 2018; Browne, 2017;
Makridakis, 1989). New industries were created altogether. Leadership theories evolved in
parallel with these complexities (Northouse, 2015). Trait theory focused on inherent
characteristics. Skills theory emphasized learnable competencies, and a suite of behavioralsituational-relational theories offered frameworks that explored the multifaceted dimensions of
leadership, laying a foundation for the next wave of research.
Late-20th Century (1981-2000)
This period in American business continued to see a significant evolution in the societal,
political, economic, and technological trends set in the mid-20th century (Langlois, 2023).
Globalization, multiculturalism, deregulation, and the rise of the Internet further shaped the
United States corporate environment (Friedman, 2007; Kritzer, 2010; Ostry, 2009). These forces
profoundly impacted leadership theory and research, leading to new focus areas aimed at
understanding the complexities of contemporary leadership (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016; Meng,
2016; Northouse, 2015).
24
Globalization became a defining feature of this period, characterized by increased
international trade, capital flows, and cultural exchange (Chilcote, 2002; Magu, 2015).
Employees were impacted by job displacement in specific sectors, such as manufacturing, but
new types of jobs were also created in technology and services (Friedman, 2007). The United
States workforce became increasingly diverse, with a rise in the number of employees from
various ethnic backgrounds, genders and age groups (Okoro & Washington, 2012). Employees
had to adapt to working in more heterogeneous environments, which required cultural sensitivity
and adaptability (Cox & Blake, 1991). New approaches to human resource management
emerged. Organizations initiated diversity training programs to foster a more inclusive
environment (Cox, 1994). Flexible work policies were established (Kossek, 1998), and global
talent management strategies were deployed, including new approaches to international
assignments (Collings et al., 2007). The focus on leadership theory and research accelerated from
leader-centered, transactional approaches to more inclusive and dynamic theories (Lord et al.,
2016).
A corollary of globalization was the industry shift from manufacturing to services. This
created the “knowledge economy”, an economic system where the generation and exploitation of
knowledge contribute significantly to economic growth, wealth creation, and employment (Brint,
2001; Yeo, 2010). In this paradigm, intellectual capabilities were highly valued, requiring
employees with specialized skills, problem-solving abilities, and adaptability. Leadership theory
and research had to adapt to this emerging reality. Understanding how to lead knowledge
workers became an important aspect of leadership practice (Fischer et al., 2016).
The political landscape during this era was driven by an ideological commitment to
reduce government intervention in the economy and unleash free-market capitalism. This
25
“deregulation” spurred tax cuts, privatization of state-controlled enterprises, and loosening of
labor laws (Niskanen, 1988). Businesses responded by aggressively expanding and diversifying.
Waves of mergers and acquisitions swept through various industries to gain competitive
advantages through scale and synergies (Gaughan, 2011). Additionally, deregulation allowed for
increased financial innovation, generating complex financial instruments and markets (Stiglitz,
2010). However, the reduced oversight led to ethical collapses and corporate scandals, such as
the Enron failure, which had significant implications for corporate governance and leadership
(Sims & Brinkmann, 2003). Ethical leadership came crisply into focus (Seidman, 2004).
In terms of technological advancements, this era was transformative, marked by the
proliferation of the Internet and personal computing (Castells, 2001). Mobile phones emerged,
and business software solutions such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) were implemented
across many organizations (Davenport, 1998). The World Wide Web, introduced in the early
1990’s, revolutionized information dissemination and communication (Berners-Lee & Fischetti,
1999). These technologies enabled global operations, and E-commerce business models emerged
(Byers, 2007). For workers, it was a mixed experience. Technology enabled new jobs and
industries to thrive, while automation and digitization displaced fields (Autor, 2015). Leadership
theory and research began to incorporate concepts like “virtual leadership” and “digital
transformation leadership” (Avolio et al., 2014). These approaches focused on leading
geographically dispersed teams and guiding organizations through the complexities of digital
adoption. Consequently, leadership agility emerged as a critical competency (Horney et al.,
2010).
In summary, the late-20th century continued to shape the United States’ business
landscape across multiple dimensions including globalization, workforce diversity, the
26
emergence of the knowledge economy, deregulation, and technological advancements. These
forces catalyzed developments in leadership theory and research, shifting from traditional,
leader-centered models to more collaborative, inclusive, and adaptive frameworks. The
complexities of this period facilitated a transition to a more multifaceted approach to leadership,
one that could navigate the intricacies of a globalized, technologically advanced, and
increasingly diverse business world.
Transformational Leadership Comes into Focus
The idea of transformational leadership, which began in the late 1970’s (Burns, 1979),
regained focus in the late-20th century. This approach posits that leaders inspire and motivate
followers to achieve performance beyond expectations by transforming their attitudes, beliefs,
ethics, and values (Northouse, 2015). Transformational leaders are characterized by charisma,
intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Bryman (1993)
included the transformation approach as part of a new “Leadership Paradigm” which emphasized
that intrinsic motivation and follower development were vital to achieving large-scale
organizational transformations.
Since the mid-1980’s, numerous assessment tools have been developed to study the
transformational approach. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Bass & Avolio,
1995) measures a range of leadership styles, including transformational, transactional and
laissez-faire leadership. It identifies key behaviors and attributes such as idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Kouzes and
Posner (2017) created the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPQ), which focuses on five
practices: model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and
27
encourage the heart. Carless et al. (2000) proposed the Global Transformational Leadership
Scale (GTL) aimed at cross-cultural aspects of transformational leadership.
Using these conceptual frameworks, a significant amount of research has been conducted
which illuminated the effectiveness of transformational leadership. Jung and Sosik (2002)
demonstrated that transformational leadership was positively related to empowerment, group
cohesiveness, and group effectiveness. Furthermore, empowerment was positively related to
collective efficacy, which in turn was related to group members’ perceived group effectiveness.
Soane et al. (2015) showed that transformational leadership was associated with leadership
effectiveness and performance, highlighting that leaders should consider follower personality.
Eliyana et al., (2019) found that transformational leadership directly affects job satisfaction and
organizational commitment.
However, research also points out some drawbacks. Spector (2014) illuminated two core
flaws of transformational leadership, over-attribution and romanticizing traditional leadership
behaviors. Schuh et al. (2013) demonstrated that transformational leadership, when paired with
authoritarian behaviors, negatively affected employee efforts. Northouse (2015) cautions that
transformational leadership may not be as effective in all cultures, and Anderson et al. (2017)
predict that the transformational approach will be met with resistance by millennials. This
generation expresses a greater desire for work-life balance and extrinsic rewards. Nevertheless,
transformational research continues to garner significant attention and remains a focus for future
studies (Siangchokyoo et al., 2020).
Authentic Leadership and Ethical Crises
Born out of concerns about ethical crises, authentic leadership gained prominence during
this era, emphasizing interpersonal processes such as building honest relationships, valuing the
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input of others, and consistently demonstrating ethical behaviors (Gardner et al., 2011).
According to Northouse (2015), authentic leaders are characterized by self-awareness,
transparency, ethical/moral integrity, balanced processing, and relational authenticity
(Northouse, 2015). These dimensions formed the basis for assessment tools deployed to study
the authentic leadership approach (Walumbwa et al., 2008).
Like the transformational approach, authentic leadership is effective on many levels.
Erkutlu and Chafra (2013) concluded that authentic leadership was associated with valued
organizational outcomes such as lower workplace deviance, higher followers’ commitment, job
satisfaction and citizenship behaviors; they recommended organizations find ways to foster
authentic leadership. Gill et al. (2018) argued that authentic leadership helps human resource
managers attain more authenticity and credibility in the organization, and George et al. (2007)
posited that while short-term achievements might be attainable without authenticity, long-term
success is firmly rooted in authentic leadership. Despite its promise, challenges have been raised.
Garger (2007) cautions that because of its relative newness, attempting to develop authentic
leaders may only result in leaders who are trained to superficially exhibit authentic behaviors;
building clarity on working definitions, measurement methods, and criterion-based studies needs
to continue. Moreover, Algera and Lips-Wiersma (2012) argued that authentic leadership may be
too leader-centric, and the focus should be on understanding the conditions under which all
members of an organization behave authentically. Nevertheless, authentic leadership has
emerged as an important aspect of leadership theory that justifies further study and development.
Adaptive Leadership
Adaptive leadership is a framework that emphasizes the role of leaders in encouraging
change and fostering adaptability (Heifetz et al., 2009). It emerged in the mid-1990s (Heifetz,
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1994) as a recognition that leadership was a complex relationship between power, trust and
organizational dynamics. According to Northouse (2015), adaptive leaders give their followers
the space and freedom to tackle complex challenges while helping them to explore solutions,
resolve conflicting values, and learn new behaviors to overcome organizational obstacles. To be
effective in rapidly changing environments, adaptive leaders must possess high levels of
emotional intelligence, problem-solving, flexibility, empowerment, and vision (Uhl-Bien &
Marion, 2008).
While research on adaptive leadership is relatively new, the recognition that it is a critical
form of leadership in dynamic environments is garnering increased interest (Uhl-Bien & Arena,
2018). March (1991) viewed adaptive leadership, at its core, as effectively balancing the tension
between the need to innovate and the need to operate, an essential skill for organizational
sustainability (Dyer et al., 2011). Heifetz & Laurie (2001) describe adaptive leadership as
“getting on a balcony”, a process where leaders must deeply observe their environment, clearly
observe the dynamics, then challenge and empower followers to find solutions. Other researchers
have explored complexity theory as a conceptual framework (Surace, 2019).
A primary strength of the adaptive leadership approach is that it is follower-centered,
allowing employees to engage in change and grow while positively impacting organizational
success. This level of empowerment has been shown to have a positive and multidimensional
role in organizational outcomes (Mustafa & Bon, 2012). In contrast, it is theoretically complex,
and the significant factors and how they come together need clarification (Northouse, 2015).
However, adaptive leadership offers a framework that is applicable to a wide range of situations.
While more research is needed to validate the approach, it appears well-suited for applications in
rapidly changing environments.
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Late-20th Century: The Key Connections
In this era, the forces of globalization, workforce diversity, the rise of the knowledge
economy, deregulation, and technological advancements spurred more profound research in
collaborative and inclusive leadership. There was a clear shift from leader-centered models,
focused on trait theories, skills, and leadership behaviors, to transformational, authentic, and
adaptive leadership frameworks. While these approaches have distinct differences, they are
grounded in ethical behavior, honesty in communications, and empowering employees to drive
positive organizational change.
Early-21st Century (2001 – Mid-2020s)
The United States business environment continued to experience significant forces from
2001 to the mid-2020s. These include the Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) movement, the
ubiquity of social media, the disruptive impact of COVID-19, and the emergence of AI
capabilities. Each of these forces shaped business practices while intensifying the focus on
inclusive leadership theories and research. The skills development framework also resurfaced as
digital literacy and crisis management were recognized as critical skills for future leaders
(Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).
Originating from civil rights movements and evolving through societal awareness and
legislation, DEI has become a cornerstone in modern business strategies and human resource
practices with positive business impact. A study by McKinsey (Hunt et al., 2020), found that
companies in the top quartile for gender diversity on executive teams were 25% more likely to
have above-average profitability than companies in the fourth quartile, up from 21% in 2017 and
15% in 2014. Regarding ethnic and cultural diversity, the same study concluded that in 2019,
top-quartile companies outperformed those in the fourth quartile by 36% in profitability, slightly
31
up from 33% in 2017 and 35 percent in 2014. The DEI movement has also led to the
implementation of diversity hiring, pay equity audits, and a push for inclusive workplace cultures
(Barnard-Bahn, 2020). Research has shown that inclusive approaches promote employee
engagement and well-being (Vakira et al., 2023). Concerning leadership theory, DEI has driven
the rise of inclusive leadership models that emphasize empathy, equity, and collaboration,
arguing for leaders who acknowledge and leverage differences as assets (Kuknor &
Bhattacharya, 2022).
The rise of social media has had a transformative impact on businesses and leaders. For
businesses, social media platforms have become essential tools for marketing, customer
engagement, and brand building (Taneja & Toombs, 2014). They offer a direct channel to
consumers, allowing for real-time feedback and personalized interactions (Kaplan & Haenlein,
2010). For leaders, social media has changed the dynamics of communication and collaboration.
Internal organizational platforms have facilitated knowledge sharing, connection, and
collaboration among employees. External platforms allow leaders to connect directly with their
stakeholders. Consequently, the ability to effectively communicate through social media
platforms has become a leadership competency worthy of study (Alqahtani, 2019). However, the
instant sharing enabled by social media presents challenges, particularly in times of
organizational crisis. Information can spread globally in minutes, making it difficult for
companies to manage and control communications, creating the need for leaders to develop crisis
management competencies (Liu et al., 2020). In short, the advent of social media has
necessitated the need for leaders to become skillful in digital literacy and online
communications.
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The COVID-19 pandemic was arguably the most disruptive force during this era. It
profoundly impacted businesses and business leaders, necessitating rapid adaptations to
unprecedented global challenges. A survey of more than 5,800 organizations revealed significant
financial fragility, with mass layoffs and closures occurring just weeks into the crisis (Bartik et
al., 2020). The study also highlighted the dysfunction of the political and regulatory systems
deployed to provide economic aid and security. For business leaders, the pandemic tested their
crisis management and resiliency skills, requiring them to make difficult decisions related to
workforce management, health and safety, and business continuity (Sriharan et al., 2022).
Research demonstrated that during the crisis, good communication skills were required to share
accurate information with empathy and optimism, and leaders needed to be thoughtful and
capable of handling change in uncertain situations ethically (Chen & Sriphon, 2021). Moreover,
new strategic leadership models were proposed with the goal of coping and surviving
unpredictable crises (Farhan, 2021). Perhaps the most significant impact of COVID-19 came in
the shift from office-based work to home-based work. Organizations had to quickly adapt their
policies to accommodate remote work, focusing on issues like employee motivation and
performance management (Christian et al., 2020). Employees found themselves more productive,
benefitting from flexibility and reduced commuting times (Rahman & Zahir Uddin Arif, 2021).
The recognition of e-leadership, maintaining team cohesion and employee engagement in a
virtual environment, was identified as a core leadership competency (Kashive et al., 2022).
As the pandemic ended, the emergence of AI began to influence various aspects of the
business environment. Machine learning, natural language processing, and robotics drove
automation, data analytics, and complex decision-making processes. Businesses are now
leveraging these technologies to optimize supply chains, personalize customer experiences, and
33
improve predictive maintenance, thereby increasing efficiency and competitiveness (Davenport
& Ronanki, 2018). In terms of business structures, AI is catalyzing a shift towards more agile
and data-driven organizations. Traditional hierarchies are giving way to networked teams that
can more readily adapt to AI-driven insights (Fountaine et al., 2019). Companies that effectively
leverage AI have the potential to drive disruptive innovation by developing new business models
and processes, potentially reshaping the global competitive landscape (Lee et al., 2019).
Leadership theory and research are responding accordingly. Future leaders are expected
to be “bilingual”, fluent in both business and technology (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016). AI itself
is becoming a tool for leadership development. Machine learning can analyze leadership
behaviors and provide personalized coaching. Virtual reality can simulate leadership scenarios
for training purposes, and predictive analytics can identify potential leaders within an
organization (Lima & De Castro, 2019). While it is difficult to predict the full impact of AI in the
future, its influence is certain to be significant.
From Transformation to Inclusiveness
During this era, inclusive leadership emerged as an important research topic. This
approach emphasizes diversity and ensures all team members feel valued and included. It goes
beyond tolerance and actively seeks, respects, and leverages diverse perspectives for the
organization’s benefit (Hollander, 2012). According to Chin (2010), inclusive leadership evolved
as a response to the increasing diversity in the workplace and the recognition that traditional
leadership models were not fully equipped. In recent years, new inclusive leadership models
have been proposed to ensure organizational growth and sustainability (Nishii & Leroy, 2022).
