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Digital literacy skills and productivity within the Pauseitive app

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Digital literacy skills and productivity within the Pauseitive app

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Content Digital Literacy Skills and Productivity Within the Pauseitive App
Kimberly Ann Dalius
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2024

Copyright by Kimberly Ann Dalius 2024
All Rights Reserved

The committee for Kimberly Ann Dalius certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Kenneth Yates
Anthony Maddox
Dennis Hocevar Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This study explored how developing digital literacy skills could influence digital self-efficacy,
cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity among Generation Z college students in Karachi,
Pakistan, using the Pauseitive app. With digital tools playing an ever-growing role in education,
understanding their impact on students’ mental processes and well-being is crucial. The study
utilized a pre–post and true-experimental design, which divided participants into two groups (N =
60). One group received both awareness training and digital survival tools training with the
Pauseitive app, while the other received only the digital survival tools training (Pauseitive app).
Although the study did not find statistically significant changes across all areas, there were some
encouraging trends, particularly in boosting mindfulness and digital self-efficacy. These findings
suggest that while the Pauseitive app shows promise, its effects might not be strong enough yet
to reach clear conclusions. Future research should explore different dependent variables and
refine intervention methods to enhance the app’s effectiveness. Additionally, considering larger
and more diverse groups of students would provide a deeper understanding of how digital
literacy tools can be better utilized in educational settings.

v
Dedication
To Tariq Malik, my steadfast mentor and guiding light, whose unwavering support and profound
experimental guidance navigated me through the turbulent waters of my dissertation journey.
Your invaluable digital literacy expertise and encouragement to use the Pauseitive app enabled
me to weave together two worlds, bridging gaps between disparate concepts and emerging
stronger amidst the chaos. Your influence has left an indelible mark on my academic endeavors,
and I am forever grateful for your contributions to my growth as a scholar. Thank you for
believing in me and helping me turn my vision into a reality. You made me realize that
technology is not just the future; it’s now. My personal growth was freed by tech!

vi
Acknowledgments
I want to sincerely thank my committee chair, Dr. Dennis Hocevar, for encouraging the
use of my developed mobile application, Pauseitive, in my study. Your expertise in quantitative
studies guided me to explore theories that raised the bar. Special thanks to Dr. Kenneth Yates
and Dr. Anthony Maddox for their insights into the need for digital literacy in managing
cognitive loads.
I am profoundly grateful to the country of Pakistan and the city of Karachi for the
participation of my Gen Z survey respondents, who were essential to my research project. Your
feedback is invaluable in shaping the future of digital learning.
My appreciation extends to Shelly Fano and Mr. David Countin for their unconditional
support and mentorship, always reinforcing that education opens doors, and those doors lead you
to opportunities. I am also thankful to my colleagues from Miami Dade College, who have
shown me that all socioeconomic backgrounds deserve an equitable stake in technology.
A heartfelt thanks to the faculty at the University of Southern California for promoting
critical thinking and evidence-based decision-making—true exemplars in the field of research.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my USC Doctoral Cohort 22 for inspiring
me and giving me the courage to dream big throughout this intense doctoral journey. Your
unwavering support, shared wisdom, and encouragement have been invaluable, pushing me to
reach new heights and persevere through the challenges. This accomplishment would not have
been possible without the collective strength and motivation you provided. I am forever grateful
for the community we built together and the impact it has had on my academic and personal
growth.

vii
I am also indebted to all my former students globally, whose encouragement has inspired
me to broaden my expertise in technology and academics.
Special thanks to the USC Caruso Catholic Center for believing in the importance of a
success coaching model that integrates faith, values, and morals into transformative leadership.
To Vanessa, my personal trainer, you were by far the smartest investment during the most
intense and crucial times of my life. Accountability is the key to success. You made me realize
that, regardless of the weight, my inner core strength will build the endurance needed.
To Daniel, a friend like no other. Your honesty, loyalty, compassion, and empathy, but
most importantly, your unwavering support in believing in me and what I stand for, kept me
focused on the important tasks at hand. We will achieve great things together because we are a
great team.
I want to express my deepest gratitude to Rick and Ahren at Maze Road for their
unwavering support and immediate attention to the creation of videos that were so vital to the
vision of my dissertation. Your creativity and design expertise have truly brought my work to
life, and for that, I am immensely grateful. Thank you for making my ideas a reality and for your
commitment to excellence. I am excited to collaborate on our future endeavors.
To my friends and family, your support through this exhausting journey has been a
source of strength. Thank you for believing in me and understanding my passion for completing
this degree.
To my children, Brad and Jacklyn, your generation has inspired me to embrace lifelong
learning and explore diverse cultures. Your love and support fuel my confidence in navigating
this innovative world. Jacklyn, your presence at USC as an alumna brought the university closer
to my heart.

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Lastly, to my parents, whose emphasis on education profoundly shaped my character, I
owe you everything. Your legacy continues to guide me.
I would like to disclose that the Pauseitive app, which I personally developed, was
utilized as the primary intervention tool for this research study. This acknowledgment serves as a
transparent declaration of my potential financial interest in the app, as it may generate revenue in
the future.

ix
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables................................................................................................................................. xii
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. xiii
Chapter One: Problem of Practice ...................................................................................................1
Research Problem ................................................................................................................1
Purpose Statement................................................................................................................3
Research Questions..............................................................................................................3
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework..............................................................................4
Expectancy-Value Theory....................................................................................................7
The Researcher.....................................................................................................................9
Pauseitive Researcher ........................................................................................................12
Research Design.................................................................................................................13
Underlying Ethics ..............................................................................................................15
Chapter Two: Literature Review....................................................................................................17
Theoretical Framework......................................................................................................19
Digital Survival Skills Training (Pauseitive).....................................................................22
Educational Objectives of Pauseitive.................................................................................26
Digital Awareness Training................................................................................................31
Expectancy-Value Theory..................................................................................................31
Problematic Smartphone Use.............................................................................................33
Digital Self-Efficacy ..........................................................................................................36
Digital Literacy ..................................................................................................................40

x
Digital Tools Training ........................................................................................................41
Digital Tools.......................................................................................................................44
Gaps in Literature ..............................................................................................................51
Summary and Conclusion..................................................................................................52
Challenges Facing Adoption and Improvement of Digital Literacy Skills........................53
Research Questions and Hypotheses .................................................................................55
Methodology and Approach Overview..............................................................................58
Sample and Setting ............................................................................................................62
Instrumentation: Reliability and Validity...........................................................................64
Scoring of Dependent Variable Measures..........................................................................66
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................69
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................70
Chapter Four: Results ....................................................................................................................72
Results................................................................................................................................72
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................78
Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations ....................................................79
Theoretical Implications ....................................................................................................81
Practical Implications.........................................................................................................81
Enhancing Curriculum Development ................................................................................83
Addressing Digital Divide and Equity...............................................................................84
Limitations.........................................................................................................................85
Delimitations......................................................................................................................88
Lack of Internal Validity in the Study................................................................................89
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................90
Recommendations..............................................................................................................91

xi
The Future of Instructional Design and E-Learning..........................................................92
References......................................................................................................................................96
Appendix A: Measurement Scales...............................................................................................114
Appendix B: Surveys...................................................................................................................115

xii
List of Tables
Table 1: Post-test Means and Standard Deviations 73
Table 2: Pre- and Post-test Means and Standard Deviations 74
Table 3: Paired Samples T-test Statistics 75
Table 4: Experimental and Control Group Means and Standard Deviations 76
Table 5: Experimental and Control Group T-test Results 77

xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 5
Figure 2: The Expectancy-Value Theory 9
Figure 3: Pauseitive App Functions and Features 24
Figure 4: Pauseitive App Functions and Features 25
Figure 5: A Graph of Life Satisfaction Against Digital Literacy Skills 37
Figure 6: Percentage of Job Adverts Requiring Digital Skills 42
Figure 7: Composition of Digital Literacy Skills 43
Figure 8: A Diagram Showing the Aspects of Making Digital Classroom Tools Better 47
Figure 9: Flowchart of the Study 61

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Chapter One: Problem of Practice
Despite the ubiquity of digital technologies, many students struggle to find the right tool
to manage cognitive load while promoting mindfulness and productivity effectively. With the
increasing availability of digital technologies, college students can access numerous apps and
tools that claim to enhance productivity and mindfulness. However, the abundance of options
often leads to confusion and difficulty in selecting the most suitable tool for their needs due to
the lack of confidence in their digital literacy skills. As a result, students may find it challenging
to identify and utilize an application that effectively reduces cognitive load, increases digital selfefficacy, encourages mindfulness practices, and optimizes their productivity. The increased use
of information communication technology (ICT) for various activities has raised concerns about
widening the digital literacy gap between the information-rich and the information-poor (Taskin
& Ok, 2022). Specifically, people unfamiliar with digital technology or lacking the necessary
skills to use it have been left out of the online realm (Farihin, 2022). The digital literacy disparity
is a significant challenge to achieving social equity in the digital age (Farihin, 2022). Becoming
digitally literate involves more than just the technical skills to use information, communication,
and technology; it also requires developing cognitive, creative, critical, and social abilities,
impacting an individual’s wellness (Farihin, 2022).
Research Problem
The widespread adoption of ICT and smartphones has necessitated individuals to
continually develop digital skills such as communication, transaction, processing, data
management, and problem-solving, which are all fundamental for everyday life (Taskin & Ok,
2022). Therefore, an upsurge in digital literacy is attributed to the increased use of digital
technology for communication and connection to maintain relationships and keep people

2
connected (Taskin & Ok, 2022). Research has suggested that problematic smartphone use affects
life satisfaction and leads to poor relationships. Negative impacts of problematic smartphone
usage (PSU) on quality of life include increased stress among affected populations (Taskin &
Ok, 2022). Furthermore, studies have indicated that PSU has increased anxiety levels related to
overall work and school performance (Taskin & Ok, 2022).
With the outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020, there was an increase in smartphone usage and
internet access (Taskin & Ok, 2022). Research indicates that PSU has amplified since COVID19, hindering psychological well-being (Haidt, 2024; Taskin & Ok, 2022). There is limited
information regarding the prevalence and causes of digital addiction and how it differs from PSU
(Taskin & Ok, 2022). There is a need for more research on parents’ and teachers’ roles in
promoting digital literacy skills and reducing PSU (Taskin & Ok, 2022). Further studies on the
impact of smartphone usage on mental health, social relationships, and academic performance
are needed (Taskin & Ok, 2022).
What remains unknown about ICT utilization is contingent upon the views of both the
developers and users on the mode of technology and its application in life (Farihin, 2022).
Ongoing research focuses on how ICTs can play an instrumental or substantive role in learning
(Farihin, 2022). The instrumental argument posits that information, communication, and
technologies are tools, and their impact is determined by how they are used (Farihin, 2022). In
contrast, the substantive argument is that introducing these technologies can profoundly impact
society, and their presence can have a significant impact on societal peace, wellness, and order
(Farihin, 2022).
As a practitioner in education, I aim to create ICT where proficient digital literacy is the
end goal and where an organizational management system drives user performance. Digital

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literacy is a means to education management. Being mindful of the socio-emotional and
cognitive aspects of learning is crucial to student performance outcomes. As a stakeholder in
education and a leader in advisement, my mastery of digital literacy is imperative, which can
influence other stakeholders to understand and facilitate the competencies of searching,
evaluating, creating, and communicating digital content.
More research is imperative to increase awareness of digital literacy skills’ role in
reducing cognitive loads and increasing mindfulness while enhancing digital self-efficacy for
tackling long-term challenges. Moving forward, these needs must be addressed comprehensively,
integrating new findings into educational and organizational strategies to bridge digital
deficiencies.
Purpose Statement
This study aimed to highlight the need for individuals to develop digital literacy
confidence to effectively use digital technologies to increase digital self-efficacy, reduce
cognitive loads, and increase mindfulness and productivity while using digital awareness training
and digital survival skills, the Pauseitive app,
Research Questions
• Do participants who receive digital survival skills training (the Pauseitive app) show
significant improvements in digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, productivity, and
reductions in internal and external cognitive load from pretest to posttest?
• Does the combination of digital awareness training and digital survival training (the
Pauseitive app) lead to higher scores in digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and
productivity and lower scores in internal and external cognitive load compared to
digital survival training (Pauseitive app) alone?

4
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
According to Bandura’s (2008) self-efficacy theory, an individual’s belief in their ability
to perform a task, or self-efficacy, plays a key role in their ability to achieve their goals. In the
context of digital literacy and technology use, individuals with high digital literacy self-efficacy
are more likely to effectively use digital technologies to reduce cognitive loads, increase
mindfulness, and be more productive.
Bandura’s (2008) self-efficacy theory is appropriate for examining the widespread
adoption of ICT and smartphones because it emphasizes an individual’s beliefs in their ability to
perform tasks effectively. As digital technologies become increasingly integrated into everyday
life, individuals must continually develop digital skills to maintain connections, manage
information, and solve problems. It requires confidence in one’s ability to effectively use digital
technologies, an essential aspect of self-efficacy (Bandura, 2008).
Sweller’s (1988) cognitive load theory further illustrates the theoretical framework of the
research. The theory states that human beings’ working memory is in both duration and capacity;
hence, it can only grasp several aspects; thus, exceeding cognitive load will affect its retention
capability. Hence, structuring the learning of digital literacy skills is essential to reduce cognitive
load, which can affect grasping key concepts.
This study is grounded in the understanding that developing digital literacy confidence
and reducing cognitive loads require targeted interventions. Two specific training programs form
the core of this study’s conceptual framework: awareness training based on expectancy-value
theory (EVT) and digital survival skills training using the Pauseitive app (Figure 1). The use of
EVT reflects the motivational aspect of the training, while the Pauseitive app forms the practical
aspect of training. Expectancy-value theory is a motivation theory that describes the relationship

5
between the expectancy of success at a given task and the value of task completion to achieve the
desired outcome (Kuhl, 2021). Atkinson introduced this theory in 1964 but Eccles and Wigfield
(2020, 2023) later developed it further. In short, EVT measures motivation based on two key
beliefs: expectancy beliefs, which refer to the extent to which a person feels they can succeed at
a task (Ranellucci et al., 2020; Shang et al., 2023). This includes their confidence in their
abilities and the belief that they can achieve the desired outcome. Value beliefs are based on the
importance an individual places on completing a task.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

6
In the case of this study, the key components of awareness training are expectancy and
value. Expectancy refers to helping participants build confidence in their ability to master digital
skills through incremental learning and positive reinforcement, while value implies
demonstrating the practical benefits of digital literacy in personal, academic, and professional
contexts to highlight these skills’ importance. The application of EVT in this study was aimed at
encouraging participants to perceive digital literacy as valuable and achievable. This was, in turn,
expected to enhance their motivation to develop these skills.
The Pauseitive app further illustrates the conceptual framework for this study. The digital
survival skills training, Pauseitive app helps users stay productive while supporting mental wellbeing. Its coaching feature offers personalized guidance and motivation, while the “it’s due”
feature keeps you on track with reminders for upcoming tasks. When stress builds up, the “Pause
It” feature encourages you to take mindful breaks, helping you reset and recharge. Together,
these features create a balanced approach to productivity and self-care.
It is a digital tool designed to promote mindful smartphone usage and improve digital
literacy by encouraging users to take regular breaks and reflect on their smartphone habits
(Weissinger, 2019). Pauseitive also aims to reduce cognitive load in digital consumption
(Weissinger, 2019). The Pauseitive app encourages users to develop mindfulness by making
them aware of their smartphone usage patterns and digital consumption (Hefner & Freytag,
2023). It also aims to provide digital detox and techniques to equip users with the ability to take
breaks from digital platforms to prevent cognitive load and burnout. This form of training is
designed to help users develop a healthier relationship with technology and promote digital
literacy.

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Expectancy-Value Theory
The EVT provides a framework for understanding motivation and outcomes in learning
and skill acquisition. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) is a psychological concept that offers
insights into individuals’ motivations, particularly in contexts where actions link closely to
desired outcomes. Over the years, expectancy theory has become a key framework for studying
human motivation in various organizational contexts. Researchers have proposed various
expectancy-based models, serving as both theoretical and practical definitions of motivation.
While these models differ in terminology across authors, the variations are largely due to
language differences rather than conceptual disagreements.
At the core of expectancy theory are three key components: expectancy, instrumentality,
and valence. According to Vroom (1964), these components play a significant role in an
individual’s motivation, which he defined as the force driving a person to act. Expectancy is the
belief that individual effort will indeed result in a certain level of performance. In digital literacy
skills training, EVT provides a tool to view individual perceptions of how training efforts are
related to digital literacy. Valence, subjective values assigned to outcomes, lies at the center of
motivations (Tojimatovich et al., 2022). Valence plays a significant role in shaping participants’
attitudes and motivations toward engaging in digital skills training. Participants’ perceptions of
the outcomes—such as improved digital self-efficacy, reduced cognitive load, enhanced
mindfulness, and increased productivity influenced by valence.
Higher positive valence toward these outcomes enhances participants’ internal motivation
to actively participate in the training sessions and diligently apply the skills acquired. On the
other hand, if participants perceive this training as less valuable, they are most likely to have less
motivation to take part in the training (Lokman et al., 2022; Rosenzweig et al., 2019). According

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to expectancy theory, diverse factors influence valence, and individuals weigh outcomes based
on their unique values (Mirzaev & Shernazarov, 2021). Valence is influenced by both the direct
outcomes of an action (first-level outcomes), like performance level, and their perceived
instrumental value in achieving further outcomes (second-level outcomes), such as the long-term
impact of acquiring a given skill (Ocaña et al., 2023). These second-level outcomes may have
value in themselves or because they lead to other desirable outcomes. Figure 2 illustrates that the
desired outcome cannot be achieved without completing the process. Each outcome holds its
value, and depending on the value that an individual assigns to it, their effort to achieve it will be
a direct reflection of this.
Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well, you will achieve the outcome you
want. It is about seeing a clear connection between your effort and the results you expect. In the
case of digital literacy training, instrumentality plays a key role in motivating participants. If they
believe that their hard work in training will lead to real benefits like feeling more confident with
digital tools, managing mental effort better, or being more productive, they are more likely to
stay engaged (Vroom, 1964). As shown in Figure 2, instrumentality is the link between
performance and outcomes, helping participants understand how their effort can directly lead to
positive changes (Tojimatovich et al., 2022).

