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Counselor perspectives on disparities and access to college for Hispanic and Black high school students

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Counselor perspectives on disparities and access to college for Hispanic and Black high school students

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Content Counselor Perspectives on Disparities and Access to
College for Hispanic and Black High School Students

Geni Maria Cobb
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2024

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© Copyright by Geni Maria Cobb 2024
All Rights Reserved

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Abstract
This study investigates the barriers Hispanic and Black high school students face in
accessing college, focusing on the challenges experienced by academic counselors in supporting
these students. The research questions sought to discover the authentic perspectives of high
school counselors centered around collegiate admission for their Black and Hispanic students;
access and barriers to collegiate pathways; and improvements that promote awareness and access
to college resources. The theoretical framework used is Pierre Bourdieu’s Social /Cultural
Capital theory. The methodology used is qualitative, utilizing semi-structured interviews as the
data source.
The study revealed that secondary high school counselor perspectives generalized
students based on the economic status of the surrounding communities. Many counselors have
caseloads above the American School Counseling Association recommendation. The research
also confirmed a lack of college advisement training in master’s counseling programs, creating
student access deficits. Interviewees indicated that Advanced Placement courses are open to all
students, yet not all have equal accessibility to these classes. Specialized curriculum programs
such as magnets often have built-in Advanced Placement courses, which can limit access for
students outside of these programs. Due to time constraints, additional counselors assist students
with college planning. Counselors reported that students place value on family dynamics, even
though some parents do not come from a place of social-cultural capital and may not be able to
be involved with their children's academics.
A first recommendation is for high school counselors to have continuous college
counseling training and professional development. A second recommendation is for counselors

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to differentiate support by centering on individual trajectories rather than generalizing and
practicing a one-size-fits-all model. Counselors should also consider working on post-secondary
plans with students’ experiences and encouraging enrollment in programs like AVID. A third
recommendation is that counselors build post-secondary opportunities for students and parents
by creating relationships, more one-on-one sessions, and workshops.

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Dedication:
In loving memory of my mother Sonia Franco and my father George Cobb
Mom: You sacrificed your whole life for me and always gave me the best with what you had. I
wish you were still here but, I know you are looking down at me every day. I know how proud
you must be of me, for all my accomplishments. Words cannot express how much I love you and
miss you tremendously.
Dad: Life took you away months before my graduation, but I know how proud of me you are.
Thank you for always sharing your words of wisdom. Love you and miss you.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge that the land I reside in today is territory that belongs to the Tongva
and the Chumash people. I am honored to live in a space where these communities are still and
forever the caretakers of the lands I walk and breathe in.
I want to acknowledge God for giving me the breath of life every day. Without this
opportunity to live, I would not be achieving this great accomplishment. I would like to
acknowledge my ancestors for being with me and caring me through life. A huge thank you to
my husband Armando. Your patience, tolerance, and love for me has been incredible and I thank
you from the bottom of my heart for all your support. To my beautiful children Ahkin, Ixchel,
and Yaxkin: Thank you for always cheering me on. You are my life and without you I wouldn’t
be where I am today. You make me complete every day. To my wonderful aunts, brothers,
sisters, cousins, nieces, and nephews: Thank you for checking in on me and for your support.
To my wonderful life mentors: Dr. Gloria Angulo, Rosemary Muniz, Dr. Sandra Cruz, and
Deborah Hammond (mama D): Thank you for your incredible words of wisdom throughout my
life and for encouraging me through this journey. You are my inspiration. Love you all so much!
To my amazing support group sisters: Takako, Cecy, Lori, Pricilla, Dawn, Phong, Abigail,
Coleen: Thank you for your support and for always encouraging me to aim high.
To my chair Dr. Ferrario… where do I even begin? Thank you for always being present
for me all the time through the highs and lows. You have been a great chair and I am forever
thankful for your kindness, motivation, and for believing in me. Love you forever! To my
committee Dr. Emmerling and Dr. Riggio: Thank you for always supporting me throughout this
process and in classes I had with you. I chose both of you to be in this committee for a reason…

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and that's because both of you left an imprint in my heart and were always so extremely
encouraging. HUGS! To the best academic advisor ever Jordan Silva: Thank you for being with
me through thick and thin and for always believing in me. I will forever appreciate you. To my
biggest support when I applied to USC, Esteban Hernandez: I survived the application process
because of you! Thank you for believing in me and for letting me be an ambassador. To my
professor and forever mentor who did not let me drop out of this program Dr. Xiomara Mateo
Gaxiola: Without you, I would not be here today. Thank you for always believing in me. Love
you always! To the Rossier office staff and professors I had in this program: Forever thankful for
all of you. I will always carry you in my heart. Dr. Noguera: You are the best dean ever! Thank
you for giving me the time of day with my project and for always acknowledging me. You are a
wonderful leader and a true inspiration. Dr. Krop: I love you forever. Your guidance and words
of wisdom will always stay with me deep in my heart. Dr. Crew: You have been like a father
figure. I appreciate your words of encouragement and for always hearing me out. Dr. Green: You
always had the time to help me, and I forever appreciate you! Trish: My moving forward in life
is all thanks to you. Thank you from the bottom of my heart. Love you always. For my beautiful
sister Joanne Espejo: Thank you a gazillion times for always encouraging me to finish this
dissertation. Forever my sister! For my courageous sister Carissa Silva: Thank you for always
keeping it real! Hasta la victoria Hermana!!! Love you! To my bro’s Andrew, Antonio, Kris, and
Marc… Ya’ll are amazing. Your encouragement, listening ears, and help has always been
endless. Thank you forever! To my Wednesday and Thursday night cohort peers: Thanks for the
wonderful memories and laughs. Will never forget ya’ll.
FIGHT ON

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Table of Contents
Abstract 3
Dedication 5
Acknowledgements 6
Table of Contents 8
List of Tables 14
List of Figures 15
Chapter One: Introduction 16
Background of Problem 16
Organization Context and Mission 17
Purpose of Study 20
Research Questions 20
Importance of Study 21
Overview of Theoretical Framework 22
Definitions 22
Organization of the Dissertation 24
Chapter Two: Literature Review 26
Historical Perspectives 27
Colonized Educational Roots in Black Education 27
History of Black Education in the United States 28
History of College Entrance: Black Students 30

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Colonized Educational Roots: The Spanish Settlements 31
History of Hispanic Education in the United States 33
History of College Entrance: Hispanic Students 34
Affirmative Action 36
History of Academic Counselors 37
Systemic Challenges within Hispanic and Black Student Communities 39
Ethnicity 40
First - Generation Students 41
Socioeconomic Status 43
Parental Support 44
Academic Barriers to College 45
Educational Tracking 46
Post-Secondary Admissions: Support and Access 48
High School Counselor Impact 50
Counselor Caseload 51
Bias and the Underrepresentation of Ethnic Counselors 52
Counselor Preparation Programs and Best Practices 53
Theoretical Framework
Sociocultural Theory- Access to Social-Cultural Capital - (Bourdieu) 56
Summary 59
Chapter Three: Methodology 61
Overview of Methodology 62
Data Sources 63
Interviews 64

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Participants 64
Instrumentation 65
Data Collection Procedures 66
Data Analysis 66
Validity and Reliability / Credibility and Trustworthiness 67
Ethics 68
The Researcher 70
Chapter Four: Findings 72
Participants 76
Findings for Research Question 1 83
What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students
going to college?
Theme 1: Socioeconomic Status and the effects of 84
Collegiate Outcomes
Theme 2: Students' Family Dynamics 85
Theme 3: Parental Support 87
Theme 4: Students Mindsets Influenced by Sociocultural 89
Environments
Discussion for Research Question 1 95
Findings for Research Question 2: 96
How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students
in creating access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get

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in the way (if any)?
Theme 1: Post-Secondary Communication 98
Theme 2: Access to College Level Courses 101
Theme 3: Connections for Equitable Actions 105
Barriers to a Collegiate Pathway 107
Theme 1: Time Constraints on the Support that Counselors
Can Provide
Discussion of Research Question 2 116
Findings for Research Question 3: 118
What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District to promote college awareness and access
to college Resources?
Theme 1: Trainings and Professional Developments 119
Theme 2: Smaller Caseloads 121
Theme 3: Create a College-Going Culture 124
Theme 4: Parent Involvement 126
Discussion of Research Question 3 132
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion 135
Discussion of Findings 136
Research Question 1:
What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students
going to college?

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Research Question 2: 138
How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students in
creating access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in
the way (if any)?
Research Question 3: 140
What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland Unified
School District to promote college awareness and access to college
resources?
Recommendations for Practice 144
Recommendation 1: College Counseling Preparation 145
Recommendation 1:1 -Continuous Informational Support 145
Through Training and Professional Development
Recommendation 2: Differentiating Support for Students of Color 147
Recommendation 2:1 - Varying Support
Recommendation 3: Utilize Time Effectively to Build 148
Postsecondary Opportunity and Information
for Students and Parents
Recommendation 3:1- Building Relationships with 148
Students Utilizing More
One-On-One Time
Recommendation 3:2 - Building More Opportunities for 149
Parents to Learn about the College Process
Recommendation 3:3 - Creating College-going Cultures 149

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Limitations and Delimitations 155
Recommendations for Future Research 156
Conclusion 158
References 161
Appendix A 178

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List of Tables
Table 1: Research Questions 63
Table 2: Summary of Findings from Research 74
Table 3: Participants Gender, Race, and Counselor Years 77
Table 4: Participants Schools, Student Enrollment, Percentage of 79
Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Students, and Counselor Caseload
Table 5: Participants School and College Preparation Within School 81
Counseling Master’s Program
Table 6: Counselor Perspectives Regarding Black and Hispanic Students 92
Going To College
Table 7: Number of Advanced Placement Courses Offered and Dual 104
enrollment Program offering
Table 8: Annual Time Participants Spent with All Counselees on Caseload 109
Doing College Counseling
Table 9: High School Counselors Support for Black and Hispanic Students In 111
Creating Access Towards a Collegiate Path
Table 10: American School Counselor Load Preference, Counselor Caseloads, 123
and Counselor Caseloads Above the 250 Students’ Preference.
Table 11: Improvements for High School Counselors: Promotion of College 129
Awareness and Access
Table 12: Research Questions: Connection to Literature 143
Table 13: Recommendation Timeline and Staff Responsibility 151

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List of Figures
Figure A: The Impact of Systemic Challenges and Academic College Barriers 59

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Chapter One: Introduction of Study
Historically, lower percentages of Black and Hispanic high school students enroll in
college compared to their Asian and White counterparts. In 2020, According to the National
Center for Education Statistics (2022), Black and Hispanic college enrollment rates were 36%,
but 64% of White students and 41% of Asian students were enrolled. Because the rates of
Hispanic and Black students applying and enrolling in college are lower than Asian and White
students, the opportunities for advancement should be addressed. Holcomb-McCoy (2010) noted
that counselors influence student perceptions and may result in students seeking college
counselors for assistance with college information. This study investigates the barriers Hispanic
and Black high school students face in accessing college, focusing on the challenges experienced
by academic counselors in supporting these students.
Background of the Problem
High school counselors are influential in disseminating college material to students, but
some may question their positionality as collegiate advisors (Holland, 2015). Besides the
potential harm of counselors lacking college information, Akos and Kretchmar (2016) suggested
that bias is inevitable in the counselor world. Biases are evident throughout the history of the
United States as Black and Hispanic students have been educationally marginalized since
European explorers arrived in what is now the United States. Spring (2016) stated that
colonization was a common practice of the settlers and that the reconstruction of settler culture,
which was considered superior, has remained permanent.
Both cultures have continuously grappled with high school graduation completion (U.S.
Department of Education, 2023), college applications, and enrollment. According to the U.S.

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Department of Commerce (2021), college enrollment rates of 18-to-24-year-old Black and
Hispanic students fell below White and Asian students. McDonough (2005) emphasized that the
effectiveness of counselors depends on counselor preservice, education, and professional
development creating a role to remove barriers, inequities, and potentially increase college
applications for Black and Hispanic students. Mignolo (2000) indicated that coloniality shadows
the face of modernity which may be the overcast that has limited higher percentages of college
enrollments for these communities.
Organization Context and Mission
The context for this study is Earthland Unified School District (pseudonym), whose
history dates back to the late 1800s. Two separate unified school districts merged in the 1960s to
become Earthland Unified School District. Each unified school district contained elementary,
middle, and high schools. Segregation was prevalent in Earthland Unified School District during
the early 1960s, and several lawsuits prompted the desegregation of schools. Desegregation
resulted in busing minority students from minority-rich communities to schools that needed
diversity. Earthland Unified School District has prioritized reform efforts to remain unified and
serve its community effectively. Today, Earthland Unified School District stands at the center of
diversity. Its mission is to empower, inspire, and provide great experiences in learning and
growing to ensure students have the best educational outcomes. Earthland Unified’s vision is for
students to graduate successfully and become leaders of tomorrow.
Earthland Unified School District strives to achieve academic success for students. The
primary goal is to have a 100% graduation rate. The district’s work reflects the additional
classes, workshops, and services provided for students and parents as partners. EUSD has an

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85% graduation rate (Earthland Unified School District, 2019). Damareon et al. (2019) stressed
that students who reside in urban areas face consequences unique to their setting, such as crime,
family challenges, poverty, and healthcare issues. These are factors that EUSD faces as it
attempts to increase graduation rates.
All students must achieve academic proficiency as they graduate. In 2018, 30 % of
students in the district exceeded in English and 60% of students exceeded in Math. Earthland
Unified School District strives for excellence in proficiency as it aims to raise the percentages
through additional intervention programs during and after school hours. These targets are
important because 4 out of 10 students are unprepared for college courses, forcing them to take
remediation classes when they enter college (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). Student
attendance affects learning, grades, college preparation, graduation, and proficiency. These
factors also play a role in the district's goals: that all students must have 100 % attendance. The
district has personnel within schools, such as pupil services attendance counselors (PSA), who
tackle truancy. Students within the district must have more than seven absences during the
school year. Earthland Unified School District has an attendance record of above 90%.
Earthland Unified School District is committed to creating parent and community
engagement. EUSD (2024) states that over 80% of students are eligible for free or reduced
meals. Moles (1997) reported that low-income parents who come from racial and ethnic
backgrounds tend to have less engagement in their children’s education; therefore, their children
are more at risk of failing, which could put a strain on collegiate involvement. Earthland Unified
School District has approximately 800 schools that serve close to 400,00 students. It
encompasses urban and rural areas in the Southwestern United States and serves kindergarten
through 12th
-grade students. Each school has a zoned area, which determines the school of

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attendance by residential address. Areas within Earthland Unified School District are also zoned
by regions, creating uniform and cohesive collaboration amongst K-12 schools in those areas.
Student demographics for Earthland Unified School District show a population of 7%
African American, 65% Hispanic, 9% white, 5% Asian, 2% Native American, and 12% other.
Fifty thousand students are English learners comprising EL1 – EL4 levels. Gender is made up of
50% males and 50% females. According to the U.S. Department of Education (2023), the 2019-
2020 college attendance rate for Earthland Unified School District was 55%. Woods & Domina
(2014) stated that the pipeline to college begins when students have their college expectations
before collegiate applications begin in 12th grade. The Campaign for College Opportunity (2021)
noted that more than half of Latino graduates in California, for example, are not prepared with
A- G college courses and are not eligible for admission to four-year universities. For the 2019-
2020 school year, White and Asian students were more than 50% prepared to go to college, but
Hispanic and African American students made up a much lower percentage.
The American School Counselor Association (2023) recommended that the counselor
ratio should be 250 students to one counselor. Earthland Unified School District’s academic
counselors have a surplus of students raising the question of whether or not all students receive
counseling and guidance equally. Woods and Domina (2014) found the association between the
counselor role and collegiate transition more pronounced during the high school years.
Furthermore, they suggested that having many students on a counselor caseload negatively
impacts collegiate preparation. Large comprehensive high schools in the district may have a
college counselor whose sole job is to provide college information to students and help with the
college application process. However, academic counselors in smaller high schools may be
tasked with doing both jobs and have additional responsibilities.

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Purpose of the Study
The study aims to investigate the barriers Hispanic and Black high school students face in
accessing college, focusing on the challenges experienced by academic counselors in supporting
these students. Ladson Billings (2006) stated that it is inconceivable to expect all students to
finish their education in the same place when they do not begin in the same place. Structural
factors such as economic hardship, cultural and gender biases, and levels of parental involvement
play a role in students’ ability to enroll and graduate from college. Academic counselors also
play a crucial role by providing specific guidance that results in a successful collegiate
experience. Historically, Hispanic and Black students continue to fall behind in college
admissions (Department of Commerce, 2021). The collegiate disparities between the two
communities must continue to be researched as solutions can produce academic counselor
responsibility and involvement in equitable dissemination and counsel of collegiate information.
Research Questions
Academic high school counselors play a significant role in programming students to
classes for graduation and college applications. Bray & Schommer-Aikins (2015) indicated that
the need to advocate for students against institutional barriers and systematic insensitivities for
students and their families lies within the role of counselors. The research questions center
around how academic counselors allocate collegiate access through various means to Black and
Hispanic students to discontinue the disparities of college enrollment. Because cultural capital
may define counselor evaluation, vocalizing the correlation between Hispanic and Black
students is essential.
• What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland Unified
School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to college?

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• How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students in creating
access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in the way (if any)?
• What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland Unified School
District to promote college awareness and access to college resources?
Importance of the Study
The discrepancies between the application and enrollment periods for Hispanic and Black
students can no longer exist. Black (2020) revealed that White and Asian students increase the
selectivity of schools to which they apply, whereas underrepresented minority students apply to
less selective schools. Society must be cognizant of the deficit and change the story to one where
Black and Hispanic students can flourish and stand on the same percentage grounds that match
White and Asian students graduating from high school and going to college. Ryu et al. (2021)
showed that a Latino /a from a low-income school often needs more resources and guidance to
be a collegiate candidate to earn a bachelor’s degree. Tuck and Gaztambide-Fernandez (2013)
stated that colonialism builds on the idea that people of color are created through the notion that
they are less than or not quite civilized. Culturally, both have indicated that graduation,
collegiate applications, and enrollment have always been low, indicative of “less than” status
compared to Anglo and Asian students.
Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernandez (2013) asserted that the participation of white scholars
must always be inclusive; if not, it is considered exclusionary. Historically, education has been
limited for black and brown people. Roberts (2015) referred to revolutions as moments of flight
that bring opportunities to refashion the foundations societies have instilled for so long. This
research is essential to give back to both communities, seek inclusivity, refashion collegiate
space access, and increase Hispanic and Black students’ applications, enrollments, and

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graduation from college. Findings from the research may also be used to assist and improve the
structures that do not address the scope of college counseling focused on Black and Hispanic
students. Holland (2015) argued that students with fewer resources should have assistance in
attaining college access and increase their social capital for future societal advancement.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework used for this study is Pierre Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory.
Bourdieu and Passeron’s (1990) pedological work of cultural capital analyze educational
variations of efficiency that result in inequalities of student academic attainment. Academic
success comes with a price, resulting in inequalities that are not uniform. However, access to
cultural capital plays a significant role in the scholastic achievement of students. Bourdieu’s
theory of cultural capital heavily influenced positive outcomes within the class, influencing the
scholarship of a student’s future. Bui (2002) reported that socioeconomics plays a significant role
in students’ post-secondary decisions. The challenge for first-generation students in particular,
usually arises from being unable to afford tuition. Harvey et al. (2019) noted that college is like a
domino effect that burdens and challenges secondary schools since the goal is to have
“everyone” college and career ready. The goal weighs in and begs the question of equal access
for all students, including Black and Hispanic students, regardless of cultural capital.
Definitions
The following terms are keywords utilized throughout this study:
Access - How higher education institutions, their governance, and higher educational policies

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ensure or aspire to ensure that all potential students have equal and equitable opportunities to
gain access to higher education institutions and allow these students to take full advantage of
their educational opportunities (Leal Filho, 2021, p.1).
Black - “Black or African American is someone who has origins in any of the Black racial
groups of Africa.” (United States Census Bureau, 2024).
College Readiness - “College readiness can be defined as the level of preparation a student
needs in order to enroll and succeed—without remediation—in a credit-bearing general
education course at a post-secondary institution that offers a baccalaureate degree or transfer to a
baccalaureate program.” (Conley, 2008, p. 24).
Denial of Education. “Attempt by a ruling group to control another culture by denying it an
education.” (Spring, 2016, p. 6).
First-generation- “First-generation students are those whose parents have had no college or
university experience. They are, in other words, the first generation in their families to continue
education beyond high school.” (Billson & Terry 1982, p. 35).
Hispanic/Latino - “A person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or
other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.” (United States Census Bureau, 2024)
Educational Inequities - “Educational inequalities as differences in educational outcomes (e.g.,
attainment, competencies, and certificates) along the three most prominent ascriptive attributes in

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educational research: gender, socioeconomic status (SES) and migration background.” (Zapfe &
Gross, 2021, p.2).
Tracking - “Tracking places students who appear to have similar educational needs and abilities
into separate classes in programs of institution.” (Oakes, 1987, p131).
School Counselors - “School counselors are certified/licensed educators who improve student
success for all students by implementing a comprehensive school counseling program.”
(American Counseling School Association, 2024).
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter 1
Chapter 1 contains a brief introduction and background regarding the historical exclusion
of Black and Hispanic students from the educational system. It also gives an overview of the low
percentage of students enrolling in college in both cultures, along with the study’s purpose and
importance. The introduction proposes the continuous deficits that exist in Hispanic and Black
societies. The historical context of the Earthland Unified School District is used in this
qualitative research because counselors from this district will be interviewed for data collection
and are a crucial focus of the study.
Chapter 2
In this chapter, the literature review touches upon the historical context of the education
of Black and Hispanic societies and the beginning and purpose of school counseling in
educational settings. The chapter encompasses the disparities of collegiate access from a

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systemic and an academic application to evaluate how these communities are affected. In
addition, the chapter includes the role that academic counselors play regarding college access
and what barriers, or challenges counselors may have, if any, when paving the pathways for
collegiate futurity. The literature review discusses approaches and strategies that historically
have impacted both communities towards their future collegiate pathways.
Chapter 3
Chapter 3 contains the qualitative methodology utilized for this study, which consists of
data collection methods. The method for collecting data is conducted through semi-structured
interviews of counselors in the Earthland Unified School District. A rationale is provided for the
method used linked back to Pierre Bordeaux’s Sociocultural Theory as the theoretical
framework. Data source tables are utilized as a visual source of data.
Chapter 4
This chapter incorporates the findings and results of the interviews. The analysis findings
and present fundamental discoveries are analyzed through interviews with counselors from
Earthland Unified School District.
Chapter 5
This chapter includes recommendations for best practices and future research that could
be used to increase the number of Black and Hispanic students going to college.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
Counselors play a significant role in assisting students with high school graduation and
planning post-secondary options (American School Counseling Association, 2024). To
understand the current trends of Hispanic and Black students lagging in collegiate applications
and enrollment, one must look at the aspects that may impede them from doing so. The first
section of chapter 2 details the histories of Black and Hispanic people and their integration into
the educational system. The section incorporates the history of school counseling and where it
stands today. Finally, the first section lays out the history of affirmative action, showing the
implications of equality for all students in educational settings and the latest actions taken in
current times. The second section of the chapter looks at systemic challenges within the Black
and Hispanic communities that seem to restrict access to colleges. Such challenges stem from
ethnic backgrounds, being a first-generation student, socioeconomic status, and minimalized
parental support. The third section of the chapter focuses on the academic barriers that create
missed opportunities for Hispanic and Black students. Educational tracking, low numbers of
minority students in honors and advanced placement courses, testing, and assistance with college
applications are a few elements Hispanic and Black students face when considering college. The
fourth section of this chapter examines the barriers high school counselors have when providing
college guidance, such as high caseloads and lack of resources. Counselors’ preparation and best
practices comprise the fifth section of chapter two and delineates the need of college preparation
required to service students for post-secondary opportunities. Finally, the sixth section of this
chapter concludes by discussing the theoretical framework selected for this topic. Sociocultural
theory-access to social-cultural capital by Pierre Bourdieu will examine the lens of society as a
symbol of social class in education.