Inclusive leadership has its roots in social identity theories, which posit that individuals
derive part of their self-concept from membership in groups and are motivated to improve the
34
status of their in-group (Tajfel, 2010). Moreover, the concept of “Optimal Distinctiveness
Theory” (Brewer, 1991) suggests that individuals have a fundamental need for inclusion
(belongingness) and a contrasting need for differentiation (uniqueness). Inclusive leaders are
skilled at balancing this dynamic. They are adept at using openness, empathy, humility, and
awareness to create an environment where team members feel valued for their unique
contributions while sharing a sense of belonging with the larger organization (Cenkci et al.,
2021).
Contemporary research has illuminated the value of this approach. Minehart et al., (2020)
provided evidence of the advantages of inclusive leadership over authoritative leadership in a
healthcare setting. Choi and Rainey, (2010) demonstrated that inclusive leadership has a positive
effect on employee well-being and innovative behaviors, and Ashikali et al. (2021) determined
that inclusive leadership is crucial for fostering inclusiveness in diverse teams.
In summary, inclusive leadership theory holds significant value in the increasingly
diverse and globalized work environment (Hammond & Kleiner, 1992). It provides a framework
for leaders to foster innovation, enhance employee engagement, and drive organizational
performance by leveraging the diverse skills of their teams. As we move into the future, the
complexities of managing diverse teams will likely intensify (Frey, 2018), making inclusive
leadership a business necessity for organizational success and sustainability in the 21st century.
E-Leadership in The Digital Era
E-leadership emerged in response to the digital era, characterized by the pervasive use of
technology and virtual workspaces. It refers to the ability of leaders to guide, influence, and
manage individuals and teams in a digital environment (Van Wart et al., 2019). It is an evolving
concept that has gained prominence due to the rapid digital transformation affecting various
35
sectors, including business and healthcare. The COVID-19 pandemic further accelerated this
shift, making e-leadership a necessary competency for effective team performance in virtual
settings (Torre & Sarti, 2020).
One of the earliest, seminal works addressing this topic was completed by Avolio et al.,
(2000). This literature review acknowledged the evolving leadership landscape in the context of
Advanced Information Technology (AIT), a set of tools and techniques that facilitate multi-party
participation in organizational activities. The authors define e-leadership as a social influence
process mediated by AIT, which can occur at any hierarchical level and involve various forms of
interaction (Avolio et al., 2000). The authors argue that the integration of AIT and human
systems is a complex challenge for leaders today. They note that despite the investment in AIT,
there is no clear correlation with corporate profits, indicating that effective implementation is
crucial. The article builds on this socio-technical systems approach by introducing the idea that
AIT effects are not fixed but shaped by organizational context and leadership. In short,
technology-enabled environments are complex systems that are changing the nature of
leadership, making it more responsive and adaptive to real-time information and stakeholder
demands while requiring leaders to have significant technical proficiency (Hallo et al., 2020).
More recently, studies have explored e-leadership dynamics on team performance in
virtual settings (Elyousfi et al., 2021), the skills and behaviors required for e-leadership (HornerLong & Schoenberg, 2002), and models for operationalizing e-leadership practices (Liu et al.,
2018). As the digital era accelerates, research in this space will need to continue to refine the
conceptualization, measurement, and frameworks, as e-leadership looks to be a foundational part
of leadership theory in the future.
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Early-21st Century: Key Connections
Four major forces significantly affected the United States business environment and
leadership theories during this period. Collectively, they have intensified the focus on inclusive
leadership while spawning new frameworks aimed at the digital era. DEI has become a
cornerstone in modern business strategies, supported by empirical evidence that links diversity to
organizational success (Miller & Katz, 2002). Social media has shaped business practices and
necessitated new leadership competencies in digital literacy, communications, and crisis
management (Gruber et al., 2015). The COVID-19 pandemic reshaped the work environment,
creating the need for effective leadership in remote, virtual workspaces, and the advent of AI is
catalyzing shifts in business structures and leadership capabilities (Makridakis, 2017; Sriharan et
al., 2022). Future leaders are expected to be fluent in business and technology. Consequently,
inclusive leadership and e-leadership have emerged as critical approaches for navigating these
complexities, making them essential areas for future research and application (Elyousfi et al.,
2021; Horner-Long & Schoenberg, 2002; Liu et al., 2018).
Section Two: Leadership Development Approaches
Section two of the literature review is an exploration of contemporary leadership
development practices, aligning their evolution with the shifts in leadership theories and the
dynamic United States business landscape delineated in section one. Initially, this section
identifies approaches to leadership development, laying the foundation for examining the
methods and activities within each domain. Amidst this framework, sailing is introduced as a
formative experience that mirrors real-world leadership challenges, illuminating immediate skill
acquisition while fostering long-term growth. It will explore why and how sailing can be used to
37
contribute meaningfully to leadership development, underscoring the practical and experiential
aspects that can enrich the research environment.
Leadership Development: From Theoretical Foundations to Practical Strategies
Contemporary leadership development practices have evolved from leadership theory to
meet the dynamic demands of the modern business landscape (Quatro et al., 2007). Many
researchers have proposed conceptual frameworks and models to understand how to cultivate
and enhance leadership competencies. Drath et al. (2008) argued that the ubiquitous tripod of
leadership – leaders, followers, and shared goals – is becoming less valuable. Their work calls
for an alternative view based on direction, alignment, and commitment, an approach with roots
in transformational and LMX leadership theories. Kjellström et al. (2020) identified six
categories and different ways of understanding leadership development:
(1) one’s own development,
(2) fulfilling a leadership role,
3) personal development,
(4) leader and organizational development,
(5) collective leadership development, and
(6) human development.
Pearce (2007) recognized the importance of identity, multi-level approaches, selfleadership, physical fitness, shared leadership, networking, creativity, emotions, spirituality, and
onboarding processes in leadership development. Hannah et al. (2008) posited an efficacious
leadership framework focused on self-efficacy and confidence, and Quatro et al. (2007) took a
more holistic view, modeling the analytical, conceptual, emotional, and spiritual domains of
leadership practice. To provide a more unified perspective, Megheirkouni and Mejheirkouni
38
(2020) distilled the major leadership development methods investigated in the literature into five
domains:
(1) action learning,
(2) 360-degree feedback,
(3) job rotation,
(4) networking, and
(5) executive coaching.
This perspective provides a practical framework for tangible leadership development
strategies that can be readily deployed in an organizational environment.
Action Learning
Action learning is a collaborative problem-solving approach that encourages individuals
to tackle complex issues within their organizations (Pedler, 2011). It typically involves small
groups or teams working on real-life problems (Marquardt, 2004). The process consists of
identifying a problem, taking action to address it, reflecting on the outcomes, and adjusting
strategies, accordingly, thus creating a continuous learning cycle.
Action learning has found widespread application in leadership development programs.
McNamara et al. (2014) studied the impact of action learning on 70 nurses and midwives and
concluded that the use of interventions that are action-oriented and focused on service
development, such as mentoring and coaching, should be supported in clinical leadership
development programs. Volz-Peacock et al. (2016) reported on a model of action learning that
was successfully used in hundreds of organizations to cost-effectively develop leadership
capabilities while solving urgent organizational or social problems. Leonard and Lang (2010)
illustrated how action learning could be customized to enhance specific leadership skills
39
identified by members of action-learning teams, while concurrently cultivating other essential
leadership abilities required in modern organizations.
The benefits of action learning as a leadership development framework are clear. It
directly addresses real organizational challenges, ensuring the immediate applicability of
learning (Marsick & O’Neil, 1999). Participants develop critical thinking and problem-solving
abilities through iterative cycles of action and reflection (Pedler, 2011), and action learning is a
valuable process for team development, individual goal setting, change initiatives, and quality
improvement (Heulwen James & Stacey-Emile, 2019). While some researchers note that action
learning can be resource intensive (Marquardt, 2002), action learning remains a highly valuable
contemporary technique in leadership development.
360-Degree Feedback
The 360-degree feedback approach, also known as multi-rater or multisource feedback, is
a systematic process of gathering input from various stakeholders who interact with an individual
leader. The perspectives are often diverse, including superiors, peers, subordinates, and selfreflection. The primary tools are assessments of leadership competencies, behaviors, and skills,
allowing for a holistic evaluation (Atwater & Brett, 2005).
The 360-degree feedback framework has become an integral and valuable component of
leadership development programs. Drew (2009) found that 360-degree feedback processes can
provide both reinforcement and new insights, with self-efficacy playing a key role in
implementing development strategies; participants in this study saw the feedback exercise as an
opportunity to improve their capabilities. Obholzer (2021) noted that 360-degree feedback is a
cornerstone and a best practice in successful leadership development programs due to its
comprehensive approach to raters and competencies, and London (2001) concluded that 360-
40
degree feedback is a support process for leadership development, helping individuals improve
their self-insight, self-regulation, and personal direction.
The 360-degree approach is poised to remain an important part of leadership
development in the future. In an era where leadership is increasingly defined by collaboration,
emotional intelligence, and adaptability, gaining insights from multiple perspectives is crucial
(Fleenor et al., 2008). Furthermore, advancements in technology have made the administration
and analysis of 360-degree feedback more accessible and efficient, aligning it with contemporary
organizational needs (Bracken et al., 2001). As leadership continues to evolve, 360-degree
feedback serves as a flexible and adaptable tool.
Job Rotation
Job rotation is a deliberate and systematic strategy that exposes leaders to various roles
and responsibilities across different organizational departments. The approach is designed to
broaden leaders’ skills, enhance their understanding of the organization’s operations, and prepare
them for higher-level leadership positions (Charan et al., 2011). It is perceived as an important
experiential learning activity for successful leadership development (DeRue & Wellman, 2009).
Job rotation remains a relevant and valuable technique for employee development. It
exposes individuals to diverse roles, fostering a broad range of skills and competencies. Mohan
and Gomathi (2015) found that job rotation practices increased employee motivation, prepared
employees for greater challenges, and had a positive effect on skills development. Stites-Doe
(1996) found that job rotation led to improvements in promotion and salary levels along with the
development of new business and technical abilities. Major companies such as General Electric
have successfully deployed job rotation for high-potential employees to build their leadership
succession plans and talent pipeline (Tisoczki & Bevier, 2013). The value of job rotation has
41
been demonstrated consistently in many types of organizational environments around the globe
(Fernando & Dissanayake, 2019).
Job rotation is an important tool for leadership development. While it requires careful
planning and can create employee stressors (Foroutan et al., 2021), its capacity to build diverse
skills sets and enhance leadership adaptability ensures it will continue to be part of successful
leadership development programs in the future.
Networking
In an organizational context, networking refers to the process of creating and maintaining
relationships with a diverse group of people to break down barriers across different departments.
It encompasses interactions both within and outside one’s immediate social and professional
circles and is a key skill supporting growth and learning (Rajagopal et al., 2011). According to
Day (2000), networking is about building social capital and support. It aims to expand leaders’
knowledge from mere expertise to identifying key resources, broadening their thinking,
challenging assumptions, and fostering commitments beyond their immediate work groups.
Furthermore, networking has been recognized as a critical skill for driving successful innovation
(Dyer et al., 2011), and it has been shown to build peer relationships that can span decades
(Kram & Isabella, 1985).
Leadership development increasingly emphasizes the importance of networking.
Managers who build diverse networks enhance their social capital and are more likely to benefit
from important information and entrepreneurial opportunities (Burt, 2000). Leadership networks
offer resources and backing for leaders, enhancing the breadth and magnitude of their influence
individually and collectively (Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010). De Klerk (2010) found that networking
was important for early career development and recommended that networking should be
42
integral to management training at all levels. Russon and Reinelt (2004) illustrated that the
enduring outcomes of leadership programs stem from relationships formed between participants.
In today’s rapidly changing business environment, the ability to tap into a diverse and informed
network is invaluable for effective leadership (Uzzi & Dunlap, 2005).
Coaching
Coaching can be defined as a development process where an individual (the coachee)
receives guidance, feedback and support from another individual (the coach) with the intent of
enhancing the coachee’s skills, knowledge, or performance (Grant, 2020). It is experiential in
nature, goal-focused, and can be short-term or long-term (Day, 2000). Barner and Higgins,
(2007) noted four primary coaching models: clinical, behavioral, systems, and social
constructivism, each offering benefits in terms of the organizational approach and desired
outcomes.
The value of coaching in leadership development is substantial. Research has shown that
leaders who undergo coaching demonstrate improved work performance, skills, and leadership
efficacy (Jones et al., 2016). Gaskell et al. (2011) demonstrated that embedding coaching into
company culture created a “transformational” attitude among employees and yielded
considerable business performance gains from both a sales revenue and customer perspective.
Furthermore, managers felt more empowered and could better lead, guide and support their
teams. Cortvriend et al. (2008) found that coaching impacts positively on individual and
organizational performance, enhances well-being, reduces stress, and helps coachees move
towards a more transformational leadership style. Moreover, executive coaching programs have
been shown to significantly improve leadership capabilities in people management, relationships
43
with managers, goal setting and prioritization, engagement and productivity, and dialogue and
communication (Kombarakaran et al., 2008).
With consistent guidance, coaching can catalyze genuine behavioral and mindset shifts
(Goldsmith & Lyons, 2006). However, some researchers note that it can be expensive in both
time and money (Dagley, 2006). Variability in coach quality is a concern (Segers et al., 2011),
and resource constraints can make it challenging to scale in a large organization (Anna et al.,
2001). Nevertheless, the increasing complexity and rapid changes in the business environment
will necessitate leaders to continuously upgrade and adapt their skills. Coaching, with its
personalized and adaptive nature, will continue to be an invaluable tool in preparing leaders for
these challenges (Grant, 2020). Scholars continue to probe how to optimize coaching as a
leadership development framework (Haan, 2021).
In summary, these contemporary approaches have proven valuable in leadership
development. However, the ever-evolving nature of the United States business environment
necessitates the continuous innovation of leadership development strategies. As businesses face
new challenges and complexities, from rapid technological advancements to shifting global
market dynamics, traditional leadership development methods may not fully address the
emerging needs of modern leaders. This constant state of change underscores the importance of
exploring novel contexts for future leadership development.
Sailing as a Novel Leadership Development Setting
Sailing, with its multifaceted challenges and demand for team coordination, presents a
unique platform for leadership development. It is an immersive experience that integrates the
various domains of leadership, providing a holistic approach to learning. Jenewein (2008)
studied a high-performance sailing team and derived a set of principles that offer a valuable
44
framework for team building and leadership development. Martínez-Moreno et al. (2018)
observed that crews of racing sailboats exhibit transformational leadership as opposed to
transactional or laissez faire approaches. Fontannaz and Cox (2020) found coaching to be
supportive of contextually embedded team leadership development as skippers transitioned into a
team leadership role, and Sjøvold and Nissestad, (2020) demonstrated that naval officer trainees
significantly improved their adaptive leadership skills when challenged with sailing across an
ocean with minimal instruction. These studies underscore sailing as a viable forum for successful
leadership development.
While traditional leadership development typically occurs in controlled settings, bridging
the gap between theoretical leadership models and practical, real-world challenges is critical.
Research demonstrates that leadership is learned through experience, and an experiential learning
approach should be the center of leadership development (McCall, 2010). Moreover, few studies
have integrated multiple domains in such an immersive setting, making sailing a unique and
valuable context for research.
Transferring Insights from Sailing To Leadership Development: Application of Learning
Theory
Learning theory, in the broadest sense, refers to a set of principles explaining how
individuals acquire, process, and retain knowledge and skills (Ormrod, 2018). Central to
educational psychology and cognitive science, it encompasses a range of frameworks, each
describing distinct mechanisms and processes that underpin learning.
Behaviorism, one of the earliest learning theories, posits that learning is a change in
observable behavior brought about by environmental stimuli (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Key
figures like B.F. Skinner emphasized reinforcement and punishment as primary drivers (Skinner,
45
1965). Behaviorism, though influential, has been criticized for neglecting the mental and social
processes involved in learning.