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Figure 2
The Expectancy-Value Theory
Note. From Work and Motivation by V. H. Vroom, 1964. Wiley. Copyright 1964 by John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
The Researcher
I find myself deep into reframing who I am as an educator, specifically a leader. I have a
role as a daughter, wife, mother, teacher, advisor, success coach, and now a leader. I play an
essential role as an academic advisor in higher education. However, the lack of forward-thinking
in our higher education system suppresses my leadership qualities. I have built my experience
around how I frame resources that ultimately will help students succeed. I live a structured life of
organization, values, morals, and a deep commitment to my family and friends. I have cherished
education as the parameter of life’s opportunities. One of my happy places is walking through a
college campus. It is because I can feel the excitement and smell the success. I am a
communicator and mostly a great listener who empathizes with the receiver. At the current
moment, I am an employee and an entrepreneur. I struggle to hold onto the employee position as
my creative and innovative positionality needs to serve my passion for leadership.

10
Villaverde (2008) and Douglas and Nganga (2015) both explore how we are shaped by
things like race, gender, class, and power affects the way we view the world and connect with
others. Villaverde stressed that understanding our own positionality is especially important in
education because it impacts how teachers and students interact. When educators are aware of
these dynamics, they can create learning spaces that are more inclusive and fair for everyone
involved.
My positionality falls between many ranges as my intersection of employee and
entrepreneur dictates and marginalizes the roles of these positions. Interestingly enough, the
culture of higher education has gained me credibility as a power structure to push forward with
my business endeavor of success coaching. I created a virtual success coaching model before the
pandemic, which gave me the language to lead my college department as an advisor during
remote learning. Our department chair utilizes my experience and expertise while she wants to
expand on those parameters, but the administration holds her back. Concurrently, I am
developing an app based on my success coaching model for students’ success. My power
struggle is between the politics of higher education and social factors, including the feedback
from my students on their needs and wants. When do I decide to take the leap and realize that my
role as a White female with a multi-diverse background has a voice that wants to be heard as an
educator without a political agenda?
I am privileged enough to hold a graduate degree. My candidacy for a doctorate has
placed me in a role to attract attention as a business owner and an educator. However, this
challenges the notion that studying and learning from a distinctive knowledge system should
impact the power to provide for the underrepresented populations. These conditions are also
manifested by colonialism and the material mark associated with the current systems in place. It

11
is not easy to deviate from the norm, but the future of our youth depends on equity and justice for
their right to a fulfilled education (Patel, 2015). How do we make sense of inequitable conditions
influencing our choices and the lives affected?
An underserved college population lacks resources associated with student success,
specifically accountability and time. These resources are more readily available at private
institutions geared toward materials and privilege. Epistemology is the study of knowledge
acquisition. It involves an awareness of certain aspects of reality and seeks to discover what is
known and how it is known (Study.com, 2015).
My identity is based on my experiences, which creates a context (Secules et al., 2021). A
co-creation within a context creates a community. This community ultimately can affect my
position on equity and inclusion. I know that effective serving the underserved college
population is by listening to their needs and wants. Through trial and error of online platforms
and in-person training, students seek empathy and guidance. This validation keeps them on the
right track, given all resources as an equitable stake in their education.
My positionality with worldly experience enhances what I do as a leader to promote
diversity, equity, and inclusion. I see the needs and hear the wants of a diverse student
population, all striving for the same goal: success. My sources of wisdom come from faith within
and experience from my lack of resources as a young student, which continues to the current day.
The limiting factor is time. My navigation tool of positionality will be venturing from an
employee to an entrepreneur based on stakes in each of my organizations. I have a voice that will
be heard as an educator to serve any student, no matter race, gender, or social factors.
I have a special insight into the difficulties and requirements college students face
because of my position as an academic advisor. As a result of my interactions with students from

12
different origins, academic levels, and fields, I have an understanding of how they struggle with
digital literacy, cognitive load, and productivity (Saldaña, 2018). I have seen a correlation
between pupils’ academic success, general well-being, and their level of digital literacy.
Secondly, as a success coach, I have created interventions and techniques to assist people—
including students—in enhancing their academic and personal success. My experience assisting
others in reaching their objectives and managing cognitive load might influence my interest in
researching how digital literacy affects cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity.
Additionally, my entrepreneurial efforts, such as creating a mobile app with a success coaching
model, show my dedication to cutting-edge approaches in the fields of education and technology.
These business experiences sparked my interest in researching the effects of digital technologies
on learning outcomes and cognitive processes.
Pauseitive Researcher
As a researcher developing the Pauseitive app, the principles of learning by doing and
cognitive load theory (CLT) heavily influence my approach. I believe that users learn best
through active engagement, which is why I focus on creating features that encourage hands-on
involvement in task management. My goal is to make the app intuitive and user-friendly so users
can easily set goals, organize tasks, and track their progress without getting overwhelmed. By
minimizing unnecessary distractions and simplifying the interface, I aim to help users stay
focused on what really matters, enhancing both their productivity and learning experience.
Additionally, I see my role as bridging the gap between educational theory and practical
application. Every aspect of the Pauseitive app is designed with a commitment to research-based
practices, ensuring that the app is both effective and supportive of the user’s needs. I am deeply
committed to making sure the app empowers users by giving them control over their learning

13
and task management while also being mindful of their cognitive and emotional well-being. My
focus is on creating a tool that functions well and respects and enhances the user’s experience.
Research Design
Using a true experiment for a quantitative study on the impact of digital literacy skills
offers a rigorous and controlled approach to understanding the factors contributing to this
decline. It enables researchers to measure the effects of interventions precisely, reduce cognitive
loads, and ultimately promote mindfulness and productivity in the digital age (Creswell &
Creswell, 2017). True experiments will allow control over and manipulation of the independent
variables, random assignment of participants to control groups, and the measurement of the
dependent variables (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). It is considered the gold standard in
quantitative methodology because it allows researchers to make causal inferences, providing
claims that changes in the independent variables caused changes in the dependent variables
(Creswell & Creswell, 2017). It is important to note that only Research Question 2 (the effects of
awareness training) was analyzed using a true experiment. In studying digital literacy’s impact
on cognitive loads, digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and productivity while being mindful and
productive, the independent variable is digital literacy skills (manipulated through a mobile
application), and the dependent variables are the measures of cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity. Specifically, the design is a pre–post study in which the dependent variables were
measured before and after the Pauseitive app.
In summary, participants were in two groups. The experimental group received
awareness and digital survival training, and the control group received only digital survival
training. Both groups received an intensive and hands-on course (Pauseitive) designed to equip
today’s digitally native Generation Z with essential skills and knowledge to navigate and thrive

14
in the digital world. As an adjunct, awareness training would focus on enhancing participants’
awareness of digital literacy, including digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and effective strategies
to manage cognitive load in digital environments. The digital survival training would provide
practical skills and strategies for digital literacy, ranging from basic to advanced digital skills,
productivity tools, and methods to cope with digital information overload. Awareness of digital
literacy, including digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and effective strategies to manage cognitive
load in digital environments.
A measure of cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity was collected from both
groups. In the context of the need for individuals to develop digital literacy skills to use digital
technologies effectively, a quantitative approach can provide empirical evidence to support the
claim that digital literacy skills can reduce cognitive loads, increase digital self-efficacy, increase
mindfulness, and improve productivity (Creswell & Creswell, 2017).
A pre and post-self-report intervention survey was embedded within the mobile
application Pauseitive. Self-report surveys (Appendix B) were used to measure the impact of
digital literacy self-efficacy on cognitive loads, mindfulness, and productivity. I collected the
data through the Pauseitive administration panel.
The study participants were individuals who might benefit from using the intended
mobile application intervention, Pauseitive. It included Gen Z undergraduate college students
living in Karachi, Pakistan. The participants were best situated to shed light on the research
questions because they experienced increased cognitive loads using digital technologies. They
could also benefit from developing their digital literacy skills to become more mindful and
productive. Using surveys (Appendix B) embedded into the application allowed for a more

15
accurate representation of user experiences, as they provided real-time feedback while using the
digital tool or application.
Underlying Ethics
The research serves the interests of individuals who want to improve their digital literacy
skills and use digital technologies to enhance their digital self-efficacy and productivity, reduce
cognitive load, and increase mindfulness. It includes professionals, students, and anyone who
relies on digital technologies to perform tasks and manage their daily lives. Ultimately, the
research serves the interests of society by promoting the development of skills that are
increasingly necessary for success in today’s digital world. The research does not serve to harm
any specific interests. These concerns must be addressed to provide equitable opportunities for
all individuals to develop their digital literacy skills. The target or participants of this research
were individuals seeking to improve their use of digital technologies daily. They could be
students, professionals, and anyone who relies on technology to perform tasks. A team of experts
in the field of digital literacy, cognitive psychology, and productivity designed the study and
scope of this research. The implication of this study is that digital literacy is a critical skill in
today’s world. With the increasing use of digital technologies, digital literacy has become
essential for individuals to keep up with the changing times.
Participants were informed about the potential risks and benefits of developing digital
literacy skills. A privacy policy outlined how personal data would be collected, used, and
protected. The mobile application intervention collected data and was designed to allow
volunteer users to opt in or out at any time. It helped build trust with the individuals and ensure
their privacy was respected. The results might also be communicated through workshops,
training sessions, and seminars. These events will involve organizing events where individuals

16
who have developed digital literacy skills can share their experiences and insights with others
interested in improving their digital literacy. Lastly, the institutional review board at the
University of Southern California reviewed the study before data collection began.
The demand for digital talent is outstripping supply, creating a talent gap that
organizations must address to remain competitive (Gupta & George, 2016). Leveraging digital
talent involves putting individuals with digital skills in positions of power and influence within
the organization and ensuring that their insights and perspectives are integrated into decisionmaking processes (Kornberger & Leixnering, 2020). However, it is important to disclose that any
recommendations made may have potential conflicts of interest due to existing relationships
within the current digital talent network as well as the long-term plans to use Pauseitive for
financial gain. Ethical issues, including informed consent, privacy rules, and participant data
protection, underline the research’s dedication to the highest ethical standards.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
In recent years, the integration of digital tools in academia has spurred much research
into their benefits. Studies have explored how these technologies can help students succeed by
making tasks easier to manage and reducing the mental strain of juggling multiple
responsibilities. Various digital tools, like productivity apps and learning management systems,
have shown promise in improving efficiency at school and work. These tools can help students
stay organized, minimize distractions, and streamline their work processes, reducing cognitive
load and enhancing performance. Using these tools for student success is one thing; the other,
having the right digital literary skills is another.
This study aimed to test whether participants who undergo digital survival skills training
will show improved scores after the training compared to before. Specifically, it hypothesizes
that participants will see increases in digital self-efficacy, internal cognitive load, external
cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity while also experiencing reduced cognitive load,
both internal and external.
The rise of mobile technologies has added a new dimension as a necessary competency
for college students in the 21st century (Kwan, 2018). Mobile applications have emerged as a
promising tool for cultivating digital literacy. Their user-friendly interfaces, ubiquity, and
accessibility offer a conducive environment for learning. It is accurate to note that societal
digitization has become integral to education (Anthonysamy, 2020). However, the literature
presents some notable gaps hindering a comprehensive understanding of mobile applications’
role in fostering digital literacy (Kwan, 2018).
One of the main gaps is understanding the mechanisms driving the acquisition of digital
literacy skills through mobile applications (Kwan, 2018). The focus of the existing research is on

18
the results of digital literacy but falls short in researching the gaining of skills for digital literacy,
a crucial aspect that defines the quality and extensiveness of an individual’s digital literacy skills.
Although numerous studies have assessed the impact of digital literacy on students, only some
have probed into the specific processes students utilize to hone these skills (Kwan, 2018). The
lack of explanation of appropriate structures, frameworks, and mechanisms that students can use
in gaining digital literacy skills presents a challenge to improving the skills. As digital literacy
extends beyond technology use to critical thinking, collaboration, and content creation, there is a
need to discern how mobile applications can aid in cultivating these abilities (Kwan, 2018). The
lack of efficient learning frameworks for gaining digital literacy skills will present a gap between
the benefits of the skills and gaining and acquisition with the usage of the skills.
Furthermore, there is a need for more research on the long-term sustainability and
evaluation of digital literacy skills obtained via mobile applications (Şad & Göktaş, 2014). More
studies are warranted to compare the efficacy of different mobile applications in delivering
digital literacy education (Ekanayake et al., 2015). There is also a dearth of research focusing on
the digital literacy of specific populations, such as students with disabilities or non-native
language speakers. The proliferation of digital tools in modern learning environments has
prompted a surge in research about how these technologies can streamline success and reduce
cognitive load for students. Previous literature has increasingly focused on the potential of
various digital tools, ranging from productivity applications to learning management systems, to
enhance efficiencies in academic and professional environments. A considerable body of work
suggests that when used effectively, these tools can help manage tasks, minimize distractions,
and optimize workflows, thereby reducing the cognitive burden and facilitating tremendous
success. Research reveals that digital tools provide an immediate learning environment that leads

19
to more engagement and faster evaluations, which outshines the traditional classroom setting
(Haleem et al., 2022). However, a conceptual framework is needed to probe deeper into this
potential, exploring the specific attributes of digital tools that contribute to improved cognitive
load management and streamlined success. The literature review will synthesize empirical
findings and theoretical perspectives that elucidate this framework, identifying critical research
gaps.
Theoretical Framework
The Theoretical Framework is like the foundation of a house for any research. It helps
shape how a study is built and understood, providing a set of key ideas and concepts that explain
what is happening and why. By relying on established theories, researchers can link their work to
what is already known, helping to create clear research questions and make sense of the results.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Bandura’s (2008) self-efficacy theory notably emerges as a salient framework
contributing to our understanding of this complexity. Self-efficacy, or an individual’s belief in
their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments, is
crucial in how individuals approach goals, tasks, and challenges. In digital tools, self-efficacy
may directly impact the tool’s effectiveness in reducing cognitive load and streamlining success.
For instance, a student with high self-efficacy is more likely to exhibit increased engagement
with digital tools, find creative ways to overcome technological challenges, and ultimately
experience reduced cognitive load and enhanced productivity. Conversely, a student with low
self-efficacy may struggle to harness the benefits of these tools effectively. Thus, Bandura’s
theory suggests that the successful integration of digital tools is just as much about personal
belief in capability as the tools’ functionality.

