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White principals implementing systems of equity: analyzing knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
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White principals implementing systems of equity: analyzing knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
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Content
White Principals Implementing Systems of Equity:
Analyzing Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Support
by
Wendy Noel Ili
A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
2024
Copyright 2024 Wendy Noel Ili
The Committee for Wendy Noel Ili certifies the approval of this Dissertation.
Gregory Franklin
Briana Hinga
Darline Robles, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
iii
Abstract
This project aimed to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation, and
organization of white principals who have successfully implemented equitable practices at their
school site which positively changed the academic or sense of belonging achievement data for
students of color.
The Clark and Estes gap analysis framework, a significant tool in this study, provides a
structured approach to assess and evaluate performance goals and identify achievement gaps.
This framework is particularly relevant as there is an established and well-documented gap
between the achievement data of white students and those of color. I utilized a qualitative
method to gather and analyze data, focusing on white principals who successfully changed the
achievement data for students of color.
I narrowed my focus to white principals because white leaders are the racial majority of
teachers and principals. Since our public school system was designed to benefit a white society, I
was interested in studying the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors of white
principals who have had success in closing the opportunity gap for their students of color.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to white
administrators leading their schools to close the opportunity gap for their students of
color?
2. What are solutions and recommendations in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources for white administrators to positively change the outcomes for their students of
color?
iv
The design for this study involved individual interviews with three white principals at
each level (elementary, middle, and high school) who have made noticeable improvements in
their academic or cultural site data for their students of color, such as test scores, sense of
belonging, discipline, or suspension data. As this is a qualitative study, the interviews were
designed to conduct an in-depth analysis of the participants’ knowledge and motivation and to
understand the organizational factors that contribute to or detract from the success of each
administrator’s goal.
v
Dedication
This is dedicated to my husband, the love of my life, who has constantly supported me
through this journey. He is always ready with a massage, a cup of coffee, a hug, and encouraging
words. He is my sounding board, someone with whom I can have critical conversations about
this work and who tells me if it seems I am working out of my “whiteness.” He is my inspiration
and motivation; his love has sustained me, especially these last three years. I could not have done
this work without him.
I dedicate this to my family. Thank you for raising me to be an independent thinker,
being proud of me through this process, and instilling in me the notion that I can do whatever I
set my mind to do.
Lastly, I dedicate this to white administrators and school leaders. The time to let go of the
status quo is now! This topic requires urgency, and we are the ones to carry the burden of
change. Look in the mirror and analyze your practice with a new lens. Let go of the guilt and
shame of your past practices and embrace the varied needs of your students of color. The journey
will be riddled with pushback, but the rewards of changing your students’ trajectory are great.
Equip yourself with knowledge from your students of color and school community, surround
yourself with coconspirators, and never stop moving forward. Never.
vi
Acknowledgments
I want to give special acknowledgment to my committee, the true dream team! To my
chair, Dr. Darline Robles. Her patient, encouraging way of imparting her deep and passionate
knowledge was like none I have ever experienced. I will forever be grateful to you, Dr. Robles.
Thank you for being my guide, therapist, advocate, and biggest cheerleader! Thank you, Dr.
Briana Hinga and Dr. Gregory Franklin. You have taught me much about leadership and
navigating the public school system while bringing people along as we change it at its core. You
have set the bar high but also give unending support along the way. Thank you all.
Thank you to my admin team for allowing me to leave work early every Thursday to
attend class and for being so understanding as I carry this extra mental load. You are second to
none.
I also would like to acknowledge my impressive K–12 cohort. Thank you for the lessons
you taught me and your unwavering support. This goes double for the 727 Crew: Dr. Martinez,
Dr. Knight, and Dr. Brahmbhatt! The support, phone calls, templates, writing sessions, listening
sessions, Starbucks—all the things! I love each of you and look forward to our future work
together.
vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………… iii
Dedication ………………………………………………………………………….…… v
Acknowledgments ……………………………………………………………….……… vi
List of Tables …………………………………………………………………….....…… x
List of Figures …………………………………………………………………………… xi
List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………… xii
Chapter One: Introduction …………………………………………………….………… 1
Introduction of the Problem of Practice ………………………………………………… 1
Organizational Context and Mission …………………………………………………… 3
Organizational Performance Goal ………………………………………………………. 4
Related Literature ……………………………………………………..………………… 6
Importance of the Evaluation …………………………………………………………… 7
Educational Partners and Their Performance Goals ………………………………….… 8
Educational Partners for the Study …………………………………………………..… 10
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions ………………………………………… 11
Methodological Framework ……………………………………………………………… 12
Organization of the Study ………………………………………………………………… 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ………………………………………………..… 14
The Historical Purpose of Public Education in the United States of America …… 15
What Preservice Educators Are Taught and Not Taught About Teaching Students
of Color …………………………………………………………………………… 19
The Call to Reform………………………………………………………………… 22
viii
Principal Leadership in Equity and Excellence ……………………………..….. 26
Conceptual Framework …………………………………………………….…… 28
Organizational Influences ………………………………………………….…… 38
Chapter Three: Methodology …………………………………………………………… 43
Purpose of the Project and Questions ……………………………………...…… 43
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ……………………………….…… 43
Assessment of Performance Influences ……………………………………….… 45
Participating Educational Partners and Sample Selection ………………….…… 51
Data Collection ……………………………………………………………..…… 52
Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………….…… 53
My Positionality …………………………………………………………….…… 53
Trustworthiness of Data …………………………………………………….…… 54
Role of Investigator ……………………………………………………....……… 54
Limitations and Delimitations …………………………………………………… 54
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ……………………………………………..……… 56
Participating Educational Partners ………………………………………………. 56
Determination of Assets and Needs ……………………………………………… 57
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes …………………………………… 58
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes …………………………….……… 66
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes …………..…………….……… 71
Summary of Validated Influences ……………………………………….……… 76
Conclusions of Findings ………………………………………………….……… 80
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation ……….……………………….……… 82
ix
Organizational Context and Mission …………………………………..………… 82
Organizational Performance Goal ……………………………………..………… 83
Educational Partner Group ……………………………………………………..……….. 83
Purpose of the Project and Questions …………………………………..………... 83
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
Influences ................................................................................................................ 84
Organization Recommendations………………………………………………………….. 93
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ………………………….……………… 96
Summary ………………………………………………………………………….……… 108
Limitations and Delimitations ………………………………………………….………… 109
Recommendations for Future Research …………………………………...……………… 109
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………...…….…………... 110
References ……………………………………………………………………...…………. 112
Appendix A: Interview Protocol for Participants ……………………………...………….. 131
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter ………………………………………………..………… 134
Appendix C: Interview Cover Sheet for Participants …………………………..…………. 136
Appendix D: Informed Consent/Information Sheet …………………………..…………... 138
Appendix E: Evaluation Tool to Be Used Immediately Following Training ……..….….... .140
Appendix F: Evaluation Tool Delayed for a Period After Training …………………..…….142
Appendix G: Subsequent Evaluation Tool to Be Used at Monthly Training ……………... 143
x
List of Tables
Table 1: Ethnic Disaggregation Data of Students, Teachers, and Administrators for
Lakeview District 4
Table 2: Organizational Goals & Monitoring Calendar 5
Table 3: Educational Partners and Their Contribution to the Performance Goals 9
Table 4: Knowledge Influences and Related Literature 33
Table 5: Motivational Influences and Related Literature 37
Table 6: Organizational Influences and Related Literature 41
Table 7: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 46
Table 8: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 48
Table 9: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment 49
Table 10: Participant Information 57
Table 11: Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 76
Table 12: Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 78
Table 13: Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 79
Table 14: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 85
Table 15: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 89
Table 16: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 93
Table 17: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 98
Table 18: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 99
Table 19: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 101
Table 20: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 104
Table 21: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 106
xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: National Ethnic Disaggregation of Teachers 2
Figure 2: Percentage distribution of student enrollment in public elementary and
secondary schools by race/ethnicity: Fall 2010, Fall 2021, and Fall 2031 3
Figure 3: Gap Analysis Process 45
xii
List of Abbreviations
K–12 Kindergarten through Twelfth grade
SBAC Smarter Balanced Academic Consortium
CORE California Office to Reform Education
EICC Educational Issues Coordination Committee
NCEE National Commission on Educational Excellence
NCLB No Child Left Behind
ESSA Every Child Succeeds Act
AYP Adequate Yearly Progress
UDL Universal Design for Learning
CRP Critical Race Pedagogy
MTSS Multi-Tiered System of Support
PBIS Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support
IRB Institution Review Board
KMO Knowledge, Motivation, Organization
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The Problem of Practice
The American school system was not built to give all students an equitable educational
experience. In the 1800s, it began to sort which children were seen to be serviceable to society.
With the influx of varied ethnicities and religious beliefs, the system was reorganized to teach a
shared value system. With the country's industrialization, a factory model was applied to the
educational system to make it a bureaucratic institution (Massey, 2014). This model is largely the
same system we have today; however, the social tides have begun to change.
The public school system is entrenched in a dilemma about race and inequitable teaching
practices in the classrooms for students of color (Ladson-Billings, 1995). In response, school
districts have adopted equity policies in an attempt to acknowledge and correct the systemic
racism of students of color. The California Department of Education has even added a page
defining “Equity” and providing resources, including Tools, Promising Practices, and Research.
These publications positively offer all students an equitable educational experience; however,
implementation at school sites is likely to vary. When schools have ethical leaders implementing
these policies, the expectation is that school staff and faculty are more likely to implement the
equity policy in the classroom (Bazerman, 2020).
Nationally, about 80% of public school teachers are white, while most students are not, as
seen in Figure 1 (NCES, 2020).
2
Figure 1
National Ethnic Disaggregation of Teachers (US Dept of Education, 2020)
This data proposes a problem of practice. See Figure 2 (NCES 2023).
3
Figure 2
Percentage distribution of student enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools by
race/ethnicity: Fall 2010, Fall 2021, and Fall 2031. (National Center for Education Statistics,
2023)
Organizational Context and Mission
Lakeview District is a large, urban public school district in California with over 50,000
students. Looking at the disaggregated data of the district’s workforce versus student ethnicities,
Lakeview District performs better than the national average. However, 49% of the teachers and
39% of the administrators are white, while 88% of the students are of color.
4
Table 1
Ethnic Disaggregation Data of Students, Teachers, and Administrators for Lakeview District
African American Hispanic White
______________________________________________________________________________
Students 12% 59% 12%
K–12 Teachers 9% 27% 49%
K–12 Administrators 21% 28% 39%
The district’s mission statement is to support each student personally and academically in
each class every day. Lakeview District’s board recently adopted an equity policy created by a
committee of district employees, parents, and community members. The policy states how
Lakeview District defines equity, acknowledges historical wrongs, and commits to equitable
practices. It also outlines how the policy will be implemented. Implementation involves every
district office, the district budget, and every classroom.
Organizational Performance Goal
Since Lakeview District has pledged to uphold equity and abide by its equity policy,
goals were established by the superintendent with the intent of centering students of color, with a
specific focus on Black students. The data monitoring calendar shows that district officials have
days set aside to analyze specific data to see where they meet the goals. Some sections are
designated to report to the board as a way of being transparent with the data and being held
accountable. Below is a sample of Lakeview District’s 2022–2023 goals, the data sources used to
monitor them, and the monitoring calendar.
5
Table 2
Organizational Goals & Monitoring Calendar
Goals Data Sources Monitoring Calendar
1. Lakeview Districts’ students
will gain at least one year of
academic growth. The median
student growth of Black
students will be at least 25%
more than last year.
• Reading Skills
Assessment iReady
• Grades: A–C grade
reports
• Intervention
Results
• SBAC Annual
Results
• October:
o i-Ready data and
initial placements
determined
o A–C reports from each
school reported to
level office
o Monitor interventions
o SBAC growth to be
reported to the board
2. Lakeview student access and
success in college and career
options will grow. Black
student success in A–G
completion will raise at least
5%.
• Math Achievement
(K–8)
• High School
Readiness
• College Readiness
(Dual enrollment,
AP courses & pass
rates)
• A–G On Track
• December
o A–G Gatekeeper
review
• January
o Post-Secondary
Placements
o Dual Enrollment
Participation
• February
o Significant
Disproportionality
(Board Report)
Data Monitoring Calendar
The school data monitoring runs from July through June and has specific reports
analyzed by corresponding district offices. The offices report their findings and suggest next
steps to the board. To monitor academic growth for Goal 1, the i-Ready reading skills test will be
looked at for the elementary level. This test provides normative and criterion-referenced data
measured over several months—an initial diagnostic and interval testing throughout the year to
monitor growth. A–C grade reports (K–12) are disaggregated data reports analyzed by
elementary, middle, and high school level offices. These lead to conversations with site
principals about the school’s achievement and areas of need.
6
The monitoring of Goal 2 will begin in December by reviewing gatekeeper classes, which
have a history of preventing students from passing their A–G classes. The D/F rates are looked at
closely to discover patterns of inequity: grading practice issues, content covered, or any other
area that may inhibit a student from successfully passing. The disaggregated data for postsecondary placements and dual enrollment are analyzed in January. This is to ensure all students
are granted access to these opportunities and to find areas where the district needs to focus. As a
result of the analyses of these data sources, a report of the significant disproportionality is
prepared and presented to the board.
Level offices monitor intervention program results each semester according to their
effectiveness and recommend continuing or ending them accordingly. Middle and high school
offices review the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC) annual results. This gives
an overall picture of specific areas of growth and need for students. This information is used to
design interventions according to individual school site needs.
Related Literature
The opportunity gap, the severity and frequency of discipline, and special education
referrals and placement continue to affect Black students at a higher rate than white students
(Tullo, 2023). The difference in achievement data between white students and students of color
is not new. In 1995, Dr. Gloria Ladson-Billings published her work from the previous six years,
researching teachers who successfully taught African American students (1995), noting distinct
practices in these teachers. One notable difference was the change in mindset from calling
achievement disparities an achievement gap to thinking about it as an educational debt we owe
our students (2006). This shifts the responsibility for students of color’s academic achievement
from the student to the educator and school community.
7
There have been numerous suggestions and studies on best practices to flatten the data
between ethnic groups. Much of the research centers on educator bias and the decolonization of
the public educational system (Brown, J. 2019; Douglas, T. R., & Nganga; Jones, K., & Okun, T.
2001; Patel, L. 2015; Patel. L. 2016; Picower, B. 2009; Rothstein, R. 2017; Ross 2020). The
current literature also interrogates the ideas that many of the programs educators employ to
counteract the undesirable data for students of color are not built to change the root of the
problem and, therefore, fail (Beer. M., Eisensta, R. A., & Spector, B., 2011). There is also a need
for “greater attention to the educational philosophies, epistemologies, and perspectives of school
leaders” (Horsford, S. D. et al., 2011).
An additional layer to the effort for change is people's assumptions, which they often are
unaware of because they accept them as reality. These assumptions are not often critically
examined and are “woven into the very fabric of people’s existence” (Kegan et al., 2011).
Likewise, the discrepancy in academic achievement between Black and non-Black students is
not ignorance of the student, but an ignorance of the educational system that has been allowed to
go unchecked and passed down (Andreotti, 2016). Instead of teaching techniques and programs,
more attention should be given to Pablo Freire’s “Radical Love” theory, which Douglas and
Nganga (2013) refer to. In this idea, educators interrogate their positionality as they teach a
diverse student population and employ radical love. The idea is that interrogating one’s
positionality will lead to critically conscious teaching (Douglas, 2013).
Importance of the Evaluation
If we ever hope to change the outcome of our students of color, we must critically
evaluate our system to discover what is successful and which practices have been unproductive.
Using Lakeview District’s mission statement as a guide, we need to be sure everything we are
8
doing supports the personal and academic success of every student in each class, each day. We
are currently not reaching this goal. This is evidenced by student achievement data, which shows
wide gaps between white students and students of color, specifically Black/African American
and Latinx. This is not specific to Lakeview District, but a nationwide issue. Chavez-Duenas
(2019) refers to how darker skin color and less “European” features can affect not only mental
health and income but also the attainment of education.
The need to have school leaders create change at their sites is significant and farreaching. For this to happen, leaders need to be in a posture of learning, in a learner’s mindset,
and reflecting on action (Ashford et al., 2012). Leaders must navigate the “political context, a
pedagogical approach, a personal journey, and professional duty” (Horsford, 2011) of moving a
school toward more culturally responsive and equitable practices.
Educational Partners and Their Performance Goals
Educational Partners crucial to this work's success are district leaders, site leaders, and
classroom teachers. Our Superintendent, Deputy Superintendent, and Senior Team create
initiatives and set expectations for site leaders and classroom teachers. They are the party
responsible for leading the creation of an equity policy and creating systems to uphold the
organization's values. Second, site leaders are responsible for communicating district
expectations and implementing initiatives using professional development and teacher
accountability. Lastly, classroom teachers are doing the daily work with students. It is in their
classrooms that initiatives take shape.
9
Table 3
Educational Partners and Their Contribution to the Performance Goals.
Organizational Mission
“To support the personal and intellectual success of every student, every day.”
Organizational Performance Goal
By September 2027, 100% of K–12 administrators will lead their school site in equitable practices and hold
teachers accountable for equitable teaching practices in the classroom by centering students of color.
District Leadership
In September 2025, the district and
community members who cocreated
the equity policy will meet to
cocreate equity accountability
measures for administrators and
teachers to ensure an expectation of
equitable practices. This will
include a list of observable teaching
and learning practices.
By June 2026, this proposed
amendment to the equity policy will
go to the board for approval.
In July 2026, the district will meet
with the teachers' union and agree
to revise the teacher evaluation
process to reflect this new
expectation.
In September 2026, the district will
roll out the updates to the equity
policy to all K–12 site
administrators. As part of this
rollout, by June 2026, white
principals will be called upon to
understand their responsibility in
this work. This is not work for only
the principals of color.
Site Administrators
By September 2026, the
district will train principals in
the new equity policy
expectations and the
responsibility of white
principals.
This will include the
expectation that site
administrators will participate
in and design professional
development for their sites on
equitable practices and selfreflection of biases and
positionality.
Principals will also use the
new list of observable
teaching and learning
practices as they walk
through classrooms to gather
data throughout the 2026–
2027 school year.
This should result in a 25%
increase in the sense of
belonging of Black/African
American students and a 25%
increase in academic
achievement by June 2027.
