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Disciplinary systems in California high schools and their effects on African American males’ self-efficacy
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Disciplinary systems in California high schools and their effects on African American males’ self-efficacy
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Content
Disciplinary Systems in California High Schools and Their Effects on
African American Males’ Self-Efficacy
Donald Eugene English
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2024
© Copyright by Donald Eugene English 2024
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Donald Eugene English certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Kimberly Ferrario
Rudolph Crew, Committee Co-Chair
Marsha Riggio, Committee Co-Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
iv
Abstract
This study applies two theories along with scholarly research, instrumental in helping to
determine the effects of exclusionary discipline on African American males’ self-efficacy. One
theory to frame the problem of practice is African American Male Theory (AAMT). Another
theory utilized for this study is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (BEST). The
purpose of the study was to provide insight and identify strategies to address exclusionary
discipline, understand exclusionary discipline, and understand the challenges of exclusionary
discipline while making recommendations to reduce exclusionary discipline. The following
questions were used to explore the subject of African American males in high school and the
impact of exclusionary discipline on their self-efficacy: What are the influences of exclusionary
disciplinary practices for African American male California high school students? How can the
exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American males in California high schools be
improved using restorative practices? Data analysis was conducted simultaneously with data
collection during the interview process. The participants, directors of child welfare and
attendance, met the inclusion criteria, including that the interviewees are responsible for
discipline in their local education agencies. This method allowed for an exploration of
participants’ experiences in alignment with the African American Male Theory’s emphasis on
personal experiences and the ecological systems perspective. This study illuminates the
disproportionality of exclusionary discipline, providing models and strategies to enhance African
American males’ achievement and connection to high school and those effects on their selfefficacy.
Understanding the factors that either bolster or undermine self-efficacy can guide
interventions that aim to minimize inequalities and promote fair educational experiences for all
v
students. This approach necessitates acknowledging and challenging biases and systemic
influences that contribute to disproportionate discipline for African American males, advocating
instead for policies and practices that endorse fairness, equity, and a nurturing learning
atmosphere, ultimately allowing African American males to be contributing members of society.
Keywords: African American Male Theory (AAMT), Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Theory (BEST), exclusionary discipline, disproportionality, self efficacy, restorative
practices
vi
Dedication
To the many who have supported me when I could not support myself, I thank you.
vii
Acknowledgements
My life has been a journey of ups and downs, triumphs and failures, wins and losses,
togetherness and loneliness, but never without unyielding support from others. I could not be
more grateful, mainly for the opportunity to serve the community. The motivation for this
opportunity to provide a contribution to academic research, especially in a subject area that I find
to have an enormous need for co-conspirators, I have enjoyed.
I would like to thank my dissertation committee. Dr. Rudolph Crew, from our initial
meeting, you gained my admiration; thank you for allowing me to engage in discussion—you are
legendary. Dr. Marsha Riggio, you helped me to refine my topic and encouraged me to study this
problem of practice; thank you. Dr. Kimberly Ferrario, thank you for assisting me in staying the
course and providing guidance.
To my cohort members, I had to have done something right to be with all of you for three
laborious years. The relationships forged I will forever remember. I also want to thank Amir
Alavi; without your suggestion, this I would not have done.
I would like to begin by expressing my sincere gratitude to those who chose to be
instrumental in my upbringing, Leroy and Nettie Williams and Mamie Brown. Without your
love, I would not be in this position. I want to thank my father, Mozell English, for his Godly
leadership, his sharp wit, his ability to provide mentorship that was not emotionally driven but
solution based. I want to thank Sandra English for being phenomenally supportive, someone who
you can truly count on. I want to thank my boys, Donovan and Dorion, for allowing me to pursue
this endeavor by doing their part and being responsible. I want to thank my best friend, someone
that I am extremely proud of, that I admire and love, my twin, Ron English. Lastly, I want to
thank the individual who hired me in the business of education, Mr. Sherman Garnett.
viii
I want to thank the San Bernardino County Superintendent of Schools, Ted Alejandre, for
supporting my endeavor.
To the countless at-promise youth that I have served, continue to prove to others what can
be done, not what others think can’t be done.
ix
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication...................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xiii
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. xiv
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study.......................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 3
Organizations’ Context and Mission .................................................................................. 6
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions.................................................................... 6
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................... 7
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 8
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 8
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 11
Exclusionary Discipline: Historical Perspectives............................................................. 11
Influential Education Policies............................................................................... 13
Exclusionary Discipline and Its Effects on African American Males.................. 16
Student Demographic: African American Males.................................................. 18
Negative Effects on African American Males...................................................... 20
Systemic Organizational Barriers..................................................................................... 23
Lack of Diversity of Classroom Teachers ............................................................ 24
Disaster Capitalism............................................................................................... 26
x
Teacher-Student Dynamics: A Historical Perspective on Disciplinary Power..... 27
Current Models and Strategies.......................................................................................... 28
Culturally Relevant Teaching ............................................................................... 29
Culturally Responsive School Leadership............................................................ 31
Culturally Relevant Discipline.............................................................................. 33
Restorative Justice Practices................................................................................. 34
Theoretical Frameworks ................................................................................................... 35
Ecological Systems Theory................................................................................... 35
African American Male Theory............................................................................ 37
Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................... 38
Significance of the Study.................................................................................................. 39
Implications....................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 41
Overview of Methodology................................................................................................ 42
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 43
Interviews.............................................................................................................. 43
Participants........................................................................................................................ 44
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 44
Data Collection Procedures............................................................................................... 45
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 46
Validity, Reliability/Credibility, and Trustworthiness...................................................... 48
Ethics..................................................................................................................... 49
Positionality .......................................................................................................... 49
xi
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 52
Chapter Four: Findings................................................................................................................. 53
Participants........................................................................................................................ 54
Findings for Research Question 1..................................................................................... 55
Theme 1: The Disconnect Between African American Males in High School
and Their Teachers.................................................................................... 58
Culturally Relevant Teaching and Its Effects on Student/Teacher
Relationships................................................................................. 59
Theme 2: Disengagement from the Educational System...................................... 62
Theme 3: The Stage of Life Individuals Are In.................................................... 65
Discussion for Research Question 1 ..................................................................... 68
Findings for Research Question 2..................................................................................... 70
Theme 4: Disproportionate Disciplinary Practices............................................... 71
Theme 5: Colonized Education Systems.............................................................. 75
Theme 6: Restorative Justice Practices................................................................. 80
Discussion for Research Question 2 ..................................................................... 84
Summary........................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion......................................................................... 88
Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................... 88
Findings for Research Question 1: What Are the Influences of Exclusionary
Disciplinary Practices for African American Male California High
School Students?....................................................................................... 88
xii
Findings for Research Question 2: How Can the Exclusionary Disciplinary
Practices for African American Males in California High Schools Be
Improved Using Restorative Practices? .................................................... 89
Connection to Conceptual Framework and Problem of Practice...................................... 90
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 92
Recommendation 1: Implement Culturally Responsive Leadership .................... 92
Recommendation 2: Culturally Relevant Practices and Curriculum Reform....... 93
Recommendation 3: Develop Relationships With All Stakeholders/Community
Members/Education Partners.................................................................... 95
Implementation ................................................................................................................. 96
Limitations and Delimitations......................................................................................... 102
Recommendations for Future Research.......................................................................... 102
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 103
References................................................................................................................................... 105
Appendix A: Interview Protocol................................................................................................. 123
Appendix B: Information Sheet for Exempt Studies.................................................................. 129
Appendix C: Agreement for Consultant Services....................................................................... 132
xiii
List of Tables
Table 1: Participants’ Racial Composition, Gender Identification, Regional Location ................55
Table 2: Culturally Relevant Teaching and Its Effects on Student/Teacher Relationships...........61
Table 3: Disengagement From the Educational System................................................................64
Table 4: The Stage of Life Individuals Are In...............................................................................67
Table 5: Disproportionate Disciplinary Practices..........................................................................73
Table 6: Colonized Education Systems.........................................................................................77
Table 7: Restorative Justice Practices............................................................................................82
Table 8: Summary of Themes and Findings of the Study .............................................................87
Table 9: Connection of Research Questions to Findings and Literature .......................................91
Table 10: Recommendation Timetable and Staff Responsible......................................................98
xiv
List of Figures
Figure A: Ecological Systems Theory ...........................................................................................37
1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The problem of practice focused on in this study is the negative impact of education
disciplinary systems (higher expulsion/suspension rates) on African American male high school
students’ self-efficacy as evidenced by low attendance rates and low levels of academic
achievement. The ability of our schools to dispel this thought process of African American males
is a question that has been a point of study. When that is the mindset of young African American
males, how can these students have self-efficacy? Scholars like Willinsky (1998) have offered
ample evidence of the ways in which schooling has served the purpose of promoting an
imperialist view of the world that justifies colonization premised on European epistemological
supremacy (Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2013). School staffing continues to be a major
obstacle, especially in finding qualified teachers. According to federal statistics in the Schools
and Staffing Survey (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
2006), 34.7% of central city schools had difficulty hiring a math teacher, compared with only
25.1% of suburban schools. For African American males, it is difficult to receive instruction
from someone with these features when California Department of Education data show that, in
the 2018–19 school year, the most recent year available, only 3.9% of public school teachers in
the state, around 12,000, were Black (U.S. Department of Education, 2022). African American
males’ belief that they can have influence over the conditions that affect their lives is paramount
to their success, so why the lack of self-efficacy? This study sought to answer why there is a lack
of self-efficacy of African American young men impacted by education disciplinary systems in
California high schools.
The prevalence of exclusionary discipline is significant in the United States in general
and California high schools in particular. A number of districts have large numbers of Black
2
boys and young men who were suspended at least once. Some of these districts included
Sacramento City Unified (n = 887), Los Angeles Unified (n = 849), Elk Grove Unified (n = 745),
Fresno Unified (n = 729), and Oakland Unified (n = 711; Wood et al., 2018). The executive
summary of a joint publication report of the Black Minds Project (Black Minds Matter Coalition,
2022), an initiative of the Community College Equity Assessment Lab (CCEAL) at San Diego
State University (SDSU) and the Black Male Institute at the University of California, LosAngeles (UCLA), presents analyses of publicly available statewide data on the suspension of
Black males in California’s public schools. Some of the key results highlighted in this report
illuminate numerous disturbing facts. The statewide suspension rate for Black males is 3.6 times
greater than that of the statewide rate for all students. Specifically, while 3.6% of all students
were suspended in 2016–2017, the suspension rate for Black boys and young men was 12.8%.
The highest suspension disparity by grade level occurs in early childhood education (Grades K
through 3) where Black boys are 5.6 times more likely to be suspended than the state average.
Black male students who are classified as “foster youth” are suspended at noticeably high rates,
at 27.4%. Across all analyses, Black males who were foster youth in seventh and eighth grade
represented the subgroup that had the highest percentage of Black male suspensions, at 41.0%.
The highest total suspensions occurred in large urban counties, such as Los Angeles County,
Sacramento County, San Bernardino County, Riverside County, and Contra Costa County. In
fact, these five counties alone account for 61% of Black male suspensions (Wood et al., 2018).
The data suggest huge disparities in exclusionary discipline; however, that is only where we
currently sit. The clarity in understanding institutional barriers for African American males must
be assessed from a historical perspective.
3
Background of the Problem
Early scholars believed that Blacks and “Indians” were incapable of being civilized. The
dominant view was that schooling could provide the necessary curriculum to civilize these
representations of earlier forms of human life. Schooling was meant to make Blacks and Indians
more like their White teachers. The settler-colonial curricular project of replacement seemed to
happen organically, without intent, even though Indigenous erasure is the arch aim of settler
colonialism.
The education system, historically, was not designed for African American males. There
is disproportionality in how students are disciplined in American schools, driven by race.
Students being pushed out using exclusionary disciplinary practices have been disproportionately
African American, Latino, and American Indian (Gregory et al., 2010). The history of
exclusionary discipline practices may contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline due to low
school achievement. Research shows that African American students are more likely than any
other racial group to be disciplined in schools (Anderson & Ritter, 2018; Bal, 2016; Butchart &
McEwan, 1998; DeMatthews, 2016; Englehart, 2014; Fenning & Rose, 2007; Findlay, 2012;
Gopalan & Nelson, 2019; Gregory, 1997; Gregory & Mosely, 2004; Losen et al., 2015; Skiba et
al., 2014; Townsend, 2000; Walker-Dalhouse, 2005). The data are alarming, beginning in
kindergarten. In the past 40 years, especially in terms of school suspensions and expulsions,
there has been a huge disparity in discipline affecting African American males (Gregory et al.,
2010). Research suggests that African American students and their families are seen as
problematic and are disproportionately disciplined as a result of being of a certain race and class
(Gregory et al., 2010; Losen, 2011; Tajalli & Garba, 2014).
4
Historically, African American students have been disciplined more frequently and more
harshly than their peers of other racial groups. The U.S. Department of Education, Office for
Civil Rights (2016, as cited in DeMatthews et al., 2017) reported that, during the 2015–2016
school year, African American students were three times more likely than their White
counterparts to be suspended for the same or lesser offenses committed in schools. The historical
background of classroom discipline centers on assumptions, institutional practices, professional
habits, and cultural perspectives in decisions made by teachers and principals (Butchart &
McEwan, 1998).
A key influencer on school discipline focused on African American students is
missionary Samuel C. Armstrong (1839–1893), who founded Hampton University, formerly
known as Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institution. He contended that the greater degree of
a people’s virtue made them more civilized. He set out to prepare African American people for
success in America by increasing their degree of civilization and designing racialized
disciplinary structures and pedagogies specifically for African Americans in the South after the
Civil War. Armstrong’s influence led to the development of a new system, which was formed
and would remain in place until about the mid-1950s; it was known as progressive discipline and
classroom management (Butchart & McEwan, 1998). The foundation of progressive discipline
set the tone for punitive school discipline. Since the 1950s, there has been a movement away
from the social objective of school discipline to a focus on control over students’ behaviors
(Artiles & Kozleski, 2007). The goal has shifted from short-term classroom order to philosophies
addressing student discipline.
The literature indicates that educators have unconscious biases related to discipline.
Many administrators, throughout the United States, feel empowered to enforce rules and
5
regulations. Society’s view is that administrators are responsible for molding students and their
behavior. Office referrals, which lead to suspension and expulsion, are differentiated among
races (Skiba et al., 2002; Skiba et al., 2008). Skiba et al. (2002) found that office referrals, whose
foundation should be driven by education codes, are based on racial differences. In 2013, the
legislature approved Assembly Bill 420 ending suspensions for willful defiance in Grades
kindergarten through 8, yet more African American students are likely to be referred to the office
for defiance and noncompliance (Gregory & Weinstein, 2008; Skiba et al., 2008). The
suspension rate for African American students increased by 12.5% between 1975 and 2010 (Bal,
2016). In the United States, how behavior deviance is viewed in schools mirrors the way adult
behaviors are disciplined (Bal, 2016; Irby, 2014; Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015). Students who
are disciplined often or are targeted for discipline in schools have backgrounds similar to those
targeted for incarceration within society (Bal, 2016; Irby, 2014; Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015).
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, examined later in this paper, is important when
examining the exclusionary discipline of African American male high school students in
California because it provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the various
influences at different levels of the individual’s environment. By applying this theory to the issue
of exclusionary discipline, we can gain insights into the complex interplay of factors contributing
to disproportionate disciplinary measures for this demographic. By utilizing Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems Theory, policymakers, educators, community-based educational partners,
and researchers can identify points of intervention at different levels of the educational system.
This holistic approach is essential for developing targeted and effective strategies to address the
root causes of exclusionary discipline for African American male high school students in
California, leading to a more equitable and supportive educational environment.
6
Organizations’ Context and Mission
The organizations included in this study are local education agencies (LEAs) located in
the western United States that serve African American students in comprehensive high schools.
The purpose of many of the LEAs includes ensuring that all students are college and career
ready. All students are to be exposed to post-secondary options that lead to lifelong success and
becoming contributing members of society. This large collection of LEAs varies in size and
student enrollment. Although there are disparities related to location—rural, urban, suburban—
these organizations directly relate to the problem of practice, the lack of self-efficacy of African
American male students as evidenced by measurements in the areas of academic performance,
academic engagement, conditions, and climate.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to find a solution for/reduction in exclusionary discipline
(ED) in California high schools; to recommend a program/model/system/curriculum that
schools/districts can incorporate into educational environments; to drastically reduce ED while
providing the necessary resources to promote inclusion, achievement, and a sense of belonging;
and to provide insight and identify strategies to address ED, understand ED, and know what
influences ED. Brown (2018) advances one central argument: the social realities Black males
currently face in schools are endemic to longstanding racial discourses. This is consistent with
CRT, which notes that Black males’ experience is informed by a durable racial contract (Mills,
1997) in which the continuity between race-making that took form from the 1500s to 1900s is
directly tied to the implicit racial bias Black males today face in schools. Popkewitz (1997)
referred to Brown’s methodology as historicizing of knowledge. The method employs a history
of the present while providing a glimpse back at how ideas about Black males have been
7
constructed in a Western context over time. Brown utilizes Homi Bhabha’s (1994) notion of
stereotypical racial discourse.
The research questions utilized in this study include the following:
RQ1: What are the influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American
male California high school students?
RQ2: How can the exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American males in
California high schools be improved using restorative practices?
Importance of the Study
This literature review contributed to the notion that African American males, due to
exclusionary disciplinary practices, have a low level of self-efficacy. The purpose of the study
was to provide insight and identify strategies to address exclusionary discipline, understand
exclusionary discipline, and understand the challenges of exclusionary discipline while making
recommendations to reduce exclusionary discipline. Schools, communities, and states have been
working for years to reduce truancy through the implementation of myriad interventions. Some
intervention strategies are based in schools and operated by teachers or counselors; others are
court based, administered by judges, social workers, or other court staff; yet others are
community based and organized by local nonprofits. Some programs work with families; others
focus primarily on students themselves; and a few attempts to address structural school factors.
According to Miller (2007), there are hundreds of studies on programs designed to increase
school attendance; the problem is that very few are effective.
The fact that African American youth face rising rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide
is particularly alarming. The suicide rate among Black youth, which for years trailed that of
Asian and White students, has doubled since 2014 and is now twice the statewide average, far
8
exceeding all other groups, according to the California Department of Public Health (2023).
Twelve of every 100,000 Black 18–24-year-olds died by suicide in 2020. In 2014, the Black
suicide rate was about 25% lower than that of White students and 15% lower than the rate among
Asian students. Dr. April Clay, head of counseling and psychological services at California State
University, Los Angeles, said, “The data is absolutely not surprising.… Black students are in a
crisis nationally…. Many Black students are experiencing paralyzing anxiety and grief. It’s hard
to talk about, and it’s hard for them to find help” (Jones, 2022, para. 4).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The two theoretical frameworks through which this study viewed this problem of practice
are African American Male Theory (AAMT) and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
(BEST). The qualitative approach in this study was appropriate due to the length of the study
(short and longitudinal) and the participant group. A qualitative study was a valuable way to
answer my research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). What frames this study is that Black
students are disproportionately given more referrals as well as suspensions, expulsions, and
corporal punishment than other students (Skiba et al., 2014). The data collection method
included open-ended interviews with local education agency directors of child welfare and
attendance in San Bernardino County. I used participant group samples (interviews) to
understand this social phenomenon in an effort to determine meaning, contexts, and processes.