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Historical Perspectives
The historical narratives of Black and Hispanic populations are crucial in understanding
the foundations of American culture, which was nationalistic, racist, and contributed to
subordinating people of color (Gonzalez, 2013). American history has always begun with the
thirteen colonies (Weber, 2000), including the first university on American soil, Harvard
University (Wilder, 2014). Harvard was a part of the racial, colonial capital history implemented
in the system (Stein, 2018). Historically, Blacks in the colonies began as enslaved communities
brought from Africa, and Hispanics began as indigenous populations who were also enslaved and
mixed with Spanish blood. From the beginning of American history, both communities have had
racial challenges and have been deprived of ancestral knowledge, lost generational wealth (Patel,
2021), and suffered under political agendas designed to assimilate, creating a cultural and
linguistic genocide (O’Connor & Gonzalez, 2017). Both communities began their education
through forced religious conversion (Rust, 2021; Schultz, 2019); both have been de-historicized
(Macdonald & Garcia, 2003, Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2013; Patel, 2021, Ram,
2020); both were segregated in education (Spring, 2016, Ruiz, 2001); both continue to be part of
the educational gap (Butchart, 2010, Kohler & Lazarin, 2007), and both continue to be in schools
that are resource depleted (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007 ; Farkas, 2003).
Colonized Educational Roots in Black Education
Collegiate educational history in the United States begins with the colonial settlers’
construction of institutions established to expand Christianity. Universities such as Harvard
(1636), William and Mary (1693), and Yale (1701) were constructed not only as a way to
marginalize Native Americans and decolonize their Indigenous ways but to uproot and benefit

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from the African slave trade, which began in 1502 (Wilder, 2014). These universities and others
were constructed using the exploitation and complicity of slavery for economic gains (Stein,
2018). The first universities were made for the sons of noblemen but did not include people of
color and were indicative of white narratives that dominated through colonialism (Wilder, 2014).
Although Native Americans were taken from their homelands and inculcated in universities as a
way to eradicate native culture, Blacks were not even thought of for having educational
cultivation (Wilder, 2014). Through the advancement of Christianity as an example, clergy
members such as Pope George Berkeley condemned Blacks from being educated because they
felt they had no right to have any instruction (Glenn, 2011). Some missionaries, however, sought
to assist slaves in literacy for religious conversion purposes only, therefore not seeing the
enslaved people as property but as people (Glenn, 2011). The philosophy of Blacks being
inferior was a construct behind the development of the Christian European colonialist living and
prospering from indigenous lands (Stein, 2018).
History of Black Education in the United States
The first school created for Black slaves was established in the early 1700s by Elias Neau
in the northern United States. Education was provided in his home with the purpose of
evangelizing slaves. Fear of slaves using their education in the name of religion to be free
initiated the decree of 1706 stating slaves were not free, even if they were baptized (Whelan,
2011). Formal instruction for slave children was nonexistent at the time. Most education
instruction was Christianized. The thought of a white man or family educating any slave (free or
not) in anything other than religious dogma was equal to slaves becoming rebellious, which the
White communities feared (Glenn, 2011). Free slaves, however, began holding their educational

29
schools in secrecy to sustain education within the slave communities, eventually creating schools
that were entirely staffed by Black educators and controlled by former slaves (Anderson,
2010). Schools such as the first African American Education Center in Fortress Monroe,
Virginia, or the Pioneer School of Freedom were established through Black collective efforts to
create systemic universal educational instruction for illiterate Black slaves (Anderson, 2010).
Settler colonialist perspectives afforded their freedom of ownership through violence, which
made the right to own property, a self-defense mechanism of preemption (Singh, 2019).
Anglo-American Protestant culture was very prominent during the 19th century, creating
an ideology centered on religion, capitalism, and staying true to their republic as American
(Spring, 2016). The emancipation of slaves in 1863 was a new liberation for those who still had
owners and took place when they entered a new social system. Liberation also happened when
educational systems shaped our modern schooling system (Anderson, 2010). Freedom came with
a desire to be educated and gain Black autonomy and individual independence to match the
slaves' new freedom (Butchart, 2010). Racial constructs continued to shape the educational
construction of schools. The drop of blood rule created segregation between Anglo and Black
students which determined what school they attended (Spring, 2016). On May 17, 1954, Justice
Earl Warren delivered a unanimous decision in Brown vs the Board of Education. The court
ruling ended the segregation of public schools and stated that it would be unconstitutional if
schools continued to operate in a segregated manner. Students such as Ruby Bridges, Millicent
Brown, and Josephine Boyd were among the first to desegregate their schools, disrupting an
unjust system and servicing what equality meant (Meadows, 2011). Inclusion through
desegregation was conditional and based on allegiance to American interests; it rationalized
groups who were creating more significant change and seeking equal opportunities (Stein, 2018).

30
Brown vs. the Board of Education was also significant because it marked an era in which public
education would enter a second round of segregation, preventing Black students from
experiencing academic achievements, quality teachers and instruction, and opportunities to be
college-ready (Hill, 2021). Educational equality did not resolve racial issues, hence the growth of
the civil rights movement, which sought to remove discrimination against Black communities
and other minority groups that faced discriminatory laws in the United States (Spring, 2016).

History of College Entrance: Black Students
History unveils that the educational journey took a little more than 200 years for the first
Black man to graduate from college since they were prohibited from reading, writing, and
learning (The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2009). Historical documentation states that
Alexander Lucius Twilight was the first African American male to graduate from college. He
graduated in 1823 from Middlebury College in Vermont and later became an elected official for
the same state (Slater, 1994). Slater (1994) also noted that there might have been African
American graduates, but they passed as whites, keeping their racial identities a secret. Other
colleges, such as Oberlin in Ohio, were the first to open their institutions to African American
students, including women. In 1897, Oberlin graduated its first Black female, Lucy Ann Stanton,
who went on to become a teacher (Slater, 1994). Due to abolitionist sentiments regarding Black
students, few of them attended Anglo-oriented universities, which led to the creation of
Historically Black Colleges (HBCUs) (The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 1994). Some
of the first Historical Black Universities in the United States were Cheyney University of
Pennsylvania (1837) and Lincoln University (1854), built before the Civil War (Paris & Gasman,
2006). Black institutions created academic paths that directly impacted Black students and the

31
dynamics of racial implications (Allen et al., 2007). The support of the Freedmen’s Bureau and
the northern church formed historically Black colleges such as Clark-Atlanta and Spelman
University (both in Georgia) to Christianize the free slaves (Paris & Gasman, 2006) and maintain
the whiteness of students within the colonial institutions (Slater, 1994).
The foundations of HBCUs came with a struggle for dignity and equality for all students
because it shaped circumstances leading to the essence of the personhood of Blacks (Allen et al.,
2007). The essence of Blackness also accompanied the building of additional Historically Black
Colleges, such as Morris Brown in Georgia and Paul Quinn in Texas, both created and supported
by Black communities to enhance the education of Black students (Paris & Gasman, 2006).
However, Black students attended white institutions. W.E.B. DuBois reported that 390 very
talented Black students had graduated from highly rated institutions such as Harvard and Yale,
beginning in the late 1800s (Du Bois, 1900). It is important to note the valiant pioneers who
opened collegiate doors for educational opportunities for Black communities.
Colonized Educational Roots: The Spanish Settlements
Educational historians have grounded American history in English colonial records,
shielding away histories of Spanish conquest and colonial eras in the United States (MacDonald,
2001). Although documented, but whisked away from history, are the Spanish settlements of St.
Augustine in Florida (1563) or the settlement of New Mexico by conquistadores like Juan De
Ornate (1598), which predate the settlement of Jamestown or the English colony of Plymouth
(1620) (Weber, 2000). Spain controlled most of the American West and lands south of the
western frontier (Weber, 2000). According to Rust (2021), historical documentation states that
the Spanish took about fifty years to colonize the southwestern United States after Christopher

32
Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492. Indigenous nations dominated the southwest lands of
what is now the United States (Gratton & Merchant, 2015). During this era, much like the
English invasion of the northeast, indigenous peoples’ territories were taken away through the
dominance of the Catholic church. These communities were stripped of their beliefs and culture
and were forced to coexist with the Spaniards (Rust, 2021). Indigenous peoples were traded or
captured through wars and were exploited and enslaved (Weber, 2000). Through exploitation and
enslavement, Spanish Catholic priests worked on converting Native Americans to Christianity
and submerged them in Spanish culture (Rust, 2021).
The first education records in the new world indicated that schools opened alongside
Franciscan, Dominican, or Augustinian monasteries to teach Christian principles to native youth
(Cortes, 2008). Seeing the potential to spread Christianity, the friars were given the blessing to
institute universities in the new world: Colegio Imperial de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in Mexico
(1536), followed by Universidad Pontifica de Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic (1538),
and Colegio de San Bautista de Tiripitio (1541), creating many more throughout South America
(Cortes, 2008). Although these universities predate Harvard, William and Mary, and Yale
universities, their establishments were conceived to infiltrate colonial ideologies (Weber, 2000).
After the Mexican War of Independence 1810 – 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain.
Mexico was still a vast territory and continued dominance of the current southwestern United
States (Gratton & Merchant, 2015). Needing to save the Spanish-speaking savages and liberate
them from their Latin-governed counsel, the Spanish-American War took place (1846 – 1848),
leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), which annexed the current southwest to the
United States and served as the new country for Mexicans living within the territory (Gratton &
Merchant, 2015).

33
History of Hispanic Education in the United States
Beginning in 1900 and through the 1930s, an influx of Mexicans settled in large cities in
the United States, expanding into barrios (Ruiz, 2001). Proponents to Americanize unassimilated
and poor immigrants, Title XIX passed, stipulating the English language as the formal language
of instruction in schools, which was used to segregate the Spanish-speaking children in some
school districts (Ruiz, 2001). Long before Brown vs. the Board of Education, woven into
American history, many court cases throughout the southwest fought segregation, such as
Roberto Alvarez v. The Board of Trustees of the Lemon Grove School District. Alvarez won the
case of desegregating schools, which was the first successful desegregation in United States
history (Alvarez, 1986). Another significant court case was a battle that changed the face of
segregation among Mexican American children in school systems. The 1946 Mendez vs
Westminster case (Donato & Hanson, 2019) is significant in American history. Five Mexican
American parents sued the Westminster School District for segregating their children in classes
mainly due to their last names and won the case (Donato & Hanson, 2019). Mexican Americans
were one of many groups who branded “education for liberation,” which gave way to the desire
to want an education for all students (Williamson, 2004). The Mendez vs. Westminster case took
place in California and the courts upheld that schools did not have the right to segregate Mexican
children in educational settings (Donato & Hanson, 2019). Furthermore, Donato and Hanson
(2019) noted that in the following years, other states in the southwestern territory followed in the
integration of Mexican American children into school systems. The years of discrimination in the
educational system led the descendants of the pre-Mexican territories to commemorate their
existence through the Chicano movement of the 1960s. Chicanos fought for their regional history
and place within society (Gratton & Merchant, 2015).

34
Although these were the historic battles to overcome unequal education in the Hispanic
southwest, history cannot forget the stories of other Hispanic/ Latino cultures. Historical
Hispanic education in the United States can be broken into three major populations. The first
population is Mexicans followed by Cubans and Puerto Ricans, who have also fought long,
brutal battles to instate themselves in an education system engraved in colonization, annexation,
and occupation (Macdonald, 2001). Additionally, Central and South American students have a
beginning in educational history in the United States. However, as Macdonald (2001) stated,
Hispanic American history is often overlooked due to contemporary, social, political, and
educational issues that create troubling questions of neglect.
History of College Entrance: Hispanic Students
Historically, Hispanics were treated differently from other Americans, including the
populations of Mexicans who became citizens under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Gratton
& Merchant, 2015). However, the interest in Americanization promoted schools to reconstruct
the Mexican family (Gonzalez, 2013). Generally, the Latino pipeline to higher education has
been blocked beginning in the earliest form of schooling (Macdonald & Garcia, 2003), and
although Hispanics in the United States have gained improvements in education since the early
1900s, schooling attainment still lacks and does not match the educational trajectory of Non –
Hispanics (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). However, a few Hispanics from privileged families in the
southwest, had a chance to attend college in the 1800s (Macdonald & Garcia, 2003). Jose Angel
Navarro (1850) is one of the earliest Hispanic graduates documented in history who graduated
from Harvard Law School and served in the Texas Legislature (Texas State Historical
Association, 2020). From 1870 to1872, the University of California had a brief preparatory

35
department for enrollment called the Fifth Class, where university standards were lowered
(Macdonald & Garcia, 2003). The program offered Hispanic students’ special admission and
tuition to augment the university's enrollment; however, it was short-lived due to the university’s
regents, who terminated the program after two short years, causing the enrollment of minorities
to cease (Leon & McNeil, 1985). The elimination significantly affected students who had
Spanish surnames (Macdonald & Garcia, 2003). Manuel Marius Garcia (1883) is another
important graduate as he was the first Mexican American to graduate from the University of
Texas (Texas State Historical Association, 1995).
Catholicism also played an essential role in Hispanics attending college, mainly due to
the acceptance of Hispanic bilingualism and Catholicism being the religion of practice
(Macdonald & Garcia, 2003). Due to its disrepair, Mission Santa Clara de Asis was handed over
to Jesuit priests to serve as the first college in the new state of California in 1851(Santa Clara
University Historical Society, n.d.). Between 1851 and 1876, Santa Clara University was a
Hispanic-serving institution, and one-fourth of its population had Spanish surnames (Macdonald
& Garcia, 2003). The University of Notre Dame also has a rich history of Hispanic recruitment,
beginning in the 1800s with Father John Zahm, who canvased the southwest and Mexico to
recruit for the university’s programs (University of Notre Dame Historical Archives,
2023). Alexandro Perea (1864) was the first Spanish-surnamed student from New Mexico to
graduate from the University of Notre Dame. Macdonald and Garcia (2003) noted that there is a
possibility of many more Hispanics who may have graduated from collegiate institutions in the
southwestern states, such as St Mary’s College in San Francisco or College of San Miguel in
Santa Fe, but very little attention is given to the participation of Hispanics in higher education

36
during this time era. Macdonald (2001) questioned why Hispanic educational history has not
been a part of American history.
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action was born out of the quest for equality (Parry & Finney, 2014) and
goes beyond equal opportunity (Blanchard & Crosby, 1989) as a response to the disparities
served to traditionally underrepresented groups (Perez - Felkner, 2021). A significant goal of
affirmative action has been to create opportunities and emphasize abilities not considered in the
past (Blanchard & Crosby, 1989). Created during the Civil War, the Emancipation Proclamation,
which President Abraham Lincoln believed he could enforce, became the beginning of
affirmative action (Parry & Finney, 2014). After the war, Congress proposed constitutional
amendments to protect the rights of former slaves, beginning with the thirteenth amendment in
1865, which punished both slavery and servitude and would be duly enforced. The Fourteenth
Amendment (1865) provided equal protection for all by enforcing discriminatory laws. The
Fifteenth Amendment (1870) prohibited states and the federal government from discriminating
against race, color, and previous slave states (Parry & Finney, 2014), and continued the fight for
equality. Even though these amendments existed, Jim Crow laws of racial separation were still
very prevalent throughout the United States (Lofgren, 1989).
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal Policy Agenda, which began in 1933,
was a type of affirmative action to protect and improve lives. However, it left Black Americans
helpless in poverty and discrimination (Pierce, 2014). In 1948, Executive Order 9981 was signed
by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to desegregate the armed forces, meaning all recruits would
have equal treatment regardless of race (Parry & Finney, 2014). In 1961, President John F

37
Kennedy presented the concept of affirmative action through his Executive Order 10925, which
called for government contractors to support minorities by recruiting, hiring, and promoting them
(Moreno, 2003). With the passing of President Kennedy in 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson
continued to implore nondiscriminatory acts, thus signing Executive Order 11246, known as the
Civil Rights Act (Parry & Finney, 2014). Under Executive Order 11246, labor sectors and
educational institutions worked on creating race-conscious efforts to bring diversification to
higher education and workforces to rectify social inequities. (Perez-Felker, 2021).
Affirmative action has been a topic of litigation and conversation since the Civil Rights
Act passed (Moreno, 2003). From lawsuits such as De Funis vs Odegaard (1974) and Regents of
the University of California vs. Bakke (1978) to propositions such as California Proposition 209
(1996), affirmative action has been complex (Perez-Felkner, 2021). The most recent change in
affirmative action occurred on June 29, 2023, when the Supreme Court passed a law to strike
down race-based admissions programs at Harvard University and the University of North
Carolina (United States Supreme Court, 2022). The results of these lawsuits, unfortunately,
create more barriers for BIPOC communities as it creates further hoops to jump through,
especially for Black and Hispanic students.
History of Academic Counselors
The history of school counseling has been influenced by economic, social, and
educational forces (Gysbers, 2010). George Merrill was the first person to implement vocational
counseling in Cogswell High School (1888) and, along with Eli Witwer Weaver, created peer
mentoring programs (Savickas, 2009). Another significant influencer who pushed for a
vocational guidance program was Frank Parsons, who wrote “Choosing a Vocation” (Gysbers,

38
2010) and was an activist who worked on vocational guidance for the underprivileged (Wilson,
2013). The vocational guidance counselor position was given to teachers who instructed students
daily. They were given a list of duties and no additional pay (Gysbers, 2010; Gysbers &
Henderson, 2001). During the 1920s and 1930s, counseling turned from vocational guidance to a
more clinical approach, focusing on personal adjustment (Gysbers, 2010). Jesse B. Davis
introduced his vocational guidance curriculum in 1913, which was incorporated into middle
schools. It was not until the beginning of the 1930s and into the 1940s that the school counselor
role was defined by administrators (Gysbers & Henderson, 2001) and encompassed a more
educational focus (Cinotti, 2014). The creation of the organizational structure of counseling was
the beginning of pupil personnel services, in which guidance services were at the center with a
list of duties to perform (Gysbers, 2010). During the 1940s and into the 1950s, school counseling
training began to increase significantly, and the position was now under the umbrella of pupil
personnel services (Cinotti, 2014). The American School Counseling Association (ASCA)
formed in 1952, and the School Counselor Journal was established a year later, which provided
counselors with resources (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). The 1960s and 1970s were a time of
debate around whether counseling was more psychologically based or educational. Such debate
raised concerns about school counseling models (Gysbers, 2010). It was also the first-time
school counseling was implemented in elementary schools because the National Educational
Defense System had allotted funds to increase the number of counselors to identify gifted
students to guide them toward a collegiate future (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). School
counselors also expanded their services to students with disabilities as the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act passed in 1975 (Lambie & Williamson, 2004). During the 1980s and
1990s, many schools adopted a school counseling state model to help plan and integrate school

39
counseling programs (Gysbers, 2010). In 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed the Carl D.
Perkins Vocational Act in 1984, which recreated the definition of guidance counselors based on
the educational system failing students (Gysbers, 2010). Due to the outcomes and the importance
of accountability toward students, the National Standards for School Counseling, proposed by
the Association of School Counseling in 1997 began (Dahir, 2001).
The 2000s were a new decade with continuing debates and ongoing issues concerning
accountability for school counselors (Gysbers, 2010). The Association of School Counseling
created the ASCA model in 2001 as a framework for the nation to create change (Cinotti,
2014). The model has also assisted counselors with developing goals and plans that incorporate
resources and delineate student outcomes (Sabella, 2005). Although the national model has
grounded the role of a school counselor and has expanded vastly, school administrators’
influence may still directly assign school counselors duties outside their roles (Cinotti, 2014),
creating more roles for counselors.
Systemic Challenges within Hispanic and Black Student Communities
Within Black and Hispanic communities, the challenge of inequities based on race,
socioeconomic status, and EL designation has remained a concern within the K-12 educational
system despite policy efforts by the government (Allbright et al., 2019). Districts with many
first-generation students whose populations harness challenging lived experiences must obtain
support from policymakers to create avenues for higher education opportunities (Carey, 2019).
Lower socioeconomic status plays a significant role beginning in the early childhood years,
creating gaps, and posing a persistent challenge within our educational system affecting Black
youth (Quinn, 2015). Furthermore, Quinn (2015) expressed that the differential in school quality

40
and segregation may pose a gap by race, creating a differential in test scores. This gap is
concerning due to collegiate entrance testing, such as the SAT or the ACT, that students may
have to take for college admissions. Hispanic students have also been pointed out as having
negative impacts on attempts to acquire higher education because they have an increased
percentage of dropout rates beginning with students as young as middle school (Nora, 2003).
Like Black students, Hispanics also experience minimized access to collegiate information due
to their academic and social experiences (Nora, 2003).
Black and Hispanic communities have the potential and capability to be prepared for
college if given the proper nurture and opportunities (Plank & Jordan, 2001). However, they face
a number of challenges that impact their academic achievement. These challenges are regarded
as barriers, influencing, and preventing students from accessing higher education (Vela-Gude et
al., 2009). The production of these barriers is tied to ethnicity, socioeconomic status, firstgeneration status, and parental involvement. Demographic differences, unfortunately, contribute
to challenges in access to education (Bryan et al., 2009)
Ethnicity
The racial and cultural hierarchy continues to be a factor of discrimination amongst
students of color (Rust, 2019). Race significantly affects positionality in school environments
(Archer-Banks & Behar-Horenstein, 2012). Demographic differences are prominent in
inequitable access (Bryan et al., 2009). Latino students are the second-largest group in the United
States and the fastest-growing student group within K-12 (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). According
to the United States Census (2024), Hispanics comprise 19.1% of the population. The U.S.
Department of Education revealed that from the fall of 2010 to the fall of 2021, the Hispanic

41
student population grew by 5%, while the white student population declined by 7% in
elementary and secondary public schools, and African American students declined by 1% (U.S.
Department of Education, 2022). The history of Latino higher education has demonstrated a
defeatist path toward progress (Macdonald & Garcia, 2003). Unfortunately, Hispanics have the
highest dropout rates and are more likely not to complete high school compared to white students
due to possible retention in primary years (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). Black students also have a
high rate of dropping out, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (2022).
Although the dropout rates have significantly decreased since 2006, they remain higher than
White students. According to the United States Census (2024), African Americans / Blacks
comprise about 13.6% of the population. 15% of the Black population are students within a K-12
system, and 45% of that group attended a public school that was considered a high-poverty
school.
First-Generation Students
First-generation, as defined by Billson & Terry (1982), are the students whose parents
have not attended college. Most first-generation students start their collegiate journey at a
community college because they do not have the financial resources to attend a four-year
university, are unprepared academically, or need flexibility due to other obligations such as work
or family (Zwerling & London, 1992). According to the 2015-2016 National Postsecondary
Student Aid Survey, 23.9% of undergraduates were first-generation, and 30.3% were enrolled at
minority-serving institutions. Although first-generation students can comprise a variety of
ethnicities, the largest cultural group that encompasses the term first-generation is Hispanic
students (Chen, 2005). First-generation students may not have the social-cultural capital that

42
provides the information and support needed within their home environment (O’shea, 2016). In
addition, many of these students are affected by the lack of information given to them by school
counselors (O’Connor, 2009). Counselors should consider the advantages and disadvantages of
differentiating counseling services for all students, particularly first-generation students, as this
population needs personal guidance for each stage of the collegiate process (Ilic et al., 2020).
The application process in itself can be daunting for a first-generation student. Bryan et al.
(2009) added that first-generation students need skillful counselors to present collegiate
information that equips them for the future. Students who feel they do not have access to
collegiate information may not exhibit the behaviors necessary to follow through with college
applications. Hispanic, Black, and Native American community schools will have lower test
scores than schools attended by White students (Logan & Burdick-Will, 2017). Farkas (2003)
mentioned that the consistent findings for academically advantaged students usually attend
White and middle-class performing elementary, middle, and high schools.
Hispanic and African American students are among the minority students who qualify for
federal free or reduced lunch (Gormley et al., 2023). According to Boschma & Brownstein
(2016), many advocates for low-income communities have stated that economic isolation is a
link to consequential barriers. Families with high incomes usually correlate to parents with high
educational attainment, and families with low incomes contain parents with lower levels of
education (Bryan et al., 2009). Because upward mobility is vital and indicates earnings for the
future, college attendance correlates with attaining important milestones (Gormley et al., 2023).
Plank & Jordan (2001) added that students attending a post-secondary school will impact
occupational outcomes, wealth, and the chances and opportunities that will arrive for ethnic, low
socioeconomic, and first-generation students (Ochoa, 2011).