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The lack of digital literacy skills among users can significantly hinder the effective use of
mobile applications designed to reduce cognitive load and promote mindfulness and
productivity. Digital literacy is defined as the ability to use, understand, and analyze digital
technologies. The first time this term was used was in Chapter 1, which states that digital literacy
is required in an increasingly digital world. When users lack these skills, they may struggle to
understand how to optimally operate mobile productivity or mindfulness apps, leading to
frustration or misuse. This struggle inadvertently increases the cognitive load by introducing
additional mental effort to navigate and use the applications and software. Without digital
literacy, users can overlook key features, miss out on beneficial functionalities, or fail to
customize the app to fit specific needs, minimizing the tool’s potential benefits.
Proper education and training in digital literacy are needed to address this issue. Users
must learn how to navigate digital spaces, understand digital language and instructions, and
evaluate and choose the right apps for their needs. With improved digital literacy, users will be
better equipped to use these digital tools to their advantage, transforming how they manage their
tasks, reducing their cognitive load, and fostering mindfulness and productivity.
Cognitive Load Theory
Sweller’s (1988) CLT further illustrates the theoretical framework of the research.
Cognitive load theory operates from the human information processing model, and it states that
maximized learning should be free from overloading since the working memory of a human
being can process and hold a small amount of information periodically; hence, instructional
methods should be well-structured to prevent memory overload and better memory retention of
learned concepts. The human’s working memory has limited capacity due to processing
activities, hence the need to prevent overload (D. D. Reese et al., 2016). The theory relates to

21
building digital skills literacy and self-efficacy through appropriate use and structuring of the
learning process while gaining digital literacy skills to ensure that the learner understands,
evaluates, and appropriately remembers the concepts discussed and can apply them in the future.
Structuring the learning environment that ensures cognitive flexibility and adaptability reduces
cognitive load and improves working memory capacity (Caton et al., 2022). The lack of digital
literacy skills requires the creation of sustainable frameworks that align with the human
architecture of learning to ensure the development of digital understanding among individuals
and the use of available digital tools. Thus, the theory suggests that gaining digital literacy skills
that translate to digital self-efficacy requires properly structuring the learning process that aligns
with the biological human understanding to ensure effective concept grasping, retention, and
ability to apply the knowledge in the future.
As stated, the literature review’s objective is to critically evaluate and synthesize the
existing body of research related to the intersection of digital literacy and effective utilization of
productivity and mindfulness apps. It involves assessing the current state of understanding
regarding self-efficacy theory, CLT, digital literacy training, and the use of digital technology to
reduce cognitive load to increase productivity and mindfulness. The review will also involve
identifying gaps or inconsistencies within this body of literature.
Mindfulness
Research often examines teaching mindfulness in the digital age, yet a gap exists in
understanding how mindfulness impacts digital literacy skills associated with mobile
applications. A study by Lee et al. (2017) revealed that mindfulness practices could increase
students’ digital literacy skills. A study by Atoy et al. (2020), however, disputes the claims of a
positive association between mindfulness and digital literacy skills since the research states that

22
in the study conducted among Philippines students, there was no correlation between
mindfulness and digital literacy (Atoy et al., 2020). Also, mindfulness did not mediate between
students’ online information search strategies and digital literacy (Manny et al., 2020). Despite
the study, further studies on the subject are limited. However, how mindfulness contributes to
effectively using and understanding mobile applications remains underexplored. Mobile
technologies can be a significant source of distraction. While Kabat-Zinn (2015) suggests
mindfulness can help reduce distractions and boost focus, there is a gap in literature exploring
this in the context of mobile application usage.
Van der Vaart (2019) argued that mindfulness may enhance critical thinking abilities, a
crucial component of digital literacy. The argument is based on the fact that mindfulness induces
concentration, which is necessary for critical thinking. Mindfulness can indeed increase critical
thinking since it induces centering concentration on one subject, allowing one to evaluate and
understand it fully. Despite that, there is a need to have a direct correlation between mindfulness
and digital literacy to determine the association between the two aspects. However, applying this
theory in the context of using mobile applications has yet to be fully explored. Jones (2014)
discussed the potential of incorporating mindfulness in pedagogy to increase students’
concentration. However, the literature does not thoroughly examine how this translates into
better digital literacy skills, particularly with mobile applications.
Digital Survival Skills Training (Pauseitive)
The digital survival skills training, Pauseitive app helps users stay productive while
supporting mental well-being. This is the first time used in Chapter 1. Its coaching feature offers
personalized guidance and motivation, while the “it’s due” feature keeps you on track with
reminders for upcoming tasks. When stress builds up, the “Pause It” feature encourages you to

23
take mindful breaks, helping you reset and recharge. Together, these features create a balanced
approach to productivity and self-care.
The Pauseitive app serves as a foundational component within the study’s conceptual
framework, focusing on enhancing digital skills, productivity, and cognitive load management
among participants. This digital survival skills training program integrates various tools and
strategies designed to empower individuals with essential competencies needed to navigate and
excel in digital environments. It is a digital tool designed to promote mindful smartphone usage
and improve digital literacy by encouraging users to take regular breaks and reflect on their
smartphone habits (Weissinger, 2019). Pauseitive also aims to reduce cognitive load in digital
consumption (Weissinger, 2019). By making users aware of their smartphone usage habits and
digital consumption, the Pauseitive app promotes mindfulness (Hefner & Freytag, 2023). It also
consists of productivity tools designed to maximize phone usage efficiency. The Pauseitive app
includes cognitive load management techniques like digital detoxification, mindfulness, and
efficient information filtering. These techniques seek to improve participants’ capacity for
sustained concentration, lessen mental exhaustion, and raise their general level of cognitive
function when performing digital tasks.
Pauseitive is a digital tool designed to support higher education professionals and
students by enhancing productivity while promoting mental well-being. The app integrates task
management and goal setting with mindfulness practices, offering features such as guided
meditations, breathing exercises, and journaling prompts (Figures 3 and 4). These tools are
personalized to individual needs, helping users manage stress, regulate emotions, and maintain a
positive mindset, which is necessary for academic success and personal growth.

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Figure 3
Pauseitive App Functions and Features

Note. The Pauseitive app. Copyright 2024 by Kimberly Dalius.

25
Figure 4
Pauseitive App Functions and Features
Note. The Pauseitive app. Copyright 2024 by Kimberly Dalius.
Specifically tailored for the demands of academic life, Pauseitive also emphasizes worklife balance, encouraging users to take mindful breaks throughout the day. The app’s pause
button (Figure 4) prompts reflection and gratitude, fostering a more focused and resilient
approach to work and study. With its user-friendly interface and accessibility on major
platforms, Pauseitive provides higher education communities with a practical and effective way
to integrate mindfulness into their daily routines, enhancing both productivity and overall wellbeing.
During the experiment, students were instructed to use the Pauseitive app. The majority
of them utilized the task management portion of the app, as reported through the app’s
administration panel on which data were collected. It became evident that goals and tasks were

26
the areas in which students particularly needed support, with the app’s resource and
accountability features playing a key role in their optimization.
Educational Objectives of Pauseitive
The educational objectives of the Pauseitive App focus on building both procedural
knowledge and skills in the cognitive domain. The app helps users remember and understand
concepts related to digital literacy and apply, analyze, and evaluate their strategies for managing
cognitive load. This combination of procedural skills and cognitive engagement allows users to
sharpen their focus, reduce stress, and improve their overall productivity, making learning more
effective and manageable.
Procedural Knowledge Dimension
Using Bloom’s taxonomy for learning (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), the procedural
knowledge dimension that would correlate with college students using the Pauseitive app can be
explained as follows. Students using the Pauseitive app must first remember the steps involved in
the app’s task management features, such as creating, organizing, and tracking tasks and goals.
They also need to understand how to interpret and apply these functionalities, like categorizing
tasks by priority or deadlines and integrating these features effectively into their daily routines
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Furthermore, students actively apply these tools by setting up
tasks, organizing them, and utilizing the app’s accountability features, which include following
specific steps such as scheduling reminders or setting deadlines for their goals. After using their
task management knowledge to boost productivity, they will receive daily notifications to
support accountability and then incorporate the app’s tools into their daily routines to ensure they
receive these notifications.

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Cognitive Process Dimension
Students using the Pauseitive app need to first recognize its various features, such as task
management, goal setting, and reminders (Figures 3 and 4). They must recall how to navigate the
app and utilize its functionalities, like creating a new task or setting a goal. Understanding these
features involves interpreting how they can be applied to effectively manage tasks, such as
comprehending how prioritization works within the app. This process aligns with Bloom’s
taxonomy’s cognitive process dimension, where recognizing, recalling, and understanding
represent foundational cognitive processes necessary for effective learning (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). Students can also summarize the key benefits of using these features, like how
reminders assist in meeting deadlines and compare different tasks or goals within the app to
assess their relative importance or urgency. In applying this knowledge, students execute specific
tasks within the app by entering new goals, setting deadlines, and assigning to-dos for task
management. They then implement the app’s tools into their daily routines, applying their task
management knowledge to enhance productivity (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Theory of Pauseitive: Learning by Doing and Cognitive Load Theory
Integrating principles from both CLT and the learning-by-doing approach can effectively
enhance the Pauseitive app. Cognitive load theory, as Skulmowski (2024) emphasized, highlights
minimizing external cognitive load to prevent learners from becoming overwhelmed by
unnecessary complexities, allowing them to focus on core tasks like organizing and prioritizing
goals. This principle is crucial for digital tools like the Pauseitive app, which should be designed
to be intuitive and free from distracting elements, thereby improving user productivity and
learning outcomes (Skulmowski, 2024). Similarly, the learning-by-doing approach, as both
Skulmowski (2024) and H. W. Reese (2011) described, underscores the value of hands-on

28
experience in helping users gain a deeper understanding of task management. The Pauseitive app
should encourage users to actively engage with its features, setting goals and tracking progress in
a straightforward manner. By aligning with these educational theories, the app facilitates
effective task management and ensures that users are not overwhelmed by the digital
environment, making the learning process both efficient and practical (H. W. Reese, 2011;
Skulmowski, 2024).
To further enhance the Pauseitive app’s effectiveness, it is important to delve deeper into
how CLT and the learning-by-doing approach can be applied in its design and functionality. as
Skulmowski (2024) noted, CLT is not just about reducing unnecessary cognitive load but also
about optimizing the internal and external loads that are essential for learning. The internal load
relates to the complexity of the task itself, which, in the case of the Pauseitive app, involves
organizing and prioritizing tasks effectively. The app can be designed to help users break down
complex tasks into smaller, manageable parts, thus reducing the internal load. By providing clear
instructions and intuitive interfaces, the app can also enhance external load, which refers to the
mental resources devoted to processing and understanding information. This optimization
ensures that users are managing their tasks and developing better cognitive strategies for future
task management (Sweller et al., 2011).
Moreover, the learning-by-doing approach is internally linked to experiential learning,
where active participation and direct engagement with tasks lead to deeper understanding and
skill acquisition. According to H. W. Reese (2011), this approach is most effective when users
can see the immediate impact of their actions, such as setting a goal and tracking their progress
in real-time. The Pauseitive app can incorporate features that provide immediate feedback, such
as progress bars or achievement badges, which reinforce the learning process by rewarding task

29
completion. Additionally, the app can simulate real-world scenarios where users need to
prioritize and manage multiple tasks, thereby honing their decision-making skills. By combining
these elements, the Pauseitive app supports users in managing their current tasks and helps them
build long-term skills in organization and time management, making the learning experience
both practical and impactful (H. W. Reese, 2011; Skulmowski, 2024).
The idea of learning by doing is all about gaining knowledge and skills by actually
getting involved and participating rather than just reading or listening. H. W. Reese (2011)
explained that real understanding happens when one jumps in and tackles tasks oneself, allowing
one to truly grasp concepts through one’s actions. With the Pauseitive app, this means users are
encouraged to actively manage their tasks, set goals, and track their progress right within the app.
By engaging directly with its features, users get hands-on experience in organizing and
prioritizing their work, helping them become better at managing their tasks. H. W. Reese (2011)
also pointed out that this approach is not just about repeating tasks—it is about having a clear
goal in mind and learning effectively by being directly involved in the process.
At the same time, CLT focuses on ensuring that information is presented in a way that
helps people use their mental resources efficiently. H. W. Reese (2011) stressed the need to
manage cognitive load because when individuals are overwhelmed with too much information or
complex tasks, it becomes harder to process and retain what they are learning. For the Pauseitive
app, applying CLT means designing it to simplify task management, cutting down on
unnecessary complexity and distractions. This allows users to focus on what really matters—
organizing and prioritizing their goals—without getting sidetracked by external details. H. W.
Reese (2011) suggests that effective tools should be intuitive and easy to use, ensuring that
cognitive load stays manageable and supports effective learning.

30
In Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920), John Dewey advocated for an educational
approach that emphasizes the active engagement of learners with their environment, ensuring
that learning is both meaningful and connected to real-life experiences. While Dewey did not
explicitly address CLT, his emphasis on structuring learning environments to support effective
understanding resonates with CLT’s focus on managing cognitive resources. Dewey’s idea that
learning should be practical and connected to the learner’s experiences can be seen as an early
acknowledgment of the need to avoid overwhelming learners with excessive or irrelevant
information. This aligns with CLT’s principle of minimizing external cognitive load to allow
students to focus on essential content, thus making the learning process more efficient and
effective (Dewey, 1920). Dewey believed that education should be rooted in real-life experiences
and active participation. He argued that students learn best when they engage directly with their
environment and the subject matter rather than passively receiving information. This aligns
perfectly with the learning-by-doing approach, where learners acquire knowledge and skills
through hands-on activities and direct experience.
The Pauseitive app, when viewed through the lens of recent studies on mobile learning,
can be optimized by integrating principles from both CLT and the learning-by-doing approach.
According to Goksu (2021), effective mobile learning environments must be designed to
minimize external cognitive load, ensuring that users can focus on the core tasks without being
overwhelmed by unnecessary complexity. This is crucial for the Pauseitive app, as it should
streamline task management features to avoid cognitive overload and enhance user experience.
Furthermore, Hamidi and Chavoshi (2018) emphasized interactive and practical learning
experiences in mobile learning, which aligns with the learning-by-doing approach. By
incorporating hands-on features that encourage active engagement with task management and

31
goal setting, the Pauseitive app can foster deeper understanding and more effective use of its
tools. Combining these insights, the Pauseitive app can be designed to balance cognitive
demands while promoting experiential learning, ultimately leading to better user outcomes in
both productivity and mental well-being.
Digital Awareness Training
Using an AI-driven video to supplement digital literacy skills provides a comprehensive
and holistic approach to navigating the digital landscape. Leveraging AI, the video delivers a
more robust and tailored learning experience, adapting to individual viewers’ needs while
covering essential technical skills such as productivity apps and cybersecurity measures. It also
emphasizes ethical behavior and mental well-being in the digital world, integrating mindfulness
practices with technology use. This ensures that viewers are both proficient in using digital tools
and equipped to manage the emotional and psychological impacts of a digitally driven life. This
holistic perspective increases the internal value of the content, motivating viewers to engage with
and apply what they learn to develop essential digital skills.
Expectancy-Value Theory
The EVT provides a framework for understanding motivation and outcomes in learning
and skill acquisition. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) is a psychological concept that offers
insights into the motivations of individuals, particularly in contexts where actions are closely
linked to desired outcomes. Over the years, expectancy theory has become a key framework for
studying human motivation in various organizational contexts. Various expectancy-based models
have been proposed, serving as both theoretical and practical definitions of motivation. While
these models differ in terminology across authors, the variations are largely due to language
differences rather than conceptual disagreements.

32
At the core of expectancy theory are three key components: expectancy, instrumentality,
and valence. According to Vroom (1964), these components play a significant role in an
individual’s motivation, which he defined as the force driving a person to act. Expectancy is the
belief that individual effort will indeed result in a certain level of performance. In digital literacy
skills training, EVT provides a tool to view individual perceptions of how their training efforts
are related to digital literacy. Valence, subjective values assigned to outcomes, lies at the center
of motivations (Tojimatovich et al., 2022). Valence plays a significant role in shaping
participants’ attitudes and motivations toward engaging in digital skills training. Participants’
perceptions of the outcomes—such as improved digital self-efficacy, reduced cognitive load,
enhanced mindfulness, and increased productivity—are crucial aspects influenced by valence.
Higher positive valence toward these outcomes enhances participants’ internal motivation
to actively participate in the training sessions and diligently apply the skills acquired. On the
other hand, if participants perceive this training as less valuable, they are most likely to have less
motivation to take part in the training (Lokman et al., 2022; Rosenzweig et al., 2019). According
to expectancy theory, valence is influenced by diverse factors, and individuals weigh outcomes
based on their unique values (Mirzaev & Shernazarov, 2021). Valence is influenced by both the
direct outcomes of an action (first-level outcomes), like performance level, and their perceived
instrumental value in achieving further outcomes (second-level outcomes), such as the long-term
impact of acquiring a given skill (Ocaña et al., 2023). These second-level outcomes may have
value in themselves or because they lead to other desirable outcomes. Figure 2, provided earlier,
illustrates that the desired outcome cannot be achieved without completing the process. Each
outcome holds its value, and depending on the value that an individual assigns to it, their effort
to achieve it will be a direct reflection of this.