Definitions
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory: a theory that posits that an individual’s
development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the
immediate surroundings (e.g., family) to broad societal structures (e.g., culture; Bronfenbrenner,
1974).
9
Critical Legal Studies: a theory that states that the law is necessarily intertwined with
social issues, particularly stating that the law has inherent social bias (Legal Information
Institute, 2022).
African American Male Theory: a theoretical framework that can be used to articulate the
position and trajectory of African American boys and men in society (Bush & Bush, 2013).
Organization of the Dissertation
This research focused on examining the impact of exclusionary discipline practices and
restorative justice on African American male high school students within California’s
educational system. There is a notable gap in research regarding effective strategies for
addressing exclusionary discipline in high schools within the state, highlighting the urgent need
for a solution. I conducted semi-structured interviews with directors of child welfare and
attendance.
This research focused on the education system’s inability to adequately cater to African
American male students due to factors such as colonized practices, exclusionary disciplinary
measures, a disconnect between students and teachers, lack of culturally relevant methodologies,
and limited effective approaches in reducing chronic absenteeism.
African American males face alarming rates of failure in high school, evidenced by high
dropout rates, poor graduation rates, persistent exclusionary discipline, and the resulting low
socioeconomic status due to the lack of a high school diploma. My study’s purpose was to offer
insights and strategies to address exclusionary discipline, aiming to understand its challenges and
provide recommendations for its reduction. The research’s significance lies in recommending a
program or system that educational institutions can integrate to improve their environments.
10
The qualitative research questions delve into exploring the nature of educational
disciplinary systems for high school students in California, the impact of exclusionary
disciplinary practices on African American male high school students, and ways to improve
these practices through restorative measures.
The subsequent chapters include a literature review covering various aspects such as
school dynamics, challenges, the role of teachers and administrators, demographics, and the
specific challenges faced by African American male students in high schools, including
statistical data. The review also includes an exploration of education disciplinary systems, their
efficacy, influences on self-efficacy, implications, challenges, improvements, and successful
programs. It is grounded in a theoretical framework. The methodology chapter (Chapter 3)
details a qualitative approach to data collection using semi-structured interviews and an
instrument, including demographic surveys and interview protocols aligning with the research
questions. Chapter 4 will encompass the data analysis process, utilizing tools such as NVivo,
SPSS, or Excel. The research findings are discussed in Chapter 5 along with recommendations to
reduce exclusionary discipline in California high schools for African American male students.
11
Chapter Two: Literature Review
This chapter will review what the literature addresses as an exploration of exclusionary
discipline in high school public education, shedding light on its multifaceted dimensions and
significant implications. The historical context that has shaped the landscape of exclusionary
practices in education is evident. This exploration illuminates pivotal moments and policies that
have influenced the prevalence of these practices. With a lens focused on equity and social
justice, this review examines the disproportionate impact of exclusionary discipline on African
American males, including the factors that contribute to this disheartening reality. In addition, a
focus on the systemic and organizational barriers that perpetuate exclusionary practices is
reported on as well as what is hindering progress toward a more inclusive and nurturing
educational environment. To light a path toward positive change, an exploration includes current
models and strategies that are proving effective in reducing exclusionary discipline. This chapter,
thus, acts as a roadmap, guiding readers through the historical backdrop, policy influence, stark
disparities, and potential solutions surrounding exclusionary discipline in education.
Exclusionary Discipline: Historical Perspectives
Historically, racial segregation was rampant in U.S. schools, with Black students often
subjected to inferior facilities, resources, and opportunities. Even after the landmark case of
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruled that segregation was unconstitutional, de facto
segregation persisted through discriminatory policies, redlining, and unequal funding. A
relatively small percentage of schools were established in local communities serving those who
have been referred to as at-promise (formerly known as at-risk) students.
One of the key functions that education performs in hierarchical societies is sorting
people into their respective societal positions: owner, laborer, manager. Unfortunately,
12
education’s capitulation to the settler narratives of progress, upward mobility, and
exceptionalism have deterred it from protecting spaces for unruly, transformative learning (Patel,
2016, pp. 399–400).
Willinsky (1998) purports that schooling has promoted an imperialist view of the world
that justifies colonization premised on European epistemological supremacy. “Chartered
academics” throughout the 17th and 18th centuries occurred when small schools were
established in local communities, mostly by settler merchants. This establishment of Indian
schools within the context of what eventually became elite universities, such as Harvard and
Deerfield, was an assimilationist project. To “kill the Indian, save the man,” an ideology of
epistemological supremacy, involved widespread violence and abuse, ultimately serving as
models for the Nazi genocide (Toland, 2002). Some early scholars believed that Blacks and
Indians were incapable of being civilized; the dominant view was that schooling could provide
the necessary curriculum to civilize these representations of earlier forms of human life, which
was meant to make them more like their White teachers.
The history of slavery and the Jim Crow era greatly impacted the establishment of
juvenile courts and child-centered justice efforts, finding disparities at all historical markers
where records are available (Mallet, 2018). Historically, African Americans had limited access to
education during slavery. Most enslaved African Americans were denied access to formal
education. It was illegal in many slave-holding states to teach enslaved people to read and write
(Franklin & Moss, 2000). African Americans attended inferior and segregated schools under Jim
Crow laws. After the Civil War, Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation, including in
education. African American students attended underfunded and often dilapidated schools with
fewer resources and lower-quality instruction (Anderson, 1988). Discrimination and segregation
13
limited the educational opportunities for African American students. Many were denied access to
advanced education, and higher education institutions were often segregated (Gaines, 2006).
Exclusionary discipline practices can contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline
phenomenon, which refers to policies and practices that push students out of schools and into the
criminal justice system. African American males, in particular, are more vulnerable to being
funneled into this pipeline due to disciplinary disparities and punitive disciplinary measures
(Morris, 2016).
Influential Education Policies
The Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 set the path toward
equalizing opportunities for all students in American schools (Losen et al., 2015). More than 60
years after Brown, there is evidence that inequities in the educational system have become
greater and that unfair discipline policies and practices are controlled by teachers and
administrators. In an examination of policies affecting African American students and a lack of
sustained advancements in education, researchers reported that no advancements were made in
closing the discipline gap based on implemented policies: “We juxtapose historically noteworthy
progressive steps toward access and equity with recent indicators of backward movement”
(Harper et al., 2009, p. 1). Nelson (2008) noted that school policies are biased and make matters
worse in school and society. Biased systems lead to bias in schools and unfair disciplinary
practices.
U.S. schools put zero-tolerance policies in place to reduce violent activity in schools
related to weapons and drugs. Zero tolerance was designed to be a prevention program; however,
schools have focused on the punitive aspect and have failed to implement prevention programs
(Hoffman, 2014; Nelson, 2008; Simson, 2014). Schools that have higher rates of suspension and
14
expulsion have poorer outcomes on standardized tests, regardless of socioeconomic
demographics (Barnhart & Franklin, 2008; Simson, 2014). In the last decade, the punitive and
overzealous tools and approaches of the modern criminal justice system have seeped into our
schools, serving to remove children from mainstream educational environments and funnel them
onto a one-way path toward prison. The school-to-prison pipeline is one of the most urgent
challenges in education today (NAACP, 2005). The disproportionate discipline experienced by
African American males has been linked to the school-to-prison pipeline phenomenon, where
punitive disciplinary measures contribute to a pathway that funnels students into the criminal
justice system. This pipeline perpetuates systemic inequalities and can have lifelong
consequences for individuals’ well-being, opportunities, and future prospects. The overuse of
exclusionary discipline increases the likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system,
perpetuates cycles of poverty and incarceration, and limits future opportunities for these
individuals (Losen et al., 2012).
In California, Governor Jerry Brown signed AB 420, the first law of its kind to eliminate
the suspension of younger students for certain offenses and eliminate expulsion for nonviolent
school offenses such as defiance. The bill, signed in 2014, was a positive move against harsh
discipline practices and a step toward restorative justice for students in public schools (Englehart,
2014). This law limits the authority of a superintendent of a school district and a principal
regarding disruptive or similar pupil conduct by prohibiting a recommendation of expulsion for a
pupil on those bases (California Legislative Information, 2013). It would limit the authority to
suspend for disruptive or similar conduct to a pupil who is enrolled in any of Grades 6 to 12,
inclusive, who has substantially disrupted school activities or substantially prevented instruction
from occurring, only on or after the third offense in a school year, provided and only if the
15
pupil’s parent, guardian, or education rights holder has been informed that other specified
correction measures were attempted before the recommendation to suspend (California
Legislative Information, 2013).
The intent of the legislature to minimize the excessive use of willful defiance, among
other things, addressed the disproportionate suspension of particular subgroups of pupils and
encouraged schools to instead prioritize and use alternative means of correction (California
Legislative Information, 2013). AB 420, by eliminating suspensions for younger students and
expulsions for nonviolent offenses like defiance, likely had a positive impact on African
American male students in several ways, including reducing disproportionate discipline,
improving school climate, increasing academic engagement, and improving social and emotional
well-being (California Legislative Information, 2013).
In relation to African American males, the prohibition of suspension of students from
kindergarten through third grade for defiance and disruption eliminated a catchall suspension
category dominated largely by African American males and a large contribution to the discipline
gap (California Legislative Information, 2013). Today, the California State Department of
Education reports that this law has helped reduce the number of suspensions of African
American males from the classroom (Verigin, 2017). Governor Jerry Brown addressed the state’s
discipline gap publicly in July of 2013. He stated that the largest racial gaps are noted between
Black and White students (Frey, 2014). Black students received 10.1 additional out-of-school
suspensions for every 100 students enrolled (Frey, 2014). Although willful defiance accounted
for less than 6% of expulsions statewide in 2012–13, 43% of all suspensions were for willful
defiance (Frey, 2014). African American students make up 6% of statewide enrollment, yet they
comprised 19% of all willful defiance suspensions, according to the study (Frey, 2014).
16
Governor Brown’s statement urged state legislative action (Losen et al., 2015). California
passed Assembly Bill 420 in December of the 2013–2014 school year (AB 420), prohibiting
administrators from suspending students in Grades kindergarten through 3 for offenses under the
national suspension category “willful defiance” (Adams, 2015).
Exclusionary Discipline and Its Effects on African American Males
Within California high schools, exclusionary discipline has a profound impact and effects
on African American males. Consistent with previous research that reveals an overrepresentation
of racialized students among those suspended, Black and Hispanic students are roughly 28% of
the whole sample but nonetheless received about 45% of all in-school suspensions and 43% of
all out-of-school suspensions (DeMatthews, 2016). African American students were three times
more likely than their White counterparts to be suspended for the same or lesser offenses
committed in schools (DeMatthews et al., 2017). Non-Black teachers are 30% less likely to
expect that Black students will complete college compared to Black teachers’ evaluation of the
same student (Gershenson et al., 2015). When it comes to test scores, when Black students have
Black teachers, the effects are as follows: 3.1–3.8 percentile point effect for math, 1.6–3.1 in
reading (Dee, 2004). For exclusionary discipline, there is a 2- to 3-percentage-point decline in
suspension for Black male students assigned to Black versus White teachers (Lindsay & Hart,
2017). In addition, Grissom et al. (2021) found that minority teachers with minority principals
had higher job satisfaction and less turnover.
The causes of the disparities boys of color are served, starting in infancy and continuing
throughout high school, are complex and involve aspects at the personal, program, and societal
levels. Although implicit bias is the top factor, many educators have good intentions, and yet
they struggle to support boys of color to be successful in their classrooms (Darling-Hammond,
17
2015). Ladson-Billings (2005), in From the Achievement Gap to the Education Debt:
Understanding Achievement in U.S. Schools, discusses the historical deficit as it relates to
economic, historical, socio-political, and moral debt and its effects on achievement. Schools that
have been historically underserved have traditionally underprepared students academically
(English, 2021), lending to disproportionate discipline.
In the context of education, the term “warm defender” typically refers to a teaching style
or approach characterized by educators who are supportive, empathetic, and nurturing toward
their students while also maintaining clear expectations and boundaries. Warm defenders aim to
create a positive and inclusive learning environment where students feel safe, valued, and
encouraged to take risks in their learning. Warm defenders’ fear of not preparing students for
societal success also does not allow for individuality and expression of other forms of
intelligence to be developed among students (Fraser & Irvine, 1998, p. 56.). The school-to-prison
pipeline is evident as California ranks last in the United States for pupil spending versus
spending on prisoners (Anderson, 2018). Race and racism, coupled with classism and sexism,
have a profound impact on every aspect of the lives of African American boys and men (Bush &
Bush, 2018).
California Education Code 48900 encompasses a range of serious student behaviors that
may lead to disciplinary actions. This code outlines various acts, including but not limited to
violence, drug possession, and disruption of school activities, which are grounds for suspension
or expulsion. It is essential for educators and school administrators to be familiar with these
provisions, as they guide the decision-making process regarding student discipline. Education
Code 48900 sets the framework for maintaining a safe and conducive learning environment
while emphasizing the importance of fair and equitable disciplinary practices (California
18
Legislative Information, 2019) and helps ensure that students, regardless of their background, are
held accountable for their actions while also safeguarding their rights within the educational
system. The present study embarks on a journey to decipher the nuanced intricacies of Education
Code 48900, shedding light on the range of acts that fall within its purview and the implications
they hold for students, educators, and the broader educational system. The gravity of these acts
demands a response, often leading to the difficult consideration of recommending expulsion.
Through a critical examination of the educational framework, legal details, and ethical
consequences, the literature suggests a review of the delicate balance between maintaining a safe
and conducive learning environment while safeguarding the rights and future prospects of each
student involved.
Student Demographic: African American Males
The problem of practice focus in this study is the negative impact of education
disciplinary systems (higher expulsion/suspension rates) on African American male high school
students’ self-efficacy as evidenced by low attendance rates, low levels of academic
achievement, and high exclusionary discipline rates. Expulsions are defined in the California
education code, which is clear when using the terms shall and may relating to offenses that could
lead to recommendation for expulsion. Only the “big five” offenses—(1) possessing, furnishing,
or selling a firearm; (2) brandishing a knife at another person; (3) unlawfully selling a controlled
substance; (4) committing or attempting to commit sexual assault or committing sexual battery;
(5) possession of an explosive—lead to recommendation for expulsion. Yet African American
males are expelled, at the discretion of administrators, at a much higher rate than other student
groups. California Department of Education data show that, in the 2018–19 school year, the most
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recent year available, only 3.9% of public-school teachers in the state, around 12,000, were
Black (Anyon et al., 2014).
The persistent effect of race and the promise of alternatives to suspension in school
discipline outcomes have not been realized (Anyon et al., 2014). Little to no attention in research
has been given to the disparate impact school approaches to student discipline have had on the
STEM preparedness of particular races and gender groups (Jabbari & Johnson, 2023).
Consequently, inequalities in occupational status, and the nation’s security and international
competitiveness, are unlikely to improve unless educational institutions expand access to STEM
fields for the same race–gender groups that they disproportionately discipline (DeNisco, 2015;
Hirschfield, 2008; Kupchik, 2010; Perry & Morris, 2014).
The influence of California high school exclusionary disciplinary practices on African
American males’ self-efficacy is important for several reasons. Structural racism, unlike
interpersonal racism and racial bias, is not based on individuals. Sociologist Bonilla-Silva (2017)
explains structural racism as a form of racism without racists. Research consistently shows that
African American males are disproportionately subjected to exclusionary disciplinary practices,
such as suspensions and expulsions, in comparison to their peers. More than 60 years after the
historic Brown v. Board of Education decision, the legacy of racially separate and profoundly
unequal schooling endures for millions of American children (Johnson & Nazaryan, 2019). This
overrepresentation in disciplinary actions can have significant negative consequences on their
self-perception, self-worth, and overall self-efficacy. Structural racism is evident in public
policies that place communities of color at a disadvantage, such as redlining and predatory
lending by banks (Rothstein, 2017), unequal access to health care, healthy food, and clean water
20
and air (Gee & Ford, 2011; Wallace et al., 2017; Williams & Collins, 2001), and school funding
policies based on local property taxes (Baker et al., 2020; Darling-Hammond, 2007).
Negative Effects on African American Males
There are racial disparities in discipline practices in American schools. The discipline
disparities are problematic because they contribute to the racial achievement gap (Okonofua &
Eberhardt, 2015). According to DeMatthews et al. (2017), current school discipline policies and
practices perpetuate the problems. Harsh punishment for minor disciplinary infractions is often a
result of patterns of racial discrimination that have been historically embedded into school
practices. Noltemeyer and Mcloughlin (2010) state that discipline techniques applied to African
American students account for more than 25% of the variability in exclusionary discipline rates.
Literature since the 1960s has documented how African American students have been
suspended from school and received discipline referrals three times more often than White
students (Brown & Di Tillio, 2013; DeMatthews et al., 2017; Finn & Servoss, 2014; Hoffman,
2012; Rocque, 2010; Wu et al., 1982). Certain types of discipline involve limited discretionary
decision making by administrators. If a student possesses drugs or alcohol (one of the big five),
there is usually no room for subjective judgment. Dealing with insubordination (K violations),
threats, and in some instances fighting calls for principals to exercise their personal judgment,
which often differs based on the race of the student or students involved in the incident (Donnor
et al., 2018).
Exclusionary disciplinary practices can lead to feelings of marginalization, injustice, and
a sense of being singled out. These experiences can have detrimental effects on the psychological
well-being of African American males, including increased stress, anxiety, and a diminished
sense of belonging and connectedness to the school environment. Exclusionary discipline
21
practices, such as suspensions and expulsions, can contribute to psychological distress among
Black male high school students. Being subjected to punitive measures can lead to feelings of
shame, frustration, and anger, which can negatively impact their mental well-being (Gregory &
Weinstein, 2008). Additionally, the experience of exclusionary discipline can erode the selfesteem and self-worth of Black male students. The repeated exposure to disciplinary actions can
lead to internalized negative beliefs about oneself and undermine their confidence and sense of
personal value (Boccanfuso & Kuhfeld, 2011). A student’s physical well-being is also affected.
Black youth face rising rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide. The suicide rate among
Black youth, which for years trailed that of Asian and White students, has doubled since 2014
and is now twice the statewide average, far exceeding all other groups. Twelve of every 100,000
Black 18–24-year-olds died by suicide in 2020. In 2014, the Black suicide rate was about 25%
lower than that of White students and 15% lower than the rate among Asian students, according
to the California Department of Public Health (2023). With less in-person interaction, due to the
COVID virus, many adolescents identified the inability to physically gather with others as
distinctly challenging. This typically referred to friends and romantic partners but occasionally
also included extended and nonresidential family members.