43
Socioeconomic Status
The correlation of educational gaps among ethnic minorities concentrates on the domains
of poverty (Gormley et al., 2023; Logan & Burdick-Will, 2017). Economic segregation gives
way to financial struggles for African American and Hispanic communities through a variety of
patterns seen within the polarization of affluent vs poor neighborhoods, the receding of the
middle class, and the retreat of integration within schools (Boschma & Brownstein, 2016).
Children living in impoverished communities often are segregated from economically
advantaged populations and attend high-poverty urban schools (Heberle et al., 2021). The Equity
and Excellence Commission (2013) expressed the significant spending gaps between lowpoverty and high-poverty schools, denying many impoverished students the necessary equitable
resources, yet the rigorous academic standards are high. Unfortunately, high poverty
concentration schools are located in Hispanic, Black, and Native American communities, and on
average, these schools will have lower test scores than schools attended by white students
(Logan & Burdick-Will, 2017). Farkas (2003) mentioned that the consistent findings for
academically advantaged students usually attend white and middle-class performing elementary,
middle, and high schools.
Hispanic and African American students tend to be the populations who qualify for free
or reduced federal lunch (Gormley et al., 2023). According to Boschma and Brownstein (2016),
many advocates for low-income communities have stated that economic isolation is a link to
consequential barriers creating equal opportunities for these students. Families with high
incomes are usually correlated to parents with high educational attainment, and families with
low-income result in parents with lower levels of education (Bryan et al., 2009). Because upward
mobility is crucial and indicates earnings for the future, college attendance is correlated with

44
attaining this important milestone (Gormley et al., 2023). Plank and Jordan (2001) added that
students attending a postsecondary school will impact occupational outcomes, wealth, and the
chances and opportunities that will arise.
Parental Support
The quality of education is affected by the material and intellectual resources that
families have which impacts the performance of their children in schools (O’Connor, 2009).
Parents who assist their children in the collegiate process are predicted to have social capital and
academic leverage (Nikischer et al., 2016). Unfortunately, parents who come from communities
with high poverty levels lack access to supportive practices and advocacy for their children
(Equity and Excellence Commission, 2013) and may become limited in both technical and
cognitive information, which can create a social capital barrier (Bryan et al., 2009). Parental
support may not be provided for assistance with collegiate-related material, propelling students
to access help from their schools, which might be limited in resources due to the demands of
student needs (Stephan & Rosenbaum, 2013). Due to incomplete or inaccurate information,
parents and students may decide that higher education is unattainable (Plank & Jordan, 2001).
Often, families on the lower end of the socioeconomic spectrum are blamed for
transmitting the traits of being culturally deficient instead of nourishing middle-class values to
succeed in school and beyond (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007). Furthermore, Plank & Jordan
(2001) added that parents of low socioeconomic status view college information, such as
financial aid, as scarce or prohibited due to the lack of information obtained to help their children
thrive. In addition, parents may make college decisions based on inaccurate or incomplete
information, creating decisions that prohibit the student from maximizing the potential of post-

45
secondary schools (Plank & Jordan, 2001). Counselors, students, and parents must work
together and communicate clearly about college choices and enrollment (McDonough &
Calderon, 2006). Counselors play a significant role in information distribution to parents,
especially to communities that do not have resources (O’Connor, 2009). Cultural and ethnic
backgrounds place value and priorities differently within the educational system, which may be
attributed to the limited engagement families have (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007).
Communicating and working together will not only increase the number of students in college
overall, but it will also assist in the fostering of student choice when selecting colleges
(McDonough & Calderon, 2006). Additionally, collaborating with parents helps families not feel
devalued and undermined but enhances the effort of assistance, which moves a student's journey
forward (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007).
Academic Barriers to College
Students entering low-income and minority schools have a less demanding curriculum
and enter with lower maturity and skills (Farkas, 2003). Farkas (2003) pointed out that research
has found that Black students score lower than white students because of the deficiency of
academic skills that students lack as they begin the elementary school years. In addition, students
who are absent or skip classes can be correlated to not doing well in school, impacting future
educational choices (Dimmitt, 2003). Standardized test scores and other indicators show that
African American, Hispanic, and Native American students often begin school less prepared
compared to white children (Gormley et al., 2023). Black and Hispanic students attend schools
with similar college readiness, which is concerning because the obstacles that both ethnic groups
face can limit not only their individual growth but also their human capital and competitiveness

46
(Black et al., 2020). Furthermore, educational funding gaps are also low within large minority
districts (Kohler & Lazarin, 2007). Garmstom and Wellman (2016) stated that federal funding
formulas should be proportional to needs, and schools with low-income students should be
addressed. State funding should also be equitable and supply adequate resources to all students,
especially students with more significant needs (Allbright et al., 2019). Smith (2008) indicated
that higher education has become a privilege for students who are a part of the upper class, while
it is incredibly competitive for youth who are a part of the lower socioeconomic community.
Archer-Banks & Behar-Horenstein (2012) identified racial stigmatization as being a practice that
educators need to recognize as leading students into differentiated learning opportunities and
marginalizing Black students in particular. Hines et al. (2019) accentuated Black and Latino
males specifically as not having privilege in education that enhances the option of college as a
springboard for success. Campus racial composition can also inform student decision-making,
influencing college options (Holland, 2020). Due to the lack of resources, schools in Black and
Latino communities may have a disproportionate number of counselors (Nicoles, 2020). The few
in these spaces need to be mindful and careful of the messages sent to students, especially those
from a low-income background, because words can hinder actions toward higher education
(Bryan et al., 2009).
Educational Tracking
Unfortunately, economic, and racial segregation leaves African American and Hispanic
students grounded in substandard schools (Boschma & Brownstein, 2016). Ladson-Billings
(2006) archives the work of Kenneth B. Clark, whose labor formed the basis of Brown vs. the
Board of Education and whose tough beginnings still prevail in some fashion. Discriminatory

47
practices in schools happen in course placement (Archer-Banks & Behar-Horenstein, 2012)
beginning as early as elementary school (Farkas, 2003). Increasing access and learning
opportunities for students begins in pre-kindergarten creating school readiness and improvements
as early as three to four years of age. Grades 1-3 are essential for learning the basic skills in
reading and mathematics, but as students move on to higher grades, the basics are no longer
taught, hurting those who are still low because, beyond third grade, teachers assume students
know their basics (Farkas, 2003). Tracking starts when students are classified according to their
future lives (Oaks, 1987). School tracking generates differences not only in students’ school
opportunities but also through their learning; different paths and trajectories are created (Legette,
2018). Tracking, as defined by Oakes (1987), is dividing groups of students into categories, and
further assigning the individual categories to various sections of classes. Farkas (2003) stated
that critics have been arguing that ethnic minorities and low-income students are
disproportionately placed in a variety of potentially discriminatory groups, such as lower ability
groups, special education, or students held back a grade. Being integrated into schools that may
not have many resources, Black and Hispanic students continue to be underrepresented in
advanced curriculums, displacing them from opportunities for higher education (Francis et al.,
2019). Schools serving these communities offer few academic courses, such as advanced
placement courses, which is a massive disadvantage for students of color (Kohler & Lazzarin,
2007).
Archer-Banks & Behar-Horenstein (2012) revealed that tracking cripples the chances for
African American students to gain access to post-secondary education and limits any chance of
participating in various majors. Similarly, Nora (2003) expressed that Hispanic students are
diverted into primary high school required classes due to tracking, and those who do not take

48
college prep courses have further dire consequences. In addition, Legette (2018) explained that
tracking can also shape students’ perceptions of themselves, affecting their future identities.
Lower-performing middle and high schools create a flatter trajectory for African American,
Hispanic, and low-income students’ academic achievement throughout K-12, affecting student
outcomes and class tracking (Farkas, 2003). Although many schools may claim they do not track
students, the truth is that they can rarely claim a non-existing mechanism for sorting because they
utilize grouping students into their intended practice (Oaks, 1987). Black et al. (2020) stated that
a critical goal in educational policy is to understand the underlying causes of disparities among
ethnic communities, which can help remediate equal access and unequal opportunities for all
students.
Post-Secondary Admissions: Support and Access
The opportunity to attend college has increasingly changed over time; however, the
patterns of collegiate choice are influenced by social stratification (Stephan & Rosenbaum,
2013). Applications for four-year universities are open to all students who meet the criteria and
contain a variety of admissions processes such as early decision, early action, regular decision,
rolling admissions, and deferred admissions. University admissions offices fear not having
enough Black students enroll, for example, because many universities can pin down the racial
makeup of their freshman classes (The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 1996).
Plank and Jordan (2001) referenced “talent loss” (p.947), which is the loss that occurs
when a student does not reach his or her true potential, which affects educational outcomes. A
good example is the representation of Black students who will not apply to early-decision
universities due to their financial circumstances and the possibility of being locked in without

49
financial aid options (The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 1996). Plank and Jordan
(2001) found that guidance, increased levels of information, and critical actions taken toward
students escalated students’ association to a four-year institution. Gormley et al. (2023) stated
that policymakers and researchers have tried to find ways for students to apply, enroll, and finish
college, mainly because of the high correlation between a college degree and adult outcomes.
Although several choices exist for applying to college, the selectivity of the admissions
process can limit the opportunities for minority students if the schools’ qualities and outcomes
are unequal to them (Black et al., 2020). The community college system is the largest postsecondary institution critical for economic and educational welfare (Crisp & Mina, 2012). It
absorbs the largest scale of first-time freshmen and constitutes a collective of over 70% of
undergraduate students (Martinez & Fernandez, 2004). Community colleges offer the
opportunity to transfer to four-year universities and serve various communities with offerings
such as English as a Second Language (ESL) courses, occupational preparedness, certification
programs, and citizenship classes (Chavez, 2008). Crisp and Mina (2012) added that community
colleges across the United States currently serve students who traditionally are underserved and
who would not otherwise have the opportunity to attend universities. According to the National
Center for Education Statistics (2022), community college enrollment rates of 18-24-year-old
students declined from 2010 – 2021 (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2022), but independent
states like California alone during the 2019 - 2020 school year, according to the California
Community College student demographics, Hispanics constitute 46% of the community college
population. Currently, community colleges disproportionally enroll many Black students
(Camardelle et al., 2022) and Latinos as it represents a steppingstone to higher education
(Martinez & Fernandez, 2004). Furthermore, Martinez and Fernandez (2004) added that Latinos

50
utilize community college as a mine for upward mobility within the social and economic cultural
capital needed. However, they also lag in degree attainment. Similarly, O’Connor (2009) stated
that while Hispanic students hold high expectations for collegiate outcomes, their overrepresentation at the community college level does not translate into expected baccalaureate
degrees due to the high volume of Latino students in vocational tracks in high school.
Furthermore, O’Connor (2009) added that many of them continue to vocational programs at the
community college, leaving students with a deficit in attaining a degree.
High School Counselor Impact
According to the American School Counseling Association (ASCA) (2024), school
counselors work toward closing the achievement gap among students of color, low-income, and
underachieving students by collaborating with other stakeholders to find solutions to ensure
academic success. The pursuits to improve collegiate outcomes and post-secondary careers are
rarely provided to students who need assistance with the developmental change they will
encounter after high school (Nice et al., 2023). School counselors are responsible for addressing
students’ social/emotional, academic, and career needs while being leaders and advocates of
systemic changes that promote equitable student outcomes (American School Counselor
Association, 2024).
Students come into the educational space with unique strengths, deficits, needs, and
beliefs about their abilities to succeed in school (Dimmit, 2003). Hurwitz and Howell (2014)
indicated that research has substantial implications, affirming that counselors spend adequate
time developing and building college-going school cultures. Ed Source (2019) noted that only 1
in 5 high school students can access a counselor. Due to high demands in college entrances,

51
counselors typically encourage college aspirations and concern themselves with only the students
submitting college applications, regardless of the type of institution (Ilic et al., 2020). This
unfortunate situation can be problematic because it does not address the inequalities that may
describe the outcomes, especially for low-income minorities and males (Ilic et al., 2020). On
average, counselors may spend only 20% of their time working on post-secondary counseling
because of other demands such as scheduling, testing, personal needs counseling, or other duties
as assigned (Clinedinst, 2019). Cook et al. (2021) explained that while the American School
Counseling Association has a national model that counselors should follow and adhere to,
counselors who work in urban areas, in particular, encounter multiple barriers as they are underresourced in providing equitable opportunities for their students. Furthermore, Heberle et al.
(2021) added that school counselors are professionals who may experience burnout, low
efficacy, or may have other challenges based on their needs, given the limited resources schools
may have. Because counselors are overworked, Nic et al. (2020) explained that most of them
may offer the one-size-fits-all model, in which one-on-one counseling is limited or nonexistent.
Counselor Caseload
The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) is a national organization that
supports counselors in assisting students in academic and social-emotional aspects of their lives.
It provides the national American School Counseling Association model, which exists to
enhance counselor assistance for students to achieve in schools. Since 1965, ASCA has
recommended that the standard counselor-student ratio be 250 students to 1 counselor, as smaller
numbers of students on a caseload can increase standardized testing scores, attendance, GPA,
graduation rates, and productive post-secondary plans (American School Counselor Association,

52
2023). According to Gonzalez-Arce (2018), the overproduction of counseling reduces the quality
of work counselors produce. Gonzalez-Arce added that counselors’ demands in their workplace
decrease the improvement of counseling efforts. Goodman-Scott et al. (2018) found that
counselor ratios must decrease to meet the students’ needs. Utilizing counselor-to-student data
from the United States Department of Education, National Center for Statistics, and the Common
Core Data, the American School Counselor Association stated that the national studentcounselor-ratio continued to be larger than ideal throughout the United States, creating inequities
to students of color and students who come from lower socioeconomic families. Furthermore, the
American School Counseling Association (2024) deemed Vermont and New Hampshire the only
two states that met the 250-students-to-one-counselor ratio in 2021 – 2022.
When student-to-counselor ratios are lower, counselors can have time to address factors
such as students’ needs or minimizing the child’s impact in school (Goodman-Scot et al., 2018).
The American School Counselor Association (2023) recommended that counselors should
consider factors that impact grade levels and socioeconomic status amongst their counselees.
Therefore, lowering their caseload would be beneficial, especially for students who are negated
because of high demands or who do not come to the counseling office (Gonzalez-Arce, 2018).
Bias and the Underrepresentation of Ethnic Counselors
Increasing Black and Hispanic college attendance rates involves the diversification of
counselors and the fight against racial bias (Najarro, 2022). The gaps in school counseling
diversification have persisted over the years. Hence, it is essential to have counselors of color at
schools to serve as role models and avoid biases toward minority students in attendance (Najarro,
2022). According to the American School Counselor Association (2023), most counselors come

53
from Anglo backgrounds. Racial, ethnic, and linguistically diverse counselors are
underrepresented, which fails to create a divergence of ethnicities to serve the various student
populations (Cook et al., 2021). Najarro (2022) pointed out that many experts have emphasized
the importance of diversifying the counseling profession with the intention of counselors being
culturally sensitive. Akos & Kretchmar (2016) emphasized that counselors may be biased and
give in to stereotypes if they do not know their students, especially in letters of recommendation,
as they have the potential to limit or give access to students.
Counselors who lead biased conversations with students can hinder and limit the
opportunities for students of ethnic backgrounds. Conversations that assume that Black and
Hispanic students are not interested in going to college or that all students can have parental
assistance at home with their college applications are not productive (Najarro,
2022). Additionally, Bryan et al. (2022) indicated that school counselors who may have implicit
and explicit biases and mindsets that lead to lower expectations for students who are
marginalized need to rethink their beliefs and explore them to serve students appropriately.
Najarro (2022) added that while having a counselor of color can be beneficial, all counselors
must leave biases at the door. Furthermore, Najarro (2022) said counselors should learn about
their students' lived experiences and use the context to better shape themselves with the guidance
they offer.
Counselor Preparation Programs and Best Practices
Mulhern (2020) stated that counselors with no college advisement training can benefit
from basic training, which can significantly affect students' post-secondary outcomes.
Counselors may not guide students appropriately or give the information required because they

54
may need to fully understand the college options or the labor market trends that create muchneeded personalized guidance for students (Nic et al., 2020). Not only might counselors not
know much about collegiate advisement (Toomey & Storlie, 2016), but they might also fail to
understand the systemic barriers facing marginalized student populations, which has critical
implications for advocacy and social justice. Latino students’ barriers are an example of an
overlooked situation (Toomey & Storlie, 2016). Counseling training curricula should equip
students with a lens to look at data and measure goals to create academic programs that would
improve their student educational achievement (Hines et al., 2020). In addition, counselors
should have ongoing training with systemic assessments regarding recognizing and avoiding
various biases that may arise when counseling students (Ilic, 2020). Mulhern (2020) also added
that districts and school principals can deliver training to counselors, which can be a costeffective way to maintain educational attainment to improve high school completion and college
enrollment. In-service training programs can also assist counselors in understanding both college
and labor market choices for students.
The underrepresentation of these Black and Hispanic communities can be seen in
advanced placement classes in which counselors have the power to populate (Mulhern, 2020).
School counselors need to have high expectations for all students and create schedules for
students that encompass rigor. Vela-Gude et al. (2009) proposed that if counselors implemented
guidelines such as high expectations, Latinos would be more inclined to attend higher education
institutions after high school. Plank and Jordan (2001) stated that encouragement and support can
have considerable power to shrink the gap, and students of low SES would obtain the ability to
shrink the loss of talented students.

55
The American Counseling Association produces a comprehensive school counseling
model guiding graduate school counseling programs to best practices (Gilfillan, 2017). Stephan
and Rosenbaum (2013) found that the model may be challenging for students in schools with
significant needs. Vela-Gude et al. (2009) noted the awareness of higher education barriers that
Latinos face and framed the need and preparation of these students to position them to access
college. Nice et al. (2023) added that delivering interventions, such as helping students manage
deadlines and establish responsibilities, can assist in developing the skills they will need for the
future. Furthermore, Gilfillan (2017) indicated that more college training would benefit school
counselor programs, as many lack training, potentially negatively impacting students needing
collegiate assistance.
The American School Counseling Association (2024) asked that counselor ratios stay at
250:1 so all students can access the counselor. Additionally, counselors can utilize data-driven
interventions to create achievable outcomes for all students (American School Counseling
Association, 2024). Counselors can work with students to develop self-focus, which could help
with good goal setting, transition into adulthood after high school, and implant strategies for
success (Nice et al., 2023). Hurwitz and Howell (2014) found that additional high school
counselors added to the existing staff affected and favored 4-year college rates by allocating
more time and being proactive, especially toward students who may not be considering college.
Adding counselors can increase access for Black and Hispanic students and improve the
likelihood that they will complete their college applications and attend college (Nichols, 2020).
Counselors also should be culturally responsive to the needs of students as they influence college
choice (Bryan et al., 2009). Williams et al. (2015) found that counselors needed to build on the
assets of students and their communities. Relationships between students and their counselors

56
imply a possible relevance with collegiate applications and a college-going culture (Robinson &
Roksa, 2016). Plank & Jordan (2009) stated that equalizing access to collegiate guidance may
shrink the loss of student talent among low SES students. In addition, counselors assist students
with financial aid applications. Hurwitz and Howell (2014) noted that recent research suggested
that financial aid barriers, if eliminated, can increase college enrollment rates and that investing
in additional counselors is a significant asset in the quest to help students’ complete college
applications. Finally, maximizing the time and minimizing restrictive environments, counselors
can improve conditions associated with a lack of time and dedication to students in their
academic journeys (Blake, 2020), including the increase of rigorous courses and competitive
learning environments (Archer-Banks & Behar-Horenstein, 2012).
Theoretical Framework
Sociocultural Theory- Access to Social-Cultural Capital - (Bourdieu)
Social capital assists in understanding the roles of networks students have within the
educational system to gain admission to universities. Life chances, occupation, and wealth
depend on whether a student attends a post-secondary institution (Plank & Jordan, 2001).
Additionally, Plank and Jordan (2001) explained that people utilize their roles within networks to
gain acceptance into higher education because they facilitate students' choices.
The construct of inequality among students in the education system is based on cultural
capital and its variations among social classes (Noble & Davies, 2009). Bourdieu’s work
proposed that structures of dominance within a class represented the continual functioning
practices leading to success and positionality for access to continue dominating those of
subordinate classes (Bourdieu, 1986). Bourdieu (1986) added that without capital, it is nearly

57
impossible to function successfully within the social and economic world (See Figure A).
Families from lower socioeconomic backgrounds often rely on school personnel for knowledge
and skills to support the students due to the lack of information and resources they possess to
help their children (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007). Furthermore, Amatea & West-Olatunji
(2007) stated that students living in low income-communities confront barriers that create
challenges for educators and counselors; hence, the chance to have better circumstances in life is
linked to the access to higher education (Plank & Jordan, 2001). For example, O’Connor (2009)
stated that if Hispanic students had more effective communication regarding college information,
they would have greater college access. Saunders & Serena (2004) expressed that the
experiences of first-generation Latino students are situated within the lack of social capital due to
many of their circumstances.
Capital is an objectified form that has the potential to replicate and expand, building a
force of objectivity that creates unequal opportunities for those who have constraints (Bourdieu,
1986). Economic differences create deficits in marginalized communities, which begin intricate
patterns in building relationships and resources needed to assist with access (Wimberly, 2013).
Noble & Davies (2009) noted that students from elite schools go on to top universities and
students who are most likely to drop out of high school do not go to college due to levels of
variation within attainment and access from a counselor perspective. An exception would be if a
counselor established a relationship with a student not in a middle-to-high class school and
properly guided them toward a collegiate path. In this case, the chance to enhance the student’s
proper information and guidance to go to college would happen regardless of cultural capital
(Plank & Jordan, 2001). Wimberly (2013) stated that relationships based on trust and mutual
respect, regardless of capital, are the recipe for success. In addition, the traditional student

58
society deems not going to college is associated with the characteristics of parents' occupational
and educational backgrounds (Noble & Davies, 2009). Furthermore, Wimberly (2013) adds that
schools that face economic and social disadvantages have a hard time creating a space (lack of
access) for students to have an educational impact, creating slim chances for students to go to
college and flourish. It is through the economic value of capital that creates the relationships
between the physical existence of access and possess value on assets. Both create two variances
between culture and economic worth (Throsby, 1999) and impacts the relationships of those who
see their high school counselors for collegiate assistance (Bryan, 2009).

59
Figure A: The Impact of Systemic Challenges and Academic College Barriers
The Impact of Systemic Challenges and Academic College Barriers is influenced by historical
contexts, by means of social/cultural capital, and the perspectives high school counselors have
on addressing collegiate outcomes.
Summary
Analyzing the past forms of Anglo-European societies invoked in the making of brutal
histories of our Black and Indigenous communities which has created the norm of an AngloEurocentric form of education. Baldwin (2012) placed the configuration of “racial subjugation”
at the center of privilege and the continued maintenance of the past. Despite reforms, including
high school counselor caseloads, designations of race, socioeconomic status, and English
learners, all continue to remain a constant concern within the K-12 system (Albright et al., 2019)
and college preparation, constituted as inequitable access (Bryan, 2009). Conceptions of equity
are constant and have been formed through social contexts organized and shaped by

60
organizational and environmental circumstances (Albright et al., 2019). Furthermore,
socioeconomic status also contributes to the range of quality in localized schools intended for
students living within the area (Bryan, 2009).
Despite educational programs and certifications for high school counselors, the reality is
that more college advisement training is needed to help when students are applying to postsecondary institutions (Mulhern, 2020). Access issues for students begin because counselors may
need to be more knowledgeable when assisting students in applying for and enrolling in college
(Nic et al., 2020). The lack of training for collegiate projection also impacts students because
parents may not know how to assist their children with college applications due to the lack of
access offered (Equity and Excellence Commission, 2013), leaving the students alone in the
quest for collegiate outcomes (Equity and Excellence Commission, 2013).
School counselors are inundated with other forms of direct services for students that are
important for their success. However, the lack of college advice creates a negative output for
students within lower socioeconomic status communities (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007). Bias
also serves as a form that limits access to collegiate information for Black and Hispanic students,
especially if a student does not have a relationship with the high school counselor (Najarro,
2022).
Social capital plays a prominent role in collegiate access among students and
encompasses life chances, the type of occupation parents may have, and wealth (Plank & Jordan,
2001). Due to the lack of capital, the inequalities in the educational system contribute to unequal
variables of access that play a role in advancement (Noble & Davies, 2009). These networks are
created and embedded in university admissions and play a significant role within our society
(Plank & Jordan, 2001).

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Chapter Three: Methodology
Family support systems typically provide cultural capital resources to students. Schools
can provide additional capital as a primary source of compensation when a family’s access to
networks is limited (Bryan et al., 2011). Creating equal access for all high school students to be
college-bound requires academic advisement for designing pathways toward college admissions.
This research centers around barriers Hispanic and Black high school students face in accessing
college, focusing on the challenges experienced by academic counselors in supporting these
students. According to Corwin et al. (2004), the number of BIPOC students who apply and
graduate from college has risen since the ruling of Brown vs. the Board of Education in 1954.
However, college admissions and graduation for Black and Hispanic students specifically
continue to be disproportionately low. Black and Hispanic student percentages applying and
attending college have not risen enough to match the percentage of college-bound Asian and
Anglo students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2022).
All students should have equal access as they navigate their college-bound
pathway. High school counselors play a vital role when advising students towards college
admissions. However, student engagement and planning may not be a shared institutional
experience among high school academic counselors (Nikischer et al., 2016). Further research
about academic high school counselors and their collegiate services toward Black and Hispanic
students needs to be explored, addressing access to materials and resources, and having available
time with their counselors to support college readiness.
The research questions guiding the study are:
RQ 1. What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland Unified School
District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to college?