Cognitivism emerged as a response focused on the workings of the human mind. This
approach views learning as an internal process involving memory, thinking, and problemsolving. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children conduct a
mental model of the world, exemplifies this approach (Piaget & Cook, 1998).
To integrate aspects of both behavioral and cognitive theories, Albert Bandura developed
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) which emphasized the role of observational learning, imitation,
and modeling (Bandura, 1977). Bandura proposed that learning occurs in a social context and
can occur through observation or instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct
reinforcement. With respect to this dissertation, SCT appears particularly relevant for analyzing
how knowledge acquired in sailing can be transferred to business leadership.
Sailing, a skill which balances individual self-efficacy and teamwork, offers a rich
context for observational learning and modeling, key components of SCT. Leaders in a business
environment, much like in sailing, must address complex situations, often learning implicitly
from the experiences and behaviors of others. This alignment sets up a robust theoretical and
conceptual framework, underscoring the multifaceted nature of learning while highlighting the
transferability of skills across seemingly different domains.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
This section provides an overview of the theoretical and conceptual framework that was
proposed for this study. The theoretical framework represents the selection of an overarching
theory that serves as the blueprint for constructing the research design while forming the basis of
the conceptual framework (Grant & Osanloo, 2016). For this study, Social Cognitive Theory
46
(SCT) was selected as the initial theoretical framework. SCT posits that learning occurs in a
social context and is a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors
(Bandura, 1977). Central to SCT is the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s
belief in their capability to execute actions required to achieve specific outcomes. This theory
emphasizes observational learning and experiential learning and underscores the importance of
cognitive processes in determining behavior. It acknowledges that individuals can exert control
over their actions and their environment while also being reciprocally influenced (Schunk &
Usher, 2012). These ideas are core to leadership development as they underscore the
multifaceted nature of learning and the role of self-efficacy. By recognizing the reciprocal
influence of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors, SCT offers a nuanced
understanding of how leaders can shape and be shaped by their context, enhancing their ability to
guide and inspire others.
The conceptual framework for this research is woven around the tenets of SCT as shown
in Figure 1. This model provides a robust lens through which leadership development can be
examined and understood, leveraging the historical evolution of leadership theory and the
contemporary approach of sailing as an empirical research environment.
47
Figure 1
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
From the literature review, key external forces were identified that shaped the United
States business landscape from the 1900 to the mid-2020s. These included societal, economic,
political, technological, globalization, and environmental pressures. These forces catalyzed a
shift in leadership theories, moving from the rigid principles of scientific management to more
human-centric approaches. This transition, reciprocal in nature, is reflective of SCT’s emphasis
on the interplay between environmental factors and personal agency and how this can shape
learning and leadership behaviors.
From the leadership theory, development practices emerged such as action learning, job
rotation, networking, coaching, and 360-degree feedback. These approaches are not only
outcomes of the theoretical evolution but also contributors to it, illustrating again the reciprocal
relationship between theory and practice. This relationship is also a manifestation of SCT’s
48
principle of experiential learning, where learning is a continuous process influenced by both
personal experiences and the surrounding environment.
When viewing theory and practice holistically, five leadership themes emerged
consistently in the literature: adaptability, resilience, decision-making, communication and
teamwork, and self-reliance. These themes are inherently aligned with the sailing environment,
which naturally embodies principles of action learning, experiential learning, self-efficacy,
personal motivation, and collaborative behaviors. Thus, sailing posits a unique and rich
experiential platform within this framework, offering lessons from real-world context to tease
out deeper insights into these leadership dimensions. The sailing environment naturally embodies
these themes, presenting a compelling parallel to organizational dynamics and leadership
challenges, thus serving as an apt microcosm for addressing the research questions posed in this
study. The flowchart of this conceptual framework, shown in Figure 1, visually represents these
connections and the flow from SCT to the specific context of sailing, delineating a clear,
structured, and novel path for research.
49
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter outlines the research design for this study, including a description and
rationale for the selected methodology, protocol instrument, sampling criteria, and approach for
ensuring reliability and validity. Also included are the assessments of my positionality and the
ethical approach deployed while completing the research. This study aimed to explore leadership
skills needs through the lens of sailing and draw out lessons that can offer fresh insights while
enriching the leadership body of knowledge. To obtain this knowledge, the following research
questions were developed.
Research Questions
1. What are the types of leadership experiences encountered in sailing?
2. How do leadership experiences encountered in sailing compare to the business leadership
environment today?
3. What actionable insights, if any, can be garnered from sailing that can be used for
leadership development and training?
Overview of Methodology
This research employed a qualitative approach, appropriate for its exploratory nature and
for capturing the complex and context-dependent aspects of leadership and sailing. The semistructured interview protocol was selected for its flexibility, allowing for deep exploration of
participant experiences while remaining focused on the research objectives. The rationale for this
approach lies in its ability to potentially uncover the nuances of leadership behavior in a sailing
environment. The interview protocol contains narrative and phenomenological elements,
providing a conversational and reflective space where ideas and stories can be shared and
explored, allowing for unexpected insights and themes to emerge (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
50
The chosen methods for ensuring reliability and validity, including member checking,
triangulation, and audit trails, are well-established in qualitative research (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015) and were used to contribute to the study’s rigor where appropriate.
A qualitative approach has been used consistently and successfully to study leadership
and leadership development. Alvesson (1996) advocates a move from the measurement of
abstract leadership values to a reflexive-interpretative qualitative approach, bringing forth richer
discussions that make fresh insights more likely. He posits that quantified material is abstract,
and statistical correlations are remote from everyday practice and therefore of limited use.
Sogunro (1997) used qualitative techniques to study the impact of training programs on
leadership development, and Parlar et al., (2017) used qualitative research to examine teachers’
opinions regarding the activities that can be performed at schools to ensure leadership
development in students. Qualitative research was well-suited to address the research questions
posed in this dissertation.
The Researcher
Issues of positionality and power were important considerations at the outset of this
research study, especially given the potential variances in experience and authority among
participants engaged in sailing and leadership roles (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Initially, there
were concerns that my position as a person with a successful background in both sailing and
business might influence the dynamics of the interviews. It was anticipated that participants
might respond more openly or reservedly based on their perceptions of my views on their
competence and expertise, potentially affecting the candor and depth of responses. Participants
could have felt compelled to present themselves in a certain way or withhold information.
51
To address these potential issues, the study was approached with humility and openness,
clearly communicating the aims and ensuring confidentiality, as recommended by Chacko
(2004), who advises a reflective mindset throughout the interview process to continually assess
how positionality might be influencing data collection and interpretation. Measures such as
accommodating schedules, mutual sharing of information, and explicit recognition of each
participant’s expertise were employed.
Despite these initial concerns, the study proceeded without these dynamics materializing
in a manner that affected the outcomes. The reflective practices and measures implemented
appeared effective in mitigating any issues of positionality and power. No evident power
imbalances or issues related to my positionality as the researcher were detected that could have
skewed the data collection or participants' responses.
Data Sources
The primary data source for this research was audio recordings gathered through semistructured interviews, transcribed, and analyzed for themes and insights.
Interviews
The interviews, guided by a structured protocol, were designed to align closely with the
research questions, ensuring that each discussion contribute meaningfully to the study’s
objectives. The interviewees were selected based on their experience in leadership roles and
sailing. This approach allowed for flexibility in the conversation, enabling the interviewer to
probe deeper into relevant topics while maintaining a structured framework that maintained
consistency and comprehensiveness across interviews. By employing this method, the research
captured nuanced perspectives and experiences, providing rich, in-depth insights into the
leadership dynamics unique to sailing and business. The use of semi-structured interviews is
52
particularly suited for exploring complex and subjective phenomena like leadership, as it
facilitates an in-depth understanding of the participants’ views, experiences, and interpretations
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
Participants
The target population for this study were individuals who have significant experience in
both sailing and leadership roles in business settings. This included sailing instructors,
professional sailors, and business leaders who were also experienced sailors. For the purpose of
this study, the threshold for experience was a minimum of ten years. However, two participants
with less than ten years of sailing were included due to the intensity and frequency of their
experiences. This inclusion was also strategic to ensure a broader representation of female
perspectives, which was important for diversifying the study’s insights. Business leadership was
defined as a role responsible for influencing and guiding others toward the achievement of
organizational goals, typically measured by key performance indicators such as project
execution, profitability, and employee engagement. Given the specialized nature of the research
environment, purposeful sampling using a snowball approach was deployed (Etikan, 2016). This
led to a suitable pool of initial candidates who ultimately provided a cascade of referrals until the
target cohort number was reached.
In terms of sample size, 13 participants were included which provided a saturated set of
data while remaining manageable for in-depth qualitative analysis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Demographically, the study encompassed a diverse array of participants in terms of their
professional backgrounds and sailing experience, though it was limited in racial diversity as all
participants were Caucasian. The group included four women and nine men, enriching the
research with varied gender perspectives. This diversity in gender and the broad spectrum of
53
expertise from both business and sailing environments contributed to a rich, multidimensional
discussion, providing a depth of insights that underpins the study's findings.
Instrumentation
The interview protocol for this study was semi-structured which combines the flexibility
of an unstructured interview with the directional and focus of a structured approach (Merriam
and Tisdell, 2016). This technique allowed for the exploration of participants’ perspectives in
depth, capturing the richness and complexity of their experiences, while adapting to the flow and
stories that arose (Sayrs, 1998).
In this study, 12 questions were developed to align with the three overarching research
questions. The questions were ordered to optimize an intuitive conversational flow while
exploring core concepts such as self-efficacy, observational learning, decision-making under
pressure, adaptability, and situational awareness (Bearman, 2019).
The first set of questions related to RQ1 focused on illuminating the leadership
challenges experienced in sailing. They explored the core SCT concepts of behavior capability
and observational learning by eliciting experiences that can be used to uncover unique skills. The
questions pertaining to RQ2 were designed to compare the leadership experiences observed in
sailing with those observed in business, examining the transferability of learned behaviors and
cognitive processes across different contexts. This reflects SCT’s emphasis on the interplay
between individual cognition, behavior, and environmental factors. The ideas of motivation and
outcome expectancies were also explored.
Lastly, the questions focused on RQ3 intended to identify actionable insights that can be
taken from sailing and applied to business leadership development. These questions underscored
54
the concepts of self-efficacy and social persuasion, recognizing how confidence and skills
developed in one situation can be leveraged in another, and often predict a successful outcome.
Data Collection Procedures
Each interview session lasted approximately 60 minutes which allowed for in-depth
exploration of the topic while respecting the participants’ time. Interviews were conducted via
phone and video conferencing platforms such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams, depending on the
participants’ preferences. Interviews were held in quiet, neutral locations to ensure
confidentiality and minimize distractions. All interviews were recorded using Apple iPhone
Voice Memos. Recordings were securely stored, and password protected. Transcriptions were
made promptly after each interview using Rev.com and edited to remove any personal identifiers
such as names and unique locations. Pseudonyms were given to each participant, and the
transcribed data was stored with the corresponding audio files on a password-protected computer
using only the pseudonyms as file names.
Data Analysis
Leveraging work from Schilling (2006), the data analysis followed a systematic
approach, integrating the key themes identified through the literature review and conceptual
framework. Data collection was carried out using Apple Voice Memos. Transcripts were created
using Rev.com. Hand-written notes were used for one participant who preferred not to be
recorded. The detailed steps were as follows:
1. Transcription of Interviews
The first step involved the transcription of interview audio recordings into raw
data using Rev.com. Each transcript was then reviewed manually against the audio
55
recordings and minor edits were made to correct misinterpretations and to remove
personal identifiers.
2. Codebook Development
Initial parent codes were selected based on the themes identified during the
literature review which included adaptability, resilience, decision-making,
communication and teamwork, situational awareness, and self-reliance. Microsoft Excel
was used to structure the codebook.
3. Data Analysis
Each interview transcript was analyzed line by line, and parent codes were
assigned to phrases or passages that aligned with the study’s themes. These phrases and
passages were further linked to a specific research question, enhancing the thematic
relevance of the findings.
4. Codebook Refinement
As analysis progressed, the parent codes were refined and child codes, termed
attributes, were introduced to deepen the granularity of the data categorization.
Consistency across the data sets revealed a clear interconnection of the broader themes
with more nuanced attributes.
5. Developing a Cohesive Narrative
The final step involved identifying and linking participant quotes as direct
supporting evidence for the emerging themes. Where appropriate, connections were also
made to specific attributes, enriching the depth of the analysis. This methodical process
allowed for a structured discussion that directly tied the research questions to the themes,
56
attributes, and participant quotes. The results were systematically summarized in tables,
providing a clear, cohesive narrative.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Several measures were taken to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the data.
Although member checking was offered, each participant generally declined, stating comfort
with the quality of the discussions as sufficient for their approval. In addition, the diversity of the
participant pool, encompassing a wide range of sailing and business backgrounds, enhanced the
credibility of the findings through varied perspectives. Finally, while an official audit trail was
not conducted, the data collection and analysis process, as previously outlined, imparted a
structured and reliable approach to the research methodology.
Ethics
When conducting research involving human participants, particularly in qualitative
studies, it is paramount to adhere to ethical principles. The ethical considerations in this study
encompassed gaining informed consent, ensuring voluntary participation, maintaining
confidentiality, obtaining permission to record, and ensuring data storage and security. These are
best practices in qualitative research (Diener & Crandall, 1978; Sieber & Tolich, 2013).
Confidentiality was carefully maintained throughout the research process. Identifiable
information was anonymized or removed from the transcripts. Pseudonyms were assigned to
each participant, and the data is reported in a manner that prevents participant identification.
Participants were further informed that audio recordings would be used solely for the purpose of
accurate transcription and analysis. All data, including recordings, transcripts, and notes, were
securely stored in a password-protected electronic environment. Access to the data was restricted
to the researcher only. The data will be retained per USC guidelines for the purpose of the
57
research and then permanently deleted. Finally, the research proposal was submitted to the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) for ethics approval before
commencing the study.
Given the relatively benign nature of this research, it was not surprising that no
controversial or ethical issues were raised during any of the interviews. All participants engaged
openly and enthusiastically.
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Chapter Four: Results
The purpose of this study was to explore the intersection of sailing and leadership and
specifically examine how the challenges and experiences encountered in the sailing environment
can inform and enhance leadership skills in a business context. Chapter Four presents the results
of the study and is divided into six sections. The first section describes the study execution,
focusing on the recruitment process, data collection, data processing, and the rationale for
identifying themes. Section two provides an overview of the study participants including
demographics such as age, gender, years of sailing experience, and years of business experience.
Sections three through five describe the results, with each section corresponding to a research
question. Section six provides a summary of chapter four.
Study Execution
The study design was semi-structured qualitative interviews, incorporating interview
questions aligned with the research questions as described in Appendix D. The recruitment
process followed a purposeful sampling method using a snowball approach. Prior to inclusion,
each candidate was verbally screened to ensure that they satisfied the criteria for significant
experience in both sailing and business leadership. A total of 13 individuals were included in the
study. Data was collected through audio recordings using Apple Voice Memos. Transcriptions
were created using the services of Rev.com immediately following each interview. One
participant preferred not to be recorded so the interview was captured by written notes that were
summarized using Microsoft Word. All transcription files were reviewed against the audio
recordings, and minor corrections were made to correct missed words, misinterpretations, and to
remove personal identifiers. All files were stored in a password-protected environment.