Exclusionary discipline can contribute to heightened stress and anxiety among Black
male students. The fear of being unfairly targeted or disciplined, coupled with the disruption to
their educational experience, can create a stressful and anxious environment that hinders their
overall well-being (Anyon et al., 2014). Suspensions and expulsions, also known as exclusionary
discipline, can inadvertently contribute to the alarming issue of chronic absenteeism among
students. Currently, chronic absenteeism rates are higher than they have been in decades,
particularly for African American males. During the COVID pandemic, families—not only
22
students—disengaged from the education system. Exclusionary discipline not only removes
students physically from the learning space but can also distance them emotionally and
psychologically, fostering an environment where chronic absenteeism becomes more likely
(United States Department of Education, 2022). Over seven million students missed 15 or more
days of school in 2015–16; that is 16% of the student population (California Department of
Education, 2023). As educators, educational partners, parents, and community members seek
solutions to address chronic absenteeism, it is imperative to recognize the role that exclusionary
practices play in perpetuating this cycle and to explore alternative methods that prioritize
students’ well-being, engagement, and academic success.
The problem throughout education includes limited practices around reducing chronic
absenteeism, which has led to alarming rates of African American males failing in the K–12
educational system in the United States (Mertens, 1998). While rates of chronic absenteeism are
surprisingly high overall, there are some important differences across student demographics.
According to civil rights data collection for the 2013–14 school year, Black students are
significantly more likely to be chronically absent than their White peers (California Department
of Education, n.d.), Asian students are 1.2 times less likely to be chronically absent than peers,
and students with disabilities (IDEA) are nearly 1.5 times more likely to be chronically absent
than peers (Miller, 2007).
Exclusionary discipline practices can lead to disengagement from academics among
Black male students. The removal from the classroom and missed instructional time can result in
decreased motivation, reduced interest in school, and a disconnection from the learning process
(Mallett, 2018). The disproportionate use of exclusionary discipline on Black male students can
contribute to negative perceptions of the overall school climate. Feeling unfairly targeted or
23
treated can lead to a sense of alienation, distrust of authority, and a diminished sense of
belonging within the school community. Black and Hispanic students have less favorable
experiences of safety, connectedness, relationships with adults, and opportunities for
participation compared to White students (Voight et al., 2015).
Research consistently highlights the disproportionate impact of exclusionary disciplinary
practices, such as suspensions and expulsions, on African American males in California high
schools. They are more likely to receive harsh disciplinary actions compared to their peers
(Losen & Gillespie, 2012). Exclusionary discipline disrupts the educational experience of
African American males, leading to missed instructional time and disengagement from
academics. This negative impact on their academic achievement increases the likelihood of
disconnection from school (Mallett, 2018). Collectively, these factors contribute to lower
graduation rates for African American males who have been subjected to exclusionary discipline.
Recognizing this connection, education systems are increasingly moving toward restorative and
inclusive practices to address behavioral issues while keeping students engaged in their
education and on track to graduate.
Systemic Organizational Barriers
The overuse of exclusionary discipline on African American males can have long-term
negative consequences. Systemic organizational barriers may increase the likelihood of
involvement with the criminal justice system, perpetuate cycles of poverty and incarceration, and
limit future opportunities for these individuals (Losen & Gillespie, 2012). Within the realm of
education, a complex relationship of systemic and organizational barriers often stands as a
formidable obstacle to the realization of equitable and inclusive learning environments. These
barriers, rooted in historical, institutional, and structural frameworks, infringe upon the
24
aspirations of educational equities and hinder the full potential of students and educators alike. In
dissecting the layers of these barriers, this study investigates the structural foundations that
perpetuate disparities in educational access, engagement, and outcomes. We aim to unravel the
multifaceted nature of these systemic and organizational hindrances, shedding light on their
pervasive impact and fostering a collective understanding that paves the way for transformative
change in the educational landscape.
Lack of Diversity of Classroom Teachers
Although students of color account for nearly half of all students in the United States
(with the percentage increasing annually), 80% of teachers are White (Ahmad & Boser, 2014, p.
126). The prevalence of exclusionary discipline is significant in the United States. The U.S.
Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights Data Collection reported that “the rate at
which students across the country were suspended and expelled from schools almost doubled,
from 3.7% (1.7 million students) suspended in 1974 to 6.6% (over 3 million students) suspended
in 2009-2010” (Skiba et al., 2014, p. 550). While this is concerning for all students, Black
students are disproportionately given more office referrals as well as suspensions, expulsions,
and corporal punishment. The long-term consequences of exclusionary discipline practices can
lead to negative perceptions of school, school disengagement, negative academic outcomes,
significant dropout rates, and juvenile justice involvement for Black students (Skiba et al., 2014,
p. 554).
The disconnect between African American male students and teachers who don’t
resemble them contributes to disallowing academic growth, exemplary attendance, and overall
achievement of African American males in California high schools. The cultural disconnect
between teachers and students can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunication (Howard,
25
2001). African American students may experience a cultural gap when the curriculum and
teaching methods do not reflect their experiences (Gay, 2002). Teachers who are not African
American can find success by relying heavily on the radical love that Freire (1970) declares:
“dialogue cannot exist…in the absence of a profound love for the world and for people” (p. 70). I
will embrace dialogue and the creation of safe spaces for all in my community. Educational
practices must match the students’ culture, ensuring academically essential behaviors. Irvine’s
(1990) concept of cultural synchronization adds that interpersonal relationships between teachers
and African American males maximize learning outcomes. Brown (2018) attributes low selfefficacy to longstanding racial discourses, consistent with culturally relevant teaching and tied to
implicit bias. The permanence of racism and the form taken around Black males lead to the
education system’s predisposition to Black males being subject to implicit bias. Hotchkins’
(2016) research on how African American males respond to microaggressions shows the
experience of these students and emphasizes the negative sense of self and racial identity due to
White teachers viewing them as criminals.
Black teachers can contribute to an increased sense of belonging and connectedness
among Black male students. Black teachers can serve as role models and provide culturally
relevant instruction that validates students’ identities, experiences, and perspectives, fostering a
sense of belonging and promoting positive self-perception (Downey et al., 2019). Black male
students who have Black teachers may experience heightened academic motivation and
engagement. Black teachers can offer culturally affirming instruction, establish high
expectations, and provide personalized support that helps students develop confidence in their
abilities and cultivate a desire to succeed academically (Dee & Gershenson, 2017). In addition,
Black teachers can play a crucial role in supporting the positive identity development of Black
26
male students. They can provide mentorship, challenge negative stereotypes, and reinforce
positive cultural values, which can contribute to a stronger sense of self and greater self-efficacy
(Rivera-Irizarry et al., 2020). Research suggests that Black male students who have Black
teachers tend to experience improved academic outcomes. This includes higher achievement,
increased graduation rates, and a decreased likelihood of disciplinary incidents or dropout. In
examining the effects of race matching by students’ prior performance level, the finding is that
lower-performing Black and White students appear to particularly benefit from being assigned to
a race-congruent teacher (Egalite et al., 2015). Black teachers often have a deep understanding of
the cultural backgrounds and experiences of Black male students, which can inform their
instructional practices. Culturally responsive teaching can enhance students’ self-efficacy by
ensuring that the curriculum is relevant and inclusive and reflects their cultural heritage (Gay,
2010).
Disaster Capitalism
“Disaster capitalism,” a concept coined by author and journalist Naomi Klein in her book
The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, primarily refers to the opportunistic
exploitation of crises, disasters, or emergencies, such as economic crises, natural disasters, or
political upheavals, by certain individuals or entities to advance their own economic or political
interests. Hurricane Katrina, a disaster in New Orleans, served as an opportunity to dismantle the
existing public school system and replace it almost entirely with charter schools. In a particularly
incisive example of disaster capitalism (Klein, 2007), one immediate result was the removal of
hundreds of Black teachers—historically one of the most stable middle-class jobs for the city’s
college-educated Black population. By 2014, more than 100 schools had been shifted from the
local district to a state-run recovery school district (RSD). In the process, all 7,500 teachers and
27
staff in the local district were fired, and 78% of students were enrolled in charter schools (Huff,
2013). Half of the teachers fired have not worked for a public school in the state since, and the
percentage of Black teachers in New Orleans dropped from 71% before Katrina to 49% roughly
10 years after (Barrett & Harris, 2015). Interviewed years later, one Black teacher called the
decision to redesign the schools the “death of my career” (Mitchell, 2015).
There are a few potential connections in the context of K–12 education that elements of
disaster capitalism may manifest. The manifestation of disaster capitalism in public schools may
present itself by the argument that traditional schools are failing and that charter schools,
voucher programs, and other forms of privatization are presented as a solution. This often
illuminates disparities for those students traditionally underserved. Budget cuts also may be
implemented by the government, especially as education resources are limited. This could open
the door for private companies to offer alternative educational services. Technological solutions
also become an option during disaster capitalism, involving rapid implementation of new
technologies, replacing traditional educational methods. Lastly, labor can be exploited with longterm teachers being replaced with temporary or contract teachers, thus reducing costs for
educational institutions.
Teacher-Student Dynamics: A Historical Perspective on Disciplinary Power
The past two centuries of disciplinary power over students have dramatically reduced the
potential relationships between teachers and students to a battle of power and control in which
the student has no chance of winning (Davis & Jordan, 1994). Organizational goals such as
completing assignments, behaving, and maintaining school equipment are valued over relational
goals such as making friends and learning how to solve problems. Students must learn to value
the organization above their own sense of self (Butchart & McEwan, 1998). The disciplinary
28
values of schooling have taken the greatest toll on students of color, particularly African
American students. White middle-class values of strict organization, completion of a task,
independent work, and a focus on producing products that reflect a lack of creativity have stifled
African American students (Davis & Jordan, 1994). Delpit (2006) described middle-class values
in education as a way to maintain the status quo of power to ensure that it remains with those
who already have it. Culturally relevant teachings that are especially important for discipline
include judicious use of authority in the classroom, viewing students as extended family
members, and changing one’s perceptions about student achievement (DeMatthews, 2016).
Current and future school leaders must develop the analytic tools to critically question the role of
schools and organizational structures that maintain racism and White dominance.
Teachers often deprive African American students of the cultural codes that they need to
be successful in school. Teachers unfairly discipline students when these codes are broken
instead of valuing the students’ background and teaching them how to navigate the complexities
of the organization of school (Cross et al., 1989; Delpit, 2006).
Current Models and Strategies
Research has identified disparities in disciplinary policies, highlighting the need for more
equitable and restorative approaches. Implementing alternative discipline strategies that address
underlying causes, promote positive behavior, and provide support can help mitigate the negative
effects of exclusionary practices (Skiba et al., 2011). In the ongoing pursuit of educational equity
and positive student outcomes, educators, policymakers, and communities are actively seeking
innovative models and strategies to address exclusionary discipline practices that have long
hindered the growth and well-being of our students. Current models and strategies of
transformative approaches lead to the promise of reshaping student behavior management,
29
leading to nurturing learning environments. Next, this study will view the implementation of
culturally relevant teaching methods that acknowledge diverse student backgrounds, leading to
culturally responsive school leadership that fosters inclusion. The research extends to the realms
of culturally relevant discipline strategies. Further investigation focuses on relevant programs
and models that have emerged as examples of change, ensuring that all students, regardless of
their background, can thrive within supportive educational programs and services. Exploring
these strategies unravels the potential to not only address exclusionary discipline but also to
foster a renewed sense of community, engagement, and academic achievement among diverse
student populations.
Culturally Relevant Teaching
Culturally relevant teaching is a crucial approach to ensure the success of all students in
education. As noted by Ladson-Billings (1995), aligning education practices with students’
cultures is essential to foster academically significant behaviors. This approach recognizes the
importance of cultural diversity and tailoring teaching methods to resonate with students’
backgrounds and experiences. It does not mean that all school practices need be completely
congruent with natal cultural practices, in the sense of exactly or even closely matching or
agreeing with them. Culturally relevant education has several benefits. First, it enhances student
engagement and motivation. When students see themselves and their cultures reflected in the
curriculum, they feel a greater sense of relevance and connection to their learning. This
connection promotes active participation, deeper understanding, and higher academic
achievement. Culturally relevant education emphasizes the importance of developing culturally
responsive teaching practices that acknowledge and respect students’ cultural backgrounds (Gay,
2010). Second, culturally relevant education promotes social-emotional well-being. Valuing
30
students’ cultural backgrounds validates their identities and helps create a sense of belonging.
This, in turn, contributes to positive self-esteem, increased self-confidence, and overall wellbeing. Moreover, culturally relevant education fosters critical thinking and cross-cultural
understanding. It exposes students to diverse perspectives, challenging them to question
stereotypes and biases and promoting empathy and respect for others. Culturally relevant
education practices are areas of ongoing research and development within the field (Howard,
2001).
Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) is an engagement strategy designed to motivate
racially and culturally diverse students. Culturally relevant education prepares students for a
globalized world. It seems simplistic to think that students who feel marginalized feel
academically abandoned (Hammond, 2014), but the point of cultural compatibility is that the
natal culture is used as a guide in the selection of educational program elements so that
academically desired behaviors are produced and undesired behaviors are avoided (Jordan,
1985). Often, when working with marginalized youth, there exists a chasm that enhances the
disconnect between academic attainment and motivation. Irvine (1990) developed this concept of
cultural synchronization, which describes the necessary interpersonal context that must exist
between the teacher and African American male students to maximize learning. In conclusion,
education practices must be culturally relevant because they acknowledge and embrace the
diversity of students’ cultures, identities, and experiences. Culturally relevant education
empowers students, enhances engagement and motivation, supports social-emotional well-being,
promotes critical thinking, and prepares students for a diverse and globalized world. LadsonBillings (2006) discusses the historical deficit as it relates to economic, historical, socio-political,
and moral debt and its effects on achievement. Schools that have been historically underserved
31
have traditionally underprepared students academically (English, 2021), lending to
disproportionate discipline.
Ladson-Billings (1995) focuses on educational theorizing about the teaching profession
itself while proposing a theory of culturally focused pedagogy that might be considered in the
reformation of teacher education. Ladson-Billings (1995) worked as a lone researcher with a
group of eight teachers in a small (fewer than 3,000 students), predominantly African American,
low-income elementary school district in Northern California. The teachers were identified
through a process of community nomination (Foster, 1997), with African American parents (in
this case, all mothers) who attended local churches suggesting who they thought were
outstanding teachers. The study had four phases, phase one an ethnographic interview, phase two
teacher observation (unscheduled visited regularly for 2 years, three times a week), phase three
videotaping during visits, phase four teachers work together as a research collaborative, viewing
one another’s video to analyze and interpret culturally relevant pedagogy. Three broad
propositions that emerged from this research center around the following: the conceptions of self
and others held by culturally relevant teachers, the manner in which social relations are
structured by culturally relevant teachers, and the conceptions of knowledge held by culturally
relevant teachers. A limitation of the study is that, according to Ladson-Billings, her work may
be biased or at least skewed because of her vested interests in the African American community.
Further limitations include limited sample size and diversity.
Culturally Responsive School Leadership
Culturally responsive school leadership stems from ideologies that respond to diverse
school populations (Vassallo, 2015). Culturally responsive school leadership refers to the
approach where school leaders actively recognize, value, and integrate the diverse cultural
32
backgrounds of students and staff into the overall school environment and decision-making
processes. This leadership approach aims to create inclusive and equitable learning environments
where all students can thrive. Culturally responsive leaders engage in practices that foster
positive relationships, engage families and communities, and ensure that the curriculum is
relevant and reflective of students’ cultural experiences. The following are a few examples of
culturally responsive school leadership practices that are often discussed in the field of
education. Culturally responsive school leaders actively collaborate with teachers to ensure that
the curriculum reflects the diverse backgrounds and experiences of students. This might involve
incorporating culturally relevant texts, authors, and perspectives into lesson plans (LadsonBillings, 1995). Community engagement is something that enhances school communities.
Effective leaders engage families and community members from diverse backgrounds in
decision-making processes and school activities. This can include involving parents in school
governance or seeking input on policies.
Equitable discipline practices contribute to an environment where all students feel fairly
treated. Culturally responsive leaders work to eliminate bias and disparities in disciplinary
actions. They implement restorative justice practices that focus on healing and understanding
rather than punitive measures (Noguera, 2003). Professional development is key as leaders
promote ongoing professional development that addresses cultural competence and awareness
among teachers and staff. This can include workshops on understanding implicit bias and
implementing inclusive practices (Gay, 2002). School leaders actively recruit and retain teachers
from diverse backgrounds. This can provide students with role models who share their cultural
experiences (Capper, 2006). Student voice and agency is a main ingredient for student success on
school campuses. Leaders create opportunities for students to express their opinions and have a
33
say in school decisions. This can involve student advisory boards or other mechanisms that
empower student voices (Delpit, 2006).
Culturally Relevant Discipline
Gregory and Mosley (2004) applied five theoretical frameworks to develop their research
on culturally responsive discipline. The theory of culturally relevant pedagogy usually refers to
instruction; for this research, it was applied to the area of discipline. Culturally relevant
discipline is a transformative approach within education that seeks to address student behavior
while respecting and valuing their diverse cultural backgrounds. Culturally relevant discipline is
grounded in the principles of cultural competence and social justice, which recognizes that
disciplinary measures should align with students’ identities and experiences, rather than
perpetuating biases or cultural misunderstandings. By acknowledging the influence of culture on
behavior, educators can adopt strategies that encourage self-reflection, communication, and
understanding. For instance, restorative justice practices that focus on repairing harm, fostering
empathy, and building relationships resonate with culturally relevant discipline, as they align
with the cultural values of many communities (Noguera, 2003). Educators who embrace
culturally relevant discipline consider how cultural norms and communication styles might
impact students’ responses to authority and rules. The ability to acknowledge their gaps in
understanding of different student groups assists educators in viewing their own inherent biases.
This approach aims not only to correct behavior but also to empower students by acknowledging
their cultural identities and providing them with the tools to make positive choices within their
own cultural context (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Culturally responsive discipline recognizes and
values the cultural backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives of African American males. It
involves incorporating culturally relevant approaches, understanding the context of students’
34
lives, and promoting a sense of belonging and empowerment. Teacher education, whether
traditional or nontraditional, struggles to prepare teachers with the knowledge, skills, attitudes,
dispositions, practices, and worldviews to develop curriculum rigor and other necessities for
urban teaching (Milner, 2012).