62
RQ 2. How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students in creating access
toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in the way (if any)?
RQ 3. What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland Unified School District to
promote awareness and access to college resources?
Overview of Methodology
The methodological research approach is qualitative as interviews are the primary data
source. Qualitative data encompasses a research design derived through the collection of
meaningful activities, such as interviews and observations, that influence one another and
identify multiple cycles of inquiry to extract conceptions and help elaborate the representation of
data through a more fluid, non-linear model (Maxwell, 2013). Furthermore, interviews seek to
help the researcher understand the participants’ experiences and attributes (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The research and data collected create a reference that reflects counselors’ perspectives
and support regarding Black and Hispanic students' paths towards college. Qualitative research is
the understanding of peoples’ perceived sense of the world. Consequently, research in this field
must become a construct and a way to foster solidarity with Black and Hispanic communities to
enhance college access.

63
Table 1: Research Questions
Data Sources
Research Questions Interviews
RQ 1. What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to
college?
X
RQ 2. How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students in
creating access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in the way (if
any)?
X
RQ 3. What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland Unified
School District to promote awareness and access to college resources?
X
Data Sources
The research examines aspects of social capital that influence collegiate access for Black
and Hispanic students from a school counseling perspective. It focuses on high school
counselors’ perspectives regarding Black and Hispanic students going to college. The data was
collected through semi-structured interviews utilizing ten academic high school counselors from
Earthland Unified School. Questions for the interview align with the three research questions
guiding the study. The literature provides a navigational data source to assist with the findings. It
yields pertinent data about Black and Hispanic students' access to college, including the
information given to them and the assistance high school counselors deliver regarding college
information. The sources assist in constructing the purpose of the study. The research is not only

64
used as a guide for accountability within the work formed through means of methods, but it also
serves as a construct for further investigation (Malloy, 2011).
Interviews
Interviewing counselors for this research provides insights into their intersectionality’s
and practices when delivering collegiate information to Black and Hispanic students. The
participants’ interviews provided first-hand experience and insights into their daily functioning
environments (Maxwell, 2013). The accounts shared through this research are invaluable
information. Semi-structured interviews were conducted virtually via Zoom for one hour. Each
virtual interview occurred in a secure location that permitted the participant to be without
interruptions, ensuring the highest confidentiality. Ten school counselors from Earthland Unified
School District were interviewed, allowing a deep dive into their accounts in assisting Black and
Hispanic students towards a collegiate pathway. The data collected created dialogue about
counseling practices and their impact on collegiate decisions for Black and Hispanic students in
high school settings.
Participants
Ten counselors from various ethnicities and genders working for the Earthland Unified
School District were interviewed. The purpose of selecting a multiethnic counseling group was
to research differences (if any) in perspectives and approaches toward assisting Black and
Hispanic students access to college information. Additionally, given the significance of social
capital that may impact these communities, researching improvements for counselors assisted in
the understanding of why Black and Hispanic students often continue to lag in college
applications and enrollment.

65
The recruitment strategy utilized the snowball effect as a sampling method. According to
Lochmiller and Lester (2017), snowball sampling identifies a participant or a site that
recommends a further potential participant for the sample needed in a qualitative study.
Recruitment was conducted through referrals by accessing esteemed colleagues who had
connections with Earthland Unified School District counselors. Recruitment entailed emails,
calls, and texts, which led to the selection of the ten counselors who became a part of the study.
Interviews were conducted with the selected candidates, regardless of the number of years they
have worked as a counselor.
Instrumentation
Semi-structured interviews were utilized as the method used to collect data. Patton (2002)
proposed asking open-ended questions allowing the participants’ narratives to be heard. Merriam
and Tisdale (2016) noted that the focus of the questions should connect to the research.
Consequently, the series of questions centers on the barriers Hispanic and Black high school
students face in accessing college and the challenges experienced by academic counselors in
supporting these students. The protocol is listed in Appendix A of the dissertation.
According to Krueger and Casey (2015), consistency helps create responses that assist
the researcher to compare and contrast. Variability in questions, when comparing data, would
hinder the recognition of patterns in subjects. The protocol begins by acknowledging the high
school counselor and inquiring about their counseling activities, student load, ethnicity, and the
adequacy of their master’s program preparing them for collegiate counseling. Subsequent
questions involve counselors’ perspectives regarding Black and Hispanic students, their
collegiate routes, counselor encouragement, and the role of parental involvement. Further
inquiries revolve around counselor support, college access, and barriers that get in the way. The

66
final questions focus on the necessary improvements and recommendations that would support
counselors in creating collegiate pathways for these communities.
The protocol consists of 13 questions, some featuring follow-up questions that delve
deeper into pertinent counselor perspectives. Throughout the interview via Zoom, notes were
taken, and a written transcript of the dialogue was created to ensure that the narrations and voices
were captured and represented in the study. Robinson (2019) suggested creating simple questions
and being culturally sensitive when asking questions. Merriam & Tisdell (2016) noted that all
interviews recorded are essential because they should be preserved to analyze what was captured.
The counselors' recordings captured their voices and experiences. A follow-up phone call was
made to clarify any additional questions.
Data Collection Procedures
The data collected occurred during non-school hours (before 8:00 AM and after 4:00
PM), utilizing Zoom as the platform for the interview. The interviews were conducted
synchronously for one hour and recorded in an environment free of noise or interruptions. In
addition to recording the interview’s, handwritten notes were taken which assisted in recording
reactions and highlighted important information. Once the handwritten notes were transferred
digitally, they were destroyed through a shredder to ensure confidentiality. The importance of
capturing data through recording and handwritten notes allowed for accurate data. The
recordings were stored in a separate electronic folder for safekeeping.
Data Analysis
Zoom was the platform utilized to conduct and record the interviews for this qualitative
study. The predetermined questions served as a guide to gain in-depth information about

67
counselors’ knowledge, experiences, understanding, and beliefs regarding Black and Hispanic
students’ access to college. Through Zoom, the recordings were able to be saved for further
transcription. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) highlighted the emergence of transcribing, concluding
each interview. After each counselor interview, Otter ai was utilized as the transcription tool to
convert the content shared by the participant into text. An additional review was conducted by
reviewing line by line as the recording played to identify and correct possible transcribing errors.
Thematic content analysis, served as a method to closely analyze data. Becoming familiar
with the transcription of the ten counselors interviewed, was step one in analyzing the data,
which assisted in making preliminary thorough notes and initially coding particular
themes. Coding the interviews organized the data into meaningful groups. Furthermore, assorted
colors were utilized to maintain similarities within the content. Searching and identifying
patterns in counselors’ lived experiences aided in organizing codes to generate meaningful
themes and sub-themes, which were sorted under categories related to the research questions.
Through the ongoing process of organizing and sorting codes to identify themes,
reviewing and cross-checking the data assisted in refining the recurring patterns for the study.
Defining the counselor’s narratives to conceptual thematic data facilitated the differences
between the participants’ thoughts and experiences. Additionally, the development of themes
gave insight into the relationship between the conceptual framework and research
objectives. The semi-structured interviews produced sufficient content to evaluate and interpret
the narratives into data to support the study.
Validity and Reliability/Credibility and Trustworthiness
Collecting data requires a researcher to gather appropriate evidence to accurately
represent what is being measured. The first step to maximize credibility and validity for the

68
interviews was identifying the study’s purpose. Throughout the research, the continuous
discrepancies in the numbers of Black and Hispanic students underperforming well below Asian
and White students applying to college were prevalent. High school counselors are at the
forefront of assisting students to college; therefore, interviews assisted in finding relevant
information regarding discrepancies. Because the interviews were conducted with Earthland
Unified School District counselors, the first step was to empathize and learn about the individual
counselors who were participants. Although interviews provide authentic perspectives, Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) highlighted that these findings are ever evolving and not stagnant. The
findings are relative to the time interviews are completed and exist in a reality for the moment
captured, which may not encompass the same perspective of counselors from EUSD counselors
at a later time.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that credibility is dependent on integrity.
Acknowledging my subjectivity is an important aspect to consider throughout this research.
Understanding my values, expectations, and influence on the subject is also relative. Seeking
feedback from colleagues to identify potential biases or prejudices is one way of holding
accountability for my positionality within this research. A strategy to maximize credibility and
trustworthiness is avoiding leading questions (Maxwell, 2013). Avoiding leading questions is
one way to redirect any influence toward the subjects. As Maxwell (2013) also stated, it is
unavoidable not to have some influence; however, analyzing the questions and ruling out
potentially hindrances in the study is essential.
Ethics
According to Rubin & Rubin (2010), ethics is fundamental in ensuring participants are not
harmed in the relationship developed for research. When working with participants, researchers

69
must behave ethically. Additionally, Rubin and Rubin (2012) stated that pressure on the
participant should not exist. The role and rapport with potential participants are a part of the
development of establishing a relationship.
Ten counselors from Earthland Unified School District were interviewed for this
research. Building trust was vital for the participants, as they brought various positionalities and
intersectionalities. If the identity of a participant in the study were disclosed, the harm done
would be severe. Such results would harm the participants psychologically and make them feel
vulnerable. Participants’ perceptions would have also created thoughts correlated with guilt,
shame, embarrassment, or humiliation for participating in the study. The relationship built could
have also diminished. This situation also had the potential for trauma to exist in the areas of trust
and confidence in the future.
Tillman (2002) argued that frameworks related to the African American experience are
compromised by researchers who categorize participants as minorities or people of color.
Disparities among Black and Hispanic students going to college can lead to the perception that
counselors have failed in their roles, putting the subjects in an uncomfortable position.
Counselors may think they are the sole reason students within these communities do not achieve
higher percentages of college applications and enrollments.
Recruitment fliers were sent to as many contacts as possible through the snowball effect.
The recruitment efforts targeted Earthland Unified School District counselors who would be
interested in participating. The flier detailed that participation would be voluntary. A disclosure
regarding the meaning of counselor participation was communicated so that counselors do not
feel blamed for the disparities. Failure to do so would have discredited the research. Because the
subjects are from Earthland Unified School District, word would have spread quickly, and

70
misinterpretations could have put counselors at risk of losing their jobs and reputations.
Questions asked, and the production and decimation of this work were sensitive because people
risked their careers to engage in this research study.
Tillman (2002) advocated for cultural biases to move toward a more productive
pedological and paradigm shift. Considering Tillman’s words, some questions were reshifted to
be culturally sensitive and appropriate for each ethnic group. Assumptions that all Hispanic and
Black students experience the same disparities in their educational journey toward college could
have hindered the research.
The Researcher
For the last seven years, I have been a college counselor. My role has been to assist students
with understanding the collegiate journey through workshops, parent nights, college fairs, and
classroom visits. I was an academic school counselor for middle and high schools before
becoming a college counselor. Prior to working in K-12 settings, I worked in collegiate settings
serving as an academic advisor and a college recruiter. My goal as an educator has always been
to assist students reach their highest potential.
I hold some personal bias on my topic regarding full disclosure and vulnerability. As a
mixed-race woman who grew up in a low-income family with no real direction as to what
college was, I feel counselors have some responsibility to carry all students, especially Black and
Hispanic students, toward collegiate access. I attended a small Catholic high school, and my
college counselor, who also served as my guidance counselor, handed me the application to the
California State University system and said, “Fill it out.” She never explained what I would
encounter but believed in my potential. As I was in the college office, my English-drama teacher

71
came in and asked what I was doing. After I said I was filling out college applications, he said,
“Why? You’re never going to amount to anything.” My college counselor was Hispanic, and my
English-drama teacher was white. Did that make a difference? After I told my college counselor
what had happened, she insisted that I apply to college.
As I pursue my Ed.D. at the University of Southern California, the efforts of my high
school counselor to push me towards college inspired me to reach for my potential. I was told I
was not supposed to go to college, but a counselor guided me, and I have the same expectations
for counselors. My passion is to drive students to their maximum potential. I am conscious about
eliminating my biases, staying open to the findings, and not bringing personal narratives into
play which is necessary for trusting the process and acknowledging the results.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) mentioned that credibility is dependent on integrity. It is
essential for me to name my subjectivity and understand where it was coming from. Asking
colleagues or peers to identify potential biases or prejudices was one way to discipline my
writing and thoughts about my positionality within my research.

72
Chapter Four: Findings
Black and Hispanic students do not trail in college applications and enrollment compared
to Asian and Anglo students in Earthland Unified School District (Earthland Unified School
District, 2019). The study investigates the barriers faced by Hispanic and Black high school
students in accessing college, with a particular focus on the challenges experienced by academic
counselors in supporting these students within Earthland Unified School District (EUSD), a
fictional entity. It uses real-time data gathered from school counseling professionals in the
southwestern United States.
The focus on structural factors such as economic hardship, cultural and gender biases,
and levels of parental involvement play a role in students’ ability to apply and enroll in college
and graduate from high school. However, academic counselors are at the forefront of providing
college guidance and information, beginning with scheduling classes for students. Talking to
students about post-high school options and guiding them to the access they need to be collegebound create concern due to the various obligations counselors have throughout the day.
Improvements in schools, where the majority of students are low-income Blacks and Hispanics,
should generate opportunities to refashion foundational systems that have created additional
stagnant, unreformed systems (Roberts, 2015). A second focus of this study concerns the support
systems utilized to navigate college pathways for Black and Hispanic students. Lastly, this study
shows the improvements that high school counselors in Earthland Unified School District can
utilize to enhance college resources for Hispanic and Black students.
Bourdieu’s social and cultural capital theory is the basis of this research. All the
counselors interviewed worked in communities where family incomes were of middle-to-low
socioeconomic status, creating a solid reliance on the school to assist students in going on to

73
college. It is important to look at what students come into school spaces with, as it places value
on how social and cultural capital play a role in students' collegiate journeys (Throsby, 1999).
The following questions were used to examine the challenges experienced by high school
academic counselors when supporting Hispanic and Black students through collegiate access, the
barriers they faced in their journeys toward college, and improvements for increasing the number
of Black and Brown students towards higher education spaces.
Research Question 1: What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to college?
Research Question 2: How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students in
creating access towards a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in the way, if any?
Research Question 3: What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland Unified
School District to promote college awareness and access to college resources?

74
Table 2: Summary of Findings from Research

Questions Findings Sub-Findings
Question 1
What perspectives do
secondary high school
counselors in
Earthland Unified School
District have regarding
Black and Hispanic
students going to college?
Secondary high school
counselors’ generalized
perspectives and expectations
of Black and Hispanic
students in their schools are
often based on the
surrounding community
affecting college decisions.
o Low socioeconomic
income
o Family dynamics
impacting student
decisions
o Low parental support
o Student mindsets difficult
to change due to societal
factors
Question 2
How do high school
counselors support Black
and Hispanic students in
creating access towards a
collegiate pathway, and
what barriers
get in the way, if any?
College-bound information is
passed on through various
platforms.
Hispanic and Black
students have access to
advanced placement
courses in three ways:
o College-bound
information is passed on
through assemblies,
classroom presentations,
and, when possible, oneon-one interaction.
o College information was
provided for students
through individual or
group Graduation Plans
(IGPs), the students’
Talent School portal, or
Naviance.
o Magnet school programs
that have these courses
embedded in their
curriculum.

75
College training and
professional development
o Students in residential
schools earn high grades
to be potentially placed in
these courses by their
counselor
o Parents can petition to
get their child in these
advanced classes.
o Counselors need training
and professional
development for
increased knowledge of
college information,
collegiate updates, and
resources.
o Creating impact within
the college-going culture
begins by building
relationships and creating
spaces where parents are
welcomed for in person
and virtual workshops
relating to college.
Question 3
What can be improved for
high school counselors in
Earthland Unified School
District to promote college
awareness and access to
college resources?
Partake in more postsecondary activities, creating
college-going cultures.
Increase parental involvement
in the college decision
process.
o Create workshops
throughout the day
utilizing different
modalities

76
Participants
Ten counselors from Earthland Unified School District participated in the study. The
participants were chosen through the snowball method. All participants work in Earthland
Unified School District, located in southwestern United States. The participants considered
themselves either male or female. Five males and five females participated. The racial makeup
of the participants ethnically encompassed four categories: 2 African American, 5 Hispanic, 1
Asian, and 2 Anglo. The number of years the participants have served in the district as
counselors ranged from 2 to 18 years. Table 3 represents the breakdown of the participants by
gender, race, and years of working as a counselor within the district.

77
Table 3: Participants Gender, Race, and Counselor Years
______________________________________________________________________________
Participant Gender Race Counselor Years
______________________________________________________________________________
#1 Female Hispanic 8
#2 Male Hispanic 18
#3 Male Hispanic 18
#4 Male African American 13
#5 Male African American 17
#6 Female Anglo 2
#7 Male Hispanic 19
#8 Female Asian 4
#9 Female White 18
#10 Female Hispanic 7
______________________________________________________________________________

78
The high schools were located in various cities within the same county which provided
data. Two of the ten counselor participants work at the same high school. The ethnic makeup of
the high schools consisted of primarily Hispanic students. The socioeconomic disadvantage for
each school is identified by markers that rank each school’s number of students from low-income
families, as recognized by the state’s data dashboard system. Each counselor also had various
counselees on his or her caseload. Table 4 identifies the school’s socioeconomic disadvantage
percentage and the counselor’s caseload numbers.

79
Table 4: Participants Schools, Student Enrollment, Percentage of Socioeconomically
Disadvantaged Students, and Counselor Caseload
______________________________________________________________________________
Participant Name of School Student Socioeconomically Counselor
Enrollment disadvantaged % Caseload
______________________________________________________________________________
#1 Sunshine High School 1,783 95.6% 350
#2 Moonlight High School 1,916 88.37% 338
#3 Mariposa High School 545 92.87% 112
#4 Raven Hills High School 2057 94.9% 275
#5 Aurora High School 1,043 90.42% 220
#6 Riomar High School 900 77.4% 240
#7 Green Forest High School 1560 93.15% 240
#8 Hollyhock High School 1171 69.73% 1200
#9 Blossom Bay High School 293 91.95% 150
#10 Moonlight High School 1,916 88. 37% 330
______________________________________________________________________________

80
Counselors who help students with the collegiate process benefit from relevant training.
The impact of such training can have tremendous benefits and long-term positive effects on
students’ ability to be college-bound (Mulhern, 2020). When high school counselors do not have
the proper training or do not fully understand the college options, they may not guide students
correctly or give them adequate guidance (Nic et al., 2020). Each participant mentioned how
much preparation he or she had in a school counseling master’s program that focused on college
counseling. All participants had little-to-no preparation, which indicates that more college
counseling training is needed in school counseling programs. With time and through the district,
all of them indicated that they had to involve themselves with outside training, conferences, and
personal development to assist their college information journey. They also had to rely on
seasoned coworkers for help. Table 5 shows the preparation each school counselor had during
their school counseling master’s program.

81
Table 5: Participants School and College Preparation Within School Counseling Master’s
Program.
______________________________________________________________________________
Participant Name of School College Preparation within School
Counseling Master’s Program
______________________________________________________________________________
#1 Sunshine High School “Maybe a class or two”
#2 Moonlight High School “Very little support and training”
#3 Mariposa High School “ The program focused on closing
the achievement gap in which
college was tied into.”
#4 Raven Hills High School “Had one course called career and
vocational seminar.”
#5 Aurora High School “We may have touched upon it in
one course, but nothing extensive.”
#6 Riomar High School “I honestly don’t think I took a
course that specifically targeted
college counseling.”

82
#7 Green Forest High School “Very little. I got a very general
view of what college counseling was,
and it was very theoretical.”
#8 Hollyhock High School “I had one class called College and
Career Readiness. The main class
focused on how to read transcripts.”
#9 Blossom Bay High School “I don’t remember them ever talking
about any college guidance at all.”
#10 Moonlight High School “I wouldn’t say so much college
advisement. The program focused on
academic, social emotional, but not
college advisement.”
______________________________________________________________________________

83
Findings for Research Question 1: What perspectives do secondary high school counselors
in Earthland Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to
college?
Grounded in cultural capital, Bourdieu and Passeron’s pedagogical work (1990) surveyed
the variation of efficiencies brought about by the inequalities produced by this country’s
capitalistic domains and the consequential effect of those inequalities on marginalized
communities. The counselors’ perceptions gave segue to the influence of their impact and dents,
increasing Black and Hispanic student numbers into collegiate spaces as best as they could,
regardless of time and perceptions.
At first glance, one would assume that ethnicity, first-generation to college, or coming
from a low-socioeconomic background would place students on a differentiated platform where
they would receive extra support, attention, and assistance to champion their journeys toward
college. The reality of it, however, is affected by time constraints, counseling loads (for some),
other counseling field duties that must be completed, and the generalization of all students due to
the number of counselees needed to be served. Nic et al. (2020) explained that one-on-one
counseling is limited or nonexistent or that assistance is offered as a one-size-fits-all model.
Counselor perspectives in Earthland Unified School District fell into general categories
based on the surrounding communities. Since all the high school counselors involved with this
study work primarily in schools with high Hispanic populations who live in socioeconomically
disadvantaged areas, many categories consist of cultural influences from the community. All
counselors had similar themes in their perceptions: 1) students come from lower socioeconomic
families; 2) students’ family dynamics are essential in making any decisions; 3) parental support

84
on campus is low, and 4) mindsets and low self-esteem are difficult to change as students at the
high school level are grounded in their abilities or inabilities to succeed.

Theme 1: Socioeconomic Status and the Effects of Collegiate Outcomes
Counselors’ role when distributing information to students is critical, especially in lower
socioeconomic communities (O’Conner, 2009). A high percentage of high school students in this
study come from low socioeconomic backgrounds. The counselors are aware of the disparities
that their Hispanic and Black counselees come to school with daily. Amatea & Olatunji (2007)
noted that low-income students face barriers that create challenges for educators and counselors.
Counselors are conscious that many have to work to assist their families, which plays a
significant role in academics for these students. Participant 2 mentioned that the students work to
help themselves or their families, saying, “They tend to work, and so many of them combine
school with work. They have to work to pay for themselves or to help their families. They have
this urge to help financially, so they have that challenge.” Participant 3 said that the kids were
fighting against the “element,” which meant that money was tight at home and his students had
to reconsider their choices between a fast career through vocational school or work. He has been
in conversations where parents tell him their child has to work to help the household. Participant
3 also said, “And then there are other times where it's parents, you know, telling kids, “Oh, I
want you to work right after, you know, you shouldn't go to college, you know, you need to help
out the family.” Participant 6 shared that the students do not feel like they qualify for anything,
and they feed into the notion that they cannot afford college, saying, “I think there's just always
the perception that they won't be able to pay for college, even though the student might have, you

85
know, exceptional grades and be excelling. I think students that come from a low socioeconomic
status tend to feel like college is out of their league or out of the realm of possibilities.”
Regardless of socioeconomic background, each counselor has to meet with each student
to carve out a college/career pathway by graduation. The participants' narratives paint a picture
of the discussions and the decisions they have to make when sitting with their students.
Participant 8 shared that students other than Black and Hispanics have family or outside college
counselors to assist them with the process. Additionally, she said her Hispanic and Black
students rely on her because they cannot afford an outside resource, saying, “It's not our Black
and Hispanic students who have outside resources. I think other students have other resources
that I meet with, like a family friend or an outside college counselor, but our Black and Hispanic
students don't really have that resource, and I think that's why they turn to me and call me more
to have these meetings because they're using the school resource.” Their support system comes
from her knowledge and the knowledge of counselors and teachers. Regardless of their
perception regarding familial income, they all make a conscious effort to create spaces, given the
time, to assist students on their collegiate journeys through group workshops, class presentations,
or one-on-one conversations if time permits. The American School Counseling Association’s
Preamble (2023) states that all counselors must treat and respect all students with dignity and not
diagnose students' environments, which can affect access and impact post-secondary decisions.
Theme 2: Students' Family Dynamics
Student family dynamics are essential in making decisions about college journeys. Bryan
et al. (2009) indicated that families whose parents have higher incomes reach for greater
educational attainment, while parents with lower incomes usually have lower education levels.