59
Study Participants
The study included a diverse group of thirteen individuals as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Participant Overview
Pseudonym Age Range Gender Business Experience Sailing Experience
1. Anna 50+ Female 25+ years, marketing
executive
6+ years, competitive
sailing
2. Gerry 60+ Male 30+ years, creative
executive
10+ years, competitive
sailing, solo cruising
3. Corey 50+ Male 25+ years, tech
consultant
25+ years, competitive
sailing, instructor
4. Phil 50+ Male 25+ years, U.S. Navy
Veteran
15+ years, naval
officer, solo cruising
5. Kevin 60+ Male 35+ years, retired
business owner
20+ years, coastal
cruising
6. Van 60+ Male 35+ years, retired
business owner
25+ years, ocean
voyager
7. Katherine 50+ Female 30+ years, leading
fitness instructor
5+ years, bay sailing,
sailboat charter owner
8. George 60+ Male 40+ years, hospital
administrator
30+ years, competitive
sailing champion
9. Mary 70+ Female 40+ years, retired real
estate entrepreneur
30+ years, competitive
sailing, ocean voyager
10. Bryan 70+ Male 45+ years, retired city
treasurer, real estate
entrepreneur
20+ years, coastal
cruising, yacht club
commodore
11. Sara 50+ Female 25+ years, software
sales executive
10+ years, coastal
cruising
12. Glen 70+ Male 45+ years, retired
entrepreneur
25+ years, competitive
sailing champion
13. Hans 50+ Male 30+ years, marketing
entrepreneur
20+ years, solo ocean
voyager
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Each participant possessed extensive business experience and included executives in
large companies, entrepreneurs, business owners, and consultants for leading firms. Their sailing
credentials were equally impressive, encompassing competitive racing, solo voyages, skippering,
crewing, and navigating through challenging weather conditions. The inclusion of four female
participants added valuable gender diversity to the group. Collectively, the participants provided
a rich data set that enabled a meaningful exploration of the intersection between business
leadership and sailing.
Research Question 1 - What are the types of leadership experiences encountered in sailing?
Research question one was addressed by analyzing each interview transcript to uncover
recurring themes associated with leadership experiences in sailing. The analysis incorporated
both manual techniques and AI-based language processing tools (OpenAI, 2024) to enhance the
reliability and depth of theme detection. During this process, a codebook was crafted, as detailed
in section one of this chapter. This codebook guided the assignment of parent codes to significant
words or phrases within the transcripts, which were directly linked to emerging themes. Child
codes, or attributes, were also developed and connected to these passages to further refine the
analysis. Themes were then determined based on the consistency of these coded data across all
interviews, ensuring a robust identification of leadership patterns reflected in the sailing context.
To enrich the analysis further, five vignettes were crafted to highlight the unique
experiences and perspectives of each participant. These vignettes include the backgrounds of the
participants, descriptions of key events, and pertinent quotes that exemplify their leadership
experiences in sailing. Data from multiple participants are included in each vignette, providing a
multifaceted view of the leadership themes across the study population.
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The culmination of this analysis is a summary which will display the top leadership
themes identified across the interviews, providing a clear, organized view of the findings. This
methodical approach ensures that the analysis is deeply grounded in actual participant
experiences, providing a robust answer to research question one.
Vignette 1 – Anna, Hans
The first vignette provides a vivid glimpse into the intricate relationship between sailing
experiences and leadership qualities. Anna, who started sailing competitively in her youth during
the late seventies and early eighties, reflects on various leadership dynamics observed both on
and off the water. She recounts her time spent in competitive sailing using a two-person dinghy
called a Snipe, where core elements of leadership were evident. In her current role, Anna is a
marketing executive at a major health technology organization.
The first significant theme that emerges from Anna’s interview is resilience. Anna
discusses an insightful episode from her past where she covered the Whitbread race as a reporter,
witnessing firsthand the disintegration of a women's sailing team due to internal conflicts, “they
fell apart...they had a lot of personal acrimony. I mean, those long-distance races are not so much
about precision timing, but it's who’s going to endure and survive...It’s the difference between a
sprinter and a long-distance swimmer.” Anna goes further to relate this to her current business
role as a marketing executive, “And so I think businesses that are in the long game, ours need to
be the best at handling that kind of adversity over time. We persist, we redesign, we take a hit
and then we get back up.”
Anna further describes an experience in a tight race where her skipper fell overboard
during a hairpin turn.
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I was in a complete and total state of panic. I wasn’t listening, I was just sort of
careening toward the inevitable...and boy, did I learn a lot that day, learned from
doing and mistakes...there are these times when you don’t have the skipper, you
have to go it alone. And those are the times when you grow. It’s like you lead
when the skipper falls overboard, there’s no other backup, and it’s literally like
you’re going to sink or sail in those situations.
The second significant theme that emerged during Anna’s interview was adaptability.
The nature of that type of sailing is that weather can change very dramatically and
very suddenly and from both to being this extremely fast storm that comes up and
you’re quickly overwhelmed by natural circumstances, and then the goal suddenly
changes. You literally switch from competing to just trying to stay upright.
She further offers “...you maneuver, and you keep pivoting rather than going big and
gambling and losing in a catastrophic way... And so, you have that flexibility and
adaptability...risk assessment was a constant.”
Hans, a 20-year sailing veteran and successful business owner, reinforces these themes.
When reflecting on the key leadership experience he encountered in sailing, he states
immediately, “To see that the wind has changed and not to follow on a course that actually
doesn’t provide any drive.” This quote underscores the importance of adaptability in leadership,
emphasizing the need and willingness to pivot when a strategy is not producing the desired
outcomes. He further advises, “...you change the course the first time you’re thinking about
it...the water color is changing, you observe other boats that are reefing. The first time you notice
this, you should take action.” Hans is describing an old adage in sailing that the best time to
lower your sails is before you need to do it. This idea exemplifies adaptability, where leaders
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must swiftly adjust strategies in response to emerging threats before conditions deteriorate to the
point of no return.
While Anna’s and Hans’ interviews illuminated a variety of leadership lessons, resilience
and adaptability were the core. Their experiences affirm that effective leadership often demands
the capacity to endure adversity, adapt swiftly to changing circumstances, and sometimes, steer
the ship alone when the unexpected strikes.
Vignette 2 – Phil, Kevin, and George
Phil, a U.S. Navy veteran and pilot, stems from a family with a rich legacy of skilled
sailors. From an early age, under the guidance of his father and surrounded by brothers equally
passionate about the sport, Phil honed his skills on racing two and three-person dinghies that
demanded acute attention and a masterful balance. This early exposure to sailing not only
nurtured a sense of pride and accomplishment but also deeply influenced his approach to
leadership and teamwork in later professional endeavors. In his current role, Phil leads a product
marketing team in a medical technology firm.
One striking reflection occurred during overnight watches while Phil was crewing on
larger sailboats and in the Navy. Amid the solitude and expansive darkness of the open sea, Phil
felt an immense responsibility, ensuring the safety of his resting crew while maintaining the
course. “I took my responsibilities quite seriously.... I had to make sure that the boat was heading
in the right direction and there were no obstacles in the way,” he reflects. This vigilance, while
often challenging, offered him moments of profound tranquility and self-reflection,
...so, for sailing and also the Navy, it was the fact that I was dependent upon other people,
and they were dependent on me. And although my direct experience was in the boat at
the time with those people or on the ship at the time with those people, it kind of left me
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with a feeling that I could translate to other circumstances...it gave me an experience with
knowing that I was part of a team and they were relying on me, I was relying on them,
and it was beautiful outside.
Phil’s dedication to his crew and his deep sense of shared responsibility highlights another
crucial leadership theme: teamwork.
An additional compelling example of teamwork came about when Phil was competing for
a national sailing championship, and he had to manage a significant conflict with a crew member
during a series of qualifying heats.
Throughout this period of three or four months where we went through a series of
different regattas, there was tension between us. It required, really required, a
negotiation in some ways because although I was the skipper, and I made the
decisions, it wasn’t really my boat, it was our boat. And I had to make sure he
understood that, so he felt comfortable continuing to race, and it didn’t end up
being a fight every time we got in the boat together.
Phil further reflects on his time in the Navy with respect to team dynamics in battle,
“…when it comes to fighting, it transcends that there always has to be someone in charge...that
person in charge is not going to be able to complete a mission if people don’t really want to
follow him or her.” He concludes “Something that I’ve learned from sailboat racing is the
concept of crew and shared responsibilities, even though there was one clear leader, you have to
be able to work with others.”
Towards the end of the interview, Phil offers a sobering reflection,
...in the Navy when commanders ask people to go into harm’s way, they need that
leadership and respect so that people will do that. But in real life, work life, it’s
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not life or death. It has to be inspirational. And so that’s why I think it’s important
to stand there on the ship and look out at the horizon and see the connection
between the people you are with and the world out there.
Kevin, a retired business owner and veteran sailor with numerous races and ocean
voyages under his belt, shares Phil’s views on teamwork. During one particular race, Kevin
recalls a crowded racecourse, numerous sailboats making turns within a few feet of each other,
...there were probably five or six boats coming all in at once, and it got pretty crazy for me. But I
had two other guys on the boat giving me a lot of advice...I was amazed we didn’t collide...”
When asked about the key leadership lesson from that experience, Kevin offered,
…don’t try to do more with the situation that what it allowed me to do....you have
to be able to listen to other people on your team, they’re there to help you. You’ve
got to be able to reach out and get that information where they feel like, okay, I
can help him here if he’s willing to listen. If you’re not willing to listen to your
team, they’re going to shut down...then you’re really in trouble.
Kevin concludes that during his ocean voyages,
You’re always going to have five or six people on the boat, you’re going to have
two or three that are there just to enjoy the ride, and they’re not going to
necessarily be a lot of help. You can still utilize them...getting the key people on
board so they know what the plan is....they need to be aware of that so they can
execute.
George, a former technical administrator at a large hospital network, recalls a nineteenday sailing voyage across the Caribbean where he encountered gale force winds and fifteen-foot
seas with his family.
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I literally said a prayer out there that God please take me if I go, if it’s my time,
take me. Not like I was giving up, but it was like, we are going to turn and run.
I’m like, I don’t know if this thing’s going to flip over. We made a storm anchor,
we planned it out and executed it perfectly. We had blown out the jib, blown out
the main, and we were reefed down.
He reflects emotionally, “...those are the times where you need a team with really deep
experience because I wouldn’t really know how to make a turn like that on my own.” George
concludes with a final thought on teamwork and sailing. “Everybody needs to know their role,
and then there’s a time you have to be autocratic. But I think generally, if you get everybody
agreeing, then you’ve got all your arrows flying in the same direction.”
Phil’s, Kevin's, and George’s narratives underscore the notion that leadership demands
more than issuing commands. It requires inspiring trust, fostering collaboration, and nurturing a
sense of shared destiny among your team, particularly in challenging situations.
Vignette 3 – Corey, Van
Like Phil, Corey's relationship with sailing is deeply rooted in family history, beginning
with his grandfather who captained various boats during World War I. This passion for sailing
was passed down to his mother and eventually to Corey, who grew up restoring a one-hundredyear-old boat with his parents. This boat, with a steel flat bottom and diesel engine, allowed him
to learn a unique blend of sailing and maintenance skills, as well as the nuances of navigating
both open waters and narrow channels. From achieving his coastal skipper certificate at a young
age to teaching colleagues during corporate regattas, Corey's extensive sailing experiences have
profoundly shaped his leadership style. In his current business role, Corey is an executive
technical leader for a large engineering consultancy.
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While Corey provided a wealth of insights during the interview, a distinct leadership
theme emerged: composure, specifically the ability to remain calm under intense pressure, and
the importance of clear communication in challenging situations. Corey recalled multiple
instances where quick, decisive action was necessary as conditions on the water rapidly
deteriorated around him. He explained the need to
…recognize a situation is going bad early on...and if you don’t act early, then
you’ll get yourself into a difficult situation. You have to be able to assess your
crew in that situation quite accurately. There are some people who are novice but
utterly brilliant at following instructions, or they are trustworthy and they’re
predictable in their behavior. And then there’s others who are overconfident and
untrustworthy. There are some who will try and undermine your command.
When probed about how he dealt with these challenges under pressure, he offered,
Identifying those personalities and separating them out early on is key. And
usually, you can do that running through a few things. Sometimes you can
communicate with people without getting too shouty, which is my preferred
method, but occasionally I will. And with the really difficult people, there isn’t
any point continuing with people like that who will continually undermine
command or undermine the people on the crew. It just makes for a miserable time
for everybody, and it can lead to dangerous situations.
In a particularly harrowing incident, Corey describes how his boat’s rudder was
dislodged by a wave, leaving his crew and passengers rapidly drifting toward rocky shallows. In
the end, all passengers had to be airlifted off the boat via helicopter. Corey explained,
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It got very, very difficult. And I wasn’t in charge in that circumstance, but I did
learn quite a lot about what behaviors work and don’t work. I saw people
panicking. I saw people acting relatively calmly. I saw people in control. And
then the helicopter guy who came down the winch, he was so full of joy and
happiness and was just the perfect model of the behavior that you wanted to see.
When asked what he took away from that situation, Corey reflected,
I realized that adrenaline takes a little while to clear, but it’s quite good for
making a plan. And once you’ve made a plan, you just have to carry it on and
carry through and stick to it, and you can modify the plan a little bit, but
essentially the core of the plan is usually the right thing to do, even without
complete information.
Corey also explained that the key to managing a crew in a crisis situation is
Teaching them how to communicate with each other. One of the things I often do
with a new crew is to get them to do a man overboard drill, and you teach them to
communicate between each other and take roles within that team....you teach
them to point at the target, and that only one person has authority to relieve them
of that duty.
Van, a retired business owner and former captain for a large, sight-seeing charter boat
company, also has several thousand-mile ocean voyages on his sailing resume. He recalls a crisis
situation that occurred during one particular trip. “We caught a funnel of wind coming out of the
Sea of Cortez, and literally the sail exploded. Fortunately, [my crew] and I were well-rehearsed.
We stayed calm, executed our duties, and managed to get the shredded sail under control.” Van
also touts the value of in-person communication in a technically complex world,
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Don’t ever think that you can displace face-to-face, pressing the flesh, shaking hands
with people, looking them in the eye and determining whether or not they’re going to be
somebody that you can do business with...it’s the same thing on a crew.
Through sailing, Corey and Van have encountered crucial leadership lessons in crisis
management, staying calm under pressure and communicating clearly in challenging situations.
In the end, Corey empowers his teams, “I try not to be hands on any of the controls. I try to get
everybody to do all the work, and I will teach everybody what they need, which is something
that I definitely continue in my day-to-day life.” Van concludes, “I think when you learn these
fundamental skills about leadership, whether it’s through sailing or through work, they’re
lifelong skills. You can apply them anywhere.”
Vignette 4 – Mary, Gerry, and Glen
In the sport of sailing, the ability to strategically navigate through not only physical
challenges but also interpersonal dynamics is paramount. The experiences of Mary, Gerry, and
Glen, as captured in this vignette, exemplify the critical importance of strategy in leadership.
These leaders demonstrate how aligning tactics with overall objectives and executing plans with
precision are not just beneficial but essential for achieving success. This adept handling of
strategy in unpredictable conditions underscores a broader leadership quality best encapsulated
by the term strategic acumen. This overarching theme highlights their focused approach towards
achieving performance goals through detailed planning, well-defined tactics and meticulous
execution.
Mary’s life has been deeply intertwined with the ocean, beginning her sailing journey as
a child and evolving into a formidable competitor in various racing formats, including ocean
racing and solo voyages in the Caribbean. Now retired, Mary chairs the sailboat racing
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committee at her local yacht club, where she remains an influential figure in the community. Her
passion for sailing taught her many lessons in her professional life, where she leveraged strategic
acumen to build a highly successful commercial real estate firm. She reflects on her time as a
skipper and CEO, “When you’re the person in charge, it starts with preparedness. Before you
even get on the boat, you want to know the incoming weather, what are the tides? Do you have
the right charts...? Do you have the right equipment?”