Restorative Justice Practices
In societies where Western legal systems have replaced and/or suppressed traditional
justice and conflict resolution processes, restorative justice provides a framework to reexamine
and sometimes reactivate these traditions (Zehr, 2015). Some criminal justice systems adopt
restorative practices as a formal part of sentencing and rehabilitation (Zehr, 2002). Juvenile hall
students are exposed to these restorative programs. Restorative practices in Indigenous
communities have their own restorative justice practices rooted in their cultural traditions (Riley,
2009). Restorative justice practices focus on repairing harm caused by criminal behavior by
involving all parties affected, promoting accountability, and fostering community healing. These
practices often prioritize dialogue, empathy, and reconciliation over punishment. Below are some
key restorative justice practices relevant to local education agencies and organizations.
Victim-offender mediation (VOM) brings together the victim and offender to discuss the
crime, its impact, and potential restitution agreements (Umbreit & Greenwood, 1998). Family
group conferencing (FGC) involves extended family and community members in developing
plans to address juvenile delinquency or other offenses (Morris & Maxson, 2007). Circle
sentencing involves a group of community members and justice stakeholders in determining a
fair and culturally appropriate sentence for an offender (Griffiths, 2007).
Restorative conferencing extends beyond the victim and offender to include support
people, community members, and professionals in addressing harm (Van Ness & Strong, 2015).
35
Restorative circles in schools are used in educational settings to address conflicts, build
relationships, and create a safe and inclusive learning environment (Morrison, 2007).
Community conferencing brings together community members to address a wide range of
conflicts and offenses (Bolitho, 2007).
Theoretical Frameworks
Using two different theoretical frameworks can be important in examining issues of race,
gender, and social justice. Utilizing two theoretical frameworks, such as Ecological Systems
Theory (EST) and African American Male Theory (AAMT), is critically important in research
and analysis. Comprehensive understanding occurs when each theoretical framework offers a
unique perspective on issues related to race. By using both frameworks, individuals can gain a
more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities faced by African
American males within the context of broader societal and educational structures. Employing
both frameworks can help guide empirical research. EST looks at a child’s development within
the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment, while AAMT can
offer insights into how African American males navigate these systems in their everyday lives.
This combination can inform data collection, analysis, and the interpretation of findings.
Combining EST and AAMT can offer a more comprehensive, interdisciplinary, and
intersectional perspective on issues related to race and social justice. This approach can be
valuable in research, policy development, and advocacy efforts aimed at addressing the unique
challenges and opportunities faced by African American males in California high schools.
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s (1990) Ecological Systems Theory provides a framework for
understanding human development within the context of various environmental systems. This
36
theory consists of several nested levels, each influencing the individual in different ways. These
levels include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. When
examining how Bronfenbrenner’s theory intersects with the self-efficacy of African American
males, it is important to consider the unique cultural, social, and historical factors that may
impact their development. Considering the intersections of these ecological systems, it is crucial
to recognize the diversity within the African American male experience. Individual differences,
socioeconomic status, and other factors will also play a role in shaping self-efficacy.
Additionally, interventions and support systems should be culturally sensitive and address the
unique challenges faced by African American males within their ecological contexts.
When examining the intersection of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory with
the issue of exclusionary discipline for African American males in high schools, it’s crucial to
consider how various ecological factors contribute to this phenomenon. Exclusionary discipline
refers to practices such as suspension or expulsion, and it has been noted that African American
males are disproportionately affected by these disciplinary measures in many educational
settings.
37
Figure 1
Ecological Systems Theory
African American Male Theory
African American Male Theory posits that African American boys and men are born with
an innate desire for self-determination and with an unlimited capacity for morality and
intelligence. AAMT embraces resilience theory and vehemently opposes deficit paradigms,
thinking, and practice (Bush & Bush, 2018). AAMT, in alignment with my study, focuses on
understanding the distinct socio-cultural, historical, and systemic factors affecting this particular
demographic group. AAMT offers a targeted perspective that considers the unique challenges
38
and experiences of African American males within the educational system. AAMT illuminates
the specific factors contributing to exclusionary disciplinary practices that African American
males face in California high schools. This theoretical framework provides insights into the
cultural, social, and systemic dynamics affecting these students and offers pathways for
intervention and support to improve their educational experiences.
Conceptual Framework
The purpose of this study focuses on the need for a solution/reduction in exclusionary
discipline in U.S. high schools. The social realities Black males currently face in schools are
endemic to longstanding racial discourses (Brown, 2018). Education systems were not designed
for African American males but the opposite. This preexisting knowledge as an African
American male can lead to preconceptions and skew the study. The researcher must be aware of
this possible bias.
The stage of life that those individuals are currently in, referred to as the chronosystem,
or the dimension of time as it relates to a youth’s environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1990), is
plagued by African American males’ disengagement from the high school education system.
Other aspects of the chronosystem are evidenced by low attendance rates and low academic
achievement. Disengagement from the education system is directly related to the macrosystem
and cultural elements that affect individuals and everyone around them, in this case socioeconomic status of youth that do graduate from high school. The exosystem, although students
may not be active participants in it, is affected by the lack of culturally relevant practices of
education institutions, leading to disproportionate and exclusionary discipline practices or the
mesosystem. The exclusionary discipline is interrelated with other systems in the preliminary
conceptual framework. The microsystem for African American male students is extremely
39
damaging due to the disconnect between African American male high school students and their
teachers. These concepts will be further explored as they foreshadow the research that I gathered
in order to answer the research questions I posed. The study was intended to provide insight and
identify strategies to address exclusionary discipline, understand exclusionary discipline, and
understand the challenges of exclusionary discipline while making recommendations to reduce
exclusionary discipline.
Significance of the Study
The primary focus of my study was to recommend a program/model/system/curriculum
that local education agencies can incorporate into the educational environment aimed at
significantly mitigating exclusionary disciplinary practices. The aim was to identify essential
resources as well as foster inclusivity and a profound sense of belonging, specifically being
intentional about reducing the rates of exclusionary discipline and its negative contributions to
high levels of chronic absenteeism and low graduation rates among African American males.
Implications
Addressing the needs of African American males within the educational system requires
a conscientious response from school governing boards. Research has underscored substantial
disparities in disciplinary policies, emphasizing the necessity for more equitable and restorative
approaches. By implementing alternative disciplinary strategies that target root causes,
encourage positive behavior, and offer comprehensive support, the negative repercussions of
exclusionary practices can be significantly alleviated (Skiba et al., 2011). Moreover, it is
imperative to examine the impact of exclusionary disciplinary practices on the self-efficacy of
African American males through an equity and social justice lens. Understanding the factors that
either bolster or undermine self-efficacy can guide interventions that aim to minimize
40
inequalities and promote fair educational experiences for all students. This approach necessitates
acknowledging and challenging biases and systemic influences that contribute to
disproportionate discipline for African American males, advocating instead for policies and
practices that endorse fairness, equity, and a nurturing learning atmosphere (Skiba et al., 2011).
Restorative practices stand as an alternative to exclusionary discipline, centering on
repairing harm, fostering accountability, and cultivating positive relationships within the school
community. The implementation of such practices can aid in reducing disparities and fostering
more equitable outcomes for African American males, encouraging their continued presence in
the educational setting (McClain & Perry, 2017). By studying the influence of exclusionary
disciplinary practices on the self-efficacy of African American males, researchers, educators, and
policymakers gain invaluable insights into the ways these practices affect students’
psychological well-being, academic progress, and overall life trajectories. This understanding
becomes a foundational basis for developing interventions, policies, and practices that not only
create a more inclusive and supportive educational environment but also contribute to
dismantling systemic barriers hindering the success of African American males. The reduction or
elimination of exclusionary disciplinary practices against African American males holds
substantial promise due to the potential to improve academic achievement, decrease dropout
rates, enhance social and emotional well-being, and foster equity and social justice in education
(Gregory et al., 2016; Martin et al., 2012; Morris, 2016; Losen & Gillespie, 2012). Additionally,
the lack of culturally relevant practices is exacerbated by the entrenched positionality associated
with the disproportionate discipline of marginalized groups. This perpetuates a system that
prioritizes conformity over genuine learning, resulting in exclusionary practices (Douglas &
Peck, 2013, p. 62).
41
Chapter Three: Methodology
The research problem that I focused on and is evident in the high schools in California is
the negative impact of education disciplinary systems (higher expulsion/suspension rates) on
African American male high school students’ self-efficacy as evidenced by low attendance rates
and low levels of academic achievement. The necessity for this study in high schools in
California is due to the desperate need for a solution for/reduction in exclusionary discipline. I
utilized interviews in an attempt to understand and provide understanding in regard to this social
phenomenon.
The method I utilized is interviews with directors of child welfare and attendance. These
interviews incorporated qualitative elements by including open-ended questions with follow-up
probes as necessary. Open-ended questions allow respondents to express their thoughts,
experiences, and opinions in their own words. I ensured that my data collection methods were
aligned with my research objectives and the information that I aimed to gather. I was certain of
alignment of my research questions to the participants and setting. Using convenience sampling
(Christensen et al., 2011), while maintaining the characteristics of the people participating, is
how this setting/participant group was selected. The alignment also includes the daily practice of
leading pupil services, including disciplinary practices.
The research questions guiding the study were as follows:
RQ1. What are the influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices on African American
male California high school students?
RQ2. How can the exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American males in
California high schools be improved using restorative practices?
42
Overview of Methodology
The qualitative approach in this study was appropriate due to the length of the study
(short longitudinal). In qualitative research, the determination of sample size is contextual and
partially dependent upon the scientific paradigm under which the investigation is taking place.
Sample sizes as low as one can be justified as generalizations; however, many qualitative
researchers report that sample size is not an issue in qualitative research (Onwuegbuzie & Leech,
2005). Phenomenology, a qualitative research approach, is a 20th-century philosophical
movement based on work by Edmund Husserl (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). My phenomenological
research study was conducted through in-depth interviews with small samples of participants
(Creswell & Poth, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
My focus was on process, meaning, and understanding that I, as the researcher, am the
primary instrument of data collection and analysis. In my study, the gap that Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) refer to is the problem of how discipline systems and processes can be changed, leading
to greater success in African American male students. The purpose was providing insight and
identifying strategies to address exclusionary discipline, understand exclusionary discipline, and
the challenges associated with exclusionary discipline. I used applied research, undertaken to
improve the quality of practice of administrators (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) who apply
exclusionary discipline to African American male students. I incorporated evaluation research
and collected data on the value and effectiveness of disciplinary programs including processes to
“improve program effectiveness and/or improve decisions about future programming” (Patton,
2015).
43
Data Sources
In the qualitative research context, different sampling methods can be employed to gather
data. Convenience sampling involves selecting the most accessible participants, and, in this case,
10 directors of child welfare and attendance (CWAs), also known as pupil services
administrators, were chosen due to their accessibility. Purposeful sampling, on the other hand,
entails intentionally selecting participants based on specific criteria. In the study, districts with
higher suspension and expulsion rates in San Bernardino County were targeted through
purposeful sampling. A combination of convenience and purposeful sampling was also utilized,
encompassing all CWAs, and specifically focusing on those with higher expulsion rates.
Additionally, snowball sampling was employed, a method where initial participants or sites are
identified, and recommendations from them guide the expansion of the sample. This technique is
particularly valuable when exploring sensitive issues, especially those related to race, as it allows
for a gradual and participant-driven approach to sample development (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews
To gather information, I employed the interview method, but, unlike the spontaneous
exchange of views in everyday conversations, my conversations had a structure and a purpose
(Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015). Interviewing for research purposes is systematic. Its popularity as a
data collection technique is attested to by dozens of books on interviewing, including Fieldings’
(2008) four-volume series and a recent handbook (Gubrium et al., 2012). What is of vital
importance for the researcher is to use this opportunity to enter into another person’s perspective
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
44
Participants
The participants of the study are directors of child welfare and attendance (CWAs) who
are most accessible. One of the most common practices in qualitative sociology today is to
conduct in-depth, open-ended interviews. Sometimes, these are fielded on hundreds of
respondents (Lamont & Fournier, 1992); more typically, they involve a small number of
interviewees (30 or 40). It is in this latter case that the problems are more salient, since the
questions of generalizability are more obvious and the answers to these less clear. The
individuals that I interviewed, using purposive sampling (Johnson & Christensen, 2017), were a
small number and are responsible for training, implementation, and upholding of California
education code related to discipline of high school students.
Instrumentation
In the process of collecting data for this study, a comprehensive set of instruments was
employed, each carefully selected or created to align with the research objectives and conceptual
framework. The instruments chosen included an interview protocol and a survey. The rationale
for incorporating these specific tools lay in their ability to provide a multifaceted understanding
of the experiences and perspectives of African American males within the context of the African
American Male Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. The interview
protocol served as a tool to engage with participants, allowing for in-depth exploration of their
experiences. Open-ended questions (see Appendix A) are designed to elicit rich narratives and
insights, uncovering an understanding of the factors influencing the participants’ lives,
particularly within the ecological systems framework. The types of questions embedded in the
interview were designed to explore the intricate interplay between individual experiences,
45
familial influences, community dynamics, and societal factors, as posited by the African
American Male Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.
Data Collection Procedures
The data collection process was executed through a systematic and strategic approach,
aligning with the principles of the African American Male Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Systems Theory. The following logistical procedures outline the methods, estimated
durations, locations, and data capture techniques for each aspect of data collection. My procedure
for recruiting interviewees for my research included defining my target population,
administrators responsible for overseeing disciplinary practices in district high schools. I used a
consent form that clearly outlined the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, potential
risks and benefits, and the rights of the participants, including the fact that participation was
voluntary (see Appendix B). My primary form of recruitment was networking through my
professional networks. The participants, directors of child welfare and attendance, met my
criteria, which was to ensure that the interviewees are responsible for discipline in their local
education agencies. Each interview was estimated to last approximately 40 minutes. Each
interview was conducted in a private and comfortable setting to ensure participants felt at ease
sharing their experiences. Audio recordings were made, accompanied by detailed field notes to
capture nonverbal cues, expressions, and contextual nuances. This method allowed for an
exploration of participants’ experiences in alignment with the African American Male Theory’s
emphasis on personal experiences and the ecological systems perspective.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) advocate for in-depth exploration of participants’
experiences, and the decision to conduct interviews lasting approximately 40 minutes aligned
with this recommendation. The incorporation of open-ended questions during interviews also
46
supported the goal of capturing rich, qualitative insights. Although many researchers use a highly
structured or standardized interview, I used an open-ended, less structured interview method.
One method presented by Roulston (2010) that I employed is the neopositivist interview in
which a skillful interviewer asks good questions, minimizes bias through a neutral stance,
generates quality data, and produces valid findings.
The choice of language and translation services was guided by the diverse cultural
backgrounds of the participants, reflecting the commitment to inclusivity in alignment with the
African American Male Theory’s recognition of the intersectionality of identities. However, the
participants’ dominant language was English.
Data Analysis
My data analysis was done simultaneously with my data collection during the interview
process. Without ongoing analysis, the data can be unfocused, repetitive, and overwhelming in
the sheer volume of material that needs to be processed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thematic
content analysis (TCA) was used in this study. TCA is a descriptive presentation of qualitative
data. Qualitative data may take the form of interview transcripts collected from research
participants (Anderson, 1998). I used NVivo transcription tools (NVivo 12) to support the
transcription and analysis process. In the analysis, I closely examined the data to identify
common themes—topics, ideas, and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly. While there
are various approaches to conducting TCA, I followed this six-step process (Braun & Clarke,
2006):
1. Step 1: Transcription, Familiarization with the Data, and Selection of Quotations.
This is the initial phase of the thematic analysis process. It involves the transcription
of data and familiarizing oneself with it. Researchers dive deep into the content to
47
discern initial themes and important sections. They then select quotes that bring the
data to life and aptly represent diverse viewpoints and patterns pertinent to the
research objectives.
2. Step 2: Selection of Keywords. This phase involves close examination of the data, be
they from interviews, focus groups, or visual content. Researchers identify recurring
patterns, terms, or visual elements and designate them as keywords. These keywords
encapsulate participants’ experiences and perceptions and are directly derived from
the data.
3. Step 3: Coding. In the third step, coding, short phrases or words, known as codes, are
assigned to segments of data that capture the data’s core message, significance, or
theme. This step simplifies complex textual data by transforming it into a theoretical
form and assists in identifying elements related to the research questions. Keywords
play an essential role in coding, as they form the backbone of the analysis and help to
convert raw data into insightful, manageable units.
4. Step 4: Theme Development. Theme development involves organizing codes into
meaningful groups to identify patterns and relationships, thereby offering insights
into the research question. In this step, the researcher transitions from a detailed
analysis of codes and categories to a more abstract interpretation by creating themes.
These themes go beyond merely being recurring elements because they embody
patterned meanings that link the research questions and data.
5. Step 5: Conceptualization Through Interpretation of Keywords, Codes, and Themes.
This step, conceptualization, involves understanding and defining concepts emerging
from the data. Researchers identify social patterns and refine them into definitions
48
that align with their research. They utilize tools like diagrams or models to understand
the relationships among these concepts. The quality of these definitions is assessed
based on clarity, accuracy, reliability, applicability, and their contribution to theory
and practice.
6. Step 6: Development of Conceptual Model. The final step in the thematic analysis is
the development of a conceptual model. This process involves creating a unique
representation of the data and is often guided by existing theories. The model serves
to answer the research questions and underscore the study’s contribution to
knowledge. This step signifies the culmination of the analysis; it encapsulates all the
findings and insights derived from the data.
This structured approach allows researchers to systematically explore and interpret
patterns within qualitative data. The research findings from the TCA were organized for each of
the research questions. I selected quotes in areas that were most representative of the findings as
related to the questions.
I utilized the most common method to record interview data, audio recording of the
interview, ensuring that everything was preserved for analysis. I coded based on me assigning a
summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based
or visual data (Saldaña, 2013). I used color coding. Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) position is that
qualitative data analysis is primarily inductive and comparative, drawing heavily on the
comparative method of data analysis first proposed by Glaser and Strauss (1967).
Validity, Reliability/Credibility, and Trustworthiness
Critics of participant interview as a data gathering technique point to the highly
subjective and therefore unreliable nature of human perception (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I
49
became more reliable as a skilled observer by paying attention, writing descriptively, separating
detail from trivia, and using systematic methods (interview) to validate and triangulate (Patton,
2015) emerging findings. Along with training in becoming a more skilled observer, mental
preparation is important in becoming a good interviewer.
Ethics
Anticipated issues for this study included preconceptions of disciplinary practices. Who
should be disciplined (what subgroup)? When should a student be excluded from the learning
environment (severity of the infraction)? The design focused (comparatively) on districts with
high rates of suspensions and expulsion versus districts with lower rates of suspensions and
expulsions and the effects on African American males’ self-efficacy. Ethical considerations
included the following: What are the benefits/risks to the subject? Are the risks to the subject
eliminated (Glesne, 2011)? The study ensured that participants and subjects have beneficence
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1979) with benefits maximized and possible
harm minimized. The framing was based on the literature. The dissemination of the findings was
done to preserve participants’ anonymity.