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Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well, you will achieve the outcome you
want. It is about seeing a clear connection between your effort and the results you expect. In the
case of digital literacy training, instrumentality plays a key role in motivating participants. If they
believe that their hard work in training will lead to real benefits like feeling more confident with
digital tools, managing mental effort better, or being more productive, they are more likely to
stay engaged (Vroom, 1964). As shown in Figure 2, provided earlier, instrumentality is the link
between performance and outcomes, helping participants understand how their effort can directly
lead to positive changes (Tojimatovich et al., 2022).
Problematic Smartphone Use
The prevalence of internet usage and smartphones has been growing exponentially, with
smartphone users reaching approximately 4 billion by the end of 2021, a trend forecasted to
continue due to technology’s rapid evolution (Taskin & Ok, 2022). The COVID-19 pandemic
has further accelerated our reliance on smartphones for numerous daily activities—from work
and study to information sharing and maintaining social connections. Data from the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development indicate that internet usage rates in most countries
surged during this pandemic compared to the pre-COVID era (Taskin & Ok, 2022). As the
pandemic led to significant restrictions on offline activities, smartphones became life necessities,
significantly changing people’s online behavior (Taskin & Ok, 2022). However, this increased
smartphone usage has positive and negative implications, as discussed in various studies. This
paper examines these implications through the lens of digital literacy (providing the positive
perspective) and PSU, which will shed light on the potential negative consequences.
The rise of electronic learning, fueled by advancements in technology, has highlighted
the positive influence of digital literacy on education (Taskin & Ok, 2022). Educational

34
institutions, ranging from schools to colleges, have adopted digital learning strategies, allowing
students to participate in classes through online platforms.
A substantial number of learners now access lessons digitally while educators conduct
classes and assessments online. This digital shift in education has beneficial outcomes, such as
improved information retention and faster course completion rates (Taskin & Ok, 2022). The
notion of information literacy plays a pivotal role in higher education and academic libraries,
even though it is often subject to debate and has been interpreted and approached in various ways
(Bawden, 2008; Owusu-Ansah, 2003; Sample, 2020; Tewell, 2015). It links closely to related
ideas such as digital literacy and technology literacy. Eisenberg (2008) describes a set of skills
and knowledge that allows individuals to effectively find, assess, and use the information they
need while also filtering out irrelevant details. This skillset is essential for navigating the
overwhelming amount of information available today. Especially in higher education, students’
educational success is heavily dependent on information literacy (Mokhtar et al., 2008; Saunders,
2018). When viewed in a larger context, the significance of information literacy for democratic
engagement, economic growth, and lifelong learning is recognized (Julien & Genuis, 2011).
Researchers have presented different approaches to information literacy. Initially,
research primarily focused on information literacy’s content and technology aspects (Skov et al.,
2022). However, the skills-based or behavioral approach to information literacy has faced
criticism for its emphasis on teaching a list of general skills linearly and separately without
considering the relevant knowledge domains. Subsequently, research has shifted toward
understanding the human perspective of interacting with information, such as the student user
experience or the connection between information use and learning. More recently, the literature
on information literacy advocates for a sociocultural approach that views information literacy as

35
a situated and distributed activity learned in specific contexts and through practical engagement
within social practices. While research by Skov et al. (2022) does not delve deeply into these
different approaches, they are acknowledged as valuable perspectives for studying information
literacy practices and teaching and designing digital tools.
Academic libraries extensively utilize information and communication technology to
disseminate knowledge on information seeking, evaluation, and utilization in diverse educational
contexts. The literature on this subject contains numerous case studies that illustrate the creation
and assessment of online tools or programs for information literacy. The primary drivers behind
the development of digital learning tools to enhance information literacy skills include reaching a
larger number of students through online platforms and offering flexibility in terms of study
location and timing for students (Saunders, 2018; Stiwinter, 2013).
The COVID-19 pandemic has brought about a global transformation in university
education, necessitating the adoption of digital tools and innovative teaching methods (IraolaReal et al., 2023). The pandemic has accelerated the adoption of digitization in key areas due to
the safe distancing and safety protocols required for safe staying (Ng et al., 2023). As a result,
the digitization of education has accelerated, prompting nations to prioritize the development of
students’ digital competencies (Barboutidis & Stiakakis, 2023). This shift has also proven
beneficial to university learning outcomes (Bashir et al., 2021). However, alongside these
changes, concerns have arisen regarding the technological and digital literacy gaps observed in
recent years (Reddy et al., 2023). For example, teachers and students have exhibited limited
proficiency in digital skills (Erwin & Mohammed, 2022). Anthonysamy (2020) stated that
despite the current digital generation engaging themselves in technologies and having confidence
in operating them, which has led to educators trusting that the students have appropriate digital

36
literacy skills, studies reveal poor digital literacy skills, which are associated with less
employment due to online learning.
Also, Caton et al. (2022) stated that teachers or educators have additional challenges
compared to students since they are leaders and are required to set expectations and examples
and structure digital tools for use in diverse learning environments. The extensive demands
placed on teachers with limited digital literacy skills place them at a disadvantage in impacting
students’ knowledge of the same. This issue is problematic because teachers’ knowledge and
attitudes toward technology influence the adaptation of virtual education within the curriculum
(Bariu & Chun, 2022). Another study revealed that some students, especially those from lowincome backgrounds, lack the resources and skills to navigate the digitized learning systems (Ng
et al., 2023). Consequently, universities have begun assessing their students’ and teachers’
technological skills while recognizing the need to evaluate the level of digital self-efficacy
(Iraola-Real et al., 2023) to deliver virtual education effectively.
Digital Self-Efficacy
In today’s educational landscape, technology integration has become a fundamental part
(Bariu & Chun, 2022). It has sparked interest in exploring the concept of digital self-efficacy,
especially during the pandemic, and its influence on educational performance. Figure 5 supports
the impact of improvement of life satisfaction and digital literacy before and after the pandemic,
as depicted by Taskin and Ok (2022). The figure also shows how the pandemic positively
influenced improving digital literacy skills.

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Figure 5
A Graph of Life Satisfaction Against Digital Literacy Skills
Note. From “Impact of Digital Literacy and Problematic Smartphone Use on Life Satisfaction:
Comparing Pre- and Post-COVID-19 Pandemic,” by B. Taskin & C. Ok, 2022, European
Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 12(9), p. 1318.
(https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe12090091). Copyright 2022 by Busra Taskin and Chiho Ok.
Research illustrates that digital literacy skills are essential for learning and utilizing
available education digital platforms, which are superior to traditional classroom methods,
thereby improving overall student performance (Alshammary & Alhalafawy, 2023). A study on
teaching the English language indicated better performance through digital platforms than
traditional methods, improving education outcomes through digital literacy. Technology use
prevented the pandemic’s significant impact on education due to lockdowns and schools shutting
down, which would result in a loss of education.

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Also, research has shown that digital self-efficacy significantly impacts various aspects of
education. For instance, a study involving 130 business administration students revealed that
higher levels of digital self-efficacy were associated with improved information skills and
academic performance (Kim et al., 2005). This finding was supported by another study that
examined 34 Iranian university students and found that those with higher digital self-efficacy
performed better on foreign language assessments. Research conducted with 113 elementary
school students in Xinjiang, China, who participated in online camps demonstrated that virtual
experiences contributed to developing digital self-efficacy and computational thinking skills
(Iraola-Real et al., 2023). In addition, various researchers have concluded that a student’s level of
digital literacy translates to their academic performance, with low digital literacy associated with
poor academic performance due to the extensive adoption of technology in learning
environments (Anthonysamy, 2020).
In addition, there has been a focus on understanding digital anxiety, which refers to the
fear or apprehension of using technology. A study involving 251 South African university
students in the humanities and management sciences highlighted that low levels of digital
anxiety and higher digital self-efficacy played pivotal roles in determining educational success
(Iraola-Real et al., 2023). The authors further discovered that a lack of technological resources
could contribute to digital anxiety (Iraola-Real et al., 2023). Work by Abdelwahed et al. (2023)
supports the existence of digital anxiety among students, which they consider to be due to a lack
of technical skills in handling the various technologies. Technological anxiety leads to difficulty
in learning and postponing learning, which leads to poor performance. Digital anxiety affects
digital performance, and it is rooted in a lack of digital self-efficacy since the students lack the
appropriate digital literacy skills to navigate the technologies.

39
However, digital technology has become omnipresent (Papadakis et al., 2021),
permeating various aspects of life and education (Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2021). Examples of this
include mobile learning through smart classrooms (Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2017), virtual camps
(Chiang et al., 2022), and digital political education (Aguayo et al., 2022). This widespread
integration of technology justifies the significance of digital self-efficacy among students and
teachers who were required to adopt virtual teaching during the pandemic, even without adequate
resources or technological expertise (Can & Bardakci, 2022). Digital self-efficacy plays a key
role in influencing individuals’ perception of the case (Aguayo et al., 2022; Schlebusch, 2018)
and acceptance of virtual education (Alfadda & Mahdi, 2021; Al Kurdi et al., 2020; Al-Rahmi et
al., 2020; Mushtaque et al., 2022; Sendogdu & Koyuncuoglu, 2022; Thongsri et al., 2020;
Wolverton et al., 2020). Digital self-efficacy occurs through adopting the objective skills and the
ability to predict the practical application of digital systems; thus, it builds competence and belief
that allows the individual to complete tasks and improve their attitude toward learning and
performance (Ulfert-Blank & Schmidt, 2022).
Moreover, factors such as age are associated with digital self-efficacy. For instance, it has
been suggested that younger individuals, often called digital natives, tend to be more digitally
self-efficient (Scott & Walczak, 2009). That is due to their upbringing in a technology-driven
world where digital devices are constantly present (Papadakis et al., 2021). Furthermore,
belonging to Generation Z also influences self-efficacy (Miraja et al., 2019). Additionally, there
is a perceived gender disparity in digital self-efficacy, with women being considered less
digitally self-efficient (Schlebusch, 2018). The reason is their lower interest in using information
and communication technologies (Iraola-Real et al., 2023).

40
Digital Literacy
Digital literacy is considered the awareness and ability to perform tasks on digital
platforms, effectively demonstrating a positive attitude toward the digital environment
(Anthonysamy, 2020). Digital literacy encompasses various components that can be explored
and understood through different sources (Dewi et al., 2021). These components include (a) the
ability to gather and create information from reliable sources, (b) information processing skills,
(c) the capacity to comprehend non-sequential and complex information, (d) understanding the
contextual aspects of media and its relationship with internet-based platforms, (e) knowledge of
utilizing network access for reference and assistance, (f) filtering incoming information, and (g)
feeling secure while accessing communication and knowledge (Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2021).
Achieving mastery of digital literacy requires balancing these skills, especially for Generation Z
students, to avoid negative consequences associated with digital literacy. The main objectives of
digital literacy are (a) understanding and utilizing both digital and non-digital formats, (b)
creating and communicating digital information, (c) reporting, (d) acquiring knowledge, (e)
developing information literacy, and (f) enhancing media literacy (Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2021).
These competencies are essential prerequisites that individuals, particularly Generation Z
students, should possess to effectively, efficiently, and optimally utilize digital literacy to support
the learning process inside and outside the classroom.
Generation Z, having grown up with uninterrupted access to the internet, possesses a
unique understanding of data and information (Dewi et al., 2021). Gen Z’s exposure to various
technologies builds their digital literacy skills, which they can use to find the available
information online rather than in the traditional system of visiting libraries (Stjepić et al., 2019).
Also, Gen Z has the digital literacy to search and sort information according to the requirements,

41
which are good digital literacy skills, but they lack good information retention capability. They
are adept at multitasking using various internet-enabled devices such as smartphones, tablets,
laptops, and TVs (Alfadda & Mahdi, 2021; Al Kurdi, 2020). As a result, their attention span is
often limited, leading to distractions and online engagement during lectures. However,
advancements in technology-enhanced learning, coupled with innovative designs of learning
spaces, offer educators new opportunities to deliver flexible instruction and foster constructive
knowledge within the classroom.
Digital Tools Training
College students in the 21st century require digital literacy training centered on digital
tools training, and the research supports this assertion. Digital literacy is recognized as a
fundamental skill in today’s society (Bawden, 2008). It enhances students’ marketability and
informs their ability to compete in a highly digital and global job market (Park, 2017). Digital
literacy, the ability to effectively find, use, summarize, evaluate, create, and communicate
information using digital technology, has become a vital skill in the 21st century (Bawden,
2008). Digital literacy is essential to understanding the operation of different applications and
software for providing the required output; hence, it is fundamental from education to
employment. As a rapidly growing list of sectors increasingly incorporate digital technology,
from education to business to healthcare, digital literacy becomes essential to navigate and
succeed in these spheres. Figure 6 shows statistics on the percentage of jobs requiring digital
skills.

42
Figure 6
Percentage of Job Adverts Requiring Digital Skills
Note. From “Current and future demand for digital skills” by G. Llewellyn, 2020, Smart Insights.
https://www.smartinsights.com. In the public domain.
A critical study by Bawden (2008) outlined that digital literacy goes beyond the basic
ability to use a computer; it includes a broad range of skills and competencies, including
information, media, IT, and computer literacy. This expanded idea of digital literacy
encompasses how to operate digital tools and critically interpret, create, and interact with digital
media. Figure 7 shows the composition of digital literacy skills.

43
Figure 7
Composition of Digital Literacy Skills
Note. From “Development of Digital Literacy Indicators for Thai Undergraduate Students Using
Mixed Method Research,” by W. Techataweewan & U. Prasertsin, 2018, Kasetsart Journal of
Social Sciences, 39(2), p. 219. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2017.07.001). In the public domain.
The job market also reflects the newfound significance of digital tools training. Park
(2017) indicated that today’s job market is highly digital and global, meaning that individuals
compete for jobs worldwide. Digital literacy equips individuals with appropriate skills to manage
and operate the digital tools required to operate a specific business or organization, which is
crucial for employment eligibility. Research highlights that digitizing numerous activities
worldwide requires appropriate digital skills; hence, only digitally competent individuals who
can meet the organization’s demand can seize the opportunities (Ulfert-Blank & Schmidt, 2022).
For example, a business company will require an individual with skills in digital tools

44
surrounding advertising, marketing, communication, and inventory management. For students,
gaining digital literacy enhances their educational achievements and makes them more
marketable in a competitive job market where such digital skills are valued and sought after. The
need for digital literacy or digital skills training extends beyond the immediate prospects of
obtaining a job. It also contributes to the more extensive socioeconomic prospects of individuals.
As digital technology permeates all aspects of life, digital literacy becomes synonymous with
societal participation, enabling engagement with digital government services, digital health
resources, and e-commerce platforms (Park, 2017).
Therefore, equipping students with digital literacy skills or digital tools training assists
them in gaining information literacy and navigating the education journey, effectively leading to
success. Moreover, digital training and instilling digital literacy also reduce complications due to
unessential cognitive load, thus assisting in easy navigation through digital tools and meeting set
goals and objectives. In addition, it prepares them to participate fully in a digital society and a
global economy, enhancing both their personal and professional trajectories.
Digital Tools
Research shows that digital tools can improve learning outcomes (Hwang, 2014).
Effective use of time management tools, note-taking apps, and other digital resources can
streamline learning (Burns, 2015). Digital tools are at the forefront of modern approaches to
learning. Research highlights that digital tools contribute to sustainable education and positively
influence students’ motivation since the tools offer learning environments that influence
cognitive thinking, which studies indicate improves learning outcomes (Alshammary &
Alhalafawy, 2023). Various tools can be utilized to enhance academic success in numerous
ways. Research by Hwang (2014) indicates that digital tools contribute significantly to

45
successful learning outcomes. Specifically, smart learning environments that employ digital tools
can foster deep learning, improve problem-solving skills, and enhance critical thinking abilities
among students. These tools provide resources for students to readily access information, engage
with educational material, and actively construct knowledge in various contexts.
Digital tools also offer practical benefits in managing academic responsibilities. Time
management tools, for example, allow students to track their academic assignments and
deadlines, helping them to plan and allocate their time more effectively. Note-taking apps
facilitate the organization and retrieval of information for studying and revising, offering options
to create interactive flashcards, mind maps, or shared notes for collaboration (Burns, 2015). In
addition to altering how students learn, digital tools also influence how educators teach. They
offer new instructional strategies and models, such as blended learning or flipped classrooms,
which combine online digital media with traditional classroom methods. Furthermore, using
digital tools in teaching can provide prompt feedback, personalized learning experiences, and
increased interaction among students (Hwang, 2014). These aspects, along with others,
collectively streamline the learning process, which can, in turn, lead to improved academic
performance, a higher degree of student satisfaction, and the overall enhancement of the learning
experience (Burns, 2015; Hwang, 2014).
To this end, using digital tools is not merely about integrating technology into the
classroom; it is about better transforming the nature of education to suit the needs and
expectations of the 21st-century learner. Digital tools are reported to help students manage their
cognitive load (Scheiter & Gerjets, 2007), enhancing the efficiency of learning processes.
Cognitive load refers to the amount of information that working memory can hold and process.

46
According to CLT (Sweller, 1988), learning is hindered when a learning task requires too much
capacity, overloading the learner’s cognitive system.
Digital tools can play a significant role in the management of cognitive load by providing
help with organization, time management, memory and recall, and the clarification of complex
ideas. (Scheiter & Gerjets, 2007). For example, digital tools such as those for time management
or task organization can assist in reducing external cognitive load—the type of cognitive load
that does not aid the learning process and may hinder it instead. By organizing tasks optimally
and automating routine tasks, these digital tools allow learners to focus on their primary learning
objectives, saving mental resources for understanding and processing new information (Sweller
et al., 2011).
Research by Haleem et al. (2022) supports using digital tools for task organization and
time management, using the online classroom calendar as an example. The research states that an
online classroom calendar can display field excursions, semester breaks, examinations schedules,
assignment schedules, and class schedules, which students can use to plan accordingly. Digital
tools may extend to notifications for the student’s smartphones that ensure proper learning and
categorization of events, reducing cognitive load and instilling concentration. Also, digital tools
are essential for teachers and learners to track progress, measure performance, and inform
instruction. For example, the GoFormative application allows students to offer real-time
responses, assisting the teacher in analyzing areas requiring immediate action. Also,
MasteryConnect allows teachers to analyze and score students after uploading rubrics and
performance standards, thus simplifying the traditional marking, recording, and correcting mode
of scoring assignments. Thus, digital tools assist in simplifying, improving, and revolutionizing

47
learning and teaching, which improves student and teacher satisfaction, attitude, and
participation. Figure 8 simplifies the benefits of digital tools in classrooms.
Figure 8
A Diagram Showing the Aspects of Making Digital Classroom Tools Better
Note. From “Understanding the Role of Digital Technologies in Education: A Review Haleem,”
by A. Haleem, M., Javaid, M. A. Qadri, & R. Suman, 2022, Sustainable Operations and
Computers, 3, p. 277. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004). In the public domain.