Mary further recalls a tragic accident which highlighted the crucial importance of
preparation and execution and the severe consequences that can result from their absence. In this
case, a captain's failure to adhere to basic safety protocols, such as securing himself with a
lifeline on a seemingly calm day, led to a disastrous outcome when an unexpected wave swept
him overboard. Despite the crew's effort to recover him, the captain's lack of preparation
extended beyond personal safety; he alone possessed essential knowledge, including the codes
needed to operate critical communication equipment. His incapacitation left the crew unable to
utilize these tools effectively, exacerbating the crisis. This scenario underscored the vital need
for strategic acumen in leadership, as emphasized by Mary, who concluded,
It just went on and on and on, one thing after another because the crew was just
not prepared, and they hadn’t done the simple thing of having at least two people
know the codes and how the electronics worked.
In this case, sadly, it cost the captain his life. On tactics and execution, Mary astutely
notes later in the interview,
Nothing beats true patience and stepping back for a moment and collecting your wits...in
leadership, one of the things that is common of all good sailors is their ability to
concentrate and focus. Many races are won when there’s low to no wind.”
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This quote illuminates the importance of skillful assessment, tactful management, and clear
decision-making where external forces act on a strategy.
Gerry, an entertainment executive, avid youth sailboat racer and current pleasure cruiser,
illustrates the interplay between preparation, execution, and evaluation in both sailing and
business leadership. He explains, “A good day was largely dependent upon success or failure of
one or more of three parts: before you sail, during the sail, and then after.” This mirrors the
approach required in business strategy development, emphasizing careful planning, adept
execution, and thorough post-event analysis. He underscores the importance of thorough
planning before embarking on any initiative. “So how much you do before you even shove off is
so very, very important...as many variables as you can take out of the equation.” He recalls, “if
you left your jibs back in the garage, your day is not good,” highlighting how overlooked details
can lead to failure.
Gerry further emphasizes the need for reflective practices post-engagement, a concept
often neglected yet crucial for strategy adjustments. “You have to measure what went well and
improve as a crew, improve as a skipper, improve in your provisions or your equipment.” This is
essential during the execution of any strategic initiative. Gerry’s interview culminates with a
quote from John Wooden, the famous UCLA basketball coach who said, “Luck is the residue of
design.”
Glen, another lifelong sailor with a racing championship pedigree, echoes Gerry’s
comments.
We did a lot of practice, and we went to a lot of regattas. We raced a lot, and
that’s how you improve. And the thing about sailing that’s interesting, and it does
apply to business, is you need a strategy for each race. And the strategy depends
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on the environment you’re in. What’s the weather forecast? What’s the wind look
like? What’s the current doing? There’s a lot of things to consider and you have to
put that together before the start of each race...plus who you’re sailing against,
how many boats are in the race. There’s a lot to it, but you have to do it.
When reflecting on what it takes to win consistently, Glen further offers,
Tactics, that’s what it’s about. You’ve got wind shifts, so you go out to the
starting line early, you check the wind...figure out the headers...all that kind of
stuff. You decide whether on the first beat you want to favor the right side of the
course or the left side of the course. And there are reasons for each. And you build
all that into your plan. It’s complicated, but it’s important to do.
Glen ultimately concludes that a lack of strategy is like going out on a windy day without a plan,
“…you’re just flying by the seat of your pants and that just doesn’t work too well.”
Mary, Gerry, and Glen exemplify the important role of strategic acumen in leadership,
illustrating how foresight, planning, and effective execution form the bedrock of successful
outcomes in both sailing and business. The ability to anticipate changes, prepare for various
scenarios, and execute plans with precision is clearly articulated in their experiences.
Vignette 5 – Katherine, Sara and Bryan
Confidence is a cornerstone of effective leadership, vital for inspiring trust, driving
action, and navigating challenges. It reflects a leader’s belief in their capabilities and the value of
their decisions, which is essential for influencing others and achieving organizational objectives
(Axelrod, 2017). In the interviews with Katherine and George, confidence emerged as a
prominent theme, along with many tangential qualities such as decisiveness, empowerment and
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risk taking. These attributes, taken holistically, can be encapsulated by the overarching theme of
assured leadership.
Katherine, who grew up spending summers on the water, turned her passion for the ocean
into establishing her own sailboat chartering business later in life. She gained meaningful
experience sailing as the first mate on numerous trips, while simultaneously managing passenger
expectations. Katherine is also a fitness instructor at a prominent resort, where she teaches daily
group classes with a diverse mix of participants. Through these experiences, Katherine has
developed a keen understanding of essential leadership qualities and how others respond to
leadership behaviors.
When reflecting on lessons learned from sailing, she first offers an insight on maintaining
a positive mindset. “I think accepting that every day is not going to be sunny, but sometimes
those days that are cold and a little dreary can be a lot of fun, too. Enjoying the process even if
perfection is not achieved.” This quote highlights an important aspect of assured leadership. It
emphasizes that confident leaders understand that not every situation will be ideal, yet they find
value and lessons even in suboptimal conditions. She further offers that “A good leader in sailing
is someone who wants the people around them to have a great day and to look forward to doing
it again and have a smooth experience while learning a few things, too.” Katherine states this in a
warm, jovial tone, but under the surface, there is a deeper message: leadership is fundamentally
about creating a rich, inclusive and sustainable culture.
When reflecting on a time when things became challenging on a charter,
Katherine states,
You can’t always anticipate the sail of the day, even though you could be very
prepared. You have to have a plan B or plan C, and you always have to remain
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cool and have a smile on your face to people who don’t know what this means.
Novices don’t know. It can be challenging to maneuver in a new part of the
harbor you’re not familiar with. You sort of have to pull it off with a lot of
confidence and learn from it and try to just enjoy it and play it off.
Katherine further reflects on her requirements for captains,
…they have to be very reasonable, very confident, very experienced, extremely
comfortable with having random things go wrong all the time that they would
have to anticipate in advance...they should be confident and not be careless with
the safety of the crew and up on everything the Coast Guard requires. No funny
business. We need all the right life preservers...someone who is extremely
responsible.
This final quote from Katherine underscores several key aspects of assured leadership. Her
emphasis on leaders being “very reasonable, very confident, very experienced” highlights the
need for leaders to possess a deep foundation of knowledge and experience and the ability to
apply it calmly and effectively. Above all, she illustrates the need for leaders to prioritize the
well-being of their teams, while fostering an environment of security and trust.
Sara, a global sales force leader in the telecommunications industry, came to the
interview with significant experience racing sailboats in regattas and pleasure cruising with
friends and family. She still enjoys solo sailing in harbors and near coastal waters. When
discussing the leadership lessons learned while sailing, Sara reflects on a specific race where the
boats became bunched up while rounding a buoy at high speed.
You can’t be overthinking in a situation like that. You just need to act and trust
your experience and instincts. The skipper has to remain calm because the crew
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will sense the hesitation. And everyone on the crew needs to know what to do.
There’s no substitute for practice and experience.
When discussing the balance between knowledge and instincts, Sara offers the following
insight.
Both are important, but they serve different roles, and they are not independent.
Good instincts come from both knowledge and experience. In sailing and in
business, the best leaders know how to use both...it makes your gut reactions
more accurate, and you learn to trust your instincts. Others sense this and will
trust you, too.
Bryan, a retired city official and real estate entrepreneur, who is currently a yacht club
commodore, implies that confidence is critical, and people can sense when it is being feigned. He
states that “authenticity” is key in leadership roles. “Are people phony or not?”, he asks. “People
can sense that pretty quickly, and it’s part of socialization and the basis of friendships, too...I
think that really caring and putting in the extra effort is critical for a leader.”
Katherine, Sara, and Bryan's narratives highlight the role of confidence in leadership,
underscoring its importance in establishing trust, commanding respect, and guiding teams
through uncertainties. Their experiences highlight that assured leadership is not just about
making decisions under pressure but also about instilling confidence in others through one's
actions and demeanor. From Katherine's adaptability in unforeseen sailing conditions to Sara's
reliance on a blend of knowledge and instinct in high-pressure race scenarios, and Bryan's
emphasis on authenticity in leadership, each story reinforces that confidence is essential for
effective leadership. Their reflections demonstrate that another cornerstone of successful
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leadership lies in the ability to project confidence and inspire it in others, ensuring that even in
the most challenging situations, a leader remains a source of assurance and direction.
Research Question 1: Summary
The participant experiences detailed in these vignettes offer a comprehensive portrait of
leadership, highlighting six major themes: resilience, adaptability, teamwork, strategic acumen,
composure, and assured leadership. While the vignettes focus on specific individuals, Table 2
expands on this by indicating the additional participants who identified these themes, either
directly or implicitly. The supporting leadership attributes, shown in column four, were also
identified and consistently linked to their respective themes in the discussions.
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Table 2
Leadership Themes and Attributes Derived from Sailing Experiences
Major Theme Definition* Participant(s) Supporting Leadership
Attributes
Resilience The capacity to recover
quickly from setbacks
Anna, Gerry,
Corey, George,
Mary, Sara, Glen
Long-term perspective,
self-reliance, self-learning,
positive mindset, creativity
Adaptability The ability and willingness
to adapt to changing
situations
Hans, Anna,
Gerry, Corey,
Phil, Kevin,
Katherine,
George, Mary,
Sara, Glen
Curiosity, continuous
learning, experiment,
gamble, innovation
Teamwork The ability to build
collaboration and trust
among a team
Phil, Kevin,
George, Gerry,
Anna, Corey,
Van, Mary,
Bryan, Sara,
Glen, Hans
Communication,
alignment, celebrating,
empathy, support, caring,
trust, empower, generous,
listening, coaching, fun,
motivation, feedback
Strategic
Acumen
The ability to see the bigger
picture, plan, execute, and
adjust as needed.
Mary, Gerry,
Glen, Anna,
Corey, Kevin,
Van, Katherine,
George, Bryan,
Sara, Hans
Preparation, developing
tactics, storytelling, postmortem, data-driven,
concentration, focus,
common sense
Composure The ability to handle
stressful situations with clear
directives and
communication
Corey, Van,
Anna, Kevin,
Katherine,
George, Mary,
Sara, Hans
Risk management,
responsibility, situational
awareness
Assured
Leadership
The ability to confidently
and decisively lead, inspiring
trust and respect
Katherine, Sara,
Bryan, Gerry,
Anna, Corey,
Kevin, Van, Glen,
Hans
Intuition, experience,
knowledge, authenticity,
honesty, confidence, bold,
pride, humble, calm,
reasonable, reflection
* Citations located in Chapter 1 of this dissertation in the Section titled Definitions.
This structured analysis reveals a rich, multifaceted view of leadership. For example, the
theme of resilience is not only defined by the capacity to recover from setbacks but also
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supported by attributes like a long-term perspective, self-reliance, and a positive mindset. These
attributes highlight a leader’s ability to maintain focus and creativity even under adverse
conditions, as shared by participants like Anna, Gerry, and Mary. Adaptability, another major
theme, encompasses the ability to respond to changing circumstances and is supported by
attributes such as curiosity and continuous learning. This suggests that leaders like Hans and
Corey excel not just by adjusting to change, but by proactively seeking new ways to innovate
and approach challenges.
The theme of teamwork emphasizes the ability to foster collaboration and trust within a
group, supported by attributes like empathy, communication, and empowerment. This is vividly
illustrated in the narratives of Phil and Kevin, who demonstrate how effective communication
and empathetic leadership encourage stronger team bonds and enhance group performance.
Strategic acumen involves seeing the larger picture and meticulously planning and executing
strategies, supported by concentration, focus, and data-driven decisions. Leaders such as Glen
and Mary exemplify this theme by not only planning effectively but also adjusting those plans in
response to new information. Composure, highlighted by Corey and Van, involves maintaining
clarity and control in stressful situations, supported by risk management and situational
awareness, ensuring that decisions are made with precision and awareness of their broader
impacts. Katherine, Bryan and Sara conclude with assured leadership, a concept which brings
together confidence, decisiveness, trust and authenticity.
Together, these themes and attributes underscore the complexity of leadership,
demonstrating that effective leadership is derived from a synthesis of diverse skills and
behaviors. This analysis directly addresses Research Question 1, "What are the types of
leadership experiences encountered in sailing?" by clearly defining how these leadership
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qualities manifest and support one another across various scenarios and participants. Each theme,
supported by corresponding attributes, shows how leaders in sailing contexts adapt, strategize,
and maintain composure, underscoring the varied leadership capacities that sailing can develop.
Research Question 2 - How do the leadership experiences encountered in sailing compare
to the business leadership environment?
Research Question 2 was addressed by first aligning additional quotes from the
interviews with the leadership themes identified, providing a more direct comparison of
leadership experiences in sailing and in the business environment. Following this alignment, key
contemporary leadership theories were summarized and compared with the leadership
experiences encountered in sailing. This comparative analysis not only enhances our
understanding of leadership across different contexts but also supports the practical relevance
and transferability of sailing-inspired leadership lessons to business leadership scenarios.
Strategic Acumen, Adaptability, and Teamwork – Gerry, Corey
When reflecting on the similarities between sailing and business, Gerry discusses the
importance of planning, executing, and reflecting. With respect to contemporary business
leaders, he offers,
I would say everyone does an adequate job on the middle part, but the good
leaders do a good job on the planning part. The idea of measure twice, saw
once...where if you have your act together and you’re really preparing as much as
you can before the voyage, so to speak, the good leaders think about that.
He continues, “I think everyone is fixated on the middle. The great ones think about all three.”
Gerry also draws parallels with the theme of adaptability. “All my business years can
hold to this pretty interesting sailing adage.” He quotes William Arthur Ward, “A pessimistic
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sailor complains about the wind, an optimistic sailor hopes that it will turn, and a good sailor
adjusts his sails.” Corey expresses a similar analogy with sailing in tidal waters. “You point
yourself in a particular direction and then your boat goes in a completely different one, and then
six hours later it’s going back the other. You kind of have to go with the flow a bit.”
On teamwork, Gerry offers, “If you’re curious, then you’ll become a good listener, and
you’ll take some instinct from your crew, you’ll take some instinct from your colleagues. I think
curiosity is a very interesting quality in both a leader and a skipper.” On communication, he
draws a distinction to the business environment.
I don’t think the best skippers let everyone know what they are up to. You don’t
have time, you truly don’t have time to say, hey, I was thinking we should all do
this and then that, and do we all agree? There’s no time to even articulate what
you’re doing, let alone gain consensus....it’s kind of like a NASCAR pit crew.
Know your role, focus on that work, collaborate in the collective, be ready to
pivot...prepare for the worst and practice until it’s instinctual.
In a final reflection, Gerry compares employee coaching to the turning of a ship’s wheel.
When I coached people...I would always tell them how important it is to just
reorient yourself. I would always talk about the turn of the ship wheel. If you turn
a ship’s wheel one degree, it might take hours or days before you realize you’re in
entirely different waters. So, when I’m asking for a change from someone, I’m
not asking for a 360 or something like that. I’m just asking them to reconsider a
new outlook. And if they turn now, more importantly, they need to hold course.
He concludes, “You’ll be delighted where the new perspective takes you.”
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In his interview, Corey compares teaching sailing to business coaching. One key
takeaway was that “anything that undermines confidence is usually not very helpful. Finding a
good constructive way of helping them see the right way forward and showing them they’re
trying and that is all that is expected of them, that’s usually a beneficial way, and that’s the same
with the people I work with.”
Teamwork, Assured Leadership – Anna, Phil
Like Gerry, Anna offers several important insights. With respect to teamwork she
confidently states,
...in the end, it requires leaders who are supporting, caring and empathetic, because you
need your crew to stick with you. And if not, your crew is literally going to jump ship,
and you want them to ride out these rough storms with you.”
Anna further describes what it means to her to be a leader.
I always joke that I’m not always going to be the smartest person in the room, but
I’m probably going to be one of the hardest working. I think you have to
demonstrate that to your team. You can’t spend all your time delegating and not
doing the work yourself. You’ve got to have this authenticity and honesty, and I
think sailing teaches you this authenticity. It’s so dang humbling and dynamic,
and there’s not a lot of opportunity for ego.