Positionality
I am an African American male and hold undergraduate and graduate degrees. I earned a
bachelor’s degree from the University of California at Berkeley and a master’s degree from
California State University, San Bernardino. I am currently pursuing my degree as a Doctor of
Education at the University of Southern California. Based on my income, I am considered upper
middle class in the state of California. In this paper, I briefly alluded to my experience as a
student in the K–12 system and how that prepared me for my post-secondary education. I realize
that my development was hindered by historical, socio-political, and economic factors as a
50
young person. I attended what would be considered an urban K–12 school system that, I have
now recognized, was limited in resources, particularly a lack of academic opportunities such as
reading rallies and academic decathlons. I was environmentally stable in that I attended only two
elementary schools, one junior high school, and one high school. I was supported as an athlete
but not as a student. School personnel’s academic expectations were low, with a focus on
schooling and not learning. I was marginally engaged in the pursuit of “good grades” (holding a
3.0 GPA) but definitely not invested in true learning. Positionality can be perceived as a
reflection of an individual’s multiple social constructions of the self (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity,
biography) that often shape the outcome of learning interactions and relationships (Grimaldi et
al., 2015). As I reflect on my experience as a young teacher leader, I am drawn to an interaction
between African American male students and me, as an African American male instructor.
Dillard (2000) suggests that, each time a researcher engages in research, he or she is
(re)searching himself or herself all over again. I’m reminded that perhaps I was what was
referred to as a “warm defender,” a teacher of color “who provided a tough minded, nononsense, structured, and disciplined classroom environment for kids whom society has
psychologically and physically abandoned” (Fraser & Irvine, 1998, p. 56). My positionality was
to overemphasize schooling as opposed to learning, limiting those students under my charge and
placing upon them my definition of success. Currently, I serve in two capacities with the San
Bernardino County Superintendent of Schools (SBCSS). I am the director of a department
known as Children Deserve Success (CDS) in the Innovation and Engagement Branch. CDS is
composed of the McKinney Vento Homeless Education Program, the Foster Youth Services
Coordinating Program, and the Child Welfare and Attendance Program. Additionally, I am the
executive director of the San Bernardino Countywide Gangs and Drugs Task Force in
51
partnership with the San Bernardino County district attorney’s office, sheriff’s department,
probation department, children and family services, department of behavioral health, faith-based
organizations, community-based organizations, and the community at large.
My positionality in my roles of executive director and director has changed. I hold the
privilege of influence based on assigned leadership that Northouse (2022) discusses, which
includes legitimate status or formal job authority and coercive status having the capacity to
penalize. My position as director of child welfare and attendance enables me to adopt what
Macedo (2000) makes clear in describing pedagogy in his introduction to 30th anniversary
edition of Pedagogy of the Oppressed, where he points out that “education is inherently directive
and must always be transformative” (p. 25). I utilize my position to influence district local
education agencies (LEAs) in the areas of school discipline and attendance. As executive director
of the San Bernardino Countywide Gangs and Drugs Task Force, I facilitate what Douglas and
Peck (2013) explain as community-based pedagogical spaces that are “non-school based locales,
institutions, forces, or methods that have been/are utilized for educational purposes,” such as the
media, music, churches, barbershops, hair salons, sports clubs/fields, and theaters (Douglas &
Peck, 2013 p. 76). Strategically enacted to reduce youth involvement in gangs and drugs, my
positionality has shifted to include a much broader base that originated in serving students and
families to serving the entire community.
Education systems were not designed for African American males but the opposite.
Scholars like John Willinsky (1998) have offered ample evidence of the ways in which schooling
has served the purpose of promoting an imperialist view of the world that justifies colonization
premised on European epistemological supremacy (Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernandez, 2013; Tuck
52
& Yang, 2014). This preexisting knowledge as an African American male can lead to
preconceptions and skew the study. I had to be aware of this possible bias.
Limitations and Delimitations
Decolonizing qualitative inquiry for youth and communities (Tuck & Yang, 2014) is
necessary for equitable practices. These concepts were further explored as they foreshadowed the
research that I expected to gather in order to answer the research questions that I posed.
Convenience sampling does not provide the sample selected using specific criteria. Snowball
sampling has risks of not being able to include certain characteristics and qualities,
confidentiality (relationships with people suggested to interview), and, the last limitation, who to
begin with in the snowball effect (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Limitations of the Social
Ecological Model include lack of motivation for change in the environment. Changing lifestyles
can be extremely difficult. Not all diseases can be prevented. Many people are in denial and do
not believe they are at risk.
53
Chapter Four: Findings
The problem of practice focused on in this study is the negative impact of education
disciplinary systems (higher expulsion/suspension rates) on African American male high school
students’ self-efficacy as evidenced by low attendance rates and low levels of academic
achievement. The ability of our schools to dispel this thought process of African American males
is a question that has been a point of study. When that is the mindset of young African American
males, how can these students have self-efficacy? This study sought to answer the question of
how to affect the lack of self-efficacy of African American young men impacted by education
disciplinary systems in California high schools. The purpose of the study was to provide insight
and identify strategies to address exclusionary discipline, understand exclusionary discipline, and
understand the challenges of exclusionary discipline while making recommendations to reduce
exclusionary discipline. The following questions were used to explore the question of African
American males in high school and the impact of exclusionary discipline on their self-efficacy:
RQ1: What are the influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American
male California high school students?
RQ2: How can the exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American males in
California high schools be improved using restorative practices?
Bronfenbrenner’s (1990) Ecological Systems Theory provides a framework for
understanding human development within the context of various environmental systems. This
theory consists of several nested levels, each influencing the individual in different ways. These
levels include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. When
examining how Bronfenbrenner’s theory intersects with the self-efficacy of African American
males, it’s important to consider the unique cultural, social, and historical factors that may
54
impact their development. African American Male Theory posits that African American boys
and men are born with an innate desire for self-determination and with an unlimited capacity for
morality and intelligence. AAMT embraces resilience theory and vehemently opposes deficit
paradigms, thinking, and practice (Bush & Bush, 2018). This theoretical framework provides
insights into the cultural, social, and systemic dynamics affecting these students and offers
pathways for intervention and support to improve their educational experiences.
Participants
The participants included in this study consisted of 10 directors of child welfare and
attendance (CWAs), also known as pupil services administrators. These participants were chosen
due to their accessibility. The participants work in San Bernardino County, the largest
contiguous county in the United States of America. The participants ranged in service from 2
years to 30 years. The racial composition that the participants identified with included three
Caucasian, three Hispanic, and four African American. The gender identification of the
participants consisted of six males and four females. The region of the county in which the
participants served included five child welfare and attendance administrators from the valley
region of San Bernardino County and five child welfare and attendance administrators from the
Desert Mountain region of San Bernardino County. The detailed breakdown of participants is
provided in Table 1.
55
Table 1
Participants’ Racial Composition, Gender Identification, Regional Location
Participant Race Gender Region
#1 Hispanic Male Valley
#2 Hispanic Female Valley
#3 Cuban Male Valley
#4 Caucasian Female Desert Mountain
#5 Caucasian Male Desert Mountain
#6 African American Male Desert Mountain
#7 African American Male Valley
#8 African American Female Valley
#9 African American Female Desert Mountain
#10 Caucasian Male Valley
Findings for Research Question 1
What are the influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American male
California high school students?
The problem of practice focused on in this study is the negative impact of education
disciplinary systems (higher expulsion/suspension rates) on African American male high school
students’ self-efficacy as evidenced by low attendance rates and low levels of academic
achievement. The following themes that led to findings for Research Question 1 from the
literature address the disconnect between African American males and their teachers. The history
of slavery and the Jim Crow era greatly impacted the establishment of juvenile courts and child-
56
centered justice efforts, finding disparities at all historical markers where records are available
(Mallet, 2018). Although students of color account for nearly half of all students in the United
States (with the percentage increasing annually), 80% of teachers are White (Ahmad & Boser,
2014, p. 126). In researching the effects of exclusionary discipline, disengagement from the
educational system was, based on the research, the second theme to contribute to negative
outcomes for students who experience excessive disciplinary practices. The fear of being
unfairly targeted or disciplined, coupled with the disruption to their educational experience, can
create a stressful and anxious environment that hinders their overall well-being (Anyon et al.,
2014). The third theme, the stage of life that individuals are in, contributes to a negative impact
on African American males’ academic achievement and increases the likelihood of
disconnection from school (Mallett, 2018). Collectively, these factors contribute to lower
graduation rates for African American males and a lower life trajectory for those who have been
subjected to exclusionary discipline. The findings from the study reveal a comprehensive
understanding of the influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices on African American male
high school students as perceived by practitioners in the field. Practitioners drew upon a
combination of their personal experiences, education, and scholarly research to articulate their
insights.
The highest suspension disparity by grade level occurs in early childhood education
(Grades K through 3) where Black boys are 5.6 times more likely to be suspended than the state
average. Black male students who are classified as “foster youth” are suspended at noticeably
high rates, at 27.4%. Brown (2018) advances one central argument: the social realities Black
males currently face in schools are endemic to longstanding racial discourses. This is consistent
with culturally relevant teaching, which notes that Black males’ experience is informed by a
57
durable racial contract (Mills, 1997) in which the continuity between race-making that took form
from the 1500s to 1900s is directly tied to the implicit racial bias Black males today face in
schools. Popkewitz (1997) referred to Brown’s methodology as historicizing of knowledge.
The first finding that was inquired of the participants was background information. This
information was inclusive of participants’ cultural background, what ethnicity they identify with,
participants’ professional background, including how long they have been in education as well as
how the participants have matriculated to their current role and who may have encouraged them
to move into their current role. Was the move precipitated by someone within their current
organization or outside of their current organization? All the participants conveyed that there was
an individual who believed in them, which assisted their professional growth. This leads one to
question why educators don’t embrace the fact that they can provide mentorship, challenge
negative stereotypes, and reinforce positive cultural values, which can contribute to a stronger
sense of self and greater self-efficacy (Rivera-Irizarry et al., 2020).
The next finding shifted from exploring background information to organizational
barriers. Participants described various ways of administering discipline with no consistent
process. Additionally, every district was in the red (underperforming) on the California School
Dashboard, which measures positive school climate, due to disproportionate exclusionary
discipline of African American males. Organizational goals such as completing assignments,
behaving, and maintaining school equipment are valued over relational goals such as making
friends and learning how to solve problems. Students must learn to value organization above
their own sense of self (Butchart & McEwan, 1998).
Shifting from organizational barriers to social climate barriers, participants
overwhelmingly agreed that relationship building is vital to creating a climate that is more
58
prescriptive than punitive for African American male students. The impact on African American
males’ self-efficacy, according to the participants, is impacted by micro-aggressive behavior by
staff toward students. African American students were three times more likely than their White
counterparts to be suspended for the same or lesser offenses committed in schools (DeMatthews
et al., 2017).
Last, the focus shifted from organizational barriers to personal barriers. Participants had
their own barriers based on professional and personal influences. Culturally relevant practices
were commonly mentioned as a lens from which participants viewed some teacher interactions
with students. Understanding differences in others often depends on one’s past experiences
typically related to the culture that they lived through. The following section identifies each of
these categories as themes, providing a detailed analysis of participants’ perceptions.
Theme 1: The Disconnect Between African American Males in High School and Their
Teachers
Addressing challenging student behavior in California high schools was identified by
participants as being dependent upon teachers being trained in culturally relevant teaching,
relationship building and sustaining, and teacher-student power dynamics. The cultural
disconnect between teachers and students can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunication
(Howard, 2001). Freire (1970) declares, “Dialogue cannot exist…in the absence of a profound
love for the world and for people” (p. 70). Irvine’s concept of cultural synchronization adds that
interpersonal relationships between teachers and African American males maximize learning
outcomes. The research is in alignment with the findings that, in examining the effects of race
matching by students’ prior performance level, lower-performing Black and White students
appear to particularly benefit from being assigned to a race-congruent teacher (Egalite et al.,
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2015). Culturally responsive teaching is important for African American males’ achievement.
Culturally responsive teaching can enhance students’ self-efficacy by ensuring that the
curriculum is relevant and inclusive and reflects their cultural heritage (Gay, 2010).
Culturally Relevant Teaching and Its Effects on Student/Teacher Relationships
Culturally relevant teaching is an engagement strategy designed to motivate racially and
culturally diverse students. It seems simplistic to think that students who feel marginalized feel
academically abandoned (Hammond, 2014), but the point of cultural compatibility is that the
natal culture is used as a guide in the selection of educational program elements so that
academically desired behaviors are produced and undesired behaviors are avoided (Jordan,
1985). All 10 participants referenced the disconnect between teachers and students as a reason
leading to ineffective student discipline. Three areas that came to the forefront as reported by
participants for teachers to be intentional about include knowing students’ backgrounds,
relationship building, and understanding different cultures.
Knowing a student’s background is something that may require more of an investment
from a teacher, particularly when it comes to disciplinary actions. Ladson-Billings (1995)
focuses on educational theorizing about the teaching profession itself while proposing a theory of
culturally focused pedagogy that might be considered in the reformation of teacher education.
Often, there are situations that students experience away from school that affect students’
behavior when they are at school. Participant 1 stated, “Teachers should know the kids’
background, know the kids entirely, providing the intervention before discipline.” Participant 2
said, “I think the more informed you are about the individual student needs, the more likely
you’re going to say, ‘You know what? Yes, I know the law says I can do this, but you know
what this kid really needs this.’”
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Community engagement is something that enhances school communities. Effective
leaders engage families and community members from diverse backgrounds in decision-making
processes and school activities. This can include involving parents in school governance or
seeking input on policies. School leaders actively recruit and retain teachers from diverse
backgrounds. This can provide students with role models who share their cultural experiences
(Capper, 2006). According to Participant 10, “the power of relationships is the most important
thing that I’ve seen.” Relationship building was mentioned or alluded to by four of the 10
participants as most important. Participant 8 added, “What works well is building a relationship
with your student. You’ve got to make the students feel a part of your organization.”
Relationships mentioned throughout the interview process were said to be a major factor in
students remaining in school or dropping out. “It’s mostly the boys who will say, ‘Well, I don’t
like that teacher’” (Participant 7). Often, when working with marginalized youth, there exists a
chasm that enhances the disconnect between academic attainment and motivation (Irvine, 1990).
“‘That teacher don’t like me, so I’m not doing anything in their class’” (Participant 7).
Participant 9 added, “There are teachers who say things that are definitely inappropriate.”
When reducing exclusionary discipline, “we need to be training teachers on cultural
relevance, so they have a better understanding of how to approach students,” said Participant 1.
This can include workshops on understanding implicit bias and implementing inclusive practices
(Gay, 2002). Participant 6 shared, “The implicit bias aspect is very real.” One of the participants
relayed this bias when they shared,
I’ve had teachers, tell me, and obviously this is a long time ago, were like, “Wow, you
know you write really well,” you know, and I think what they were saying was that “You
write really well for a for a Black male.” (Participant 7)
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The need for culturally relevant training was further expressed by Participant 10, who
stated, “If students come into our classrooms with a different set of personal values, family
values, cultural norms, etc., then the instructor should take extra time for those connections to be
made.”
Table 2
Culturally Relevant Teaching and Its Effects on Student/Teacher Relationships
Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“Teachers should know the kids background, know the kids
entirely, providing the intervention before discipline.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“We need to be training teachers on cultural relevance, so they
have a better understanding of how to approach students.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“The power of relationships is the most important thing that
I’ve seen.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“If students come into our classrooms with a different set of
personal values, family values, cultural norms, etc., then the
instructor should take extra time for those connections to be
made.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P2)
“I think the more informed you are about the individual
student needs, the more likely you’re going to say. You know
what? Yes, I know the law says I can do this, but you know
what this kid really needs this.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P6)
“The implicit bias aspect is very real.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“I’ve had teachers, tell me, and obviously this is a long time
ago, were like, ‘Wow, you know you write really well,’ you
know, and I think what they were saying was that ‘You write
really well for a for a Black male.’”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P8)
“What works well is building a relationship with your student.
You’ve got to make the students feel a part of your
organization.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“It’s mostly the boys who will say, well, I don’t like that
teacher. That teachers don’t like me, so I’m not doing
anything in their class.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“There are teachers who say things that are definitely
inappropriate.”
Theme 2: Disengagement from the Educational System
In researching the effects of exclusionary discipline, disengagement from the educational
system was considered, by participants in the study, to contribute to this outcome for students
who experience excessive disciplinary practices. Exclusionary discipline disrupts the educational
experience of African American males, leading to missed instructional time and disengagement
from academics. This negative impact on their academic achievement increases the likelihood of
disconnection from school (Mallett, 2018). Students who are excluded via disciplinary action
often experience this action multiple times. Participant 1 shared, “Some students continue to get
in trouble because supported measures are not put in place to have corrective behavior.”
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According to Participant 8, “You’ve got to build that culture for the student to say, ‘This is my
school, this is where I belong, I want to be here.’” Participant 9 shared,
As long as you continue to make them feel like they’re not wanted or have a sense of
belonging, then, of course, that’s going to translate into me not feeling academically,
physically, emotionally connected to school, and which is going to translate into I don’t
want to be in school, which is going to lead to attendance issues which will also lead into
discipline issues.
Black and Hispanic students have less favorable experiences of safety, connectedness,
relationships with adults, and opportunities for participation compared to White students (Voight
et al., 2015). When African American males experience exclusionary discipline and are removed
from the campus, they often don’t want to return. Participant 10 advised, “It’s important that
when we do receive these students back, that we take a moment to restore the relationship they
still deserve to have a sense of belonging in our schools.” Our personnel must be aware of our
impact on student engagement within the educational system. Participant 2 stated, “We need to
be making sure our front line, our secretaries, our guidance staff, etc. welcomes our families and
provides them the support that they may need along the way.” Addressing African American
males’ disengagement from the educational system, Participant 7 said,
I would say, part of that stems from not feeling like you’re a part of the school, not
feeling like you’re a part of the community if you are feeling like you’re being treated
unfairly if you feel like well, I’m going to get suspended anyway, they’re not doing this
to the other people. Then I think, the attitude, maybe why try.
The school-to-prison pipeline is one of the most urgent challenges in education today
(NAACP, 2005). Participant 9 related, “You’re letting them off campus for 3 days at a time to
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vape at home, like what is the point? You should have them at school.” According to civil rights
data collection for the 2013–14 school year, Black students are significantly more likely to be
chronically absent than their White peers (California Department of Education, n.d.). The
overuse of exclusionary discipline increases the likelihood of involvement with the criminal
justice system, perpetuates cycles of poverty and incarceration, and limits future opportunities
for these individuals (Losen et al., 2012).