Classroom Teachers
From September 2026 to June 2027,
the equity policy updates will also be
rolled out to 100% of K–12 teachers.
This will include monthly professional
development on personal reflection on
race and positionality and how that
affects classroom practices. Teachers
will be trained in how to plan lessons
that are culturally relevant and
inclusive. They will be made aware of
the accountability measures and
expectations and the change to the
evaluation process.
The new practices are expected to take
effect immediately, but accountability
mandates and the new evaluation will
not take effect until September 2027.
10
Educational Partners for the Study
All educational partners must effectively change to more equitable practices in a school
district. For this study, I will focus on white high school principals. I am focusing on this group
because principals set the culture of excellence for their campus. As well as being responsible for
student achievement, the principal heavily influences the school's climate and culture (Grissom
et al., 2021). I am narrowing my focus to white principals because white leaders are the majority
race of teachers and principals. Since our public school system was designed to benefit a white
society, focusing on white principals who have had success in closing the academic opportunity
gap and/or increasing a sense of belonging for their students of color by implementing equitable
practices at their site will serve as a promising practice and model to build on for others.
The principal’s goal in designing professional development is to train teachers how to
increase equitable practices and self-reflection of biases and positionality for their sites, as well
as use the new list of observable teaching and learning practices as they walk through classrooms
to gather data throughout the 2026–2027 school year. These actions will have a significant effect
on the site. As stated in the Wallace Foundation study on how principals affect students and
schools (2004), principals have a greater effect than previously thought. They have a noticeable
impact on teacher satisfaction and retention (especially among high-performing teachers),
student attendance, and reduced exclusionary discipline. These are all elements of a school
providing an environment conducive to high student achievement.
The level of achievement was selected because the district expects all employees to
implement equitable practices. There are several ways to track the progress of this goal: the
district recording the topic of professional development given as well as participating in some
professional development sessions; holding principals accountable for using the walk-through
11
criteria when visiting classrooms and leaving teacher feedback; and analyzing data from
benchmark academic tests, disaggregated grade data for academics, and the results of the annual
California Office to Reform Education (CORE) survey. The CORE survey is taken by students
in grades three through twelve and distributed to all families. It is given from February through
March and gathers disaggregated data regarding safety and their sense of belonging. Teachers
need ongoing support to change culturally responsive teaching practices, requiring site leaders to
actively engage with teachers through monitoring and providing feedback (LBUSD Student
Outcome Goals, 2023).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation,
and organization of white principals who have been successful in the implementation of
equitable practices at their school site with the result of positively changing the achievement
and/or sense of belonging data for students of color. Research questions that will guide this study
are as follows:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to white
administrators leading their schools to close the opportunity gap for their students of
color?
2. What are solutions and recommendations in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources for white administrators to positively change the outcomes for their students of
color?
Chapter Five will include recommendations for organizational practices in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources and policies.
12
Methodological Framework
I will be using the Clark and Estes conceptual framework for this study. This framework
is structured to assess and evaluate performance goals and identify achievement gaps. There is an
established and well-documented gap between achievement data of white students and those of
color. I will use a qualitative method for gathering and analyzing data to evaluate white
principals who have successfully changed the achievement data for students of color.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), three areas lead to a performance gap: knowledge,
motivation, and organizational barriers. By interviewing these principals, I hope to discover
promising practices required for this work. If I capture the knowledge they have obtained to
change students’ outcomes successfully, I hope it can be duplicated to improve student success
on a larger scale. This study will also focus on the administrators’ motivation to lead in equitable
practices even when it does not benefit their own racial identity. I am eager to learn their reasons
for persisting through opposition until success is achieved and how much mental effort they have
invested in this accomplishment (Clark and Estes, 2008). Many of my participants have been
doing this work since before equity became a national buzzword. Therefore, I am interested in
knowing the organizational resources they found helpful or the institutional barriers they have
encountered. I want to discover what, if anything, has improved since Lakeview District’s equity
policy was implemented.
The administrators’ performance will be validated using interviews, literature review,
and content analysis. Research-based solutions will be recommended and evaluated thoroughly.
According to the gap analysis described by Clark & Estes (2008), I followed these guidelines
when interviewing: I chose a representative sample, was an active listener, and gave the
participant an incentive to be candid.
13
Areas that will be addressed include investigating the administrators’ knowledge and skill
in creating this change, their motivation to achieve the goal of ensuring equitable teaching
practices and how that fits with other job responsibilities, and what organizational barriers they
encounter as a result of district policies and practices (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provides the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in the discussion and adds to the literature about
ensuring an equitable educational experience for students of color when most of the teaching
faculty and educational leaders are white. The organization’s mission, goals, educational
partners, and the review of the evaluation framework are also provided. Chapter Two reviews the
current literature surrounding the scope and an overview of the Clark & Estes (2008) gap
analysis conceptual framework. The literature review includes white principals’ knowledge, their
motivation, and organizational barriers to positively changing the academic outcomes for
students of color. Chapter Three details the methodology of participants, data collection, and
analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are described and analyzed. Chapter Five provides
recommendations for practice based on data and literature and recommendations for an
implementation and evaluation plan.
14
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter is presented in two parts. The first part reviews the literature, divided into
three sections, about how our current U.S. K–12 public school system affects students of color.
Additionally, it provides an overview of the literature focused on the past and present United
States K–12 public school system. The second part of this chapter introduces the gap analysis
framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). This framework provides the structure in which the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational assistance or hindrance of white K–12 principals’
success in improving the educational outcomes for students of color were examined.
The first part of Chapter Two provides a review of the literature in three segments of
time: The 1800s through the 1950s, focusing on immigrants who came to the United States and
experienced the public school system, which was set up to enculturate them into the American
way (Massey et al., 2014; Painter, N. I., 2010; Tyack, D. B., 1993); the 1950s through the 1980s,
spotlighting the landmark case of Brown vs. Board of Education which changed education policy
significantly, along with the East Los Angeles Walkouts occurring in 1968 (Orfield &
Frankenberg, 2014), where over 15,000 high school students walked out of seven different
schools in East Los Angeles to stand up against discrepancies between Mexican American and
white students; and lastly, the 1990s to the present looks at literature about what has recently
been taught to preservice teachers and the cultural pedagogy instruction that is being left out
(Busey & Vickery, 2018; Dunn et al., 2014; Matias et al., 2016; Smith & Crowley, 2015).
The literature analyzed highlights the media's influence on the American public’s bias by
historically portraying people of color in a negative light and how that shapes stereotypes,
leading some teachers to see students of color through a deficit lens (Hughey, 2009; Shor & Van
de Rijt, 2023; King, 2017; Adu-Gyamfi et al., 2022; Freire, 1975).
15
I reviewed the literature that examines the need for social justice. This section begins
with the school-to-prison pipeline of punitive discipline for students of color (Hemez et al., 2020;
Laura, 2018; Morgan, 2021), but also the implementation of culturally relevant pedagogy
(Hernandez, 2021; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Pagán, 2022; Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007) and the
possibilities of liberation through education (Biondi, M. 2012; Freire, 1975; hooks, 1994;
Rogers, 2012; Wallace, 2016).
In part two of the chapter, I close by presenting the Clark & Estes (2008) Gap Analysis
conceptual framework. This includes the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support of
white K–12 principals in their work to realize achievement for their students of color.
The Historical Purpose of Public Education in the United States of America
Since its origin, the priority of the American educational system was to teach about
American citizenship, our constitution, and democracy (Tyack, D. B., 1993). This teaching was
not meant for all people but intended for white males (Painter, N. I., 2010). I will highlight
literature written in three segments to highlight major historical occurrences of our educational
system.
American Public Education 1800–1950
Beginning in the 1800s, the American school system dealt with an influx of immigrants.
Schools were becoming systematized to teach the desired values of society to transform
immigrants into model U.S. citizens (Tyack, D. B., 1993). Between 1892 and 1954, over twelve
million immigrants came through Ellis Island (National Park Service, 2021). In 1913, the United
States Public Health Service conducted the Binet IQ test for immigrants arriving at Ellis Island.
These tests were given to all immigrants to “speed up the segregation process” (Painter, N. I.,
2010). As a way to maintain power, white Americans forced all immigrants to take tests which
16
were in English and were culturally biased so that immigrants would not do well, and therefore,
score mentally insufficient. As a result, it was recorded that 79% of Italians, 80% of Hungarians,
83% of Jews, and 87% of Russians were mentally slow and unintelligent (Minnesota Department
of Administration, 2023).
The validity of the test was not challenged, and test results served to reinforce negative
images of immigrants. They were also used as an attempt to sort and track students. This, along
with the acceptance of the eugenics movement, helped promote political intervention in elevating
only students deemed acceptable for education (Farber, 2008), thus creating a larger divide
between races in education, which ultimately led to students of low socioeconomic status and
diverse backgrounds to be placed on a non-college preparatory track (Massey et al., 2014).
American Public Education 1950–1980
In 1952, the case that came to be known as Brown v. Board of Education was brought
before the Supreme Court and radically changed education policy in this country. It was
ultimately deemed that separate school systems for Blacks and whites were not equal and
violated the "equal protection clause" of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Also, relying on sociological tests and other data, segregated school systems tended to make
Black children feel inferior to white children and, therefore, such a system should not be legally
allowed (United States Courts, ND).
During the 1950s and 1960s, there were many noticeable differences in education
between white and Mexican American students. Mexican American students had a 60% dropout
rate, and those who did graduate had much lower academic achievement (Library of Congress,
ND). Even though Brown v. Board of Education established there should not be a system
separating students, some teachers did not allow students to speak their native language, and staff
17
funneled Mexican American students into special education curriculum and vocational programs
instead of higher education (Britannica, 2023).
In response, different groups formed the Educational Issues Coordinating Committee
(EICC) in 1968. With the support of this group, approximately 15,000 students walked out of
their classrooms in protest from March 1 to 8. This committee ultimately presented a list of
demands to the Los Angeles Board of Education, with recommendations for curriculum changes,
bilingual education, and hiring Mexican American administrators (Library of Congress, ND).
The quality of education was at the forefront of discussion after the Secretary of
Education formed the National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE) to research the
quality of education in America (NCEE, 1983). This report, A Nation at Risk, brought attention
to the decline in academic achievement since the 1960s and the fear of what this means for the
country’s “commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation” (1983). The findings shed
light on the neglect of our students of color and meeting their educational needs and was the
impetus for major educational policy change. It led to the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of
2001, which mandated disaggregating school data and increasing accountability for schools,
districts, and states. The more recent Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015 expands on
NCLB by changing decision-making from a federal to a state-level created accountability
system, intending to give states more flexibility so each child can receive a high-quality
education (California Department of Education, ND).
American Public Education 1990–2024
The Nation at Risk (1983) report was the beginning of America acknowledging that
teaching needed to change to meet the needs of all students, not just white students. It began
18
educational reform to improve student achievement, not just by fulfilling the law but also by
increasing student attendance.
NCLB (2001) was a groundbreaking act that held districts accountable for the first time
by disaggregating test scores to measure the progress of all students. They were sorted into
groups by factors including economic disadvantage, racial or ethnic subgroup, disability, and
limited English proficiency (California Department of Education, 2022). The act also required all
students to score proficient in reading and mathematics by 2014 and schools to make adequate
yearly progress (AYP) according to state standards. These findings were publicly posted as
Accountability Report Cards. While accountability took place, only 11% of teachers ten years
after NCLB took effect in 2001 said the new requirements had enhanced their teaching strategies
(Zhang, 2008). NCLB was revolutionary because it was the first time white students were not
centered in measuring student achievement. To properly reflect our students, social diversity is
vital in educational policy. Nonetheless, it has not yet become a reality (Tyack, D. B., 1993).
However, the next iteration in ESSA attempts to center student achievement for all, even more
than NCLB.
When ESSA came into effect in 2015, there were some notable differences from NCLB.
The states instead of the federal government were now responsible for holding schools
accountable. Districts are encouraged to get rid of excessive testing, as they are now required to
base their evaluation on more than just test scores, but they must give more weight to academic
factors than to school-quality factors. Rather than being labeled “needs improvement,” struggling
schools have no federal penalties. Instead, these schools get additional funding and must develop
an improvement plan. In 2015, the ESSA endorsed a Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
model and encouraged personalized learning. Schools must continue to report test scores by
19
subgroup publicly but now must tell parents if a subgroup is underperforming, and evidencebased improvement methods must be used. Parents and families must also be included as schools
create state plans (California Department of Education, ND).
These accountability measures were given to schools to implement immediately.
Teachers are essential to the implementation process (Hattie, 2003), so professional development
was needed. Funds were provided to districts for teacher professional development through
ESSA. Still, no accountability measures were in place to ensure teachers were adequately
prepared to teach students of ethnicities other than their own.
What Preservice Educators Are Taught and Not Taught About Teaching Students of
Color
Research in culturally responsive teaching and the education debt we owe our students of
color (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Douglas and Nganga, 2013) has introduced a new way of thinking
about the role of educators and students of color. However, according to the National Center for
Education Statistics (2021), the educational workforce is 89% female in elementary and 64% in
secondary, and 80% white. These mostly white female teachers have gone through decades of
education without learning about how to teach other cultures and ethnicities (Delpit, 1995). With
the accountability demands of NCLB and ESSA, teachers have felt unprepared to meet the
challenges of teaching non-white students (Avery, 1993; Bell, 2002; Darling-Hammond, 2005)
because this relatively new research has not necessarily been taught in schools of education.
Implementing Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
The literature provides examples of preservice teachers who need to embrace cultural
pedagogy in their credential programs (Busey & Vickery, 2018; Dunn et al., 2014; Matias et al.,
2016; Smith & Crowley, 2015). Even with goodwill and benevolence, teaching students of color
20
with diverse backgrounds and experiences can be challenging for teachers unfamiliar with their
students’ cultures and families (Saffold & Longwell-Grice, 2008).
Many teaching credential programs encourage preservice teachers to explore how their
life experiences shape their view of race and work through their beliefs in a critical, multicultural
course (Picower, 2009). Through this critical self-reflection, teachers encourage different
perspectives and life experiences in the classroom to make it a safe place for multiple viewpoints
(Heath, 1983; Ladson-Billings, 1994). Even with this level of self-reflection, ignorance of
cultural pedagogies is still prevalent, as the origin and method of teaching is based on American
culture (Ginsberg, 2015).
Our school system echoes current social issues, particularly for students of color
(McLaren, 1988). The need for teachers to implement a culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) is
not a new concept, as Dr. Ladson-Billings wrote about it in 1995. However, twenty-eight years
later, we are still discussing the need for CRP in classrooms. We know the expectations for
students of color, both academically and behaviorally, are lower than for white students
(Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007), which has an impact on academic achievement, graduation rates,
placement in special education programs, and disciplinary actions (Pagán, 2022).
Teachers with diverse students, especially those not racially socialized, will need training
and support in implementing CRP. It is imperative to know how to incorporate multiple
viewpoints of the content and create a supportive and student-centered classroom culture
(Hernandez, 2021).
Ladson-Billings outlined The CRP Framework (1995) as a research-based guide for
successful implementation. She identifies four points for successful implementation: linking
schooling and culture, academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness.
21
Normalizing Whiteness and Racial Socialization
Smith and Crowley (2015) introduced the idea of using Race and Critical Whiteness
Studies as threshold concepts in preservice teacher education programs. These concepts are
transformational in nature and cause those who study them to redefine their understanding of the
topic and what this new knowledge means for other ideas and structures. Acknowledging and
interrogating positionality enables teachers to incorporate pedagogies that “allow for a fluid
understanding of culture and a teaching practice that explicitly engages questions of equity and
justice” (Ladson-Billings, 2014).
Leaning on the work of Douglass and Nganga (2013), we see great rewards can be reaped
if we bring together Critical Pedagogy and Radical Love (2013). They suggest that this type of
teaching calls for radical action, refusing to work within the established system as it is but being
an anti-oppressive force of love, and fighting the traditional educational framework by designing
a pedagogy that honors the individual culture and sees the student holistically.
Normalization of whiteness, or racialization (Bensimon & Gray, 2019), has been passed
down in teaching practices since the beginning of American public education. Until recently, the
expectation and teaching of anti-racist thinking and critical self-analysis were not taught to
higher education professors (Harper, 2015) or any preservice teachers. Literature about racial
socialization reveals that in the United States, white families do not intentionally socialize their
white children with race (Bartoli et al., 2016). On the other hand, parents of color actively teach
their children about their own culture and prepare them for racist practices they will face and
how to react to them (Hughes, Rodriguez, et al., 2006). It is, then, not surprising that white
teachers are ill-equipped to “navigate issues of race and who are socialized to simultaneously
deny the meaning of race while drawing on racist stereotypes to explain racial inequities”
22
(Bartoli et al., 2016). By normalizing whiteness in our society, we have skewed our vision to
view everything from a single perspective of privilege (Shohat & Stam, 1994). According to
Paulo Freire (1975), “masking reality” successfully alienates us from relationships without
realizing it. We go along robotically in this manner without ever asking “why.” This behavior
dehumanizes us and negates our ability to express feelings; we suffer because we hide our
feelings and then are afraid to let them out.
The Call to Reform
The Nation at Risk report (1983) catapulted our country into educational reformation, as
seen in the NCLB Act (2001) and our current ESSA (2015). This legislation is the gateway to
implementing research which has had success for students of color. Dr. Ladson-Billings (2006)
talks about changing our mindset from looking at achievement gaps in our disaggregated data to
considering it a debt we owe our students of color. The gap in the data is a direct result of how
our school system did not meet the needs of our students. Shifting this thinking places the
responsibility on us, the educators. A literature review that shows successful educational
practices expands on this thinking.
Moving From a Deficit to an Asset Lens for All Cultures
Minoritized students have a wealth of knowledge and skills, including aspirational,
navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and resistant capital (Yasso, 2005). Students of color
bring these skills from their communities and families to the classroom. If tapped into, these
skills would help them navigate the school system better and bring a rich perspective to the
content (Tolbert-Smith, 2022).
Zoch and He (2020) discuss research with preservice teachers preparing to work with
multilingual students. The students engaged in activities designed to build an asset-based
23
mindset. Activities included literacy teaching, visiting places in their students' neighborhoods,
learning their primary language, and co-creating narrative videos with the students and their
families. The results were that preservice teachers gained empathy and could identify community
assets.