Phil offers,
...the skills I learned in sailing, one, is to collaborate with people you have
to work with to be successful. You can’t win a race unless you get along with
your crew. If you’re skipper, another is that everybody has their own specialty,
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what they bring to the problem that’s unique...and it was really up to me at that
point to figure out what that was and to leverage it.
When asked for one word or phrase that jumped to his mind when comparing the
intersection of sailing and business leadership, Phil immediately states, “close hauled.” In
sailing, this is the point of sail which is closest to the driving force of the wind. “It’s the
optimum place to be”, says Phil. “You’re making the most efficient use of your team and
your boat...moving as fast as possible toward your direction.”
During challenging times, Anna takes an assured leadership approach,
...you have these moments when everyone is pretty freaked out...you kind of have
to say to your team, everyone get out your life jackets, put them on whether you
want to or not. We’re all going to have to get through this together, but I’m going
to be there with you, and I’m going to help skipper you through this. I’ve got your
back.
She concludes, "I try to be a port in a storm during those times of uncertainty.”
In addition to portraying confidence as described by Anna, Kevin offers this poignant
insight.
I think sailing, when you’re on the water, it gives you a lot of time to reflect. Once
you’ve got the sails set, you’ve cut the engine, you’ve got very little noise going
on, it’s very peaceful. There’s a lot of solace in just having that moment...that
reflection time that lets your mind take a break from all the micromanaging and to
just look at the bigger picture.
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This capacity for reflection is a key attribute for assured leadership, enabling leaders to
recalibrate their approach when needed, fostering deeper confidence, trust and respect among
their teams.
Resilience, Composure – George, Mary
During many of the interviews, reliance and composure often came up explicitly in
discussions about frantic situations on the water. Anna and Mary describe scenarios where their
captains were thrown overboard. Corey illustrates a helicopter rescue, and Kevin describes a
high-stress race where teamwork and composure played key roles. However, George offers a
more subtle view. He describes composure through the idea of finesse in both sailing and
business.
When you’re coming into the dock, you don’t go in full power. You go in with
just enough power to keep steerage, so if something goes wrong, you’re not going
to hit it hard. And in business you don’t want to go in full power all the time.
People aren’t going to like you and they’re not going to work with you.
He sees the similarities between sailing and business like the song “Take it Easy” by the
Eagles.
The time to take risks are those little twelve-foot boats...when you flip’em, you
might get hurt and might get some damage, but you know that worst case you
could swim back to shore...not when you’re out in the blue water and you’ve got
other people’s lives in your hands.
Perhaps the most compelling example of resilience and composure arose during Mary’s
interview. During a Caribbean voyage with a small crew, Mary describes a situation where,
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We were going through the windward passage, and we almost got run over by a
super tanker. The boom vang was down, we were on a broad reach, and the ship
just came upon us. We were in twenty-foot swells. I jibed, the main broke at that
point, and I’m weighing 98 pounds. The boom broke, and we put in a splint and a
storm sail and somehow got to Jamaica.
At that point, after making the necessary repairs, Mary was left to sail solo back to the
Florida coast of the United States as her crew departed the trip. When asked about her mindset,
Mary talks confidently about self-reliance. “I can sail the length of Long Island Sound, so 120
miles, so I’m making the sail back 120 miles at a time.” She reasons, “I broke a problem that
seemed unsurmountable to something in my mind I could visualize doing.” On that journey
home, Mary also had no modern navigational instruments. She remembers navigating by radio
signal “…from the Bahamas into Miami by tuning...you could tell if you were going North or
South by how good the radio sounded.” At the end of her interview, Mary offers a profound
insight when reflecting on all the details of that journey, “...it changed my perspective...it was
bad, but I didn’t think it would be bad forever...that’s why I have the spirit I have.”
Comparison of Sailing Leadership Themes to Contemporary Literature Theory
After identifying leadership themes and attributes from sailing and analyzing participant
insights within business contexts, it was important to compare these sailing-derived themes with
contemporary leadership theories. This comparison not only highlights the similarities and
distinctions between practical and theoretical frameworks but also substantiates the practical
relevance and applicability of sailing-inspired leadership lessons to modern business
environments. By doing so, we address the essence of Research Question 2, enhancing our
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understanding of how experiential leadership in sailing parallels, complements, or diverges from
established leadership models in business.
Northouse (2015) will be used as the foundation for examining contemporary leadership
theories due to its comprehensive and integrative nature. This work distills a wide array of
leadership theories into a coherent and accessible format, offering a panoramic view of the field.
Additionally, as highlighted in Chapter Two, Northouse's work is recognized for a thorough
synthesis of both classic and cutting-edge leadership theories, providing a solid academic anchor.
This approach ensures that our analysis is grounded in a well-established scholarly context,
enhancing the credibility and relevance of our findings. To illustrate these comparisons, Table 3
compares the leadership themes and attributes identified through sailing with those outlined in
Northouse’s framework.
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Table 3
Comparison of Sailing-Inspired Leadership Themes with Contemporary Leadership Frameworks
Sailing Leadership
Theme
Corresponding
Leadership Theory*
Similarities Differences
Resilience Trait Theory Both emphasize the
importance of personal
qualities like resilience.
Trait theory broadly outlines key
traits without specific focus on
resilience whereas sailing directly
highlights it as a central trait.
Adaptability Situational Leadership
Theory
Both underscore the
importance of adapting
leadership style to
different situations.
Sailing explicitly ties adaptability
to changing conditions in realtime, a more dynamic
perspective.
Teamwork Team Leadership Both focus on the
leader's role in
facilitating collaboration
to achieve goals
including attributes like
empowerment and
communication.
Sailing includes direct
collaboration and trust-building
in high-pressure situations;
Northouse discusses
organizational design where
sailing does not mimic complex
team structures.
Strategic Acumen Transformational
Theory
Both involve vision,
foresight, and planning to
guide teams toward longterm objectives.
Sailing focuses more explicitly
on planning, execution and tactics
whereas Northouse emphasizes
inspiring and motivating change.
Composure Skills Theory Both recognize the
importance of leadership
skills such as problemsolving under pressure.
Sailing emphasizes emotional
stability and clear communication
under crisis which Northouse
defines broadly as human skills.
Assured Leadership Authentic Leadership Both stress the
importance of genuine,
confident leadership that
inspires trust.
Sailing focuses more on the selfassurance and self-reflection
aspect, while Northouse expands
on the ethical dimensions.
* From Northouse, P. G. (2015). Leadership: Theory and practice (Seventh Edition). SAGE Publications, Inc.
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Summary: Research Question 2
These findings underscore the unique contribution of sailing to our understanding of
leadership, particularly in how it enhances traditional concepts under dynamic, high-pressure
situations. Sailing inherently demands a holistic leadership approach, navigating constantly
changing environments, making quick decisions under pressure, and maintaining team cohesion.
This context enriches the theoretical frameworks by emphasizing the practical application of
leadership attributes such as adaptability, resilience, and assured decision-making in real-world
scenarios. It also bridges the abstract principles of conventional leadership theories with the
tangible, real-world experiences encountered in sailing. Moreover, it suggests the need for a
more integrated leadership framework targeted specifically for navigating through the
complexities of a modern, dynamic business environment, a Navigational Leadership approach.
Research Question 3 – What actionable insights, if any, can be garnered from sailing that
can be used for leadership training and development?
This section begins by presenting key quotes from participants that specifically address
how sailing experiences have informed their views on leadership development. These insights
were analyzed and synthesized into a table that categorizes specific actions and
recommendations drawn from the unique challenges and scenarios encountered in sailing. These
recommendations are linked back to the leadership development practices explored in Chapter
Two, ensuring the recommendations are directly applicable to a business environment.
Key Participant Quotes on Leadership Development and Training
To delve into Research Question three, each participant was asked to metaphorically don
their skipper's cap and assume the role of a mentor to a new business employee. Participants
were encouraged to reflect on the key leadership lessons gleaned from their time on the water
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and articulate what advice they would offer to an emerging leader in the business environment.
This unique inquiry facilitates a direct translation of these lessons into potentially actionable
strategies for leadership development and training. The following participant responses
encapsulate these insights, offering a range of perspectives on the application of sailing
principles to enhancing business leadership acumen.
Gerry – “Stay Curious”
I would say stay curious. You can and should learn from everyone. You need to
find your own skills, though. You can’t be a chameleon. You have to find your
contribution...because the good sailors are always researching...they’re reading
the oldest books on the craft and blending a combination of aptitude and affinity.
You got to love it, but you also have to be good at it.
Anna – “Do a 720”
I would say if you screwed up, do a 720. The 720 is like a little timeout in sailing.
If you make a [rule violation], you have to go around twice. You’ve got to exit
[the course] and get out of everybody’s way...and I just love that metaphor
because it’s a reflection on what you’ve done. You’re still in the race, you’re still
competitive. You could still maybe win this thing but take the time to fix it and
make it right.
Corey – “Approach People on Their Own Terms”
I think there’s something about putting people into a dinghy where the stakes are quite
low and you’re probably going to get wet and it’s fine and it’s part of the fun.” Corey adds that
sailing analogies are not always relatable to non-sailors, so he prefers to
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…approach people on their own terms, by allowing people to take those first steps
where they have complete control over their fortune with a limited set of risks,
they’re not going to sink something. They’re not going to be indelibly harmed by
the situation they find themselves in...I try and construct a situation where that’s
fine, and when it’s going badly wrong I can step in and help....
He concludes, “And we try not to blame people unless they are doing something which is
obfuscating finding the way to the truth.”
Phil – “Find Your Strengths”
Phil focuses on the importance of one-on-one mentorship.
I’d try to get to know each individual on a deep level which helps me understand
whether they’re the kind of person that behaves on instinct or whether they are the
kind of person that likes to get into detail...a more cognitive type.
Ultimately, Phils states, “…making sure they’re aware of what their strengths are, and that I
recognize their strengths and work with them to figure out how best they might fit into the
overall team.”
Kevin – “Be Open to Ideas”
Kevin reflects that no one knows
… everything, whether it’s sailing or whatever company you’re working for...but
you need somebody that’s open to ideas and somebody who’s willing to give
feedback whether you feel it’s going to be taking right or wrong...someone that’s
willing to go against the grain...I want people that are going to say, hey, I think
we need to do this and this is why, and be able to explain the reasons to make that
change.
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In the end, Kevin advises, “...you just can’t have people following protocol because you’re not
going to move forward. The company’s not going to be able to change directions quick enough
to stay ahead of the game.”
Van – “Know Your [Stuff]”
“First of all,”, Van says, “is know your [stuff]. You don’t let them run the boat and you
don’t let them run your company until they know their [stuff].” He describes his experience
giving advice to new members of a sales team.
I always said that it’s one thing to get an appointment to go in and see the guy
who runs the company. It’s another thing to stay there in that office for a while.
You not only had to know your business, your product, your services, but you
also had to know his or hers.
He adds, “...from a management standpoint, I’m teaching people how to do those kinds of things,
and then it’s just drill, drill, drill and education.” He concludes,
...you got to be able to apply that education, and that is the same thing in boats.
You take that education, you apply it, learn from it, and capitalize on it...this
builds your confidence that lets you go on to more long-distance sailing or more
advanced boats where you have greater responsibilities.
Katherine – “Anticipate the Day”
I would say anticipating the day and the sail by being prepared. For example, we
could have friends that have children, and we didn’t realize they were so small,
and we need to have life jackets for them, so we always have those on board, even
if we don’t know children are coming. In my professional life, I always make sure
I have extra of everything...making sure that everything is organized, and I’m
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prepared...just trying to create an environment that is as seamless as possible, so
our sail is at its best
George – “Take Risks”
George reflects back on some of his more challenging voyages and business experiences
and believes there is a key lesson from sailing that you can teach to new leaders. Simply put, he
says “...you’re going to make mistakes so make mistakes early, and take risks, but make sure you
understand the consequences of what you’re doing.”
Mary – “Get Off the Bus”
During the end of her interview, Mary reflects on a time when she was working as a
consultant for a real estate firm touring properties in Colorado. “At dinner that night”, she offers,
“…one of the underwriters said, you didn’t get permission to get off the bus. And I said, that’s
why we were hired, to get off the bus and not just listen to what you’ve told us.” She emphasizes
that you cannot solely rely on second-hand information, “it’s important, literally and figuratively,
to get off the bus.”
Bryan – “Always Take the Long Tack First”
Bryan suggests using the maneuver of tacking in sailing to teach new leaders about risk
management. He says “Always take the long tack first....so that if and when the wind shifts, then
your next tack will be the shorter one. You’re closer to where you want to be.” He
enthusiastically adds, “Be with caution, bold.”
Sara – “Things are Going to Surprise You”
In her reflection on giving new leaders advice from her sailing lessons, Sara says clearly,
“Be resilient. Things are going to surprise you...you will struggle and fail. You’ll need to learn
how to be resilient to succeed.”
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Glen – “Get Ready to Tack”
When reflecting on guidance he would give to new leaders, Glen offers,
...it’s amazing how many decisions you have to make in a sailboat race. I mean,
you could make 150 different decisions in a day, so you have to have your
strategic plan. You have to have your plan set up based on the wind and what you
think the shifts are going to do and who you’re sailing against. You have to have a
plan, like I said before, but then you have to execute on that plan, and things
change constantly when you’re in a sailing environment. So that’s probably the
biggest takeaway that you have when you’re a skipper, because when things
change you say, ok, let’s get ready to tack.
He further adds, “Those types of decisions you have to make over and over and over again when
you’re sailing in a fleet with a whole bunch of boats and what you decide to do can win or lose a
race very easily.” When thinking about giving advice, Glen concludes “I would also ask what
kind of business do you want to be in and why does that appeal to you? What’s your long-range
goal?”
Hans – “Stay Calm and Be Reflective”
When probed with the idea of using sailing lessons to develop a new leader, Hans
acknowledges that he is entering a stage where he hopes to transition out of his CEO role. He
laughingly states, “That’s a good one because specifically I’m in that situation...I’m currently
trying to identify and groom several people.” He adds, “Staying calm. This aspect of staying
calm and being reflective even if it becomes stormy, and also being self-critical is something to
work on.” He also stresses the importance of creating an open and transparent culture.
“Sometimes this is really an asset, having a culture where you can speak out about things where
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you think differently and can have a constructive discussion. He looks fondly back on a former
leader, who “…had a very high appreciation within the team because of his openness and
adapting ideas...using his employees as a permanent source of information to help him lead the
company.”
Summary: Research Question 3
The methodology adopted for deriving actionable insights from the participant interviews
was focused and robust, designed to ensure the validity and applicability of the findings.
Initially, quotes from all thirteen study participants were collected and analyzed to discern
patterns of commonality and relevance to leadership competencies. This analysis categorized
comments into five distinct actionable insights critical for leadership development: reflective
practice, strategy and risk management, adaptive communication, deep engagement, and
continuous improvement. These insights, linked to established practices from Chapter Two,
grounded them in recognized theoretical and practical frameworks as shown in Table 4.