Table 3
Disengagement From the Educational System
Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“Some students continue to get in trouble because supported
measures are not put in place to have corrective behavior.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P8)
“You’ve got to build that culture for the student to say, ‘This is
my school. This is where I belong. I want to be here.’”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“It’s important that when we do receive these students back,
that we take a moment to restore the relationship they still
deserve to have a sense of belonging in our schools.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“As long as you continue to make them feel like they’re not
wanted or have a sense of belonging. Then, of course, that’s
going to translate into me not feeling academically, physically,
emotionally connected to school, and which is going to
translate into I don’t want to be in school, which is going to
lead to attendance issues which will also lead into discipline
issues.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P2)
“We need to be making sure our front line, our secretaries, our
guidance staff welcomes our families and provides them the
support that they may need along the way.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“So, then they’ll tend to fall behind, so that it creates this loop
because of the suspension, not because of their ability.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“Attendance and academic achievement go hand in hand.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P8)
“You’ve got to build that culture for the student to say, ‘This is
my school. This is where I belong. I want to be here.’”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“Like I would say, part of that stems from not feeling like
you’re a part of the school, not feeling like you’re a part of the
community, if you are feeling like you’re being treated
unfairly, if you feel like, ‘Well, I’m going to get suspended.
Anyway, they’re not doing this to the other people.’ Then I
think, the attitude, maybe why try.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9 Mountain)
“You’re letting them off campus for 3 days at a time to vape at
home like what is the point? You should have them at school.”
Theme 3: The Stage of Life Individuals Are In
Bronfenbrenner’s (1990) Ecological Systems Theory (BEST) provides a framework for
understanding human development within the context of various environmental systems. The
chronosystem contributes to the notion that negative external events affect and contribute to poor
66
educational outcomes when students experience exclusionary discipline. AAMT embraces
resilience theory and vehemently opposes deficit paradigms, thinking, and practice (Bush &
Bush, 2018). Participant 10 said,
We need to take that balanced approach to continuing to understand what the research is
telling us on the negative impacts of exclusionary discipline and balance that out with our
need to effectively prepare all our youth for their journey into society and into adult and
responsible adulthood, and of course, safety on campus is paramount.
The data are alarming, beginning in kindergarten. In the past 40 years, especially in terms
of school suspensions and expulsions, there has been a huge disparity in discipline affecting
African American males (Gregory et al., 2010). Participant 8 relayed that, at a stage in her life,
some individual helped her mature: “going back to your career, my career somewhere along the
line, people told us you can.” Participant 3 said that students often say, “I’m now going to prove
that’s so, now I’m going to prove your narrative,” meaning African American boys in high
school. In addition, Participant 10 observed African American boys saying, “‘I have to put up a
front because the homies are going to think that or this’ (according to students), and so then you
have them kind of retracting and not showing their full potential.” The stage of life that those
individuals are currently in, referred to as the chronosystem, or the dimension of time as it relates
to a youth’s environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1990), is plagued by African American males’
disengagement from the high school education system. Students at certain ages feel that
impressing their peers is paramount. The BEST framework supports, along with Participant 1,
that “Most of the kids that are going to create the most discipline issues are the kids that have
adverse childhood experiences [ACES].” Black males who were foster youth in seventh and
eighth grade represented the subgroup that had the highest percentage of Black male
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suspensions, at 41.0%. The highest total suspensions occurred in large urban counties, such as
Los Angeles County, Sacramento County, San Bernardino County, Riverside County, and
Contra Costa County. In fact, these five counties alone account for 61% of Black male
suspensions (Wood et al., 2018). Participant 6, in discussing stage-of-life issues that occur in
communities, said, “There are some race relation issues from time to time between folks of
African ancestry and folks of Latin ancestry.”
Table 4
The Stage of Life Individuals Are In
Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“We need to take that balanced approach to continuing to
understand what the research is telling us on the negative
impacts of exclusionary discipline and balance that out with
our need to effectively prepare all our youth for their journey
into society and into adult and responsible adulthood. And of
course, safety on campus is paramount.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P8)
“Going back to your career, my career somewhere along the
line, people told us you can.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“‘I’m now going to prove that’s so, now I’m going to prove
your narrative’ (African American boys) in high school.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“Most of the kids that are going to create the most discipline
issues are the kids that have adverse childhood experiences.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P6)
“There are some race relation issues from time to time between
folks of African ancestry and folks of Latin ancestry.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“‘I have to put up a front because the homies are going to think
that or this’ (according to students), and so then you have them
kind of retracting and not showing their full potential.”
Discussion for Research Question 1
The combination of practitioners’ opinions, experiences, and education while using
scholarly research to frame verbal responses has contributed to a greater understanding of the
influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices on African American male high school students.
The background information of the participants was affected by prior professional and personal
experiences. The cultural, socio-economic, educational, professional, and ethnic backgrounds of
the participants, according to their responses, has had an impact on their work as child welfare
and attendance/pupil services school administrators.
When addressing issues of school discipline from an organizational lens, the participants
agreed almost universally that relationships are most important when attempting to change
behavior. The relationship between teachers and their students was necessary for African
American male high school students’ success. Being intentional about knowing and
understanding African American male student backgrounds was an element for success that
required additional effort for some teachers. Participants acknowledged that, the more informed
teachers are about individual students, the more responsive teachers can be to student needs.
Culturally relevant education emphasizes the importance of developing culturally responsive
teaching practices that acknowledge and respect students’ cultural backgrounds (Gay, 2010).
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Participants mentioned that the interest in student backgrounds builds trust and contributes to
increased academic achievement.
Social climate barriers, as conveyed by participants, relied almost solely on relationship
building and sustaining. A sense of belonging and inclusion assisted students in remaining
engaged in the educational system. Effective educators engage families and community members
from diverse backgrounds in decision-making processes and school activities. This can include
involving parents in school governance or seeking input on policies. Implementing alternative
discipline strategies that address underlying causes, promote positive behavior, and provide
support can help mitigate the negative effects of exclusionary practices (Skiba et al., 2011). The
importance of utilizing such strategies is due to the participants acknowledging that, when
African American males experience exclusionary discipline and are removed from the learning
environment, they often don’t want to return.
Personal influences, culturally relevant trainings, background and upbringings, and
societal experiences all contribute to educators’ responses to discipline of African American
male high school students. Participants point to the need for educators to embrace the research on
the impacts of exclusionary discipline and understand the need to effectively prepare our youth
for society and responsible adulthood. As a system, participants pointed to schools that had a
climate that encouraged student differences, while allowing for student growth. Culturally
responsive school leadership stems from ideologies that respond to diverse school populations
(Vassallo, 2015). Culturally responsive schools engage in practices and approaches that integrate
the diverse cultural backgrounds of students and staff. This inclusive approach is aimed at
including the overall school environment in the decision-making process schoolwide.
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Participants in correlation with the research understand, based on their interview
responses, the effects of exclusionary discipline that weaken the opportunity for African
American male high school students to be successful. Culturally relevant training, whether that
be in discipline, leadership, or teaching, when implemented, allows for the development of
knowledge, skills, attitudes, dispositions, practices, and other necessities to assist in the
development of African American males in high school, contributing to greater impacts on
society, school and community relationships, and success rates for all students.
Findings for Research Question 2
How can the exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American males in
California high schools be improved using restorative practices?
Interview findings, as related by research participants, emphasized three areas of need to
address exclusionary disciplinary practices by using restorative practices. The first theme that
participants repeated in interviews was the amount of disproportionate disciplinary practices
endured by African American males in California high schools. African American students were
three times more likely than their White counterparts to be suspended for the same or lesser
offenses committed in schools (DeMatthews et al., 2017). The focus on reducing exclusionary
discipline was also acknowledged by participants, noting that reducing exclusionary discipline
for all student groups should reflect a reduction of African American male suspensions.
The second area of need in reducing exclusionary disciplinary practices is dismantling
colonized educational systems. Historically, racial segregation was rampant in U.S. schools, with
Black students often subjected to inferior facilities, resources, and opportunities, even after the
landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Unfortunately, education’s capitulation to
the settler narratives of progress, upward mobility, and exceptionalism has deterred it from
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protecting spaces for unruly, transformative learning (Patel, 2016, pp. 399–400). This system
emphasizes students conforming to the system versus the system addressing student needs.
The third area emphasized was using restorative practices. Restorative justice practices
focus on repairing harm caused by criminal behavior by involving all parties affected, promoting
accountability, and fostering community healing. Restorative circles in schools are used in
educational settings to address conflicts, build relationships, and create a safe and inclusive
learning environment (Morrison, 2007). “In times of conflict, trust is built,” as one of the
participants mentioned during our interview.
The next section will detail participants’ answers, offering themes from interviews while
analyzing the interview responses.
Theme 4: Disproportionate Disciplinary Practices
Research shows that African American students are more likely than any other racial
group to be disciplined in schools (Anderson & Ritter, 2018; Bal, 2016; Butchart & McEwan,
1998; DeMatthews, 2016; Englehart, 2014; Fenning & Rose, 2007; Findlay, 2012; Gopalan &
Nelson, 2019; Gregory, 1997; Gregory & Mosely, 2004; Losen et al., 2015; Skiba et al., 2014;
Townsend, 2000; Walker-Dalhouse, 2005). Most participants shared that African American
males are suspended at a higher rate in their school district than other student groups. Often, the
disciplinary action leads to a disproportionate amount of African American male high school
students being referred to special education classes. Research suggests that African American
students and their families are seen as problematic and are disproportionately disciplined as a
result of being of a certain race and class (Gregory et al., 2010; Losen, 2011; Tajalli & Garba,
2014). Participant 4 shared, “31% of our kids in our expulsion school are special ed, 94% are
students of color; 76% are male—they are receiving more punitive discipline, more exclusionary
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discipline than other students.” Participant 1 stated, “Unfortunately, we still suspend at a
disproportionate rate, and it’s predominantly our African Americans.” Participant 10 answered,
“African American students are one of our student groups that currently is in the red on the
California School Dashboard for suspension rate.” Many others interviewed shared similar
California Dashboard information about their districts also. Participant 3 conveyed,
I would say they [African American males] tend to be given a higher number of
suspension days per incident; they tend to be given a higher number of suspension days
per incident for the same act. They get into a suspension sooner rather than later. So,
there’s kind of like different facets to that disproportionality.
Since the 1950s, there has been a movement away from the social objective of school
discipline to a focus on control over students’ behaviors (Artiles & Kozleski, 2007). “I think that
there is a direct correlation to the academic achievement not being as high as it should you know,
students are off campus for an extended period of time,” said Participant 3. Armstrong’s
influence led to the development of a new system, which was formed and would remain in place
until about the mid-1950s; it was known as progressive discipline and classroom management
(Butchart & McEwan, 1998). The foundation of progressive discipline set the tone for punitive
school discipline. Participant 6 said, in her district, “African American students are being
suspended at the highest rate for physical altercations. We need to figure out the why. The issue,
the concern, is when it is inconsistent and the students see it, the blatant inconsistencies.”
According to Participant 9, “In this particular district, there is disproportionality with African
Americans being the main group that has had negative treatment for a very long time.”
Participant 9 added, “African American male students get the most days of discipline.” Office
referrals, which lead to suspension and expulsion, are differentiated among races (Skiba et al.,
73
2002; Skiba et al., 2008). Skiba et al. (2002) found that office referrals, whose foundation should
be driven by education codes, are based on racial differences.
Table 5
Disproportionate Disciplinary Practices
Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“So, when I, when I’m looking at the data, our African
Americans are very high and they’re also a big percentage of
our special education population as well. So, they coexist on
high levels of suspension and discipline.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“African American students are one of our student groups that
currently is in the red on the California School Dashboard for
suspension rate.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“I believe it’s so important that we continue our discussions
about what are we doing for our youth when they are subject to
exclusionary discipline?”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“Unfortunately, we still suspend at a disproportionate rate, and
it’s predominantly our African Americans.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P2)
“We know that suspension doesn’t really change behavior at
all.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“I would say they tend to be given a higher number of
suspension days per incident would say they tend to be given a
higher number of suspension days per incident for the same
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Participant Example Quote
act. They get into a suspension sooner rather than later. So,
there’s kind of like different facets to that disproportionality.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“I think that there’s a direct correlation to the academic
achievement not being as high as it should. You know,
students are off campus for an extended period of time.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“Our special ed kids, our African American students, our
Hispanic students. They all are suspended at a greater rate
than, say, our White kids.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“Thirty-one percent of our kids in our expulsion school are
special ed, 94% are students of color; 76% are male. [African
American males] are receiving more punitive discipline, more
exclusionary discipline than other students.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P6)
“The African American population that 15-year-old sophomore
population that’s the highest population that’s being suspended
and receiving discipline. When the same action, the same
infraction occurs, and then there’s a differing discipline for one
student population versus another.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P6)
“African American students are being suspended at the highest
rate for physical altercations. We need to figure out the why.
The issue, the concern is when it is inconsistent and the
students see it, the blatant inconsistencies.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“‘I’m going to get in trouble, anyway. So, I might as well fight
them.’”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“In this particular district, there is disproportionality with
African Americans being the main group that has had negative
treatment for a very long time.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“African American male students get the most days of
discipline.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“There are more African American boys that are over
identified for special education in this district.”
Theme 5: Colonized Education Systems
The establishment of Indian schools within the context of what eventually became elite
universities, such as Harvard and Deerfield, was an assimilationist project. To “kill the Indian,
save the man,” an ideology of epistemological supremacy, involved widespread violence and
abuse, ultimately serving as models for the Nazi genocide (Toland, 2002). “In the early ‘70s,
there were hardly any multilingual resources,” noted Participant 1. Participant 1 continued, “I
was placed in special education at the time, and many of the other reasons, I’ve been told I
wasn’t college material, I’ve been told, ‘Don’t worry about that class—you can take auto
mechanics instead of….’” Participant 1 shared about educational systems:
When we’re talking about effective systems, I think it’s important that we define what
those terms are. And for us, that means the ability to intervene early, the ability to
76
establish meaningful relationships. the ability to supervise and observe effectively, and
step in and work to help resolve conflicts before they get out of control.
Participant 10 shared,
Frameworks, such as PBIS or positive behavior intervention systems, support explicitly
teaching expectations, not assuming that they already know them. Having a system of
recognition for when they do meet those expectations and a systematic way of responding
when they don’t.
Participant 3 referenced a text: “To quote the title of that book on those Savage
Inequalities that existed in our schools in our districts, just in our country in general.” Willinsky
(1998) purports that schooling has promoted an imperialist view of the world that justifies
colonization premised on European epistemological supremacy. Most enslaved African
Americans were denied access to formal education. It was illegal in many slave-holding states to
teach enslaved people to read and write (Franklin & Moss, 2000). African American males, in
particular, are more vulnerable to being funneled into this pipeline due to disciplinary disparities
and punitive disciplinary measures (Morris, 2016). Participant 3 added, “Creating a dam in that
school-to-prison pipeline and what are the different interventions that we can introduce?” Those
who work in these systems are not always someone parents trust, as Participant 7 noted: “I have
families tell me that they’re happy to see someone who looks like them, because now they think
that they’re being treated more fairly.” Participant 7 continued,
So, these are the kids that are in handcuffs. These are the kids that end up going to the
juvenile justice system when maybe an intervention could have done well, or maybe
whether that’d be behavioral or academic, if you have an effective discipline system, it
doesn’t have to be punitive, like it can be restorative.
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“We juxtapose historically noteworthy progressive steps toward access and equity with
recent indicators of backward movement” (Harper et al., 2009, p. 1). Participant 8 conveyed,
The system in place needs to have more of an understanding and not just cookie cutter.
The system can also become a barrier. If you don’t really know the background of the
individuals or the demographics that you’re working with.
Table 6
Colonized Education Systems
Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“In the early ‘70s, there were hardly any multilingual
resources.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“I was placed in special education at the time and many of the
other reasons I’ve been told I wasn’t college material. I’ve
been told, ‘Don’t worry about that class—you can take auto
mechanics instead of….’”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“In the 28 years discipline it’s changed a lot, right? I mean,
you are coming in with No Child Left Behind, and the whole
initiative of zero tolerance.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“We got to put resources around that makes them feel
connected and a sense of belonging. We got to put systems in
place to give them the opportunity to correct themselves.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“When we’re talking about effective systems, I think it’s
important that we define what those terms are. And for us, that
means the ability to intervene early, the ability to establish
78
Participant Example Quote
meaningful relationships. the ability to supervise and observe
effectively, and step in and work to help resolve conflicts
before they get out of control.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“Frameworks, such as PBIS or positive behavior intervention
systems, support explicitly teaching expectations, not assuming
that they already know them. Having a system of recognition
for when they do meet those expectations and a systematic way
of responding when they don’t.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“To quote the title of that book on those Savage Inequalities
that existed in our schools in our districts, just in our country in
general.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“Creating a dam in that school-to-prison pipeline and what are
the different interventions that we can introduce.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P5)
“How that system treats them [African American males]
becomes important in terms of building them up in selfefficacy for those students.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P5)
“Moving from that punishment mentality of discipline to more
of a restorative justice practice.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“I have families tell me that they’re happy to see someone who
looks like them, because now they think that they’re being
treated more fairly.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P8)
“I make sure that when they do discipline it’s key, they follow
the guidelines of board policy, administrative regulations as
well as education code.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“I don’t think there is a real system by which we say, ‘Here’s
restorative practices. Here’s the group setting. Here’s how you
bring these individuals in to repair the relationship.’ I don’t
think any of that really happens on a consistent, like consistent
basis amongst all sites. I think there are tidbits of it.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“So, these are the kids that are in handcuffs. These are the kids
that end up going to the juvenile justice system when maybe an
intervention could have done well, or maybe whether that’d be
behavioral or academic, if you have an effective discipline
system, it doesn’t have to be punitive like it can be
restorative.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P8)
“The system in place needs to have more of an understanding
and not just cookie cutter. The system can also become a
barrier. If you don’t really know the background of the
individuals or the demographics that you’re working with.”
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Theme 6: Restorative Justice Practices
In societies where Western legal systems have replaced and/or suppressed traditional
justice and conflict resolution processes, restorative justice is providing a framework to
reexamine and sometimes reactivate these traditions (Zehr, 2015). “When it comes to the support
of students, we provide restorative practices. We use the SARB process for attendance,” noted
Participant 1. Participant 1 added,
We also partner with the county office and other agencies, boy circles, girl circles, and
sometime with the police and boot camp academies and things like that. So, we also bring
in agencies to help us support in those restorative practices.
“We have other means of correction, especially for those that you know require one
before a suspension,” said Participant 3. Restorative practices in Indigenous communities have
their own restorative justice practices rooted in their cultural traditions (Riley, 2009). Participant
4 noted with transparency, “We have PBIS, we do restorative circles, but they’re not being done
consistently and to fidelity.” Restorative circles in schools are used in educational settings to
address conflicts, build relationships, and create a safe and inclusive learning environment
(Morrison, 2007). “I brought in Dora Dome to train our administrators on what is other means of
correction and discipline,” said Participant 4. Participant 3 noted that they brought in Ron Powell
to do trauma-informed training. Districts wanting to implement restorative justice practices: “I
would like to see more offering where we could bring people into our schools and really do that
training piece,” stated Participant 4. Participant 5 added, “We tried to do interventions, early
interventions with our students, whether it’s working with an outside counselor or a counselor
from inside the school district. We’ve also started doing some small groups with students.”