Teaching Minoritized Students
The eventual widening of the gaps in academic achievement for Latinx and Black
students does not depend on attending an inferior school. These discrepancies in achievement
data happen to Black and Latinx students in comparison to their white counterparts (Bali &
Alvarez, 2004). The need for educators to know how to teach students of color is essential if we
are to erase racial discrepancies in achievement data. Teachers may deny or repress differences
that emerge when teaching multicultural students. Sometimes, stereotypical representations and
repressive silences emerge instead of pushing forward into the uncomfortable to engage with
students in their context (Asher, 2007). Realizing we live in a multicultural world and not
centering whiteness leads to better implementing a more genuine form of multicultural teaching
(Hoffman, 1996). Approaching a classroom in this manner can promote real transformation in
conceptualizing and practicing education in a multicultural community.
Soliciting student voice in matters of school policy and practice poses dual challenges for
some educators, as their mindset may be challenged, as well as the structure of the institution
itself (Cook, 2002). Implementing student voice is a role reversal, but the relationship and
degrees of trust and empathy that exist between teachers and students can lead to maximum
student engagement (Morris, 2019).
24
A framework such as the UDL uses various teaching methods to remove any barriers to
learning. It is flexible and can be modified for each student’s strengths and needs. This teaching
model is especially effective with students of color or any students who learns differently.
Restorative Discipline
It has been well-documented that punitive and exclusionary punishment for students,
such as suspension, has been proven to negatively impact future outcomes for youth (Hemez et
al., 2020). Disciplinary procedures still indicate a disproportionate rate of suspensions and
expulsions for Black and Brown students. The Civil Rights Data Collection (2017–2018)
indicates Black students continue to receive significantly more in- and out-of-school suspensions
than white students, and male students are 125% more likely to be suspended than female
students (Bell, 1973; Gage et al., 2022). These unfair racial issues range from discipline practices
to academic tracking, creating a negative school experience for students of color (RamsayJordan, 2020). There is an association between in-school suspension, which is sometimes looked
at as having less of an impact on students, and lower grade point averages and increased
likelihood of dropping out (Cholewa, 2018).
This punitive approach is contrary to research that shows schools that incorporate MultiTier Systems of Support (MTSS) with fidelity, such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and
Supports (PBIS), have the potential to address these inequities (Gage et al., 2022). Along with
the disciplinary structure, biased school staff and a lack of teacher preparation for restorative
practices play a role (Morgan, 2021).
Liberation Through Education
Since the politics of society drive education liberation, it cannot happen through
education unless members of the oppressed have power and can change society first (Friedman et
25
al., 2011; Meier, 2019; Freire, 1972). We must always ask why things are the same and
challenge others to do the same. It is not easy for white Americans to see education is so
political, as they have been raised in this society made for white people. This leads to a false
feeling of neutrality, which the system is not. However, if liberation is to be found in education,
the educator must guide their students into a healthy questioning of society and the status quo
(Stuchul et al., 2009; Biondi, M., 2012; Rogers, 2012; Wallace, 2016). Only when the oppressed
can see their situation and understand the power structure holding them there can they educate
themselves into liberation (Freire, 1975). If we hope to redesign our educational system, it will
require thinking outside of what is known.
Seeing the world and our social practices differently requires accepting theory as a place
to imagine and plan. bell hooks (1994) describes using theory as an “intervention.” Being
unsatisfied with the current state of her own reality, she looked to theory to make sense of the
world around her, attempting to cause people to do things differently and challenge the status
quo. This led to a lifetime of theorizing, activism, writing, and teaching. She joined the
revolution of using education to liberate one's mind to liberate one's station. This is the way of
thinking and inspiration we need to challenge the status quo and rethink public education.
In San Francisco, California, changing society to change education for the purposes of
liberation occurred in 1968–1969 when Black college students recognized students of color were
not represented on campus. A five-month student strike and marches on the administration
buildings ensued, and one result was the development of the Black and Ethnic Studies program
(Biondi, M. 2012, Rogers, 2012).
Teaching is intellectual work and, therefore, should be liberating in nature, with
importance placed on transformation (Lam, 2015). Permitting students to have their own
26
thoughts, which may directly oppose the current societal norms, is motivating (Wallace, 2016).
Castillo-Montoyo et al. (2019) discuss the intersectional Black culture in the current struggle for
liberation and intersectional critical consciousness. They highlighted the importance of building
relationships and naming emotions as Black people worked toward their liberation and examined
the impact of growth that would have on students with this pedagogical framework in a
classroom setting. Recognizing and honoring each student’s culture and the assets they bring are
vital to facilitating liberation. This characteristic is foundational to the equitable educational
experience of all our students, especially those of color who have not been well served in our
system.
Principal Leadership in Equity and Excellence
As site principals, the initiatives we believe in are part of our reality and set the
foundation for our decisions. Various realities may lead people to make different decisions for
their students (Sergiovanni, 1992). As we strive to change and disrupt our current system,
principals face some universal hurdles as well as promising practices in the midst of this work.
Barriers to Leading for Equity
As K–12 site principals are charged with being changemakers and closing the opportunity
gap for students of color, I would like to address the research that states this work has hurdles to
overcome. Hurdles such as basing decisions on data when there are national and local pressures
for accountability in core subjects such as math and English have caused leaders to focus on
boosting test scores (Diamond & Spillane, 2004) instead of what is needed for equitable
education for all students.
Since driving school site decisions by data is vital to making equitable changes (Yoon,
2016), principals must know how to analyze data. Another barrier to leading for equity is that
27
school leaders may not have the data analysis skill set to analyze data effectively. This
knowledge gap may contribute to principals not prioritizing the time and resources needed to
analyze data to look for equity dilemmas properly (Goldring & Berends, 2009).
Another barrier is the possible lack of will and belief that changing our practices is
necessary. Research shows that one’s belief system is the best predictor of behavior and the most
difficult to change (Bandura, 1986; Dewey, 1933; Pajares, 1992; Rokeach, 1968). By showing
the data and explaining the why and how of the change, a principal may get teachers to buy in
(Darling-Hammond, 2005; Joram et al., 2020). Despite these barriers, successful site principals
are still lessening the opportunity gap and increasing the sense of belonging for their students.
Leading for Equity and Excellence
Research tells us that school principals who are straightforward about equity issues at
their school site and have a clear plan to reduce the inequities are more likely to disrupt historical
inequities and give their students more learning opportunities (Rigby & Tredway, 2015). With
this in mind, there are leadership practices that reinforce this type of disruption.
Teachers are the most influential element of student achievement (Kane, 2008; Metzler &
Woessmann, 2012; Stonge et al., 2011). Therefore, coaching teachers is an important
responsibility for the K–12 site principal. Research conducted by Wade and Noguera (2011) has
revealed three main areas in which principals should be coaching their teachers to produce the
most equitable results for their students: Promoting and enhancing student engagement in
learning and addressing avoidance behaviors; Raising the levels of self-efficacy, self-regulated
learning, and incremental ability beliefs about intelligence; and Cultivating constructive
classroom dynamics and transactions such as positive teacher-student relationships and
collaborative learning.
28
Berg and Gleason (2018) show another way to succeed in equitable practices. They say it
is through professional development that we can rethink and redesign our beliefs (mindsets and
relationships), actions (practices and routines), and systems (policies and structures) to foster a
more equitable education for our students of color. Through these types of practices, we can
move our schools forward in higher achievement for all students.
Learning and Unlearning in Leadership
If we are to proceed with changing the status quo, that often requires learning new ideas
or practices and surrendering some traditional ones (Hislop et al., 2014). Throughout the book
The Four Pivots, Ginwright (2022) discusses ways to heal the harm that has been brought upon
students of color. Through reflection, creating a sense of belonging, and seeing possibility by
gaining a new perspective, he argues we can make small changes that will greatly impact how
we educate students of color.
Cochran-Smith (2003) makes a case that learning and unlearning go hand in hand in the
educational system, and this works best if one takes an inquiry stance. It is only with this mindset
that one can support developmental growth. She further goes on to stress the importance of
interrogating our own racist assumptions encapsulated in the curricula in our school systems and
owning our often ignorant covertness in maintaining current systems, which include privilege
and oppression. At the same time, we cope with our own failures to generate the sort of changes
we desire (Cochran-Smith, 2000).
Conceptual Framework
Part two of the literature review provides a review of the conceptual framework of Clark
and Estes (2008). The gap analysis framework is designed to assess organizational performance
gaps. They name three key causes that must be analyzed: people’s knowledge and skills, their
29
motivation to achieve the goals, and any organizational barriers that may exist. Clark and Estes
(2008) state all three factors must be in place and aligned for goal achievement. The knowledge
gaps of educational partner groups may be content they do not know, tasks they do not know
how to perform, or their ineptitude to assess their understanding and regulate their learning
habits. These knowledge types are declarative, procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002).
Motivation gaps can occur at different points of goal achievement, such as the decision to start a
task and then stay with the task until a quality product is produced. Motivation can fade after
their initial choice and pursuance for a variety of reasons; however, theories of self-efficacy,
attributions, and goal orientation can help to explain why these motivation hurdles exist
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Bandura, 1998; Clark & Estes, 2008; Pajares, 2006; Yough &
Anderman, 2006). The last factor to evaluate is organizational barriers, which include
organizational policies or procedures, available resources, or hidden cultures that overthrow
organizational goals. This section examines the literature on possible knowledge factors and
motivational influences of white K–12 principals who have made a significant difference in
closing the opportunity gap for their students of color and possible organizational barriers they
may face in creating an equitable educational opportunity for all students. For this study, the
Clark and Estes (2008) framework will be adapted to evaluate these site principals and their
practices.
Knowledge
Knowledge impacts achievement and an organization’s progress (Clark & Estes, 2008).
In Krathwohl’s (2002) revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy, he gives four types of knowledge:
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. For this study, I will focus on three
knowledge influences: the factual knowledge and skills of white principals in the realm of
30
equity, the procedural methods and knowledge of necessary steps needed to implement equitable
leadership practices, and the metacognitive awareness of their ability to reflect upon their
knowledge and strategies, adjusting as needed while monitoring progress. In this section of the
study, I have learned what factual knowledge my participants have for reducing the opportunity
gap for students of color. I also discovered the conceptual knowledge which supports their
understanding of analyzing data to discover inequities and how their current system either
upholds or corrects systems harmful to students of color. Lastly, I found organizational barriers
that may have inhibited this work.
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge refers to the facts, information, and details required to understand the
subject material (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). For white principals to effectively close
opportunity gaps for students of color, they must understand the terminology associated with
equity and what that means in the context of their school district.
The lack of knowledge in this area will inhibit administrators from achieving equity for
their students of color. For white principals to lead their schools in equity for their students, they
must understand the district’s equity policy and what closing opportunity gaps looks like in
practicality on their campus. They need to use their prior knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010) as a
starting point and then add to their knowledge base through district professional development.
Conceptual Knowledge Influence
Moving beyond facts and defining terms with factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge
is more refined and involves process models, principles, categories, and relationships
(Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual knowledge displays a deeper understanding of how the
components integrate and is a webbing of relationships between bits of data (Carpenter, 2013;
31
Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). It is the knowledge of how to organize objects and ideas
(Rueda, 2011). This organization of knowledge can influence current and future learning and its
usage (Ambrose et al., 2010). For this study, white administrators need to understand the
principle of how site culture and status quos either uphold or dismantle practices of racism and
student inequities, and the importance of including multiple perspectives in decision-making and
planning.
In this context, the assumed conceptual knowledge influence assumes two ideas: white
school administrators understand the relationship between the school site’s everyday practices
and district expectations, and whether that helps or hinders their students of color. This is
important if site administrators hope to change the outcome for their students of color (Freire,
1975), and white principals need to include multiple perspectives in decision-making and
planning.
Procedural Knowledge Influence
Procedural knowledge is how knowledge is applied (Krathwohl, 2002). One must also
know how and when to implement procedures, methods, and theories (Ambrose et al., 2010). To
ensure students of color are given an equitable educational experience by white administrators,
they need to know how to analyze school data in a way that will help them find the equity
dilemma at their school. Also, they need to know how to design appropriate supports in response
to the data. Therefore, an assumed influence that can act as a barrier is not knowing how to
disaggregate the data according to ethnicity and not knowing how to create appropriate
interventions to support academic and social outcomes for student achievement. Interview
responses regarding data analysis practices and professional development design assessed this
assumption.
32
The assumed procedural knowledge influence here is that white administrators know
how to analyze and disaggregate data to effectively plan professional development, which
addresses equity dilemmas found in the data. According to Teranishi et al. (2020), the
distinctions within ethnic and racial groups must be discovered and made straightforward to
have equal educational opportunities. Looking at different data can show the inclusion,
opportunities, and achievement of different ethnic groups. These can be exceedingly different
for each ethnic group. Not being mindful of this while looking at data and planning support for
students can have unfavorable student outcomes (Marquardt & Herrera, 2015).
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence
Metacognition has been defined as self-directed awareness and knowledge about one’s
thinking (Ambrose et al., 2010; Baker, 2005; Krathwohl, 2002). This helps with problemsolving and knowing when and why to take specific actions (Rueda, 2011). For white principals
to ensure equity for students of color, they must reflect on what equity is, why it is important,
and how they can make changes to do things differently. An assumed influence that may be a
barrier to achieving this goal is an inability to reflect on and learn from past efforts to improve
student outcomes and lessen the gap between ethnic groups. This reflective practice interrogates
the systemic inequities embedded within the school system and common practices of white
school administrators.
From my study, I have learned my participants’ knowledge in these areas and how they
perceive each factor to influence their ability to lead the work, reducing the opportunity gap for
their students of color. Table 4 shows the influences of educational partners and the related
literature.
33
Table 4
Knowledge Influences and Related Literature
_____________________________________________________________________________
Type of Knowledge Assumed Knowledge Research Literature
Influences
_____________________________________________________________________________
Factual:
Terms, fact, concepts
White administrators know how
the district defines equity in
their district.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011
White administrators know the
points of implementation of the
district’s equity policy.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011
White administrators can
identify and name the reason for
needing to close the opportunity
gap.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011
Conceptual:
categories, process models,
principles, relationships
White administrators include
multiple perspectives in
decision-making and planning
for equity practices.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Carpenter, 2013;
Freire, 1975;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011
Procedural:
categories, process models,
principles, relationships
White administrators know the
steps to analyze disaggregated
data to find equity dilemmas.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011;
Marquardt & Herrera,
2015; Teranishi et al.,
2020
34
White administrators design
systems of support for students
who have historically not been
served well, according to the
site’s data.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011;
Marquardt & Herrera,
2015; Teranishi et al.,
2020
Metacognitive:
The ability to reflect on and
adjust necessary skills and
knowledge, including general
strategies, assessing demands,
planning one’s approach, and
monitoring progress.
White administrators reflect on
their privilege and positionality,
especially as it pertains to their
work.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Baker, 2005;
Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011
White administrators
intentionally thought of new
ways to conduct business to
disrupt and replace systems and
practices that were harmful to
students of color.
Ambrose et al., 2010;
Baker, 2005;
Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011
The reason I selected these knowledge influences is that, to be prepared to lead a school
which provides an equitable educational experience for students of color, the leader needs to
know why it is important to close the opportunity gap. Leaders should know their district’s
equity policy which they are to work within. They need to be able to operate under the exact
definition as their district and know the expectations of implementation named in the equity
policy. Beyond factual knowledge, the school leader should have the conceptual, procedural,
and metacognitive knowledge so they may have the skills to analyze school data, include
multiple perspectives, design systems of support for students who have not previously been
successful in the school system, and regularly reflect on how to best disrupt current systems
which are harmful to students of color and think about how their privilege and positionality
affect this work. Through my study, I have learned what knowledge white leaders began with,
35
how they acquired it, what they discovered they did not know, and how they acquired the
knowledge they lacked.
Motivation
General Theory
While a person’s skill can help with achieving a goal, it is a student’s will or desire to
engage in, most importantly, self-motivation (McCombes & Marzano, 1990). Motivation
strengthens, guides, and maintains behavior (Tohidi & Jabbari, 2012). Research shows that both
will and skill are needed to accomplish goals (Miles & Louis, 1990; McCombes & Marzano,
1990). People are more likely to engage in tasks they feel competent in and avoid those they do
not (Alfassi, 2003).
Educational Partner/Topic-specific Factors
Motivation has both cognitive and sociocultural influences. For the purposes of this
study, the Schunk et al. (2014) definition of motivation will be used: “the process whereby goaldirected activity is instigated and sustained.” Three indicators of motivational behavior, selfefficacy, attributions, and affect will be investigated through interviews to see how they affect or
demonstrate the motivation to choose to accomplish a goal, push through challenges or barriers
that arise, and the mental exertion to master needed skills while maintaining confidence at the
same time as pursuing the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
Self-Efficacy
While examining self-efficacy, it has been found that leaders need to have confidence in
the changes they make at their school site to create more opportunities for their students of
color. Bandura (1997, 2001) lays the groundwork for concluding self-efficacy and achieving
goals. Therefore, in the parameters of this study, white leaders who are self-motivated and
36
confident in their ability to change long-standing practices that historically have not benefited
all students are more likely to engage in these types of tasks and achieve their goals to create
equitable educational experiences for students of color. Adversely, white leaders with low selfefficacy avoid work, procrastinate, and give up more quickly. A white leader who is motivated,
confident in their ability, and has high expectations for success is likely to meet their goals.
A person’s attitude influences the quality of their leadership. In their study, Zainal and
Matore (2021) found that the more confident a school leader was in their abilities, the more
profound impact on innovative practices they had on teachers, therefore creating
transformational practices in schools. Leaders need to feel confident, have positive expectations
for their and teachers’ success, and persist daily to support their goals. Ross (2014) found that
leaders who possess an optimistic intellectual viewpoint tend to produce more promising
behaviors, greater self-efficacy, and valuable social interactions. Self-efficacy is primary to the
development of leaders who want to reimagine the public school experience for their students of
color by increasing their enthusiasm and building their competence to seek out opportunities for
their own growth and development. Therefore, self-efficacy is associated with the motivation to
succeed (Akiyoshi, 2021; Ross, 2014).
Attributions
Attribution theory states that individuals form a set of assurances regarding the rationale
for success or failure with a task and the amount of control an individual has in affecting the
outcome (Rueda, 2011). Anderman and Anderman (2006) state that motivation and learning are
favorably impacted when individuals attribute the results of a task to the effort given and not
because of ability. This idea is crucial when developing strategies and initiatives to improve
leadership performance. If administrators view success or failure as being due to their effort
37
instead of their ability, learning and motivation are magnified (Anderman & Anderman, 2006).