86
Plank & Jordan (2001) added that parents often make college decisions based on insufficient
knowledge regarding collegiate systems impacting their children's maximum potential.
Some participants expressed that students may not always want to travel far for college
and want to be within the local context of their homes. Very few students will wander far and
risk learning what it means to be a college student outside their county. Perceptions regarding
first-generation and low-income students create the need for counselors to be patient,
understanding, and open to the various student situations. Families are tight in both Black and
Hispanic communities. Participant 8 mentioned that many students choose not to leave their
families regardless of GPA. She said, “Students, regardless of GPA, choose not to leave the city
because the family unit is strong, and students feel anxious about leaving.” Participant 5 said
“that the need to help families is always there,” making it hard to sway students to apply outside
their comfort zone.
Regardless of the need to be with family, Participant 4 said that when he advises Hispanic
students, he has to be mindful of the family dynamics of both cultures. He said,
“For some, it's just my perception or perspective. And I could be totally wrong for the
Latino students that I work with when advising some of those students. I don't want to
generalize, but when advising some of those students regarding post-secondary
opportunities, I'm almost mindful of when I'm discussing opportunities with those
students. It's been my experience that for many of them, the family and the family
dynamic are extremely important as it relates to education, but there are some family
things that are most important that I want to factor into. I'm not saying that's not the case
for the African American students I work with, but it's just my impression that it's a little
different when it comes to that aspect. When I'm advising African American students, I

87
kind of joke, sometimes not in a bad way. But this is my impression for African
American students, like the parent or guardian is like, oh, you got into school like, okay,
we might not be thrilled about you going on to Northern California or wanting to leave
the state to go to an HBCU or a PWI, but you know, we're just happy you're going to
school.” (Participant 4)
Participant 10 said that no matter the ongoing basis for these students and their decisions and
choices regarding college, she still provides all the options to her students. She said, “So just
getting them to see the different options for themselves has been one of the struggles. Each
student has their own challenge. And sometimes they have to just go straight to work. So, we
say, “Okay, well, let's see what we can do, you know, so you can also go to school,” because
they do have their goals, so they open up and let us know what their goal is, so we try to support
them on what's something that's manageable for them”. Participant 10 added that the students
and their families often have different views when thinking about college, saying “Families have
a hard time letting go. Students also limit themselves in where they apply.” Amatea & WestOlatunji (2007) pointed out that culture and ethnicity place values and priorities differently,
creating limited engagements that families may have towards decisions needed to be made.
Theme 3: Parental Support
Stephan & Rosenbaum (2013) stated that parental support might not be provided to assist
students with college-related material, which propels students to find help at school. The
participants know that many students cannot receive help with college applications from the
family unit since many parents are unaware of the college processes. Counselors feel it takes
more effort to assist these populations due to their limited knowledge of higher education
systems. Participant 3 said, “Parental involvement is nonexistent. They do not get involved. It is

88
difficult to get parents in.” Participant 9 described parents as not having the background to talk to
their kids about college, saying, “Parents did not go to college; therefore, they have no context
and don’t know how to talk to their kids about it.” Participant 4 mentioned that individual
graduate plans should involve counselors, students, and parents, but parent support is almost
nonexistent. “IGP’s should be counselor, student, and parent, but parent support is dismal,” said
Participant 4.
Participant 7 thought parent engagement was limited because counselors do not educate
the parents, saying, “Very few families engage and support. It is due to the lack of knowledge
and counselors not educating parents” Participant 10 said, “Parental support can be mixed. We
have supportive parents, but we also have parents who have a hard time coming to school.
Parents do not feel comfortable sharing information with the school.” Two out of the ten
participants said that parents do participate on their campus because they want better futures for
their students. Participant 8 said, “I want to say the support from parents is pretty equal across
the board for Black and Hispanic students, and really all students on our campus. I feel a lot of
parents are supportive of our students. I think there's only such a small percentage of parents that
are really hard to get. It’s like pulling teeth otherwise, they're pretty supportive of the students on
our campus. They call for conferences, they attend our workshops, and they're involved in the
student schedule. They're involved in developing the college list. Whenever I tell parents to
maybe take a tour of a campus that's local, they seem open to visiting with their student, like a
parent has a very busy schedule, but they're very adamant about meeting with me on the phone,
Zoom, or in person. I do notice that they're pretty involved in their students' lives, and I think
that's because they want something better for them.” Participant 6 also said parents participate on
her campus by coming to do the financial aid applications with their children. She said, “Parents

89
come in to fill out the FAFSA voluntarily. I mean, they all did eventually.” Participant 8’s
campus has 40% of parents who are neither Black nor Hispanic, so the number of parents is more
mixed than some of the other high school campuses. Participant 6’s campus has 900 students
enrolled, which is considered a small campus.
O’Connor (2009) stated that counselors have a significant role in distributing information
to parents who do not have the same resources as high-income parents. Unfortunately,
participants know that, within four years, they will not meet most of the students’ parents within
their caseloads due to the lack of parent participation.
Theme 4: Students Mindsets Influenced by Sociocultural Environments
Mindsets can be challenging to change. Students in high school are grounded in their
various abilities to succeed based on their experiences in education. Vela-Gude et al. (2009)
concluded that the impact of academic achievement influences students’ challenges. Counselors
perceive every child as able and capable. However, the reality is that if a student has not done
well in grade school or middle school, the mindset of not succeeding continues to be an issue,
making it a challenge for some counselors. Participant 3 shared that changing the mindsets of
many of his students is difficult due to their fixed mindsets, saying, “The difficulties of working
with these populations are that it's very difficult to kind of change their mindset, when they
already have something that they want to do, or they don't believe that they're capable of doing.
The biggest challenge is the mindset sometimes that our communities have.” Participant 2 said
that he can relate to the students because of his experience growing up. His childhood experience
allows him to see the obstacles the students come to school with, especially as they reside in
lower-income neighborhoods, primarily Hispanic, in his case. He also added that the same can be
said for his Black students. Although they may not live in predominantly Black communities, the

90
students come with challenging mindsets that make it hard to convince them that they can create
change in their lives. He said, “To me, having the same background allows me to see what
obstacles the students come with to see it from their point of view. I think that Blacks and
Hispanics, they might have a different ethnicity, but they have other things that they have in
common, which is socioeconomic status. So, in that sense, they share some similarities in terms
of the struggles that they go through…. the urgency to assist the household with, you know,
contribute with an income. Those are the same pressures that they have, you know, trying to
make ends meet many times implies not thinking too far along in their educational plans.”
Participant 7 mentioned that students from Black and Hispanic communities still feel like
they do not belong, which creates a mindset that halts many students from making it to college,
saying, “I think as a community, as our Black and Hispanic community, we still feel that we, you
know, we don't belong, this is not for us, and we need to change the mindset because our
students are not making it to college because of that.” Rust (2019) commented that racial and
cultural hierarchies continue to be factors of discrimination among students of color.
Additionally, correlational gaps in education among minority students concentrate in low
socioeconomic societies (Gormley et al., 2023; Logan & Burdick-Will, 2017). Participant 9
added that ethnicity and the environments they come from, determine whether or not students
have a college-bound mindset, saying, “I feel like the ground level of understanding the college,
college-bound culture, the college-bound mindset is lacking because there's a disconnect between
our school systems and the students we're working with. And ethnicity is definitely tied into that.
I think we're still coming from a systematically white mentality, even though our district has a lot
of very important people of different ethnicities at the higher levels.”

91
Stephan and Rosenbaum (2013) stated that collegiate choices are influenced by
stratification. Table 6 displays the various counselor perspectives that reflect this statement and
impact predominantly Hispanic and Black students since both are the majority within the
communities served by the participants.

92
Table 6: Counselor Perspectives Regarding Black and Hispanic Students Going to College
______________________________________________________________________________
Counselor Perspective Examples Quotes
Socio Economic Status “They tend to work and so many of them
combine school with work. They have to work to
pay for themselves or to help you know, the
families. They have this urge to help financially so
they have that challenge.” (Participant 2)
“And then there's other times where it's parents, you
know, telling kids, oh, I want you to work right
after, you know, you shouldn't go to college, you
know, you need to help out the family, which is part
of student lives.” (Participant 3)
“I think there's just always the perception that they
won't be able to pay for college, even though the
student might have, you know, exceptional grades
and be excelling. I think students that come from a
low socioeconomic status, tend to feel like college
is out of their league or out of the realm of
possibilities.” (Participant 6)
______________________________________________________________________________
Students’ Family Dynamics “For some, it's just my perception or perspective.
And I could be totally wrong for the Latino students
that I work with, when advising some of those
students. Not all, I don't want to generalize, but
when advising some of those students regarding
post-secondary opportunities, I'm almost mindful of
when I'm discussing opportunities with those
students. It's been my experience that for many of
them, the family, and the family dynamic is
extremely important. As it relates to you know, I
want to continue my education, but there's some
family things that are most important that I want to
factor into. I'm not saying that's not the case for the
African American students I work with, but it's just
my impression that it's a little different when it
comes to that aspect. When I'm advising African
American students, I kind of joke sometimes not in
a bad way. But this is my impression for African
American students, like the parent or guardian is

93
like, oh, you got into school like, Okay, we might
not be thrilled about you going on to Northern
California or wanting to leave the state to go to an
HBCU or a PWI. But you know, we're just happy
you're going to school.” (Participant 4)
“The need for students to help their families
is there.” (Participant 5)
“Students, regardless of GPA, choose not to leave
the city because the family unit is strong, and
students feel anxious about leaving.” (Participant 8)
“Families have a hard time letting go. Students also
limit themselves on where they apply.”
“So just getting them to see the different options for
themselves. I know, that's been one of the struggles
as well, as many of the students are kind of like, “I
don't want to continue”. Each student has their own
challenge. And sometimes they have to just go
straight to work. So, we say, okay, well, let's see
what we can do, you know, so you can also go to
school because they do have their goals, so they
open up and let us know, what is their goal, so we
try to support them on what's something that's
manageable for them. (Participant 10)
______________________________________________________________________________
Parental Support
“I want to say the support from parents is pretty
equal across the board from black and Hispanic
students, and really all students on our campus. I
feel a lot of parents are supportive of our students. I
think there's only such a small percentage of parents
that are really hard to get. It’s like pulling teeth
otherwise, they're pretty supportive of the students
on our campus. They call for conferences, they
attend our workshops, they're involved in the
student schedule. They're involved in developing
the college list. Whenever I tell parents to maybe
take a tour of a campus that's local, they seem open
to visiting with their student… like a parent has a
very busy schedule but they're, they're very adamant
about meeting with me on the phone on zoom in
person. I do notice that they're pretty involved in

94
their students' lives, and I think that's because they
want something better for them.” (Participant 2)
“Parental involvement is non-existent. They do not
get involved. It is difficult to get parents in.”
(Participant 3)
“IGP should be counselor, student, and parent, but
parent support is dismal.” (Participant 4)
“Very few families engage and support. It is due to
the lack of knowledge and counselors not educating
parents.” (Participant 7)
“Parents did not go to college therefore they have
no context and don’t know how to talk to their kids
about it.” (Participant 9)
“Parental support can be mixed. We have
supportive parents, but we also have parents that
have a hard time coming to school. Parents do not
feel comfortable sharing information with the
school.” (Participant 10)
______________________________________________________________________________
Student Mindset “To me, having the same background allows me to
see what obstacles the students come with, to see it
from their point of view. I think that blacks and
Hispanics, they might have a different ethnicity, but
they have other things that they have in common,
which is socioeconomic status. So, in that sense,
they share some similarities in terms of the
struggles that they go through…. the urgency to
assist the household with, you know, contribute
with an income. Those are the same pressures that
they have, you know, trying to make ends meet
many times implies not thinking too far along in
their educational plans.” (Participant 2)
“The difficulties of working with these populations
is that it's very difficult to kind of change their
mindset, when they already have something that
they want to do, or they don't believe that they're
capable of doing. The biggest challenge is the

95
mindset sometimes that our communities have.”
(Participant 3)
“I think as a community, as our Black and Hispanic
community, we still feel that we, you know, we
don't belong, this is not for us, and we need to
change the mindset because our students are not
making it to college because of that.” (Participant 7)
“I feel like the ground level of understanding the
college, college-bound culture, the college-bound
mindset is lacking because there's a disconnect
between our school systems and the students we're
working with. And ethnicity is definitely tied into
that. I think we're still coming from kind of a
systematically white mentality, even though our
district has a lot of very important people of
different ethnicities at the higher levels.”
(Participant 9)
______________________________________________________________________________
Discussion for Research Question 1
Economic hardship, parental involvement, and cultural influences play potential roles in
students' journeys to college. Not all students finish their studies at the same level of attainment
because they do not have the same access when they begin their education (Ladson Billings,
2006). For this study, all the participants worked in primarily Hispanic-serving high schools,
where most of the students, regardless of race, fell into a mid-to-low-income category. Due to
the number of years the counselors have worked at their respective high schools, the similarities
in perceptions were based on preconceived notions of the types of students they work with each
year. Individual biases based on perceptions were not shed in this study; however, preconceived
notions were the basis of counselor perceptions, and the preconceived themes that came up
illuminated what counselors expected the norm to be for their populations.

96
Discussions about ethnicity, first-generation, and low socioeconomic status are topics for
further conversations when perception, bias, and predisposed notions surround how students are
academically counseled. Dimmit (2003) stated that all students come into the educational space
with a variety of abilities, needs, backgrounds, and beliefs about themselves, which causes the
necessity for counselor perceptions not to generalize but to see each student intrinsically and for
the gifts each of them brings to campus. Regardless of student composition, the American School
Counseling Association (2024) emphasized that counselors are responsible for advocating
change that makes student outcomes equitable.
Findings for Research Question 2: How do high school counselors support Black and
Hispanic students in creating access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in
the way (if any)?
According to Woods & Domina (2014), the pipeline to college begins with students’
expectations of college. This mindset starts before the college application season; therefore,
counselors need to create access and support for students, particularly for Black and Hispanic
students who come from disadvantaged backgrounds. The importance of serving and supporting
marginalized students requires attentive services that reflect the need for post-secondary
information to be acquired and broken down for students to understand. Such large amounts of
information can be daunting and overwhelming for students from communities where college
knowledge is scarce. Participants in this study felt they were constantly supporting students
through the various activities in which they engaged.
Communication is vital in creating mindsets that allow students to embark on new
journeys. Knowledge is powerful, and through presentations and meeting students in small

97
groups or one-on-one, counselors can feel they are contributing information the students need.
Communicating access to more rigorous courses is also pertinent to supporting students toward
college. Historically, not only have these two groups been underrepresented in rigorous courses
(Francis et al. 2019), but schools in marginalized communities offer fewer college-bound classes
such as Advanced Placement subjects, which creates a huge disadvantage for students of color
(Kohler & Lazzarin, 2007). All participants reported that they encouraged students with good
grades or the potential (regardless of background) to embark on these opportunities, including
taking community college courses through the dual enrollment programs at their sites. Another
layer of student support that has assisted academic counselors and students came from the
additional aid designated for specialized populations. Supports such as A-G counselors, Black
Students for College counselors, and college-focused counselors were viewed as additional
sources of information and services to assist students in marginalized groups. Several
participants said they relied on these counselors because they knew they could not give all of
their students’ one-on-one attention due to the volume of their caseloads. Additional counselors
affect and favor college rates, especially for students for whom college might not be their first
choice (Hurwitz & Howell, 2014).
College support systems are necessary to assist students in reaching their goals after high
school. The support methods framed by the counselors in this study to create access for their
students were grounded in 1) communication about post-secondary options, 2) having access to
rigorous courses, and 3) making connections for equitable actions by using support counselors
for additional assistance with students. Nice et al. (2023) noted that counselors can assist
students with implementing strategies that develop pathways to a successful transition to
adulthood.

98
Theme 1: Post-Secondary Communication
Addressing post-secondary options with high school students increases the opportunities
for students to attend college. Closing the educational gap faced by students of color,
socioeconomically disadvantaged, and those underachieving raises the need to exert activities
and extend communication (American School Counseling Association, 2024). Unfortunately,
because of time constraints, large caseloads, and extended duties that the study participants must
adhere to, most of the college information communicated to students in their schools is done
through general assemblies. Students who fall into categories such as first-generation and low
socioeconomic income are not given specialized attention. Regarding ethnicity, all high schools
in this study have a high Hispanic student percentage. The need to differentiate between these
participants is nonexistent due to the ethnic makeup of their campuses.
All the participants mentioned assemblies as their number one communication carrier
regarding college information. Many participants also said these assemblies are usually held by
the college counselor rather than by them. At times, they may attend the assemblies to support
the college office. Participant 8 is both a college counselor and an academic counselor. She has
to do assemblies for the students while managing her caseload of 1200 students. College
information is given to students through presentations in their classes. Participant 5 said that all
the counselors do college presentations in 9th-12th grade classrooms. “We have presentations at
my school where all the counselors are presenting college requirements, and we start that in ninth
grade,” said Participant 5. Some counselors present for students within the program they counsel,
such as Participant 1, who is a magnet counselor. She also shares the same information with her
non-magnet 9th-grade students and encourages them to take community college courses.
“Luckily, with my magnet, I have a lot more flexibility to go into the classes; the teachers aren't

99
as strict. We present college information. Now, for my ninth graders who are not in the magnet, I
share the information with them, and I encourage them to take college classes. I let them know
college classes are free throughout their time in high school, to get those costs out of the way,”
she said. Participant 9 mentioned that all students receive the same college information
regardless of their background status. She said, “We're giving them all the information like
nobody's treated any differently. Here's the private schools; here's the community colleges; here's
the trade schools. Everybody's given all the information to be best prepared for the highest level
they can be for options later. Everybody's given the same message, and it's not based on
differences at all. Nobody's treated any differently”.
Two other platforms used to communicate college information by counselors are
through programs called Talent School and Naviance. Talent School is a web-based platform that
lets counselors share pertinent information with students through a messaging system. They
create groups based on the students in their caseloads allowing them to communicate effectively.
The second platform is Naviance. Naviance is a college and career readiness platform that assists
students with post-secondary options. Participant 5 uses this platform to assist his students with
understanding who they are, “I am a supporter of Naviance, as much as I sometimes hate it. I use
it to be able to help students identify those things that they think are a priority. So, I really push
Naviance, even though I will say, 90% of my students don't do it. And I tell them when I meet
with them, ‘you know, this is a great tool.’ I show them how to access some of the tasks that
have been assigned by the district. And that will help them understand who they are as a learner.
And as a person, you're able to do that, that's like 90% of what you need to do to be able to
identify those schools that might be a good fit.”

100
Individual Graduation Plans (IGP) are the only meetings where counselors can have oneon-one conversations about classes students take pertinent to high school graduation and college.
Participant 7 said that he meets with students to have Individual Graduation Process meetings to
discuss classes and what they would like to do in the future. He said, “I meet with students. We
have what we call the Individual Graduation Progress Meeting, or IGPs. That's when I meet with
students, and I discuss a lot of things including, you know, their academic progress and also what
is required for them to get a high school diploma. And in that conversation, I inquire about what
it is that they want to do particularly when they finish high school.” Participants in this study
with no time for one-on-one meetings do group IGPs and have general discussions about courses
needed for high school graduation and college admissions. Half of the participants in this study
send an electronic form where students can choose their classes for the following semesters.
Counselors who feel there may be some discrepancy often communicate with the student and
discuss course selection.
These communication styles demonstrate how counselors support their Black and
Hispanic students. Because the participants do not feel the need to differentiate groups, all
information is generalized regardless of GPA, program, or ability. Encouragement and support
have considerable power to reduce the loss of potential talent among economically
disadvantaged students (Plank & Jordan, 2021), a finding particularly relevant to participants’
schools, which almost exclusively serve economically disadvantaged students. Unfortunately,
according to the state’s educational dashboard, 9 out of 10 high schools utilized in this study fall
under the 50 % mark of students prepared for college (2023). One school falls under a mark of
52%. Altogether, these numbers indicate that about half (or less) of students at these schools are

101
not prepared to go to college. Counselors at these schools support their students but are limited
due to the numerous obligations each has to fulfill.
Theme 2: Access to College Level Courses
Students in upper-class communities can obtain college information for secondary
education more readily, while students from lower socioeconomic communities compete for
access (Smith, 2008). Earthland Unified School District has been working on increasing the
number of Black and Hispanic students in courses such as honors and Advanced Placement at
the high school level, as well as enrollment in college courses through the Dual Enrollment
program. Additionally, EUSD has magnet programs, which are schools focused on various
specialty areas with honors and advanced placement courses exclusively for students to take
mandatorily. Magnet schools are embedded within larger comprehensive schools. Participants 1,
5, and 9 said that the only students who get honors courses are students in the magnet programs.
“My students, they're all in honors, because they are in the magnet,” said Participant 1.
Participant 5 said, “Unfortunately, only the magnet students would get an honors class in the 9th
grade unless, like a parent, emailed us or reached out. If the student had the grades in eighth
grade and asked, we will do it, you know, but we don't typically cookie cut for the gen ed
students.” Participant 8 said, “Honors is only offered in 9th and 10th grades for English only.”
Usually, students who are gifted in high school and have good grades are put in honors and
Advanced Placement courses unless they opt-out. Participant 4 added that the counselors are
required to give gifted students honors and advanced placement courses, saying, “If a student is
identified as gifted, you are required to give them honors. You're required to give them honors,
and offer AP courses, unless the parent or guardian opts out on those courses. So, by default, let's
say they do opt in to take these honors, Advanced Placement, these more rigorous courses, it's

102
almost like those students are automatically being propelled or put on a trajectory to do well in
high school and potentially want to pursue education beyond the high school level, as compared
to the student who does not have this marker of being identified as gifted. They may have
potential, they may have the grades, maybe they just weren't identified as gifted.” Participant 3
stated they have the students select the classes they want, including Advanced Placement
courses. However, all students are placed on a year-long contract. A student's schedule does not
change for a year, regardless of grades since it is a one-year commitment. He said, “We have to
have an AP fair, and we have to expose all of our students to all of our courses that we offer on
this campus. We have them do a contract; we have them sign up. No teacher is going to deny a
signature from a student if they truly want to take that class. And so, the district is doing a lot
better when it comes to that, as opposed to trying to send students in different directions, because
I know that sometimes the majority of the people don't believe that they're capable of doing it.
And so, you know, then we meet with students individually and say, ‘Hey, look, you signed up
for two AP classes, you've never taken them. “You struggle in regular classes; you know what
this means?”’ You know, but ultimately, it's going to be up to the student to decide whether they
want to do it or not, with the understanding that if they are enrolled in an AP class, they sign a
contract for an entire year. We're not making changes to the schedule. All students are staying in
the AP class.”
Unfortunately, marginalized communities offer fewer Advanced Placement courses,
disadvantaging these populations (Francis et al., 2019). The College Board offers 39 Advanced
Placement courses that all high schools can offer on campus. Sunshine School and Mariposa
High School offer the most Advanced Placement courses; 15. All other campuses offer fewer
advanced placement courses, which raises red flags as to why they offer less (see Table 7).

103
Dual-enrollment community college courses are different because students who sign up
usually have good grades. 9 out of 10 participating high schools in this study offer dualenrollment courses on their campuses. Raven Hills High School does not offer dual-enrollment
community college courses. However, Participant 4 said, “We don’t offer dual enrollment
courses on our campus, but we encourage the students to take concurrent enrollment courses.”
Most students taking these courses are 11th and 12th graders. Participant 7 said, “Yes, we have
dual-enrollment courses, and we encourage students to enroll in concurrent enrollment courses at
the community college as well.”