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Circle sentencing involves a group of community members and justice stakeholders in
determining a fair and culturally appropriate sentence for an offender (Griffiths, 2007).
Participant 6 said, “When they [African American male students] come back from a suspension,
it’s bringing them back in to have that meeting with the counselor you know, put some measures
in place and interventions in place to help with them.” Related to restorative practices, “It has to
be a full multi form approach and supporting the young so all stakeholders, all personnel that we
have available to exhaust all means of intervention to support the young, is what’s needed,”
according to Participant 6. Victim-offender mediation brings together the victim and offender to
discuss the crime, its impact, and potential restitution agreements (Umbreit & Greenwood,
1998). Participant 7 responded to certain staff response: “I was doing a training one time, and
some of the teachers. They were already burned out. They weren’t feeling this whole restorative
thing.” Participant 7 added,
I’m making social deposits like, if I just met this kid, why am I going to get on him about
his headphones or about pulling his pants up? So, I got to make some social deposits first.
So now I’m going to throw a ball back and forth.
Participant 7 suggested,
If we can get a cadre of African American males to even come on campus at lunchtime
and interact with our students and say, “Hey, man, how’s it going? How are you doing in
math class? Is there anything that we can help you with?”
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Table 7
Restorative Justice Practices
Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“When it comes to the support of students, we provide
restorative practices. We use the SARB process for
attendance.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P1)
“We also partner with the county office and other agencies,
boy circles, girl circles, and sometime with the police and boot
camp academies and things like that. So, we also bring in
agencies to help us support in those restorative practices.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P10)
“It’s natural to teach in a system the way you grew up and you
feel that the way you learn is the way everybody should learn”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“We have other means of correction, especially for those that,
you know, require one before a suspension.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“We have PBIS, we do restorative circles, but they’re not being
done consistently and to fidelity.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“I brought in Dora Dome to train our administrators on what is
other means of correction and discipline.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P3)
“We brought in Ron Powell to do the trauma-informed
training.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“I would like to see more offering where we could bring
people into our schools and really do that training piece.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P4)
“Really, being able to build that capacity with people and
having the opportunity to provide that training. I feel like
people will come along more.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P5)
“We tried to do interventions, early interventions with our
students, whether it’s working with an outside counselor or a
counselor from inside the school district. We’ve also started
doing some small groups with students.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P6)
“When they [African American male students] come back from
a suspension, its bringing them back in to have that meeting
with the counselor, you know, put some measures in place and
interventions in place to help with them.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P6)
“It has to be a full multi form approach and supporting the
young so all stakeholders, all personnel that we have available
to exhaust all means of intervention to support the young, is
what’s needed.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“I was doing a training one time, and some of the teachers.
They were already burned out. They weren’t feeling this whole
restorative thing.”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“I’m making social deposits like, if I just met this kid, why am
I going to get on him about his headphones or about pulling his
pants up? So, I got to make some social deposits first. So now
I’m going to throw a ball back and forth.”
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Participant Example Quote
Pupil Services Administrator
(P7)
“If we can get a cadre of African American males to even
come on campus at lunchtime and interact with our students
and say, ‘Hey, man, how’s it going? How are you doing in
math class? Is there anything that we can help you with?’”
Pupil Services Administrator
(P9)
“I work with family engagement here in my office, so
providing opportunities for parents to come in and actually
learn things.”
Discussion for Research Question 2
The interview responses identified three areas that, when intentionally targeted for
improvement, would make a significant difference in the implementation of exclusionary
disciplinary practices involving African American male students in high school.
Disproportionate disciplinary action in the area of exclusionary discipline, suspension rate, is a
metric on the California Dashboard, and all the participants had African American males who
were in the red area, which is the lowest level. Along with the disproportionality of suspensions
and expulsion, the second area to be viewed is colonized institutional practices, practices that are
not responsive to student needs and are rooted in bias. Zero-tolerance policies led the way for
many African American male high school students to experience the school-to-prison pipeline.
Building relationships resonated with culturally relevant discipline, as they align with the
cultural values of many communities (Noguera, 2003). In the area of restorative practices, there
is a need, from the responses, for training. Other responses included the lack of implementation
of these practices with fidelity even though research confirms the implementation of such
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practices can aid in reducing disparities and fostering more equitable outcomes for African
American males, encouraging their continued presence in the educational setting (McClain &
Perry, 2017). One participant reported that they did training, and the teachers had no desire to
hear about restorative practices.
Summary
The synthesis of the provided information reveals a comprehensive understanding of the
influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices on African American male high school students,
as perceived by practitioners in the field. These practitioners drew upon a combination of their
personal experiences, education, and scholarly research to articulate their insights.
A recurring theme highlighted by the participants is the paramount importance of
relationships in addressing issues of school discipline. They unanimously stressed the
significance of fostering strong teacher-student relationships, particularly for African American
male students, as these relationships are deemed essential for academic success. Moreover,
participants emphasized the necessity of educators being intentional in understanding the cultural
backgrounds of their students, as this knowledge fosters trust and contributes to improved
academic outcomes.
Social climate barriers are identified as significant obstacles, with participants advocating
for inclusive practices that promote a sense of belonging and engagement among students.
Effective educators are encouraged to involve families and communities in decision-making
processes and to implement alternative discipline strategies that address underlying issues and
promote positive behavior.
The personal influences, culturally relevant training, and societal experiences of
educators play crucial roles in shaping their responses to disciplinary matters involving African
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American male students. Culturally responsive approaches to leadership and teaching are
emphasized as vital components of creating inclusive school environments that cater to diverse
student populations.
The interview responses also underscore the detrimental effects of exclusionary
disciplinary practices on the success of African American male students. Disproportionate
disciplinary actions, institutional biases, and the lack of fidelity in implementing restorative
practices are identified as areas requiring urgent attention and improvement.
In conclusion, the synthesis of practitioner insights and scholarly research underscores
the imperative for educators to adopt culturally responsive approaches to discipline and to
actively address the systemic issues that contribute to the marginalization of African American
male high school students. By prioritizing relationship building, cultural competence, and
inclusive practices, educators can foster environments that support the academic achievement
and holistic development of all students, thusly contributing to greater societal impacts and
success rates within schools and communities.
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Table 8
Summary of Themes and Findings of the Study
Theme Findings
The disconnect between African American
males in high school and their teachers
Culturally relevant teaching.
The power of relationships.
Disengagement from the educational system School climate exudes a sense of belonging
for all students.
Excluding students from campus on a
continual basis.
The stage of life individuals are in Preparing youth for adulthood by
understanding their current background.
Students need to feel respected and not
embarrassed in front of their peers.
Disproportionate disciplinary practices Culturally relevant discipline.
Culturally relevant school leadership.
Colonized education systems Legislation that is inherently biased.
Ineffective systems and outdated frameworks.
Restorative Justice Practices Staff need more training.
Needs Implementation with fidelity.
These research findings are discussed in Chapter 5 along with recommendations to
reduce exclusionary discipline in California high schools for African American male students.
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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Discussion
The problem of practice focused on in this study is the negative impact of education
disciplinary systems (higher expulsion/suspension rates) on African American male high school
students’ self-efficacy as evidenced by low attendance rates and low levels of academic
achievement. This chapter, while incorporating results from the literature review, also utilizes the
interview methodology in assisting to determine the effects of exclusionary discipline on African
American males in California high schools and its effects on their self-efficacy as well as the
impact of restorative practices and its effects on exclusionary disciplinary practices. We will
examine the alignment of existing literature and identified themes while recommending practices
going forward. Lastly, I will recommend further research to address the problem of practice.
Discussion of Findings
Findings for Research Question 1: What Are the Influences of Exclusionary Disciplinary
Practices for African American Male California High School Students?
The findings from the study align with existing literature highlighting the historical and
systemic influences contributing to the disproportionate disciplinary practices experienced by
African American male students. The literature review supports the notion that exclusionary
disciplinary practices are rooted in systemic biases and historical injustices, perpetuating a cycle
of marginalization for African American males within the education system (Ahmad & Boser,
2014; Brown, 2018; Mallet, 2018).The identified themes of disconnect between African
American male students and teachers, fear of unfair targeting, and negative impacts on academic
achievement resonate with literature emphasizing the detrimental effects of exclusionary
discipline on student well-being and academic success (Anyon et al., 2014; Mallett, 2018).
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The findings of the study closely align with existing literature, particularly in highlighting
the historical and systemic factors that contribute to the disproportionate disciplinary practices
experienced by African American male students. The literature review underscores the pervasive
influence of systemic biases and historical injustices, which perpetuate a cycle of marginalization
within the education system for this demographic (Ahmad & Boser, 2014; Brown, 2018; Mallet,
2018). Moreover, the identified themes within the study, such as the disconnect between African
American male students and their teachers, the fear of unfair targeting, and the subsequent
negative impacts on academic achievement, resonate strongly with literature that emphasizes the
detrimental effects of exclusionary discipline on student well-being and academic success
(Anyon et al., 2014; Mallett, 2018). Together, these findings and literature underscore the urgent
need to address systemic biases and historical injustices to create more equitable educational
environments for African American male students.
Findings for Research Question 2: How Can the Exclusionary Disciplinary Practices for
African American Males in California High Schools Be Improved Using Restorative
Practices?
The findings regarding the need for improvement through restorative practices align with
literature advocating for alternatives to exclusionary discipline and the implementation of
restorative justice practices in educational settings (DeMatthews et al., 2017; Morrison, 2007;
Patel, 2016). The literature supports the idea that restorative practices can foster accountability,
repair harm, and create a sense of community within schools, addressing the root causes of
disciplinary issues rather than solely focusing on punitive measures (DeMatthews et al., 2017;
Morrison, 2007; Patel, 2016).
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The emphasis on dismantling colonized educational systems aligns with literature
highlighting the systemic inequities and historical injustices embedded within traditional
education systems, underscoring the need for transformative approaches such as restorative
justice (Patel, 2016).
The findings emphasizing the necessity for improvement through restorative practices
resonate with literature advocating for alternatives to exclusionary discipline and the integration
of restorative justice principles within educational settings (DeMatthews et al., 2017; Morrison,
2007; Patel, 2016). Existing literature supports the effectiveness of restorative practices in
fostering accountability, repairing harm, and cultivating a sense of community within schools,
thereby addressing the underlying causes of disciplinary issues rather than solely relying on
punitive measures (DeMatthews et al., 2017; Morrison, 2007; Patel, 2016). Furthermore, the
emphasis on dismantling colonized educational systems aligns with literature that exposes the
systemic inequities and historical injustices inherent in traditional education systems,
emphasizing the urgent need for transformative approaches such as restorative justice (Patel,
2016). Together, these findings and literature underscore the importance of adopting restorative
practices as part of a broader effort to create more equitable and just educational environments.
Connection to Conceptual Framework and Problem of Practice
The findings from both research questions align with the conceptual framework, which
acknowledges the systemic and historical factors contributing to exclusionary disciplinary
practices and the marginalization of African American male students. By addressing the
identified themes and recommendations, the study aimed to provide practical solutions to reduce
exclusionary discipline and improve the educational experiences and outcomes for African
American male students, thereby addressing the problem of practice outlined in the study.
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Table 9
Connection of Research Questions to Findings and Literature
Research Question Findings Literature Alignment
1. Influences of
exclusionary
disciplinary practices for
African American male
California high school
students
Disproportionate disciplinary practices
linked to historical and systemic
biases. Themes of disconnect between
students and teachers, fear of unfair
targeting, and negative academic
impacts
Mallet (2018)
Ahmad and Boser (2014)
Brown (2018)
2. Improvement of
exclusionary
disciplinary practices
using restorative
practices.
Need for restorative practices to
address disciplinary issues. Restorative
practices foster accountability, repair
harm, and create community.
DeMatthews et al. (2017)
Patel (2016)
Morrison (2007)
Connection to
Conceptual Framework
and Problem of Practice
Findings align with systemic and
historical factors contributing to
exclusionary discipline. Aims to
provide practical solutions to reduce
exclusionary discipline and improve
outcomes for African American male
students
English (2021)
Brown (2018)
Bronfenbrenner (1990)
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Recommendations for Practice
Recommendation 1: Implement Culturally Responsive Leadership
The findings from the study suggest that exclusionary disciplinary practices
disproportionately affect African American male students, highlighting the need for culturally
responsive approaches to discipline. The principles and strategies include implementing
culturally relevant training for district personnel, focusing on cultural competency and implicit
bias (Gay, 2018). Additionally, there should be an emphasis on culturally responsive leadership
and promoting inclusivity and understanding of diverse student populations (Ladson-Billings,
1995). The following additional recommendations allow for school leaders to foster a culturally
responsive framework. Leaders, including site and district-level administration, must ensure that
school staff understand implicit bias. Cultural competency must be utilized in classroom
management and is of vital importance. Educational leaders must ensure that the classroom
climate values diversity, fosters respectful communication, and addresses conflicts or
misunderstandings in culturally responsive ways. Professional development should also address
the importance of engaging families and communities in culturally responsive ways. By fostering
strong partnerships with families and communities, leaders can create a supportive network of
resources and support for students. Building relationships with students and families from
diverse backgrounds allows school leaders to foster open communication, trust, and
collaboration, ensuring that all stakeholders feel heard, valued, and included in the decisionmaking process (Armstrong, 2024). Relevant practices and continuous learning are vital for
growth and improvement. By committing to continuous growth and improvement, educators can
deepen their cultural competence and be better equipped to meet the diverse needs of students
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(Armstrong, 2024). This culturally responsive framework requires commitment, collaboration,
and ongoing reflection.
By championing equity, promoting inclusivity, and prioritizing the social and emotional
well-being of all students, educators can create learning environments where every learner feels
seen, heard, and valued. It is through this collective effort that we can build a brighter future for
all learners, rooted in equity, justice, and cultural responsiveness (Armstrong, 2024).
The context-specific recommendation includes partnering with local organizations or
experts in culturally responsive leadership to conduct training sessions for educators within the
school site. There also is a need to develop a culturally responsive leadership (see Appendix C)
tailored to the specific cultural backgrounds and needs of African American male students.
Training would include the areas of student services (discipline, child welfare and attendance,
Section 504, student records, and culturally responsive leadership, etc.) and provide coaching to
the director of student services plus staff.
Recommendation 2: Culturally Relevant Practices and Curriculum Reform
The study suggests that a decolonized approach to education may address systemic issues
contributing to the marginalization of African American male students. The necessary principles
and strategy include implementing curriculum reforms that incorporate diverse perspectives and
challenge Eurocentric narratives (Sleeter, 2012). There is a need to integrate Indigenous
knowledge and perspectives into educational practices to foster cultural pride and empowerment
(Battiste, 2013). The context-specific recommendation is to collaborate with curriculum
developers and community members to revise existing curriculum materials, ensuring they
reflect diverse cultural perspectives and histories relevant to African American male students.
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This recommendation is supported by new legislation that dictates that participation in a
restorative justice program, as an alternative to suspension as a means of correction, may include
participation in a restorative justice best practice be adopted. This recommendation authorizes a
school district to document the alternative means of correction used and to place that
documentation in the pupil’s record. School leaders can establish a welcoming and inclusive
school culture by celebrating diversity, promoting cultural awareness, and addressing biases and
stereotypes. This involves implementing policies and practices that prioritize equity and ensure
that all students feel valued and respected.
The implementation of culturally relevant practices and culturally relevant education
(CRE) is documented emphasizing mathematics. This addresses CRE in connection to student
outcomes in mathematics through a synthesis of eight studies. Making connections that suggest
any form of success, including increased engagement and motivation, is essential due to
lingering gaps in mathematics achievement that have occurred in the United States for over 20
years. Nasir and Cobb (2002) explained that recent analyses of school achievement, coursetaking patterns, and standardized test data have revealed prevalent patterns of social inequity.
The marginal performance in mathematics of minority students, language-minority students,
poor students, and, to some extent, girls has led several scholars to raise concerns about the
opportunities for members of these groups to compete in an increasingly technological world.
CRE was also studied in connection to student outcomes in history and social studies through a
synthesis of six studies. In his widely read book, Lies My Teacher Told Me, James Loewen
(2007) opens with “High School students hate history,” and students often describe the subject as
“boring.” He claimed even male children from White, affluent families describe the history they
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are taught in high school as “too neat and rosy.” Students, to be successful, must feel connected
to the curriculum.
Recommendation 3: Develop Relationships With All Stakeholders/Community
Members/Education Partners
Findings from the study focus on the lack of parental engagement and inclusivity
contributing to the challenges faced by African American male students, emphasizing the
importance of building relationships with all stakeholders. Principles and strategies can be
utilized and implemented to enhance parental involvement and engagement, such as regular
communication, welcoming environments, and inclusive practices (Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
Fostering partnerships with community organizations and education partners can assist in
providing additional support and resources for students and families (Bryk & Schneider, 2002).
The context-specific recommendation is to organize regular meetings or events to facilitate
interaction between educators, parents, and community members, assisting in providing
opportunities for collaborative decision making and involvement in school initiatives aimed at
supporting African American male students. The chronic absenteeism rate in California has been
a significant concern for African American males, particularly in the wake of the COVID-19
pandemic. During the 2022–23 school year, the state’s chronic absenteeism rate was 24.9%, a
decrease from the previous year’s rate of 30%. This means that nearly a quarter of California’s
students missed 10% or more of the school year. When utilizing the School Attendance Review
Board (SARB) process, new legislation requires county boards of education, school district
governing boards, and the governing body of a charter school or of an entity managing multiple
charter schools to appoint at least one high school pupil as a pupil member of the board or body.
Existing law authorizes the establishment of county school attendance review boards and
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requires county school attendance review boards to be composed of at least one parent and 12
representatives of specified entities and community groups.
This legislation additionally requires, on an established county school attendance review
board, a pupil representative who is also a pupil member of a county board of education or a
pupil member of the governing board of a school district (LegiScan, 2024).
This recommendation is now enacted by the people of the state of California as a
response to the inequitable practices affecting marginalized students.
Implementation
Within the next 1 to 2 years, the recommendation is to implement culturally relevant
practices within the educational framework. This involves several key steps. Firstly, there’s a
need to ensure culturally relevant training is provided for all district personnel, emphasizing
cultural competency and implicit bias. This training initiative will be spearheaded by executive
cabinet leadership, school site–level administrators, and school personnel. Interventions to
exclusionary practices are not only suggested but mandated by new legislation. It is imperative
that pupil services and child welfare and attendance administrators provide trainings to all
personnel as it relates to legislation aimed at decreasing exclusionary discipline and chronic
absenteeism rates. Secondly, training sessions on culturally responsive leadership and teaching
are advised to promote inclusivity and understanding among diverse student populations. Once
again, executive cabinet leadership, school site–level administrators, and school personnel are
identified as responsible parties. Thirdly, it is recommended to collaborate with local
organizations or experts in culturally responsive practices to conduct tailored training sessions
for educators within the study site. This includes developing a curriculum specifically tailored to
the cultural backgrounds and needs of African American male students, with involvement from
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district community liaisons, family engagement personnel, and equity and access administrators.
Many districts have administrators whose sole responsibility is to enhance equity and access for
all students. County offices of education are instrumental in providing the necessary
individual(s) to assist who have the proper training and background. The last recommendation is
based on Assembly Bill 1939 authored by Maienschein. This bill requires each county school
attendance review board and each local school attendance review board to, at least annually,
consult with specified pupils for the purpose of soliciting input that will assist board members in
gaining a better understanding of, and proposing interventions for, pupil attendance challenges
and behavioral challenges (LegiScan. 2024).
Another recommendation for the next 1 to 2 years is the decolonization of education
through curriculum reform. This involves integrating diverse perspectives into the curriculum
and challenging Eurocentric narratives. Executive cabinet leadership and the board of education
will oversee this initiative. Additionally, there’s a focus on incorporating Indigenous knowledge
and perspectives into educational practices to foster cultural pride and empowerment, with
responsibility falling on curriculum and instruction administrators as well as equity and access
administrators. Collaboration with curriculum developers and community members is crucial to
ensure existing curriculum materials reflect diverse cultural perspectives relevant to African
American male students. Executive cabinet leadership, school site–level administrators, equity
and access administrators, and school personnel will all be involved in this collaborative effort.
Lastly, within the next year, it is recommended to develop relationships with all
stakeholders and community members in order to enhance parental involvement and
engagement. This involves implementing strategies such as regular communication, creating
welcoming environments, and adopting inclusive practices. All school site personnel and family
98
and community engagement personnel will be responsible for this. Additionally, fostering
partnerships with community organizations and education partners to provide additional support
and resources for students and families is advised. School administration, homeless/foster care
education liaisons, and family and community engagement personnel will collaborate on this
aspect. Finally, it is recommended to organize regular meetings or events to facilitate interaction
between educators, parents, and community members, providing opportunities for collaborative
decision making and involvement in school initiatives supporting African American male
students, with administrators responsible for the local control funding formula overseeing these
efforts.
Table 10
Recommendation Timetable and Staff Responsible
Recommendation Timeline / Resources Staff Responsible
Recommendation 1:
Implement Culturally
Responsive Leadership
Within the next 1 to 2 years.
Implement with fidelity culturally
relevant training for all district
personnel, focusing on cultural
competency and implicit bias.
Executive cabinet leadership
School site–level
administrators
School personnel
Provide training on culturally
responsive leadership and teaching
to promote inclusivity and
understanding of diverse student
populations.
Executive cabinet leadership
School site–level
administrators
School personnel
99
Recommendation Timeline / Resources Staff Responsible
Partner with local organizations or
experts in culturally responsive
practices to conduct training
sessions for educators within the
study site. Develop a curriculum
tailored to the specific cultural
backgrounds and needs of African
American male students.
District community liaisons
Family engagement personnel
Equity and access
administrators
Establish a welcoming and
inclusive school culture by
celebrating diversity, promoting
cultural awareness, and addressing
biases and stereotypes. This
involves implementing policies and
practices that prioritize equity and
ensure that all students feel valued
and respected
School leadership
Commit to continuous growth and
improvement to culturally
responsive framework by
collaboration and ongoing
reflection
School leadership
100
Recommendation Timeline / Resources Staff Responsible
Recommendation 2:
Implement Culturally
Relevant
Practices and Pedagogy
Within the next 1 to 2 years.
Implement curriculum reforms that
incorporate diverse perspectives
and challenge Eurocentric
narratives.
Executive cabinet leadership
Board of education
Integrate indigenous knowledge and
perspectives into educational
practices to foster cultural pride and
empowerment.
Curriculum and instruction
administrators
Equity and access
administrators
Collaborate with curriculum
developers and community
members to revise existing
curriculum materials, ensuring they
reflect diverse cultural perspectives
and histories relevant to African
American male students.
Executive cabinet leadership
School site–level
administrators
Equity and access
administrators
School personnel
Ensure that students feel connected
to the curriculum by collecting data
using surveys, interviews and other
methods.
School site personnel
101
Recommendation Timeline / Resources Staff Responsible
Recommendation 3:
Develop Relationships
with all
stakeholders/community
members/Education
Partners
Within the next 1 year.
Implement strategies to enhance
parental involvement and
engagement, such as regular
communication, welcoming
environments, and inclusive
practices.
All school site personnel
Family and community
engagement personnel
Foster partnerships with community
organizations and education
partners to provide additional
support and resources for students
and families.
School administration,
homeless/foster care
education liaisons
Family and community
engagement personnel
Organize regular meetings or events
to facilitate interaction between
educators, parents, and community
members. Provide opportunities for
collaborative decision making and
involvement in school initiatives
aimed at supporting African
American male students.
School administration,
homeless/foster care
education liaisons
Family and community
engagement personnel
Administrators responsible
for the local control funding
formula (LCFF)
102
Limitations and Delimitations
Decolonizing qualitative inquiry for youth and communities (Tuck & Yang, 2014) is
necessary for equitable practices. These concepts were explored as their findings added to the
academic research that provided answers to the research questions that I posed. Convenience
sampling did not provide the sample selected using specific criteria. Snowball sampling posed
risks of not being able to include certain characteristics and qualities, confidentiality
(relationships with people suggested to interview), and, the last limitation, who to begin with in
the snowball effect (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Limitations of the Social Ecological Model
included lack of motivation for change in the environment and the inability to understand the
environment (student backgrounds). Changing lifestyles can be extremely difficult; not all school
officials believe this. Many people are in denial and do not believe these environments keep
students at risk.
Recommendations for Future Research
I would recommend for future research that superintendents are interviewed for their
valuable insights and perspectives for several reasons, including their decision-making authority.
Superintendents are often responsible for overseeing policy as well as its implementation.
Superintendents also play a crucial role in community engagement, embracing culturally
responsive leadership, as the literature reviewed earlier suggested. Of importance,
superintendents understand the local education agencies’ resource allocation. Local control
accountability plans should allocate resources to student populations that are most in need,
providing the appropriate resources with a sense of urgency. Superintendents are knowledgeable
about legal and regulatory requirements regarding education in California, ensuring that policy
changes align with state and federal law.
103
Additionally, I would recommend involving the board of education trustees for several
important reasons. As elected officials responsible for governing the district, trustees have a duty
to ensure all students’ overall well-being and success. Trustees, held accountable by their
constituents, must show a commitment to improving student outcomes. School board trustees
also oversee the allocation of resources within local education agencies. This allocation can
improve exclusionary discipline rates for African American male students by ensuring resources
and holding district personnel accountable as long as personnel have the appropriate resources.
The ability of board trustees to be able to advocate at the local, state, and federal levels is
advantageous for student success.
Conclusion
The data are alarming for African American males in California high schools who
experience exclusionary disciplinary practices. While those privy to information are aware of the
higher exclusionary discipline rates of African American males, what does it mean when those
officials who know the data are not responsive to it? This study sought to understand
exclusionary discipline, its effects on African American males, and how restorative practices
could assist in reducing exclusionary discipline.
This study started by researching the background of the problem of practice, looking
through the lens of the educational system. Next, the purpose of the study was addressed, and
research questions were developed. The importance of the study was contributed to by the
literature review, which underscored the notion that African American males, due to
exclusionary disciplinary practices, have low self-efficacy. The theoretical framework and
methodology through which the problem of practice was viewed were introduced. Last, the
findings were discussed.
104
According to the California School Dashboard, an accountability measure used by the
California Department of Education, African American students are suspended (exclusionary
discipline) more than any other demographic group. Those interviewed mentioned that
restorative practices are not implemented with fidelity, and others replied that they wish their
staff would be able to utilize these strategies, while some in the interview group were not aware
of these strategies. Those interviewed mainly agreed that there is a greater disconnect within
high school environments, including among personnel, for African American male high school
students. If the educators are aware of the disproportionality and the inability to employ
culturally relevant practices, then how can African American male rates of incarceration
decrease and academic achievement, attendance rates, and college admissions increase? The call
to action includes involving all stakeholders and raising awareness of the unique needs of
African American males in California high schools and applying support through an equitable
lens, disallowing for punitive measures and utilizing a prescriptive approach to addressing school
discipline.
105
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123
Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
Background Information
I would like to start by asking some background questions about you.
1.What ethnicity do you
identify with? What culture did you
identify with throughout
your childhood?
How would you describe
your socio-economic status
growing up?
How did you become
interested in the field of
education?
RQ1 N/A Background
2. How long have you
been an educator?
How long have you worked
in the field?
What roles and positions
have you held? What path
have you taken to your
current position?
Did you feel encouraged to
move into your current
RQ1 N/A Background
124
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
position by a member of
your organization?
If not, what motivated you
to move into this role?
Organizational Barriers
Now that I know a bit about your journey in education, I would like to begin exploring your
thoughts on addressing challenging student behavior in the K12 education system as an
organization.
3. What Disciplinary
Systems have you seen
in your district for high
school students?
(sensory)(CRD)
Based on your
experience, what do you
think works well? What
does not work well?
What type of support do you
provide the high schools
that you serve?
(background/demographic)
RQ2 Gender roles Opinions /
Values
4. What are successful
restorative justice
practices that your
district uses for high
Describe student groups, if
any, who experience a high
level of disciplinary
measures.
RQ2 Gender norms
CFT
Feeling
125
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
school students?
(behavior/experience)
(CRSL)
School Climate Barriers
Now I would like to shift our focus to organizational influences on decisions that affect
disciplinary practices.
5. What are African
American male
students’ experiences
with disciplinary
measures?
(knowledge)(CRD)
6. What are the effects
of disciplinary actions,
on your high school
campuses, on African
American male
students’ attendance and
academic achievement
(positive/negative)?
(knowledge)(CRSL)
What is the frequency of
discipline interactions?
RQ1
RQ1
Hegemony
CFT
Opinions /
Values
126
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
7. Describe micro
aggressive in-class
teacher interactions that
you know about?
(knowledge)(CRD)
RQ1 Opinions /
Values
8. What is the impact of
education disciplinary
systems on African
American male high
school students’ selfefficacy?
(opinion/values)
(CRSL)
RQ1
RQ2
Organizational
Barriers
Opinions /
Values
9. Do you think that
there is an increase in
self-efficacy for African
American Male High
School Students when
effective Discipline
Systems are in place?
Why or why not? RQ1
RQ2
Organizational
Barriers
Ideal Position
127
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
(opinion/values)
(AAMT)
10.Why do you think
African American males
that can be successful
academically, rebel due
to exclusionary
discipline and selfsabotage?
(feeling)(CRD)
RQ2 Organizational
Barriers
Feeling
Personal Barriers
We talked about societal and organizational influences on your career, now I would like to
discuss how your role affects you personally. You may find these questions sensitive in nature.
The questions are not evaluative, and I am not here to pass judgment on your professional
decisions or personal life.
11. How can California
high school disciplinary
systems for African
American male students
be improved?
(Feeling)(RJ)
RQ1 Self-efficacy
128
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
Closing Question
1. What other insights
would you like to
share about our
conversation about
ways to explore,
experience and
implement effective
disciplinary
practices?
Opinions /
Values
129
Appendix B: Information Sheet for Exempt Studies
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: Disciplinary Systems in California High Schools and Their Effects on African
American Males’ Self-Efficacy
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Donald E. English
FACULTY ADVISOR: Kimberly Ferrario, PhD
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This
document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is
unclear to you.
PURPOSE
I am conducting a research study exclusionary disciplinary practices and the effects on
California high school African American male students. The name of this research study is
“Disciplinary Systems in California High Schools and Their Effects on African American Males’
Self-Efficacy”. I am seeking your participation in this study. Your participation is completely
voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns at any point before or during the study.
You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the following criteria:
1. Child Welfare and Attendance Administrators/Pupil Services Administrators.
2. CWA/PSA who work within San Bernardino County.
3. You are over 18 years old.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Interview participants will be asked to participate in a one-hour interview conducted
either via Zoom (video conferencing software). Participants will have the opportunity to review
direct quotes for accuracy and representation of experiences and opinions. I will publish the
130
results in my thesis. Participants will not be identified in the results. I will take reasonable
measures to protect the security of all your personal information. All data will be deidentified
prior to any publication or presentations. I may share your data, de-identified with other
researchers in the future.
If you decide to take part in the interview, you will be asked to:
1. Participate in a 60-minute interview via Zoom.
2. Provide feedback for accuracy of direct quotes (optional).
3. Provide feedback on initial findings as they relate to your experiences (optional).
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION There is no compensation or
payment for participation in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used. Pseudonyms will be used in the dissertation to further protect the
confidentiality of participants and the organization. Participants will have the opportunity to
review their transcripts and verify direct quotes. Data will be stored by the researcher for a
maximum of one year, and audio recordings will be accessible only to the principal researcher
and transcriber and erased upon study completion.
131
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact If you have any questions about
this study, please contact Donald English at Deenglis@usc.edu or Kimberly Ferrario, Ph.D at
kferrari@usc.edu.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.
132
Appendix C: Agreement for Consultant Services
English’s Enterprises
7548 Burgundy Avenue
Rancho Cucamonga, CA 91730
Phone: (562) 824.6677
Electronic Mail: mr.donenglish@yahoo.com
Agreement for Consultant Services
The following is an Agreement by and between XYZ Unified School District and
English’s Enterprises
RECITALS
.
The District requires the services of a professional consultant in the areas of
Student Services (Discipline child welfare and attendance Section 504, student records,
etc.) and provide coaching to the, Director of Student Services plus Staff.
.
English’s Enterprises is available and offers to provide services necessary to
accomplish the work within the required time.
AGREEMENT
NOW THEREFORE, pursuant to the following terms and conditions and District and
Trainer, English’s Enterprises, hereby agree as follows:
133
.
The term of this agreement shall commence on {Date} and end on {Date}.
.
Consultant AGREES: To perform in a competent and professional manner the
following services, as needed and requested by the District: Consulting on decreasing
Exclusionary Student Discipline by Providing training on culturally responsive
leadership and teaching to promote inclusivity and understanding of diverse student
populations. Training will also include student records, decreasing chronic
absenteeism by training staff on how to establish a welcoming and inclusive school
culture by celebrating diversity, promoting cultural awareness, and addressing
biases and stereotypes. This involves implementing policies and practices that
prioritize equity and ensure that all students feel valued and respected, and school
safety by creating a culture and a climate intentionally dedicated to ensuring safety
campus wide. Provide on-going coaching and review of student services process and
procedures including unlimited phone calls, emails and in-person meetings as
needed.
.
District AGREES: To pay {Amount} Consultant fee. All invoices for services
must be submitted to the District within thirty calendar days after services are performed
by English’s Enterprises Subject to and upon approval of District, payment of invoices
shall be made within 60 days after English’s Enterprises submits invoices and any other
requested documentation. For purposes of this Agreement, “payment” shall mean the act
134
of depositing checks in the United States Postal Service mail for deliver to English’s
Enterprises.
.
DISTRICT OWNERSHIP: All data and information provided for and/or used by
Trainer shall be the property of and returned to the District at the completion of this
contract. All reports or other documents generated will constitute “works made for hire”
by or for the District and the District will be the “author” of all such reports under
applicable copyrights laws.
.
CONFIDENTIALITY: The confidentiality provisions of the Agreement will
survive and remain in full force and effect beyond the termination or expiration of this
Agreement. Trainer agrees to hold confidential information obtained from the District,
including any student or personnel information, whether obtained through observation,
documentation or otherwise (collectively, “Confidential Information”), in strict
confidence and shall not without prior permission of the District disclose any Confidential
Information. The consultant agrees that it shall not at any time or in any manner, either
directly or indirectly, use any Confidential Information for Trainer’s own benefit. A
violation of this Section shall be a material violation of this agreement.
.
TERMINATION: This agreement may be terminated by the parties upon receipt
of ninety days prior written notice sent to the following addresses of Trainer or District:
District: XYZ Unified School District
Smalltown St.
Concrete, Tx. 91234
135
Trainer: English’s Enterprises
7548 Burgundy Ave.
Rancho Cucamonga, CA 91730
.
INDEPENDENT CONTRACTOR STATUS: English’s Enterprises states and
affirms that it is acting as a free agent and independent trainer, maintains the principal
place of business at own address, and that this Agreement is not exclusive. English’s
Enterprises as an independent contractor is responsible for accomplishing the result
required herein, and District shall not be liable to English’s Enterprises for any payments,
benefits, loss, costs, expenses, or injury or damages to Trainer’s person, or property,
except District’s liability to English’s Enterprises for compensation for services
performed herein. Neither English’s Enterprises nor any of its agents or employees shall
be entitled to any benefits provided to District’s employees, including health insurance
benefits. English’s Enterprises is and shall be solely responsible for its own taxes and tax
filing and payments or withholdings, including without limitation income taxes or social
security. A 1099 tax form will be provided to the Trainer for services rendered.
____________________________________________ _________________
English’s Enterprises Date
___________________________________________________________ _______________
Agency Representative Date
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study applies two theories along with scholarly research, instrumental in helping to determine the effects of exclusionary discipline on African American males’ self-efficacy. One theory to frame the problem of practice is African American Male Theory (AAMT). Another theory utilized for this study is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (BEST). The purpose of the study was to provide insight and identify strategies to address exclusionary discipline, understand exclusionary discipline, and understand the challenges of exclusionary discipline while making recommendations to reduce exclusionary discipline. The following questions were used to explore the subject of African American males in high school and the impact of exclusionary discipline on their self-efficacy: What are the influences of exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American male California high school students? How can the exclusionary disciplinary practices for African American males in California high schools be improved using restorative practices? Data analysis was conducted simultaneously with data collection during the interview process. The participants, directors of child welfare and attendance, met the inclusion criteria, including that the interviewees are responsible for discipline in their local education agencies. This method allowed for an exploration of participants’ experiences in alignment with the African American Male Theory’s emphasis on personal experiences and the ecological systems perspective. This study illuminates the disproportionality of exclusionary discipline, providing models and strategies to enhance African American males’ achievement and connection to high school and those effects on their self-efficacy.
Understanding the factors that either bolster or undermine self-efficacy can guide interventions that aim to minimize inequalities and promote fair educational experiences for all students. This approach necessitates acknowledging and challenging biases and systemic influences that contribute to disproportionate discipline for African American males, advocating instead for policies and practices that endorse fairness, equity, and a nurturing learning atmosphere, ultimately allowing African American males to be contributing members of society.
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Core Title
Disciplinary systems in California high schools and their effects on African American males’ self-efficacy
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Rossier School of Education
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Education (Leadership)
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
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