48
Furthermore, multimedia learning tools can help manage internal cognitive load—the
type of cognitive load inherent to the complexity of the material. Presenting information through
various media (text, graphics, audio) enables learners to use both their visual and auditory
processing capacities, promoting better understanding and retention of complex concepts
(Mayer, 2009). In education, digital tools are highly effective in diverse areas, such as
simplifying complex problems, visualizing abstract concepts, and enabling students to interact
with the learning material actively. Digital tools can present information in bite-sized,
manageable chunks and at a personalized pace, significantly reducing the cognitive load
(Scheiter & Gerjets, 2007). Therefore, digital tools provide an excellent means of enhancing
learning efficiency by effectively managing the cognitive load in students (Scheiter & Gerjets,
2007).
Digital literacy skills are vital in today’s shift toward online or hybrid learning
environments (Ceviker & Gezer, 2021). The proliferation of remote and hybrid learning models,
expedited by the COVID-19 pandemic, has made digital literacy skills indispensable for students
(Ceviker & Gezer, 2021). With the shift from traditional in-person instruction to online or
blended learning environments, students and educators rely heavily on digital tools and platforms
for educational activities. In addition, digital tools and platforms have provided flexibility and
versatility that allow reliable and flexible learning. For example, numerous digital tools and
platforms, such as Google Classroom, Moodle, Blackboard, Canvas, and Edmodo, allow learning
to progress with partial characteristics of traditional learning (Alshammary & Alhalafawy, 2023).
Moreover, digital literacy skills also enable students to effectively use collaborative tools,
manage their time well in a largely independent learning environment, and handle any technical

49
issues that may arise (Gilster, 1997). Such capacities can significantly enhance their ability to
learn and perform academically in online or hybrid settings (Ceviker & Gezer, 2021).
Recognizing the role of digital literacy in remote/hybrid learning, many educational
institutions have started incorporating digital literacy training in their curriculum or offering
special programs to equip their students with vital digital competency (Ceviker & Gezer, 2021).
Discussions about digital literacy in this context imply knowing how to use digital tools and
understanding the best ways to use them effectively (Hinrichsen & Coombs, 2014). Students
must have the skills to navigate online learning platforms, engage in virtual discussions, access
and evaluate information from digital resources, create and share digital content, and even
understand and deal with issues related to online safety and digital citizenship (Ribble et al.,
2004). In the remote/hybrid learning context, students who possess these skills are better
equipped to keep pace with coursework, stay engaged with peers and instructors, and adapt to
evolving learning methods (Ceviker & Gezer, 2021). Proficiency in digital literacy helps reduce
students’ learning inequalities and barriers due to the digital divide—disparities in access, usage,
and knowledge of digital devices and internet services (van Dijk, 2020).
Accessibility features in digital tools can cater to students with varied learning styles and
abilities (Burgstahler, 2007). Digital literacy plays a crucial role in promoting inclusivity in
education. With technological advancements, digital tools have evolved to be more than just a
convenience—they now foster a learning environment where all students, irrespective of their
abilities or learning styles, can thrive (Burgstahler, 2007). Many digital tools now contain builtin accessibility features designed to cater to various learners. For students with disabilities,
features such as screen readers, adjustable font sizes, high-contrast themes, speech-to-text
options, and closed captioning facilitate access to learning materials (Burgstahler, 2007).

50
Furthermore, digital tools can cater to diverse learning styles and preferences, promoting
personalized learning. For instance, some students might prefer visual content (videos,
infographics), while others could prefer textual content (e-books, articles) or auditory content
(podcasts, audiobooks). With technology, instructors can deliver the same content in multiple
ways, suiting different learning styles, also known as the Universal Design for Learning
approach (CAST, 2018). Also, digital platforms allow asynchronous learning, enabling students
to learn at their own pace and be flexible to their needs and schedules (Burgstahler, 2007). It
particularly benefits adult learners, part-time students, or students with caregiving
responsibilities or disabilities. Additionally, digital literacy provides the skills needed to utilize
these digital resources effectively, bridging the digital divide—the gap between those who have
access to technology and those who do not or between those who have the skills to use digital
tools and those who do not (van Dijk, 2013). It ensures that all students have equal access to
educational opportunities regardless of socioeconomic status, location, or personal
circumstances.
Thus, the strategic use of digital tools, backed by robust digital literacy, supports
inclusive education practices (Burgstahler, 2007) that embrace diversity, promote equal
participation, and facilitate personalization in education. Digital tools are extensive and have
varying suability, such that there are stress management apps and fitness trackers that can
promote overall student wellness (CAST et al., 2018). The technological advancements in the
digital age have paved the way for health and wellness tools that can be easily accessed through
mobile devices. These digital tools, including stress management apps and fitness trackers, can
promote overall student wellness, improving learning outcomes (Conroy et al., 2014). Stress
management apps, for instance, offer various features such as guided meditations, mindfulness

51
exercises, and breathing techniques that can help students manage anxiety and stress (Plaza et al.,
2013). They provide students with an easily accessible method of promoting mental relaxation,
reducing stress, and enhancing overall well-being. Furthermore, most of these apps offer ways to
set personal goals, track progress, and receive feedback and motivation, assisting students in
maintaining healthy habits consistently (Sullivan & Lachman, 2017). They can empower
students to take charge of their physical health, which is often overlooked. Therefore, digital
tools are necessary in today’s environment but are affected by the level of digital literacy.
Understanding digital tools is crucial for education for educators’ provision of instructions and
students’ learning and extends to other societal aspects such as businesses and is today key to
employment.
Gaps in Literature
Determining the literature gaps concerning the lack of digital literacy skills for students
using mobile applications involves pinpointing areas of study or data that need to be
comprehensively covered or understood. The literature revealed three existing knowledge gaps.
Firstly, the relationship between digital literacy and mobile applications in the classroom is a
rapidly evolving subject, demanding closer attention from researchers and educators worldwide.
While mobile applications can significantly influence digital literacy development, it is not clear
how these skills are cultivated (Kuh, 2016). This gap might be due to the inconsistency and
diversity in the functionality and usability of each mobile application. Each app may require a
different level of digital literacy (McDougall et al., 2018), making it challenging to establish a
universal learning method.
Secondly, students’ individual learning styles and abilities might influence the acquisition
of digital literacy skills. Learning is a complex process—what works best for one student may

52
not be as effective for another (Pilgrim & Woo, 2021). Despite attempts to develop an effective
learning method, students’ digital literacy skills acquisition may still depend on factors such as
learning style, attitude, self-motivation, and encouragement.
Finally, there is little consideration for the variable impacts of differing platforms
(Android, iOS) or device types (tablets vs. phones) on digital literacy development in students
(Crompton et al., 2017). Similarly, the influence of sociocultural factors like cultural norms,
family attitudes, and socioeconomic status on mobile application-based digital literacy skills
acquisition still needs to be explored (Hatlevik et al., 2015).
Understanding these processes warrants further research to guide educators and
policymakers in developing strategies to enhance digital literacy education effectively.
Summary and Conclusion
In summary, mobile applications have become an indispensable part of our daily lives,
offering a plethora of functionalities ranging from social connectivity and entertainment to
practical tools for health, finance, and education. These applications are especially significant for
today’s students, who are part of a digital-native generation yet vary widely in their levels of
digital literacy. These apps can serve as potent platforms for student wellness, but their
effectiveness is deeply tied to students’ ability to navigate and utilize them correctly.
Understanding how digital literacy impacts the use of these apps can provide insights into
enhancing student well-being in our increasingly digital world. In conclusion, future research
should address these gaps, establishing an understanding of the processes of digital literacy
acquisition, evaluating multiple applications, examining specific population needs, and
considering the influence of sociocultural factors and teachers’ skills.

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Challenges Facing Adoption and Improvement of Digital Literacy Skills
• Lack of basic digital skills: Some studies show that despite being nearly always
connected, many students lack basic digital skills (Hargittai, 2010). The familiarity
and comfort with mobile technology often associated with the young do not
necessarily mean they are digitally literate (Park & Son, 2017).
• Socioeconomic and cultural disparities: Students from lower socioeconomic groups
often have fewer opportunities to develop digital literacy skills than their peers
(Robinson et al., 2003). Sociocultural factors, such as social class and cultural
background, may contribute to the lack of digital literacy (Warwick et al., 2018).
• Limited digital literacy instruction: Despite the increasing use of technology in
education, relatively few teachers report teaching digital skills necessary for students
to evaluate online information critically (Meeuwisse et al., 2010).
• Comprehensive understanding of digital literacy: There remains an ambiguity in
understanding what constitutes digital literacy. The boundaries and components of
digital literacy, particularly in the case of mobile applications, remain undetermined,
which poses significant educational implications (Buckingham, 2015).
• Socioeconomic factors: Current literature does not thoroughly explore the impact of
socioeconomic factors on students’ digital literacy, affecting their ability to
effectively navigate and use proper mobile applications (Hargittai, 2010).
• Weakness in interpretative skills: Buckingham (2015) noted a relative weakness in
addressing the skills needed for students to interpret and create meaningful content
using mobile applications.

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• Lack of faculty training: Although Pelgrum (2001) acknowledges the implications of
ICT in education, the research on whether teachers have appropriate training to
instruct students in using correct mobile applications is lacking.
• Rapid pace of technology: The current literature needs to provide more information
on how to equip students with skills to keep up with the rapidly evolving digital
technology, including mobile applications (Bawden, 2008).

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Chapter Three: Methodology
Chapter 1 presented a road map for the systematic examination of the effects of digital
literacy abilities on cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. This third chapter will explain
the data collecting procedure, which includes pre-and post-test questionnaires delivered through
a mobile application, as well as a true experimental design to evaluate the effect of digital
awareness training. The chapter also outlines the statistical techniques used to evaluate the data,
making it easier to explore the connections between digital literacy abilities and the desired
variables. This chapter provides a thorough overview of the methods used to address the research
questions and evaluate the hypotheses, including the study’s methodological approach. This
study, which aimed to offer empirical insights into the transformational potential of digital
literacy as well as digital awareness training within the educational setting, is built on a
quantitative research methodology. The study enlisted undergraduate college students, Gen Z, as
participants and used the strength of random assignment to guarantee solid and trustworthy
outcomes for Research Question 2. The approach will explain the choice of acceptable tools for
gauging cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity, as well as the validity and reliability of
those tools. To collect data, the study utilized scales to measure participants’ performance: the
Cognitive Load Scale, Self-Efficacy Scale, and Mindful Awareness Attention Scale.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
Two research questions guided the study:
• Do participants who receive digital survival skills training (the Pauseitive app) show
significant improvements in digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, productivity, and
reductions in internal and external cognitive load from pretest to posttest?

56
• Does the combination of digital awareness training and digital survival training (the
Pauseitive app) lead to higher scores in digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and
productivity and lower scores in internal and external cognitive load compared to
digital survival training (Pauseitive App) alone?
The following hypotheses guided this study:
H1: Participants who receive survival skills training (the Pauseitive app) will have higher
posttest scores than pretest scores on each of three dependent variables (digital self-efficacy,
mindfulness, and productivity) and lower posttest scores than pretest on two dependent variables
(cognitive load internal, cognitive load external).
H2: The experimental group receiving awareness training and the digital survival training
(the Pauseitive app) will have higher scores than the control group (digital survival training only)
on each of three dependent variables (digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and productivity) and
lower scores on two dependent variables (cognitive load internal, cognitive load external).
Digital Survival Skills Training (Pauseitive)
The Pauseitive app serves as a foundational component within the study’s conceptual
framework. The app focuses on enhancing digital skills, productivity, and cognitive load
management among participants. This digital skills training program integrates various tools and
strategies designed to empower individuals with essential competencies needed to navigate and
excel in digital environments. It is a digital tool designed to promote mindful smartphone usage
and improve digital literacy by encouraging users to take regular breaks and reflect on their
smartphone habits (Weissinger, 2019). Pauseitive also aims to reduce cognitive load in digital
consumption (Weissinger, 2019). By making users aware of their smartphone usage habits and
digital consumption, the Pauseitive app promotes mindfulness (Hefner & Freytag, 2023). It also

57
consists of productivity tools designed to maximize phone usage efficiency. The Pauseitive app
includes cognitive load management techniques like digital detoxification, mindfulness, and
efficient information filtering. These techniques seek to improve participants’ capacity for
sustained concentration, lessen mental exhaustion, and raise their general level of cognitive
function when performing digital tasks.
Pauseitive is a digital tool designed to support higher education professionals and
students by enhancing productivity while promoting mental well-being. The app integrates task
management and goal setting with mindfulness practices, offering features such as guided
meditations, breathing exercises, and journaling prompts. These tools are personalized to
individual needs, helping users manage stress, regulate emotions, and maintain a positive
mindset, which is crucial for academic success and personal growth.
Specifically tailored for the demands of academic life, Pauseitive also emphasizes worklife balance, encouraging users to take mindful breaks throughout the day. The app’s pause
button prompts reflection and gratitude, fostering a more focused and resilient approach to work
and study. With its user-friendly interface and accessibility on major platforms, Pauseitive
provides higher education communities with a practical and effective way to integrate
mindfulness into their daily routines, enhancing both productivity and overall well-being.
During the study, students were instructed to use the Pauseitive app. Three options were
available. These included a virtual success coach, a task management feature as well as a pause
and reflection feature to take a break. The majority of them utilized the task management portion
of the app, as reported through the administration panel of the app on which data is being
collected. It became evident that goals and tasks were the areas in which students particularly

58
needed support, with the app’s resource and accountability features playing a key role in their
optimization.
Digital Awareness Training
Using an AI-driven video to supplement digital literacy skills is important because it
provides a comprehensive and holistic approach to navigating the digital landscape. Leveraging
AI, the video delivers a more robust and tailored learning experience, adapting to individual
viewers’ needs while covering essential technical skills such as productivity apps and
cybersecurity measures. It also emphasizes ethical behavior and mental well-being in the digital
world, integrating mindfulness practices with technology use. The video summarized mastering
essential digital skills to navigate technology, use social media effectively, and stay productive
with apps like Pauseitive. Practice cyber safety and mindfulness to stay secure and balanced
digitally. This ensures that viewers are proficient in using digital tools and equipped to manage
the emotional and psychological impacts of a digitally driven life. This holistic perspective
increases the internal value of the content, motivating viewers to engage with and apply what
they learn to develop essential digital skills.
Methodology and Approach Overview
I examined the influence of digital literacy abilities on cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity utilizing a pre–post design and a true experiment (randomized trial) as part of the
study methodology. This strategy was selected to evaluate the hypotheses thoroughly and is
based on the research design covered in Chapter 1. The next section discusses the approach and
its suitability.

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Quantitative Approach
The decision to use a quantitative approach was based on the method’s inherent
advantages in offering an organized and methodical framework for inquiry (Greene et al., 2005).
The study’s use of a quantitative approach enables the systematic collection of numerical data,
which enables accurate measurement and analysis of the correlations between variables. In this
instance, the main question concerned digital literacy training (Pauseitive) and its effects on
digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. The quantitative technique
was very well-suited to this study for numerous convincing reasons. It primarily enables the use
of statistical methods and tools to evaluate the data, making it easier to spot trends, patterns, and
connections. This analytical rigor is essential for testing the hypotheses and coming to firm, factbased conclusions.
A quantitative method also ensures impartiality and minimizes prejudice in data
gathering and processing. The research increases the credibility and dependability of the
conclusions by reducing the possibility of subjective interpretation and focusing mostly on
numerical data. This objectivity is particularly relevant when examining complicated categories
like cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity, where accurate measurement is key. The
quantitative approach also had the potential benefit of generalizability. The study derived
generalizable insights from its sample and context: undergraduate Gen Z college students. The
results may be generalized to a larger population using numerical data and statistical analysis,
adding to the body of knowledge on digital literacy and its effects on cognitive functions and
productivity.

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Pre–Post Quasi-Experimental Study
As part of the study (Research Question 1), the digital survival training provided practical
skills and strategies for digital literacy, ranging from basic to advanced digital skills, productivity
tools, and methods to cope with digital information overload. Both groups completed pre-test
surveys (Appendix B) before the training to establish baseline data on participants’ digital selfefficacy, internal and external cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. They then
completed posttest (Appendix B) 2 weeks after the completion of the training to assess changes
in these variables and determine the impact of the interventions. The control group completed a
pre-test survey on their level of digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity, followed a course on using digital tools integrated into the Pauseitive app, and
utilized it for 2 weeks. The first hypothesis was that the digital training (Pauseitive) would lead
to improvements in digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. The
second hypothesis was that the experimental group receiving awareness training and digital
survival tools training would have higher posttest scores than the control group (digital survival
tools training only) on the following dependent variables: digital self-efficacy, internal cognitive
load, external cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. They would also lower posttest
scores on internal and external cognitive load compared to the control group (Leppink et al.,
2014).