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Table 4
Actionable Insights from Sailing and Their Alignment with Leadership Development Practices
Actionable
Insight Participant Quote
Related Leadership
Development
Practices
Application in Leadership
Development
Establish
Reflective
Practice
"Do a 720" (Anna)
"Be Open to Ideas" (Kevin)
"Stay Calm and Be Reflective"
(Hans)
Action Learning
360-degree Feedback
Encourages leaders to understand
their impact on others, learn from
real-life situations, reflect and
continuously improve
Learn Strategy
and Risk
Management
"Always Take the Long Tack First"
(Bryan)
"Take Risks" (George)
"Things are Going to Surprise You"
(Sara)
"Anticipate the Day" (Katherine)
"Get Ready to Tack" (Glen)
Job Rotation
Action Learning
Prepares leaders to develop
strategic plans, execution tactics,
and the ability and willingness to
identify external forces and adapt
with confidence
Develop
Adaptive
Communication
Style
"Approach People on Their Own
Terms" (Corey)
Action Learning
Coaching
Enhances leaders' ability to
develop a communication style
that adapts to the situation while
providing clear direction and
fostering collaboration
Deeply Engage
Employees and
Business
"Get Off The Bus" (Mary)
"Know Your Stuff" (Van)
Action Learning
Networking
Job Rotation
Focuses on the need for leaders to
deeply engage their colleagues
and fundamentally understand
their business
Continuous
Improvement
and
Development
"Stay Curious" (Gerry)
"Find Your Strengths" (Phil)
Coaching
Networking
360-degree Feedback
Promotes ongoing learning and
skill development and ensures
leaders remain current and
relevant
Summary of Chapter 4
Chapter 4 successfully addressed the three core research questions, effectively harnessing
insights from the sport of sailing to enrich leadership theory and practice. For research question
one, the chapter identified six major leadership themes: resilience, adaptability, teamwork,
strategic acumen, composure, and assured leadership, each supported by attributes consistently
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highlighted across participant interviews. This analysis established a thorough portrait of
leadership as experienced through sailing, providing a rich comparative basis for subsequent
analyses.
The second research question extended this foundational work by juxtaposing the
identified sailing-derived leadership qualities against established contemporary leadership
theories found in academia. This comparison illuminated both similarities and unique
distinctions, enriching the understanding of how traditional leadership models align with or
diverge from the pragmatic lessons drawn from sailing experiences.
Finally, the chapter culminated in addressing the third research question by distilling five
actionable insights from the sailing narratives that hold tangible applicability for leadership
development within business contexts: establishing reflective practices, learning strategy and risk
management, developing adaptive communication styles, deeply engaging with employees and
business operations, and fostering continuous improvement and development. Ultimately, the
results from Chapter four laid the foundation for the core finding and recommendation of this
study.
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Chapter Five: Core Findings and Recommendations
Chapter five serves as the capstone of this dissertation and is structured into five sections.
Section one introduces and defends the core finding of this research. Section two outlines
specific recommendations in line with the core finding. The third section concludes with a
reflective overview of the study, reiterating its contributions to the field of leadership and
affirming the relevance of integrating sailing-inspired insights into the broader leadership
discourse. Section four addresses the limitations and delimitations of the study, acknowledging
the constraints and boundaries within which the research was conducted. Finally, section five
proposes directions for future research, building on the groundwork laid by this study.
From Research to Practice: Establishing Navigational Leadership as a Comprehensive
Framework
The synthesis of findings from this study has provided a rich exploration into the
leadership dynamics encountered in the unique, VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and
ambiguous) sport of sailing as shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2
Integration of Literature Review, Research Questions, and Navigational Leadership
The comprehensive literature review and initial SCT framework identified leadership
domains which informed the research questions (Bandura, 1977; Megheirkouni & Mejheirkouni,
2020). The research then commenced with a foundational inquiry into the types of leadership
experiences that sailing offers (RQ1), which culminated in the identification of six major themes:
resilience, adaptability, teamwork, strategic acumen, composure, and assured leadership, each
supported by distinct attributes. This thematic framework not only highlighted the multifaceted
nature of leadership required in sailing but also served as a lens through which to scrutinize and
compare existing business leadership models (RQ2). The comparative analysis revealed a
significant observation: while contemporary leadership theories often focus narrowly on specific
aspects or competencies, the complexities of real-world leadership, much like navigating a
sailboat through challenging waters, demand proficiency across a broad spectrum of skills and
attributes. The study's third question (RQ3) delved into the practical application of these insights,
leading to the formulation of actionable strategies for leadership development.
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The overarching finding from these inquiries posits that exemplary leaders must embody
all six leadership themes, supported by a comprehensive set of attributes, while effectively
applying the actionable insights gleaned from the rigors of sailing. This holistic approach to
leadership, which I call "Navigational Leadership," proposes a new paradigm that integrates the
depth and breadth of leadership capabilities necessary for steering organizations through the
turbulent seas of modern business landscapes.
To set the stage for this core finding, it is evident that Navigational Leadership provides a
robust framework that transcends the limitations of traditional theories by advocating for a
comprehensive competency model. This model, shown in Figure 3, does not isolate skills but
rather integrates them in a manner that mirrors the interconnected challenges of today's VUCA
business environment.
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Figure 3
Navigational Leadership Framework
At the top of this framework are the core leadership themes which emerged during the
study: resilience, adaptability, teamwork, strategic acumen, composure, and assured leadership.
These themes drive the core competencies essential for navigating complex leadership scenarios.
Supported by these competencies are leadership attributes, which highlight the foundational
skills, traits or behaviors that enhance the core competencies. These attributes are crucial as they
provide the necessary underpinnings that facilitate effective leadership practices and can be
explicitly developed through targeted training initiatives. Actionable insights sit at the foundation
of the framework and represent leadership practices that are directly applicable to enhancing
leadership effectiveness in complex, dynamic business situations.
This interconnected design illustrates how robust leadership practices are supported by a
broad spectrum of competencies and attributes, offering a holistic and targeted approach to
leadership development. By integrating these components, the Navigational Leadership
Framework not only aligns with but also builds upon traditional leadership theories, providing a
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comprehensive model that addresses the unique challenges and demands of modern leadership
environments.
The Imperative for Navigational Leadership in a VUCA World
The initial theoretical framework for this dissertation, social cognitive theory (Bandura,
1977), provided a reasonable starting point by explaining how skills and behaviors learned in one
context can be effectively transferred to another. This theory was important to explore how
sailing experiences could influence leadership practices in business settings. However, the
study's findings highlight inherent limitations in applying social cognitive theory exclusively.
While it adeptly addresses knowledge transfer, it falls short in encapsulating the dynamic and
unpredictable nature of sailing, a quintessential VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous)
environment. This gap suggests that while social cognitive theory helps explain some aspects of
knowledge acquisition and adaptation, it doesn't fully address the complexities of real-world
leadership application. This observation underscores that VUCA environments, as modeled by
sailing, require a leadership framework that more effectively integrates the key concepts from
contemporary leadership theories.
Moreover, contemporary leadership theories often focus on specific dimensions of
leadership, such as transformational, transactional, or situational approaches (Northouse, 2015).
This specialization allows for a deep understanding of certain behaviors and outcomes, yet it can
lead to a narrowed perspective that may overlook the interconnectedness of various leadership
attributes (Allio, 2005). For instance, transformational leadership emphasizes inspiration and
charisma but may pay less attention to operational execution or crisis management, which are
equally vital in comprehensive leadership development (Bass & Riggio, 2006).
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A significant limitation of this specialized approach is that it may not fully prepare
leaders for the diverse challenges they face. According to Bennis (2007), exemplary leaders are
distinguished by mastering a wide range of competencies. Leadership in dynamic environments,
such as business or sailing, demands a blend of skills, from strategic foresight and risk
assessment to effective communication and adaptability. When leadership theories focus too
narrowly on one area, they can create a gap in leaders’ ability to respond effectively across
complex systems (Frich et al., 2015).
For example, a leader who excels in visionary thinking but lacks competence in tactical
risk management may struggle to implement their vision in a way that navigates real-world
challenges effectively. Similarly, a leader who is strong in crisis management but poor in regular
communication may find it difficult to maintain trust and morale within their team. This
disjointed approach can significantly impact leadership effectiveness, as the strength in one area
might not compensate for a weakness in another, especially under pressure. In sailing, a skipper
must simultaneously manage navigation, crew coordination, and vessel maintenance; a
deficiency in any of these areas can lead to failures, regardless of competence in others.
Similarly, in business, leaders must align strategy, operations, and team management at every
level to achieve success (Mumford et al., 2007).
The concept of Navigational Leadership, inspired by multifaceted sailing experiences,
proposes a holistic framework that equips leaders with a balanced suite of skills necessary for
effective leadership across various domains. This approach ensures that leaders are not only
proficient in individual areas but are also adept at integrating these skills fluidly to navigate
today’s complex leadership landscapes effectively.
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Implementing a Navigational Leadership Framework
With the structure and components of Navigational Leadership delineated, and its
criticality established as a new theoretical framework, it becomes important to propose a
methodology for its effective implementation within organizations. The following sections
suggest an approach for integration into leadership development curricula.
Step 1: Implement Navigational Leadership Competency Development
To effectively implement Navigational Competency development, organizations should
first undertake a comprehensive evaluation of current leadership training initiatives, identifying
how these align with the six key competencies identified during the research: resilience,
adaptability, teamwork, strategic acumen, composure, and assured leadership. Each program
should be designed to address these specific competencies through targeted training modules that
include both theoretical knowledge and practical, scenario-based exercises as shown in Table 5.
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Table 5
Leadership Competency Assessment Framework: Tools, Strategies and References
Competency Definition Assessment Tools Implementation References
Resilience Evaluate ability to
handle stress and
recover from setbacks
Action learning with
simulated highpressure situations
Observations during
simulations
Robertson et al.
(2015)
Leonard and
Land (2010)
Adaptability Evaluate ability to
respond effectively to
changes in workplace
or industry
Scenario-based
assessments,
historical
performance
Workshops
adjusting strategies
based on scenario
changes
Pulakos et al.
(2000)
Teamwork Assess how leaders
build and maintain
teams
Peer reviews, 360-
degree feedback
Observations in
team settings
Fontannaz
(2020)
Katzenbach
(1993)
Strategic
Acumen
Evaluate ability to
formulate, articulate
and execute strategic
plans
Preparation of
strategic documents,
role playing
Strategic planning
training sessions, on
the job training
Goldman &
Scott (2016)
Composure Evaluate leaders’
ability to maintain
composure under
pressure
Behavior interviews,
crisis simulations
Training in crisis
management
Everly and
Athey (2023)
Assured
Leadership
Assess leadership
confidence and
decisiveness
Leadership selfefficacy scales,
confidence scales
Assessments, peer
review, confidence
building exercises
Anderson et al.
(2008)
With this type of structured approach, organizations could effectively measure and
improve their leadership development programs, ensuring they align with the demands of
dynamic leadership environments and contemporary leadership literature. The integration of
these assessments should be an ongoing process, revisited periodically to adapt to changing
organizational needs and external environments.
It is also important to recognize that organizations do not need to create entirely new
programs from scratch for each competency. The existing body of literature provides a solid
foundation. Robertson et al. (2015) conducted a systematic review of resilience training and
104
while they did not identify the most effective approach, they uncovered a variety of regimes that
improved personal resilience, mental health, and well-being of employees. With respect to
adaptability, Pulakos et al. (2000) suggested an adaptive job performance taxonomy and
examined its utility in understanding, predicting, and training adaptive behaviors in work
settings. Further, Heifetz et al. (2009) authored a book on tools and tactics for practicing what
they termed “Adaptive Leadership” in organizational environments. On strategic acumen,
Goldman & Scott (2016) offered guidance for enhancing strategic thinking assessments within
competency models and demonstrated how model elements can be applied across talent
management activities. Finally, Everly & Athey (2023) recommend a “five pillar” approach on
leading through crises with confidence and composure. In short, although Navigational
Leadership is proposed as a new leadership framework, it is firmly rooted in credible research.
Step 2: Align Attribute Training Programs to Support Competencies
To address the varied needs and skills levels of leaders within the organization,
customized training pathways should be developed in support of the core competencies. This
approach allows for tailored development strategies that align with individual leader’s strengths
and weaknesses, ensuring that each leader receives the specific guidance and training needed to
enhance their effectiveness in VUCA environments. The leadership attributes listed in the
Navigational Leadership framework provide a robust catalog of over thirty focus areas, many of
which are likely addressed by existing training within today’s organizations. Where gaps exist,
there is ample research available to guide effective development strategies. For example,
Mayfield & Mayfield (2017) and Marquet (2020) suggest detailed approaches for improving
leadership communication. With this type of mindset, organizations can tailor their existing
programs while integrating new evidence-based practices as they become available.
105
Step 3: Integrate Actionable Insights
The actionable insights derived from this study form the foundation of the Navigational
Leadership framework. These insights, reflective practice, strategy and risk management,
adaptive communication, deep engagement, and continuous improvement are pivotal because
they embody practical strategies that leaders can immediately apply to navigate complex and
dynamic environments effectively. Integrating these insights into leadership development
programs ensures that the framework is not only theoretical but also deeply practical, facilitating
the development of leadership capabilities that are critical for success in volatile, uncertain,
complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) settings.
Establish a Reflective Practice. Establishing a reflective practice is fundamental for
leaders, as it involves a deliberate pause to consider the broader implications of one’s actions.
This reflection enables leaders to learn from both successes and failures, akin to a skipper
reviewing a voyage to refine strategies for future challenges. This introspective approach
nurtures continuous learning and self-awareness, essential for strategic decision-making in
business. Research has shown a reflective leadership practice improves organizational
performance (Castelli, 2016), can elicit desirable identity leadership behaviors (Brown & Slater,
2023), and enhance creativity and innovation (Ollila, 2000).
Learn Strategy and Risk Management. Learning strategy and risk management is
equally vital, requiring leaders to anticipate potential challenges and prepare effective
contingency plans. Just as a skipper must forecast weather changes and prepare alternate routes,
business leaders must develop foresight to predict market shifts and implement risk mitigation
strategies. This proactive stance helps maintain organizational resilience and leverages
opportunities for growth and stability.
106
The imperative for leaders to master strategic thinking and risk management is welldocumented across recent leadership literature. Grove et al. (2023) emphasize the necessity of
strategic foresight for sustaining competitive advantage in rapidly changing markets. Similarly,
Horney et al. (2010) highlight how risk management strategies can be designed to bolster
organizational resilience, turning potential threats into opportunities for growth. Lastly, Drew et
al. (2006) details a framework that integrates strategic thinking with risk management to enhance
organizational adaptability and stability. These studies collectively reinforce the essential nature
of these skills in contemporary leadership practice.
Develop an Adaptive Communication Style. Developing an adaptive communication
style enhances a leader's ability to respond dynamically to varying contexts and audiences. In
sailing, communication must be adjusted based on the crew’s experience and the immediacy of
situations, a practice directly applicable in the business environment where tailored
communication fosters clearer understanding and engagement across diverse stakeholders.
Collignon (2017) posits a process communication model aimed at helping leaders bring clarity
and reduce miscommunications with their teams. Ntoumanis et al. (2017) showed that adaptive
communication styles in a fitness setting improved class performance over time, and Alteren &
Tudoran (2019) showed that an adaptive business style has a positive effect on open-mindedness
and trust building between business partners. Developing an adaptive communication style is
crucial for leaders, and the literature provides clear guidance on approaches and clear evidence
of its value.
Deeply Engage. Deeply engaging with employees and the business environment allows
leaders to grasp the underlying dynamics, culture, and values of their organization thoroughly.
This comprehensive commitment enables leaders to make more informed decisions that are
107
closely aligned with the organization’s goals and assess the potential impacts of these decisions
effectively. Such engagement fosters a workplace culture that values motivation and aligns team
efforts, enhancing loyalty and driving performance across the organization. Nasomboon (2014)
found that leadership commitment had a direct impact on employee engagement and
organizational performance. Mazzetti & Schaufeli (2022) showed that engaged leaders who
connect to employees inspire, empower and unify their teams which enhances motivation,
participation and performance. Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory (Graen & Uhl-Bien,
1995) focuses on the relationship between leaders and individual members of their team. It posits
that the quality of these relationships can significantly influence both personal and organizational
outcomes, a construct demonstrated through research (Gerstner & Day, 1997). Finally, deep
leadership engagement with positive intent fosters high-quality business relationships which
drive trust and speed of execution (Covey & Merrill, 2008). Thorough engagement not only
aligns leadership actions with organizational values and goals but also cultivates a highperformance culture underpinned by trust, collaboration, and execution.