104
Table 7: Number of Advanced Placement Courses Offered and Dual enrollment Program
offering
______________________________________________________________________________
Name of School Number of AP Number of AP Dual Enrollment
Courses Available Courses Offered Offered
_____________________________________________________________________________
Sunshine High School 39 17 Yes
Moonlight High School 39 13 Yes
Mariposa High School 39 11 Yes
Raven Hills High School 39 15 Yes
Aurora High School 39 12 Yes
Riomar High School 39 11 Yes
Green Forest High School 39 13 No
Hollyhock High School 39 14 Yes
Blossom Bay High School 39 - Yes
Moonlight High School 39 13 Yes

105
Theme 3: Connections for Equitable Actions
Advocating against institutional barriers and systematic insensitivities faced by students
and parents is one of the counselor’s roles (Bray & Schommer-Aikins, 2015). Historically, Black
and Hispanic students have not had equitable pathways toward college due to systemic barriers.
Support for marginalized students must include the assistance of various partnerships. These
partnerships are the extension of what support counselors can offer when students need more
individualized attention. The additional support layer comes through specialized counselors who
work with particular populations, such as Black students, students doing poorly in school, and
students who have recently migrated to the United States. These counselors not only track
students for graduation but also expose students to college information and assist them in
obtaining post-secondary education. Participant 6 said, “I know our Black Students for College
program sometimes has Black college fairs and stuff like that, that we take them to and expose
them. The Latinos have a group on campus, but I cannot recall their name, but some of the
college information is shared among them.” Participant 1 shared that sometimes her students turn
to Black Students for College or the club Black Student Association for assistance, saying,
“African American students interact with the representatives for the Black Students for College
or BSU. I think opening lines of communication so that these students know who to go to if they
don’t want to reach out to me is important. At least I can find out if something is wrong so I can
just take the initiative to go to them and speak to them, you know.” Additionally, she adds that a
Latino club on campus takes the initiative to follow through with college information for
students, saying, “We have a Latinos Unidos club as well and they do the same as Blacks for
College. They also service Latino students by exposing them to college information. I think that
the local university hosts some stuff, and we like to get them there so that the girls can start

106
thinking about all the majors, not just like, you know, nursing or whatever; but they can also
think about engineering and all of that. So, we just share whatever the college has shared with
us.”
Some high schools will have college counselors. Participant 2 praised the college
counselors at his school and said they did a great job providing college presentations to their
juniors and seniors. He said, “I think that the college counselors do a pretty good job at doing
presentations. They go through every class; juniors or seniors and provide presentations with
information about college and give them access to the information.” Sometimes, academic
counselors are college counselors and carry out double the duties as assigned, such as participant
8. She took on double duty this year and admits she only focused on applications, financial aid,
and registering students for college courses. She relied on her colleagues, like the Black Students
for College counselor, to assist her with informing Black seniors with more in-depth information
about college. She says,
“I feel really limited to, to like the bureaucracy of the school, I guess my assignment has
changed almost every year. And then taking on like, academic counseling plus college
counseling, I was really like, juggling two different focuses. So, I don't think I truly
focused on the needs of our students beyond like, beyond applying for college, getting
financial aid done, and then like applying for their classes, just because there was so
much more to do, I couldn't focus on providing other opportunities for Black and
Hispanic students, or for our first-year students. I didn't host an alumni panel this year. I
like had to lean on my community partner… like thank God, we had the Black Students
for College initiative, because that really helped our Black students. (Participant 8)

107
High school college counselors usually carry the bulk of the work necessary to create
college information assemblies, presentations, and events for schools. Academic counselors do
partake in these collegiate events at times and are part of the village when time permits.
Participant 5 said “I really love the collaboration between our college counselor, the counseling
team, and the college access programs. I worked for Upper Bound programs before I moved into
the school district and charter schools. And I just think it takes a village.” Participant 3 also
described the village aspect of walking students toward a college journey. He said, “We have to
be able to put events for students and bring in different universities on our campus. Everybody is
contributing to that, not just one person, because when it comes to helping underserved
populations, first-generation college students, and students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds, I think it takes a village to be able to mentor a lot of these students.”
Counselors play a large role in assisting students toward graduation and college
(American School Counseling Association, 2024). Because academic counselors have so many
responsibilities, they do their best to support all their students. However, supporting students in
college endeavors cannot be a one-person act. The deficit that exists must be repaired through
continued support and access for our Black and Hispanic students.
Barriers to a Collegiate Pathway
Theme 1: Time Constraints on the Support that Counselors can Provide
Time is fundamental because every minute of the day counts toward working with
students in various ways. However, many of these capacities do not necessarily center around
college advisement because of time constraints. Clinedinst (2019) stated that counselors spend
only 20% of their time focusing on post-secondary plans due to the high need in other areas,
including other duties as assigned. Although having high caseloads can also impinge on the

108
amount of time spent with students, creating spaces where time is maximized, and the restrictive
environments are minimized would build the improvements needed for successful academic
journeys (Blake, 2020). Participant 7 says, “I think we need time in order for us to be able to
really sit with students and provide them with the necessary guidance, education, and
information to be able to give them the right resources when we meet with them.” Participant 8
said, “I think time is really important because then we would be able to anticipate students’
needs with workshops.” Furthermore, she said she does not have the time to go in-depth with any
students because her time was very limited and restricted due to her double duties of counseling
and college counseling. “I feel really limited to, to like the bureaucracy of the school. I guess my
assignment has changed almost every year. And then taking on like, academic counseling plus
college counseling, I was really like, juggling two different focuses,” she said. Participant 3
pointed out that the district has so many requirements for the counselors to meet, yet there is no
funding for additional support, impacting the time they spend with their students. He says,
“There's a big issue there, you know, there's no funding to hire additional counselors to
lowercase loads. But yet, you (the district) want us to do all of these things, to make a student
college-bound and ready, and we're having to do all these other things.” The accounts from the
participants indicate that time is not necessarily on their side to engage in college counseling
practices fully. Table 8 indicates the amount of time each participant spends college counseling
annually with their counseels.

109
Table 8: Annual Time Participants Spent with All Counselees on Caseload Doing College
Counseling
_____________________________________________________________________________
Participant Annual Time Spent on College Counseling
______________________________________________________________________________
Participant 1 “I spent a lot of time talking to students about
college, since my magnet courses incorporate it into
their classes.”
Participant 2 10 - 15%
Participant 3 40%
Participant 4 9th - 11th graders 20%
12th graders 50%
Participant 5 10%
Participant 6 10%
Participant 7 “I try to talk to them as much as possible”
Participant 8 “40% since I am also the college counselor”
Participant 9 “Over 50% of the time, but I feel like I’m missing

110
like the real meaning of what those conversations
are about”
Participant 10 30%
______________________________________________________________________________
Because the majority of students in this study come from mid-to-low-socioeconomic
communities, a majority of which are first-generation Hispanic college students followed by a
small percentage of Black students in some schools, it is pertinent for these students to have
individualized support and access through counselor communication in various modalities.
Gonzalez-Arce (2018) stated that improvements to counseling only come when tasks and
demands are minimized for counselors. Support systems also include creating access for students
to take rigorous courses and relying on assistance by utilizing additional specialized counselors
to advise on post-secondary options. Though counselors support their students to the best of their
ability, the demands and responsibilities are high. Table 9 delineates counselor support through
various modalities and the barriers that hinder their potential for collegiate counseling.

111
Table 9: High school counselors support for Black and Hispanic students in creating access
towards a collegiate pathway
Counselor Support Examples Quotes
Post-Secondary Support “Luckily, with my magnet, I have a
a lot more flexibility to go into the classes,
the teachers aren't as strict. We present
college information. Now, for my ninth
graders that are not in the magnet, I share
the information with them, and I encourage
them to take college classes. I let them know
college classes are free throughout their time
in high school, to get those costs out of the
way.” (Participant 1)
“We have an individual graduation plan that
we do with students. So, this is how we
deliver information with our students.”
(Participant 3)
“We have presentations at my school where
all the counselors are presenting college
requirements, and we start that in ninth
grade.” (Participant 5)
“I am a supporter of Naviance, as much as I
sometimes hate it. I use it to be able to help
students identify those things that they think
they're a priority. So, I really push Naviance,
even though I will say, 90% of my students
don't do it. And I tell them when I meet with
them, “you know, this is a great tool” I show
them how to access to complete some of the
tasks that have been assigned by the district.
And that will help them understand who
they are as a learner. And as a person, you're
able to do that, that's like 90% of what you
need to do to be able to identify those
schools that might be a good fit.”
(Participant 5)
“I meet with students. We have what we call
the Individual Graduation Progress Meeting,

112
or IGPs. That's when I meet with students
and I discuss a lot of things including, you
know, their academic progress and also what
is required for them to get a high school
diploma. And in that conversation, I inquire
about what it is that they want to do
particularly when they finish high school.”
(Participant 7)
“We're giving them all the information like
nobody's treated any differently. Here's the
private schools, here's the community
colleges, here's the trade schools.
Everybody's given all the information to be
best prepared for the highest level they can
be for options later. Everybody's given the
same message and it's not based on
differences at all. Nobody's treated any
differently.” (Participant 9)
______________________________________________________________________________
Access to College Level Courses “My students; they're all in honors, because
they are in the magnet.” (Participant 1)
“I understand the equity and the access to
those AP courses, but I think a lot of them
are recommendations from teachers. A lot of
them are by the perceived ability of the
student.” (Participant 2)
“We have to have an AP fair, and we have
to expose all of our students to all of our
courses that we offer on this campus. We
have them do a contract, we have them sign
up, no teacher is going to deny a signature
from a student if they truly want to take that
class. And so, the district is doing a lot
better when it comes to that, as opposed to
trying to send students in different
directions, because I know that sometimes
the majority of the people don't believe that
they're capable of doing it. And so, you
know, then we meet with students

113
individually and say, hey, look, you signed
up for two AP classes, you've never taken
them. “You struggle in regular classes; you
know what this means?” You know, but
ultimately, it's going to be up to the student
to decide whether they want to do it or not,
with the understanding that if they are
enrolled in an AP class, they sign a contract
for an entire year. We're not making changes
to the schedule. All students are staying in
the AP class.”
(Participant 3)
“If a student is identified as gifted, you are
required to give them honors. You're
required to give them honors, and offer AP
courses, unless the parent or guardian opts
out on those courses. So by default, let's say
they do opt in to take these honors,
advanced placement, these more rigorous
courses, it's almost like those students are
automatically being propelled or put on a
trajectory to do well in high school and
potentially want to pursue education beyond
the high school level, as compared to the
student who does not have this marker of
being identified as gifted, they may have
potential, they may have the grades, maybe
they just weren't identified as gifted.”
(Participant 4)
“We don’t offer dual enrollment on our
campus; but we encourage the students to
take concurrent enrollment courses.”
(Participant 4)
“Unfortunately, only the magnet students
would get an honors class in the 9th grade
unless like a parent emailed us or reached
out. If the student had the grades in eighth
grade and asked…we will do it, you know,
but we don't typically cookie cut for the gen
ed students” (Participant 5)

114
“Yes, we have dual enrollment courses, and
we encourage students to enroll in
concurrent enrollment courses at the
community college.” (Participant 7)
“Honors is only offered in 9th and 10th
grade for English only.” (Participant 8)
______________________________________________________________________________
Connections for Equitable “African American students interact with
Assistance representatives for the Black Students for
College or BSU. I think opening lines of
communication, so that these students know
who to go to for what if they don’t want to
reach out to me is important. At least I can
find out if something is wrong so I can just
take the initiative to go to them and speak to
them, you know. We have a Latinos Unidos
club as well and they do the same as Blacks
for College. They also service Latino
students by exposing them to college
information. I think that CSUN hosts some
stuff, and we like to get them there so that
the girls can start thinking about all the
majors, not just like, you know, nursing or
whatever, but they can also think about
engineering and all of that. So, we just share
whatever the college has shared with us.”
(Participant 1)
“I think that the college counselors do a
pretty good job at doing presentations. They
go through every class; juniors or seniors
and provide presentations with information
about college and give them access to the
information.” (Participant 2)
“We have to be able to put events for
students and bring in different universities
on our campus. Everybody is contributing to
that, not just one person, because when it
comes to helping underserved populations,
first-generation college students, students
from low social, socio economic

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backgrounds, I think it takes a village to be
able to mentor a lot of these students.”
(Participant 3)
“I really love the collaboration between our
college counselor, counseling team, and the
college access programs. I worked for upper
bound programs before I moved into the
school district and charter schools. And I
just think it takes a village.” (Participant 5)
“I know our Black Students for College
program sometimes has Black college fairs
and stuff like that, that we take them to and
expose them to. The Latinos have a group
on campus, but I cannot recall their name,
but some of the college information is
shared amongst them.” (Participant 6)
“I feel really limited to, to like the
bureaucracy of the school, I guess my
assignment has changed almost every year.
And then taking on like, academic
counseling plus college counseling, I was
really like, juggling two different focuses.
So, I don't think I truly focused on the needs
of our students beyond like, beyond
applying for college, getting your financial
aid, and then like applying for their classes,
just because there was so much more to do, I
couldn't focus on providing other
opportunities for black and Hispanic
students, or for our first-year students. I
didn't host an alumni panel this year. I like
had to lean on my community partner… like
thank God, we had the Black Students for
College initiative, because that really helped
our Black students.” (Participant 8)
______________________________________________________________________________
Barrier Example Quotes
Time “There's a big issue there, you know, there's
no funding to hire additional counselors to
lowercase loads. But yet, you (the district)
want us to do all of these things, to make a

116
student college-bound and ready, and we're
having to do all these other things.”
(Participant 3)
“I think we need time in order for us to be
able to really sit with them and provide them
with the necessary guidance, and the
necessary education and information, to be
able to give them the right resources when
we meet with them.” (Participant 7)
“I think time is really important because
then we would be able to anticipate
student's needs with workshops.”
(Participant 8)
“I feel really limited to, to like the
bureaucracy of the school, I guess my
assignment has changed almost every year.
And then taking on like, academic
counseling plus college counseling, I was
really like, juggling two different focuses.”
(Participant 8)
______________________________________________________________________________
Discussion of Research Question 2
The challenges of inequities based on race, socioeconomic status, and EL designation
have remained a concern within the K-12 educational system and marginalized communities
despite policy efforts by the government (Allbright et al., 2019). Black and Hispanic students’
college applications and enrollments have not risen. College admissions and graduation for
Black and Hispanic students continue to be disproportionate, raising the question of whether all
students have equal access. One aspect of being college-bound is the guidance and support of the
academic counselors in high school. Encouragement and support will considerably shrink
educational gaps for low socioeconomic-income students (Plank & Jordan, 2001). Creating
college access is critical because these two communities must rise from historical deficits.

117
Communicating college information and ensuring students gain opportunities to be in these
spaces is pertinent to Black and Hispanic students from marginalized communities whose
surroundings are not connected to higher education. The participants in this study indicated that
they would like more time to spend with their students, as this is an essential aspect of diving
into rich conversations about their students’ futures. Unfortunately, one-on-one counseling is
limited or nonexistent due to time constraints, generating a generalized one-size-fits-all model
for all students. Participant 9 expressed that she would like to have deeper conversations with her
students in order to get to know them, beginning with the levels of collegiate understanding they
come to school with, their mindsets, their knowledge, their thoughts surrounding their personal
spaces, and where they see themselves in the future.
Access to rigorous courses should be at the forefront for Black and Hispanic students.
Nora (2003) stated that due to academic and social experiences, these communities have
minimalized access. Counselors can schedule these students into honors and Advanced
Placement courses, increasing the representation that they have not had historically (Mulhern,
2020). Increasing marginalized students' willingness to take community college courses through
dual enrollment programs is also pertinent to increasing access and elevating opportunities for
Black and Hispanic students. Eight high schools in this study had less than 14 Advanced
Placement courses out of 39 possible courses. Are these the disparities or inconsistencies that
implore more research or greater discussions about why such a low number of courses exist on
these campuses?
Each student is unique and requires separate assistance because each journey is different.
Time is a significant barrier in college counseling. Every participant stated they wished they had
more time to engage with students in college dialogue. Due to time constraints, college

118
counseling is not necessarily at the forefront of participants’ duties, such as Participant 8, who
juggles counseling and college counseling.
Limited time is a factor that creates barriers that gets in the way of making sure all
students are college ready. Clinedinst (2019) explained that counselors spend an average of 20%
of their workdays talking to students about post-secondary options because of other duties
assigned to them. Time is one of the missing links to improving discussions and elevating
college information wisdom among Black and Hispanic student communities.
Findings for Research Question 3: What can be improved for high school counselors in
Earthland Unified School District to promote college awareness and access to college
resources?
The American School Counseling Association (ASCA) designed the ASCA National
Model, a national framework for counselors to follow when providing counseling and services to
students. Cook et al. (2021) explained that counselors should follow the model’s components;
however, counselors working in urban areas encounter multiple barriers within the field.
Counselors have limited time due to high caseloads (Albright et al., 2018), lack access to
resources and information (Wimberly, 2013), and do not have the educational engagement from
parents needed as collaborators in partnerships with schools (Moles, 1997). These are areas of
concern that the study participants felt needed to be addressed. The multiple hats counselors
wear creates a demand that causes them to flounder, keeping them from focusing on students'
paths toward college. Besides having more time, participants would like to implement several
actions that increase their student population’s participation in college. They would like to 1)
increase their levels of college information by attending training and professional development;

119
2) have smaller caseload numbers; 3) create college cultures at their schools; and 4) have more
parent involvement. These additions could increase the number of Hispanic and Black students
going to college.
Theme 1: Trainings and Professional Developments
Educational and certifications programs lack collegiate training, making it difficult for
high school counselors to advise students when directing them toward post-secondary
institutions (Mulhern, 2020). The lack of training in college advisement for counselors (see
Table 8) creates access issues for students due to the absence of collegiate information, which
hurts students when applying for or enrolling in college (Nic et al., 2020). Thus, training, and
professional development are crucial for high school counselors to keep up with the latest
information they need to serve their students. College information, systematic updates, and
applications are constantly changing, which creates the need for counselors to be a part of
ongoing training and personal development geared toward college advisement.
Despite the unmet needs of college counseling education programs centered around the
participants of this study, the desire and need for them to receive training by attending various
conferences offered to all counselors annually exists. Creating personal developments that cater
to the needs of counselors regarding college advisement is pivotal for carrying Black and
Hispanic students toward post-secondary goals.
Overwhelmingly, all participants would like more college-based training and personal
developments geared towards advancing college advisement. Participant 4 would like more
training as to the different options available. For example, he mentioned he would like the
chancellor of the local community colleges to provide the counselors with information to
enhance their basic knowledge of the system. He said, “Counselors need more training as to the

120
different options that are available. A concrete example would be having…. My school district is
pretty big. I don't know if they're able to coordinate with maybe the state chancellor. I don't
know if there's a state chancellor for community college or something like that, but if there's a
way, they can have that person come out or even on Zoom and it's like a mandatory Zoom for all
the counselors at my district to get the knowledge and base level knowledge.” Participant 5
mentioned he would like the district to collaborate more with the colleges, especially the private
colleges, and bring representatives to talk to them during personal developments. He stated, “I
will say .... like more collaboration with private universities with the district for counselor
professional development specifically, on this topic, and carving out more time in the role for
college access from the counselor. But I don't feel like that's necessarily carved out. It's only
carved out for the college counselor.” Participant 6 reiterated that her graduate program in school
counseling did not really implement college counseling, creating the need for personal
development to have more college information so she can be better equipped to counsel her
students. She said, “I think we need more professional development. You know, it has to be
taught and shared with us before we can share it with others. Again, I think college advising is
something that was really not part of my program that I wish was. So, the more information we
have, the better equipped we are to pass that information on.” Participant 10 said, “I feel that
ongoing training of college for counselors is very beneficial, because things are changing so
much. So, I think just ongoing training would be helpful so that we can be up to date and provide
that information to the students and families.”
Students must gain more pertinent information and access when parents cannot help their
children (Equity and Excellence Commission, 2013). The quest to have counselors attend more

121
training, conferences, and college-related personal developments is pertinent to advancing
college information for all students, especially marginalized ones.
Theme 2: Smaller Caseloads
The American School Counseling Association student-to-counselor ratio
recommendation is 250:1 (American School Counselor Association, 2024). In addition, ASCA
(2023) indicated that smaller caseloads lead to better rates in graduation, GPAs, and postsecondary plans. For this study, five counselors had caseloads that exceeded the 250-student
benchmark (see Table 10). Participant 6 and Participant 9 were the only two participants who felt
they truly knew their students. Both campuses have a low enrollment of students, which poses
the question of whether it is easier to access students in a smaller setting. Even though
Participant 5 has a caseload of less than 250, he said he feels the impact when assisting his
students because the district has so many requirements for counselors to meet. Participant 5 said,
“You know, I feel impacted because suddenly, when you have a large caseload, you know,
there's a number of different things that the district will require you to do, or you have to meet
with all of those students individually. Sometimes you can do some in-class presentations that
are specific to the grade level, but in general, there's a lot of following up with students. So, the
bigger the caseload, the more time you spend doing all those different things. And if they're not
all going to be about college access, in particular, they can impact your ability to present that
college access information because you're so busy doing these other things.” Participant 7 says,
“I think large caseloads limit our time with students to be able to really sit with them and provide
them with the necessary guidance, and the necessary education and information, to be able to
give them the right resources.” Participant 4 says, “Even though it's a case of 250, it almost

122
seems like every kid, you need to multiply them times three, because it's like, they're very needy.
They need a lot of support.” Participant 1 said they should be providing 80% direct service to the
students, but it just does not happen. Overall, most counselors in this study would like smaller
caseloads so they can spend more time guiding their counselees academically and towards
college.

123
Table 10: American School Counselor Load Preference, Counselor Caseloads, and Counselor
Caseloads Above the 250 Students’ Preference.
______________________________________________________________________________
Participant ASCA Counseling Counseling Load Caseload
Load Preference numbers above
250
_____________________________________________________________________________
Participant 1 250 350 +100
Participant 2 250 338 +88
Participant 3 250 112 -
Participant 4 250 275 +25
Participant 5 250 220 -
Participant 6 250 240 -
Participant 7 250 240 -
Participant 8 250 1200 +950
Participant 9 250 150 -
Participant 10 250 330 +100
______________________________________________________________________________

124
Theme 3: Create a College-Going Culture
Often, college-centered activities are left to high school college counselors or an
academic counselor who is also a college counselor. Academic counselors have many
responsibilities, creating small spaces to deliver college information to their counselees.
Robinson and Roksa (2016) implied the importance of a counselor’s ability to create
relationships with their students and develop a college-going culture within their schools. The
absence of such relationships would continue to impact ethnic minorities, first-generation college
students, and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds (Ochoa, 2011).
The participants all desired to create college cultures in their schools. The foundational
roots that create college-going cultures should emerge from a village that includes academic
counselors. Participant 3 said, “I think every counselor needs to identify key people on their
sites, whether it's teachers, custodians, or cafeteria workers and set up a committee, where all of
these people can be instrumental in believing that students can actually go on to universities. And
so, developing these committees where we can talk about these different issues and have that
same belief in our students can create that college-going culture within our campus, where
students will actually see that, and they will start to believe that.” Participant 10 said, “I think
just reminding the students of everything…. the school having ongoing assemblies, meetings
with the students, and then the conversations not only being the counselors, but also having like
the teachers implementing it in the classroom.” Participant 4 would love to emulate what an
extracurricular group that comes to his school does, which is to have 30-minute conversations
with his students about what they see themselves doing. He said, “Ideally, the information from
the secondary counselor should closely mirror what they hear when they go see the College for
You advisor or counselor, so that would be one concrete program that I like with junior

125
advisement sessions. I don't know how long these appointments are, but they involve the parents.
It should be like a mandatory meeting. It's like when you have 100 something juniors, we don’t
put them on a timer, but we know why I can't give these kids 30 minutes. I would love to have 30
minutes with students. Oh, I wish there was a way that my school district can emulate or model
what they're doing”
Participant 2 would like to take field trips where students can participate in college
classrooms and hear lectures. The experiences these students would have could be life changing.
He would also like everyone to be involved with their college dress day once a week. Collegedress day would create dialogue about various colleges that could pique the interest of students
unaware of specific colleges. He added that adding college logos and having a mobile college
board around campus would allow students to be aware of colleges and any announcements or
news they should know about. He said, “The school should create an environment where there is
a college center where students can go and experience a college classroom. To create an
environment, we start once a week. Everybody will dress wearing their college gear to the
university that you know; they want to go to. I think that the college logos should be all over
campus, not just in the college office. I think students should be able to ask questions. I think
every day in the announcements there should be something about college, the acceptance rate,
the cost of attending, just facts about college and I think throughout the year, there should be
workshops on college, not just during the application semester or the financial aid. It should be
throughout the year. It should be part of the school vocabulary. This is what we all believe, and
this is what we want you to believe about us...…. yeah, maybe changing … like having a
showcase of a college per week. I believe that we should have a mobile bulletin board that you
can kind of put in different parts of the campus. So that you can use it purposefully, you know

126
because there's some students who will never go by or pass by the college office, much less go
in. And equally, where they have the showcase that is stationary. I think this should be mobile,
we should take it to the classroom, we should take it to different parts of the campus where all
the homies hang out on all the different parts of the campus so that it is more dynamic and more
accessible. Talk about access, I think, I would like to have something more of that nature.”
Participant 1 mentioned she would like to have college information and events for all the grades
and have teachers implement college information in the classrooms. She said, “I think, just
reminding the students of everything…. across the board, the school, having ongoing assemblies,
meeting with the students, and having conversations not only with the counselors, but also
having teachers implementing college in the classrooms. I think that would be a good way to
create a college going culture.”
Creating a college-going culture does take a village, and it has to include everyone in a
school system to create it. The creation should be about counselors being socially responsive to
the needs of the students, as their actions influence college choice (Bryan et al., 2009). Choosing
to be proactive and not just sit in the office and be reactive to activities, as Participant 3 stated,
can be a vital component of increasing Black and Hispanic student numbers in college.
Theme 4: Parent Involvement
Parental involvement is one of the most critical factors in a student’s life. Unfortunately,
a lack of supportive practices from parents will negatively impact college access in high-poverty
communities (Equity and Excellence Commission, 2013). Proposing to assist counselors with
more involvement and communication with parents raises the idea that collegiate workshops can
be created at all times of the day to accommodate working parents.