In developing leaders, it is important that the feedback given on performance focuses on
learning and adaptation, that sustained effort can overcome temporary setbacks, to coach them
to determine what is controllable and what is not more accurately, and that learning and
motivation enhance change which is vital to the achievement of their goals (Pintrich, 2003;
Weiner, 2005).
Affect
Regarding affect, the influence this study will look to explore is that white administrators
should be able to accentuate their positive emotions while intentionally suppressing negativity
when implementing strategies to support their students of color. Both emotion and motivation
are related to action or inaction. If affect/emotions adversely affect the motivation of the white
principal, this will in turn have a negative effect on the teachers and students they are leading, as
task engagement can increase or decrease according to one's emotions (Bradley, 2000; Pekrun,
2007). According to Mega et al (2014), emotions influence self-regulated learning and
motivation, and these, in turn, affect achievement. They conclude that positive emotions foster
achievement when they are mediated by self-regulated learning and motivation. Furthermore,
Dweck (2006) has concluded through her research that more than intelligence, natural born
talent, or education, success comes from having the right mindset (see Table 5).
Table 5
Motivational Influences and Related Literature
_____________________________________________________________________________
Type of Motivation Assumed Motivational Research Literature
Influences
38
_____________________________________________________________________________
Self-Efficacy:
Motivation, learning, and
performance are enhanced
when learners have positive
expectations for success.
White administrators are
confident enough in their ability
to work against the status quo to
make a notable difference in the
data for students of color.
Akiyoshi, 2021; Clark &
Estes, 2008; Clark, 1999;
Ross, 2014; Zainal &
Matore, 2021
Attributions:
Motivation, learning, and
performance are enhanced
when participants attribute
success or failures to effort
rather than ability.
White administrators attribute
their success in implementing
equitable practices to their
positive attitude and effort.
Anderman & Anderman,
2006; Clark & Estes,
2008; Pintrich, 2003;
Kelley, & Michela, 1980;
Graham, 1991; Weiner,
2005
Affect:
Enhancing positive as well as
activating emotions and
reducing negative emotions
enhances learning,
motivation, and performance.
White administrators must be
able to accentuate their positive
emotions and gains while
intentionally suppressing
negativity.
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Clark, 1999; Dweck,
2006; Mega, et al., 2014;
Pekrun, 2007
Organizational Influences
A district can still fail to reach its goals even with knowledgeable and motivated leaders.
Therefore, Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework analyzes organizational aspects that
may hinder their performance goal achievement. An organization failing to achieve its goals
can occur due to insufficient resources and processes (Clark & Estes, 2008). Success is also
attributed to the organization’s cultural model and cultural settings. The cultural model includes
the values and customs which govern the day-to-day working within an organization (Bolman
& Deal, 2017; Deal & Kennedy, 1983). Cultural settings are the tangible results of the
organization's values and show why it functions the way it does (Rueda, 2011).
39
Cultural Models
An organization’s values, practices, and policies make the cultural models. These develop
over time (Bolman & Deal, 2017) and create the unspoken norms of the organization (Rueda,
2011). To fully understand gaps that prevent an organization from achieving its goal, an
understanding of the cultural model that shapes the organization’s customary and normal
operating procedures must be understood (Rueda, 2011). Cultural models are the unseen
organizational norms that determine how people operate (Rueda, 2011). These cultural models
are put differently within an organization and become the cultural settings (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). In the context of white principals creating an equitable educational
experience for students of color, they require the support of the school district to expect this to be
a value for all educators and to create policies in which these changes to past practices can be
made.
Cultural Settings
The cultural setting, the tangible result of an organization’s culture, must be understood
when analyzing why an organization is not achieving its goal (Rueda, 2001). Cultural settings
help to gain an understanding as to why an organization’s educational partners think and
behave the way they do (Rueda, 2011). The cultural setting is the manifestation of the core
values, goals, beliefs, and policies learned and developed over time that become the everyday
experience of people in the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). To gain a complete
understanding of the organization’s performance, the cultural setting must be analyzed (Rueda,
2011). For this study, the influence of the cultural setting will assess administrators’ need to feel
that the district has a shared culture for supporting equity for all students. They will align district
initiatives and goals with an equitable education for students of color to make changes to
40
practice. These are not easily solved technical problems but issues that require solutions which
are not predetermined and collective impact from the district and its influence to involve
community members and all educational partners (Kania & Kramer, 2011). As the district brings
together all educational partners and facilitates them working together toward the common goal
of equity for students of color, there will be multiple perspectives to address the issue
(Gutterman et al., 2017; Kania et al., 2014).
Policies, Procedures
According to Rueda (2011), an organization’s policies and procedures influence whether
the performance goals will be met. Organizations meet their goals best when their policies,
processes, and procedures are aligned with their organization’s goals, mission, and vision (Clark
& Estes, 2008). When these are all in place, they provide guidance for administrators to follow.
For Lakeview District’s goal to be realized, administrators need support. To center students of
color, it will require coaches for the administrators, a comprehensive PD plan, and long-term
monitoring. Principals will then have the buy-in needed because the district has a process to
develop and support administrators in their personal growth and support for the work at their
schools.
Resources
Administrators Need Professional Development
Professional development is imperative to support improved practice and help educators
meet student learning goals (Mundry, 2005). In the same way that professional development is
given to teachers, administrators must also receive training and support to create site changes
(Mundry, 2005) successfully. According to Fenwick & Pierce (2002), beneficial professional
development for administrators includes best practices, furnishes coaching support, encourages
41
risk-taking if it is intentionally designed to improve student outcomes, builds team relationships,
and provides time for administrators to reflect and rejuvenate. Considering the close relationship
between context and leadership, contextual factors should be analyzed and brought into
professional development and coaching programs (Braukmann et al., 2020).
Ongoing Coaching To Help Administrators
As an extension of professional development, coaching is needed to support white
administrators in changing their own practices as those they support. Coaching is important for
influencing positive personal change, ensuring above-average success rates, and making lasting
changes (Eggers & Clark, 2000). In the same way that we value coaching for new administrators,
we should embrace coaching to support changes in practice (Johnson, 2016; Huff et al., 2013).
Participants in coaching programs such as this have reported high success and have developed as
transformational leaders as a direct result of their coaching program (Nava et al., 2020).
Table 6: Organizational Influences and Related Literature
_____________________________________________________________________________
Type of Organizational Assumed Organizational Research Literature
Models Influences
_____________________________________________________________________________
Cultural Models:
Values, beliefs, and
attitudes that are
generally invisible and
automated.
The district values the work of changing
the status quo to better the outcomes for
students of color.
Bolman & Deal, 2017;
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001; Rueda, 2011
White administrators understand how
site culture and status quo either uphold
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Gutterman et al., 2017;
42
or dismantle practices of racism and
student inequities.
Kania et al., 2014; Kania
& Kramer, 2011; Rueda,
2011
Cultural Settings:
Visible, concrete
manifestations of
cultural models.
The district has board policies in place
that help to close the opportunity gap for
students of color.
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Gutterman et al., 2017;
Kania et al., 2014; Kania
& Kramer, 2011; Rueda,
2011
The district organizes and facilitates
educational partner listening and input
sessions to learn the specific needs of
students of color and have collective
input of designing new programs.
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Gutterman et al., 2017;
Kania et al., 2014; Kania
& Kramer, 2011; Rueda,
2011
Policies &
Procedures
Policies & procedures align with the
mission and vision of the organization
and serve as a guide for administrators.
Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011
Resources Both professional development and
ongoing coaching are needed to support
them in changing their own practice and
the school site's past practice.
Eggers & Clark, 2000;
Huff et al., 2013;
Johnson, 2016; Nava et
al., 2020
This promising practice study discovered the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that have enabled some white administrators to create an equitable educational
experience for students of color. The literature reviewed in this chapter explained the context in
which the American public school system began and the historical barriers still in place that
prevent many students of color from attaining their academic goals and sense of belonging in
school. Since most educators are white, this study focused on white administrators. Clark and
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework was introduced, and the literature review
identified assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences directly related to
white administrators achieving their performance goals. Chapter Three will provide an
overview of the methodology for the study.
43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
This project included a gap analysis to examine the root causes of the organizational
problem of how white principals can ensure an equitable learning experience for students of
color. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all educational partners, for
practical purposes this analysis focused on the knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational issues of white school administrators who have had success in the implementation
of equitable practices at their site with the result of positively changing the data for students of
color. Focusing on white principals who have had success in lessening the disparity in student
success with students of color is a promising practice and model for others to build on.
The research questions that will guide this gap analysis are the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to white
administrators leading their schools to close the opportunity gap for their students of
color?
2. What are solutions and recommendations in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources for white administrators to positively change the outcomes for their students of
color?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
I used the Clark and Estes conceptual framework for this qualitative study. This
framework is structured to assess and evaluate performance goals and identify achievement gaps.
There is an established and well-documented gap between the achievement data of white
students and those of color. I used a qualitative method of interviewing to gather and analyze
44
data to evaluate white principals who have been successful in positively changing the
achievement data for students of color.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), three areas lead to a performance gap: knowledge,
motivation, and organizational barriers. By interviewing these white principals, I had hoped to
discover promising practices for carrying out this work. By capturing the knowledge they have
obtained to change students’ outcomes successfully, I had hoped that it could be duplicated to
improve student success on a larger scale. This study also focused on the administrators’
motivation to lead equitable practices that do not benefit their own racial identity. I was most
eager to learn their reasons for persisting through opposition until success is achieved and how
much mental effort they invested in this accomplishment (Clark and Estes 2008). Some of my
participants had been successful in this work before equity became a national buzzword.
Therefore, I was interested in knowing the organizational resources they found helpful or the
institutional barriers they encountered. I wanted to discover what, if anything, had improved
since Lakeview District’s equity policy was implemented. Figure 3 visually represents the gap
analysis and shows how goals are reconciled with the current achievement. This process shows
the gaps in achievement and the causes of those gaps.
45
Figure 3
Gap Analysis Process
Assessment of Performance Influences
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis process begins by identifying the root causes of
performance gaps by analyzing the contributing knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. Regarding this promising practice study, it was important to examine these factors
to determine if white administrators have the knowledge and motivation, and are supported by
their organization to accomplish their goals. The information gathered through this study
analyzed leadership practices and recommended solutions to increase positive outcomes for
students of color.
Knowledge Assessment
The gap analysis process involves exploring people's knowledge and skills in the work
toward the desired goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) names four types of
46
knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. These knowledge types will be
evaluated to determine the precise knowledge influences affecting white administrators'
understanding of the purpose of increasing the outcomes for students of color.
Table 7
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Type of Knowledge Assumed Knowledge Interview Questions
Influences
Factual:
Terms, facts, concepts
White administrators know
how the district defines
equity.
How do you define equity?
White administrators have a
true and realistic
understanding of their Black
students and their Black
community.
What/How do you think about
your Black students and the
Black community?
What does it look like to
support students of color at
your site?
What did you need to learn
and unlearn?
White administrators can
identify and name the
reason for needing to close
the opportunity gap.
Where do you see the largest
gaps in your site’s data?
What do you feel is the cause
of the data gaps at your
school?
Conceptual:
categories, process models,
principles, and relationships
White administrators
include multiple
perspectives in decisionmaking and planning.
In your experience, how has
the historical culture at your
school site either upheld or
helped to dismantle practices
of racism and inequities?
47
Procedural:
categories, process models,
principles, relationships
White administrators know
the steps to analyze
disaggregated data to find
equity dilemmas.
When you go to a new site,
what is your process for
analyzing data to assess its
needs for all subgroups?
• academic
• cultural
• other
White administrators design
systems of support for
students who have
historically not been served
well, according to the site’s
data.
How do you prioritize the
needs on your campus?
• How do you determine
which need is
addressed first?
• How do you know
what is needed?
• Who is involved in the
planning?
• What is your
monitoring process?
Metacognitive:
The ability to reflect on and
adjust necessary skills and
knowledge, including general
strategies, assessing demands,
planning one’s approach, and
monitoring progress.
White administrators reflect
on their privilege and
positionality, especially as it
pertains to their work.
Can you describe your
positionality and
intersectionality?
• How have these
benefited you?
How does your position as a
white administrator affect
your efforts for equity?
White administrators
intentionally thought of new
ways to conduct business to
disrupt and replace systems
and practices that were
harmful to students of color.
How do you reflect on your
practice?
• Who do you include in
your equity planning
process?
Motivational Assessment
Clark and Estes (2008) state that the step following knowledge assessment is to assess
gaps in motivation. Knowledge represents an understanding of the mechanics of how to
48
accomplish a given task and reach a goal; however, motivation is the intrinsic drive that allows
an individual to start a task and persevere through obstacles to accomplish the goal (Pintrich,
2003; Rueda, 2011). Three key variables shape motivation: self-efficacy, attributions, and
affect/emotions (Rueda, 2011). This section reviews the assessment of these three variables to
pinpoint the motivational influences of the white administrators' perseverance to ensure an
equitable education for students of color.
Table 8
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Type of Motivation Assumed Motivational Interview Questions
Influences
Self-Efficacy:
Motivation, learning, and
performance are enhanced
when learners have positive
expectations for success.
White administrators are
confident in their ability to
work against the status quo
enough to make a notable
difference in the data for
students of color.
Tell me about your ability to
work against the status quo.
• What would/has
help(ed) you in this
area?
Attributions:
Motivation, learning, and
performance are enhanced
when participants attribute
success or failures to effort
rather than ability.
White administrators
attribute their success in
implementing equitable
practices to their positive
attitude and effort.
To what do you attribute your
success in closing the
opportunity gap for your
students of color?
How much of a role has your
attitude and effort helped in
your equity work?
Affect/Emotions:
Enhancing positive,
activating, and reducing
negative emotions enhances
learning, motivation, and
performance.
White administrators must
be able to accentuate their
positive emotions and gains
while intentionally
suppressing negativity.
What are ways in which you
accentuate your positive
emotions and gains you have
made while intentionally
suppressing negativity?
49
White administrators have a
growth mindset so they can
grow and improve their
practices of equity for their
students.
Would you describe yourself
as having a growth mindset?
• Why is this important?
Organizational Assessment
Barriers to reaching goals may be caused by structures in the organization, such as an
ineffective cultural model and setting (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, a gap analysis includes
analyzing the organizational factors contributing to the organization’s inability to reach its goals.
It is argued that every organization has a distinctive culture that plays a larger role than rational
factors in shaping its operations. This includes their values, procedures, and networks. In
stronger and more cohesive organizations, this culture creates a partnership in agreement among
people, and behaviors are constrained by a top-down command structure (Bolman & Deal, 2017;
Deal & Kennedy, 1983). This section reviews the assessment of the organizational influences of
cultural settings, cultural models, policies and procedures, and resources discussed in Chapter
Two.
Table 9
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Type of Organization Assumed Organizational Interview Questions
Models Influences
Cultural Models:
Values, beliefs, and
attitudes that are
generally invisible
and automated.
The district values the work of
changing the status quo to
better the outcomes for
students of color.
Do you feel the district holds values,
beliefs, and/or attitudes that support
changing the district's practices and
procedures to support an equitable
educational experience for students of
color? Explain your thoughts.
50
Cultural Settings:
Visible, concrete
manifestations of
cultural models.
White administrators
understand how site culture
and status quo either uphold or
dismantle practices of racism
and student inequities.
What is your experience as a white
administrator with the district culture
either upholding or dismantling
practices of racism and student
inequities?
The district has board policies
that help close the opportunity
gap for students of color.
What have you experienced in your
work concerning the Equity and
Excellence board policy helping to
close the opportunity gap for students
of color?
• Has it helped in your work?
• Does the policy contain any
barriers?
The district organizes and
facilitates educational partner
listening and input sessions to
learn the specific needs of the
students of color and have
collective input in designing
new programs.
What does community engagement
mean to you?
• What does it look like on your
site?
What are your thoughts on involving
all educational partner (parents,
teachers, students, community
members) in developing the equity
policy or any other initiatives to
support equity for students of color?
Policies and
Procedures
Policies & procedures align
with the mission and vision of
the organization and serve as a
guide for administrators.
Are there any district policies or
procedures in place that guarantee
that community input will be sought
out and considered when addressing
the needs of students of color?
• Can you give an example of
when you have worked under
these guidelines?
Resources Both professional development
and ongoing coaching are
needed to support white
principals in changing their
own practices and the past
practices of the school site.
Describe any professional
development or coaching you may
have received to help you provide an
equitable educational experience for
your students of color.
• Was this from the district or
on your own?
51
Did you receive any training or
support to help you implement
district equity policies?
• Was this sufficient support so
that you could implement the
policies effectively?
Participating Educational Partners and Sample Selection
This study's educational partner group will focus on white principals who have made
noticeable improvements in their academic and/or cultural site data for their students of color. I
sent out fourteen invitations to participate, hoping to interview twelve principals. However, I
only secured nine participants: three each from elementary, middle, and high schools.
Sampling
The sampling strategy for this study was specific and nonrandom to maximize the
examination of educational partner knowledge and motivation as well as organizational
culture (Creswell, 2014). I chose white administrators because I was interested in learning
what knowledge they had about the success of students of color and what sustained their
motivation for this work. I wanted to discover how the organization's culture may have
assisted them in creating equitable educational experiences for their students of color and
any organizational barriers they may have faced.
Recruitment
I identified twelve white K–12 principals, four from each level—elementary, middle, and
high schools—who have significantly improved their site’s academic and climate-culture
achievement data for their students of color. For this study, all twelve administrators received an
email invitation (Appendix B) to participate in an interview. The email described the purpose of
52
this study and advised that participation is voluntary and confidential. The email also stated that
the time of the in-person interview lasted from 35 minutes to one hour.
Interview Protocol
The design for this study involved individual interviews with white administrators. As
this was a qualitative study, the interviews were designed to conduct an in-depth analysis of the
participants’ knowledge and motivation and to understand the organizational factors that
contribute to or detract from the success of each administrator’s goal.
The interview questions (Appendix A) created for this study were designed to find
answers to the two research questions and to discover information as laid out in Clark and
Estes’s (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework. The interview questions aligned with a
semi-structured approach. This approach fits the purpose of this study due to the flexibility of
allowing for a more natural conversation than a formal, structured interview (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Each interview question was directly aligned with the influence types described
by Clark and Estes (2008), Krathwohl (2002), and Pintrich (2003).