Embrace Continuous Learning. Continuous improvement and development underscore
the importance of ongoing learning and adaptability in leadership, and there are no shortage of
tools available (Megheirkouni & Mejheirkouni, 2020). Regular training and updating of skills,
akin to a sailor mastering the latest navigational techniques, prepare business leaders to handle
evolving industry standards and leadership challenges effectively. This commitment not only
enhances a leader's capabilities but also inspires others within the organization to pursue their
development paths. In today’s business world, it is paramount. Aas (2017) demonstrated in a
school environment that a combination of coaching, 360-degree interviews and reflections
increased leadership metacognitive skills, self-awareness, motivation, and confidence. Ciporen
108
(2009) showed that for leaders to effectively navigate the complexities of a global market,
heightened competition, and rapid technological advances, it is pivotal for them to undergo
personal transformative learning. Akers (2010) further argues that continuous learning must
become part of company culture, fostering creativity and innovation. As John F. Kennedy once
said, “Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other.”
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations in research are factors or constraints that may impact the study’s validity or
generalizability but are typically beyond the researcher’s control (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In
this study, there were several potential limitations. First, when relying on self-reported data,
there is a risk with truthfulness and accuracy. Participants may have accidentally or intentionally
mischaracterized their experiences or feelings to enhance their status or minimize
embarrassment, or they may have misremembered details given that some of the events
happened years in the past. Despite this limitation, there was no evidence to suggest that this
occurred. All participants appeared honest, genuine and sincere in their responses, indicating that
the self-reported data likely reflects their true experiences and feelings accurately.
Another limitation was the diversity of the target research population. It is well-known
that the demographics of the sailing community in the United States do not fully represent the
broader societal demographics (Jenn Harkness, 2020). As expected, this lack of diversity did
manifest in the participant pool to a certain degree. However, the study was able to include four
females adding to the gender diversity of the population. Additionally, the subjective nature of
qualitative analysis can introduce bias, as the interpretation of the data is influenced by the
researcher’s perspective. To manage this limitation, a careful review of the interview transcripts
against the audio files was completed for each participant, and reflexivity was maintained
109
throughout the research process to acknowledge and mitigate personal biases (Korstjens &
Moser, 2018). Further, a structured coding process was used to identify and aggregate themes
and actionable insights and compared against the literature review for validity.
Delimitations in research refer to the boundaries set by the researcher’s choices that
define the scope and scale of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). These are typically
conscious decisions made during the research design phase that have implications for what the
study can discover. For this research, there are several delimitations worth noting. First, the focus
on sailing as a research setting for drawing leadership parallels, while novel, is limited in scope
and scale. Second, the selection of semi-structured interviews as the sole method of data
collection, while rich in detail, limits the data to subjective experiences of participants, excluding
other potentially valuable data sources such as observational studies or artifact analysis. Finally,
the number of interviews and specific questions asked shaped the depth and breadth of the data,
potentially missing aspects of leadership not covered by the interview protocol. While these
delimitations may influence the conclusions that can be drawn, they were necessary to maintain a
focused and manageable scope.
Recommendations for Future Research
The results of this study present several valuable directions for future research. First,
conducting longitudinal studies to assess changes in leadership effectiveness over time would
provide deeper insights into the sustained benefits of the Navigational Leadership framework.
Second, additional research could examine the cultural and global applicability of the
Navigational Leadership framework, investigating how cultural differences impact its
effectiveness in various international settings. This could involve cross-cultural case-studies
aimed at adapting the framework to different cultures and leadership expectations.
110
Moreover, comparing the Navigational Leadership framework with other contemporary
leadership theories like transformational and transactional leadership could help delineate its
unique benefits and limitations. Developing and validating new assessment tools to measure the
competencies and behaviors associated with Navigational Leadership would assist organizations
in tailoring development programs more effectively to individual leader needs, enhancing both
personal and organizational outcomes. Finally, investigating the integration of advanced
technologies such as AI and machine learning into the training and development processes under
the Navigational Leadership framework could reveal how these technologies enhance the
effectiveness of the framework.
Conclusion
In today’s fast-paced and increasingly complex world, the demand for effective
leadership is more critical than ever. The results from this dissertation highlight that traditional
leadership models, while helpful in many aspects, often fall short in addressing the wide range of
challenges leaders face now and will in the future. Traditionally, many leaders have risen
through organizations due to their technical knowledge, strong relationships, or proficiency in
one area of the business. These strengths have served them well in relatively stable
environments, where deep expertise or strong internal alliances could lead to success. Moreover,
leadership development approaches are often narrowly focused on a specific skill or behavior,
without adequately preparing leaders to adapt to the rapid shifts and complexities of today’s
business landscape. This dynamic has left many leaders with substantial weaknesses, exposed
and ill-equipped to navigate through the emerging forces in a VUCA world.
Warren Bennis, the eminent leadership scholar, expressed a “heartfelt conviction” in the
year 2007 that “leadership of our human institutions” was one of the most significant threats to
111
our future (Bennis, 2007, p. 5). While social, economic, and political forces intensify globally,
nowhere is Bennis’ conviction more evident today than with the rise of artificial intelligence.
This emerging technology is transforming industries and presents both opportunities and
challenges. On the positive side, AI has the potential to drive innovation and improve decisionmaking through automation and data processing. McKinsey reports that by 2021, 56% of
companies had adopted AI in at least one function, and that number is sure to increase
(McKinsey, 2021). Leaders can use AI to enhance workflows, handle large amounts of data, and
make more informed decisions. AI-powered coaching platforms could offer personalized
feedback by analyzing responses in real time, helping leaders improve their communication
skills.
However, the flood of real-time data, often amplified by social media, presents
challenges. Leaders must learn to quickly filter relevant information from noise, determining
what is accurate and actionable versus what should be ignored. While AI can assist in sorting
through this deluge of data, human judgment remains essential to apply context and make wise
decisions (Purdy & Williams, 2023). At the same time, leaders must manage potential
downsides, including job displacement, privacy concerns, and bias. A notable example is
Amazon’s 2014 AI hiring tool, which unintentionally downgraded female candidates due to
biases in its training data (Avery et al., 2024). This case highlights the need for human oversight
in AI-driven decisions.
What does all this mean for the future of leadership development? The findings of this
study highlight the need for a leadership framework that is not only broad and deep but also
highly adaptable, one that is structured to equip future leaders to thrive in an increasingly
complex and unpredictable world. Navigational Leadership envisions an approach that
112
overcomes the limitations of narrowly focused leadership theories by bringing together six core
competencies ideally suited for dynamic conditions: resilience, adaptability, teamwork,
composure, strategic acumen, and assured leadership. These competencies are amplified by
leadership attributes such as self-reliance, innovative thinking, risk management, authenticity,
and confidence. Each attribute aligns with and strengthens the competencies and can be further
developed through targeted training. Underpinning this framework are actionable insights,
including essential practices like mastering adaptive communication and deeply engaging
employees. However, in the era of rapid information flow and AI-driven decision-making,
establishing a reflective practice, the ability to pause, evaluate, and adapt, may prove to be the
most crucial insight of all. Leaders must carve out time to step back, reflect on the broader
context, and adapt their strategies thoughtfully. While AI promises to be a formidable tool,
leadership must stay rooted in human connection.
In conclusion, as the pace of change accelerates, the need for effective leadership is more
urgent than ever. The Navigational Leadership framework offers a powerful solution to the gaps
in traditional models, ensuring that organizations cultivate leaders capable of navigating both
present and future complexities. By integrating core competencies, key leadership attributes, and
actionable insights, this adaptive framework prepares leaders to not only manage ongoing
challenges but to guide their organizations with confidence and foresight in an increasingly
uncertain world, a human world. In a speech in 2008, Nelson Mandela reflected that “what
counts in life is not the mere fact that we have lived. It is what difference we have made to the
lives of others that will determine the significance of the life we lead.” Nothing truer could be
said about leadership. To do anything less invites failure upon ourselves, our organizations, and
our future.
113
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Appendix A
Email to Yacht Club Commodores, Sailing Clubs, Business Association Leaders
Dear XXX,
My name is Robert Frechette, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Organizational Change
and Leadership Program at the University of Southern California. As part of my dissertation, I
am conducting a research study to explore how the unique perspective of sailing might offer
novel lessons and fresh insights into leadership theory and development.
I would like to ask for your kind assistance in identifying individuals who possess a rich
blend of sailing experience and business leadership. Specifically, I am looking for 10-12
participants with a minimum of 10 years of sailing experience and a similar tenure in business
leadership roles. Your club’s membership ranks are an invaluable resource, and their
involvement would contribute to a deeper understanding of leadership dynamics through what
promises to be an engaging experience. The participants’ anonymity is protected as required by
the stringent research standards of the USC Internal Review Board. All data is kept confidential
and secure.
Thank you in advance for your support. As a licensed sailing captain, I am optimistic that
this study will be instrumental in advancing our understanding of how skills honed in the sailing
environment can translate to successful leadership development, enriching both our sailing and
business communities. If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me at
rfrechet@usc.edu or XXX-XXX-XXXX. Please feel free to forward to others who may also have
an interest in participating.
Sincerely
Robert Frechette
147
Appendix B
Social Media / Public Posting
CALLING ALL SAILORS
JOIN A NOVEL RESEARCH STUDY
VOYAGE TO VALUE – SAILING AS A BLUEPRINT FOR LEADERSHIP
DEVELOPMENT
Do you have at least 10 years of sailing and business leadership experience? If so,
then your expertise is needed for an exciting research study exploring the parallels between
leadership in the world of sailing and the business sphere. I am seeking accomplished individuals
like you for a 60-minute interview which can be conveniently conducted in-person or online.
This is your chance to contribute to novel research that aims to enrich both the sailing and
business communities with fresh insights into effective leadership! Rest assured, all interviews
and date will be strictly confidential. I look forward to hearing from you, and please share this
message with others who may also have an interest.
Contact Information
Robert Frechette
rfrechet@usc.edu
XXX-XXX-XXXX
148
Appendix C
Interview Participant Recruitment Email / Voice / Text Message
Dear XXX,
My name is Robert Frechette, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Organizational
Change and Leadership Program at the University of Southern California. As part of my
dissertation, I am conducting a research study to explore how the unique perspective of sailing
might offer novel lessons and fresh insights into leadership skills and development.
As an accomplished sailor and business leader, you are cordially invited to
participate in the study through an interview that is anticipated to take approximately 60 minutes
to complete. The interview can be conducted online or in-person depending on your availability
and preference. Your involvement would contribute to a deeper understanding of leadership
dynamics through what promises to be an engaging and enlightening experience. Please note that
participation in this study is completely voluntary, and your identity will always remain
confidential during and after the study.
Thank you in advance for your willingness to participate. As a licensed sailing
captain, I am optimistic that this study will be instrumental in advancing our understanding of
how skills honed in the sailing environment can translate to successful leadership development,
enriching both our sailing and business communities.
To schedule your session, please contact me at rfrechet@usc.edu or XXX-XXX-XXXX.
Sincerely
Robert Frechette
149
Appendix D
Interview Questions
Participant ID#:_____ Date of Interview:__________ Start Time:_______ End
Time:________
Type of Interview: Online Meeting In-Person
Interview Script:
Hello, my name is Robert Frechette, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Organizational
Change and Leadership program at the University of Southern California. Thank you for
agreeing to participate in this research study.
As part of my dissertation, I am exploring the unique intersection of sailing and
business leadership, with a focus on understanding how skills and experiences from the sailing
environment can inform and enhance leadership development. Given your accomplishments in
both sailing and business, your contributions will be invaluable.
Today, I will be conducting an interview that should take approximately 60
minutes to complete. Please note that your participation is entirely voluntary, and everything we
discuss will be strictly confidential in accordance with the USC Internal Review Board
requirements. None of your personal information will appear in any documentation during or
after the study so please feel comfortable speaking openly and freely. You can refuse to answer
any questions, and you may stop the interview at any time.
Thank you again for your participation. Are there any questions I can answer
before we get started?
150
Research Questions:
1. What are the types of leadership experiences encountered in sailing?
2. How do the leadership experiences encountered in sailing compare to the business
leadership environment?
3. What actionable insights, if any, can be garnered from sailing that can be used for
leadership training and development?
RQ # Addressed Interview Question(s) Social Cognitive
Theory Concepts
1. When you reflect on your sailing
experiences, what types of
leadership challenges did you
experience? Tell me about some of
your most memorable voyages and
what leadership skills you learned.
Did any themes emerge for you?
Explores reciprocal
determinism, selfefficacy, and
reinforcement.
1. Can you share an example of when
you faced a particularly
challenging situation? How did
you react, and what did you learn?
1. What leadership challenges have
you encountered in sailing that you
haven’t experienced elsewhere, if
any? Tell me about those, and why
do you feel they were unique?
1. When you think about sailing,
what are the top 3 leadership
challenges that jump to mind?
Please elaborate on each.
2. When you reflect on your business
experience, what types of
leadership challenges did you face?
Tell me about some of your more
memorable positions and what
skills you used and learned? Did
any themes emerge for you?
Explores self-efficacy
and outcome
expectancies
2. In what ways do you find
leadership in sailing similar to, or
distinct from, a business
environment? Are there any skills
you have developed through
Explores motivation,
outcome expectancies,
and behavioral
capability.
151
sailing that have directly benefitted
your business leadership, or vice
versa?
2. Tell me about a time when you
think your sailing experience
influenced your approach to a
business challenge, or vice versa?
What were the learnings you
applied in this situation?
2. When you think about business
leadership, what are the top 3
leadership challenges that jump to
mind? Please elaborate on each.
Explores expectations,
self-efficacy,
observational learning.
2. I’d like you to think about a leader
you admire most in sailing and
business. Why did you choose each
one? What are their similarities /
differences? What do you think the
business leader could learn from
the sailor?
3. From your experience, what key
leadership lessons from sailing do
you think could be effectively
applied in business leadership
training programs?
Explores reciprocal
determinism,
observational learning,
reinforcement.
3. Can you think of any novel
practices that could be taken from
the sailing environment and into
business leadership development?
Explores observational
learning, reciprocal
determinism, behavior
capability and
transferability
3. For the final question, if you could
design a leadership development
and training program based on
what you have learned from
sailing, what would be your
number one focus?
Explores cognitive
and behavioral
processes learned in
one environment can
be transferred to
another.
Thank you so much for your time
and insights today. I sincerely
appreciate it. If you have any
further comments, please reach out
to me at rfrechet@usc.edu or
XXX-XXX-XXXX.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Using sailing as a laboratory, this dissertation aims to expand contemporary knowledge about leadership in volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) environments. After conducting a qualitative analysis of interviews with 13 veteran business leaders who were also longtime sailors, the limitations of traditional leadership methodologies were uncovered. As a response, the Navigational Leadership framework is proposed, merging key leadership lessons from sailing with classical leadership approaches. The results suggest that Navigational Leadership is a comprehensive model, combining resilience, adaptability, teamwork, strategic acumen, composure, and assured leadership, making it ideally aligned with the needs of today's dynamic world. The framework is complemented by an inclusive set of leadership attributes and actionable insights that provide a foundation for developing leaders in any dynamic environment. Ultimately, this dissertation argues for the inclusion of Navigational Leadership in organizational leadership development and training programs as a requirement for leading in today’s complex world.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Frechette, Robert F. (author)
Core Title
Navigational leadership - a robust framework for leading in dynamic conditions
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
09/25/2024
Defense Date
09/10/2024
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Dynamic,framework,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,VUCA
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Advisor
Canny, Eric (
committee chair
), Bihr, Katherine (
committee member
), Ott, Maria (
committee member
)
Creator Email
rfrechet@usc.edu,robert.f.frechette@gmail.com
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399B9YT
Unique identifier
UC11399B9YT
Identifier
etd-FrechetteR-13544.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-FrechetteR-13544
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
Frechette, Robert F.
Internet Media Type
application/pdf
Type
texts
Source
20240926-usctheses-batch-1214
(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
framework
VUCA