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Figure 9
Flowchart of the Study
Participants comprised about 30 Gen Z undergraduate college students from each of the
two randomly assigned groups: the experimental group received both awareness training and
digital survival training, and the control group received only digital survival training. The
awareness training focused on enhancing participants’ digital literacy awareness, including
digital self-efficacy, mindfulness, and effective strategies to manage cognitive load in digital
environments.
True Experiment (Randomized Trial)
A part of this study (Research Question 2) was conducted via a randomized trial,
commonly called a true experiment. This design is excellent for several reasons, one of which is
causal inference making (Murray, 1998). The capacity of true experiments to prove causality

62
enables scientists to conclude how an independent variable affects dependent variables. The
provision of training on digital awareness acts as the independent variable in this situation.
Secondly, true experiments offer high control over unrelated factors that could affect the
outcomes. Participants were randomly assigned to either the intervention group, which received
both the awareness and digital survival skills training, or the control group, which received the
digital survival skills training only, to reduce potential biases. Additionally, this design enables
accurate measurement of the intervention’s effects as it includes both pre-test and post-test data.
This accuracy is essential when analyzing changes in cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity. Furthermore, because true experiments were conducted under controlled settings,
the results had the potential to be more broadly generalizable.
Sample and Setting
The study focused on a sample of undergraduate college students from Karachi, Pakistan,
specifically targeting Generation Z. I chose this group because of their growing interaction with
digital technologies and the challenges they face in developing digital literacy. The aim was to
enhance their digital self-efficacy, help them manage cognitive load more effectively, foster
mindfulness, and ultimately boost their productivity. These students often encounter various
demands and obstacles when it comes to navigating digital environments, which can affect their
ability to use technology effectively. The study sought to improve this sample’s digital selfefficacy, cognitive load management, mindfulness, and productivity by addressing the demands
and obstacles they encounter with digital literacy (Woo, 2014). Two groups of Gen Z
undergraduate college students, 30 in each group, served as the study’s participants for Research
Question 2. The selection procedure incorporated random assignment to guarantee that the
participants were a similar cross-section of the student population in terms of demographics,

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digital literacy levels, and past experiences with digital technologies. Gen Z college students
pursuing undergraduate degrees are pertinent participants as they fit the larger target
demographic of people looking to advance their digital literacy abilities. They are representative
of the target population. In their academic and eventual professional activities, they will likely
come across various digital technologies.
Because Gen Z students grew up with digital tools, many of these college students are
considered members of the digital-native generation. However, they do not necessarily have high
levels of digital literacy. Understanding their struggles and experiences can help to better
understand how digital technologies affect cognitive burden. Digital literacy experiences also
have a direct bearing on the academic achievement and future employment of college students.
Enhancing their digital literacy can improve their academic achievement and preparation for the
workforce (Wong et al., 2017). There will probably be a range of digital literacy levels in the
chosen schools. While some students could be proficient in particular areas of technology, others
can find it difficult. This variety enables a thorough investigation of how digital technologies
affect people with different skill sets.
Furthermore, college classrooms offer a controlled environment where interventions,
such as using digital technologies for learning and skill development, may be implemented and
evaluated. In this environment, it is possible to test hypotheses connected to the research issues
systematically. Therefore, Gen Z undergraduate college classroom participants chosen for the
study are individuals living in Pakistan, looking to improve their digital literacy skills, and their
experiences are directly related to academic success and potential future career paths. They are
suited for studying how the use of digital tools affects cognitive load and associated effects
because of their variety in terms of digital literacy levels (Agostinho et al., 2011).

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Instrumentation: Reliability and Validity
Cognitive Load
I utilized the Cognitive Load Scale (CLS; Appendix A) to measure participants’ cognitive
load, serving as an indicator of these factors (Sweller et al., 2011). The CLS, a widely recognized
tool for examining cognitive load, consisted of Likert-scale questions that participants used to
assess their cognitive load while engaging in specific tasks or activities (Leppink et al., 2014).
The CLS has demonstrated extensive validation and high reliability, as supported by
previous research (Sweller et al., 2011). I assessed internal and external consistency using
metrics like Cronbach’s alpha to ensure the scale’s dependability, with a high Cronbach’s alpha
value typically indicating strong internal consistency, affirming that the scale items effectively
evaluated cognitive load (Sweller et al., 2011). I examined the content validity of the CLS to
confirm that its items accurately represented the concept of cognitive load. Additionally,
correlations between cognitive load scores and relevant variables, such as digital literacy skills
and task performance, were analyzed to assess construct validity.
Cognitive load theory, which is grounded in understanding the limitations of working
memory, presumes that learning is optimized when cognitive load is managed effectively
(Sweller et al., 2011). Cognitive load is often divided into three types: internal, external, and
external. This study focused particularly on internal and external cognitive load, commonly
referred to as internal and external cognitive load. Internal cognitive load refers to the mental
effort required to understand and perform tasks directly related to the material being learned
(Sweller et al., 2011). It is inherent to the complexity of the content itself. This study measured
internal cognitive load using Likert-scale questions that participants responded to while engaging
in specific tasks designed to challenge their digital literacy skills (Leppink et al., 2014).

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The study measured external cognitive load by including items on the CLS that assessed
participants’ perceptions of distractions, the clarity of instructions, and any unnecessary
information they encountered during the tasks. Like the internal cognitive load measures, these
items have been evaluated for reliability using Cronbach’s alpha, ensuring their consistency and
dependability. The study also examined the construct validity of the cognitive load measures by
analyzing correlations between cognitive load scores and related variables, such as digital
literacy self-efficacy, mindfulness, and task performance. High correlations would indicate that
the cognitive load measures are effectively capturing the construct they are intended to measure.
Content validity was ensured by carefully designing the scale items to cover all relevant aspects
of cognitive load, both internal and external.
Digital Self-Efficacy
This study employed a user generated digital self-efficacy scale (Appendix A) to gain a
deeper understanding of individuals’ beliefs in their abilities and how these beliefs impact
behavior and outcomes. This study used a digital self-efficacy scale created to understand how
participants felt about their digital skills. This scale helped to determine how confident people
were in their abilities to use technology and how these feelings affected their behavior and
results. Looking at digital self-efficacy enabled a better understanding of how these beliefs might
influence how participants approached tasks that involved technology. This aim was key because
believing in one’s abilities can significantly increase motivation, perseverance, and overall
success in completing digital tasks.
Mindfulness
Participants’ levels of mindfulness were evaluated using the Mindful Attention
Awareness Scale (MAAS; Appendix A), a well-established mindfulness measurement tool

66
known for its high reliability and validity (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Mindfulness refers to the
participant’s ability to maintain awareness and attention in the present moment without
becoming distracted by thoughts, emotions, or external events. Cronbach’s alpha was employed
to assess internal consistency and determine the reliability of the MAAS, with a high alpha value
indicating that the scale items consistently measured mindfulness awareness. By opting for the
MAAS, a widely recognized mindfulness assessment, content validity was assured. Construct
validity was assessed by analyzing the relationships between MAAS scores and other aspects of
mindfulness and digital self-efficacy.
Productivity
To gauge participants’ productivity, a self-report measure (Appendix A) was specifically
designed to align with the study’s objectives, employing Likert-scale questions. Participants’
productivity was assessed through a user-generated self-report measure, which relied on their
perceptions and experiences. Demonstrating reliability ensures that these self-reports are
consistent and dependable. The use of Likert-scale questions provides a structured and
standardized way to gauge productivity, allowing for quantifiable and comparable data. Showing
reliability in this context means that the scale consistently captures participants’ responses in a
meaningful way. The items were generated by aligning them with the study’s objectives, using
self-reporting as the data collection method, structuring the questions with Likert scales for
consistency and comparability, and ensuring reliability in the responses.
Scoring of Dependent Variable Measures
In this context, it is about determining how well participants performed or responded in
specific areas that are being measured—such as cognitive load, digital self-efficacy, mindfulness,
or productivity. These dependent variables are usually evaluated using surveys, tests, or other

67
instruments designed to capture changes or differences in participants before and after an
intervention.
Cognitive Load
The cognitive load is how mentally demanding a task is for participants, with response
options ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. When participants select “strongly
disagree” or “disagree,” it indicates that they found the task relatively easy and not mentally
taxing, reflecting a lower cognitive load. On the other hand, selecting “agree” or “strongly agree”
suggests that the task required considerable mental effort, indicating a higher cognitive load.
In the results chapter, these responses are typically assigned numerical values: 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). This allows for an analysis of the overall cognitive load the
participants experienced. For example, if the average score across the scale is high, it suggests
that most participants found the task challenging. Additionally, looking at how participants
responded to individual items on the scale can help identify specific aspects of the task that were
particularly demanding. This approach provides a clear understanding of the mental effort
required by participants, which is essential for interpreting the results meaningfully.
Digital Self-Efficacy
Digital self-efficacy is all about how confident participants feel when using digital tools
and technologies. The scale ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and these responses
provide insight into their confidence levels. If someone chooses “strongly disagree” or
“disagree,” it means very confident in their digital skills. For instance, if a participant strongly
disagrees with a statement like “I feel confident navigating new software,” it suggests they have
low digital self-efficacy. On the other hand, selecting “agree” or “strongly agree” indicates that
they feel quite confident in their ability to handle digital tasks.

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In the results, these responses were assigned numbers—1 (strongly disagree) and 4
(strongly agree)—to get a clearer picture of overall confidence levels. A higher average score
means most participants are comfortable and capable with digital tasks, while a lower score
suggests the opposite. Looking at how people responded to specific questions also aided in
identifying areas where they might need more support or training. This approach helps to
understand and interpret the results more effectively when discussing the findings.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness in this study refers to how often participants are fully present and aware of
their thoughts, feelings, and surroundings. The scale ranges from almost always to almost never,
and these responses help to gauge how mindful participants felt during their tasks. If someone
chooses “almost always” or “very frequently,” it means they were often mindful, staying present
and aware of their experiences. On the other hand, selecting “very infrequently” or “almost
never” suggests they struggled with being mindful, perhaps getting easily distracted or not fully
engaging with the moment.
In the results, I assigned numbers to these responses—1 (almost never) to 6 (almost
always)—to get a clearer picture of overall mindfulness levels. A higher average score indicates
that participants were generally mindful, suggesting they stayed focused and aware throughout
the tasks. A lower score, however, suggests they had difficulty maintaining mindfulness, which
could point to factors that disrupted their focus or engagement. Looking at specific responses
also revealed areas where participants were more or less mindful, helping to draw meaningful
conclusions about their overall mindfulness in the study.

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Productivity
Productivity in this study is about how effective and efficient participants feel when
completing tasks. The scale ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree, and these responses
help to understand how productive they believe they are. If someone chooses “strongly disagree”
or “disagree,” it means they did not feel very productive, perhaps struggling to complete tasks
quickly or efficiently. On the other hand, selecting “agree “or “strongly agree” suggests they felt
they could work efficiently and get things done.
In the results, I assigned numbers to these responses—1 (strongly disagree) and 4
(strongly agree)—to see overall productivity levels more clearly. A higher average score means
most participants felt productive, while a lower score suggests they might have faced challenges
that impacted their efficiency. Looking at how people responded to each question identified
specific areas where they felt more or less productive, helping to draw meaningful conclusions
about their overall productivity.
Data Collection
In the data collection process, pre-test and post-test questionnaires were administered
through a mobile application, offering participants the flexibility to opt in or out at their
discretion. Selected participants were recruited from two undergraduate college Gen Z groups,
employing random assignment to ensure an identical sample in the analysis of Research
Question 2. Students were informed about the study’s objectives and procedures, with
participation being entirely voluntary. All students received informed consent documents
outlining the study’s goals, data collection methods, and voluntary nature of participation before
their involvement. Those choosing to participate provided written consent and had the
opportunity to seek clarification.

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A dedicated mobile application named Pauseitive was also developed for this study,
serving as a platform for digital survival tools training for the control group and pre-and post-test
surveys. Participants who opted in initiated the study by completing a pre-test survey via the
Pauseitive app, evaluating their digital literacy understanding and competency, and providing
baseline assessments of reported productivity, mindfulness, and cognitive load. Following 2
weeks of training, participants were required to complete a post-test survey, once again through
the Pauseitive smartphone application, assessing reported productivity, cognitive load, and
mindfulness.
Throughout the research, participants could opt in or out without facing any penalties or
consequences. The opt-in/opt-out mechanism ensured voluntary participation, respecting
individuals’ autonomy. Data collected via the mobile application were securely managed and
stored, with personal identifying information separated from survey responses to maintain
confidentiality. In preparation for the primary data collection phase, I conducted a pilot test to
evaluate the mobile application’s functionality, survey question clarity, and overall user
experience, taking into account feedback from the pilot test to make any necessary adjustments.
These data collection procedures facilitated the systematic measurement of digital self-efficacy,
cognitive load, mindfulness, and perceived productivity in response to the awareness and digital
survival tools training interventions and ensured that participants were well-informed, had the
freedom to participate or withdraw, and could conveniently complete the pre-test and post-test
surveys using the mobile application.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this methodological chapter sets the stage for an in-depth exploration of
how digital literacy skills, especially through the use of the Pauseitive app, affect digital self-

71
efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. By adopting a quantitative approach and
true experimental design, this research generated empirical data that could have a significant
impact on the fields of education and digital literacy. By focusing specifically on Gen Z
undergraduate college students and utilizing the Pauseitive app as the primary tool for digital
literacy intervention, the study aims to uncover how this app can enhance various cognitive and
behavioral outcomes.

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Chapter Four: Results
Chapter 4 presents a closer look at the study’s results, which aimed to see how two
different digital literacy approaches, the Pauseitive app and digital awareness training, affected
participants’ digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. The participants
were divided into two groups. One group used the Pauseitive app, serving as the control, while
the other group participated in awareness training as the experimental intervention. By
comparing the scores from before and after these interventions, the aim was to understand how
each approach influenced key areas like digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity.
To make sense of the data, statistical methods like paired samples t-tests allowed for
determining how each group changed over time, and independent t-tests enabled a comparison of
the outcomes between the experimental groups. The goal was to determine how both the
Pauseitive app and awareness training affected participants’ thinking and behavior.
Results
Means and standard deviations for all variables are shown in Table 1. The table shows the
average scores (mean), the amount of variation in those scores (standard deviation), and how
skewed the responses were (skewness) for both the experimental and control groups combined.