127
Participant 9 feels that creating more workshops would be great but should be intentional.
She says, “I think speaking to the parents, from their experience, and scaffolding from that point
to share with them what going to college means is the piece that is missing. Working with the
parents, in their language, at their experience, understanding, and then building from that; how
going to college can help their children, is important.” Participant 10 felt it was important to
bring different college recruiters to represent their colleges and speak to the parents directly.
These communication platforms would create a space of dialogue where parents can begin to
understand systems or where they can ask questions freely. She commented, “I think
informational meetings for the parents, you know, getting the different colleges coming in as
well and just provide like the college fairs, where the parents are able to come and also meet with
representatives, I think that would be helpful for them, not only during the week, but also on the
weekends so that it can be accessed by everyone”. Participant 7 would like to see more parent
training that educates them about the forms and applications students will need in their senior
year. He mentioned, “Having those parent meetings, where we're discussing, what financial aid
is going to look like for seniors, or what college applications are going to look like, this is what
is going to be required for your child to complete and be ready by senior year’ is important”.
Participant 2 felt that creating different invitations for parents at various times during the week
would entice them to increase their presence on campus. He also added that having a budget for
food would be ideal and would eliminate the need for families to cook for one night, especially
when parents have worked all day and are tired. He stated, “I think that doing special invitations
for parents at different times of the week, different days of the week is important so that we can
first speak about the different higher institutions or financial aid, and then have parents ask
questions. So, resources will be there, and food will be provided. A representative from certain

128
colleges come and speak to the student and to the parents on different days of week and again,
not just one time, but do it frequently.”
Parents need to be on campus to learn about college, which helps their children be
cognizant and aware of existing college information. The impact these sessions could have on
Black and Hispanic parents would help students be more aware and prepared for college (Plank
& Jordan, 2001). 50% of the schools represented in this study have low rates of students going to
college, with most of the population being Hispanic. The relationships between parents and
counselors must increase; thus, the creation of informational sessions in various modalities must
be introduced to parents.

129
Table 11: Improvements for High School Counselors: Promotion of College Awareness and
Access
______________________________________________________________________________
Improvements for High School Counselors Example Quote
Trainings and Professional
Development
“And I would also say from my school district, more professional
development, professional development and activities that are more
relevant to what we do like sometimes, it seems like they have
professional development just to check, off a requirement.” (Participant
4)
“Counselors need more training as to the different options that are
available. A concrete example would be having…. My school district is
pretty big. I don't know if they're able to coordinate with maybe the state
chancellor. I don't know if there's a state chancellor for Community
College or something like that, but if there's a way, they can have that
person come out or even on Zoom and it's like a mandatory Zoom for all
the counselors at my district to get the knowledge and base level
knowledge.” (Participant 4)
“I will say…. like more collaboration with private universities with the
district for counselor professional development specifically, on this topic,
and carving out more time, in the role for college access from the
counselor. But I don't feel like that's necessarily carved out. It's only
carved out for the college counselor.” (Participant 5)
“I think we need more professional development. You know, it has to be
taught and shared with us before we can share with others. Again, I think
college advising is something that was really not part of my program that
I wish was. So, the more information we have, the better equipped we are
to pass that information on.” (Participant 6)
“I feel that ongoing training for college for counselors is very beneficial,
because things are changing so much. So, I think just ongoing training
would be helpful, so that we can be up to date and provide that
information to the students and families.” (Participant 10)

130
Smaller
Caseloads
“Having large caseloads definitely does impact us because clearly, we
know the ASCA model says that we should have 250 students, and that
we should be able to provide 80% Direct counseling, right? The reality
on any high school campus, that doesn't happen, we do not have 250
students on our caseload.” (Participant 1)
“Even though it's a case of 250, it almost seems like every kid, you need
to multiply them times three, because it's like, they're very needy. They
need a lot of support.” (Participant 4)
“You know, I feel impacted because suddenly, when you have a large
caseload, you know, there's a number of different things that the district
will require you to do, or you have to meet with all of those students,
individually. Sometimes you can do some in class presentations that are
specific to the grade level. But in general, there's a lot of following up
with students. So, the bigger the caseload, the more time you spend doing
all those different things. And if they're not all going to be about college
access, in particular, they can impact your ability to present that college
access information, because you're so busy doing these other things.”
(Participant 5)
“I think large caseloads limit our time with students to be able to really
sit with them and provide them with the necessary guidance, and the
necessary education and information, to be able to give them the right
resources.” (Participant 7)
Create College
Going Cultures
“I think, just reminding the students of everything…. across the board,
the school, having ongoing assemblies, meeting with the students, and
having conversations not only with the counselors, but also having
teachers implementing college in the classrooms. I think that would be a
good way to create a college going culture.” (Participant 1)
The school should create an environment where there is a college center
where students can go and experience a college classroom. To create an
environment, we start once a week. Everybody will dress wearing their
college gear to the university that you know; they want to go to. I think
that the college logos should be all over campus, not just in the college
office. I think students should be able to ask questions. I think every day
in the announcements there should be something about college, the
acceptance rate, the cost of attending, just facts about college and I think
throughout the year, there should be workshops on college, not just
during the application semester or the financial aid. It should be
throughout the year. It should be part of the school vocabulary. This is

131
what we all believe, and this is what we want you to believe about
us...…. yeah, maybe changing … like having a showcase of a college per
week. I believe that we should have a mobile bulletin board that you can
kind of put in different parts of the campus. So that you can use it
purposefully, you know because there's some students who will never go
by or pass by the college office, much less go in. And equally, where
they have the showcase that is stationary. I think this should be mobile,
we should take it to the classroom, we should take it to different parts of
the campus where all the homies hang out, on all the different parts of the
campus so that it is more dynamic and more accessible. Talk about
access, I think, I would like to have something more of that nature.”
(Participant 2)
“I think every counselor needs to identify key people on their sites,
whether it's teachers, custodians, cafeteria workers, and set up a
committee, where all of these people can be instrumental in believing
that students can actually go on to universities. And so, developing these
committees where we can talk about these different issues, and, and have
that same belief in our students can create that college going culture
within our campus, where students will actually see that, and they will
start to believe that.” (Participant 3)
“Ideally the information from the secondary counselor should closely
mirror what they hear when they go see the College for You advisor or
counselor so that would be one concrete program that I like with junior
advisement sessions. I don't know how long these appointments are, but
they involve the parents. It should be like mandatory meeting. It's like
when you have 100 something juniors, we don’t put them on a timer, but
we know why I can't give these kids 30 minutes. I would love to have 30
minutes with students. Oh, I wish there was a way that my school district
can emulate or model what they're doing.” (Participant 4)
“I think just just reminding the students of everything…. the school
having ongoing assemblies, meeting with the students, and then the
conversations not only being the counselors, but also having like the
teachers implementing it in the classroom.” (Participant 10)

132
Parent
Involvement
“I think that doing special invitations for different times of the week,
different days of the week is important so that we can first speak about
the different higher institutions, or financial aid, and then have parents
ask questions. So, resources will be there, and food will be provided. A
representative from certain colleges come and speak to the student and to
the parents on different days of the week and again, not just one time, but
do it frequently.” (Speaker 2)
“Having those parent meetings, where we're discussing, what financial
aid is going to look like for seniors, or what college applications are
going to look like, this is what is going to be required for your child to
complete and be ready by senior year’ is important.” (Participant 7)
“I think speaking to the parents, from their experience, and scaffolding
from that point to share with them what going to college means, is the
piece that is missing. Working with the parents, in their language, at their
experience, understanding, and then building from that how going to
college can help their children, is important.” (Participant 9)
“I think also like informational meetings for the parents, you know,
getting the different colleges coming in as well and just provide like the
college fairs, where the parents are able to come and also meet with
representatives, I think that would be helpful for them, not only during
the week, but also on the weekends so that it can be accessed by
everyone”. (Participant 10)
Discussion of Research Question 3
College preparation rates for the schools participating in this study are low (States
Dashboard, 2023). Except for one school, which had 52% of students prepared for college
according to the state’s dashboard (2023), all other schools fall under the 40% benchmark for
college preparedness. Improving college readiness is pertinent to communities that do not have
adequate access to thrive academically and beyond. Nice et al. (2023) asserted that the pursuit of
collegiate outcomes and post-secondary careers are rarely provided for those who will need
assistance with developmental changes they will encounter after high school. New, productive

133
systems need to be created based on and implemented through the improvements counselors see
fit to increase the student population moving forward to college, with particular attention to
students from Hispanic and Black communities.
Training and professional development exist to increase knowledge and provide more
resources to assist students. Gilfillan (2017) indicated that the lack of college counseling
preparation that counselors receive in graduate school can potentially negatively impact students
needing collegiate assistance. The district must allow counselors to attend more training. A
portion of their personal development could have speakers from various colleges share
knowledge about campuses with counselors and other staff members. Creating a college culture
on campus is also important, as it would be inclusive of all students and help them partake in
activities and events they may have not considered before. All the participants in this study were
willing to be a part of creating college cultures at their schools. However, because they are
constantly swamped and overwhelmed, the college creation culture is usually left up to the
college counselor. They all, however, expressed that counselors need to be part of this
movement. A part to this movement of change also involves parents. Counselors would love to
create more parent workshops and have them come to the school site meetings at various times
throughout the day. They are a huge component of their child’s success, and together they must
create teams to assist our Hispanic and Black students towards college and beyond.
The importance of looking at the college preparedness ratios is pertinent to increasing the
college-bound actions that every member of the high schools staff should include in their daily
duties. The American School Counseling Association (2024) stated that school counselors have
the responsibility to address issues pertinent to creating systemic differences and be leaders and

134
advocates to shift current counseling modalities, which includes the changes needed to build
college journeys for Black and Hispanic students who have limited access to the college world.

135
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion
Historically, Black and Hispanic students have been leaders in advocating for educational
rights and equity. Ethnic minorities, those of low socioeconomic status, and first-generation
students may feel disconnected to the collegiate process, impacting behaviors negatively
affecting collegiate admission process (Ochoa, 2011). However, counselors play a significant
role in college information distribution to families who do not have the resources or the means to
assist their children in post-secondary spaces (O’Connor, 2009).
This study examines the college admission challenges faced by Black and Hispanic
students in Earthland Unified School District. Counselors’ complexities in promoting postsecondary education awareness and access are also explored. Counselors play a crucial role when
scheduling students for classes, talking to students about post-high school options, and giving
students the access, they need to be college-bound. The role a counselor plays has the potential to
remove barriers and inequities to improve the percentage of Black and Hispanic students
applying and enrolling in college (Mignolo, 2000).
Three research questions generated the findings of this study.
Research Question 1: What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to college?
Research Question 2: How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students in
creating access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in the way (if any)?
Research Question 3: What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland Unified
School District to promote college awareness and access to college resources?

136
Recommendations to improve application and enrollment rates among Black and
Hispanic students in post-secondary institutions are provided. Students with fewer resources
come to educational spaces with less social capital. Therefore, recommendations to improve in
these capacities are given not to diminish what is currently being done but to uplift, raise, and
increase college awareness, access, and engagement percentages among these communities.
The limitations and delimitations of this study include why the small sample size may not
reflect college access or support at other high schools for Black and Hispanic students
throughout the district, state, or nation. Additionally, the counselors’ authenticity of students’
perceptions may be altered due to negative feelings threatening their vulnerability. Limited
information in the interviews produce a visual need for understanding student access and paints a
small picture since semi-structured interviews were the only method used in this study.
Finally, recommendations for future research replicating this study in additional publicschool districts around the United States could give a visual of the disparities Black and Hispanic
students may go through with their collegiate journeys. The possibility of including counselors
from other types of institutions, such as private schools or charter schools, would create a
broader comparison of collegiate access for Hispanic and Black students.
Discussion of Findings
Research Question 1: What perspectives do secondary high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic students going to college?
The variation of cultural capital brings inefficiencies, creating inequalities for
marginalized populations (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990). Vela-Gude et al. (2009) indicated that
raising awareness of barriers that challenge Latino students should frame the preparations needed

137
to position themselves toward college access. Furthermore, racial stigmatization affects African
American students and generates learning gaps, creating a loss of educational achievement.
Regardless of governmental policy efforts, both communities have remained a concern within
the K-12 educational system (Allbright et al., 2019).
Counselor perception and expectations for students are often generalized based on the
surrounding community: low socioeconomic backgrounds, family dynamics that impact student
decisions, low parental support, and mindsets that are difficult to change due to societal factors.
These general assumptions give way to counselors’ predispositions toward their counselees. For
instance, a counselor’s assumption that the students have families of low socioeconomic
backgrounds may be created by his or her awareness that surrounding high schools have many
students who qualify for free or reduced lunches. Counselors may also make inferences from the
generalization that students of low socioeconomic status must work to help their families
economically. Amatea and Olatunji (2007) noted that counselors face challenges because of the
barriers low socioeconomic income students face and bring to campus.
Participants expressed that most low-income students needed access to college
information. Furthermore, the perception of student-family dynamics is essential. Bryan et al.
(2009) argued that greater educational attainment is reached by families who have higher capital.
Participants recognized that lack of capital lead to low participation from parents, preventing
counselors from meeting parents within the four years of high school. Stephen and Rosenbaum
(2013) expressed that parents may need to learn how to support their children through this
process. While participants expressed a desire to have more interaction with parents, they had the
preconceived notion that parent attendance for meetings and functions would be low.

138
Participants also noted that the local environments influence student mindsets.
Counselors perceived every student capable of going to college. Therefore, students’ mindsets of
not attending school beyond high school was challenging for participants. For students who
struggled in elementary or middle school, the mindset of not succeeding continued into high
school, complicating matters for counselors. Vela-Gude et al. (2009) stated that the impact
students bring to school is related to and influenced by past academic achievement. Students’
perceptions are preconceived as mindset challenges due to the constructs of environments.
The American Counseling Association’s (2023) standards of responsibility for children
emphasize that counselors must be advocates for all students, regardless of their background.
Generalizing and distributing collegiate information for all, regardless of race, first-generation
status, or low socioeconomic position, does not offer the necessary differentiation. When
counselors are unaware of their students’ unique stories, they may perpetuate stereotypes and
biases (Akos & Kretchmar, 2016). Dimmit (2023) emphasized that students have various
abilities, needs, backgrounds, and beliefs about themselves, necessitating counselors to
understand each student’s uniqueness.
Research Question 2: How do high school counselors support Black and Hispanic students
in creating access toward a collegiate pathway, and what barriers get in the way (if any)?
Student support for college access has been available through generalized methods. Due
to time constraints, counselors conducted college-bound information through assemblies,
presentations, and, when possible, one-on-one interaction. College information was provided for
students through individual or group Graduation Plans (IGPs), the students’ Talent School portal,
or Naviance. Unfortunately, high caseloads and various demanding duties lead to the

139
generalization of collegiate information to all students, creating a one-size-fits-all environment.
Hurwitz and Howell (2014) implied that research has found that counselors spend less time
creating college-going cultures within their schools. Having fewer demands on duties that may
not fit the counselor’s responsibilities can create the necessary time with each student to discuss
post-secondary options. Increasing support for students with low socioeconomic backgrounds
will have an incredible impact on diminishing the educational gap in our society (Plank &
Jordan, 2001).
Access to advanced placement courses in these communities is limited. Among 39
Advanced Placement courses, one school offered 17, while another offered as few as 11. Kohler
and Lazzarin (2007) noted that few advanced placement courses are accessible to these
communities, which disadvantages students. Counselors program students into classes every
semester and have the power to put students in rigorous spaces, thus increasing the
representation of marginalized students (Mulhern, 2020). Increasing Black and Hispanic
students’ access to rigorous courses has been at the forefront of Earthland Unified School
District’s goals.
Hispanic and Black students in this study have access to advanced placement courses in
three ways: students are in magnet school programs that have these courses embedded in their
curriculum; students are in a residential school earning high grades so they can be potentially
placed in these courses by their counselor; or parents can petition to get their child in these
advanced classes. Furthermore, connections to equitable access center around additional
assistance from support counselors with targeted populations. The participants in this study rely
on additional counselors due to time constraints with their counselees. Improvements in
counseling students begin when the high demands that counselors have are minimized

140
(Gonzalez-Arce, 2018). Support counselors spend more time and have deeper conversations with
students about their future endeavors. Counselors wanted more time to speak to their counselees
about college options. However, they appreciated that the support staff could discuss college
pathways with the students.
Participants shared how they support students through their communication, give access
to rigorous courses, and get assistance from support counselors. Additionally, all counselors
noted time as a barrier preventing them from spending significant time with their counselees to
discuss students’ futures. Considering the high demands as a crutch for college counseling
deserves further investigation. Such actions can hinder students from obtaining pertinent
information, especially those not visiting the counseling office (Gonzalez-Arce, 2018).
Research Question 3: What can be improved for high school counselors in Earthland
Unified School District to promote college awareness and access to college resources?
Improving college readiness for Black and Hispanic students is essential for many whose
surroundings do not have adequate access to collegiate information (Nice et al., 2023). The
demands of being an academic counselor vary. College counseling takes effort and is complex,
especially when caseloads are large. Counseling efforts improve when counselors’ demands
decrease in their workplace (Gonzalez-Arce, 2018). Participants in this study felt they needed
more training and professional development to be more knowledgeable about collegiate updates
and resources. The lack of college counseling preparedness in postgraduate school creates an
access issue for students. Due to the lack of college information, counselors may need to learn
what hurts students, especially when applying to college (Nic et al., 2020). Hispanic and Black
students, who often come from low socioeconomic incomes and are first-generation, need
assistance and guidance, especially when families cannot help them. Providing professional

141
development and training surrounding college themes is pertinent to improving counselors’
knowledge when assisting students in their post-secondary decisions.
The responsibility and the roles of counselors have been significant. Due to daily
demands, many participants do not have time to meet one-on-one with their students.
Furthermore, participants desire to partake in more post-secondary activities, creating collegegoing cultures. Creating such cultures could increase the number of Hispanic and Black students
on post-secondary collegiate journeys. Ochoa (2011) emphasized that the absence of college
cultures would impact marginalized communities, including ethnic minorities, first-generation,
and low-socioeconomic students. Additionally, creating an impact within the college-going
culture has to involve parents. Families without capital barely function within the social world
and societal economics (Bourdieu, 1986). Most participants in this study expressed low parental
involvement. They knew that work, language barriers, fear of coming to school and sharing
information were a few barriers impacting parents’ participation in school activities. Lack of
parental involvement in high-poverty communities does not create student access (Equity &
Excellence Report, 2013) since parental involvement is critical for students. Participants
proposed building relationships and creating spaces where parents are welcome anytime by
having in-person and virtual workshops throughout the day at their schools. Workshops for
Black and Hispanic parents could impact them by helping their children be more aware and
prepared for college (Plank & Jordan, 2001).
Participants want to magnify their experiences by providing additional college
information and helping their counselees achieve their goals. By having more training and
personal development, creating college-going cultures on their campuses, and having more
parent participation through additional sessions designated at all times with different modalities,

142
counselors can affect more students on their caseloads. These factors could be pertinent in
elevating the percentages of Black and Hispanic students towards college, especially for schools
that face economic and social disadvantages.

143
Table 12: Research Questions: Connection to Literature
______________________________________________________________________________
Research Questions Findings Literature
______________________________________________________________________________
1. What perspectives
do secondary high
school counselors in
Earthland
Unified School
District have
regarding Black and
Hispanic
students going to
college?
Secondary high school counselors’
generalized perspectives conclude
that most students on caseloads
came from low socioeconomic
backgrounds affecting college
decisions. Furthermore, they felt
that students valued family
dynamics despite lacking parental
support. Additionally, student
mindset was influenced by
sociocultural environments.
Boschma & Brownstein, 2016;
Bryan et al.; 2009; Equity &
Excellence Commission, 2013;
Farkas, 2003; Gormley et al,
2023. Kohler & Lazarin; 2007;
McDonough & Calderon,
2006; O’Conner, 2009; Plank
& Jordan, 2000.
2. How do high
school counselors
support Black and
Hispanic students in
creating access
toward a collegiate
pathway, and what
barriers get in the way
(if any)?
Post-Secondary support from
academic high school counselors
create access through generalized
communication patterns except for
one-on-one advisement. One-on-one
advisement is done if time permits.
Offering advanced-level courses to
students depends on the program
students are in, grades, or
student/parent consent. Supporting
students also comes through
additional counselors focusing on
marginalized communities and
having more direct time with
students. Due to the counselors’
additional duties, time is a barrier
that limits counselors from
counseling post-secondary options.
Albright et al., 2019; American
School Counseling
Association, 2024; Clinedinst,
2019; Francis et al.; 2019,
Kohler & Lazzarin, 2007;
Mulhern, 2020; Nice, 2023;
Nichols, 2020; Nora, 2003;
Plank & Jordan, 2000; Woods
& Domina, 2014.

144
3. What can be
improved for
high school
counselors in
Earthland Unified
School
District to promote
college
awareness and access
to
college resources?
Participants need more training and
professional development to assist
students with post-secondary
choices. Smaller caseloads would be
ideal since counselors are pressed
for time due to their demands and
the number of students they have.
Creating a college-going culture
would also give students a sense of
knowledge, especially because
many of them are first-generation
students from areas where the
college atmosphere is not prevalent
and social capital is non-existent.
Parent involvement is integral to the
college decision process and finding
ways to increase parent participation
would be ideal.
Amatea & West-Olatunji,
2007; American School
Counseling Association, 2024;
Bourdieu, 1986; Cook et
al.,2021; Equity and
Excellence Commission, 2013;
Gilfillan, 2017; Moles, 1997;
Mulhern, 2020; Nice et al.,
2023; Ochoa, 2011; Robinson
& Roksa, 2016; Wimberly,
2013.
______________________________________________________________________________
Recommendations for Practice
De Oliveira Andreotti (2015) cautioned that the current state of modernity is looked at
through the pedological concepts of colonialism. Given the historical narrative of Black and
Hispanic students, the practices used to create recommendations should be conceptualized for the
individual student and not generalized. Carey et al. (2018) explained that the intersectionality
students come to school with should create a stance for educators against the oppressions that
may intersect with those who struggle towards success.
Normalized deficits impact schools' accountability responses, increasing inequities
among students of color (Massey et al., 2014). Academic high school counselors’ complexities
need platforms where time becomes a construct of successful measures for all students. The
American School Counseling Association pivots to the ASCA model as a tool for counselors to
implement and construct academic achievement and social-emotional competencies among their

145
students (Morgan et al., 2014). Achieving meaningful change within these marginalized
communities depends on 1) high school counselors preparing adequately for collegiate
counseling, 2) differentiating support for students through building relationships, and 3) creating
a stronger college culture throughout schools. These actions can enhance opportunities for Black
and Hispanic students to access higher education, ultimately contributing to positive changes
within their communities.
Recommendation 1: College Counseling Preparation
Recommendation 1:1 -Continuous Informational Support Through Training and Professional
Development
Counselors lead and pave the way for students during the four years of high school.
Counseling preparation programs must adequately prepare future counselors to work in
leadership roles, especially in high-poverty schools (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007). Counselor
education programs should include college career readiness training to prepare students for postsecondary decisions (Morgan et al., 2014). The possibility for school counseling graduate
students to join the American School Counseling Association and become familiar with their
publications and research particularly on college culture, is essential for exposure to what is
happening in the field. Morgan et al. (2014) stated that it may be possible to determine gaps in
counselor training when advising for college.
While graduate students are doing their pupil services credential field hours in a high
school placement, a large part of their practicum hours should include time in college offices.
Attending college conferences held annually by the Western Association for College Admission
Counseling (WACAC) or the American School Counseling Association would be an addition of
knowledge to their counseling positions. Attending such conferences can be beneficial for

146
graduate students’ field hours. Becoming familiar with systems and information needed to help
students for college pathways can enhance their knowledge about collegiate information. Future
school counselors must become skilled in college readiness to contribute adequate information to
students (Tang & Ng, 2019). The more graduate students train in college counseling, the better
equipped they will be to talk about college systems and the process to students.
School counselors serve as a source of social capital due to students’ limitations in their
environment (Tang & Ng, 2019). Qualified counselors can provide economic and social benefits
impacting student outcomes and the educational attainment students can achieve (Mulhern,
2020). School counselors should continue to further engage in professional development and
college counseling workshops. Amatea and West-Olatunji (2007) suggested that counselors
should engage in professional developments listening to topics that impact schools with low
socioeconomic populations via guest speakers, films, videos, and readings. Various colleges hold
counselor workshops to learn about their schools’ offerings at their sites. The American
Counseling Association and the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education sponsor
annual counselor conferences to learn about school sites, financial aid, and the process of
assisting with college applications. Counselors should maintain their American Counseling
Association membership for continued learning of the latest trends in counseling. College
admissions recruiters visit high schools, and counselors should give students a schedule of the
recruiters’ visits. These visits open the doors for counselors to ask questions and pick up material
that can be pertinent for helping their counselees further with college decisions. Earthland
Unified School District offers optional certifications for counselors who want to go through
college counseling training. While this is an excellent step for counselors to gain college process
knowledge, it is optional. The training should be mandatory for all counselors, especially for

147
counselors who work in a high school, so students have an equal chance at gaining knowledge
about colleges.
Moreover, high school experiences often serve as significant indicators of students’
future outcomes and are influenced by numerous variables (Gonzalez Arce, 2018). Creating
culturally responsive counselor-bias training could assist in building asset-based perspectives,
especially when working with marginalized communities. The American School Counseling
Association (2024) recommended that administrators over seeing school counselors provide the
counseling staff with trainings that are culturally responsive to learning models reflecting diverse
oppressions. Having guest speakers present the positive factors that Black and Brown cultures
have been pertinent to generating improvements and significant outcomes for these students.
Recommendation 2: Differentiating Support for Students of Color
Recommendation 2:1 - Varying Support
The first steps in varying support are identifying factors that interfere with academic
success (Dimmit, 2003). The need for academic secondary counselors to improve support for
students in their collegiate journeys has been a concern for advocates of the National Office of
School Counseling (Morgan et al., 2014). Counselors should focus on students and their different
trajectories, particularly those who are unfamiliar with collegiate systems. Having academic
programs such as Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) creates opportunities for
underrepresented students who have the desire to go to college but are not college-ready due to
the lack of opportunities available to them (Advancement Via Individual Determination, 2024).
Underachievement is reflected in racial inequalities that persist when students lack access
to their educational environments (Massey et al., 2014). Therefore, counselors could focus on
individual post-secondary plans and also consider the experiences each student brings to school.

148
The one-size-fits-all generalization of information may not fit every student. Giving students the
chance to explore their college options could assist students in believing that a post-secondary
opportunity is doable (Gibbons & Borders, 2010). College options should be a discussion
students have with their counselors and in classrooms creating a college-going culture
throughout the school. Submersing all educators to address college and career plans with
students could open opportunities for students to thrive in a college-going school culture.
Recommendation 3: Utilize Time Effectively to Build Postsecondary Opportunity and
Information for Students and Parents
Recommendation 3:1 - Building Relationships with Students Utilizing More One-On-One Time
Goodman-Scott et al. (2018) discussed that a school counselor’s role is associated with
students” academic outcomes. Students may only see their counselor once a year for collegerelated information. Therefore, it is pertinent that the counselor-student relationship begins
earlier than senior year, providing multiple chances to meet and talk about college (Bryan et al.,
2022). Meeting with students, building a relationship, and developing a college plan as a firstyear student can start creating the layers of trust for successful outcomes. In addition, counselors
must have a proactive approach to deciphering first-generation students by reaching out to them
to personalize decision-making options that are usually unfamiliar to them and their families
(Hines et al., 2019).
Providing targeted support to vulnerable students fosters equitable collegiate pathways.
Additionally, counselors should not only engage with students who may seek their counselor but
also reach out to students who may not seek advisement and hone in on more one-on-one time
(Gonzalez Arce, 2018). Sometimes, students do not pursue their counselor, but this is an
opportunity for the counselor to seek the student and assist in creating an achievement plan.

149
Recommendation 3:2 - Building More Opportunities for Parents to Learn about the College
Process
School counselors can create college-going presentations for parents outlining postsecondary options (Gibbons & Borders, 2010). School personnel should hold informational
sessions to increase parents’ understanding of post-secondary institutions (Hines et al., 2019).
Given that parents work all hours of the day, these sessions should be offered in person at
various hours during the week. Zoom is another additional way to relay information to parents
with webinar recordings available for those unable to attend the workshops. Creating an
informational document about post-secondary options with college websites would further
benefit parents. Engaging conversations about college and involving parents in discussions can
encourage students to attend college (Gibbons & Borders, 2010).
Strong alliances and partnerships with the schools’ Parent Teacher Associations and the
local communities can improve parent participation who may not be active in school events but
need information to assist their children (Hines et al., 2019). Additionally, having the schools’
parent centers host college counseling workshops is an additional way to engage parents in the
college process. Parent programs hosted by organizations like Cash for College, College Board,
and local and district college fairs create spaces for parents to gather college information.
Hosting community events would be a step forward toward bringing families together to engage
in college preparation (Hines et al., 2019).
Recommendation 3:3 - Creating College-going Cultures
Systemic shifts must occur among school staff, especially academic counselors, as they
are pertinent to identifying factors that could interfere with their counselees (Dimmit, 2003).
Students often have a variation of college knowledge due to their social capital, prompting those

150
whose surroundings depend on their counselors for collegiate information (Shamsuddin, 2016).
Planning college readiness programs, especially for students of color and low-income students, is
a task school counselors can undertake so every student can learn about college (Bryan et al.,
2022). Breaking information into understandable concepts for students, especially when they do
not have college-based knowledge, is integral for learning.
Despite negative factors in the environment that affect students, counselors can influence
their counselees positively (Tang & Ng, 2019). Given that it takes a village to assist students on
the road to college, academic counselors can be advocates for collegiate information to be
factored into teachers' lessons (Shamsuddin, 2016). Beyond impacting teachers to submerge
college information into their lessons, counselors can develop the need to have high expectations
for students by creating multiple sessions, workshops, and college-going activities throughout
the campuses to promote a college-going culture (Bryan et al., 2009). Additionally, Bryan et al.
(2009) added that counselors could advocate for creating these college-going cultures around
their schools to increase the opportunities for students who may not have access. Counselor
advocacy to create college cultures in their high schools, especially in schools whose student
populations come from marginalized communities, is also crucial because it addresses existing
systematic inequalities and gives the Black and Hispanic communities a chance to advance in
post-secondary experiences (Cook et al., 2021).

151
Table 13: Recommendation Timetable and Staff Responsibility
______________________________________________________________________________
Recommendation Timeline Staff Responsibility
______________________________________________________________________________
Recommendation 1:
College Counseling
Preparation
o Continuous
Informational
Support Through
Training and
Professional
Development
Within Six Months
o Establish goals for
counselors to attend
college training and
workshops yearly.
Within One Year
o Prepare for college
advisement by
watching videos and
films, listening to
speakers on and off
campus, and reading
college-related
materials.
o Create culturally
responsive counselor
bias training with
dialogue components
to build asset-based
perspectives.
Within Two Years
o Join the American
Counseling
Association
o Register for the
District college
counseling training
program.
Administration over
counseling
High School Academic
Counselor

152
Recommendation 2:
Differentiating Support
for Students of Color
o Variating Support
Within One Year
o Have guest
community speakers
discuss the positive
aspects of Black and
Hispanic cultures and
how to view students
through that lens.
Within One -Three Years
o Center on individual
trajectories rather than
generalizing (giving
up the one-size-fitsall).
o Focus on individual
post-secondary plans
considering students’
experiences outside of
school.
Within Three-Five Years
o
Advocate for
Academic programs
such as AVID to be
on campus and create
opportunities for
underrepresented
students to attend
college.
Administration over
counseling
High School Academic
Counselor

153
Recommendation 3:
Utilize Time Effectively to
Build Postsecondary
Opportunities and
Information for Students and
Parents
o Build Relationships
with Students
Utilizing More OneOn-One Time by
Lowering Counselor
Caseloads
o Build More
Opportunities for
Parents to Learn and
Understand the
College Process
o Create College
Cultures
Within One Year
o Create relationships
with students by
getting to know them
and their goals
beginning in the 9th
grade.
o Engage students in
post-secondary
counseling and goals
beginning in 9th
grade.
o Reach out to students
who usually do not
come to the
counseling office.
Within Two- Three Years
o Create a proactive
approach to firstgeneration students to
prioritize college
decision-making.
o Conduct college
workshops for parents
throughout the school
day and through
Zoom. Make
recordings accessible
for parents who
cannot be available
during school hours.
o Build opportunities to
inform parents about
organizations that host
informational
workshops outside of
school, such as Cash
for College, College
Administration over
counseling
High School Academic
Counselor

154
Board, or local /
district college fairs.
o Create spaces where
teachers learn about
the college process so
they can incorporate it
into their lectures and
discussions.
o Counselors can
develop workshops
and college
-going
activities throughout
the campuses to
promote a college
culture.

Limitations and Delimitations
The study highlights high school counselors' perspectives toward Black and Hispanic
students going to college, college support given to these communities, and improvements the
counselors foresaw in improving college enrollment numbers for these counselees. One
limitation of the study is that the sample consists of 10 counselors from Earthland Unified
School District. The sample size is small compared to the number of counselors the district has,
which limits the amount of knowledge that might correspond to the entire district; however, the
benefits of looking into the issues that arise for these participants paints a portion of the picture
that students of color face, as well as those issues faced by their counselors. In short, the
participant group in this study was not the complete representation of the entire district.
The limitations faced in surveying the counselors began with questioning the true
perspectives regarding preparing Black and Hispanic students for college. Robinson (2019)
mentioned that behavior can never be directly measured. Accuracy and honesty are limiting, as
both can be altered by the responses given, as I did not have a way of measuring truth. For
example, a counselor may feel threatened that he or she is not doing his or her best to serve these
students and, in turn, answer questions as if he or she is serving this community, which leads to
measurement error.
Support for Black and Hispanic high school students can vary in multiple schools;
therefore, counselors throughout the district may have many ways to prepare students for
college. Due to the number of interviews, it was not possible to capture every possible way
Hispanic and Black students are being served in the district. This gap in information causes
reliability issues due to the possibilities of access that exist at other schools that are not captured
in this study. Semi structured interviews were also my only design choice for this research.

156
Conducting research through a triangulation strategy would have increased my accuracy by
having different avenues for counselors to respond to the disparities of Black and Hispanic
students applying to college. Although semi-structured interviews are authentic to the subject at
the time, as Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated, these types of findings are ever evolving and not
stagnant. Conducting follow-up interviews with the same participants could yield findings that
reflect changes over time. Again, my findings conceptualize a small sample within the district
and do not capture the full spectrum of how Black and Hispanic students are perceived and
supported or what counselors would like to see and do in the future to be more involved with the
college-bound process.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings for this study are limited to ten counselors, which do not represent the entire
district. This study could be a significant asset for the district if counselors across Earthland
Unified School District were interviewed and observed regarding college information delivery
and counseling in various settings. The interactions and college advisement are pivotal for postsecondary attainment, and these new findings could present a better picture of how Black and
Hispanic students are serviced in collegiate planning. The recommendation would be strictly for
this particular district; however, the study could be conducted nationwide to gather information
on a much grander scale. The national findings could indicate additional perceptions counselors
may or may not have of Black and Hispanic students in their schools. The research should go
beyond public schools. Private and charter schools should also be included in the research to see
if there are differences in counselor perceptions and collegiate access toward Black and Hispanic
students.

157
When looking at access, further research can be conducted on what access means to
whom. Based on this research, counselors stated that everyone has some type of access to college
information and specialized classes, such as Advanced Placement and dual enrollment. However,
looking outside of the schools in this research, schools in well-to-do areas offered significantly
higher numbers of honors and Advanced Placement courses. For example, a school in a well-todo neighborhood with its own united school district currently has 29 Advanced Placement
courses, with most of the students being white. The high number of Advanced Placement classes
gives students more access to college-bound courses and additional rigor in their high school
academic path, causing students in lower socioeconomic areas to compete with the classes
currently offered. Although low socioeconomic students have some access, a bigger question for
future research is what access means for all and why it is differentiated across communities.
Although the study is looking at high school counselors and their perceptions, supports,
and future suggestions for counselors to be more involved with collegiate outcomes for students,
this research could gauge Black and Hispanic students’ perspectives of their counselors and how
they best feel supported in moving ahead with post-secondary plans. Students could also be
asked what additional college-going support they would like to receive from their counselors and
what changes, if any, they would like to have on their campuses to have more college
information.
Future studies may improve student outcomes academically, and the reach of raising the
number of Black and Hispanic students going to college can be achievable. Creating systemic
changes within academic gaps is a part of the American School Counseling Association Equity
model (American Counseling Association, 2024), in which high school counselors can advocate
for more positive collegiate outcomes for marginalized populations. This research study could be

158
replicated locally and nationwide to understand how the word “access” differentiates among
communities of varying socioeconomic status towards collegiate pathways of Black and
Hispanic students.
Conclusion
From the time of slavery and of Indigenous people who lost their identity to become
Hispanic through colonialism, both Black and Hispanic communities have been marginalized
and subordinated through the nationalism and racism that has existed in this nation
(Gonzalez,2013). Both have been deprived of ancestral knowledge and generational wealth
(Patel, 2021) and have been subject to political agendas designed for both communities to
assimilate into a society that has created cultural and linguistic genocide (O’Connor & Gonzalez,
2017). Current educational gaps are rooted in historical segregation practices that have affected
communities of color (Spring, 2016; Ruiz, 2001). Today, the history of marginalization
continues to impact communities of color as the correlational gaps between poverty and
minorities co-exist (Gormley et al., 2023; Logan & Will, 2017). Compared to Asian and white
students, with low graduation rates and lower percentages of application and enrollment in
college, Black and Hispanic students continue to struggle because they often experience
minimized access to college information due to their academic and social experiences (Nora,
2003).
Inequalities among students within education are created through social class variations
based on cultural capital. Bourdieu (1986) affirmed that families can nearly function
independently, creating a deficit in social capital and a reliance on school personnel for college
knowledge. Guidance from academic counselors is an important aspect of being college-bound.

159
High school counselors’ perspectives towards Black and Hispanic students being college-bound
will tremendously impact students’ journeys toward college. Inequalities will bring inefficiencies
in marginalized communities (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990). Counselors must look at the impacts
of these communities in areas such as socioeconomic status, student family dynamics, parental
support, and students’ mindsets influenced by sociocultural environments and create contexts
linked to the individual students to assist them with post-secondary plans without generalizing. If
given the proper information and resources, Black and Hispanic students can thrive and be
prepared for post-secondary collegiate options (Plank & Jordan, 2001). Access and support are at
the center of serving marginalized communities, mainly because Black and Hispanic students’
college applications and college enrollments continue to be low (Department of Commerce,
2021). Black and Hispanic students who lack social capital must be given college opportunities
through counselor communication, rigorous courses, and support from additional staff to create
equitable actions toward being college-bound. Additionally, collegiate counseling training and
professional development are pertinent to ensure students get the same information. Talking to
each student is also crucial because they come to school with different knowledge about college;
therefore, counselors must meet students where they are. Developing college-focused cultures
for students and parents can further support marginalized students in preparing for higher
education.
The findings of this study can enhance understanding of the challenges Black and
Hispanic students encounter, as well as the complexities faced by high school counselors in
supporting these students’ collegiate pathways. Although the study is conducted in a city located
in the southwestern United States, my assumptions are that other parts of the country may face
the same disparities among their Black and Hispanic communities. For too long, these

160
communities have been denied access to information that belongs to them. If this nation is
genuinely founded on the notion that everyone is equal, then the disparities that Black and
Hispanic communities have lived in for centuries need to be resurfaced, addressed, and
reconfigured for the advancement of Black and Hispanic students. Additionally, the roles that
academic high school counselors play need to be reshaped and modified to allow space for
college counseling to be a significant part of the assignment. Educational excellence for Black
and Hispanic students must play a role in American education.

161
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Appendix A
Interview Protocol – Counselor
I. Introduction:
Good morning! How are you doing today?
Before we begin the interview, I want to take the time to let you know that this entire
interview is strictly confidential and no part of it shall be released, shared. or contributed
to any third parties.
I want to thank you for your time in volunteering to be a participant in my study. I
appreciate you taking time out of your busy schedule to be here today to do this
interview. As you know I am working on my Doctorate in Educational Leadership at USC
and currently I am conducting a study that will be pertinent in the lives of Black and
Hispanic students. Often you will hear me use the words Black and Hispanic. The term
Black encompasses all people who stem from communities who embrace the
terminologies of Black, African American, African descent, and/or of Black descent who
live in the United States. The term Hispanic or Latino which I use interactively stem from
communities who embrace the terminology of Hispanic, Latino/a, Chicano/a, Latin
American country name with American ie; Mexican – American, or Salvadorean -
American are considered to be of all Latin American in my dissertation. As I mentioned
in my email; the purpose of my study is to understand why Black and Hispanic students
continue to apply and enroll in college in much smaller numbers than Anglo and Asian
students. I am particularly interested in the perspectives, ideas, and experiences that
counselors in the Earthland Unified School District have regarding Black and Hispanic
students preparing for college. Additionally, I would also like to research how high
school counselors support Black and Hispanic access to collegiate information. Finally, I
am also interested in researching what can be improved for high school counselors to
promote awareness and access of collegiate information for these communities. Your
thoughts, comments, and ideas as a high school counselor are very valuable as you are
an important asset in paving the way to students’ future.
For your safety in this study, no judgements will be made and everything that is said in
this interview will remain confidential. Once again, no part of the interview will be
shared with any third parties including any districts, administrators, or with any
colleagues in the field. For your personal information, 10 counselors will be interviewed
from various schools within Earthland Unified School District, and I will assure you, you
will be an anonymous participant meaning your name and any information that could
potentially be linked to you will be hidden and will not be attached to you in any way,
shape, or form as it is important for me to protect your identity. I will use a pseudonym in
which I will ask you to approve of before I use it in my research in the near future.
Do you have any questions so far about the study, confidentiality, or anything else that I
have mentioned?
Before I begin the interview, I would like to run through an overview regarding
consent. California Penal Code § 632(a) requires that all participants that are asked to
display any confidential information, must give their permission to be
recorded. Recording this session will help me capture everything that you will be

179
saying. I want to make it clear that if any time you say something and you feel like you
do not want me to use a certain part of the interview, please do not hesitate and let me
know. I want this interview to be a good experience for you and I want you to also feel as
comfortable as possible. Again, anything you share with me is confidential. As soon as
we are done recording, I will transcribe your interview and keep the recording in a safe
place where no one has access to it but me. When my dissertation has been completed, I
will keep the interview for three years maximum, in which all evidence of this interview
will then be destroyed. So, do I have your permission to record and proceed with my
interview? Throughout the interview, I may jot some notes down to help me remember
important points of your conversation I may want to further ask you about or to clarify if
need be. Would that be, ok?
I want to reiterate that the recording as well as my notes will be confidential and only, I
will hear the interview and see the notes. The notes once I am done, will also be
destroyed and no evidence of the notes will exist.
The interview will last approximately 1 hour, so if you need to use the restroom in the
middle of the interview, please let me know and I can pause the recording.
I will be more than happy to provide a copy of my dissertation, if interested.
At this point, are there any questions you may have?
II. Interview Questions
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept Addressed
Background Information:
I would like to begin by asking you a few questions regarding your background in counseling
1. How many
years have you
been a school
counselor?
1. How many students
do you have on your
current caseload?
2. Has your caseload
always been this
number?
N/A N/A

180
2. What is your
ethnicity?
N/A N/A
3. Throughout
your counseling
preparation program,
how did your
counseling master’s
program prepare you
for collegiate
counseling?
a. What information, if
any, would you have liked to
have received towards college
counseling during your
counseling program?
aa. Have you had
any other
training or
professional
development
that has
impacted your
growth as a
counselor that
has helped you
with college
counseling?
RQ 1/
RQ 2
Background
Information/
Knowledge
High School Counselor Perspectives on Black and Hispanic Students Going to College:
Systemic Challenges
I would like to ask you some questions regarding your perspective on systematic challenges
Black and Hispanic students have. Some of the questions may be sensitive, so I want to make
sure you feel you can answer freely.
4. Given the
school environment
you are in currently,
how does student
ethnicity play a role
when assisting with
collegiate
information?
a. How are Black and
Hispanic students, in
particular, given access to
collegiate information?
RQ 1 Perspective
5. How are firstgeneration students
given collegiate
a. What challenges, if
any, might first-generation
students encounter at your
RQ2 Perspective / Access

181
information? Can you
give examples?
site when seeking college
information?
6. In regard to
students having
access, how are
students who come
from a lower
socioeconomic
background,
particularly Black and
Hispanic students
encouraged to
continue
their collegiate
seeking journey? Can
you give examples?
a. How does low
socioeconomic status play a
role in the Latino and Black
students seeking to go to
college? Can you give
examples?
RQ 2 Perspective/ Access
7. From your
experience, describe
what parental support
looks like in the lives
of Black and Hispanic
students going to
college.
a. What other family
members or friends serve as
resources to help Black and
Hispanic students going to
college? If any, please
describe.
RQ 2 Perspectives/ Cultural
/Support /Social
Capital
Counselor Support and Access: Academic College Barriers:
The next set of questions, we will explore student support and access to college information.
The next questions can be sensitive as well, but again your thoughts and beliefs are very
important for my research, so please share as you are willing.
8. How does
educational tracking
affect Black and
Hispanic students, if
at all?
a. How many 9th grade
Black and Hispanic students
would you say are in honors
courses? AP courses; if at all?
b. How are honor
courses and AP courses
offered to students at your
site?
RQ 1 Access / perspective
a. Besides parental
support, what other support
RQ2/RQ
3
Support/ Cultural /
Social Capital

182
9. What support
would counselors find
helpful (if needed) to
navigate and further
assist Black and
Hispanic students
towards their journey
for college.
systems might Hispanic and
Black students come to
school with regarding their
collegiate journeys that would
be helpful to counselors?
10. How does
counselor caseload
impact the services
provided to students
in particular Black
and Hispanic
students?
a. How much time do
you spend talking to students
about college and their next
steps?
RQ 2 Support / Access
11. If the counselor
population reflected
the race and culture of
the Black and
Hispanic students,
how could this impact
students' access to
college? Please
describe.
RQ1 Access / Perspective
Counselor Improvements:
The next set of questions, we will explore improvements for counselors that would assist in
promoting awareness and access to college for Black and Hispanic students across Earthland
Unified School District.

183
12. In an ideal
world, what action
steps would create the
environments where
Black and Hispanic
students would have
access to college, if
they do not have
access now?
a. What kind of
resources, tools, and parent
information would support
Black and Hispanic students
in the future?
RQ 3 Improvements/ access
13. What
recommendations
might you have to
improve counselors'
roles in promotion
and awareness of
collegiate systems to
underserved students
in general?
a. Please give an
example of specific support
that could help counselors
serve these populations better
in going to college.
RQ 3 Improvements/support
/ access
Closing Comments:
As we have come to the end of the interview, I would like to take this opportunity to thank you
for your time today and for sharing your valuable thoughts with me today. Once again thank
you for letting me record you and take notes. Everything you said will be very useful in my
research study. Should I have any follow-up question(s), may I call or email you? Which
would you prefer?
At this time, do you have any final questions for me? Should you have any questions that may
arise feel free to call me or email me; you have both my number and email, correct?
Your time is valuable, and I am very appreciative of you. I would like for you to have this
small token as a gift for participating in my study. Thank you so much.
Have a great rest of your day!

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study investigates the barriers Hispanic and Black high school students face in accessing college, focusing on the challenges experienced by academic counselors in supporting these students. The research questions sought to discover the authentic perspectives of high school counselors centered around collegiate admission for their Black and Hispanic students; access and barriers to collegiate pathways; and improvements that promote awareness and access to college resources. The theoretical framework used is Pierre Bourdieu’s Social /Cultural Capital theory. The methodology used is qualitative, utilizing semi-structured interviews as the data source.
The study revealed that secondary high school counselor perspectives generalized students based on the economic status of the surrounding communities. Many counselors have caseloads above the American School Counseling Association recommendation. The research also confirmed a lack of college advisement training in master’s counseling programs, creating student access deficits. Interviewees indicated that Advanced Placement courses are open to all students, yet not all have equal accessibility to these classes. Specialized curriculum programs such as magnets often have built-in Advanced Placement courses, which can limit access for students outside of these programs. Due to time constraints, additional counselors assist students with college planning. Counselors reported that students place value on family dynamics, even though some parents do not come from a place of social-cultural capital and may not be able to be involved with their children's academics.
A first recommendation is for high school counselors to have continuous college counseling training and professional development. A second recommendation is for counselors to differentiate support by centering on individual trajectories rather than generalizing and practicing a one-size-fits-all model. Counselors should also consider working on post-secondary plans with students’ experiences and encouraging enrollment in programs like AVID. A third recommendation is that counselors build post-secondary opportunities for students and parents by creating relationships, more one-on-one sessions, and workshops.

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Creator Cobb, Geni Maria (author)

Core Title Counselor perspectives on disparities and access to college for Hispanic and Black high school students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-12

Publication Date 12/02/2024

Defense Date 11/18/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

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