Data Collection
Interviews
Upon the University of Southern California and Lakeview District’s internal
Institutional Review Board’s (IRB) approval, participants were solicited with an invitation to
participate in the interview (Appendix B). All participants were provided with an informed
consent form explaining the study's procedures and purpose. An interview was scheduled once
a return email was received, with the participant agreeing to participate. At the time of the
interview, pertinent documents were be given to the participant detailing how data was
collected and shared.
53
Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis is repetitious (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I have analyzed data
gathered from detailed and individual interviews in this qualitative evaluation study. During
these interviews, I asked questions about each influence from Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO gap
analysis framework.
Administrators who agreed to be interviewed by responding to my email received an
email or phone call to set an appointment for the interview. My target was that all twelve
would be able to participate. The interview was in person; however, if this was not possible,
the interview was conducted via Zoom. The interviews lasted between 35 and 60 minutes and
were recorded with participants’ permission. After the recording, I uploaded it to a
transcription application and checked the transcription for accuracy. Participants were
informed about the purpose of the study and that their identities will be anonymous.
My Positionality
As a white woman and a school administrator, I am aware that my privilege and
positionality bring biases both realized and unconscious. Through this research process, while I
interviewed white principals, I understood that our life experiences are not all the same. Being in
a biracial marriage has given me insight into our white-dominant culture and school system;
however, that does not give me firsthand, lived experience of people of color.
My position as an administrator in the same district as my interviewees and my serving
on committees sponsored by the superintendent’s office could result in a biased interpretation of
the data. I was aware and reflective of these biases as I collected and interpreted the data.
Trustworthiness of Data
54
Intentional steps were taken to ensure the findings were credible and trustworthy. I
checked transcriptions of the interviews to ensure they were accurate to what each participant
said. I have also conducted a member check to ensure I accurately captured the participants’
statements in their interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For member checks, I restated what I
understood them to say and solicited their feedback. I followed ethical practices and protocols
(Appendix A) for each interview. To ensure the safety of all participants, I received proper
consent and maintained privacy and confidentiality. Participants were informed that their
participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time without penalty. I asked
their permission to record the interview and stored and secured the data.
Role of Investigator
I conducted the interviews, collected the data, and maintained the participants’
anonymity. I used ethical practices, such as receiving informed consent to participate in the
study, using only voluntary participation, maintaining the participants' confidentiality,
respecting their right to withdraw without penalty, seeking permission to record the interviews,
and storing/securing the data appropriately.
Limitations and Delimitations
The delimitations to this study were time constraints. Because of this, a small sample
size was interviewed. The limitation of this restraint is the small sample size, which may have
censured the validity of the findings. Furthermore, Lakeview School District is the only district
where white administrators were asked to participate. A more comprehensive study may
include white administrators from other districts in the state or nationwide. An additional study
could also include current and prior students of color who were students in the schools of the
selected administrators and their families. Even with these limitations, the interviews revealed
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the knowledge, motivation needed, and organizational structures needed that have enabled
these site principals to increase the outcomes for their students of color.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
This project aimed to conduct a gap analysis to examine white school principals’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational structures in their endeavor to create more equitable learning
experiences for their students of color. The study focused on white principals from elementary,
middle, and high school sites who felt they had accomplished significant equity work at their
sites, either with academics or climate and culture.
The research questions that guided this gap analysis were the following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to white
administrators leading their schools to close the opportunity gap for their students of
color?
2. What are solutions and recommendations in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources for white administrators to positively change the outcomes for their students of
color?
Qualitative data was collected to validate assumed causes. Explicitly, interview data was
collected to learn the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of white
principals discovered while designing and implementing systems of equity at their sites. Data
collection was comprised of qualitative interviews. Interviews were held individually, both inperson and via Zoom video conferencing. Each interview lasted about 35 to 60 minutes and
followed a semi-structured interview protocol.
Participating Educational Partners
The educational partner group of focus for this research was white principals who
successfully implemented equitable practices for their students of color. While initially I was
seeking four from each level (elementary, middle, and high school) and originally secured
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interview appointments with them, I could only obtain three from each level from the Lakeview
School District. Participants were chosen following responses to the recruitment email sent
requesting participation. The makeup of participants is listed in Table 10.
Table 10
Participant Information
Participant Number Grade Level Gender
1 High Female
2 High Female
3 High Female
4 Elementary Male
5 Middle Male
6 Elementary Male
7 Elementary Female
8 Middle Male
9 Middle Female
Determination of Assets and Needs
The interview analysis determined assets and needs. I triangulated the data collected to
validate assets and needs. The literature review in Chapter Two was the first element I used to
identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that can determine the ability of
white administrators to implement equitable systems at their sites. The second element was the
individual interviews, and the third was confirming with each participant that the data I collected
was accurate.
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KMO influences were aligned with emerging themes from individual interviews. I
created a code sheet with A Priori codes and open codes for each KMO influence. A Priori,
Open, and Axial codes were included when analyzing interview transcripts. The original goal
was to interview four principals from each level to total twelve; however, I could only secure
three from each level. Analysis was complete when all nine participants were interviewed.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
Findings related to research question one regarding knowledge influences are given in
this section. Through interviews, I assessed participants’ presumed knowledge influences related
to white principals and their knowledge to create and implement equity structures at their sites.
The findings in the following sections are taken from interviews for each assumed cause in the
categories of factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge. Seven participants out of nine were required to indicate that the
influence was an asset, whereas less than seven indicated a need.
Factual Knowledge
Interview data was used to determine principals’ factual knowledge. The factual
knowledge influence assessed their ability to define equity. For this study, I have defined equity
as taking action to ensure each student, regardless of race or ethnicity, has what they need to be
successful academically, socially, and emotionally. Findings have been organized and evaluated
to determine if there is a gap regarding the assumed causes.
Influence 1.
Interview findings. To understand the principals’ knowledge of equitable school
practices, it is important to know how participants define equity. Each interview began with the
question of how each participant defined equity. I asked them to define equity as a starting point
so I could gauge where the principals’ entry point was in this work. Each of the nine participants
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offered a response to this question. Participant Three stated, “Providing people with what they
need.” Participant Seven defined equity as “providing students and staff with what they need,
rather than just trying to keep everything equal.” Participant Nine said, “finding the opportunity,
services, and support for all people in a way that allows individuals to be successful or reach
their goals in our system.”
Summary. Responses show that all nine participants are familiar with the term equity,
and eight of nine can offer their own definition. These definitions align with my given definition
and support the understanding of how equity would be implemented at sites to support students
of color. According to the interview findings, seven of nine, or 80 percent, participants had a
definition or offered a response demonstrating an understanding of equity. This influence is an
asset.
Influence 2.
Interview Findings. For influence two, participants were asked if they needed to learn or
unlearn anything to help them with equity work. Five of nine participants answered this in a way
that suggests they know what they need to be successful in their equity work.
Participant One said:
Yes, I needed to unlearn my white culture.
Participant Three said:
In a white affinity group, I was challenged to think about race in a way that I
never thought about before because I never had to. I realized what my white
identity actually means, how it impacts people around me, what privileges it has
afforded me, and how it has limited my worldview. How it's really given me
license to harm without intent with reckless privilege.
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Participant Five stated:
I needed to learn to be really honest with my whiteness . . . I needed to unlearn
that I'm not racist. I need to unlearn that I haven't been given opportunities.”
These statements are an asset and conducive to structuring an equitable school
site.
While those findings are positive, four out of nine participants gave responses
demonstrating a need to know what is required of their learning to change equity practices at a
school.
Participant Six said:
You know, I don't really know how to answer that question because often, I don't
really know what to do. Because if I push too hard, I'm gonna lose the teachers.
Participant Eight said:
I'm going to rephrase your question to be more comfortable with the words.
Participant Nine said:
All I need to learn is how to roll out the Professional Development.
These responses show that these participants need to understand their growth needs to
implement equity at their school sites best. These responses were surprising because all the
principals I interviewed have an excellent reputation for increasing and maintaining their student
achievement data. They are all regarded highly by district senior staff and many times are looked
to as an exemplar in this work.
Summary. The influence that principals know what learning or unlearning they need to
successfully implement equitable systems at their site is validated as a need. Participants'
responses demonstrate that there is only partial knowledge of what is required of their own
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learning to change equity practices at their school. Five of nine participants responded,
acknowledging what they have learned or unlearned to help them in equity work. Four out of
nine participants needed to learn what is required of their own learning or unlearning to help
them with their equity work, either stating they did not know or offering answers that did not
demonstrate accurate knowledge; therefore, this influence was determined to be a need.
I was not expecting so many participants to not answer this question positively since
these principals have a solid reputation as leaders in equity work.
Conceptual Knowledge
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ conceptual knowledge. The conceptual
knowledge influence assessed principals’ knowledge of what processes must be in place at their
school site to support students of color. Findings have been organized and evaluated to assess if
there is a gap in assumed knowledge influences.
Influence 1.
Interview Findings. To show conceptual understanding of this influence, participants
were asked what it looks like to support students of color. Six of nine participants answered
favorably with an understanding that students of color may need different support, and they are
implementing these procedures at their site.
Participant Three said:
For our Black students, we have a system for listening to their needs and
responding to those needs and action planning with them.
Participant Four said:
Making sure that we are working in partnership with our students of color and
families of color.
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Participant Seven stated:
We look at all of our data with a focus on our AA (African American) students.
Every idea we have, we ask who is benefiting from this and who is not.
Some participants did not answer in a way that conveyed understanding.
Participant Six said:
That's been challenging because none of that stuff has existed prior to me being
here.
Participant Two said:
I have learned to take my biases out, which is a learning process.
However, Participant Two did not have anything in place at their school to specifically
support students of color.
Summary. The assumed influence that white administrators have a true and realistic
understanding of their Black students and their Black community was validated as a need. Only
six of nine participants responded in a way that made it evident they understood the need and had
processes in place at their school site to support students of color specifically. Due to interview
time constraints, only one question was asked about this influence. This influence was
determined to be a need.
Procedural Knowledge
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ procedural knowledge. The procedural
knowledge influences asked whether principals have anything in place that informs them about
the needs of their Black students/families in their school community. Findings have been
organized and evaluated to assess if there is a gap regarding the assumed causes.
Influence 1.
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Interview Findings. For this influence, participants were asked if they had anything in
place that informed them of the needs of their Black students, Black families, and the needs of
their Black community.
Participant Three said:
Listening sessions with those students who are willing.
Participant Four said:
I pick up the phone and call each of my AA families, asking them: what do you
appreciate most about the school?
Participant Five said:
We hold Black parent meetings. I excuse myself when they have their discussion,
and my Black AP (Assistant Principal) facilitates the meeting.
However, only four of nine participants answered favorably to having a structure in place at their
school.
Most participants did not have anything in place in which they could hear the needs of
their Black school community.
Participant One said:
Actually, we didn't ask them.
Participant Six said:
A parent was saying that our teachers are racist. How do we even get any work
done with a mindset like that?
Participant Seven said:
You know, I probably should.
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Summary. The assumed influence that white administrators design systems of support for
students who have historically not been served well, according to the site’s data, was validated as
a need. Only four of nine participants' responses demonstrated an understanding of this structure,
leaving five participants who did not have or see a need for this structure to inform them of the
needs of their Black school community. Due to time constraints, only one question was asked for
this influence.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ metacognitive knowledge. The
metacognitive knowledge influence assessed the principals’ ability to reflect on and adjust
necessary skills and knowledge, including general strategies, assessing demands, planning one’s
approach, and monitoring progress.
Influence 1.
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ metacognitive knowledge. The
metacognitive knowledge influence assessed whether principals could identify ways their
positionality and intersectionality have shaped their leadership. Findings have been organized
and evaluated to assess whether there is a gap regarding the assumed causes.
Interview Findings. For this influence, participants were asked how they perceive their
positionality and how intersectionality has shaped their leadership.
Participant Three stated:
Being a white person definitely means something, and it definitely affects the way
that people receive professional development that's related to racial justice. I have
to really watch my tone. I'm always really careful to be self-disparaging and as
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funny as I can be, during the opening or in moments of tension, really being
mindful of going deep and pulling back when needed.
Participant Four said:
I always ask myself who benefits from what we are doing and who is harmed? I
can’t assume everyone will receive what I am saying, in the same way, I or my
peers would.
Participant Nine said:
They have shaped my leadership a lot and have helped me identify where I sit and
the impact that may have on others.
However, only four of nine participants answered in a way that demonstrated they understood
the meaning of those terms in relation to their leadership. Most participants responded that they
needed to understand how their positionality and intersectionality impacted their leadership.
Participant Two said:
I mean, there's so many things, right? Oh, yeah. Positionality, I don't know.
Participant Seven said:
When a parent accuses me of being racist, I just think their life experience with
white people is being mistreated. They don't know all of the times I could have
suspended their kid but didn’t.
Participants Five and Six chose not to answer.
Summary. The assumed influence that white administrators reflect on their privilege and
positionality, especially as it pertains to their work, was validated as a need. Four participants
could speak to how their positionality and intersectionality shaped their leadership. The
remaining five participants, however, either chose not to answer the question or did not
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understand how that influenced their leadership. Due to time constraints, only one question was
asked for this influence.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Clark and Estes (2008) state that the step following knowledge assessment is to assess
gaps in motivation. Knowledge represents an understanding of how to accomplish a given task
and reach a goal; however, motivation is the intrinsic drive that allows an individual to start a
task and persevere through obstacles to accomplish the goal (Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011). I
selected three motivation influences to study: self-efficacy, affect/emotions, and attributions
(Rueda, 2011). I selected self-efficacy because I was interested in discovering how participants'
motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when they have positive expectations for
success. Affect/emotions were chosen so I could learn how each participant enhanced and
activated positive emotions while reducing negative emotions to enhance their learning,
motivation, and performance. Lastly, I chose attribution to identify the participants’ motivation,
learning, and performance enhanced when participants attribute their success or failures to their
effort rather than their ability. This section reviews the assessment of these three variables to
pinpoint the motivational influences of the white administrators' perseverance to ensure an
equitable education for students of color.
Self-Efficacy
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ self-efficacy and their motivation.
Motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when learners have positive expectations
for success.
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Influence 1. Interviews with white principals in the Lakeview School District were used
to assess their self-efficacy. Participants were asked what motivated them to work against the
status quo.
Interview Findings. The results of the interviews revealed that five of the nine
participants could identify something that motivated them to work against the status quo in
equity work.
Participant One said:
Seeing kids that really wanted to be successful and ended up not being successful.
Participant Three said:
Data. My kids. When that data keeps showing me that this school is only serving
certain kids and the other kids are not being served to see that certain students are
having a completely different experience here than other kids.
Participant Four stated:
Results. Seeing our kids benefit from these changes we are making.
The other four participants did not respond in a way that showed any self-efficacy or motivation
to work against the status quo.
Participant Two said:
Education is designed to be an equalizing force within society (not understanding
that public education is designed to benefit only the white middle class).
Participant Six said:
I really don't take into account district initiatives or what I think my boss wants. I
don't ever find a whole lot of value, and I don’t like working with them (district
initiatives). I always like to kind of do my own thing.
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Summary. The assumed influence that white administrators are confident in their ability
to work against the status quo enough to make a notable difference in the data for students of
color has been determined to be a need. Five out of nine participants felt that they were
motivated to work against the status quo. Due to time constraints, only one question was asked
for this influence.
Attributions
Interviews were used to assess what the principals attribute to the success of their
motivation. Motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when participants attribute
success or failures to effort rather than ability.
Influence 1. During interviews, the participants were asked questions to determine
whether they attributed their success to effort or ability.
Interview Findings. Of the nine participants, four responded positively.
Participant One said:
The first thing I should attribute this success to is having really good mentors. I
would also say strong bonds with the other high school principals.
Participant Two stated:
A biracial partnership. Two white people can't check themselves. Two Black
people, and you will get your whole white staff opting out because they will see it
as an issue for the Black staff, like it's their hot topic that matters to them. The
biracial partnership is huge.
Participant Nine said:
Building a system or a collective group to move with me. Because if you do
anything in isolation, it's not sustainable and the hope is always that whatever is in
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place, the work that you're doing, lasts much longer beyond your departure. In
order to do that, you have to have systems, networks, and the collective will of
your people to do that.
The remaining five participants did not fully understand the question and gave off-topic answers.
Summary. The assumed influence that white administrators attribute their success in
implementing equitable practices to their positive attitude and effort has been determined to be a
need, as only four out of nine participants responded favorably. Due to time constraints, only one
question was asked for this influence.
Affect/Emotions
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ ability to utilize their emotions to sustain
their work in implementing equitable practices at their schools. Enhancing and activating
positive emotions while reducing negative emotions enhances learning, motivation, and
performance.
Influence 1. The participants were asked what they attribute their success to, as
motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when they attribute success or failures to
effort rather than ability. Each was asked to share a time when they faced opposition in their
equity work and discuss the outcome.
Interview Findings. The results of the interviews showed that four out of nine
participants attributed their success to effort while sharing their experiences.
Participant One said:
Trying to remove teachers that are not necessarily a good fit for working with kids
gets you a lot of pushback, but I just have to keep going to make sure we have
staff that are good for kids.
Participant Three said:
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I'm consistently moving forward. Even if it's two steps forward and one step back,
we're still making progress. I never retreat, ever. Even when it starts getting ugly,
all the more reason that we need to do it again, maybe softer, but the same
message—we never go off message, ever.
Participant Four said:
I made changes overnight and got a lot of backlashes. I then received coaching
from the district and worked with a community partner and rolled out the change
in a different way.
While these are some positive responses, there were five out of nine participants who either
chose not to respond to this question or had a negative response, which is represented by what
Participant Two said:
Because of my positionality, I'm not going to have anyone come at me real hard.
This influence is seen as a need.
Summary. The assumed influence is that white administrators attribute their success in
implementing equitable practices at their schools to their positive attitude and effort. Based on
the responses I received, only four out of nine responses indicated success in achieving this.
Therefore, this has been determined to be a need.
Influence 2. Enhancing positive emotions, activating them, and reducing negative
emotions enhance learning, motivation, and performance. Participants were asked what sustains
them in their work.
Interview Findings. The interview revealed that three out of nine participants could
communicate what sustains them in their work.