73
Table 1
Post-test Means and Standard Deviations
N Mean Std. deviation Skewness
Statistic statistic Statistic Statistic Std. error
Digitalefficacy_post 65 2.9415 .54855 –.893 .297
Cognitiveloadinternal_post 65 2.3590 .72602 .297 .297
Cognitiveloadexternal_post 65 2.1974 .71132 .148 .297
Mindfulness_post 65 3.4410 1.06084 –.338 .297
Productivity_post 65 2.7538 .57215 –.153 .297
Valid N (listwise) 65
The average scores for digital skills and productivity suggest that participants felt fairly
confident in their abilities and their productivity levels before any intervention took place.
However, the variations in these scores show that there was some difference in how participants
rated themselves, with a slight tilt in the distribution of responses. Interestingly, the mental effort
needed for internal tasks was rated higher than that for external tasks, indicating that participants
found thinking and processing information more mentally draining than dealing with external
factors. The mindfulness scores, assessed using the MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003), were
relatively high, suggesting that participants already saw themselves as quite mindful before the
interventions began. This starting data is essential for understanding how the Pauseitive app and
awareness training might influence these areas moving forward.
Table 2 provides a side-by-side comparison of participants’ scores before and after the
interventions, offering a first look at how Pauseitive may have impacted them. For the group
using the app, there was a slight dip in both digital self-efficacy and productivity after the
intervention, indicating a small drop in confidence and how productive participants felt.
However, when it comes to cognitive load, whether it was dealing with internal thought

74
processes or external factors, the changes were minimal, suggesting that the intervention did not
significantly change how mentally challenging participants found their tasks. In contrast, the
participants who went through Pauseitive showed a small boost in mindfulness, hinting that this
intervention may have had a positive effect in helping participants feel more mindful. The
variations in scores, especially in mindfulness and cognitive load, show that participants’
experiences differed, with some experiencing more change than others. These initial
observations set the stage for a deeper dive into the effects of these interventions in Chapter 5.
Table 2
Pre- and Post-test Means and Standard Deviations
Mean N Std. deviation Std. error mean
Pair 1 Digitalefficacy_pre 3.01 65 .484 .06008
Digitalefficacy_post 2.94 65 .548 .06804
Pair 2 Cogload internal_pre 2.31 65 .670 .08313
Cogload internal_post 2.36 65 .726 .09005
Pair 3 Cogload external_pre 2.14 65 .659 .08173
Cogload external_post 2.12 65 .711 .08823
Pair 4 Mindfulness_pre 3.36 65 .937 .11619
Mindfulness_post 3.44 65 1.06 .13158
Pair 5 Productivity_pre 2.81 65 .527 .06536
Productivity_post 2.75 65 .572 .07097

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Table 3 presents the statistical findings related to Table 2. The t-test results for digital
self-efficacy, mental effort (both internal and external), mindfulness, and productivity show that
there were not any significant changes between the scores before and after the interventions. The
p-values, especially for mental effort and mindfulness, suggest that the interventions did not lead
to any major shifts in these areas. While the descriptive statistics indicated some differences,
they were not strong enough to be statistically significant.
Table 3
Paired Samples T-test Statistics
Significance
t df One-sided p Two-sided p
Pair 1: Digital efficacy_pre - digital
efficacy_post
1.183 65 .121 .241
Pair 2: Cogload_int_pre–cogload_int_post -.545 65 .294 .588
Pair 3: Cogload_ext_pre–cogload_ext_post -.851 65 .199 .398
Pair 4: Mindfulness_pre–mindfullness_post -.907 64 .184 .368
Pair 5: Productivity_pre–productivity_post 1.000 65 .161 .321

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Table 4 provides a comparison of the outcomes between the experimental group, which
underwent awareness training, and the control group, which used the Pauseitive app. The results
show that both groups had similar levels of digital efficacy, indicating moderate confidence in
their digital skills after the interventions. The internal cognitive load was slightly higher for those
in the awareness training group, suggesting they found processing information a bit more
mentally taxing. External cognitive load scores were close between both groups, showing that
external factors like task demands were perceived as similarly challenging. Interestingly, the
Pauseitive group reported slightly higher mindfulness levels, while productivity scores were
nearly the same across both groups. Overall, the differences between the groups were minor,
suggesting that the Digital Awareness Training intervention had a modest effect on participants’
cognitive and behavioral outcomes.
Table 4
Experimental and Control Group Means and Standard Deviations
Group N Mean Std. deviation Std. error mean
Digitalefficacy A 34 3.0029 .38552 .06612
B 31 3.0226 .58035 .10423
Cognitiveloadinternal A 34 2.4363 .56559 .09700
B 31 2.1774 .75515 .13563
Cognitiveloadexternal A 34 2.2108 .68326 .11718
B 31 2.0645 .63345 .11377
Mindfulness A 34 3.3235 .77627 .13313
B 31 3.4086 1.09784 .19718
Productivity A 34 2.7941 .47860 .08208
B 31 2.8280 .58291 .10469

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Table 5 focuses on comparing the average scores between the experimental group
(Digital Awareness Training plus Pauseitive) and the control group (Pauseitive) to determine if
the differences between them are statistically significant. The t-test results show that there were
no significant differences between the two groups. The p-values for digital skills, cognitive load,
mindfulness, and productivity were all above the 0.05 threshold, meaning any differences
between the groups could likely be due to chance rather than the interventions themselves. These
findings highlight the difficulty in proving statistically significant effects between the
interventions, suggesting that the Pauseitive app may require larger studies or different
approaches to demonstrate its impact.
Table 5
Experimental and Control Group T-test Results
t-test for equality of means
Significance
t df One-sided p Two-sided p
Digitalefficacy –.162 63 .436 .872
Cognitiveloadinternal 1.573 63 .060 .121
Cognitiveloadexternal .892 63 .188 .376
Mindfulness –.363 63 .359 .718
Productivity –.257 63 .399 .798

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Conclusion
In this chapter, tests compared scores before and after the interventions to determine
whether Pauseitive made a meaningful difference in participants’ cognitive and behavioral
outcomes. It also looked at how two different approaches using the Pauseitive app as a control
and participating in both the Pauseitive app and digital awareness training as an experimental
intervention affected key areas like digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity. The chapter started by establishing a baseline with participants’ pre-test scores,
which gave a clear picture of where they stood in terms of digital self-efficacy, mental effort,
mindfulness, and productivity before any intervention. These baseline scores were compared to
post-test scores to determine whether there were any changes. Although there were some
differences in areas like digital self-efficacy and mindfulness, the statistical tests showed that
these changes were not significant. The results between the group that used the Pauseitive app
only and the group that went through both awareness training and the Pauseitive app were also
compared. Again, the results showed no significant differences between the two groups,
suggesting that the impact of these interventions might be subtle and influenced by factors not
fully captured in this study.
Overall, the analysis indicates that while both the Pauseitive app and awareness training
showed some promise, neither approach led to significant changes in the measured outcomes.
This suggests that the effects of these interventions might be more complex than they appear, and
further research, possibly with larger groups or different methods, is needed to better understand
their impact. The findings highlight the challenges of evaluating digital literacy tools and
underscore the need for ongoing research to determine how best to support cognitive and
behavioral improvements in educational settings.

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Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations
This chapter revisits the purpose of this study, which was to explore the impact of digital
tools, particularly the Pauseitive app, on participants’ digital self-efficacy, cognitive load,
mindfulness, and productivity. This investigation is grounded in John Dewey’s theory of learning
by doing, which emphasizes that learning is most effective when it is experiential and hands-on
(Dewey, 1920). This study aimed to determine whether using the Pauseitive app could help
students enhance their digital skills while also better managing their mental workload.
The research adopted a quantitative approach, focusing on measurable outcomes to
address key research questions on the effectiveness of digital tools like the Pauseitive app in
improving digital self-efficacy, reducing cognitive load, and fostering mindfulness and
productivity. The study was conducted with Gen Z students in Karachi, Pakistan, using pre- and
post-intervention surveys to gauge changes in digital self-efficacy, perceived cognitive load,
mindfulness, and productivity.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the findings revealed some promising trends, particularly in
the areas of mindfulness and digital confidence. However, the changes observed were not
statistically significant across all variables, suggesting that while the Pauseitive app shows
potential, its impact may not yet be strong enough to draw definitive conclusions.
This final chapter delves deeper into the implications of these findings, exploring their
significance in the context of digital literacy and education. It also discusses the broader
application of Dewey’s experiential learning theory in this digital age, considering how tools like
the Pauseitive app could be further developed to better support students’ learning (Schlebusch,
2018; Sweller et al., 2011).

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This study explored whether the Pauseitive app and digital awareness training could help
participants better manage their cognitive load, improve digital self-efficacy and mindfulness,
and boost productivity. We used parametric statistical methods, like t-tests, to see if there were
any significant changes in these areas. While we did notice some improvements, especially in
digital self-efficacy and mindfulness, the results were less strong than we hoped.
To put these findings in context, we reflect on established theories like John Dewey’s
idea of learning by doing (Dewey,1920), which emphasizes the value of active participation in
learning. This ties in with how the Pauseitive app encourages users to use digital tools to develop
their skills. We also consider cognitive load theory, which discusses how the mental effort
needed to process information can affect learning. Although the study did not find significant
changes in cognitive load, it still adds to the broader conversation about the challenges of using
digital tools effectively. The slight increase in mindfulness fits with what other studies have
found, but the lack of statistically significant improvement in all four dependent variables
suggests there is more to explore. This chapter ultimately highlights the need for ongoing
research to better understand how these tools can support digital literacy and learning.
This chapter does not just show the immediate effects of these interventions; it also
considers what these findings might mean for digital literacy and education as a whole. By
examining both the starting point and the changes that followed, we get a better understanding of
how tools like the Pauseitive app and digital awareness training can improve learning outcomes
for students. This suggests that other factors might be at play in determining the effectiveness of
these interventions, highlighting the need for more research in this area (Chen et al., 2018;
Robinson et al., 2003).

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Theoretical Implications
This study contributes to the ongoing conversation about digital literacy by testing the
assumptions of well-established theories like Dewey’s experiential learning model and cognitive
load theory. Dewey (1920) suggested that learning is most impactful when it is hands-on and
involves active participation. However, the results from this study, which used the Pauseitive
app, indicate that simply engaging with digital tools may not be enough to trigger the full
benefits of experiential learning. This aligns with research by Mayer (2009), who argued that
interactive learning environments must be carefully designed to truly facilitate deeper
understanding.
Similarly, CLT, as Sweller et al. (2011) discussed, posits that reducing mental effort
should result in better learning outcomes. Yet, this study’s findings show that while cognitive
load was slightly improved, the expected improvements in digital self-efficacy and productivity
were not statistically significant. This echoes findings from Kirschner et al. (2006), who noted
that reducing cognitive load alone does not always lead to better learning outcomes unless it is
paired with well-structured instructional support. These results suggest that the application of
these theories in digital literacy tools needs to be more nuanced, considering factors like learner
motivation and the context in which the tools are used.
Practical Implications
The practical implications of this study are particularly relevant for educators and
developers of digital literacy tools. The modest gains observed in areas like mindfulness and
digital self-efficacy indicate that while tools like the Pauseitive app can contribute to learning,
their effectiveness is heavily dependent on how they are implemented. This is consistent with
findings from a study by Al-Hunaiyyan et al. (2017), which recommended aligning digital tools

82
with the specific learning needs and environments of users to enhance their effectiveness. For
educational institutions, this means that simply adopting new technology is not enough; there
needs to be a thoughtful integration process that includes training for both educators and
students. Additionally, research by Robinson et al. (2003) on the use of mindfulness practices in
education supports the idea that while these practices can be beneficial, they need to be
consistently applied and adapted to fit the learning context for them to make a significant impact.
The findings suggest that developers should prioritize user feedback and iterative design
when creating educational tools. As Schlebusch (2018) pointed out, tools that are continuously
refined based on user experience tend to be more effective in the long run. This is particularly
important in the context of digital literacy, where the rapidly changing technological landscape
means that tools need to be adaptable and responsive to learners’ evolving needs. By embedding
these insights into the design and implementation of digital literacy tools, educators and
developers can create more effective learning environments that truly support students in their
educational journeys.
To educators, integrating the training in digital literacy into the learning curricula can be
a helpful tool to improve students’ performance. In this sense, by acquiring the necessary digital
competencies by students, educators give students the ability to act more effectively in the digital
environment. This comprises ensuring that the student understands how to handle information
technology, use tools, and handle being around technology (Eisenberg, 2008). One has to agree
that when students take an efficient course in digital literacy, they are likely to be more
independent learners when utilizing digital tools (McDougall et al., 2018).
In theory, students can benefit directly from developing specific and purposeful digital
literacy skills that guarantee they can effectively navigate the used technologies, avoid

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information overload, and deliver more mindful interactions with technology (Kim et al., 2005).
That is why it is possible to emphasize that, having developed these criteria, a student can work
on improving academic achievements, emotional health, and readiness for the challenges of a
digital workplace.
Enhancing Curriculum Development
An extremely high focus should be placed on the fact that educational facilities must
include digital literacy training in their curricula. This includes the development of wellstructured training courses on topics related to digital literacy skills, organizing information
managing tools, as well as ways citizens may adopt a wise use of technology (Erwin &
Mohammed, 2022; Gilster, 1997; Haleem et al., 2022). Thus, when courses incorporate such
modules, institutions can guarantee that all their students will be trained in digital literacy
systematically and cohesively. Moreover, such programs and policies must be monitored
regularly, and changes must be made as often as possible due to the fast-growing digital
environment (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Hatlevik et al., 2015). A survey of the students and
trainers can offer constructive information on the efficiency of the training and what
modifications are needed. Thus, by analyzing development trends in the sphere of technologies
and newly appeared digital trends, educational institutions can optically adjust their digital
literacy programs and make them more relevant (Hwang, 2014; Murray, 1998).
It is also possible to introduce collaboration with professionals and IT specialists to
improve the quality and effectiveness of digital literacy education (Kornberger & Leixnering,
2020). When applying realistic examples and exploring the current trends in the fields, educators
equip students with the tools for the future digital workforce. These partnerships may also

84
contribute to identifying creative approaches to teaching and learning, which, in this case, is
digital literacy training more effective (Ng et al., 2023).
Addressing Digital Divide and Equity
Policymakers are particularly necessary stakeholders when dealing with the digital divide
and creating equal opportunities using digital tools. Their efforts should entail policies ensuring
that the digital literacy education offered is top-notch regardless of the student’s or parent’s
economic status (Greene et al., 2005; Miraja et al., 2019). Promoting digital literacy through
financial support in learning material and equipment closes the gap between pupils at different
ends of the digital divide.
We recommend that those in power promote digital literacy as a core component of any
government’s education curriculum (Farihin, 2022; Papadakis et al., 2021). In this way, the main
idea is to incorporate the notions of digital literacy and enable all students to fulfill the critical
tasks associated with promoting the practical usage of information technologies. They can also
encourage equality in schooling so that every learner can thrive in a society that is increasingly
characterized by the use of technology (Julien & Genuis, 2011; Kim et al., 2005).
Government bodies should also encourage developing and using new forms, methods,
and techniques for digital literacy products (Lokman et al., 2022). This dissertation argued that
funding the development of digital literacy education technologies can help change the sector
and augment students’ results (Gupta & George, 2016). Better funding can also contribute
toward increasing digital literacy and a capable and productive workforce, a critical link to
economic development and competitiveness in the global market.
Qualitative and quantitative measures could also be employed to elaborate more on the
effects of digital literacy training (Sendogdu & Koyuncuoglu, 2022). Another type of data

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collection method, such as an interview or focus group discussion, can also help gain an idea
about the experiences and attitudes of the participants, which goes beyond the numbers obtained
in the study (Stiwinter, 2013). It can also help, for instance, in establishing the context conditions
and personal characteristics that affect learning in the process of developing digital literacy in
trainees (Stjepić et al., 2019).
In addition, an enhanced approach to mixed research methodologies and a reduction of
the drawbacks identified in previous research contribute to positive trends for the subsequent
work on digital literacy and its impact on the student’s cognitive and behavioral patterns (Scott
& Walczak, 2009). This could assist in developing suitable programs for imparting knowledge of
digital literacy and the ability to handle issues anticipated in the digital environment to students
(Sweller, 1988).
Limitations
The study used two groups of 30 undergraduate college students each, as it was a small
sample, limiting the statistical power of the study. The results’ generalizability was limited due
to the sample’s potential underrepresentation of the variety of the larger population. Because the
participants in the study are chosen from a sample of undergraduate college students, the
outcomes may be influenced by certain unmeasured traits or motives relevant to their academic
subject. This can result in biased sampling.
Data gathering mainly relied on self-reporting through questionnaires delivered via the
mobile application, which might lead to self-reporting bias. Response bias might be introduced if
participants only give answers they feel are socially acceptable or that match their expectations
of what the researcher would ask. The mobile application can only be used for 2 weeks as part of
the trial. It could not adequately reflect the sustained impacts of cognitive load, mindfulness, and

86
productivity improvements or the long-term consequences of training in digital literacy abilities.
Participants had different degrees of digital literacy prior to the study. These differences could
influence how they react to the intervention and the degree of change that is shown, thereby
skewing the findings. During the study, participants’ replies and behavior might have been
affected by other variables, including their participation in other courses, their personal
situations, or their concurrent use of other digital tools. These outside variables might not be
completely under control.
One of the main challenges with this study is the use of a pre–post design, which has
some serious limitations when it comes to ensuring (Dewey, 1920) validity. According to
Creswell (2014), this type of design is considered one of the weakest because it leaves room for
other factors to influence the results between the pre-test and post-test. In other words, something
unrelated to the Pauseitive app could have happened during the study period that impacted the
participants’ responses. For example, a stressful event or other external influence could have
affected how participants engaged with the app or their overall cognitive load, making it harder
to say with certainty that any changes we observed were solely because of the app. Without a
control group or additional measures to rule out these outside factors, it is important to be
cautious about how we interpret the findings.
Another issue is that the Pauseitive app offers three different options. These included a
virtual success coach, a task management feature, and a “pause it” feature to take a break in
which the participants could have used these options in different ways. This creates the
possibility that the different treatments interacted with each other, meaning each participant’s
experience with the app may have been unique. As a result, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what
caused any changes we observed, making it harder to establish a clear cause-and-effect

87
relationship. This type of challenge is known as multiple-treatment interference, where having
several treatment options makes it tough to determine which one (or combination) was
responsible for the outcomes.
Another limitation we encountered was that, for some measures, participants had such
high pre-test scores that there was not much room for improvement. This means that even if the
Pauseitive app had a positive impact, it would be hard to see a noticeable difference in those
areas simply because the scores were already near the top of the scale. This issue, known as a
“restriction of range” problem, makes it less likely that any changes would show up as
statistically significant. In this study, variables like digital self-efficacy and mindfulness were
particularly affected by this, as many participants started with high levels, leaving little room for
measurable growth.
The effectiveness of the mobile application’s integrated training course for digital
survival skills might have been influenced by the users’ involvement and motivation to complete
the course. Variability in involvement levels could have an impact on the results. There is a
danger of contamination when research participants from the two groups are contacted outside of
the study. In such circumstances, knowledge or experiences from one group may affect the other,
potentially causing results to be muddled. The functionality of the mobile application and the
digital tools utilized for data gathering are essential to the research’s success. These technical
difficulties could have interfered with participant participation and data collecting
(Zhampeissova et al., 2020). As outcome measures, the study mainly employs digital selfefficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. Although these are important
components, other parts of digital literacy might not be well understood. Hopefully, despite these
drawbacks, the study contributed significantly to our understanding of how digital literacy