Participant One said:
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The needs of the students keep me focused and moving forward.
Participant Three stated:
I can't not do it. I have to do it.
Participant Nine said:
I think that it's really hard work. It's easy to get discouraged, so you definitely
have to be persistent and really know what your purpose is and be willing to push
through hard things or hard people sometimes to know what your end goal is.
However, Participant Six said:
I just want to do a good job.
They were not speaking about equity specifically, and the five other participants chose not to
answer.
Summary. The assumed influence that white administrators have a growth mindset so
they can grow and improve their practices of equity for their students has been determined to be
a need, as only three out of nine participants responded positively to this.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Barriers to an organization reaching its goals may be caused by reasons within the
organization itself, such as an ineffective cultural model and cultural setting (Clark & Estes,
2008). Cultural rather than rational factors play a role in the functioning of organizations; this
includes their values, procedures, and networks. In stronger and more cohesive organizations,
this culture creates a partnership in agreement among people, and behaviors are constrained by a
top-down command structure (Bolman & Deal, 2017; Deal & Kennedy, 1983). This section
reviews the assessment of the organizational influences of cultural settings, cultural models,
policies and procedures, and resources
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Cultural Models
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ belief that the district’s values, beliefs, and
attitudes, which are usually invisible and automated, align and support the principals in their
equity work.
Influence 1. To find if participants feel the district’s values, beliefs, and attitudes that are
generally invisible and automated support changing systemic racial inequities, interviewees were
asked if they feel the district's values, beliefs, and attitudes align with changing systemic
practices and procedures to better support students of color.
Interview findings. All nine participants expressed mixed feelings about the district
values and beliefs equated to change.
Participant Three said:
I think there’s potential for the values to move the work. There has been a lot of
attention given to this idea of equity, but they are lost, in my opinion. It's complex
in a way that I'm not really sure that we are going to have a whole community
master.
Participant Four said:
I think that we are in a much better place than we were five years ago, three years
ago, two years ago. The equity policy has been a clear mandate and has provided
real importance and protection.
Participant Nine stated:
I think that we are establishing policies that are in alignment with that. I think at a
central level, we are embracing equitable outcomes for students, specifically
students of color. So, I think at a central level, yes.
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Participants also had a less hopeful viewpoint.
Participant Five said:
I scratch my head because we've been knocking our heads against the wall. We've
done this and done this and done this and haven't moved the needle a darn bit.
Participant Six stated:
I have a lot of questions about that. We're not being provided with the support that
we need to effectively put those thoughts and ideas into practice.
Participant Seven said:
No, they just talk about it. And I'm just like, Okay, well, I'm glad you have a lot of
happy people putting this together, but I don't know if it's directly making the
Black students better.
Summary. The assumed influence that the district values and beliefs support the work of
changing the status quo to better the outcomes for students of color has been determined to be a
need, as four out of nine participants responded positively to this.
Cultural Settings
Interviews were used to assess the principals’ understanding that the district has visible,
concrete manifestations of cultural models in place to support and build capacity in them so that
they may grow their ability to be equity leaders at their school.
Influence 1. Of the nine participants, only two responded positively to seeing visible,
concrete manifestations of cultural models. The participants were asked if they thought the board
policies helped to close the opportunity gap.
Interview Findings. Two participants answered positively to this question.
Participant Three said:
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I think the fact that you have these board policies helps us to hold teachers and
staff accountable. They are a tool for accountability.
Participant Nine said:
Centrally, we have that structure in place, but how it trickles down to the sites
may be different.
Conversely, Participant One said:
If they really want to cause a positive change and feel like they need to change
major structures in the school district, which is gonna cause a lot of controversy,
they need to totally overhaul how we put students in schools.
Participant Seven said:
No, not at all. They (the district) don't tell us what to do with them (board
policies).
Participants Two, Four, Five, and Six did not answer this question.
Summary. The assumed influence that the district has board policies in place that help to
close the opportunity gap for students of color has been determined to be a need, as two out of
nine participants responded positively to this.
Resources
Interviews were used to assess the principals' perception of resources provided by the
organization that supports them in their equity work.
Influence 1. Both professional development and ongoing coaching are needed to support
white principals in changing their own practices and the past practices of the school site. This
was included in the interview with all participants.
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Interview Findings. Each participant was asked if they had received any formal district
professional development or formal coaching that helped them with their equity work. Three out
of nine responded favorably to this question.
Participant One said:
Yes, during those principal meetings, we do equity work as a system. What has
helped me the most is to have the language to understand that what I was doing
was equity work.
Participant Eight stated:
Yes, there's been embedded professional development opportunities in principal
meetings or in our leadership development pipeline. I'm always cautious, though,
that PD equals the answer. I think PD is a great Kickstarter.
Even with these positive responses, some participants had hesitation. For example,
Participant One said:
They need to provide us with a structure for professional development to do with
our staff. I feel very uncomfortable with doing it as a white principal.
Participant Eight stated:
My concern is that we don't differentiate our PD. We're not equitable in our
professional development. We have an extremely diverse group of people, and the
PD does not meet everyone’s individual needs.
Other participants felt there needed to be formal professional development to help them in their
equity work.
Participant Two said:
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No, honestly, I think being introduced to the book White Fragility was big for me
because it allowed me to go, Oh, yes. All right.
Participant Three said:
No. What I received outside of the district; I would say yes.
Participant Four said there was some training; however, it was useless because:
We cannot just go back and implement it with fidelity at our site the next day
because we have not been trained in how to navigate the noise it creates.
Summary. Three of nine participants felt that they were given PD that supported white
principals in changing their own practice and the past practice of the school site, so this influence
is seen as a need.
Summary of Validated Influences
Tables 11, 12, and 13 show the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
this study and their determination as an asset or a need.
Knowledge
Table 11
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Educational Partners’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Knowledge Influences Asset or
Need
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Declarative Factual (terms, facts, concepts)
How do you define equity? Asset
Was there anything you needed to learn or unlearn to help you with equity work?
Need
Declarative Conceptual (categories, process models, principles, relationships)
What does it look like to support students of color at your site? Asset
Procedural
Do you have any procedure in place that informs you about the needs of your
Black students/families in your school community?
Need
Metacognitive
How have your positionality and intersectionality shaped your leadership?
Need
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Motivation
Table 12
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Educational Partners’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Motivation Influences Asset or
Need
Self-Efficacy
What motivates you to work against the status quo? Need
Affect/Emotions
Tell me about a time when you faced opposition and what the outcome was. Need
What sustains you in this work? Need
Attribution
To what do you attribute your success in equity? Need
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Organization
Table 13
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Educational Partners’ Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed Organization Influences Asset or
Need
Cultural Models
Do you feel the district's values, beliefs, and attitudes align with changing
systemic practices and procedures to better support students of color?
Need
Cultural Settings
In your opinion, have board policies helped to close the opportunity gap? Need
Resources
Have you had any formal district professional development or formal coaching
that helped you with your equity work?
Need
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Conclusion of Findings
I entered this study to discover and highlight the promising practices of white principals
who have shown academic success or an improved sense of belonging with their students of
color. Based on my findings with the participants who agreed to be in my study, the findings
indicate that while their schools are showing positive results, the results are not based on the
intentional implementation of equitable practices and structures.
My study did not exclude school sites based on their socioeconomic status. My
participants represented school sites that varied from wealthy to lower socioeconomic status.
Based on this selection, I found that schools in more affluent areas did not have the same racial
gaps in their data as those in lower socioeconomic areas. A further finding was that principals
who served in wealthy areas were less culturally aware than those I interviewed in lower
socioeconomic areas. This was evident in their responses as they did not express the specific
needs of their students of color. One example of this was when Participant Six spoke of feeling
defensive in conversations about race at their school, saying, “Being white puts me at a
disadvantage, and I am automatically going to be assumed a racist or have unconscious bias, or
have holes in my game because I only have the lived experience of a white person.” I also found
that principals who serve in wealthy areas had no data indicators that alerted them to the specific
needs of their students of color. They could not provide examples indicating that the needs of
students of color differ from those of white students. One example that mirrored many examples
was when Participant Two said, “It was brought to my attention at a meeting for Black families
that their child experiences microaggressions at school. Some parents said that some teachers
were racist. This made me confused and defensive. There is no achievement gap between Black
and white students here. They are all very high achieving.” Because there are no differences in
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achievement data between their students of color and white students, these principals of affluent
schools were unaware of the differing needs of their students of color. While they appropriately
defined equity as being proactive and considering race, addressing race was not a high priority at
their school due to student academic data. I would even say that they were not aware of the need.
Therefore, their students' achievements were not based on any structure or scaffold the principal
implemented but could be due to family influence, teacher impact, or other factors not assessed.
A comment that captured the sentiments of other participants in wealthy areas was that
color blindness in schools means students of color are supported. An example of this was when
Participant Eight said, “When we are supporting students of color, there are no measures
necessarily that tell us we are doing it wrong. Why can't we just have a (school name) space, not
a white space or Black space?” These unexpected findings and recommendations for further
study in this area will be discussed in Chapter Five. Chapter Five will also offer evidence-based
recommendations to address the identified gaps in validated influences of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational processes of equity for white K–12 principals. Chapter Five will
offer recommendations for creating an equitable educational experience for students of color and
offer areas for future research in all areas.
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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
This study analyzed the KMO influences of white K–12 principals who have
implemented systems at their schools for academic achievement or a sense of belonging to
support their students of color. Using Clark & Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework, this
qualitative study evaluated the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the
problem of practice. I expected the influences to be validated as an asset because the
participation criteria required success in one of these two areas; however, more was needed, as
discussed in Chapter Four. The results of the interviews and my findings have directed the
evidence-based solutions and recommendations I offer in this chapter. These recommendations
will be exhibited in alignment with the KMO influences. It will also include an integrated
implementation and evaluation plan using the New World Kirkpatrick Model 125 (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Lastly, study limitations will be discussed, and suggestions for future
research will be provided.
Organizational Context and Mission
Lakeview District is a large, urban public school district in California with over 50,000
students. Looking at the disaggregated data of the districts’ workforce versus student ethnicities,
Lakeview District performs better than the national average. However, 49% of the teachers are
white, 39% of the administrators are white, and 88% of the students are of color. The district’s
mission statement is to support each student personally and academically in each class each day.
Lakeview District’s board has recently adopted an equity policy resulting from a
committee consisting of district employees, parents, and community members. The policy states
how Lakeview District defines equity, the acknowledgment of historical wrongs, their
commitment to equitable practices, and how the policy will be implemented. The implementation
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of this policy will be throughout the district. It is the standard in which all policies and
procedures are measured against to be sure they uphold the tenets of the equity policy. If there
are discrepancies, then changes are made.
Organizational Performance Goal
Since Lakeview District has pledged to uphold equity and abide by its equity policy,
goals were established by the superintendent with the intent of centering students of color, with a
specific focus on Black students.
• Goal one: Lakeview Districts’ students will gain at least one year of academic growth.
The median student growth of Black students will be at least 25% more than last year.
• Goal two: Lakeview student access and success in college and career options will grow.
• Black student success in A–G completion will rise by at least 5%. Progress toward these
goals is scheduled to be reported to the School Board annually by different district school
sites and district departments.
Educational Partner Group
I chose white administrators because I was interested in learning their knowledge
concerning the success of students of color and what sustained their motivation for this
work. I also wanted to discover how the organization's culture assisted them in creating
equitable educational experiences for their students of color and any organizational barriers
they may have faced.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational structures of white principals who have been successful in the
implementation of equitable practices at their school site with the result of positively changing
84
the achievement and/or sense of belonging data for students of color. Research questions that
will guide this study are as follows:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to white
administrators leading their schools to close the opportunity gap for their students of
color?
2. What are solutions and recommendations in knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources for white administrators to positively change the outcomes for their students of
color?
Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
This section will provide recommendations related to the validated KMO influences that
were determined to be needs and assets in Chapter Four. These recommendations will be used to
increase the equitable systems and practices of white school principals to increase equity for
students of color at schools. The recommendations will be organized by knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction
The knowledge influences analyzed in this study were factual, conceptual, procedural,
and metacognitive. Influences were validated through qualitative data gathering by utilizing
individual interviews. The research findings validate that factual knowledge was an asset;
however, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge was determined to be needed by
the participants. The factual knowledge asset can be used to strengthen the white principals’
progress in equitable systems and practices at their schools. Recommendations based on
supporting literature will be made for the conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge
85
influences that were determined to be necessary. Table 14 shows the causes, priority level,
principles, and recommendations. Table 14 contains a detailed discourse on each high-priority
cause and recommendation, and the supporting literature is listed.
Table 14
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Asset
or
Need
Priority
Yes or
No
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Factual
White principals
can define equity.
Asset No Principals must
know the basic
elements to be
acquainted with a
discipline or solve
problems
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Remind principals of how
the district defines “equity”
when applicable.
Update principals if the
district definition changes
over time.
Conceptual
White principals
include multiple
perspectives in
decision-making
and planning.
Need Yes Conceptual
knowledge uses a
network of
relationships
between pieces of
information to
accomplish a goal
(Carpenter, 2016).
Provide professional
development so principals
may understand the
connections between what
they know and how to
transfer that knowledge to
support students of color.
White principals
have a true and
realistic
understanding of
their Black students
and their Black
community.
Need Yes Conceptual
knowledge uses a
network of
relationships
between pieces of
information to
accomplish a goal
(Carpenter, 2016).
Have principals share their
best practices for supporting
students of color at their site
in the district principal’s
monthly meeting.
Procedural
White
administrators
design systems of
support for students
Need Yes To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
In the principal’s monthly
professional development,
bring in community
members who will share the
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who have
historically not been
served well,
according to the
site’s data.
integrating them,
and know when to
apply what they
have learned
(Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
benefits of establishing a
process for continuous
communication between the
principal and family
members of their Black
students.
Metacognitive
White
administrators
reflect on their
privilege and
positionality,
especially as it
pertains to their
work.
Need Yes Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners set goals,
monitor their
performance, and
evaluate their
progress toward
achieving their
goals (Ambrose et
al., 2010).
Provide opportunities for
principals to engage in
guided self-monitoring and
self-assessment of their
intersectionality and
positional power in leading
an equitable school.
Factual Knowledge
The assumed influence on evaluating factual knowledge was that the participants could
define “equity.” Based on the findings, factual knowledge was determined to be an asset.
Although this was not identified as a priority, it is still important that principals have a working
understanding of equity and are updated if the district updates its definition.
For white principals to be able to close opportunity gaps for students of color effectively,
one must understand the terminology associated with equity and what that means in the context
of their school district. The lack of knowledge in this area will inhibit administrators from
achieving equity for their students of color. For white principals to lead their schools in equity
for their students, they must understand the district’s equity policy and what closing opportunity
gaps looks like in practicality on their campus. They need to use their prior knowledge (Ambrose
et al., 2010) as a starting point and then add to their knowledge base through professional
development.
Conceptual Knowledge
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The assumed influence to evaluate conceptual knowledge was that the participants
included multiple perspectives in decision-making and planning. This was based on the idea that
conceptual knowledge uses a network of relationships between pieces of information to
accomplish a goal (Carpenter, 2016). Based on the findings, conceptual knowledge was deemed
a need and a priority, as the findings indicated that most participants do not make this a regular
practice.
Conceptual knowledge displays a deeper understanding of how different components
integrate and is a webbing of relationships between bits of data (Carpenter, 2013; Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011). It is the knowledge of how to organize objects and ideas (Rueda, 2011).
This organization of knowledge can influence current and future learning and its usage (Ambrose
et al., 2010). For the purpose of this study, white administrators need to understand the principle
of how site culture and status quo either uphold or dismantle practices of racism and student
inequities and the importance of including multiple perspectives in decision-making and
planning.
In this context, the assumed conceptual knowledge influence assumes two ideas: that
white school administrators understand the relationship between the school site’s everyday
practices and district expectations and whether that helps or hinders their students of color. This
is important because if site administrators hope to change the outcome for their students of color
(Freire, 1975), white principals must include multiple perspectives in decision-making and
planning.
Procedural Knowledge
Schraw and McCrudden (2006) state that to develop mastery, individuals must acquire
competent skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned.
88
This idea supports the findings of the procedural influence of white administrators designing
support systems for students who have historically not been served well. Based on the findings,
procedural knowledge was determined to be a need. According to their site's data, it was deemed
a priority as the findings indicated that most participants had not designed systems to specifically
support their students of color.
The influence assessment found that administrators know how to analyze and
disaggregate data to effectively plan for systems that address the equity dilemmas found in the
data. According to Teranishi et al. (2020), the distinctions within ethnic and racial groups must
be discovered and made straightforward to have equal educational opportunities. Looking at
different data, both quantitative and qualitative, can show the inclusion, opportunities, and
achievement of different ethnic groups. These can be exceedingly different for each ethnic
group. Not being mindful of this while looking at data and planning support for students can
have unfavorable student outcomes (Marquardt & Herrera, 2015).
Metacognitive Knowledge
The assumed knowledge of the metacognitive influences assessed found that white
administrators reflect on their privilege and positionality, especially regarding their work. This
influence was found to be a need. Ambrose et al. (2010) state that learning and motivation are
enhanced when learners set goals, monitor their performance, and evaluate their progress toward
achieving them. The recommendation for this influence is that participants are provided
opportunities to engage in guided self-monitoring and self-assessment of their intersectionality
and positional power regarding leading an equitable school.
Metacognition has been defined as self-directed awareness and knowledge about one’s
thinking (Ambrose et al., 2010; Baker, 2005; Krathwohl, 2002). This helps with problem-
89
solving and knowing when and why to take specific actions (Rueda, 2011). To ensure equity for
students of color, white principals must reflect on what equity is, why it is important, and how
they can make changes to do things differently. This reflection can lead to interrogating the
systemic inequities that are embedded within the school system and standard practices of white
school administrators. A barrier to achieving this goal is an inability to reflect on and learn from
past efforts to improve student outcomes, lessening the gap between ethnic groups.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction
The motivational influences analyzed in this study were self-efficacy, attributions, and affect.
Influences were validated through qualitative data gathering through individual interviews. The
research findings validate that self-efficacy, attributions, and affect were all determined to be
needs. This was surprising, as more positive findings were expected. When this was discovered
during the interview process, some planned interview questions needed to be altered or cut
entirely. Table 15 lists the motivation influences with priority level and evidence-based
principles to support the recommendations. It shows the causes, priority level, principles, and
recommendations and also contains a detailed discourse on each high-priority cause and
recommendation, and the supporting literature is listed.
Table 15
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Asset
or
Need
Priority
Yes or
No
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Self-Efficacy
White administrators
are confident enough
in their ability to
Need Yes Perceived selfefficacy plays a
role in human selfProvide coaching and
training to guide white
principals through exercises
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work against the
status quo enough to
make a notable
difference in the data
for students of color.
development,
adaptation, and
change at
individual and
collective levels.
(Bandura, 2012).
to discover their sphere of
influence. Their confidence
is important in leading their
schools to be equity minded.
Attributions
White administrators
attribute their
success in
implementing
equitable practices to
their positive attitude
and effort.
Need Yes Teaching selfregulated learning
strategies
significantly affects
the modification of
negative
attributions.
(Pintrich, 2003).
The yearly goal-setting
mandate for principals will
be infused with selfinspection and selfevaluation exercises so that
participants feel worthy,
strong, and independent,
resulting in them developing
suitable, adaptive beliefs.
Principal supervisors are
trained to give regular
feedback to principals
focused on growth and effort
rather than strictly
performance.
Affect
White administrators
must be able to
accentuate their
positive emotions
and gains while
intentionally
suppressing
negativity.
Need Yes Positive emotional
environments
support motivation
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Lead participants through a
positive data review.
Bring a behavioral specialist
to lead principals by
accentuating positive
mindset and behavior.
Self-Efficacy
The assumed knowledge of the influence of self-efficacy is that white principals are
confident enough in their ability to work against the status quo to make a notable difference for
students of color. This influence was found to be a need. Bandura (2012) states that perceived
self-efficacy plays a role in human self-development, adaptation, and change at both the
individual and collective levels. The recommendation for this influence is that coaching and
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training be provided to guide white principals through exercises so they can discover their sphere
of influence with the hope of realizing their effect on their school and the outcomes of their
students.
While examining self-efficacy, it has been found that leaders need to have their own
confidence in the changes they make at their school site to create more opportunities for their
students of color. Bandura (1986, 1998, 2012) lays the groundwork for concluding self-efficacy
and achieving goals. Therefore, leaders who are self-motivated and confident in their ability to
change long-standing practices that historically have not benefited all students are more likely to
engage in these types of tasks and achieve their goals of creating equitable educational
experiences for students of color. Adversely, white leaders with low self-efficacy avoid work,
procrastinate, and give up more quickly. A white leader who is motivated, confident in their
ability, and has high expectations for success is likely to meet their goals.
Attributions
The assumed knowledge of the influence of attributions is that white administrators
attribute their success in implementing equitable practices to their positive attitude and effort.
This influence was found to be a need. Pintrich (2003) states that teaching self-regulated learning
strategies has a significant effect on modifying negative attributions. The recommendation for
this influence is modifying the yearly goal-setting for principals, including self-inspection and
self-evaluation exercises. This will help the participants feel worthy, strong, and independent,
developing applicable, adaptive beliefs. Also, principal supervisors should be trained to give
regular feedback to principals focused on growth and effort rather than strictly on performance.
Attribution theory states that individuals form a set of assurances regarding the rationale
for success or failure with a task and the amount of control an individual has in affecting the
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outcome (Rueda, 2011). Anderman and Anderman (2006) state that motivation and learning are
favorably impacted when individuals attribute the results of a task to the effort given and not as
a consequence of ability. This idea is crucial when developing strategies and initiatives to
improve leadership performance. If administrators view success or failure as a result of their
effort instead of their ability, learning and motivation are magnified (Anderman & Anderman,
2006). In developing leaders, the feedback given on performance must focus on learning and
adaptation, that sustained effort can overcome temporary setbacks, to coach them to determine
what is controllable and what is not more accurate, and that learning and motivation enhance
change, which is vital to the achievement of their goals (Pintrich, 2003; Weiner, 2005).
Affect
The assumed knowledge of the affect is that white administrators must be able to
accentuate their positive emotions and gains while intentionally suppressing negativity. This
influence was found to be a need. Clark & Estes (2008) states that positive emotional
environments support motivation. The recommendations for this influence are to lead
participants through a positive data review to create an emotionally positive environment. Also,
bringing in a behavioral specialist to lead principals through exercises of accentuating positive
mindset and behavior will train them to be able to bring up positivity while suppressing negative
emotions, which are counterproductive.
Both emotion and motivation are related to action or inaction. If affect/emotions
adversely affect the motivation of the white principal, this will, in turn, harm the teachers and
students they are leading, as task engagement can increase or decrease according to one's
emotions (Bradley, 2000; Pekrun, 2007). According to Mega et al. (2014), emotions influence
self-regulated learning and motivation, and these, in turn, affect achievement. They conclude
93
that positive emotions foster achievement when they are mediated by self-regulated learning and
motivation. Furthermore, Dweck (2006) concluded her research that more than intelligence,
natural born talent, or education, success comes from having the right mindset.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction
The organizational influences analyzed in this study were cultural models, cultural
settings, policies/procedures, and resources. Influences were validated through qualitative data
gathering through individual interviews. The research findings validate that while the cultural
model was an asset, cultural settings, policies/procedures, and resources were determined to be a
need. It is essential to state that participants acknowledged and appreciated the intent and
structures being put in place by the district; however, most participants were not convinced that
this was enough to support work to be done at the sites. When these sentiments were discovered
during the interview, some planned interview questions had to be altered or cut out entirely.
Table 16 lists the organization's influences with priority level and evidence-based principles to
support the recommendations. Table 16 also provides a detailed discourse on each high-priority
cause and recommendation, and the supporting literature is listed.
Table 16
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence
Asset
or
Need
Priority
(High/
Low)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Models
The district values
the work of
changing the status
Asset Low Cultural models are
the unseen norms
within an organization
Principals will receive
explicit instruction
regarding the district’s
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quo to better the
outcomes for
students of color.
that determine how
people operate within
the organization
(Rueda, 2011).
If change is expected
to be a value in
schools, it must be
known as a value for
the district.
Equity Policy and the
expectations that they lead
changes at their schools to
achieve more equitable
outcomes for their students
of color.
Cultural Settings
The district has
board policies in
place that help to
close the
opportunity gap for
students of color.
Need High The cultural setting is
the manifestation of
the core values, goals,
beliefs, and policies
learned and developed
over time that become
the everyday
experience of people
in the organization
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Principals will implement
board equity policies into
their site plan, including
equitable grading and
restorative discipline.
Policies and
Procedures
Policies and
procedures align
with the mission
and vision of the
organization and
serve as a guide for
administrators.
Need High Policies, processes,
and procedures are
aligned with
organizational goals,
mission, and vision
(Rueda, 2011).
Direct instruction is given
to principals, which shows
the alignment of district
policy with district goals
and mission.
Principals are given guided
goal-writing sessions to
ensure their school goals
align with the district's
goals, mission, and vision.
Resources
Both professional
development and
ongoing coaching
are needed to
support them in
changing their own
practice and the
school site's past
practice.
Need High Systematic, specific,
constructive feedback
enables principals to
know whether their
actions are consistent
with their intentions
or district expectations
(Huff et al., 2013).
Regular feedback should
be given to principals,
including their equitable
leadership practices and
implementation of systems
to support their students of
color.
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Cultural Model
An organization’s values, practices, and policies make the cultural models. These develop
over time (Bolman & Deal, 2017) and develop the unspoken norms of the organization (Rueda,
2011). To fully understand gaps that prevent an organization from achieving its goal, the cultural
model that shapes its customary and normal operating procedures must be understood (Rueda,
2011). Cultural models are the unseen norms within an organization that determine how people
operate within the organization (Rueda, 2011). These cultural models are put differently within
an organization and become the cultural settings (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). In the context
of white principals creating an equitable educational experience for students of color, they
require the support of the school district to expect this to be a value for all educators and to
create policies in which these changes to past practices can be made.
Cultural Settings
The cultural setting, the tangible result of an organization’s culture, must be understood
when analyzing why an organization is not achieving its goal (Rueda, 2001). Cultural settings
help to gain an understanding of why an organization’s educational partners think and
behave the way they do (Rueda, 2011). The cultural setting manifests the core values, goals,
beliefs, and policies learned and developed over time that become the everyday experience of
people in the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). To gain a complete understanding of the
organization’s performance, the cultural setting must be analyzed (Rueda, 2011).
Policies and Procedures
According to Rueda (2011), an organization’s policies and procedures influence whether
the performance goals will be met. Organizations are most effective when their policies,
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processes, and procedures align with their goals, mission, and vision (Clark & Estes, 2008).
When these are all connected, they provide guidance for administrators to follow.
Resources
Resources are needed for the organization to meet its goal with fidelity. Supporting
principals in this work will require ongoing professional development, coaching, and monitoring.
This will need to be a priority in the budget, as well as personal dedication to developing and
sustaining this support.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
Lakeview District has committed to upholding equity and abiding by its board-approved
equity policy. Their mission is to support each student personally and academically in each class,
each day. The superintendent established goals to center students of color.
The focus of my study was white administrators because I was interested in learning
about how their focus on equity contributed to the success of students of color and what
sustained their motivation for this work. I was also interested in discovering how the
organization's culture assisted them in creating equitable educational experiences for their
students of color and any organizational barriers they may have faced.
The recommendations are based on the findings of the gap analysis of the knowledge,
motivation, and organization support to fulfill the district’s goals to support all students.
Principals should be able to discover the needs of their students and families through gathering
data and implementing structures that will meet the needs of students, specifically students of
color. These efforts will result in raising outcome data for students of color so that there is no
difference between subgroups.
97
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
This implementation and evaluation plan is based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This method is based on the Kirkpatrick model, which offers
four levels of evaluation of training programs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). In the revised
version, the model is to follow the four steps of the original plan but in reverse. Like the
backward planning commonly used in education, the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016) begins with Level 4, moving backward to Level 1. Each level has a focus:
Level 4—results achieved; Level 3—behaviors have changed; Level 2—learning, knowledge is
acquired; and Level 1—reaction to the training. The purpose of this evaluation tool is to assure
that the recommendations given in this chapter will achieve the desired result of white principals
having the knowledge and motivation to implement equitable practices at their school sites.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
In the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) of evaluation,
we begin with the desired outcome with Level 4. Specific to this study, Level 4 will measure
how much factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge is obtained and utilized
with a desired outcome of at least 80% favorable by white principals. Level 4 will also measure
the growth of self-efficacy, attribution, and affect/emotion of each participant in sustaining
motivation with equity work, resulting in at least 80% favorable results. Level 4 will also
measure the extent to which the white principals experience the organization’s cultural models
and settings and the policies, procedures, and resources supporting equitable practices at the
school sites.
Table 17 shows the results and leading indicators utilizing outcomes, metrics, and
methods for external and internal outcomes. Level 4 results measure the extent to which student
98
outcome differences for students of color and white students decrease due to the
recommendations and plan.
Table 17
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Dashboard Performance level colors will
be green or above with no
difference between students of
color and white students in all
categories.
Annual review of dashboard
by principals and district
personnel.
Seen as a leader in the state
for one who serves
students of color well.
Number of districts visiting
Lakeview schools to better
understand our
program/practices.
Number of speaking
engagements to discuss district
practices.
Hosting PD events for other
districts to observe our
program and practices.
Attend networking events to
share work being done in
district.
District goals are aligned
with community needs.
Number of community
listening sessions and focus
groups that are held in order to
discover the needs of the
community.
Post on district community
newsletter what was taken
from input and how that is
reflected in district goals.
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
Internal Outcomes
Student academic and
sense of belonging data are
the same regardless of
ethnicity.
Grades, test scores, and CORE
survey results do not show a
difference between ethnicities.
Through a series of
professional development and
coaching, principals are
reflective in their practice and
can implement successful
systems of support for their
students of color.
White principals are
culturally competent and
know they need the input
of their students and
families of color in their
planning.
A monthly dialogue session
will be held to inform planning
and the next steps for school;
one session will be for students
and one for families.
Anonymous data gathered
from these groups will be
reported in staff meetings and
parent groups as appropriate.
99
White principals
implement structures and
practices at their schools
that support the
achievement of students of
color.
Committees of students and
staff will use the data gathered
from the dialogue sessions and
cocreate new procedures to
address the concerns.
Staff, student, and parent
surveys.
White principals know how
to accentuate positive
emotions to sustain equity
work.
A behavioral specialist will
lead principals by accentuating
positive mindset and behavior.
Principals will be trained in a
positive data review to focus
on what works at their school
sites.
Check-in at principal
meetings.
Coaching.
White principals are aware
of the impact their
intersectionality and
positionality make on their
school community.
White principals partner with a
colleague of color who can
provide feedback and be a
thinking partner.
Collaboration
partners in parent meetings
when appropriate.
Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
The educational partners of focus are white principals in the Lakeview School District,
and the behaviors noted in Table 18 are critical for this group if Lakeview District is to reach its
organizational goal. These behaviors will have a considerable impact on our Level 4 desired
results. The first critical behavior is self-reflection as it pertains to race and leadership. Critical
behavior two is the learning and unlearning needed to be culturally competent. The third critical
behavior is looking only at data that is disaggregated. Table 18 also specifies the metrics,
methods, and timing for evaluating these critical behaviors and will significantly influence Level
4 results.
Table 18
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
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Regularly reflect on
intersectionality, race,
and positionality in
relation to their school
leadership.
Number of journal
entries.
Number of meetings
with coach.
Record in a journal the
reflections and learnings
discovered about how race
plays a part in leadership
practices.
Share findings with the
coach.
Weekly
Unlearning white culture
and learning about the
culture of their students
and school community.
Number of
professional
development
courses, books, and
groups attended.
Attend professional
development sessions
given by the district and
search out your own
learning.
Monthly
Look at disaggregated
data to see data trends
among ethnicities to
inform the next steps.
All reports are
disaggregated by
ethnicity.
Number of meetings
with coach.
Intentionally pull
disaggregated data reports
and form focus groups of
specific ethnicities to
gather a diverse point of
view.
Monthly
Know what the equity
policy offers and use it to
guide leadership
practices.
Number of times it
is reviewed in
meetings and
planning sessions.
The policy should be used
as a framework for
structures and activities on
campus.
Monthly
Principal facilitates walkthroughs with teachers in
classrooms.
Number of walkthroughs.
Number of
departments
involved.
Walk-through will provide
opportunities for principals
to recognize equitable
practices on campus and
engage in dialogue with
teachers.
Each
department
once a
semester
Required Drivers
To impact the achievement of the critical behaviors seen in Table 18, the extent to which
participants apply what they learn when they are back on the job requires drivers (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New World Level 3 Behavior consists of critical behaviors, required
drivers, and on-the-job learning.
Table 19 identifies and categorizes the required drivers, the timing, and the specific
critical behavior each driver supports. These required drivers and active monitoring provide
accountability to ensure the on-the-job application of what is learned.
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Table 19
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3, etc.
Reinforcing
Review sections of the equity policy during faculty
meetings.
Monthly as it
pertains to the
meeting topic
1,2,4
Coaching to support learning. Monthly 1,2
Encouraging
Teachers conduct “praise walks” to look for
equitable practices in each other’s classrooms.
Quarterly 1,2,4,5
Time allotted in staff meetings to have faculty
make connections from their work to the equity
policy.
Monthly 1,2,3,4
Rewarding
Share bright spots of improved student data in the
Week-at-A–Glance email.
Monthly 1,2,4,5
Acknowledgment in the Principal’s meeting from
the Superintendent for promising practices.
Monthly 1,2,3,4
Monitoring
Observation of principal by supervisor. Monthly 1,2,3,4,5
The Principal’s supervisor monitors data to check
for improvement.
Quarterly
The Principal holds Student Advisory Committee
meetings to review data, plan the next steps, and
receive feedback.
Monthly
Organizational Support
Table 18 shows the critical behaviors, and Table 19 shows the required drivers to support
these behaviors. These drivers build on the recommendations for the organization.
Organizational support is vital for success in achieving the organization's goal and meeting the
needs of the validated gaps. Cultural models and settings, policies and procedures, and resources
at Lakeview Unified School District must align with the organizational performance goal of
centering students of color.
102
The data in Chapter Four’s data shows that white principals have an understanding why
there is a need to center students of color, but lack the knowledge of how to do this, which then
affects their motivation to carry out this work. To remedy this, the organization must align its
systems and policies and allocate resources to support this important work. Specifically,
principals need explicit instruction, collaboration in planning, and ongoing support for
implementing systems of equity at their schools. Clark and Estes (2008) state that effective
organizations have organizational policies that align and support organizational goals and values.
This plan of focused training and ongoing support to principals will give them the knowledge
and sustained motivation needed to implement equitable systems at their schools. When this is
accomplished, they will be able to properly support the needs of their students of color, therefore
fulfilling the district mission of supporting each student, every day.
Level 2: Learning
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), training has little value unless the
knowledge received at the training changes on-the-job behaviors and improves organizational
outcomes. Therefore, the next step in the New World Kirkpatrick Model is to state what learning
must occur for new behaviors to occur.
Learning Goals
With the goal of principals performing the critical behaviors, they must be able to achieve the
following learning goals, which were based on the validated needs from Chapter Four:
1. Know what is needed to be learned and unlearned to become a culturally competent
leader (Factual Knowledge).
2. Implement procedures that will inform you about the needs of your Black
students/families in your school community (Procedural Knowledge).
103
3. Reflect on how your positionality and intersectionality shaped your leadership
(Metacognitive Knowledge).
4. Gain motivation to start and continue equitable practices at your school
(Affect/Emotions).
5. Understand that a growth mindset is needed to obtain objective (Attribution).
Program
To achieve these learning goals, participants will engage in three types of training. The
first will be an annual retreat. The second will be an ongoing training embedded in the monthly
principal’s meeting to build capacity on the equity policy, facilitate data analysis, and
develop/monitor implementation plans. The third type will be ongoing coaching support.
The training program will begin with an annual retreat for Lakeview principals. During
this time, there will be community-building circles to build trust and community. It will begin
with discussion of the district’s definition of equity and why it is important. This discussion will
include a deep dive of the equity policy and its implications for school sites. Principals will hear
from the district’s restorative justice program specialist who will engage them in reflecting upon
their positionality and intersectionality and how that shapes their leadership. Following this,
information will be given about how racial inequities impact their school community and a
discussion will be facilitated to discuss how this affects students achieving their desired
outcomes. They will learn more about the behaviors they need to support students of color at
their school. They will look at their school data and begin to collaborate on plans that would best
support the needs on their campus, establishing goals and action plans for the upcoming school
year.
104
The next phase will be to train principals embedded in the monthly meetings. During this
time, principals will revisit their goals and action plans. They will discuss with their colleagues
the progress and barriers they are experiencing and receive feedback. They will then adjust plans
as needed.
Finally, each principal will receive one-on-one support from a coach. This coach will
meet with them once a month to discuss their progress in more detail. The coach will be a
thought partner, resource, and support for the principal.
This training program is meant to address the identified gaps in knowledge and
motivation so that principals can lead their schools in equitable practices.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Evaluating white principals’ knowledge and motivation is vital, as these are the basis for
the expected implementation of equitable practices. There will also be an evaluation of reducing
the academic achievement gap for minoritized students. This would give insight into the
principals’ self-efficacy, affect/emotions, and attributions of implementing equitable practices at
their school. Following the flow of the Kirkpatrick evaluation method, it is advised that the
components for learning are analyzed (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 20 presents the
evaluation components for the training program.
Table 20
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Methods or activities Timing
Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.”
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Define equity.
Explain how to support students of color.
Discuss what you needed to learn and unlearn in order to
implement equitable structures and practices at your school.
During and after training
During and after training
During and after training
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”
Reflect on how your positionality and intersectionality shaped
your leadership.
Have structures in place that inform you about the needs of your
students and families of color in your school community.
During and after training
After training and
ongoing
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Pre- and post-survey of white administrators to gauge positive
attitude from first training to last training.
Discussions within professional development training sessions and
one-to-one coaching sessions about the value of equity work.
Before and after training
After training and
ongoing
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”
Post-survey of white principals with items related to confidence.
Discussions within professional development training sessions and
with their coach regarding their level of confidence.
After training
After training
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”
Observations by coaches and principal supervisor. After training and
ongoing to monitor
progress
106
Level 1: Reaction
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), Level 1, reaction, refers to the extent to
which participants react favorably to the training. Table 21 lists the methods used to determine
the principals’ reactions to the training program with respect to engagement, relevance, and
satisfaction.
Table 21
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or tool(s) Timing
Facilitator/coach/principal supervisor During each session
Attendance at each training session for the
entire school year
During each session
Workshop evaluation During each session
Relevance
Check-ins with principals Monthly
Check-ins with coaches and principal
supervisors
Monthly
Customer Satisfaction
Program Evaluation Annually
Principal Survey End of Year
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Under the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), Level 1 assesses participants’ reactions to
107
the training, and Level 2 measures the amount of learning that results from the training. Since
these two levels occur during or shortly after the training, they can be assessed immediately
following the training. However, levels 3 and 4 appraise the effectiveness of the training by
checking the behavior and progress toward the goal. Both levels are evaluated after the training
at later times to measure sustainability and measured achievement of the goal. This section offers
tools to be used during both evaluations: immediately after the training and later after the
training.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. The New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) suggests evaluating the sustainability of the training
after an extended period of time so participants can reflect on the significance of the training as
well as allow time for drivers and critical behaviors to develop. At the first principal’s meeting
they will be asked to complete a self-assessment on how their summer planning toward their goal
has changed as a result of the retreat. This will occur at least 60 days after the retreat. Likewise,
monthly at the beginning of each principal’s meeting, they will be asked to complete a different
self-assessment asking about their progress toward their goal and how the training from the prior
month had helped them in progressing toward their goal. This evaluation aims to capture
feedback on Levels 3 and 4. Appendix F outlines potential survey items regarding Levels 3, and
4 that could be used for the initial delayed assessment. Appendix G contains the survey used in
subsequent months at each principal’s meeting.
Data Analysis and Reporting
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), after the reaction of Level 1 and
learning of Level 2, there is a period during Level 3 of monitoring and adjusting. This includes
on-the-job learning while the participant uses the new learned behavior. To monitor and adjust,
108
data must be collected, analyzed, and shared. The data collected with the tool in Appendix E will
be shared with principal supervisors and coaches shortly after the summer retreat. This will
enable coaching to be tailored to the needs of the principal. The Likert scale responses will be
presented using charts, and the open-ended responses will be categorized by theme and shared at
the same time. The same system will be used for sharing data for the delayed survey in Appendix
F. Data from each site will be shared informally by the principal by way of discussion in the
monthly meetings. This will also be a time when principals can share celebrations and challenges
about implementation with the group. These data will be collected on shared slides for all to
reference. The goal of collecting, analyzing, and sharing data is to monitor progress toward the
principal and district’s goal. Buy-in, encouragement, monitoring, and reinforcement are
imperative in attaining these goals. Keeping principals involved and engaged with sharing their
progress and hearing feedback on goal attainment can keep a forward momentum.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was a template to
help create a course of training to address the gaps in knowledge and motivation for principals in
their endeavor to implement equitable systems at their schools. Furthermore, it was used to
evaluate the training using a series of evaluation tools. The organizational expectation of equity
for all students is not new in the Lakeview District. There has been detailed training given to
each employee in the district, however, the outcomes for students of color have not significantly
changed. The New World Kirkpatrick Method delivers a deep analysis of training programs. By
applying this method, the hope is to change practices on school sites, creating an equitable
educational experience for students of color.
109
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) uses the original
model in reverse. Starting with Level 4, thinking of the desired results for the organization, Level
3, how much are participants applying their learning with critical behaviors, Level 2, did the
participants learn what was intended, and Level 1, to what degree was the training positively
received by the participants. This was concluded with designing tools to evaluate to what degree
the training participant achieves these steps, as this method recommends collecting, analyzing,
and sharing data continuously through the training and implementation process (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). As data are collected with the tools outlined in appendices E, F, and G and
examined, discussions with participants, coaches, and supervisors will determine the need for
additional data collection tools to be used as we work toward goal attainment.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are limitations to this study. Lakeview Unified School District was the only district
selected for the study, and the participant sample was small. Both factors might reduce the
validity of the findings. The targeted number of participants was twelve: four from each of the
elementary, middle, and high school levels. However, only nine agreed to be a part of the study.
A larger aggregation could broaden the data range and provide deeper insights into the KMO
challenges of providing equitable school practices. Furthermore, I am a white leader at Lakeview
District, which could result in a biased interpretation of the data.
Recommendations for Future Research
This evaluation study analyzed the KMO influences impacting Lakeview’s ability to
reach its organizational goal of increasing the academic and sense of belonging outcomes for
students of color. The educational partner group of focus were white school principals, and the
study identified gaps with knowledge and motivation for implementing equitable practices at
110
their school in order to better support their students of color. Future research could focus on the
differences between how elementary, middle, and high school principals implement equitable
practices at their schools. Another study could compare the implementation success of equitable
practices when training is given in racial affinity groups. Research could also focus on the
effectiveness of equitable school practices by principals of color compared to their white
counterparts. Another recommendation for future research is the analysis of teachers who have
implemented equity practices despite what the principal has or has not implemented.
Conclusion
As discussed in Chapter Two, the American public school system originated to serve only
some people. Its roots in white supremacy and inequitable grading practices have not changed
much to this day. With this system, we are now trying to give all students positive academic
outcomes and a strong sense of belonging.
Participants who were selected for this study demonstrated success in improving
academic performance or improved sense of belonging for their students of color. This idea that
white principals were successful in this work intrigued me because I know the cultural
knowledge and sustained motivation it takes to implement and sustain new procedures. I
discovered in my research that only a few white principals intentionally led their school in
equitable procedures, and my study revealed more gaps than I had anticipated.
I realized that one of the unconscious biases I was holding was based on the positive
reputations of these principals. Since they were known in the district as equity work leaders, my
bias was that my study would support that notion. However, even though there were a few who
were doing intentional work to create equity at their schools, this was not the case for most,
despite their reputation. I also realized that because all the participants have a well-earned
111
reputation of being warm and welcoming to all, I assumed this would roll over to how they
attended to the individual needs of their students. This was not the case. While I believe this is
not intentional, their nicety covered the absence of equitable systems at their schools. Another
misconception due to their reputation was that these principals are at the same entry point in this
work. Even though I knew everyone has different life experiences and starting points, I
incorrectly assumed that since their schools are all successful, that each principal shares the same
understanding of equity. This study revealed that it is important to look deeper into data
upswings, find the cause of data differences between ethnicities, and study the intentional
structures and practices that create progress.
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework provided the template to identify the
KMO influences, and data were collected from interviews. Based on the findings,
recommendations were presented to address gaps, and these recommendations were evaluated
using the New World Kirkpatrick Method (2016). Even though the findings of this study were
not the promising practices that were expected, the participants seemed to want to achieve the
goal of equity for students at whatever entry point they were at. There will always be barriers to
equity work; however, seeking out the specific needs and restructuring our procedures for
students who have not historically benefited from our school system will yield the outcomes we
seek in supporting each student.
112
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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL FOR PARTICIPANTS
Introduction:
Thank you so much for your willingness to be interviewed for my dissertation. I have
really been looking forward to this meeting with you because I am aware of the great things you
have been doing on your campus for your Black and other marginalized students. You have been
chosen for this interview because you have had significant progress in lessening the difference
between Black and non-Black student outcome data, such as (test scores, sense of belonging,
discipline, and/or suspension data). I'm curious about how this occurred, and I am wondering
about how you came to this point. What are your lived experiences that brought you to this place
in your leadership? There are different mandates and requirements from the district, but what I
see from the criteria listed above is that there is something more to your work and I would like to
have a conversation about that and learn from you.
Knowledge Questions
1. How do you define “equity”?
2. The reason you were chosen for this interview is your success with ****. What was it in
you that caused you to do this work at your school site?
3. What can you tell me about your Black students and the Black community in your
school’s neighborhood? What do you know about their culture, daily lives, and needs?
4. What does it mean to support students of color?
1. What does that look like on your site?
2. What did you need to learn or unlearn to do that?
5. Where do you see the largest gaps in your site’s disaggregated data?
1. What do you feel is the cause of the data gaps at your school?
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6. In your experience, how has the historical culture at your school site either upheld or
helped to dismantle practices of racism and inequities?
7. When you go to a new site, what is your process in analyzing data to assess its needs for
all subgroups?
1. Academic
2. Cultural
3. Other
8. How do you prioritize the needs on your campus?
1. How do you determine which need is addressed first?
2. How do you know what is needed?
3. Who is involved in the planning?
4. What is your monitoring process?
9. Can you describe your positionality and/or intersectionality?
1. How have these shaped your leadership?
10. How does your position as a white administrator affect your efforts for equity?
11. How do you reflect on your practice?
1. Who do you include in your planning process?
Motivation
12. What motivates you to work against the status quo?
a. What would/has help(ed) you in this area?
13. What do you attribute the success of your equity work to?
. How much of a role has your attitude and effort helped you in this work?
14. What are ways in which you accentuate your positive emotions and gains you have made
while intentionally suppressing negativity?
15. Would you describe yourself as having a growth mindset?
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. Why is this important?
Organization/Culture/Context/Assessment
16. Do you feel the district’s values, beliefs, and/or attitudes align with changing systemic
practices and procedures to better support students of color? Explain your thoughts.
17. In your experience as a white administrator, does the district’s culture uphold or help to
dismantle practices of racism and student inequities?
18. In your opinion, has the Equity and Excellence board policy helped to close the
opportunity gap for students of color?
a. Has it helped in your work?
b. Does the policy contain any barriers?
19. What does community engagement mean to you?
What does that look like on your site?
20. Is it important to involve educational partners’ partners (parents, teachers, students, and
community members) in developing district initiatives that support equity? Why or why
not?
21. Describe any professional development or coaching you may have received that helped
you provide an equitable educational experience for your students of color.
a. Was this from the district or on your own?
22. Did you receive any training or support to help you implement district equity policies?
. Was this sufficient support so that you could implement the policies effectively?
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APPENDIX B
RECRUITMENT LETTER
Dear Participant,
My name is Wendy Ili, and I am a University of Southern California doctoral student. I
am conducting a research study about the promising practices that some white administrators
have had in creating an equitable educational experience for their students of color. I am
interested in this work in the context of the knowledge you had or have received, what motivated
you to begin this endeavor as well as what motivates your persistence, and any organizational
structures that have helped you, or were barriers in your pursuit of this goal.
You are receiving this email because you are a white site principal who has led a
significant growth in your site’s academic or campus climate/culture for your students of color.
Should you choose to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in a semistructured one-on-one interview scheduled for a maximum of 60 minutes, consisting of semistructured questions based on the relevant research. These interviews will be recorded and
transcribed. Interviews will take place in person and can be in your chosen location.
Should you choose to participate; you are encouraged to participate fully but may skip
any questions you do not want to answer for any reason. Your responses will be confidential.
This research study is in no way connected to your district’s work and will have no bearing on
your work or position.
I appreciate how valuable your time is, and I hope that you will choose to lend your voice
and leadership experience to my study so I may better understand the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational parameters that have enabled you to have success. I would appreciate a
response by the end of this week so we can determine potential interview dates. Please reach out
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with any questions or concerns.
With gratitude,
Wendy Ili
(562) 233-0498
wili@usc.edu
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APPENDIX C
Interview Cover Sheet for Participants
Name of Researcher: Wendy Ili Date of Interview:
Name of Interviewee: School:
Authorizer’s Contact Information:
Interview start time: Interview end time:
Introduction
Hi, thank you for meeting with me today. My name is Wendy Ili and I am a student
researcher at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. I am
conducting a study on the white administrators who have made significant progress in lessening
the difference between Black and non-Black student outcome data. I greatly appreciate your time
and willingness to participate in the interview and in this study.
Before we begin the interview, I would like to revisit the purpose of this study and the
interview agreements previously outlined in the signed consent form and study information sheet
provided.
As a reminder, the purpose of this interview is to understand better the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that contribute to white administrators leading their
schools in closing the opportunity gap for their students of color. You were chosen to participate
as you are a white administrator who has lessened the difference between Black and non-Black
student data in at least one of the following: test scores, grades, disciplinary action, and sense of
belonging.
Given your participation as a white principal at a school site, your perspective is valuable
to the study. I want to assure you that the nature of the questions is intended to help me better
understand your perspective and that there are no right or wrong answers. I will also talk to
multiple white principals to learn more about their perspectives.
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During our interview, I will ask questions about your opinions and experiences. If any
question makes you uncomfortable, please let me know if you prefer not to answer. Although
your experiences and opinions will be used in this study's findings, I want to reassure you that
this interview is anonymous. I will not use your name or the name of the organization in the
study, and a number will be used to protect your confidentiality.
I would like to record the interview to ensure that I capture your perspective accurately.
The recording is solely for my purpose of capturing your responses and will not be shared with
anyone else. May I have your permission to record this interview?
The interview should take approximately 60 minutes. Before we get started, do you have
any questions about the study?
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APPENDIX D
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Equitable Education for K–12 Students of Color in Public Schools
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this project is to conduct a gap analysis to examine the knowledge, motivation,
and organization of white principals who had success in the implementation of equitable
practices at their school site with the result of positively changing the achievement and/or sense
of belonging data for students of color.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60 minute semistructured one-on-one interview either in person or via Zoom, depending on your availability and
preference. All interviews will be audio taped. You do not have to answer any questions you do
not want to during the interviews. Your responses will be anonymous and confidential.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is not to participate. Whether you participate or not in this study will not affect
your position in your district.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Wendy Ili will be the principal investigator for this study. Any identifiable information obtained
in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your interview responses will be coded
with a number and maintained separately. All audio tapes related to this study will be destroyed
once they have been transcribed. The transcripts will be stored on a password-protected computer,
which only the principal investigator can access.
The data may be accessed by the research team members and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP). The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
139
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following individuals:
Principal Investigator
Wendy Ili
Contact Phone Number: 562-233-0498
Email: wili@usc.edu
Faculty Advisor
Dr. Darline Robles
Email: dprobles@rossier.usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
140
Appendix E: Evaluation Tool to Be Used Immediately Following Training
Please select the number that best correlates with how you feel about the statement for each
question. A choice of 1 indicates that you Strongly Disagree, and a choice of 5 indicates Strongly
Agree.
The training held my interest (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
My participation was encouraged by the instructor (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
The training applied to my job duties (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
I feel positive about applying what I learned in today’s training to my leadership practice. (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
I am committed to applying what I learned. (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
I found the feedback during the discussions valuable for informing my practice. (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
I am satisfied with the training on implementing research-based structures to support students of
color at my school. (L1)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
141
Please provide feedback for the following questions, and remember your responses will
remain anonymous:
Reflect on the training:
1. What part of the training was not found useful for your goal of implementing structures to
support students of color at your school? How would you change the training to suit your needs
better? (L1)
2. What is one concept you learned that you will apply immediately in your classroom? (L2)
3. What additional support will you need to implement what you learned? (L2)
4. What barriers do you anticipate that could limit your success at applying what you learned?
(L2)
142
Appendix F: Initial Evaluation Tool to Be Used at a Delayed Time After Training
1. To what degree have you incorporated new ideas into your planning due to the Summer
Retreat? (L4)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
2. Due to this training, I have added to or removed structures or procedures at my school.
(L3)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
3. What benefits did you receive from this training?
4. What potential barriers do you anticipate because of implementing this training? What
additional support would you need to overcome those barriers?
143
Appendix G: Subsequent Evaluation Tool to Be Used at Monthly Training
1. To what degree do targeted outcomes occur due to last month’s training? (L4)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
2. Due to this training, I have added to or removed structures or procedures at my school.
(L3)
Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 Strongly Agree
Explain:
3. What benefits did you receive from this training?
4. What potential barriers do you anticipate because of implementing this training? What
additional support would you need to overcome those barriers?
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Ili, Wendy Noel
(author)
Core Title
White principals implementing systems of equity: analyzing knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
09/18/2024
Defense Date
07/01/2024
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
critical race theory,equity,OAI-PMH Harvest,school-wide implementation
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Robles, Darline (
committee chair
), Franklin, Gregory (
committee member
), Hinga, Briana (
committee member
)
Creator Email
wili@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399B6B9
Unique identifier
UC11399B6B9
Identifier
etd-IliWendyNo-13534.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-IliWendyNo-13534
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
Ili, Wendy Noel
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texts
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(batch),
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Tags
critical race theory
equity
school-wide implementation