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abilities affect cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity in the particular setting of
undergraduate college students.
Delimitations
A random sample of undergraduate Gen Z college students from Pakistan is the sole
sample of the study. Individuals with different levels of education, such as those in high school
or graduate students, are excluded. As a result, the findings could not be applicable to these
additional educational environments. College-age students’ digital literacy knowledge and
experiences were the main focus of this study. Individuals older than this age range or minors
were not taken into account. The study’s results might not apply to these other age groups.
Participants were chosen from a random sampling of Gen Z undergraduate college students who
live in Karachi, Pakistan, whose pupils may differ from those in other academic fields regarding
specific traits and demands connected to digital literacy. The study’s findings might not entirely
be applicable to individuals studying various academic subjects. Over a very brief period of 2
weeks, the study tracked changes in digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and
productivity. It could not reflect the long-term impacts of digital literacy instruction or the
gradual emergence of more sophisticated abilities.
The intervention for the study depends on a particular smartphone application
(Pauseitive). The conclusions might not apply in the same way to other digital tools or platforms
with comparable uses. The outcomes may not accurately reflect what pupils learn in various
learning environments or scenarios. The majority of the study’s information comes from selfreported survey data that was acquired via a smartphone application. This self-reporting strategy
does not offer a complete set of data as other approaches, such as observational research, could
produce a different set of conclusions. Finally, the study’s major outcome indicators for digital

89
literacy training are digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity. It does
not go into detail about other possible results that might be impacted by digital literacy abilities,
such as digital persistence. These delimitations are necessary to focus the study’s aims, preserve
its viability, and make sure that they can be accomplished within the constraints and context that
have been set. The study’s results make it clear what the study’s objective is and how much its
conclusions can be generalized to larger groups or contexts.
Lack of Internal Validity in the Study
A significant concern in this study is the potential lack of internal validity, which refers to
the extent to which the study can confidently establish a cause-and-effect relationship between
the interventions (Pauseitive app and awareness training) and the observed outcomes (cognitive
load, mindfulness, and productivity). Several factors contributed to this issue. The study faced
several challenges that might have impacted the reliability of its findings. For example,
participants came into the study with different levels of experience and comfort with digital
tools, which could have influenced their responses to the interventions. If these differences were
not evenly spread between the control and experimental groups, it would be hard to say for sure
that any observed effects were due to the interventions themselves.
Even though participants were randomly assigned to their groups, biases could still arise
if one group unintentionally started with higher digital skills, making it difficult to attribute
outcomes solely to the study’s interventions. There were also potential issues with how key
aspects like digital efficacy, cognitive load, and mindfulness were measured; if the tools used
were not sensitive or consistent, the results might not truly reflect the impact of the interventions.
Moreover, if the Pauseitive app and awareness training were delivered inconsistently perhaps
with differences in instruction or participant engagement, their effectiveness could have been

90
weakened. Lastly, external factors, such as the timing of the study during a stressful period like
exam season, might have independently increased participants’ cognitive load, confounding the
results.
Conclusion
This study has provided valuable insights into the role of digital tools like the Pauseitive
app in enhancing digital self-efficacy, cognitive load management, mindfulness, and productivity
among participants. Rooted in Dewey’s (1920) theory of learning by doing, this research
underscores the importance of experiential learning in the digital age. Dewey’s theory, which
emphasizes that learning is most effective when it is active and hands-on, guided the
development and implementation of the Pauseitive app as a tool designed not just to teach digital
skills but to do so in a way that engages users directly in the learning process (Dewey, 1920).
For the researcher and developer of the Pauseitive app, Dewey’s principles served as a
foundational model, influencing the app’s design to ensure that it is not just another digital tool
but a meaningful learning instrument. The study’s findings, although not universally significant
across all variables, suggest that the app has potential as a base model for pursuing mobile
learning solutions. This aligns with recent research that highlights the growing demand for
mobile learning tools that are both efficient and effective in fostering digital literacy (Hwang,
2014; Al-Hunaiyyan et al., 2017).
As we reflect on the contributions of this research, it is clear that the Pauseitive app could
be a stepping stone toward more sophisticated mobile learning applications. The integration of
Dewey’s experiential learning framework has demonstrated that digital tools, when grounded in
strong educational theory, can have a meaningful impact on learners. Moving forward, this base
model could be further developed and refined to create mobile learning instruments that teach

91
efficiently and enhance the overall learning experience. This study’s significance lies in its
potential to influence the design of future educational technologies that are deeply rooted in
proven pedagogical theories, ultimately contributing to the broader field of digital education and
literacy (Schlebusch, 2018; Sweller et al., 2011).
Recommendations
Given this study’s findings, several avenues for future research could provide deeper
insights into the effectiveness of digital literacy tools like the Pauseitive app. One key
recommendation is to explore the use of this app with a younger audience. The results suggest
that the cognitive load experienced by participants was not overly burdensome, indicating that
the app might be more well-suited for younger learners who are just beginning to develop their
digital literacy skills. Future studies could focus on evaluating the app’s impact on elementary or
middle school students, assessing whether the app can effectively support digital skill
development at an earlier age. This aligns with the research of Hwang (2014), who emphasized
the importance of introducing digital tools at a young age to build foundational skills that will be
essential in later education and life.
Another important direction for future research is the integration of the Pauseitive app
into classroom settings as a mobile learning tool. The study’s findings suggest that the app has
the potential to enhance learning outcomes by supporting cognitive load management and
promoting mindfulness. Researchers could examine how the app can be incorporated into
existing curricula to complement traditional teaching methods. This approach could be especially
beneficial in blended learning environments where technology is used alongside face-to-face
instruction. Al-Hunaiyyan et al. (2017) highlighted the growing role of mobile learning in

92
education, and future studies could build on this by investigating how tools like the Pauseitive
app can be systematically integrated into daily classroom activities.
Lastly, the findings from this study could inform the development of new curricula that
incorporate digital literacy as a core component. Given the importance of digital skills in today’s
educational landscape, future research could focus on creating comprehensive curricula that use
tools like the Pauseitive app to teach these skills in a structured way. Schlebusch (2018) and
Robinson et al. (2003) both underscore the need for curriculum design that is responsive to the
digital era. Researchers could explore how to best design and implement instruction that teaches
digital skills and enhances cognitive load management and mindfulness, thereby creating a more
holistic approach to digital literacy education. This could include longitudinal studies to track the
long-term effects of such instructional design and e-learning on students’ academic performance
and digital fluency.
The Future of Instructional Design and E-Learning
Instructional design is not just about efficiency; it is about making learning more human.
As the creator of the Pauseitive app, my vision has always been to create learning experiences
that are deeply engaging and emotionally intelligent. Since Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction in
1965, instructional design has focused on guiding learners through complex material. Clark
(1994) emphasized that effective learning relies on instructional design, not the medium itself.
However, with technological advancements, we are rethinking this. Studies like Bernard et al.
(2004) reaffirm the importance of instructional design, but research by Bozokohovski (2019)
shows that technology-rich environments can significantly enhance learner engagement. The rise
of AI adds an exciting dimension, allowing for personalized learning, adaptive assessments, and

93
real-time feedback. My vision moves beyond efficiency toward instructional design that is
smarter, emotionally engaging, and more connected to each learner’s needs.
With the Pauseitive app, I imagine a future where learning is powered by emotionally
intelligent avatars like Ella. Research shows that emotional design can significantly boost
engagement and retention (Um et al., 2012). By blending narration with emotional
intelligence, Ella does not just instruct; she motivates, reassures, and supports, making learning
personal and human. For example, when a learner is struggling with a concept, Ella might say, “I
know this is tough, but don’t give up! Let’s break it down together.” After a learner completes a
challenging task, she might offer encouragement with, “Great job! You’re really making
progress. Keep going!”
Incorporating Cognitive Strategies and Digital Literacy
Cognitive strategies, like summarization and self-monitoring, are crucial for deep
learning. Paired with AI, these strategies can seamlessly be embedded into the learning
process. Ella can guide learners through reflection prompts or help break down complex
concepts. For example, after introducing a new concept, Ella might ask, “How would you
explain this idea to someone else? Let’s take a moment to think it through.” Her feedback is
tailored to each learner’s progress, fostering engagement and retention (Goleman, 1995). If a
learner seems to be getting overwhelmed, Ella could say, “It looks like this is a little tricky. How
about we go over it one more time?” This approach ensures that learning adapts to the needs of
the individual, providing both support and challenge.
In today’s digital world, literacy extends beyond traditional skills. Learners must
navigate, evaluate, and create within digital environments. Pauseitive fosters digital fluency,
equipping learners with the skills they need to engage thoughtfully with AI-driven feedback and

94
complex data. As AI adapts tasks to each learner’s needs, it not only makes them more capable
but also smarter, more reflective users of technology (Norman, 2004). For example, Ella might
prompt a learner to explore a digital tool with, “Let’s try using this new tool to organize your
notes, how do you think it could help you stay on top of things?”
The Emotionally Expressive Narrator
What makes Ella unique is her ability to connect with learners emotionally. Drawing on
Damasio’s somatic marker hypothesis (1994), Ella uses emotional cues to guide learners through
difficult tasks. Whether offering reassurance or celebrating success, her emotionally responsive
design taps into the affective learning framework (Um et al., 2012). More than just a digital
assistant, Ella feels human. For example, when learners feel stuck, she might say, “It’s okay to
take a break. Learning isn’t a race. Let’s come back to this when you’re ready.” When a learner
successfully completes a task, she could respond with, “Fantastic! You’re doing amazing, ready
for the next challenge?”
Her tone, expressions, and emotional intensity match the learner’s experience, offering
personalized interactions that keep learners engaged. According to media richness theory (Daft
& Lengel, 1986), emotionally expressive communication enhances learning. By allowing
learners to adjust Ella’s expressiveness, whether they prefer energetic encouragement or calm
reassurance, she becomes a personalized learning companion (Astleitner, 2000). For instance, a
learner who enjoys more upbeat motivation might hear, “You’ve got this! Let’s tackle this next
challenge together!”
Human-Centric, Technology-Driven Learning
The future of instructional design goes beyond making us smarter. It is about creating
learning that is emotionally engaging and human-centered. By combining cognitive strategies

95
with emotionally intelligent avatars like Ella, we can create transformative learning
environments. AI’s automation of routine tasks allows learners and educators to focus on
creative and critical thinking, while personalized feedback helps learners reflect, self-assess, and
grow. For example, Ella might say, “You’ve done really well so far. Let’s take a moment to
think about what’s working for you and what we can improve.”
As the creator of Pauseitive, I aim to combine the power of AI with emotional design to
advance cognitive strategies. The vision is for technology to go beyond making us efficient; it
should help us become smarter. By integrating AI-driven environments with cognitive strategies,
learners can shift from passive consumers to active participants in their education. The future lies
in creating emotionally engaging, personalized experiences that empower learners to reflect,
grow, and think critically, leading to more thoughtful and engaged learning experiences.

96
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Appendix A: Measurement Scales
The Cognitive Load Scale assesses the mental effort required to process information.
Participants respond to the following statements on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4
(strongly agree).
The Digital Self-Efficacy Scale measures participants’ confidence in their digital skills.
Responses are on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).
The Mindful Awareness Attention Scale (MAAS) evaluates participants’ level of
mindfulness. The scale uses a Likert response format ranging from 1 (almost always) to 6
(almost never).
The Productivity Self-Assessment Scale evaluates participants’ perceived productivity.
Responses are recorded on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).

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Appendix B: Surveys
The following sections present the pre-test survey.
Items on digital self-efficacy (Dalius, 2024).
1. I am comfortable conducting online research using search engines to find information.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
2. I am confident that I can critically evaluate online information for credibility and
reliability.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
3. I can acquire digital skills on my own.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree

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4. I am confident in my skills to safeguard my privacy and security online.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
5. My overall digital literacy skills are excellent.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
Items on internal cognitive load (based on Leppink et al., 2013).
6. When using digital tools and technologies, I find them to be very complex.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
7. For me, using cell phone apps is difficult.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree

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8. The digital world requires knowledge and skills that I do not possess.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
Items on external cognitive load (based on Leppink et al., 2013)
9. The instructions for using cell phone apps are typically unclear.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
10. When it comes to learning, digital technologies are highly ineffective.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
11. Instructions and explanations in the digital world include language that is hard to
understand.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree

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Items on mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003).
12. I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.
• almost always
• very frequently
• somewhat frequently
• somewhat infrequently
• very infrequently
• almost never
13. I become so focused on my goals that I lose touch with the experience of the moment.
• almost always
• very frequently
• somewhat frequently
• somewhat infrequently
• very infrequently
• almost never
14. I engage in activities without really being attentive to them.
• almost always
• very frequently
• somewhat frequently
• somewhat infrequently
• very infrequently
• almost never
Items on productivity (Dalius, 2024).

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15. My current productivity level in managing digital tasks and responsibilities exceeds
that of my peers.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
16. Using digital skills makes me more productive.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
17. I accomplish more than my friends because of my familiarity with digital tools and
technologies.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
The following sections present the post-test survey.
Items on digital self-efficacy (Dalius, 2024)
1. I am comfortable conducting online research using search engines to find
information.
• strongly disagree
• disagree

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• agree
• strongly agree
2. I am confident that I can critically evaluate online information for credibility and
reliability.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
3. I can acquire digital skills on my own.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
4. I am confident in my skills to safeguard my privacy and security online.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
5. My overall digital literacy skills are excellent.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree

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Items on internal cognitive load (based on Leppink et al., 2013)
6. When using digital tools and technologies, I find them to be very complex.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
7. For me, using cell phone apps is difficult.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
8. The digital world requires knowledge and skills that I do not possess.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
Items on external cognitive load (based on Leppink et al., 2013)
9. The instructions for using cell phone apps are typically unclear.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
10. When it comes to learning, digital technologies are highly ineffective.

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• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
11. Instructions and explanations in the digital world include language that is hard to
understand.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
Items on mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003).
12. I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.
• almost always
• very frequently
• somewhat frequently
• somewhat infrequently
• very infrequently
• almost never
13. I become so focused on my goals that I lose touch with the experience of the moment.
• almost always
• very frequently
• somewhat frequently
• somewhat infrequently

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• very infrequently
• almost never
14. I engage in activities without really being attentive to them.
• almost always
• very frequently
• somewhat frequently
• somewhat infrequently
• very infrequently
• almost never
Items on productivity (Dalius, 2024).
15. My current productivity level in managing digital tasks and responsibilities exceeds
that of my peers.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
16. Using digital skills makes me more productive.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree

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17. I accomplish more than my friends because of my familiarity with digital tools and
technologies.
• strongly disagree
• disagree
• agree
• strongly agree
Items on demographics.
18. Gender
• female
• male
• nonbinary
• prefer not to answer
19. Age
• under 25
• 25–34
• 35–44
• 45–54
• 55–64
• 65 and older
• prefer not to answer
20. Race/ethnicity
• African American or Black
• American Indian or Alaskan Native

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• Arab American or Middle Eastern
• Asian
• Latinx
• Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
• White
• multi-racial
• prefer not to answer
21. Highest Level of Education:
• Did not graduate from high school.
• high school diploma or equivalent
• some college or trade/technical school
• trade/technical school certificate
• associate degree
• bachelor’s degree
• master’s degree
• doctoral or professional degree
• prefer not to answer

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study explored how developing digital literacy skills could influence digital self-efficacy, cognitive load, mindfulness, and productivity among Generation Z college students in Karachi, Pakistan, using the Pauseitive app. With digital tools playing an ever-growing role in education, understanding their impact on students’ mental processes and well-being is crucial. The study utilized a pre–post and true-experimental design, which divided participants into two groups (N = 60). One group received both awareness training and digital survival tools training with the Pauseitive app, while the other received only the digital survival tools training (Pauseitive app). Although the study did not find statistically significant changes across all areas, there were some encouraging trends, particularly in boosting mindfulness and digital self-efficacy. These findings suggest that while the Pauseitive app shows promise, its effects might not be strong enough yet to reach clear conclusions. Future research should explore different dependent variables and refine intervention methods to enhance the app’s effectiveness. Additionally, considering larger and more diverse groups of students would provide a deeper understanding of how digital literacy tools can be better utilized in educational settings.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Dalius, Kimberly Ann (author)

Core Title Digital literacy skills and productivity within the Pauseitive app

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-12

Publication Date 10/03/2024

Defense Date 09/16/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag awareness training,cognitive load,College students,digital literacy skills,digital self-efficacy,digital survival tools,digital tools in education,educational technology,Generation Z,Karachi,mental processes,mindfulness,OAI-PMH Harvest,Pakistan,Pauseitive app,pre–post experimental design,productivity

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hocevar, Dennis (committee chair), Maddox, Anthony (committee member), Yates, Kenneth (committee member)

Creator Email kdalius@usc.edu,kimdalius@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399BMIP

Unique identifier UC11399BMIP

Identifier etd-DaliusKimb-13573.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-DaliusKimb-13573

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Dalius, Kimberly Ann

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20241004-usctheses-batch-1217 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu