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African American officer's experiences as leaders navigating the United States Armed Service
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African American officer's experiences as leaders navigating the United States Armed Service
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Content
AFRICAN AMERICAN OFFICER’S EXPERIENCES AS LEADERS NAVIGATING THE
UNITED STATES ARMED SERVICE
by
Derek Thomas
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2024
The Committee for Derek Thomas certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. Don Trahan, Jr.
Dr. Rufus Spann
Dr. Marsha Riggio, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
3
© Copyright by Derek Thomas 2024
All Rights Reserved
4
Abstract
The lived experiences of African American officers in the U.S. Armed Forces were explored in
this study. Focus was placed on the challenges faced by African American officers regarding
assimilation, racism, and leadership at the institutional, unit, and individual levels in the U.S.
Armed Forces. Systemic racism was explored within military culture, particularly the pressure to
assimilate into a predominantly white norm, which impacts these officers' professional
development and career progression. A qualitative, phenomenological approach was adopted,
with semi-structured interviews applied to collect data from eight African American officers and
Veterans to gain in-depth insights into their experiences. The analysis revealed six key themes:
navigation of social identity, role and resource allocation, group belonging, daily experiences of
racism impacting career progression, perceptions and treatment, and the importance of support
systems and identity. The findings highlight the complex dynamics of race, identity, and
belonging within the military environment, emphasizing the need for equitable treatment and
robust support systems to foster diversity and inclusion. The study contributes to critical race
theory by providing empirical evidence of how systemic racism operates within the military
context, affecting the career trajectories of African American officers. The practice
recommendations include developing targeted programs by the Department of Defense to
support the success of young African American officers and implementing diversity training to
mitigate the effects of systemic racism.
Keywords: African American officers, systemic racism, assimilation, U.S. Armed Forces,
leadership, critical race theory, phenomenological research.
5
Acknowledgments
I express my deepest gratitude to everyone who has supported and encouraged me throughout
this dissertation journey. This work represents my academic efforts and my family's unwavering
love and support.
First and foremost, I extend my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Ayesha Thomas. Your
unwavering support, patience, and love have been my most excellent sources of strength. You have
stood by me through every challenge, celebrated every success, and encouraged me when needed.
This dissertation would not have been possible without your constant belief in me. You are my
partner in every sense of the word, and I dedicate this work to you with all my love and gratitude.
I also wish to acknowledge the legacy I hope to leave for my children and grandchildren.
To my children, Derek II, Chanel, TyRay, Journie, Miehsa, Miya, and my grandchildren, Leah,
Kingston, Quest, Derek III, Uni, Nova, Dallas, and future grandchildren—this dissertation is a
testament to the values of perseverance, dedication, and the pursuit of knowledge. I hope this work
inspires you all, reminding you that anything is possible with hard work and determination. I wish
you to carry these values forward in your lives, always striving to learn, grow, and positively
impact the world.
I want to express my profound gratitude to my parents, Frank and Arlene Thomas, who are
no longer with us but whose love, guidance, and values continue to shape my life. Though they
are not here to share in this achievement, their spirit and the lessons they instilled in me are present
in every step of this journey. This work is dedicated to their memory, with deep appreciation for
the foundation they provided.
To my Chair, Dr. Marsha Riggio, and the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Don
Trahan Jr. and Dr. Rufus Spann, I am deeply grateful for your guidance, expertise, and support
6
throughout this process. Your contributions have been invaluable, and I thank you for helping me
bring this research to fruition.
My military service has also significantly shaped my journey, instilling in me the values of
discipline, resilience, and honor. I acknowledge my comrades in the United States Marine Corps
and my twin brother, Darryl Thomas, who have shared this journey with me. I carry the lessons
learned in service into every aspect of my life, including this academic endeavor.
Finally, I extend my heartfelt thanks to all my friends and colleagues who have supported me. This
work reflects the collective effort, belief, and love of many, and I am deeply grateful to each of
you.
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, my children, my grandchildren, and the memory
of my parents—with all my love, respect, and hopes for the future.
7
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments (Double-Spaced) .............................................................................................. v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures................................................................................................................................. x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 4
Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... 5
Purpose of the Project ......................................................................................................... 6
Research Questions............................................................................................................. 6
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 7
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 8
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations, and Positionality ............................................ 11
Conclusion and Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................. 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................... 14
Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................... 15
Social Identity Theory........................................................................................... 16
Critical Race Theory............................................................................................. 17
LMX Theory ......................................................................................................... 19
Synthesis........................................................................................................................... 20
Review of Literature ......................................................................................................... 21
The Assimilation of Minorities in the US............................................................. 21
8
The Melting Pot, Assimilation, and Racial Integration ........................................ 22
Current Criticisms of Hegemonic Whiteness ....................................................... 26
The Adverse Effects of Systemic Racism............................................................. 30
The Effects of Systemic Racism on African Americans ...................................... 35
LMX and Leaders’ Effects on Followers.............................................................. 39
The Importance of Leaders within the African American Community................ 44
Conclusion: Need for Further Research............................................................................ 48
Summary........................................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 55
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 55
Research of Design ........................................................................................................... 56
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 57
Target and Accessible Population......................................................................... 57
Sample & Sampling Method................................................................................. 58
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 59
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 60
Participants............................................................................................................ 62
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 63
Data Collection Procedures................................................................................... 63
Data Analysis........................................................................................................ 65
Validity and Reliability..................................................................................................... 66
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 66
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS.................................................................................................... 68
9
Demographics................................................................................................................... 68
Qualitative Findings.............................................................................................. 69
Emergent Themes in the Data............................................................................... 73
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................... 76
Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................... 77
Response to Research Question 1......................................................................... 78
Response to Research Question 2......................................................................... 79
Response to Research Question 3......................................................................... 80
Response to Research Question 4......................................................................... 82
Response to Research Question 5......................................................................... 83
Response to Research Question 6......................................................................... 84
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 86
Recommendation 1: Department of Defense Assimilation Programs.................. 86
Recommendation 2: Officer Leadership and Diversity Training ......................... 87
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 88
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 89
References..................................................................................................................................... 92
Appendix A: Interview Protocol................................................................................................. 104
Appendix B: Recruitment Materials........................................................................................... 107
Appendix C: University of Southern California Information Sheet ........................................... 108
Appendix D: Social Behavioral Research Protocol.................................................................... 110
Appendix E: A Priori Coding ..................................................................................................... 116
10
List of Tables
Table 1. Comparison of the Melting Pot and Salad Bowl Models 24
Table 2. Examples of Systemic Racism Against African Americans 37
Table 3. The Structure of the Literature Review 50
Table 4. Data Sources 61
Table 5. Demographics of Participants 69
Table 6. Collapsing Categories into Themes 74
11
List of Figures
Figure 1 Diagram of LMX theory 20
Figure 2. The Logic of Systemic Racism 32
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Issues of race have been at the forefront of the United States (US) attention in recent
years, particularly with the police murder of George Floyd and the subsequent Black Lives
Matter protest in cities across the nation over the summer of 2020 (Barrie, 2020). Recent thought
regarding the nature of ongoing systemic racism within the US has called into question the
notion of colorblindness, or the ideal of ignoring racial categories altogether and treating all
people as individual human beings (Atkins, 2019). Likewise, a growing awareness exists in these
times that demands of assimilation may themselves be racist insofar as the dominant US culture
itself is not race-neutral but instead intrinsically coded white (Dar, 2018). As the US continues
with its racial reckoning, the question of the assimilation of African American into mainstream
culture becomes an important one, as does the question of African American assimilating into
the major institutions of society. Should all be held to the same normative standards of cultural
assimilation, or should different minority groups be respected for who they are instead of being
pressured to assimilate and implicitly or explicitly punished for failing to do so?
The focus of this study was threefold: What are the lived experiences of African
American Officers in the US Armed Forces as related to their assimilation with experiences of
racism and leadership roles at the institutional, unit, and individual levels. When considering this
study's topic of interest, one crucial consideration consisted of the general history of the
assimilation of African American and other racial minorities within the US. Assimilation has
long been a part of the American mythos, as one can see from the endurance of the notion of the
melting pot, which imagines the US as a place that absorbs people from all kinds of different
backgrounds and turns them into Americans (Smith, 2012). One can understand the problem of
2
African Americans’ assimilation into the culture of the US armed forces as a subset of the
broader issue of African Americans’ assimilation into US culture in general and, even more
broadly than that, the assimilation of all racial minorities into US culture. Within the military
context, for example, the racial integration of the armed forces is undoubtedly of interest here.
Still, that event was also a part of the broader racial integration of American society.
Considerations of the nature of assimilation in US history are thus essential to the topic at hand.
To properly contextualize African American officers' lived experience of assimilation in the US
armed forces, one must explore the broader issue of racial assimilation across American history
over time, including barriers to assimilation and differentially successful assimilation by people
from different minority backgrounds.
Another significant consideration consisted of the adverse effects of systemic racism
(Feagin, 2013). This study is premised on the notion that young African American officers
within the US armed forces may experience systemic racism in the form of the pressure to
assimilate into the normative white culture of the US armed forces, with the result that they may
experience more significant challenges to professional advancement and success. This premise,
however, exists within the broader context of systemic racism within contemporary American
society and its effects on African American and other racial minorities. Therefore, literature on
the topic of systemic racism and its consequences were relevant for framing the specific topic of
the lived experience of African American officers in the US armed forces concerning
assimilation and career navigation. For example, if extant literature suggests that African
American experience difficulties with career advancement in other areas of American society,
such a finding would be pertinent to the present study. Although the topic of this study is
relatively narrow, it was contextualized within much broader dynamics at play within society
3
today, including the potentially problematic melting pot model of assimilation as well as the
adverse effects of systemic racism.
The research method for this study was qualitative, which was appropriate for inquiries
that seek to understand the experiences of human beings (Cresswell & Poth, 2017). Whereas
quantitative research methods are typically relevant for examining problems externally and
developing an objective account of the situation, qualitative research methods are applicable
when the research topic of interest is intricately connected to human subjectivity and the data
retrieved is verbal rather than numerical. Since this study sought to explore the lived experience
of African American officers when assimilating into and navigating their careers in the US
armed services, the qualitative approach was a natural fit for the inquiry that this study carried
out.
The qualitative research design of this study was phenomenological. The
phenomenological approach is appropriate when exploring how people experience a given
phenomenon of interest, which is about African American officers' assimilation and career
navigation within the military (Cresswell & Poth, 2017). Indeed, the concept of lived experience
is derived from within the phenomenological tradition, and it calls attention to the subjective,
situated nature of any given experience. Instead of pretending that all people have the same
experience of a given phenomenon or taking the proverbial view from nowhere when
considering a topic of interest, the phenomenological approach insists that lived experience is
specific, unique, and highly dependent on the interaction between the given person and the
phenomenon of interest. Phenomenological research design is also congruent with the data
collection technique of semi-structured interviews since this technique enabled the researcher to
4
explore the lived experience of subjects by allowing them to discuss that experience in their own
words.
Finally, another consideration for this study was the relationship between leaders and
followers, particularly concerning how leaders can help socialize followers into institutions and
facilitate professional advancement and success. This study focused on African American
officers within the US armed forces, and a point of particular interest pertains to the potential
positive effects that African American officers within the US armed forces could have on
African American enlisted members. African American officers, for example, may have been
more successful than average at assimilating into the US armed forces' normative culture,
resulting in their promotion to the officer rank. The nature of the relationship between these
young African American officers was a point of interest for the present study, but this was also
framed within the more general context of the effects of leaders on their followers' career
advancement and success. Literature on the personal relationships between leaders and
followers, as well as the personal influence of leaders on followers' career success, was of
considerable interest to this study.
Background of the Problem
The background of the problem was the challenges young African American officers in
the US Armed Forces face around assimilation, racism, and leadership at the institutional, unit,
and individual levels. Like all military personnel, young African American officers undergo a
cultural integration into the military institution. They must adapt to the values, norms, and
expectations of the military culture, which is shaped by the majority group (in this case, nonAfrican American individuals). This process can involve conforming to established military
traditions and practices. The problem and impact of the problem on all layers are challenges
5
faced by African American officers in the U.S. Armed Services, including assimilation, racism,
and leadership issues, which have profound implications for both the individuals involved and
the military. African American officers often find themselves in a position where they need to
balance their cultural identity with the military's prevailing culture, leading to potential conflicts
and identity challenges. Constant pressure to assimilate can cause stress, anxiety, and a feeling of
not belonging, impacting mental health. Racism within the military, whether systemic or
individual, can result in unequal treatment, bias, and discrimination against African American
officers. Racism can hinder career advancement, leading to a glass ceiling for African American
officers and limiting their potential in higher-ranking positions.
African American officers might face challenges in leadership positions, including
skepticism from subordinates, lack of mentorship opportunities, and bias in evaluations.
Continuous challenges can impact the confidence of African American officers in their
leadership abilities, affecting their effectiveness. The scarcity of African American leaders might
make it difficult for younger African American officers to find relatable role models, hindering
their leadership development. Addressing these issues is not just a matter of social justice; it's
crucial for the military's effectiveness and integrity. Diverse and inclusive environments foster
creativity, resilience, and adaptability, essential qualities for any military force. Efforts to combat
racism, support cultural diversity, and ensure equal opportunities for all officers, regardless of
race, are fundamental in creating a military that thrives in the face of diverse global challenges.
Statement of the Problem
The problem is that US military culture typically requires young African American
officers to assimilate into the culture of the social majority, which consists of white males.
African Americans commonly experience racism within the US, and such racism produces
6
significant stress and holistic adverse effects, which require African Americans to develop and
deploy coping mechanisms (Jacob et al., 2022). Moreover, in these times, systemic racism can
adversely impact people of color, including African Americans, by structurally producing a
playing field that is not level, even in the absence of any individual persons with explicitly racist
attitudes or beliefs (Matamoros-Fernández & Farkas, 2021). African Americans' experience of
racial discrimination can take many forms, including the form of being expected to assimilate
into social and cultural structures that are normatively white and implicitly biased against
African Americans, resulting in African Americans experiencing diminished access to services
and opportunities for success (Bleich et al., 2019). Within the military setting, in particular, the
failure of African Americans to assimilate could not only diminish their professional standing.
Still, it could also be met with disciplinary action due to being read as a sign of insubordination.
Such action would significantly reduce the chances of promotion to the officer level, reinforcing
existing racial disparities within the military.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research study was to develop an
understanding of the lived experience of African American officers around assimilation, racism,
and leadership at the institutional, unit, and individual levels
.Guiding this research were six research questions:
RQ 1. What are the unique challenges faced by African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services regarding career progression, leadership opportunities, and organizational
culture?
7
RQ 2. How do African American officers perceive and navigate issues related to
diversity, equity, and inclusion within the military environment?
RQ 3. What role does mentorship, networking, and support systems play in the career
development and advancement of African American officers in the military?
RQ 4. How do perceptions of race, identity, and belonging influence African American
officers' experiences and interactions within their units and the broader military community?
RQ 5. What are the institutional policies, practices, and cultural factors that either
facilitate or hinder the professional growth and leadership potential of African American
officers?
RQ 6. How do African American officers navigate challenges related to bias,
discrimination, and stereotypes while serving in leadership roles or positions of authority?
Significance of the Study
The proposed study was significant to scholars because it provided a meaningful
contribution to the literature informed by critical race theory, especially literature on
assimilation. Over time, scholars have become much more sensitive to how seemingly innocuous
demands for assimilation can be overtly or covertly racist (Baker, 2021). The present study could
contribute further insights in this regard. In addition, scholars may also be interested in the
specific nexus between assimilation and career advancement, which could reinforce existing
frameworks that analyze systemic racism by providing evidence in favor of one way that such
racism may operate. Moreover, insofar as the literature on the experience of African American
officers within the US armed forces is generally limited, and little is known about this topic, the
present study could provide scholars with new knowledge and potentially open up a new and
thus far neglected area of research. In all these ways, the present study is of significant interest
8
and value to scholars who study the nature of systemic racism and racial disparities in
contemporary times. The findings of this study were of substantial interest to practitioners. The
Department of Defense has expressed significant interest in promoting diversity, equity, and
inclusion within the US armed forces and currently sees these values as crucial for developing a
more robust and superior total force (Office for Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion, 2023).
Definition of Terms
Assimilation. Assimilation refers to the process of a person from one cultural background
adopting the norms, values, and other features of a different culture, with that process often
having racial connotations insofar as the target culture of assimilation itself is coded in racial
terms (Dar, 2018).
Critical race theory. Critical race theory provides a conceptual framework and tools for
analyzing race relations within modern society and the ways that discrimination against people
of color is perpetuated by systemic racism even in the era after the civil rights movement of the
1960s, which essentially abolished formal, legal discrimination based on race within American
society (Delgado & Stefancic, 2023).
Individual assimilation. Young African American officers are expected to integrate into
the military culture, which often has a dominant culture that may not reflect their own racial or
cultural background. This process involves adopting military values, norms, and behaviors.
Individual assimilation can lead to challenges in balancing their personal identity and cultural
heritage with the demands of military life. Young African American officers may face pressure
to conform to the prevailing military culture while preserving their own identity.
Individual leadership. Effective individual leadership within the military unit plays a
significant role in the experiences of young African American officers. Supportive and inclusive
9
leadership fosters a sense of belonging, while ineffective or biased leadership can exacerbate
challenges. The presence of mentors and sponsors who understand and advocate for the unique
challenges young African American officers face is crucial. Positive mentorship can contribute
to their career development and resilience in adversity.
Individual racism. Individual racism within the military institution can manifest in
various forms, including disparities in promotions, evaluations, and disciplinary actions.
Systemic racism can hinder the career advancement and opportunities of young African
American officers. Microaggressions, subtle expressions of bias or discrimination, can create a
hostile or uncomfortable environment for young African American officers. These may include
racial slurs, stereotypes, or biased comments from peers or superiors.
Institutional assimilation: Institutional assimilation often raises questions of identity and
belonging. Young African American officers may struggle to balance maintaining their cultural
identity and fitting into the military culture. This can create psychological and emotional
challenges.
Institutional leadership: Effective institutional leadership within the military is crucial for
the well-being and advancement of young African American officers. They may benefit from
leaders who embrace diversity and inclusion, promote equitable opportunities, and address
racism when it occurs. Mentorship and sponsorship from senior officers can be instrumental in
the success of young African American officers. Having mentors who understand the unique
challenges they face can provide valuable guidance and support.
Institutional racism: Institutional racism exists within society at large, and it can also
manifest within military institutions. Young African American officers may encounter systemic
10
racism, including biases in promotion, assignments, and treatment within the military. They may
face subtle or overt discrimination, hindering their career advancement and well-being.
Lived experience. This concept is associated with the philosophical tradition of
phenomenology and focuses on how people experience their lives within their subjectivities
(Cresswell & Poth, 2017). The present study adopts this approach.
Melting pot. This concept refers to the colorblind notion that all Americans, regardless of
demographic background, can assimilate equally into the normative American culture (Smith,
2008). In recent times, this notion has been realized as problematic insofar as it ignores lived
experience and potentially facilitates systemic racism.
Officer. An officer is a member of the US armed forces who holds a rank associated with
a leadership role beyond a typical enlisted member, as defined by the U.S. Department of
Defense (2023).
Social identity. This concept refers to membership in a given demographic group,
including the dynamics and conflicts between that group and other groups within society (Tajfel
& Turner, 2004). African Americans within the military, for example, would have a distinctive
social identity.
Systemic racism. This term refers to racial inequalities that are embedded within social
and cultural structures, such that they can produce discrimination even in the absence of any
given person in the system holding racist views or expressing racist attitudes (Feagin, 2013).
This concept contrasts notably against the traditional definition of racism as about beliefs at the
individual level.
Unit assimilation. Young African American officers, like all military personnel, undergo
a process of cultural adjustment and integration into the military unit. They are expected to
11
conform to the established military culture, which may be influenced by the dominant group in
the unit, often composed of non-African American individuals. Unit assimilation can pose
challenges for young African American officers as they strive to balance their cultural identity
with the military culture. This process may involve reconciling the military unit's values,
experiences, and traditions.
Unit racism. Unit racism is a pervasive issue in society, and it can manifest within the
military, including in units. Young African American officers may encounter systemic racism,
which may be evident in disparities in promotions, assignments, evaluations, and disciplinary
actions. Microaggressions, which are subtle, often unintentional acts or comments that convey
prejudiced attitudes, can be part of the daily experience for young African American officers.
These microaggressions can create a hostile or unwelcoming unit environment.
Unit leadership. Unit leadership within a military unit plays a significant role in shaping
the experiences of young African American officers. Effective leadership is characterized by
embracing diversity and inclusion, promoting equal opportunities, and addressing racism or
discrimination. Mentorship and sponsorship from senior officers can be instrumental in the
success of young African American officers. Having mentors who understand the unique
challenges they face can provide valuable guidance and support.
12
Assumptions
One assumption of this study was that its frameworks could potentially bias the researcher in
favor of producing specific findings. For example, the study's use of critical race theory assumed
that systemic racism exists within the US armed forces. Still, I was open to the possibility that
the findings would not support this theory. Peers reviewed the interview protocol (Appendix A)
for the study to minimize bias in this regard.
Limitations
A potential limitation was that the findings from this study may not be more broadly
applicable to the experience of Black officers within the military. This was a typical limitation of
qualitative research in general, and the researcher sought to mitigate the issue by maximizing the
rigor of the data collection and analysis processes.
Delimitations
Finally, a third potential limitation was the possibility that the study subjects were not
willing to openly discuss all aspects of their lived experience regarding the topic of interest. The
researcher sought to address this issue by maximizing the comfort and convenience of the
subjects during the interview process.
Positionality
One way that the sample was narrowed was demographically by focusing only on.
Blacks within the US armed forces and a second narrowing parameter only focuses on officers.
The specific focus of this study was on the experiences of Black officers, given the assumption
that Black officers may have experienced racial challenges related to assimilation but then
overcome those challenges and successfully advance their careers. Finally, a third narrowing
13
parameter focused specifically on the US armed forces and not the armed forces of any other
nation. To an extent, this parameter was necessary to render the study logistically feasible since
the researcher did not have ready access to officers from the armed forces of other nations. The
focus on the US armed forces, however, was also essential to the focus of the study because the
exploration of the lived experience of Black officers is premised on the racial history of the
United States, especially the way that African Americans have been oppressed through various
means since the nation's inception. This specific history was unique to the United States. In
contrast, other countries have racial histories and American history frames, which informed the
present study.
14
Conclusion and Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation followed a traditional five-chapter model. Chapter 1 provides
background on the problem of practice, the purpose and significance of the study, the definition
of terms, and outlines limitations and delimitations. Further, Chapter 1 provides an overview of
the young African American officers. Chapter 2 highlights relevant literature focused on the
lived experiences of young African American officers in the US Armed Forces. Chapter 2 also
provides a qualitative, phenomenological research study to develop an understanding of the lived
experience of African American officers when assimilating into and navigating their careers in
the US armed services. Finally, Chapter 2 provides an overview of the social identity theory,
LMX theory, and critical race theory framework and the methodology used. Chapter 3 details the
assumed causes and methods to assess the impact of the lived experience of African American
officers when assimilating into and navigating their careers in the US armed services.
Additionally, Chapter 3 includes the research framework and approach, a review of data
collection methods and timeline, selection of study participants, and ethical considerations to the
rights and protections of human subject’s research.
15
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research study was to develop an
understanding of the lived experience of African American officers when assimilating into and
navigating their careers in the US armed services. The topic was significant considering renewed
and ongoing concerns within the US regarding race relations, particularly concerning social
justice for African Americans and the fair treatment of African Americans by and within
American institutions. Recent events such as several police murders of African Americans have
led many Americans to question the adequacy of current progress on racial issues, with doubts
emerging about the value of colorblind thinking on race as well as the value of assimilation itself
insofar as the normative culture itself is not race-neutral but instead coded white (Atkins, 2019;
Barrie, 2020; Dar, 2018).
This chapter begins with delineating the search strategy utilized to retrieve articles for
this literature review, including the central databases searched and the search parameters and
keywords used to identify sources. The chapter then discusses this study's theoretical foundation,
consisting of three frameworks: 1) social identity theory, 2) critical race theory, and 3) LMX
theory. The origins and current applications of each of these frameworks were discussed. Next,
the chapter moves into the body of the literature review, addressing the three main themes: 1) the
assimilation of minorities in the US, 2) the adverse effects of systemic racism, and 3) LMX
theory and leaders' effects on followers. All three of these topics are significantly related to this
study's primary purpose and topic, and conducting a literature review on these topics helps frame
and contextualize the present inquiry. The assimilation of minorities in the US in general, for
example, have implications for the assimilation of African Americans within the US armed
forces, and the adverse effects of systemic racism could undoubtedly affect the assimilation and
16
career navigation of African American officers. Finally, this chapter concludes with a summary
that recapitulates the main points of this chapter and segued into the next chapter.
This literature review was organized into discussions of three main topics. The first topic
focused on the assimilation of minorities within the United States and presented the subtopics of
1) the melting pot, assimilation, and racial integration and 2) current criticisms of hegemonic
whiteness. The second topic focused on the adverse effects of systemic racism and presented the
subtopics of 1) the nature of systemic racism and 2) African Americans and systemic racism.
Finally, the third part focused on LMX and leaders' effects on followers and presented the
subtopics of 1) LMX relationships between leaders and followers and 2) the importance of
leaders within the African American community. Again, these topics did not directly address the
main topic of interest in this study, which consisted of the lived experience of African American
officers when assimilating into and navigating their careers in the US armed services. However,
given the nearly total absence of current literature on that specific topic, this literature review
adopted a broader scope and addressed these broader related topics that significantly affected the
main topic of interest.
Conceptual Framework
This study used the theoretical frameworks of social identity theory, critical race theory,
and leader-member exchange (LMX) theory. Social identity theory provides a helpful account of
the dynamics of ingroups and outgroups, including the dynamics that emerge between dominant
and subordinate social groups within any given context (Tajfel & Turner, 2004). This theory is
undoubtedly helpful for the present study's exploration of the experiences of African Americans
within the US armed forces. The framework delves into the racialized nature of social and
cultural structures. Notably, it develops the concept of systemic racism, which refers to the
17
racism that is built into such structures and functions even in the absence of any specific human
agent who harbors racist views or beliefs (Delgado & Stefancic, 2023). This study examined
systemic racism within the US armed forces in the form of pressures for African Americans to
assimilate into the normatively white culture. Finally, LMX theory analyzes relationships
between leaders and followers, and this framework was helpful for the present study's
consideration of how African American officers affect African American enlisted members
within the US armed forces, particularly regarding assimilation.
Social Identity Theory
Social identity theory was developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979) to help explain
conflicts that occur between groups. For example, the theory sheds light on how people form ingroups and develop hostility toward identified out-groups. The theory is thus quite valuable for
explaining group psychology and social dynamics. In particular, the theory is practical when one
considers the relations between different social groups interacting in a structure of dominance
and subordination (Tajfel & Turner, 2004). Within American society, for example, whites have
long been the dominant racial group, whereas African Americans have been a subordinate group
(Dar, 2018). Such hierarchies can consolidate ingroup and out-group identification by connecting
social group membership with certain types of significant lived experiences. For example, within
a white-dominant society, white people would not experience racial discrimination, whereas such
discrimination would be a common experience for African Americans. This type of disparity
between groups was heightened to an extreme magnitude, of course, when the US was a slave
society. Social identity theory can also help to explain how minority groups within organizations
and institutions, such as the US military, may form subcultures or social groups that are alienated
from the mainstream.
18
Recent research typically affirms the value and usefulness of social identity theory. Davis
et al. (2019), for example, indicate that digital data confirms that people's online media on social
media platforms typically conform to the insights of social identity theory, with people often
sending signals to others about the social groups to which they belong as well as the social
groups against which they are averse. Likewise, Shin et al. (2022) researched mask-wearing
during the COVID-19 pandemic and found that people supported or opposed the practice as a
sign of affinity with liberal or conservative social groups. In conducting a general appraisal of
the legacy of Tafjel's theory, Brown (2019) suggests that the theory has been widely accepted
within scholarly and professional communities because of the effectiveness of its insights in
describing and explaining the crucial role that social groups play in social life. In many cases of
intergroup relations, people adopt the personal identity of being part of a social group and then
feel about out-groups and how they should think as members of good standing within their ingroups. Suppose the US goes to war, for example. In that case, most Americans identified with
the American social group and feel hostility toward people who belong to the adversary, which
would be the "other" or the out-group. Likewise, when a racial group is marginalized within
society, that marginalization itself tends to produce a type of social solidarity, and group
consciousness defines the in-group of the racial group against the outgroup of the dominant
society.
Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory had its beginnings within the profession of law. Several scholars,
including Delgado and Stefancic (1998), began to ask questions as early as the 1980s about
disparities that continued to exist in the legal treatment of racial minorities even after the civil
rights movement of the '60s had ensured that African Americans and others from minority racial
19
groups had formally equal protection under the law. This type of inquiry led to the insight that
the structures of society themselves were racially prejudiced, such that an equal application of
the law under existing social conditions would necessarily produce unequal outcomes (Martinez,
2014). Once this insight had been established within the law profession, it could be generalized
into a broader paradigm for analyzing racial justice within contemporary society (Delgado &
Stefancic, 2023). The fundamental idea of critical race theory was that the equal application of
standards does not produce justice when the racial playing field itself is not level. Critical race
theory would thus, in a sense, propose unequal application of standards as a means of
compensating for the racial bases that are built into the system. The practice of affirmative
action, for example, might seem unfair insofar as it gives certain people merits based on their
minority racial status. Still, critical race theory may suggest that such apparent unfairness is
essential for producing true justice insofar as the system, as such, is biased against racial
minorities.
Systemic racism is an essential concept within critical race theory, and it refers to the
notion that racism can be built into entire social structures and systems, irrespective of whether
any person holds racist beliefs or feels racist sentiments (Feagin, 2013). Scholars today generally
agree that systemic racism was accurate, and that critical race theory was thus a helpful
framework for working toward the achievement of greater social justice within contemporary
American society. For example, Amiot et al. (2020) discuss the importance and relevance of
critical race theory within education considering the significant and chronic disparities in
academic performance between students from different racial backgrounds. However, some
stakeholders are fighting against critical race theory and even working to ban it from schools
because it advocates for a falsely ideological understanding of American society (Ray &
20
Gibbons, 2021). However, Such a view is typically not supported by scholarly research, which
often affirms that critical race theory produces proper, valid, and valuable insights into the nature
of contemporary American society and its institutions and structures (Christian et al., 2019). The
present study followed this view within the scholarly literature and proceed based on the
assumption that critical race theory is a helpful paradigm for understanding racial justice or the
lack thereof within the institutions of contemporary American society, including the institution
of the military.
LMX Theory
Graen developed the LMX theory in collaboration with colleagues over several years,
focusing on the specificity of the relationship between the leader and the follower (Graen & UhlBien, 1995). LMX theory thus falls under the umbrella of the broader category of relational
leadership theories (Clarke, 2018; Lee et al., 2020). The main variables in LMX theory include
follower characteristics, leader characteristics, interpersonal relationships, contextual variables,
LMX, and consequences (Dulebohn et al., 2012). Follower characteristics and leader
characteristics mesh within the context of the relationship between the leader and the follower,
and this conjunction produces LMX, which is also influenced by different contextual factors.
LMX then proceeds to make various consequences regarding the follower's behaviors, qualities,
and sentiments.
LMX theory is of interest to the present study because of the study's focus specifically on
African American officers within the US armed forces who are leaders. Exploring the dynamics
between African American officers and African American enlisted members would be
interesting. For example, one wonders whether African American officers, by serving as mentors
and role models, provide space and opportunity for African American enlisted members to rise.
21
In contrast, perhaps African American enlisted members would think that African American
officers "sold out" and assimilated into the dominant white culture. The present study could shed
light on such matters.
Figure 1
Diagram of LMX theory
Note. From Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2012).
A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: Integrating the
past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 38(6), 1715-1759.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311415280
Synthesis
The three frameworks of social identity theory, critical race theory, and LMX theory are
highly compatible. Social identity theory focuses on intergroup dynamics, mainly when power
disparities exist between the groups. Within the US, such disparities have historically been most
22
significant in relations between the African American social group and the white social group.
Critical race theory elaborates on how racism persists today at the systemic level despite the
achievement of formal legal equality, which is an insight that is congruent with the historical fact
of the white social group's long dominance of the legal system and the other institutions of
American society. Finally, LMX theory could help illuminate the ways that African American
leaders within American organizations and institutions may interact with African American
followers to help overcome the barrier of systemic racism through the affirmation of identity
within the African American social group. The selected theories are thus very relevant to this
study's main topic of interest, and the theories informed the present literature review as well as
the research questions and the interview protocol of this study. The theories are thus fully
integrated into the study's design and provide the study with a clear orientation and direction.
Review of Literature
The Assimilation of Minorities in the US
This section of the literature review addressed the assimilation of minorities in the US,
and discussed 1) the melting pot, assimilation, and racial integration and 2) current criticisms of
hegemonic whiteness. The discussion of the first subtopic addressed the historical myth of the
melting pot within the United States and its implications for assimilation and racial integration.
The discussion of the second subtopic e then turned attention to current criticisms of the notion
of the melting pot because the dominant American culture itself is hegemonically white, which
implies that asking or expecting racial minorities to assimilate into American culture would be
equivalent to asking them to become white and turn their backs on their own social identities. It
was shown that this discussion is highly relevant to the topic of African American officers' lived
experience of assimilation and career navigation in the US armed forces since these differing
23
views of the nature and value of assimilation itself can undoubtedly influence and color that
lived experience.
The Melting Pot, Assimilation, and Racial Integration
The melting pot refers to the myth that people from all different racial and cultural
backgrounds can come to the United States and fully assimilate into normative American culture
and national identity (Smith, 2008). Historically, the melting pot has been treated as an ideal of
assimilation and racial integrity (Abramitzky et al., 2020). According to Berray (2019), the
melting pot model is typically contrasted against the model of the salad bowl, which refers to the
notion that minorities who come to the United States remain their discrete social groups within
the overall national population, with that population being composed of various such groups that
maintain their own distinct identities instead of becoming fully assimilated into a hegemonic
American identity. Leslie et al. (2020) also call attention to this distinction, observing that the
melting pot typically involves de-emphasizing unique racial and cultural backgrounds in favor of
a more universal American identity accessible to all. Central to this view is the premise that the
United States is fundamentally not a racial nation but rather a creedal nation, or a nation that all
people can join, irrespective of their distinctive backgrounds, insofar as they are willing to accept
the basic principles of the country and conduct themselves within the country as responsible and
law-abiding citizens.
The melting pot model of assimilation is sometimes called "colorblind" because it tends
to avoid or minimize the significance of racial differences. This paradigm is also often associated
with the work and legacy of Martin Luther King, Jr. since his vision consisted of a nation in
which people would be judged only by their character and not at all by their race (Rogers et al.,
2021). Such a view has also long been held as a type of romantic ideal of the nature of the
24
American national community (Kirmizielmaoazlu, 2023). Historically, however, the melting pot
model of assimilation and racial integration has not been a reality. For example, Eriksson and
Ward (2019) discuss the history of residential segregation of immigrants within the United
States, with immigrants often living within their own racial and ethnic enclaves instead of
becoming more broadly assimilated into the American community. The fact that people can still
identify specific neighborhoods in cities as "Chinatowns," for example, testifies to this type of
segregation and its ongoing significance. Elements of both self-segregation and racial
discrimination can be involved in this dynamic. On the one hand, minorities may prefer to
maintain their social groups. On the other hand, they may be forced to do so due to different
social groups refusing to provide them with opportunities for complete assimilation. Such a
situation suggests that, in practice, the salad bowl has historically been a more realistic model
than the melting pot of how racial assimilation in the US has worked.
With the African American community in particular, racial segregation was a legally
mandated practice for a century after the Civil War ended slavery, and García (2020) suggests
that schools are still racially segregated in practice, with African American people often living in
their own impoverished, African American-dominated neighborhoods in areas such as inner
cities. The melting pot may thus have always been more of a myth than a reality, with actual
racial assimilation seldom having been an actuality within American society, either in the past or
the present. Rogers et al. (2021) observe that many Americans today simultaneously hold the
views that King's vision has solved the nation's race problems and that such a vision is implicitly
contradicted by the range of racial issues that are still experienced and become manifest in
Americans' lived experiences, including the lived experiences of children in schools. One thus
perceives significant cognitive tensions regarding views of the melting pot in these times. Other
25
nations, such as France, also experience challenges with racial assimilation (Drouhot, 2021).
However, a crucial difference here is that the United States has long understood itself to be a
nation based on creed rather than race, such that one could not meaningfully speak of an ethnic
native of the United States in the same sense that one could talk about an ethnic native of France.
The ongoing lack of assimilation among minorities in the US thus raises specific difficult
questions. These dynamics lead one to wonder why the entire achievement of the melting pot
versus the salad bowl (see Table 1) remains a challenge. The possibility emerges that the
normative, hegemonic culture itself may be racialized rather than race-neutral in the way that the
colorblind view presumes.
Table 1
Comparison of the Melting Pot and Salad Bowl Models
Melting Pot Salad Bowl
Main Idea People from all backgrounds can
become equally American by
assimilating into the neutral
normative culture.
People from different backgrounds
maintain their own social groups, with
limited assimilation to any broader
American culture.
Premise American culture is race-neutral
and universally accessible to
people from all backgrounds.
American culture is coded white, thereby
making assimilation easier for some
racial groups than others.
Implication King's vision of a race-neutral
society is possible, valuable, and
achievable with further moral
and political work.
King's vision of a race-neutral society is
misguided, unrealistic, and premised on
deracination and the assimilation of all
people to whiteness.
26
The historical evidence suggests that, within the United States, whiteness has always
been considered the racial norm of the nation, and exclusion typically being defined by one's
distance from whiteness. Caiazza (2019), for example, calls attention to the fascinating point that
Italians were not considered white for much of American history since the term "white" was
primarily used to refer only to ethnic Northern Europeans. Kanwar (2023) also discusses the
Supreme Court case of a South Asian Indian who argued that he was white to qualify for specific
racial preferences but lost the case. Such examples, as well as the broader social, cultural, and
legal trends that they represent, make it difficult to avoid the conclusion that the dominant
American culture has, in a meaningful sense, historically been a white culture. If this is true, one
could expect racial groups within the United States to maintain their differences, adhering more
to the salad bowl model of American integration than the melting pot model (Berray, 2019).
Indeed, that would seem to be what one sees when examining the American historical record and
current conditions within American society. King's vision appeals to a non-racial core of
American identity in which all people can participate equally, but based on the evidence, one
may be justified in uncertainty over whether such a core exists or whether the core has always
been white, with assimilation then be characterized by deracination and a greater acceptance of
white culture.
For the present study, notions of the melting pot were essential in terms of how one
understands the culture of the US armed forces. Is the culture race-neutral, such that all
Americans, including African Americans, should be able to assimilate equally into the culture?
Or is it the case that the culture of the US armed forces itself is fundamentally white, such that it
would be much more difficult for African Americans in the military to assimilate into the
culture? One thus sees that the implications of this question are vast and could have a significant
27
bearing on the lived experience of African American officers concerning assimilation into US
military culture. Therefore, this discussion of the melting pot and its implications is relevant for
framing the primary inquiry of the present study.
Current Criticisms of Hegemonic Whiteness
Much of the current literature on assimilation and racial integration explicitly assumes
that the melting pot model itself is racist and must be challenged (Favell, 2019). Hazelbaker and
Mistry (2021), for example, conducted qualitative research with white teachers who were
vehemently against the notion that they should adopt a colorblind ethos that ignores or minimizes
the racial backgrounds of their students. Likewise, Berunmen (2019) argues that it is positively
essential for people from minority backgrounds to resist assimilating into the melting pot and
instead preserve their racial and cultural heritages and traditions. One can thus suggest that the
entire discourse and frame of reference has shifted from what it once was. In the past, many
Americans may have considered the melting pot as an ideal that was not real yet. Still, it was
nevertheless worth pursuing and reflecting on the best of American impulses (Smith, 2008). In
more recent times, however, it has become common for the notion of the melting pot to be
positively vilified as a racist notion that coerces minorities into accepting whiteness. A
significant shift in perspective and attitude has thus occurred over time, and the present section
of this literature review delved further into this dynamic to illuminate the challenges that African
Americans, in general, and African American officers, in particular, may have when
encountering the culture of the US armed forces.
Beaman and Petts (2020) conducted a study of color blindness in both the US and France,
and they found that although the histories of these two nations were very different, in both cases,
colorblind ideology served the function of upholding white dominance and supremacy over
28
society. According to the researchers, colorblindness fulfills this function by effectively cutting
off inquiries into the systemic nature of racial disparities or the structural features that may
privilege whites at the expense of ideology. From the standpoint of social identity theory, one
could suggest that whites have ingroup bias, or bias that leads them to see other whites favorably
and minorities less favorably (Verkuyten, 2021). From this standpoint, if whites are particularly
successful within society, then that would mean that they work harder than minorities or that
they otherwise have deserved advantages that lead to success. In contrast, critical race theory
would suggest that the reason that whites are more successful within society is that the
hegemonic American culture is itself white, which enables whites to control the culture and
institutions of society and maintain a type of de facto segregation, often through the production
of racial, economic disparities (Walton, 2021). The insistence that the system is equitable and
race-neutral would then become simply another way of propping up white power and guarding
the white-coded system against critical challenges.
Dar (2018) makes the argument that the institutions of American society are intrinsically
white-normative, such that an African American person in institutions such as academia often
has little choice but to engage in a type of masquerade and assimilate into white culture if they
wish to achieve professional success. Such a mode of behavior, however, also necessarily
produces double consciousness in African Americans, which consists of the discrepancy between
how African Americans know that whites see racial reality versus how African Americans know
racial reality (Walker, 2019). For example, white officers in an institution such as the US
military may believe that the white-coded normative culture is race-neutral, with the result that if
African Americans face disciplinary challenges more often than whites, then the difference
would be attributed to a lack of character and self-control among African Americans. However,
29
the picture looks very different if thought in terms of whites flourishing within a white-coded
culture while African Americans struggle to do so. According to Rogers et al. (2021), even many
Americans who consciously believe that colorblindness is a virtue nevertheless often have lived
experiences that challenge this notion and suggest something is amiss. From the standpoint of
critical race theory, the problem would be that race neutrality in the institutions of American
society is a type of pleasant by dangerous fiction that ignores the systemic advantages that whites
still possess within contemporary American society. By pretending that such advantages and
racial disparities do not exist, colorblind ideology would thus seek to essentially blame
minorities for their problems instead of recognizing that historical racial inequality and the
ongoing white-normative nature of American culture are responsible for impeding the success of
minorities.
Gregory (2021) suggests that even historical efforts within the US to benefit minorities
have all too often been colored by white prejudice and a fundamental assumption that minorities
should assimilate into the white-normative culture. Baker makes a similar point as well (2021).
One can see a very brutal example of this ethos in the attempted assimilation of Native
Americans, which amounted to genocide in the technical sense of intentionally working toward
the eradication of Native American culture (Ellinghaus, 2022). According to Gregory (2022),
this type of perversion of even seemingly benevolent instincts is intrinsic to the phenomenon of
whiteness. It may be closely related to suppressing or repressing whiteness as an analytic
category. In other words, the assumption that American society is race-neutral serves the
function of inhibiting self-awareness in relations between members of the white social group and
members of minority social groups, with the result too often being that even when whites believe
that they are being helpful, they end up causing further harm and racial injustice. This dynamic
30
leads to a fundamental critique of whiteness at the core of contemporary American society,
which, from this perspective, is understood to be a core to which no minorities should seek to
assimilate. Much the opposite of the old ideal of the melting pot, contemporary scholars and
activists typically reject the notion of assimilation and racial integration as racist in itself.
In this context, Coleman et al. (2020) have affirmed the need to interrogate whiteness
when working to benefit communities of color since, without such interrogation, research and
action may reproduce or even exacerbate the racial disparities already present within the
situation. Moreover, given the recognition that the normative American culture is itself coded
white, assimilation into that culture is no longer a goal pursued by most scholars and activists.
Instead, resistance to assimilation is the central ethos that one observes in these times
(Berunmen, 2019). This development has undoubtedly been informed by the paradigm of critical
race theory, which posits that traditional colorblindness is woefully insufficient to address the
nature of racial injustices in American society today (Delgado & Stefancic, 2023). Instead, the
literature broadly affirms the need for a race-conscious ethos that grasps ongoing racial dynamics
instead of a colorblind ethos that ignores them.
This shift in ethos certainly has implications for the case of African American officers
and enlisted members within the US armed forces. The present research is focused on exploring
African American officers' experiences of assimilation. Still, the recent literature suggests that
assimilation is no longer a dominant value within American society at large, given the growing
insight that assimilation is merely a euphemistic way of talking about the pressure put on
minorities to embrace whiteness. One wonders whether this new ethos has also penetrated the
institution of the US military or whether the military still largely adheres to the older view of
race-neutral assimilation to the dominant culture. If the new view has taken hold, that might
31
negatively affect solidarity and readiness within the US armed forces. However, if it has not,
then that would imply that African Americans in the military are still being unjustly pressured
into assimilation. Either way, the situation would be fraught, and the present study hopes to shed
light on this crucial matter.
This section of this literature review has discussed the topic of the assimilation of
minorities in the US, and it considered the subtopics of 1) the melting pot, assimilation, and
racial integration and 2) current criticisms of hegemonic whiteness. A significant point has
emerged here. In contrast, the melting pot was once considered ideal for American assimilation
and racial integration. In these times, it is much more likely to be rejected as racist in itself
insofar as the normative cultural target of assimilation is itself coded white. In practice,
assimilation within the US was always inadequate, but it was at least maintained as an ideal to
work toward. In these times, however, that ideal itself has been discarded in favor of a raceconscious approach that explicitly calls attention to people's racial backgrounds and the ongoing
racial injustices that are claimed to permeate US society today.
The Adverse Effects of Systemic Racism
This section of the literature review addressed the adverse effects of systemic racism, and
it discussed the subtopics of 1) the nature of systemic racism and 2) the effects of systemic
racism on African Americans. A significant point that emerges here is that systemic racism is
very different from more traditional racism insofar as systemic racism does not require any given
person within society to harbor racist views or attitudes personally. Instead, systemic racism is
based on the historical advantages and disadvantages that have been built into systems and
institutions over time. After clarifying and discussing the concept of systemic racism based on
the literature on this topic, the present review then proceeded to a consideration of systemic
32
racism and African Americans in particular, observing that African Americans are particularly
negatively affected by systemic racism and the broader legacy of historical race relations within
the US.
The Nature of Systemic Racism
Systemic racism is somewhat different from more traditional racism. According to
BonillaSilva (2021), systemic racism is driven by social structures and cultural norms, such that
entirely decent people who have no racial prejudices against others based on the color of their
skin can nevertheless participate in the perpetuation of systemic racism. Feagin (2013) argues
that systemic racism operates at a level beyond any given person's own beliefs, attitudes, or
intentions. It is entirely possible, for example, for everyone in society for African Americans to
succeed. At the same time, African Americans nevertheless cannot thrive insofar as the social
structures themselves are not altered substantially. The concept of systemic racism dovetails
nicely with the notion that American society and culture are intrinsically coded white, such that
whites often have an invisible advantage concerning assimilation into the society and culture and
the pursuit of educational and career success (Dar, 2018). A key point here is that systemic
racism is not the same thing as traditional racism and that systemic racism can operate even in
the complete absence of conventional racism. Of course, traditional racism, which involves
explicitly bigoted and prejudiced racial views, still exists within the contemporary US. Still, the
concept of systemic racism is meant to call attention to a fundamentally different level of the
problem. The idea pertains not to views and intentions at the micro level but rather to social
structures at the macro level.
Systemic racism is also called structural racism, and as Lucey and Saguil (2020) observe,
one of the main implications of this concept is that differences in achievement between racial
33
groups are rooted not in intrinsic differences in aptitude but rather in differences in opportunity.
Insofar as a just society would be one in which all people have equal opportunity, this view also
suggests that racial differences in achievement would largely disappear in a just society since
those differences are almost entirely attributable to differences in opportunity rather than
differences in aptitude.
Figure 2
The Logic of Systemic Racism
Note. From Lucey, C. R., & Saguil, A. (2020). The consequences of structural racism on MCAT
scores and medical school admissions: The past is prologue. Academic Medicine, 95(3), 351-356.
https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000002939
This logic applies to other outcomes as well. Shim and Starks (2021), for example,
discuss the role of systemic racism in producing mental health disparities during the COVID-19
pandemic. The idea here would be that minorities tend to have lesser health insurance coverage
than whites, that the mental health concerns of minorities are typically taken less seriously by
professionals than similar concerns of whites, and so on. Likewise, McGee (2020) suggests that
STEM departments suffer from systemic racism and that this is the main reason why people of
color, particularly Hispanics and African Americans, are typically not adequately represented in
the student bodies of such departments. Again, such conclusions follow directly from the
34
premise that all inequalities in outcomes are attributable to disparities in opportunities, which
themselves can then be attributed to systemic racism.
Noguera and Alicea (2020) have also identified systemic racism in the urban geography
of education, which is the racial composition of various schools in various areas. For example,
African American students are often concentrated in poor school districts in inner city areas,
where they have no real chance of receiving the same quality of education as white students in
the suburbs. This dynamic produces chronic academic underachievement by African American
students, which some attribute to the intrinsic characteristics of the African American students
rather than their inadequate learning environments (Horsford, 2018). This insight helps to show
the denial of systemic racism can produce a scenario that reproduces traditional racism. For
example, suppose a person is not aware that African American students often suffer from inferior
schools. In that case, that person may reproduce the traditionally racist stereotype that African
Americans are less intelligent than whites, which is, of course, false. Moreover, African
American students themselves may internalize such a view and thus inflict racism against
themselves as far as they are not aware that their challenges are not their fault but rather the
result of broader social structures that are marked by systemic racism (David et al., 2019). The
concept of systemic racism is thus valuable not only on its terms as a tool for analyzing current
racial disparities within American society but also as a barrier against the resurgence of
traditional racism. The concept of systemic racism affirms that racial disparities in outcomes are
the result of social systems rather than any intrinsic differences between people from different
racial backgrounds.
Some backlash has emerged in recent times against the concept of systemic racism and,
more broadly, the paradigm of critical race theory. According to Warmington (2020), some
35
critics argue that the idea of systemic racism is itself racist because it justifies differential
treatment of people based on the color of their skin. Such a practice would seem to fit the
traditional concept of racism. However, critical race theory argues that the playing field is not
level and that the dominant social structures already favor whites, which means that the only way
to achieve actual fairness would be to provide a differential advantage to people of color
(Delgado & Stefancic, 2023). These two views would seem irreconcilable, which is why critical
race theory has become such a hot-button political issue, with some states in the US seeking to
ban the paradigm from schools (Ray & Gibbons, 2021). Political conflict in this regard is likely
inevitable insofar as the implementation of policies based on an awareness of systemic racism
would necessarily undermine the privileges to which many whites have become accustomed to
considering their natural right. In the meanwhile, insofar as Americans do not believe that
systemic racism is real, they would also perceive unfairness in providing differential treatment to
people of color. The conflict between these two points of view is thus not arbitrary or inflated but
instead emerges as a fundamental matter of logic.
The concept of systemic racism can apply to all people of color. Still, in practice, it is
usually used to describe the situation, specifically of people of color who are underprivileged
within contemporary American society relative to whites. While Asians, for example, can surely
experience systemic racism, the scholarly focus has typically not been on Asians because the
Asian community is relatively thriving within the US, often as prosperous or more successful
than whites. In this context, the concept of systemic racism is mainly applied to the situation of
African Americans. The history of African Americans within the US has been fraught since the
beginning, and this literature review turned attention specifically to the literature on systemic
racism and its impact on the African American community. This discussion is of great relevance
36
to the central inquiry of the present study since it was able to help shed light on the possible
ways that African American officers and enlisted members within the US armed forces may
experience systemic racism in their careers.
The Effects of Systemic Racism on African Americans
According to Bleich et al. (2019), many African Americans in the US report experiencing
racial discrimination across a wide range of settings, including employment. It is not clear
whether the people engaging in discrimination against African Americans were aware of doing
so or whether only the African Americans themselves observed the discrimination take place.
The nature of systemic racism is to appear neutral, such that the victims of it may be much more
likely to recognize it than the people participating in it (Bonilla-Silva, 2021). For example, a
police officer who pulls over an African American driver for a traffic stop may not be aware of
engaging in any racialized behavior, but the African American driver may sense that he would
not have been pulled over if he had not been African American. Jacob et al. (2022) indicated that
coping with any kind of racism, including systemic racism, can take a significant mental and
emotional toll and that African Americans are thus often in a position where they must develop
coping skills to get through their everyday lives. The effects of systemic racism on African
Americans are, therefore, pervasive, even as it may be invisible to whites, many of whom may
assume that the system is fair and that any discrimination against African Americans is simply
the result of a race-neutral application of the same rules that apply to everyone. Typically, the
literature affirms the importance of listening to African American voices because systemic
racism may sometimes be visible only to the victim and not the perpetrator.
Small and Pager (2020) describe systemic racism in terms of the effects of the unresolved
past on the present, and this dynamic is particularly relevant for African Americans because
37
African Americans began as enslaved people in the US and then continued to face substantial
legal discrimination until a mere few decades ago. The premise of critical race theory is that it
would defy logic and common sense to imagine that this history has nothing to do with current
disparities between African Americans and whites across a range of outcomes. Moreover, social
identity theory would suggest that solidarity among the African American in-group would be
high because of this deep and unique historical experience and, especially in the face of ongoing
systemic racism in the face of the white-coded structures and institutions of contemporary
American society (Hogg et al., 2004). Early work in critical race theory found that through
everything from discrimination based on accents to laws that specifically target problems that are
more common among African Americans, putative racial equality under the law is merely a
mask for a much deeper structural inequality (Matsuda, 1991). If standard white speech is
considered a job requirement, then African Americans would be at a disadvantage when seeking
the job in question, even as the employer may argue that the decision is not about race but rather
about linguistic and communicative competence. This is one example of how systemic racism
can provide cover for racist outcomes while also providing actors with plausible deniability by
suppressing consciousness of the specific racial element in problematic scenarios.
Jones (2023), in an autobiographical article, reflects on the various barriers of systemic
racism that African Americans must overcome to succeed within society. One barrier, for
example, consists of economic disparities, which, in the case of the African American
community, is the direct consequence of the legacy of slavery and subsequent legal
discrimination until the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Insofar as financial resources are
required to succeed within contemporary American society, the notion that the playing field is
level would produce adverse outcomes for African Americans. Baker (2023) takes issue with the
38
concept of systemic racism in this regard and argues that it would be more accurate and more
productive to talk about systemic poverty instead. However, such an analysis would conceal the
fact that many of the poorest people in contemporary American society are African Americans,
which indeed could not be dissociated from the long history of oppression and discrimination
that African Americans have experienced throughout American history. This history has shaped
the current situation of African Americans in the US, which is why it is essential to understand
the systemic nature of racism against African Americans in the US today, with the discrimination
of the past now having been invisibly embedded into social structures themselves instead of
primarily manifesting in terms of explicitly racist views and attitudes at the individual level
(Small & Pager, 2020).
Table 2
Examples of Systemic Racism Against African Americans
Area Example
Linguistic A qualified African American applicant is not hired for a job because the
employer believes that the applicant's accent impedes effective communication.
Health An African American patient lacks health insurance and cannot afford treatment
for a medical condition, resulting in the condition growing worse over time.
Legal The law punishes possession of a drug prevalent in the African American
community more severely than the possession of a drug prevalent among whites.
Financial A youth cannot afford to go to college and thus remains trapped within the cycle
of poverty within an inner-city environment.
39
The recent COVID-19 pandemic shed significant light on the nature of systemic racism
within the contemporary US. Gravlee et al. (2020), for example, found that the rate of African
American deaths from the virus a few months into the pandemic was fully double that of the
numbers reported for all other racial groups. This point suggests that before the pandemic,
African Americans may have been in poorer health than members of different racial groups,
possibly because they were more likely to live in poverty and lack access to adequate nutrition
and healthcare services. Moreover, after the pandemic hit, African Americans may have
continued to experience diminished access to healthcare services, with more moderate cases of
COVID-19, thereby growing worse. Wright and Merritt (2020) also made a remarkably similar
point, observing that pervasive problems within the African American community, such as
healthcare inequality, food insecurity, and underrepresentation in critical institutions of society
such as the government and the healthcare system, were made worse by the pandemic and
contributed to the worse outcomes experienced by African Americans during the pandemic.
These observations have led healthcare professionals to make the case that systemic racism is
bad for the health of African Americans within the US and that it should be considered a kind of
pandemic (Jones, 2021). Therefore, the pandemic highlighted the point that apart from producing
generalized stress and diminished educational and career opportunities, systemic racism quite
literally harms the health of African Americans. One thus clearly cannot underestimate the
pervasive adverse effects of systemic racism on African Americans.
This discussion helps provide context for the present study's inquiry into the lived
experience of African American officers within the US armed forces. For example, the point
regarding linguistic discrimination raises questions about whether African American enlisted
40
members are perceived as insubordinate simply because they typically speak in a unique way
than white enlisted members. Moreover, one may wonder whether African American officers
have accustomed themselves to talking more like white officers as a means of assimilating to
white-coded military culture and demonstrating that they are worthy of leadership positions.
Such questions are undoubtedly meaningful, and this study may be able to shed light on such
topics and thereby make a contribution to the literature on the effects of systemic racism on
African Americans. Moreover, given that both the adverse effects and African Americans' coping
strategies may be invisible to whites and others who are not the victims of systemic racism, it
was appropriate to have African American officers speak in their own words about their own
lived experiences.
This section has discussed the main topic of the adverse effects of systemic racism, and it
has considered the subtopics of 1) the nature of systemic racism and 2) the effects of systemic
racism on African Americans. This discussion has made it clear that systemic racism is different
from traditional racism and consists of the ways that the discrimination and prejudices of the past
are now embedded within social structures themselves, independent from any given person's
personal views or sentiments. This discussion has also shown that systemic racism has a range of
adverse effects on African Americans, including in the areas of finances, health, and professional
success. Insofar as the US armed forces have white-coded social structures like the rest of
American society, one can expect that African Americans within the military suffer from
systemic racism as well.
LMX and Leaders’ Effects on Followers
This section of the literature review addressed the topic of LMX and leaders' effects on
followers, and it discussed the subtopics of 1) the effects of relationships between leaders and
41
followers and 2) the importance of leaders within the African American community. The first
part of this discussion showed that relationships between leaders and followers are essential for
the development of followers, with those relationships often being quite personal and taking the
form of a type of mentorship dynamic. The second part then considered how leaders and role
models are essential within the African American community, especially since many African
Americans feel they cannot look outside their community to the broader, white-coded society to
receive the support and guidance they need. The present study implies that African American
officers may fulfill a crucial function in helping African American enlisted members become
socialized into the institution of the US military.
LMX Relationships between Leaders and Followers
The literature is noticeably clear that LMX is essential in developing followers. Chaudhry
et al. (2021), for example, discussed their finding that good alignment between the leader's and
the follower's perceptions of their mutual relationship was essential in influencing the quality of
the relationship, particularly concerning follower outcomes. Based on several variables, this
personal dynamic between the leader and the follower is what the literature identifies as LMX or
leader-member exchange. Some scholars have argued against the fundamental validity of LMX
as a construct and posited the need to move forward in a different direction (Gottfriedson et al.,
2020). However, other literature indicates that LMX is an important concept that is useful for
explaining the unique dynamics that prevail between the leader and the follower, especially
dynamics that cannot be standardized into a template of leadership as such but that are, instead,
specific to the interactions and relationship between the individual leader and individual follower
in question (Fein & Tziner, 2021). The present literature discussion accepted that LMX remains
42
a valid concept with significant meaning and implications, which is the dominant view within the
literature, with detractors against LMX being a distinct minority within the scholarly discourse.
According to Hirvi et al. (2021), trust is a fundamental factor in LMX relationships, such
that solid trust between the follower and the leader is essential for the relationship's success.
Thrasher et al. (2020) applied social identity theory to this dynamic and observe that leaders and
followers who understand themselves to belong to the same social group tend to have greater
trust and goodwill toward each other. This finding is congruent with the general model of LMX,
which asserts that perceived similarity between the leader and the follower exerts an essential
effect on the relationship quality and LMX (Dulebohn et al., 2012). If the perceived similarity is
high, the leader may be more inclined to think of the follower as a protégé, just as the follower
may be more inclined to think of the leader as a mentor or role model. Considering this point
through a racial lens, one can easily understand how a African American follower may be more
inclined to trust and respect a African American leader and thereby facilitate highly productive
LMX, just as the leader may be more inclined to see themselves in the follower and thereby wish
to take the follower under their wing and guide them to success. The concept of LMX speaks to
this element of personal resonance in relationships between leaders and followers. It produces
substantial effects but is often left out of the focus of rigorous scholarly research because it is
difficult to quantify or measure validly and reliably rigorously.
According to Chang et al. (2020), LMX can produce a range of positive outcomes for
organizations, especially concerning the variables of employee empowerment. This finding
indicates that the leader within the LMX relationship can leverage their power to raise their
followers and provide them with opportunities and other benefits that may not have otherwise
been available. LMX can also provoke a sense of greater accountability and motivation in the
43
follower, such that the follower wishes to be seen as worthy in the eyes of the leader who has
trusted them (Gul et al., 2022). Lee et al. (2019) emphasized the importance of the dyadic nature
of LMX, with the leader and the follower engaging in a specific type of relationship that involves
both professional and personal elements. In a sense, LMX necessarily refers to a kind of special
treatment in which the leader singles out a follower for participation in LMX while maintaining
only more distant or superficial relationships with other employees. The factors that contribute to
such individualized selection would necessarily contain an individualized element, with factors
such as perceived similarity and personal identification playing a significant role in bonding the
leader and follower within LMX. For present purposes, one may observe that an African
American officer within the US armed forces may be reasonably likely to perceive this kind of
affinity with an African American enlisted member, with the leader perhaps seeing their past self
in the follower and feeling a desire to mentor the follower and help them achieve career success.
According to Uhl-Bien et al. (2022), managers within LMX relationships typically value
attributes such as competence, sincerity, and shared goals. In other words, they like to see that
the follower is good at fulfilling their responsibilities, is willing to communicate with the leader
honestly and transparently and wishes to achieve the same objectives as the leader. Xu et al.
(2019) also suggest that the follower's ambition and initiative are essential to the LMX
relationship. However, within the context of the present study, the LMX relationship would be
occurring within an overarching context of latent intergroup conflict, which produced its
distinctive dynamics that are not necessarily reducible to the dynamics of situations where no
such conflict is present Böhm et al., 2020). Within the overarching, white-coded culture of the
US armed forces, one suspects that African American officers may be drawn to African
American enlisted members and vice versa not merely for instrumental reasons but rather due to
44
more profound and more personal perceived similarities, with African American identity serving
to distinguish the officer and the enlisted member as part of an in-group relative to the
surrounding white out-group. The literature on LMX and the effects of relationships between
leaders and followers, however, does not examine this kind of racial dynamic within broader
organizations and institutions, and it does not address such dynamics within the context of the
US military. Thus, the present study can produce novel findings in an unexplored area of
research.
Other research elaborates on the benefits of LMX for leaders, followers, and
organizations. For example, omission-Hodges and Ptacek (2021) observe that it improves
communication. Yadav and Chaudhari (2023) found that high-quality LMX helps mitigate
relationship conflicts. The research evidence also indicates that stronger LMX may inhibit
leaders from relating to their followers in destructive or abusive ways (Mackey et al., 2020). The
literature suggests that LMX is associated with positive and productive relationships between
leaders and followers. The suggestion of the positive association between leaders and followers
is logical because the LMX construct is based on the leader's individualized follower selection to
pursue this kind of relationship.
This study focused on African American officers who are leaders in the US armed forces.
Officers have been selected for this study because they have successfully navigated career
success within their institution. The showed valuable insights about how other leaders helped
them succeed and how they related to current enlisted members, especially African American
ones. LMX is highly relevant to this study because African American officers and African
American enlisted members could potentially have a particular type of rapport within the context
of the white-coded surrounding military culture, with such rapport also being catalyzed by the
45
social group dynamics elaborated by social identity theory. It would seem that no research
currently exists on this specific topic. Therefore, this literature review has developed a discussion
of the evidence regarding LMX primarily to contextualize a novel inquiry into the ways that
LMX may apply to relationships and interactions between African American officers and
African American enlisted members within the US armed forces. The extant findings on LMX
support this kind of application, and the present study pursued this course of inquiry to make a
meaningful contribution to the body of literature.
The Importance of Leaders within the African American Community
Leaders are critical within the African American community because they serve as
mentors and pathbreakers, providing an enormous morale boost for other African Americans
facing challenges and wondering whether success is possible for people like them. Edmonds
(2022), for example, observes that the academic performance of African American students often
dramatically improves when working with African American teachers. In qualitative research
with African American teachers conducted by Greene (2021), the finding emerged that African
American students felt comfortable with African American teachers at least partly because they
spoke with the same accent, with that accent, thus not marking them as out of place within the
classroom setting. Moreover, the fact that a person with such an accent could be the leader in the
classroom also conveyed a positive impression to African American students about their
opportunities for success. McGee et al. (2022) also found that having African American role
models was essential for college and university professors seeking administrative roles. In all
these cases, the clear meaning is that African Americans in leadership positions can give other
African Americans the sense of an open door where they may not have seen any possibilities or
opportunities for themselves.
46
In another study, Scott and Sharp (2019) focused on African American men with
advanced degrees, and the researchers found that the subjects reported having strong African
American role models as an essential element in their academic success. Such role models
helped African American men believe they could pursue the path since other African Americans
had done it before them. LMX can also have a significant effect on this. Sendze (2022) studied
African American women in STEM programs and found that subjects often refused to quit
because they felt they would let down other African Americans who believed in them, including
role models within the academic and broader community settings. The African American
community typically has substantial social wealth in the sense that members of the community
support each other, encourage each other, and serve as role models for each other (Smith, 2022).
Typically, the literature indicates that successful African Americans do not attribute their success
to themselves but rather to sources of support within their communities, especially leaders and
role models.
This point is reflected, for example, in Mwangi et al.'s (2020) finding that racial and
familial pride are essential drivers of African American college students' success, with family
members and others within the community providing support and deriving personal pride from
the students' success. If this dynamic applies to African Americans within the US armed forces,
then one could expect African American officers to work toward supporting and encouraging
African American enlisted members and taking personal racial pride in doing so. Franklin et al.
(2023) also discussed this dynamic of African Americans helping African Americans in their
consideration of the crucial role that historically African American colleges and universities have
played in the overall advancement of the African American community within the US. African
American leaders may also have unique credibility within their communities, such that other
47
African Americans listen to and heed the advice of African American leaders. In contrast, they
may ignore the same advice if a white leader expressed it instead (Moore et al., 2022). This
differential response, while unfortunate, is the natural result of the mistreatment of the African
American community by whites throughout American history, which has eroded trust between
the relevant social groups.
In this context, having an African American leader in place could engage members of the
African American community in ways that a white leader could not achieve, whether the setting
in question is the university, the military, or any other institution of contemporary American
society. This insight is very suggestive concerning the present study's primary inquiry and focus.
Sceffrey (2022) researched the development of African American women leaders and found that
embracing the identity of African American womanhood was essential to the success of the
leaders in question. Role models were critical to facilitating this process. This finding suggests
that African Americans may succeed within institutions if they embrace their own racial identity
instead of making attempts to assimilate into white identity. Ajijola et al. (2022) also found that
role models were critical for African Americans' academic and professional success, with role
models thus emerging as a significant theme within the literature supported by a wide range of
research and evidence. Brown and Thomas (2020) observe that the literature on African
American communities and role models typically affirms the importance of recruiting African
American male teachers, with the idea being that African American male teachers would be able
to fulfill a fatherly role model role for countless African American students and thereby help
advance the entire African American community. The concept of LMX is implicit across all
these findings insofar as a relationship between a leader and follower that is based on the leader
fulfilling a role model or mentor role would undoubtedly qualify as LMX, mainly when the
48
fulfillment of this role is based on the shared perception of similarities between the leader and
the follower, in this case, similarity of race.
Brooms et al. (2020) also make the point that African Americans can succeed when they
lean into their racial identity instead of attempting to ignore or minimize it, with African
American college students doing well when they bond with other African American students and
create their own spaces where they can support each other and thrive instead of attempting to
assimilate into a white-coded culture that always treat them as inferior or, at best, foreign. The
insight from Brooms et al. (2020) suggests that African Americans in the US armed forces do not
need to assimilate to succeed, although that implication is very tenuous and requires much
further exploration. In any event, Stanford et al. (2021) also affirmed the importance of the
African American community in African American identity development. Some literature also
suggests that leaders who belong to the same social group as followers function more effectively
as leaders (Steffens et al., 2020). This insight certainly seems true concerning the African
American community since the literature continually affirms that African Americans benefit
significantly from relationships and interactions with African American leaders and role models.
Only Johnson et al. (2020) sounded a discordant note by observing that the concept of a African
American role model, while popular, is poorly understood. Even these researchers call only for
clarification and further examination, not for scrapping the idea altogether.
Overall, the literature on the importance of African American leaders within the African
American community has significant implications for the present topic. This review has not
included any discussion of research on African American officers within the US military
specifically, and this is due to the simple fact that no such literature appears to exist. However,
much research has been done on the importance of African American leaders and role models
49
and their positive effects on the academic and professional success of other African Americans.
This body of literature strongly suggests that African Americans do well in relationships and
interactions with African American leaders and role models who can provide support,
encouragement, and motivation to African American students and professionals. Moreover, the
demonstration that it is possible to be African American and succeed at high levels may have an
inspirational and motivational effect on many African Americans by making them believe that
success is also possible for them. Within this general context, personal relationships are also
essential. LMX theory helps to explain how African American leaders within organizations and
institutions engage with African American followers to produce success, and social identity
theory helps to explain how and why the racial specificity of this relationship may be significant
within a broader, white-coded culture.
This section of the literature review has discussed the topic of LMX and leaders' effects
on followers, and it has considered the subtopics of 1) the effects of relationships between
leaders and followers and 2) the importance of leaders within the African American community.
One finding that emerged in this discussion is that leaders have highly significant effects on their
followers through LMX. Another finding was that African American leaders are crucial within
the African American community, with such leaders serving as role models and providing
support and motivation for other African Americans to follow in their footsteps in the pursuit of
academic and professional success. These findings are highly suggestive concerning the
relationships that may prevail between African American officers and African American enlisted
service members within the US armed forces. Still, the body of literature has not yet addressed
this specific topic.
50
Conclusion: Need for Further Research
This literature review has addressed several topics related to the present study's main
topic but does not directly discuss that central topic. For example, the literature on the melting
pot and assimilation described the nature of racial integration within the US and the more recent
vehement opposition against such assimilation (Berray, 2019; Berunmen, 2019). Such findings
are valuable for providing context for the present inquiry without touching on African American
officers within the US armed forces. Likewise, the concept of systemic racism is essential for
this inquiry because that concept posits that racism in these times is built into social structures
and not necessarily dependent on the bigoted views of any given person (Bonilla-Silva, 2021).
This point is essential for understanding the types of challenges that African American officers
may experience in the US armed forces. Still, none of the reviewed literature directly addressed
African American officers as such.
One may thus conclude that a significant gap exists within the relevant literature. The
present researcher could not find any recent studies that delved into the lived experience of
African American officers in the US armed forces. Indeed, the complete absence of such
literature is why the researcher determined that it was necessary to pursue an indirect approach to
this literature review, focus attention on topics adjacent to the main topic, and contextualize the
principal topic within a broader frame of reference. The literature on the assimilation of
minorities within the US, the adverse effects of systemic racism, and LMX and leaders' impact
on followers are all relevant to the main topic of the present study while at the same time not
directly addressing that topic. This study is thus in an excellent position to help address a
significant gap in the literature by producing findings about the lived experience of African
American officers within the US armed forces concerning assimilation and career navigation.
51
This topic has, quite simply, not been explored at all within the relevant literature, and this study
may thus be able to break new ground and produce novel insights.
Table 3
The Structure of the Literature Review
Topic Subtopics
The assimilation of
minorities within the
United States
The melting pot, assimilation, and racial
integration
African Americans and systemic racism
The adverse effects of
systemic racism
The nature of systemic racism
African Americans and systemic racism
LMX and leaders'
effects on followers
LMX relationships between leaders and
followers
The importance of leaders within the African
American community
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research study is to develop an
understanding of the lived experience of African American officers when assimilating into and
navigating their careers in the US armed services. The literature search strategy for this literature
review used the Google Scholar and JSTOR databases, and the researcher used terms related to
the main identified topics of the literature review to produce salient hits. The filters were set only
to retrieve scholarly sources published within the past five years. The search proceeded
iteratively, with the researcher adding or changing search terms based on an emergent
understanding of the types of topics covered by the literature and the various areas of the
literature that would be useful to consider for present purposes. This process continued until
52
about 90 sources were gathered for this review. The researcher stopped searching when it
became evident that the sources were beginning to repeat themselves, which is to say that
saturation had been achieved.
At the theoretical level, this study is informed by social identity, critical race, and LMX
theories. Social identity theory discusses the nature of group psychology and the formation of
and relations between in-groups and out-groups, particularly within contexts of differences of
power, which is highly relevant for considering the relationship between the African American
social group and the white social group within contemporary American society. Critical race
theory elaborates on the nature of systemic racism and the way that racism today may be
embedded into social structures themselves rather than dependent on the volition of any given
person, which helps understand the subtle ways in which African Americans may experience
racism and discrimination today despite being formally equal under the law. Finally, LMX
theory discusses the relationship, encompassing personal and professional factors, that develops
between a leader and a follower, and this framework helps understand the critical role that
African American leaders may play in the formation, development, and success of African
American followers.
One of the main findings of this literature review was that the melting pot paradigm of
American assimilation and racial integration has more recently been rejected in favor of an
embrace of racial identity because the melting pot paradigm itself is racist because of the whitenormative nature of American culture itself. Another finding was that systemic racism pertains to
the effects of the past on the present, with those effects being embedded into social structures at a
level beyond the views or beliefs of any person. This review also found that African American
leaders are essential within African American communities in cultivating the success of African
53
American students and professionals, often by serving as role models and providing
encouragement in various ways, including through the simple demonstration of the fact that
success is indeed possible for African Americans in multiple fields of aspiration. Again, this
finding is significantly suggestive for the present study, and this study is well-positioned to
explore whether African American officers in the US armed forces fulfill the type of role model
function for African American enlisted members that the literature addressing other settings
suggests that they would.
Summary
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research study is to develop an
understanding of the lived experience of African American officers when assimilating into and
navigating their careers in the US armed services. The literature search strategy for this literature
review was to use the Google Scholar and JSTOR databases, and the researcher used terms
related to the main identified topics of the literature review to produce salient hits. The filters
were set only to retrieve scholarly sources published within the past five years. The search
proceeded iteratively, with the researcher adding or changing search terms based on an emergent
understanding of the types of topics covered by the literature and the various areas of the
literature that would be useful to consider for present purposes. This process continued until
about 90 sources were gathered for this review. The researcher stopped searching when it
became evident that the sources were essentially beginning to repeat themselves, which is to say
that saturation had been achieved.
At the theoretical level, this study is informed by social identity, critical race, and LMX
theories. Social identity theory discusses the nature of group psychology and the formation of
and relations between in-groups and out-groups, particularly within contexts of differences of
54
power, which is highly relevant for considering the relationship between the African American
social group and the white social group within contemporary American society. Critical race
theory elaborates on the nature of systemic racism and the way that racism today may be
embedded into social structures themselves rather than dependent on the volition of any given
person, which helps understand the subtle ways in which African Americans may experience
racism and discrimination today despite being formally equal under the law. Finally, LMX
theory discusses the relationship, encompassing personal and professional factors, that develops
between a leader and a follower, and this framework helps understand the critical role that
African American leaders may play in the formation, development, and success of African
American followers.
This concludes the present chapter of this study. The following chapter delineate
the methodology of this study, which consist of interviews with African American officers in the
US armed forces regarding their lived experience of assimilation and career navigation. The
findings of these interviews then were reported in the chapter and analyzed regarding the
theoretical frameworks driving this study and the main themes and conclusions that have
emerged throughout this literature review.
55
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research study was to develop an
understanding of the lived experience of African American officers when assimilating into and
navigating their careers in the US armed services. The proposed research focused on African
American officers within the US armed services. Sampling for the study used the non-random
purposive technique. Data was collected using the semi-structured interview method and
analyzed using the thematic analysis technique. The completion of this qualitative
phenomenological study produced the social benefit of reducing systemic racism within the
military by enabling the armed forces to develop policies that do not implicitly discriminate
against African Americans.
Chapter 3 begins with a description of the research design for the proposed study. The
research design applies Giorgi’s (2009) descriptive phenomenological approach. The chapter
continues by restating the research questions and describing the population and sampling strategy
employed in the proposed study. The chapter continues with a description of the data collection
strategy and plans for data analysis. The data collection strategy for the study involves the use of
semi-structured interviews. The data analysis plan included applying Giorgi’s (2009) descriptive
phenomenological approach to data analysis. The chapter ends with a brief conclusion to the
chapter.
Research Questions
RQ 1. What are the unique challenges faced by African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services regarding career progression, leadership opportunities, and organizational
culture?
56
RQ 2. How do African American officers perceive and navigate issues related to
diversity, equity, and inclusion within the military environment?
RQ 3. What role does mentorship, networking, and support systems play in the career
development and advancement of African American officers in the military?
RQ 4. How do perceptions of race, identity, and belonging influence African American
officers' experiences and interactions within their units and the broader military community?
RQ 5. What are the institutional policies, practices, and cultural factors that either
facilitate or hinder the professional growth and leadership potential of African American
officers?
RQ 6. How do African American officers navigate challenges related to bias,
discrimination, and stereotypes while serving in leadership roles or positions of authority?
Research of Design
Giorgi's (2009) descriptive phenomenological research design emerges from a deeprooted foundation in Husserl's phenomenological philosophy. It underscores the significance of
understanding participants' lived experiences from a standpoint that brackets the researcher's
biases and preconceptions, allowing the phenomena to be revealed in their most genuine form
(Giorgi, 2009). A fundamental aspect of this method involves reading through the entire
participant description to gain a comprehensive sense of the whole, followed by discernment of
'meaning units' from the data. These units are then transformed, capturing the essence of the
experience and ensuring they are consistent with the phenomenological nature of the study. The
study above's research questions, focusing on the lived experiences of African American officers
in the U.S. armed services, align seamlessly with Giorgi's approach. The specificity of these
questions necessitates a research design that can delve deep into individual experiences,
57
uncovering the nuanced and intricate nature of assimilation and representation in military
culture. While narrative, case study, or ethnographic research methods undoubtedly offer
valuable insights, they may not penetrate the same depth or richness inherent in Giorgi's
phenomenological method.
When studying sensitive topics, especially those related to race and professional
assimilation, the potential for bias is always present. Giorgi's (2009) emphasis on bracketing the
researcher's biases is relevant and pivotal in ensuring the authenticity and reliability of findings
in such contexts. Furthermore, while other research designs might emphasize specific incidents
or broader cultural dynamics, the phenomenological approach, mainly as Giorgi (2009)
conceptualizes it, aims to provide a holistic understanding of experiences in their totality. In
reflecting upon the presented research questions concerning the experiences of African American
officers, it is evident that capturing the essence of these experiences requires a methodological
approach beyond mere storytelling or isolated instances. There is a need for an in-depth
comprehension of the experience of assimilation, representation, and leadership as these officers
lived. Giorgi's (2009) descriptive phenomenological research design, emphasizing lived
experiences and depth of understanding, is an apt and effective methodological choice.
Research Setting
Target and Accessible Population
The target population for this phenomenological study was African American officers
serving in the U.S. armed services and Veterans. The accessible population for this
phenomenological study were eleven African American officers serving in the U.S. armed
services and Veterans. Their position within the survey was not arbitrary; their unique
experiences at the crossroads of race and authority in a historically Caucasian-dominated setting
58
like the military were expected to offer rich insights into understanding assimilation, interaction,
and perception of military culture.
Being African American (African American) in the U.S. military brought forth a layer of
experiences influenced by ethnic background. While the military made strides toward racial and
ethnic integration, remnants of past prejudices and structural inequalities may still subtly
influence the daily interactions and experiences of these officers. This historical context, coupled
with the evolving dynamics of the military, underscored the significance of their experiences.
Furthermore, as officers, these individuals were thrust into roles of leadership and authority,
introducing additional facets to their lived experiences. The responsibilities, expectations, and
interactions of an officer were distinct, often adding another dimension of complexity to their
journey in the military. The U.S. armed services, with branches such as the Army, Navy, Air
Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, bring diverse cultures and traditions. The experience of
an African American officer varied based on the specific branch they were affiliated with, and
understanding these nuances were integral to the study. Another intricacy that was not sidelined
was the interplay of gender. The traditionally male-dominated military structure presented
African American female officers with unique challenges differing from their male counterparts.
The chosen population for this study, with its myriad complexities stemming from race, rank,
branch, and gender, promised to offer profound insights. Exploring their lived experiences
potentially uncovered areas of improvement within the military culture, ensuring it remains
supportive and accommodating of its diverse personnel.
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Participants
The target population for this phenomenological study was African American officers
serving in the U.S. armed services and Veterans. The accessible population for this
phenomenological study is African American officers serving in the U.S. armed services and
Veterans, as known by the researcher. Their position within the survey is not arbitrary; their
unique experiences at the crossroads of race and authority in a historically Caucasian-dominated
setting like the military are expected to offer rich insights into understanding assimilation,
interaction, and perception of military culture. Being African American in the U.S. military
brings forth experiences influenced by ethnic background. While the military has made strides
toward racial and ethnic integration, remnants of past prejudices and structural inequalities may
still subtly influence the daily interactions and experiences of these officers. This historical
context, coupled with the evolving dynamics of the military, underscores the significance of their
experiences.
The pre-defined sample included nine to 15 officers. This actual number of participants
included in the study relied on when the point of data saturation was achieved. The point of data
saturation is the point when an additional collection of data would be redundant. The sampling
method is purposive. Purposive sampling, often called judgmental, selective, or subjective
sampling, is a non-probability sampling technique in which researchers rely on their judgment
when choosing members of the population to participate in their study (Taylor et al., 2015).
Rather than seeking a broad, generalized sample, researchers aim to select individuals who are
exceptionally knowledgeable about or experienced with the phenomenon of interest. The primary
goal was to focus on population characteristics of interest, which best enabled the researcher to
answer the study's research questions.
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Sample & Sampling Method
The sample for this phenomenological study was eleven African American officers
serving in the U.S. armed services and Veterans, as known by the researcher. The participants
were active-duty or recently retired officers, including veterans from the US Armed Services
who self-identify as African American.The interview participants was selected based on specific
criteria to ensure the study’s relevance and representativeness. However, the actual number of
participants included in the study relied on when the point of data saturation was achieved. The
point of data saturation is the point when an additional collection of data would be redundant.
The sampling method is purposive. Purposive sampling, often called judgmental, selective, or
subjective sampling, is a non-probability sampling technique in which researchers rely on their
judgment when choosing members of the population to participate in their study (Taylor et al.,
2015). Rather than seeking a broad, generalized sample, researchers aim to select individuals
who are exceptionally knowledgeable about or experienced with the phenomenon of interest.
The primary goal was to focus on population characteristics of interest, which best enabled the
researcher to answer the study's research questions. While purposive sampling provided valuable
insights and a deep understanding of a phenomenon, its findings were not always generalizable
to the broader population due to potential biases in participant selection.
The sample size was determined based on the principle of data saturation, wherein
interviews continued until no themes or insights emerged, indicating that enough data has been
collected to address the research questions adequately.
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The Researcher
I volunteered to become a Marine in an institution dominated by white males. As an
African American male, I am a junior marine doing all I can to fit in and, more importantly,
become successful. My superiors were white officers, with minimal African American officers
who held leadership positions. Pushing forward in my career, the urgency to advance quickly in
rank was paramount. As I continued to advance in rank, I obtained more influence throughout
the decision-making process, which opened the door to the decision-makers. As the senior
enlisted advisor to senior officers and junior officers, as well as to the enlisted Marines, I was
able to have a front seat in how the Marine Corps operated. The inactions of Marines of all races
were paramount in how we treated those who chose to serve their country. Critics highlight the
lack of African American generals and that the Marine Corps has never had an African American
4-star general during the period I served in the Marine Corps. One has made it to the top fourstar rank, an honor the Marines have, so far, bestowed solely on white men, seventy-two of them
(Cooper, 2021).
The study focused on equity and inclusion in the senior ranks of minority officers. The
experiences and knowledge of the Marine Corps for over twenty years provided insight into the
injustices concerning minority officers that played a role in my position. Constructivism is the
Paradigm of Inquiry that aligns with my problem of practice or topic. Constructivism or social
constructivism believes that individuals seek an understanding of the world in which they live
and work, and it is based on specific assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning. This
inquiry paradigm allows individuals to seek complexity of views rather than narrow meanings
into categories or ideas. My position was serving in leadership positions in the military as well as
serving as a director in a military unit. My relationship and intersectional identity were leading
62
people regardless of race and teaching something of lifetime value. I became a United States
Marine Corps drill instructor during my military career. Throughout this tour, I advanced in my
responsibilities and occupied the Senior Drill Instructor role with the privilege of molding young
men to become Marines. I was an African American man who was given the leadership power to
teach and train personnel from diverse populations. One of the contradictions and intersections as
a drill instructor was the competition among fellow leaders. Sometimes, it can become political
or cause racial tension to exceed the program. My privilege has permitted me to limit
marginalization because of my personal growth and superior talent. This stage in my career and
the experience allowed me to gain experience as a teacher due to the opportunities to train and
teach a diverse population. As I grew in rank, I had more opportunities to lead and teach Marines
and Officers of diverse backgrounds.
Data Sources
For my qualitative study, I used unstructured one-on-one interviews as the primary
data source to guide this research. The following section outlined the method, the participant
pool, the instruments used in the interviews, and the process for collecting data.
Table 4
Data Sources
Research questions Data Collection Method
RQ 1. What are the unique challenges faced
by African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services regarding career progression,
leadership opportunities, and organizational
culture?
RQ 2. How do African American officers
perceive and navigate issues related to
Interview protocol
Interview protocol
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diversity, equity, and inclusion within the
military environment?
RQ 3. What role does mentorship,
networking, and support systems play in the
career development and advancement of
African American officers in the military?
RQ 4. How do perceptions of race, identity,
and belonging influence African American
officers' experiences and interactions within
their units and the broader military
community?
RQ 5. What are the institutional policies,
practices, and cultural factors that either
facilitate or hinder the professional growth
and leadership potential of African American
officers?
RQ 6. How do African American officers
navigate challenges related to bias,
discrimination, and stereotypes while serving
in leadership roles or positions of authority?
Interview protocol
Interview protocol
Interview protocol
Interview protocol
Instrumentation
At the eleven interview, saturation was met. The researcher conducted interview
questions related to the research questions and anticipated probes that might be used to explore
participant's responses (Rubin & Rubin 2012). This approach allowed the interviewer to
comprehensively explore individual experiences, perceptions, and thoughts related to slow
promotions and navigating life experiences in the US Armed Services. Interviews enable detailed
exploration of participant's thoughts and experiences. Researchers can ask follow-up questions to
provide context to participant's responses.
Data Collection Procedures
There was one data collection point: A semi-structured interview. The researcher
interviewed eleven African American officers to gain insights into factors contributing to slow
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promotions within the demographic. Embarking on a qualitative phenomenological doctoral
study necessitated a meticulous and systematic approach to data collection. A pivotal starting
point in this data collection journey was recruiting suitable participants (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015. Given the unique position of the researcher as a member of the U.S. Armed Services, they
were strategically poised to recruit individuals from within their professional milieu. Through
word-of-mouth, a powerful recruitment tool in tight-knit military communities, and active
solicitation, the researcher aimed to identify potential participants to provide rich insights into
the phenomena under investigation. Ensuring participants were appropriate for the study was
quintessential. Therefore, before the data collection, each potential participant was assessed
based on explicit inclusion criteria. The researcher engaged with each potential participant,
seeking confirmation of their eligibility by verifying alignment with each criterion. Those who
successfully met the requirements were invited to partake in a semi-structured interview, which,
in its essence, was designed to be directive yet flexible. While each interview was anchored in
predetermined questions aligned with the research queries, there was room for impromptu
follow-up questions. Such an approach ensured that the richness and depth of the participants'
lived experiences were fully captured without being held by an overly rigid interview structure
(Taylor et al., 2015).
Recruitment occurred by sharing a flyer (Appendix B) and utilizing a personal military
network and associations focusing on African American service members to identify potential
participants.
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Data Analysis
Data analysis commenced with an intimate immersion into the data. This step, echoing
Giorgi's (2009) foundational principles, involved the researcher familiarizing themselves with
the transcribed interviews through repeated readings, thereby laying the groundwork for a
deeper, more nuanced analysis. Following this initial immersion, initial coding was undertaken.
Here, using guidance from Giorgi (2009), each segment of the transcript, whether it was a line,
paragraph, or section, was assigned specific codes, serving as symbolic placeholders for
emerging themes or concepts. The subsequent phase focused on thematic analysis, where these
initial codes were clustered together based on similarities and patterns, gradually revealing
overarching themes that offered deeper insights into the collective experiences of the officers.
This search probed deep into the thematic patterns, aiming to discern the unique and
universal facets of the officers’ experiences in military culture. Once these essences were
tentatively identified, they were juxtaposed against the transcriptions, undergoing a rigorous
validation process. This ensured that the resultant themes and essences genuinely reflected the
participants’ narratives, a step resonant with Giorgi’s emphasis on authenticity. As informed by
Giorgi (2009), the culminating stage of the analysis centered around synthesizing these findings
into an intricate narrative. This synthesized narrative endeavored to seamlessly interlace the
individual stories, presenting a comprehensive and cohesive portrayal of the lived experiences
under investigation. Integral to this entire analytical journey was the continuous practice of
reflective bracketing. Drawing inspiration from Giorgi's (2009) methodology, the researcher
remained acutely aware of the need to consistently recognize and set aside personal biases,
ensuring the analysis remains unwaveringly anchored in the participants' authentic narratives.
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Post-interview, a thorough transcription process commenced. Each transcription served
as the foundational material upon which the coding process was built. Coding, in this context,
played a dual role. First, it facilitated extracting and organizing themes and patterns from the
transcriptions. Second, it assisted in gauging when the point of data saturation was reached
(Taylor et al., 2015). Data saturation, a pivotal concept in qualitative research, refers to the
juncture at which no new or additional information emerges from the data (Taylor et al., 2015).
In other words, subsequent interviews cease to bring forth novel insights or themes related to the
research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Recognizing the point of saturation is crucial as it
signifies that a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena has been achieved, negating the
need for further data collection (Taylor et al., 2015). Upon achieving data saturation, the study
took a decisive turn from data collection to analysis. Armed with transcribed interviews replete
with the lived experiences of African American officers in the U.S. Armed services, the
researcher began data analysis.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and Reliability were essential to ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness of a
qualitative study. Validity refers to the accuracy and soundness of the research findings, while
reliability refers to the consistency and repeatability of the results. In qualitative research,
credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability are often used to assess the quality
of the study (Merriam &Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation involved using multiple data sources,
methods, and perspectives to corroborate and validate the findings. By corroborating the findings
from various sources, bias in the interview responses was mitigated. A more comprehensive and
reliable understanding was also obtained. Member checking, or respondent validation was used
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to determine the transcribed data’s accuracy based on feedback and confirmation from the
sample.
Ethics
Understanding underlying ethics is vital to the researcher and participants. Therefore, as I
conducted various means to communicate with the participants, I noted that the interest of the
research served all communities. The perspective of former marines and active-duty personnel
was crucial throughout the interview, the method in which voluntary participation and informed
consent also called the Social Behavioral Research Protocol (Appendix D) was through personal
networks and recruitment by other participants. There was an understanding that assured the
potential participants that involvement in the research was voluntary and that they were free to
discontinue participation at any time. I indicated that refusal to participate or the decision to
withdraw did not result in any penalties due to volunteering. However, it was explained how
vital the participant was and how much it meant that they completed the study.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Chapter Four includes the findings of the study. The purpose of this qualitative,
phenomenological research study was to develop an understanding of the lived experience of
African American officers around assimilation, racism, and leadership at the institutional, unit,
and individual levels. Qualitative data was explored to establish codes, categories, and themes
from the data collected. The raw data was coded, with codes collapsed into categories and
categories collapsed into themes. The findings from the study include the demographics and
tables illustrating the codes, categories, and themes for the study. The findings are then
described.
Demographics
The study sample consisted of 11 participants from various branches of the U.S. Armed
Forces, representing a diverse range of ages, ranks, years of service, education levels, and gender
(Table 7). The participants' ages ranged from 29 to 55 years, with a median age of approximately
40 (Table 7). The sample included six males and five females, reflecting a balanced gender
representation. Participants occupied different ranks within the military hierarchy, ranging from
junior to senior officers. Specifically, there were four junior officers, five mid-level officers, and
two senior officers. The participants' years of service varied considerably; some served between
1 and 5 years, while others had over 21 years of experience. The educational backgrounds of the
participants were also diverse, with three holding bachelor’s degrees, six possessing master’s
degrees, and two having earned Doctorate degrees. This range in educational attainment suggests
a high level of academic achievement among the participants, particularly those in more senior
positions. The participants represented all five branches of the U.S. Armed Forces, including the
Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The Army had the highest
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representation with three participants, followed by the Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast
Guard, each with two participants. This distribution across the branches of service provided a
comprehensive perspective on the experiences of military personnel across different areas of the
Armed Forces.
Table 5
Demographics of Participants
Participant ID Age Gender Rank Years of
Service Education Level Branch of
Service
P1 34 Male Junior Officer 6-10 Bachelor's
Degree Army
P2 42 Female Mid-Level
Officer 11-15 Master's Degree Navy
P3 50 Male Senior Officer 21+ Doctorate Air Force
P4 29 Female Junior Officer 1-5
Bachelor's
Degree Marine Corps
P5 45 Male Mid-Level
Officer 16-20 Master's Degree Coast Guard
P6 39 Male Mid-Level
Officer 11-15 Master's Degree Army
P7 55 Female Senior Officer 21+ Doctorate Navy
P8 38 Male Mid-Level
Officer 6-10 Master's Degree Air Force
P9 44 Male Senior Officer 16-20 Master's Degree Marine Corps
P10 32 Male Junior Officer 6-10 Bachelor's
Degree Coast Guard
P11 36 Female Mid-Level
Officer 11-15 Master's Degree Army
Qualitative Findings
The qualitative findings are included in the sub-sections below. The qualitative findings
are discussed by breaking the content down from raw data into codes, with example quotes
illustrating how codes were established. The sub-sections also illustrate how categories and
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themes emerged, as codes were collapsed into categories and categories were clustered into
themes. The themes coincide with the research questions in the study.
Forming Codes from Quotes
The table provided is an integral part of the research analysis, demonstrating how specific
participant quotations informed the development of initial and final codes. Each quotation was
carefully analyzed to identify underlying patterns in the data (Table 8). The quotation from
Participant 2, "I believe I was targeted by some of my peers," was pivotal in forming the final
code, Daily Experiences of Racism. This statement reflects the participant's perception of being
singled out due to racial bias, which contributed to the initial coding focused on racism and
discrimination. The recurrence of such experiences among various participants necessitated the
development of a code that captures the ongoing nature of racial discrimination in their
environment. Similarly, the quote, "You face bias and discrimination. Especially if you're from a
different country, you got an accent, folks looking at you different" (T6), was foundational in
shaping the final code Social Dynamics. Initially, this was understood through the lens of how
peers influence discrimination. The participant’s experience of being treated differently due to
their accent illustrates how social interactions are often influenced by underlying biases related
to cultural and linguistic differences. This insight underscores the impact of these dynamics on
the participants' lived experiences.
The experiences shared by Participant 6, "You a victim, some, wish your bias is
discrimination. Especially if you're from a different country, you got an accent, folks looking at
you different," were critical in developing the code related to Group Influence on Self-Concept.
This experience was initially captured by examining how others in the group treat the individual,
reflecting the profound effect that group dynamics can have on a person's self-concept,
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particularly in contexts where discrimination is prevalent. The discussion of effective
communication within leader-member interactions is well-illustrated by the quote from
Participant 6, "I think effectively communicate to contribute to a success of their unit, which I've
done, especially beyond my last, say, I was seeing the 11th mu." This was instrumental in
developing the code for Leader-member communications and connections. The participant’s
reflection on the importance of communication highlights its role in fostering successful
interactions and relationships within the group, contributing to a broader understanding of
leadership dynamics in the study's context. The analysis demonstrates how specific participant
quotations were crucial in developing initial and final codes, providing a structured
understanding of the critical patterns emerging from the qualitative data.
Establishing Categories from Codes
Table 9 includes a comprehensive view of the collapsing of individual codes into broader,
more encompassing categories, each representing a significant aspect of the participants'
experiences within the military context. The first category, Experiences of Racism, emerges from
consolidating the final codes Daily Experiences of Racism and Social Dynamics. The category
captures the pervasive nature of racism that individuals face regularly within the military. The
regularity of these encounters, whether subtle or overt, not only affects the participants' day-today lives but also plays a crucial role in shaping their career trajectories and overall progression
within the military environment. The analysis includes evidence that the participants frequently
experience discrimination, which affects their interactions with peers and superiors, ultimately
influencing their professional growth. In the category of Group Dynamics, the final codes, Group
Influence on Self-Concept and Identity Formation, come together to illustrate how participants
perceive themselves within the broader framework of their racial or ethnic groups in the military.
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This category delves into individuals' sense of pride and connection towards their military unit,
reflecting how these factors significantly influence their self-perception and identity. The
participants' experiences underscore the importance of group belonging in shaping how they
view themselves and their role within the military, revealing the profound impact of group
dynamics on individual identity.
Leader-member relationships are another critical category derived from the final codes of
Leader-member communications and Leadership connections. This category focuses on the
intricate relationships between leaders and their subordinates, emphasizing the essential elements
of mutual trust, respect, and the overall quality of interactions. These factors are highlighted as
foundational to effective leadership and positive work environments. The data suggests that these
relationships are central to the participants' experiences, shaping their perceptions of leadership
and overall satisfaction within the military hierarchy. Quality of interactions is formed by
combining the final codes of interactions in different roles (leader-member) and supportive
resources. This category highlights the significance of the quality of interactions between leaders
and members, showing how these interactions are crucial in establishing relationships grounded
in respect and trust. The participants' reflections indicate that the effectiveness of these
interactions is critical to fostering a supportive and cohesive environment within the military,
where individuals feel valued and respected.
Pride in group membership emerges as a category encompassing the final Social
Construction of Race, Racial Identity, and Racial Stereotyping codes. This category addresses
the complex interactions of different social identities, such as race, gender, and rank, within the
military context. The analysis reveals that these overlapping identities create unique challenges
and experiences for individuals, particularly in navigating their sense of belonging and pride
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within their groups. The participants' narratives highlight how these intersecting identities shape
their experiences of inclusion and exclusion in the military. Intersectionality and Social
Dynamics are informed by the final codes of Complex Social Dynamics and Varied treatment
based on race. This category explores the compounded discrimination effects that arise from
multiple intersecting identities. The participants' experiences illustrate how these intersecting
aspects of identity contribute to a more complex and layered understanding of discrimination,
affecting their interactions within the military on multiple levels. The data suggests that these
compounded experiences of discrimination are not only more pervasive but also more
challenging to address within the existing military structures.
Emergent Themes in the Data
The theme Navigation of Social Identity explores how individuals in the military manage
their social identities, particularly in the context of racism and group dynamics. The theme is
informed by the categories of Experiences of Racism and Group Dynamics, which reveal the
challenges individuals face as they negotiate their identities within a setting where racial biases
and social interactions heavily influence their daily lives. The theme Use of Roles and Resource
Allocation arises from integrating Leader-member Relationships and Quality of Interactions. The
theme examines the impact of leadership roles and resource distribution on military relationships
and overall effectiveness. It highlights the importance of equitable resource allocation and the
role of leadership in fostering trust and respect within military units, which are crucial for
maintaining unit cohesion and operational success. Group Belonging is a theme that addresses
the sense of belonging experienced by individuals within their military units, focusing on racial
and ethnic identities. This theme brings together the categories of Pride in Group Membership
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and Intersectionality and Social Dynamics, exploring how these identities intersect with broader
social dynamics to influence both inclusion and exclusion within military groups.
Table 6
Collapsing Categories into Themes
Theme Category Definition
Navigation of
Social Identity
Use of Roles and
Resource
Allocation
Group Belonging
Experiences of
Racism Impacts
Career
Progression
Perceptions and
Treatment
Support Systems
and Forging
Identity
Experiences of
racism
Group dynamics
How individuals manage their social identities in the military,
focusing on racism and group dynamics.
Leader-member
relationships
Quality of
interactions
The impact of leadership roles and resource distribution on
military relationships and effectiveness.
Pride in group
membership
Intersectionality and
Social Dynamics
Perceptions and
treatment
Impact on career
progression
Intersectionality and
social dynamics
Individual
comparison bias
Influence support
Recognition of self
The influence of racial and ethnic identities on individuals' sense
of belonging in their military units.
The effect of racism on individuals' career advancement within the
military.
How intersecting identities influence individuals' treatment and
perceptions within the military.
The role of support systems in shaping military individuals'
identity and self-perception.
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The theme Experiences of Racism Impacts Career Progression focuses on how racism
affects career advancement within the military. By combining the categories of Perceptions and
Treatment and Impact on Career Progression, this theme illustrates the detrimental effects that
racism can have on the professional trajectories of military personnel, affecting their
opportunities for advancement and their overall career satisfaction. Perceptions and Treatment is
a theme that delves into how intersecting identities influence how individuals are perceived and
treated within the military. This theme is informed by the categories of Intersectionality and
Social Dynamics and Individual Comparison Bias, highlighting the complex ways in which
biases and social dynamics shape the experiences of military personnel. The theme Support
Systems and Forging Identity examines the role of support systems in shaping the identity and
self-perception of military personnel. This theme emerges from the Influence Support and
Recognition of Self categories, underscoring the importance of supportive relationships in
helping individuals navigate identity-related challenges and maintain a strong sense of self
within the military environment.
Responses to Research Questions
Theme One Response to Research Question One
Unique challenges faced by African American officers in the U.S. Armed Services
regarding career progression, leadership opportunities, and organizational culture consists of
navigation of social identity. This first theme, in response to research question one, was
considered explicative of the sample’s experiences of racism. P2 stated, “I believe I was targeted
by some of my peers because of my skin color.” P7 agreed that his peers’ behaviors toward him
were “highly racist and biased, with most of the time I was shunned because of this.” P6 too felt
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this way stating, “You face bias and discrimination. Especially if you're from a different country,
you got an accent, folks looking at you different.” Experiences of racism dealt with the regular
encounters individuals have with both subtle and overt forms of racism. This theme
included how these experiences impact their career growth and progression within the military
environment.
Group dynamics encompasses how individuals see themselves as part of their racial or
ethnic group within the military. A sense of pride and connection towards their military unit and
how they perceived their identity based on the group influences of self-concept precipitated
identity formation. Several participants noted that this was contrived from the way others,
particularly those in a group, treated them and their behaviors towards individuals of color
implied peer racist actions. P6 shared, “As a victim, some, wish your bias is discrimination.
Especially if you're from a different country, you got an accent, folks looking at you different.”
P8 noted “The group feelings about you is the way they treat you both in and out of the group
and in different situations.” P3 also considered peer bias prevalent in the way he was treated
saying, “I have been treated with discrimination in my unit and from others who hang out with
people in my unit.”
Theme Two Response to Research Question Two
Responding to the question of how African American officers perceive and navigate
issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion within the military environment the overarching
response is using roles and resource allocation. The impact of leadership roles and resource
distribution on military relationships and effectiveness. For example, leader-member
relationships and leader-member communications focus on the nature of relationships between
leaders and their subordinates.
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The nature of relationships between leaders and their subordinates encompasses the
importance of mutual trust, respect, and the overall quality of interactions, which are crucial for
effective leadership and a positive work environment. The key to this, according to some of the
participants, is effective communication. P6 said, “I think effectively communicate to contribute
to a success of a unit.” Such communication necessities must be supported with trust and respect,
as P8 noted, “How should I really conduct myself? In these areas, you know, I got a good staff at
CO. I got some good NCOs and some junior Marines. But how do I best integrate?” The focus
on communication and leader-member connections emphasizes the importance of mutual trust,
respect, and the overall quality of interactions, which are crucial for effective leadership and a
positive work environment. Other participants noted that the need for supporting interactions
from leaders and peers was vital. P9 said, “there was still a, understanding of needing support
from other and encouragement from leaders but we hardly got it.” P11 considered that “The way
the command was built is that I was the only director that was military, the other three directors
were civilians.”
Theme Three Response to Research Question Three
As the third theme, group belonging was described as the influence of racial and ethnic
identities on individuals' sense of belonging in their military units, responds to the research
question three asking what role mentorship, networking, and support systems plays in the career
development and advancement of African American officers in the military. This encompasses
pride in group membership and intersectionality and social dynamics. The former, pride in group
membership is recognized as highlighting the complex interactions of different social identities,
such as race, gender, and rank, and how these overlapping identities create unique individual
78
challenges and experiences. The latter, intersectionality and social dynamics focuses on the
compounded effects of discrimination from multiple intersecting identities. The participants
discussed the implications of social construction of race with P4 saying, “I come from a very big
family, right? But I was the 1st officer in my entire family. To join to become an officer and it's
about 4500 of us.” S3 felt that the “way a unit’s group and racial identification were considered
important” attributed to the social construction of race, feeding into understanding how influence
of racial and ethnic identities produced group belonging in the military. P6 concurred stating
“Not only I'm African American and then I'm from Haiti, so that's double thing, when you are
that African American officer.” However, P11 felt that he was supported because of the group
claiming, “I actually love it here. The support I have from Jacksonville. I've never received
support like that in my entire career.”
The racial identity of the participants impacted the varied treatment, and the participants
felt their peer’s acceptance of them was the reason. P2 claimed, “Because I was African
American, people though I wasn't as literate as other people.” P6 felt that “Folks looking at you
different, and then, and they see, when they hear you talk and automatically, they assume you're
stupid.” P1 recognized that “you can be in a billet. So an individual is in a billet in a squad. And
they got a rank somebody from one to best to worse.” Such racial stereotyping was the norm, as
P2 shared an incident of racial identity causing stereotyping,
The two other black guys and me in my unit were always treated like Cinderella, you
know we were the first to be blamed for everything and the white guys in the unit always took it
out on us when we got into trouble as a unit like if we didn’t make the mark on our run. I thought
I handled it in appropriate manner where I went to, you know, the
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senior officer found out that we were being treated bad because we were Black, and I told
him I said well either you go to the to the security officer and let them know what you know
what you've done or I will go. He said he would go but nothing happened.
Theme Four Response to Research Question Four
The fourth theme experiences of racism impacts career progression responded to
the fourth research question that asked how do perceptions of race, identity, and belonging
influence African American officers' experiences and interactions within their units and the
broader military community by presenting how the effect of racism on individuals impacted their
career advancement within the military. The perceptions and treatment were noted by the
participants to explain how multiple identity factors impact how individuals perceive their peers
and how such perception impacts their treatment. As P1 said, “It seems like everyday I have to
fight to overcome bigotry by my peers and my leaders.” P11 claimed,
I think at my research command, the one that said was my most difficult. One I try to
think about that. And I couldn't say for certain. That that was it because I was the only one that
looked like me. Initially there was a African-American. Officer that they came on board. But I
felt That In the end I don't feel like I was treated fairly. And I can't 100% say. And it was
because of our race. Like there were a lot of things working against me, right? I was the only
health care administrator. So routed by scientists and science.
Such preferential treatment of others presented the idea that race and bias's impact on
advancing a military career was significant. Most of the participants agreed that the racist
behaviors toward them did not stop when becoming an officer. P4 stated, “As African American
officers, we still have to overexplain ourselves sometimes a little bit more than our white
counterparts.” P7 also claimed, “racism continues even after being placed in a leadership
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position.” Several participants discussed being ignored for promotion believing the reason for
being passed over was due to prejudices by a largely white man leadership system. P8 felt that
“every time one of my black colleagues was up for promotion, in officers’ country only the white
guys received them.”
Theme Five Response to Research Question Five
The fifth theme extracted was how intersecting identities influence individuals'
treatment and perceptions within the military. This theme was specific to answering research
question five asking what institutional policies, practices, and cultural factors that either facilitate
or hinder the professional growth and leadership potential of African American officers. This
theme established how perceptions and treatment were formed by those in high leadership
positions as intersecting identities influenced individual treatment of Black officers. Based on the
participant’s notions of intersectionality and social dynamics the findings suggested how others
in a group treat an individual based on prejudices the treatment impacts how that individual
behaves.
P4 agreed that behavior is impacted by group treatment, saying “ I think that some
of it is easily identified. Whereas as African American officers we have to explain ourselves
sometimes a little bit more than others.” P6 followed by saying, “Automatically who knew I was
not there because there was no African American guy there as our officer. All the officers were
there.” P8 felt that “a lot of times, at least for myself, is just having that that personal touch
somebody to set you down and say hey this is what's really expected.” P10 shared,
81
The other thing is, it was sort of uncomfortable for us for most of a lot of us, but you
know we had this organization called National Naval Officers Association which was a
predominantly African American officer thing officer association but What that did is that
allowed us as a group to recognize one that there are a lot of us in the ranks.
Another item pointed out by the participants was how there was racial bias in
performance evaluations. Many in the sample claimed that racial stereotypes and societal
constructs of race influence the way individuals are perceived and treated in the military. P6
believed the solution to this was to improve supportive group dynamics, with P1 saying they
continually felt incompetency due to the “opportunity in terms of my field, the biggest thing you
want to hit is to be a MET. That's, I mean, for us, that is kind of our ceiling.” P11 noted,
Minority that went they weren't after African American, but they were minority. They
were different. Then the group that's there just like I was. And they had the same troubles. It was
actually worse. Right there. So I can't say. I couldn't say that it was because of my race because I
did have a fellow, a, African American male that joined.
Recognition of self captures how being part of a group shapes a person’s self-identity and
behaviors. It includes how individuals form their identities through group membership and how
their actions and decisions are influenced by their association with these groups.
Theme Six Response to Research Question Six
This final theme responded to the sixth research question with support systems and
forged identities were based on the role of support systems in shaping military individuals'
identity and self-perception. Influence support encompasses the support structures available to
individuals, such as mentorship and networking. It examines how these support systems
influence resource access, job performance, and satisfaction. Additionally, it highlights the
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importance of recognition and motivation in enhancing individuals' effectiveness and job
satisfaction. P1 relayed “We have the general of my base is African American and it's probably
the 1st time in history that you're gonna have 2 African American generals.” P8 noted “And I
think all of our services need to and they're working on it but I think doing a better job at making
sure that Young officers and young enlisted men. See individuals of color in all leadership
levels.” P2 felt that this was “…due to a fair progression. I met my requirements because it's a
time and service. It's time to get out. Or that with the wall. That you hit and like, you know, how
much more opportunities.” P4 considered, “A lot of people were not recognized. And when I
show I think that recognition is important.” P5 found that “without support from my peers I
would not have recognized my own self worth as a soldier and later as a leader.” Finally, P10
wrapped up by stating
The other thing is, it was sort of uncomfortable for us for most of a lot of us, but you
know we had this organization called National Naval Officers Association which was a
predominantly African American officer thing officer association but What that did is that
allowed us as a group to recognize one that there are a lot of us in the ranks.
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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research study was to develop an
understanding of the lived experience of African American officers around assimilation, racism,
and leadership at the institutional, unit, and individual levels. The problem this study examined
was that US military culture typically requires young African American officers to assimilate
into the culture of the social majority, which consists of white males. This problem lent credence
to the notion that African Americans commonly experience racism within the US, and such
racism produces significant stress and holistic adverse effects, which require African Americans
to develop and deploy coping mechanisms (Jacob et al., 2022). Moreover, such systemic racism
adversely impacts people of color, including African Americans, by structurally producing a
playing field that is not level, even in the absence of any individual persons with explicitly racist
attitudes or beliefs (Matamoros-Fernández & Farkas, 2021). Within the military setting, in
particular, the failure of African Americans to assimilate could not only diminish their
professional standing it could also be met with disciplinary action due to being read as a sign of
insubordination. Such action would significantly reduce the chances of promotion to the officer
level, reinforcing existing racial disparities within the military.
The current study used audio-recorded semi-structured interviews on a Zoom conference
call platform with a sample of eight African American officers serving in the U.S. armed
services and Veterans answering questions aligned to the posed research questions, which
included:
RQ 1. What are the unique challenges faced by African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services regarding career progression, leadership opportunities, and organizational
culture?
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RQ 2. How do African American officers perceive and navigate issues related to
diversity, equity, and inclusion within the military environment?
RQ 3. What role does mentorship, networking, and support systems play in the career
development and advancement of African American officers in the military?
RQ 4. How do perceptions of race, identity, and belonging influence African American
officers' experiences and interactions within their units and the broader military community?
RQ 5. What are the institutional policies, practices, and cultural factors that either
facilitate or hinder the professional growth and leadership potential of African American
officers?
RQ 6. How do African American officers navigate challenges related to bias,
discrimination, and stereotypes while serving in leadership roles or positions of authority?
The data collected from these interviews was transcribed and analyzed using Giorgi’s (2009)
method for phenomenological research, which examines the thematic patterns and searches for
the narrative experiences of participants.
Chapter 5 presents the findings shared in Chapter 4 and aligns them with the research
question they answer. This chapter also compares these results with the existing literature
reviewed and discussed in Chapter 2. The recommendations for practice and future research are
included in this chapter along with a list of the limitations and delimitations.
Discussion of Findings
Once analyzed, the researcher searched the codes for patterns among participants'
responses to the interview questions. The coding patterns formed categories defined and
supported by direct quotations from the sample, which were then developed into themes. This
data was examined and analyzed with the researcher extracting five separate themes:
85
Theme 1: Navigation of social identity
Theme 2: Role and Resource Allocation
Theme 3: Group Belonging
Theme 4: Daily experiences of racism impact career progression
Theme 5: Perceptions and Treatment
Theme 6: Support Systems and Identity
Response to Research Question 1
The first research question asked what the unique challenges faced by African American
officers in the U.S. Armed Services are regarding career progression, leadership opportunities,
and organizational culture. This question was answered with the theme of navigation of social
identity. Daily experiences of racism occur, according to the participants, with the regular
encounters individuals had with both subtle and overt forms of racism. It also includes how these
experiences impact their career growth and progression within the military environment. African
Americans who want to become officers in the US military must navigate their social identities
and learn from others’ identities to develop their sense of belonging. This theme explored how
young African American officers find their place within the military culture. It included the
samples' efforts to integrate personal and racial identities within the expectations and norms of
military life. The theme highlights the internal and external challenges they face in maintaining
their sense of self while striving to fit into a structured and often demanding environment.
The literature reviewed in Chapter 2 supported this theme with discussions regarding how
individuals who consider themselves a minority must navigate their social identity to be accepted
in certain circles (Kirmizielmaoazlu, 2023; Leslie et al., 2020). One of the main findings within
the existing literature was that the melting pot paradigm of American assimilation and racial
86
integration has more recently been rejected in favor of an embrace of racial identity because the
melting pot paradigm itself is racist because of the white-normative nature of American culture
itself (Berray, 2019; Berunmen, 2019).
Researchers noted that African Americans succeeded when they leaned into their racial
identity instead of attempting to ignore or minimize it, with African American college students
doing well when they bond with other African American students and create their own spaces
where they can support each other and thrive instead of attempting to assimilate into a whitecoded culture that always treated them as inferior or, at best, foreign (Brooms et al., 2020) also.
The insight suggests that African Americans in the US armed forces do not need to assimilate to
succeed. However, that implication is very tenuous and requires much further exploration. Other
studies also affirmed the importance of the African American community in African American
identity development (Stanford et al., 2021; Verkuyten, 2021). Some literature also suggests that
leaders who belong to the same social group as followers function more effectively as leaders
(Gul et al., 2022; Steffens et al., 2020). This insight certainly seems true concerning the African
American community since the literature continually affirms that African Americans benefit
significantly from relationships and interactions with African American leaders and role models.
Only a discordant note observing that the concept of a African American role model, while
popular, was poorly understood (Johnson et al., 2020; Walton, 2021).
Response to Research Question 2
The second research question asked how African American officers perceive and
navigate issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion within the military environment. The
sample’s responses formed the second theme of role and resource allocation. Role and resource
allocation as a theme was examined to assess how roles and responsibilities are assigned and
87
negotiated within the military. Individuals also looked at how support and resources were
distributed among others, finding that group dynamics and favoritism often influenced them.
Role and resource allocation are used to advocate for more substantial support systems and
initiatives that promote fairness and equal treatment to enhance these officers' overall well-being
and career satisfaction.
African American officers lead lower-ranking African Americans in the US military by
way of interactions that enable the latter to navigate their identities to develop a sense of
belonging and resilience against systemic racism in the US military. This theme focuses on how
to improve young African American officers' experiences by addressing issues of inequality and
lack of support. It emphasizes the need for fair and unbiased evaluation processes and equitable
distribution of resources and opportunities. The theme advocates for more robust support
systems and initiatives that promote fairness and equal treatment to enhance the overall.
The existing research reviewed in Chapter 2 found that leaders and role models are
essential within the African American community, especially since many African Americans feel
that they cannot look outside of their community to the broader, white-coded society to receive
the support and guidance that they need (McGee et al., 2022; Sendze, 2022; Smith, 2022). The
present study implies that African American officers may fulfill a crucial function in helping
African American enlisted members become socialized into the institution of the US military.
Response to Research Question 3
Theme 3, group belonging, answered research question 3, which stated what role
mentorship, networking, and support systems play in the career development and advancement
of African American officers in the military. Group belonging incites how being part of a group
shapes a person’s self-identity and behaviors. It includes how individuals form their identities
88
through group membership and how their actions and decisions are influenced by their
association with these groups. This also impacts racial and ethnic identity, encompassing how
individuals see themselves as part of their racial or ethnic group within the military. It includes
their sense of pride and connection towards their military unit and how they perceive their
identity concerning these groups. This category encompasses how individuals see themselves as
part of their racial or ethnic group within the military. It includes their sense of pride and
connection towards their military unit and how they perceive their identity concerning these
groups. The sample noted that taking pride in group membership was one way to overcome
controversy and racism.
The literature supported this theme discussed in Chapter 2 on social identity theory,
which suggested that solidarity among the African American in-group would be high because of
this deep and unique historical experience, especially in the face of ongoing systemic racism in
the face of the white-coded structures and institutions of contemporary American society (Hogg
et al., 2004). Thrasher et al. (2020) applied social identity theory to this dynamic and observe
that leaders and followers who understand themselves to belong to the same social group tend to
have greater trust and goodwill toward each other. This finding is congruent with the general
model of LMX, which asserts that perceived similarity between the leader and the follower
exerts an essential effect on the relationship quality and LMX (Dulebohn et al., 2012). If the
perceived similarity is high, the leader may be more inclined to think of the follower as a
protégé, just as the follower may be more inclined to think of the leader as a mentor or role
model. Considering this point through a racial lens, one can easily understand how a African
American follower may be more inclined to trust and respect a African American leader and
thereby facilitate highly productive LMX, just as the leader may be more inclined to see
89
themselves in the follower and thereby wish to take the follower under their wing and guide them
to success. The concept of LMX speaks to this element of personal resonance in relationships
between leaders and followers. It produces substantial effects but is often left out of the focus of
rigorous scholarly research because it is difficult to quantify or measure validly and reliably
rigorously.
Response to Research Question 4
The response to research question 4, how do perceptions of race, identity, and belonging
influence African American officers' experiences and interactions within their units and the
broader military community, was answered by theme 4, which is that daily experiences of racism
impact career progression. This theme addresses the frequent encounters with racism that young
African American officers experience in their daily lives and careers. It focuses on the various
forms of racial bias and discrimination they face and how these challenges impact their
professional development and personal well-being. The theme also emphasizes the officers'
resilience and strategies to navigate and overcome systemic barriers. Additionally, it highlights
the complex interactions of different social identities, such as race, gender, and rank, and how
these overlapping identities create unique challenges and experiences for individuals.
Racism in the US military is systemic and something for African Americans to endure and
develop resilience against if they are to become officers. Such perceptions and treatment are the
result of regular encounters individuals have with both subtle and overt forms of racism. It also
includes how these experiences impact their career growth and progression within the military
environment. Perceptions and Treatment
The existing literature showed how systemic racism is different from more traditional
racism. Systemic racism is driven by social structures and cultural norms, such that entirely
90
decent people who have no racial prejudices against others based on the color of their skin can
nevertheless participate in the perpetuation of systemic racism (BonillaSilva, 2021; Jacob et al.,
2022). Researchers argued that systemic racism operates at a level beyond any given person's
own beliefs, attitudes, or intentions. It is entirely possible, for example, for everyone in
American society to want African Americans to succeed while African Americans nevertheless
are unable to thrive insofar as the social structures themselves are not altered substantially
(Amiot et al., 2020; Feagin, 2013)
The concept of systemic racism dovetails nicely with the notion that American society
and culture are intrinsically coded white, such that whites often have an invisible advantage
concerning assimilation into the society and culture and the pursuit of educational and career
success (Dar, 2018). A key point here was that systemic racism is not the same thing as
traditional racism and that systemic racism can operate even in the complete absence of
conventional racism. Of course, traditional racism, which involves explicitly bigoted and
prejudiced racial views, still exists within the contemporary US. Still, the concept of systemic
racism was meant to call attention to a fundamentally different level of the problem. The idea
pertains not to views and intentions at the micro level but rather to social structures at the macro
level.
Response to Research Question 5
Research question 5, which is about the institutional policies, practices, and cultural
factors that either facilitate or hinder African American officers' professional growth and
leadership potential, was answered by theme 5, perceptions and treatment. These perceptions
consisted of facing group comparisons and biased performance comparisons and involved
evaluating performance and opportunities available to different groups within the military. Such
91
included unequal treatment, where some individuals receive better assignments or opportunities
based on their group affiliation. It also covers the presence of biases and how they affect
evaluations and decisions. This theme was also established through suggestions of racial
stereotyping. Racial stereotypes were connected to societal constructs of race that influence the
way individuals are perceived and treated in the military.
The reviewed scholarship showed that some critics believed that the concept of systemic
racism is itself racist because it justifies differential treatment of people based on the color of
their skin. Such a practice would seem to fit the traditional concept of racism (Warmington,
2020). However, critical race theory argues that the playing field is not level and that the
dominant social structures already favor whites, which means that the only way to achieve actual
fairness would be to provide a differential advantage to people of color (Delgado & Stefancic,
2023). These two views would seem irreconcilable, which is why critical race theory has become
such a hot-button political issue, with some states in the US seeking to ban the paradigm from
schools (Ray & Gibbons, 2021). Political conflict in this regard is likely inevitable insofar as the
implementation of policies based on an awareness of systemic racism would necessarily
undermine the privileges to which many whites have become accustomed to considering their
natural right. In the meanwhile, insofar as Americans do not believe that systemic racism is real,
they would also perceive unfairness in providing differential treatment to people of color. The
conflict between these two points of view is thus not arbitrary or inflated but instead emerges as
a fundamental matter of logic.
Response to Research Question 6
The final research question asked how African American officers navigate challenges
related to bias, discrimination, and stereotypes while serving in leadership roles or positions of
92
authority. The response to this question was by the theme of support systems and identity and
included mentorship, networking, recognition, motivation, and the impact of intergroup
relationships.
The support structures available to individuals, such as mentorship and networking, were
noted as necessary to the sample, suggesting that support systems' influence was based on the
ability to access resources. Additionally, support systems provided confidence to increase overall
job performance and satisfaction. Additionally, it highlights the importance of recognition and
motivation in enhancing individuals' effectiveness and job satisfaction. The unique aspects of
leading other African Americans in the military context. It underscores the importance of
building strong, trust-based relationships and the challenges of fostering effective
communication and support. The theme also highlights the role of mentorship and the impact of
leadership on subordinates navigating systemic racism in the US military and developing a sense
of belonging therein despite systemic racism.
Researchers found that racial and familial pride were essential drivers for success, as they
suggested how family members and others within the community provide support and derive
personal pride from the success of community members (Moore et al., 2022; Mwangi et al.,
2020). If this dynamic applies to African Americans within the US armed forces, then one could
expect African American officers to work toward supporting and encouraging African American
enlisted members and taking personal racial pride in doing so. Researchers also discussed how
African Americans help African Americans by considering the crucial role that historically
African American colleges and universities have played in advancing the African American
community within the US (Franklin et al., 2023; Moore et al., 2022). African American leaders
may also have unique credibility within their communities, such that other African Americans
93
listen to and heed the advice of African American leaders. In contrast, they may ignore the same
advice if a white leader expressed it instead (This differential response, while unfortunate, is the
natural result of the mistreatment of the African American community by whites throughout
American history, which has eroded trust between the relevant social groups. In this context,
having a African American leader in place could have the effect of engaging members of the
African American community in ways that a white leader could not achieve, whether the setting
in question is the university, the military, or any other institution of contemporary American
society (Franklin et al., 2023; Johnson et al., 2022).
Recommendations for Practice
Practice recommendations include promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion for the US
armed forces through specific programs implemented through the Department of Defense. Such
programs should provide a particular nexus between assimilation and career advancement, which
could reinforce existing frameworks that analyze systemic racism by giving evidence in favor of
one specific way that such racism may operate. The impact could establish a more robust and
superior military force.
Recommendation 1: Department of Defense Assimilation Programs
Creating a specialized program to support the development and success of young African
American officers in the U.S. Armed Services is essential for fostering diversity, inclusion, and
equal opportunities. Here's a recommended checklist, model, curriculum, and program structure:
Creating a specialized program to support the development and success of young African
American officers in the U.S. Armed Services is essential for fostering diversity, inclusion, and
equal opportunities. Here's a recommended checklist, model, curriculum, and program structure:
Checklist
● Research and Analysis
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● Consultation and Collaboration
● Program Design
● Mentorship and Support
● Professional Development
● Networking and Community Building
● Promoting Inclusivity
● Program Model
Leadership Development
● Educational Support
● Mentorship
● Professional Development
● Community Engagement
Curriculum
● Understanding Military Culture
● Leadership and Decision-Making
● Cultural Competency
● Resilience and Mental Health
● Career Advancement Strategies
Program Structure
● Orientation Phase
● Training and Development Phase
● Community Engagement Phase
● Continuous Support
This comprehensive program provides structured support, mentorship, and educational
opportunities for young African American officers, aiming to empower them with the skills and
confidence needed for successful military careers and leadership roles.
Recommendation 2: Officer Leadership and Diversity Training
The present study's findings could assist officers and other leaders within the armed
forces in pursuing this mission by identifying potential barriers to diversity among enlisted
members and officers. Such highlighted factors of education and training on leadership and
diversity could lead to greater success among African Americans in the US armed forces,
encouraging policy changes that could help cultivate greater diversity. It is recommended that
95
officers within the US armed forces reconsider how they enforce discipline toward African
American enlisted members, mainly if current standards of enforcement would reduce the
likelihood of the promotion of African Americans to officer rank and thereby undermine
diversity and reproduce current racial disparities within the US armed forces. Overall, then,
insights into the lived experience of African American officers can illuminate the challenges
experienced by African Americans in the US armed forces, the barriers they face in achieving
higher levels of success, and the potential policy changes that could help African Americans
overcome those barriers. Such knowledge would be precious to military officers and other
leaders. Clearly state each recommendation for practice. Each recommendation should be
aligned with your findings. Make explicit connections to your findings, research supporting your
recommendation and conceptual framework.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should concentrate on expanding this study to ensure standard results
(transferability) and establish these results as feasible with other populations. For example,
studies could focus on other nationalities serving in the military, such as Hispanic or Latino
individuals. Additionally, within these populations, comparisons between genders could be
observed—a comparison of racial bias in military personnel and its impact on assimilation and
career progression. Research could further focus on how these comparisons are attributed to
marginalization.
Other research could expand the sample and examine a larger group of military
personnel, comparing the aspects of racism and the challenges of racial bias in officers between
different branches of the U.S. military services. Using a mixed method approach could also
impact the findings by, for example, reviewing the data on minorities in leadership positions,
96
how many years it took for these minorities to reach leadership positions, and the barriers that
were overcome. This data could be compared to white counterparts and used to determine where
diversity begins and ends in the military.
Conclusion
The results of this research showed that within the U.S. Armed Services, African
Americans continue to face challenges in overcoming the ability for career progression and
leadership opportunities. The sample of African American military service personnel described
how they needed to navigate their social identity to overcome barriers to moving into leadership
positions. The sample related how, within their service arena, they faced such role and research
allocation that did not help navigate issues associated with marginalization and bias. The
findings showed that group belonging was a prominent and pervasive support system for daily
career development and advancement. The perceptions of race, identity, and belonging were
found based on the daily experiences that racism impacted their career progression continuously.
The results exhibited how the perceptions and treatment of African American officers
hindered their professional growth. Numerous barriers and challenges were required to
overcome. The challenges navigated by the sample were understood to be overwhelmed by
support systems and performance measures that assisted in overcoming bias, discrimination, and
stereotypes while serving in leadership roles and positions of authority.
The results of this study provide a means to review this significant topic while examining
the ongoing concerns within the US regarding race relations and the need for social justice and
fair treatment of African Americans by and within American institutions such as the US military
forces. The global events encompassing hate crimes from racial prejudices led many Americans
to question the adequacy of current progress on racial issues, with doubts emerging about the
97
value of colorblind thinking on race as well as the value of assimilation itself insofar as the
normative culture itself is not race-neutral but instead coded white.
The findings from this research prompt a resurrected question of how we end racism,
discrimination, and bias due to color. Within the US military as a leading institution of American
society, the racial dynamics prevalent in all areas of society could also be expected to be present
within the armed forces. In the interests of both social justice and equity as well as practical
solidarity and readiness within the US armed forces, it is essential to understand potential ways
that African American officers experience racial dynamics in assimilating to the US military
culture and navigating their careers within that institution. The success of the U.S. military relies
on strong, inclusive leadership. However, African American officers continue to face systemic
barriers—such as bias in promotions, subtle discrimination, and a lack of access to mentorship—
that hinder their career advancement and limit their leadership potential. My research explores
how these officers navigate their roles within a predominantly white institution, uncovering the
hidden challenges they face and the strategies they use to succeed.
This study was important because it addressed a critical gap in our understanding of
diversity and leadership within one of the nation’s most structured and influential organizations.
By understanding the unique obstacles faced by African American officers, more equitable
leadership practices that strengthen the military’s operational readiness and foster a more
inclusive environment could be applied in the military settings. Moving forward, the research
proposes targeted solutions, including the implementation of diversity-focused leadership
training, formal mentorship programs, and policy reforms that address systemic biases. These
efforts will not only benefit African American officers but also contribute to a stronger, more
effective, and diverse military leadership.
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Respondent type: African American officers serving in the U.S. armed services and Veterans
Introduction to the Interview
Hello, thank you for participating in this interview. My name is Derek Thomas, a Retired
Marine/Federal Government Worker. The purpose of this study is to gather information and
engage in a conversation with you to better understand your perspective and provide relevant
insights on African Americans Officers experience in the US Armed Services. Before we begin, I
would like to explain that this interview will be recorded for research purposes. To ensure
accuracy and thoroughness, I request your permission to record this interview by Zoom. This
will allow me to capture all the details and nuances of our conversation, ensuring that your
valuable insights are accurately documented. Please note that the recording will be used solely
for the purpose of analysis and will be treated with strict confidentiality and anonymity.
Your participation in this interview is purely voluntary and you have the right to
withdraw at any time without any negative consequences. By continuing with this interview, you
provide your informed consent for the recording and usage of the information you provide. Rest
assured that your privacy and anonymity will be respected, and any personal information shared
will be kept strictly confidential. If you have any questions or concerns about privacy, or
confidentiality please contact me at any time.
Additionally, if you have any questions about the interview process or the study itself,
please feel free to ask. Once again, I want to express my sincere gratitude for your participation.
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Conclusion to the Interview:
Thank you for participating in this interview and sharing your valuable insights. Your
input has provided valuable information that will contribute to our research and understanding of
African Americans Officers in the US Armed Services. Your willingness to engage with
inspiration is appreciated. If you have any additional thoughts or any additional information or if
there are any questions, please contact me to share. Your feedback is important. Once again
thank you for your time and valuable feedback and contribution to this study.
Research Questions
RQ 1. What were the lived experiences of young African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services when assimilating in the military culture “at the beginning of their military
careers?”
RQ 2. What are the lived experiences of young African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services when facing systemic racism?
RQ 3. What are the lived experiences of young African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services leading other African Americans?
RQ 4. How can the lived experiences of young African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services be improved?
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Interview Protocol
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Appendix B: Recruitment Materials
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Appendix C: University of Southern California Information Sheet
My name is Derek Thomas, and I am a student at the University of Southern California.
I am conducting a research study on African American Officers who served and is
currently serving in the Armed Services. The name of this research study is African American
Officer’s experiences as leaders and followers navigating the military culture of the United
States Armed Services. “I am seeking your participation in this study.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns
at any point before or during the study.
You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the following criteria:
1. African American or Black Ethnicity: Participants must self-identify as African American
or Black.
2. Active Duty or Veteran Status: Participants must be currently serving or have served as
officers in one of the branches of the United States Armed Services (e.g., Army, Navy,
Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard).
3. Rank and Experience: Participants must hold a specific rank or have a minimum number
of years of experience as officers in the military (e.g., commissioned officer ranks such as
Second Lieutenant, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, General).
4. Willingness to Participate: Participants must voluntarily agree to participate in the study
and provide informed consent.
5. Diversity of Experiences: The study may seek to include participants with diverse
backgrounds, career paths, and experiences within the military to capture a range of
perspectives.
6. You are over 18 years old.
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If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
1. Interviews will be conducted with each participant, which will take about 30 to 45
minutes.
2. Where will you meet with participants for each listed activity? Military Instillations,
Zoom, Teams, Linkedin.
3. How many times will you meet with each participant for each activity listed? Once
I will publish the results in my Dissertation. Participants will not be identified in the results. I
will take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your personal information. All data
will be de-identified prior to any publication or presentations. I may share your data, deidentified with other researchers in the future.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me: derektho@USC.EDU or 516-743-
7020. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
hrpp@usc.edu.
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Appendix D: Social Behavioral Research Protocol
General Information
Study Title: African American Officer’s experiences as leaders and followers navigating the
military culture of the United States Armed Services
PI Name: Derek Thomas
1. What is the general purpose of your study? What do you hope to learn?
The purpose of the study is to explore the experiences of African American officers as
leaders and followers within the military culture of the United States Armed Services.
Specifically, the study aims to understand the challenges, opportunities, and dynamics faced by
African American officers in navigating their roles, career progression, identity integration, and
contributions to organizational effectiveness. The study seeks to uncover insights into leadership
development, diversity and inclusion initiatives, mentorship networks, and strategies for
promoting equity and excellence within the military. By examining these aspects, the study
hopes to learn about the factors that shape the experiences of African American officers, their
resilience in overcoming obstacles, and their impact on fostering a more inclusive and effective
military environment.
2. List the Research Questions.
The following research questions will guide the study:
RQ 1. What are the unique challenges faced by African American officers in the U.S.
Armed Services regarding career progression, leadership opportunities, and organizational
culture?
RQ 2. How do African American officers perceive and navigate issues related to
diversity, equity, and inclusion within the military environment?
RQ 3. What role does mentorship, networking, and support systems play in the career
development and advancement of African American officers in the military?
RQ 4. How do perceptions of race, identity, and belonging influence African American
officers' experiences and interactions within their units and the broader military community?
RQ 5. What are the institutional policies, practices, and cultural factors that either
facilitate or hinder the professional growth and leadership potential of African American
officers?
RQ 6. How do African American officers navigate challenges related to bias,
discrimination, and stereotypes while serving in leadership roles or positions of authority?
3. Describe the inclusion and exclusion criteria for enrollment.
Inclusion Criteria:
● African American or Black Ethnicity: Participants must self-identify as African American
or Black.
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● Active Duty or Veteran Status: Participants must be currently serving or have served as
officers in one of the branches of the United States Armed Services (e.g., Army, Navy,
Air Force, Marine Corps, Coast Guard).
● Rank and Experience: Participants must hold a specific rank or have a minimum number
of years of experience as officers in the military (e.g., commissioned officer ranks such as
Second Lieutenant, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, General).
● Willingness to Participate: Participants must voluntarily agree to participate in the study
and provide informed consent.
● Diversity of Experiences: The study may seek to include participants with diverse
backgrounds, career paths, and experiences within the military to capture a range of
perspectives.
Exclusion Criteria:
● Non-African American Ethnicity: Individuals who do not self-identify as African
American or Black are excluded from participation.
● Non-Officer Status: Individuals who do not hold officer ranks or positions within the
military are excluded.
● Non-Military Personnel: Individuals who are not affiliated with the United States Armed
Services as officers (e.g., civilians, enlisted personnel) are excluded.
● Inability to Provide Informed Consent: Individuals who are unable to provide informed
consent due to cognitive impairments, legal incapacity, or other factors are excluded.
● Conflict of Interest: Individuals who have a conflict of interest or bias that could
influence the study's results or integrity may be excluded.
4. Provide justification for the population you are including.
Underrepresented Perspectives: African American officers represent a demographic
group that has historically been underrepresented in leadership roles within the military.
Including this population allows for a more comprehensive understanding of diverse
experiences, perspectives, and challenges within the military culture.
Diversity and Inclusion: Including African American officers aligns with principles of
diversity and inclusion, promoting a more representative sample that reflects the broader
demographics of the military. This inclusion fosters equitable research practices and
contributes to promoting diversity initiatives within the military.
Unique Experiences and Insights: African American officers may bring unique
experiences, insights, and perspectives to the study due to their diverse backgrounds, cultural
identities, and experiences navigating challenges related to race, leadership, and career
progression within the military.
Impact on Organizational Effectiveness: Understanding the experiences of African
American officers is critical for enhancing organizational effectiveness, promoting leadership
development, and implementing strategies to foster a more inclusive and equitable military
environment.
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Ethical Considerations: Ensuring equitable representation of diverse populations, including
African American officers, is consistent with ethical considerations in research, promoting
fairness, respect for diversity, and the protection of participants' rights.
5. Please describe how equity, diversity, and inclusion have been considered
Equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) have been central considerations throughout the design
and implementation of the study on African American officers' experiences in the United States
Armed Services. The study's approach to equity involves ensuring fair and impartial treatment of
participants, regardless of their background, rank, or experiences. This includes creating an
inclusive research environment where all participants have equal opportunities to share their
perspectives, experiences, and insights without facing discrimination or bias.
Diversity is a core element of the study, as it seeks to capture the diverse range of
experiences, backgrounds, and perspectives among African American officers in the military. By
including participants from different branches, ranks, and career paths, the study aims to
represent the broader diversity within the African American officer population and promote a
more comprehensive understanding of their contributions, challenges, and opportunities within
the military culture.
Inclusion is prioritized throughout the research process, starting from the recruitment of
participants to data collection, analysis, and dissemination of findings. Efforts are made to create
a welcoming and respectful environment where participants feel valued, heard, and respected.
This includes ensuring clear communication, obtaining informed consent, protecting participants'
confidentiality and privacy, and incorporating feedback from participants to enhance the study's
relevance and impact. Overall, the study's approach to equity, diversity, and inclusion reflects a
commitment to promoting fairness, representation, and social justice within the context of
military leadership and governance.
6. List all sites or locations where you will recruit participants
Military Bases: Visit military bases across different branches (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine
Corps, Coast Guard) to recruit active-duty African American officers.
Veteran Affairs Centers: Collaborate with Veteran Affairs centers or hospitals to reach out to
African American officers who are veterans.
Military Professional Organizations: Partner with military professional organizations focused on
African American officers, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) Military and Veterans Affairs Department.
Military Education Institutions: Connect with military academies, colleges, or universities that
cater to African American officers pursuing higher education or professional development.
Military Conferences and Events: Attend or sponsor military conferences, symposiums, or
networking events where African American officers are likely to participate.
120
Online Military Communities: Utilize online platforms and forums specifically designed for
African American officers in the military, such as social media groups, discussion forums, or
professional networking sites.
Military Support Groups: Engage with military support groups or organizations that provide
services and resources to African American officers and their families.
Military Leadership Programs: Collaborate with leadership development programs or initiatives
targeted at African American officers within the military.
7. Are you specifically seeking any participants physically present in a country outside
of the United States?
☒ No
☐ Yes If yes, please answer the additional questions regarding International Research.
8. What format(s) will you use to advertise (find) potential participants
Personal emails, public email, flyer, letter, phone call, social media post (e.g., Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, Linkedin).
9. Who will distribute the recruitment material, and how will it be distributed.
I will personally distribute the recruitment material via social media and emails.
10. Will you be working with a moderator, etc.? No
Role of the Researcher
11. Will the primary investigator or research staff know any research participants, or
have a past or present relationship with participants (e.g., supervisors, principals,
any kind of authority or influence over the participants)?
Yes: If yes, please explain the relationship.
I have served 30 years in the Marine Corps and have served with many service members in all
branches of service. This has allowed me to establish relationships with officers professionally
and personally.
12. Will the primary investigator or research staff have a relationship with the data
collection site (e.g., Are you an employee, consultant)? Please explain.
No
121
13. Provide the IRB with your relevant experience and background and/or that of
research staff as it pertains to supporting and understanding the participants in the
study.
I have served 30 years in the Marine Corps and have served with many service members in all
branches of service. As a Sergeant Major in the Marine Corps, this allowed an opportunity to
lead, train and service with personnel of all ranks. This included the opportunity to advise
Commanding Officers and Commanding Generals.
Screening of the Participants
14. Will you be screening participants?
☒ No: Please skip to Research Activities.
☐ Yes: Please continue to #15.
15. Will you be screening participants and keeping the screening data?
☒ No: Please skip to Research Activities.
☐ Yes: Please confirm that you will consent all participants prior to keeping data.
☐I confirm that I will consent all participants (or provide an information sheet) prior to
Research Activities
16. List all activities
Interviews will be conducted with each participant, which will take about 30 to 45 minutes.
17. Where will you meet with participants for each listed activity?
Military Instillations, Zoom, Teams, Linkedin.
18. How many times will you meet with each participant for each activity listed?
Once
19. Are you using survey instruments, interview/ interview guides, to collect data.
122
☐ Yes: Please upload all information to iStar (surveys are uploaded to iStar section 21.2 and
Interview questions are uploaded iStar section 19.1). Uploaded
20. Are you doing research uncovering, or discovering information related to
participant suicidality?
No
Secondary/Archival/Existing Data
21. Will you be using any existing data sets?
No: You are done with this section.
22. I confirm that all data will be protected using best practices and securities with data
storage including encrypting files, robust passwords, and following all university
practices and policy for storage of data. I also understand that the IRB may audit
this study, including how the data will be stored.
X I confirm that this study may be audited, and I will protect the data using most current
methods.
Collaboration
23. Collaborating Investigator Name:
None
123
Appendix E: A Priori Coding
Research question Area of conceptual
framework
(priori code)
Code
(thematic codes)
Participants
RQ 1. What are the unique
challenges faced by
African American officers
in the U.S. Armed
Services regarding career
progression, leadership
opportunities, and
organizational culture?
RQ 2. How do African
American officers
perceive and navigate
issues related to diversity,
equity, and inclusion
within the military
environment?
RQ 3. What role does
mentorship, networking,
and support systems play
in the career development
and advancement of
African American officers
in the military?
RQ 4. How do perceptions
of race, identity, and
belonging influence
African American officers'
Navigation of social
identity
Experiences of
racism
Group dynamics
Use of Roles and
Resource Allocation
Daily Experiences of Racism
Social dynamics
Group Influence on SelfConcept
Identity Formation
8/8
6/6
2/2
2/2
Leader-member
relationships
Quality of
interactions
Group Belonging
Pride in group
membership
Intersectionality and
Social Dynamics
Leader-member communications
Leadership connections
Interactions of different roles
(leader-member)
Supportive resources
5/5
6/6
4/4
6/6
Social Construction of Race
Racial Identity
Racial Stereotyping
Complex Social Dynamics
Varied treatment based on race
6/6
6/6
6/5
4/4
3/3
Experiences of
Racism Impacts
Career Progression
124
Research question Area of conceptual
framework
(priori code)
Code
(thematic codes)
Participants
experiences and
interactions within their
units and the broader
military community?
RQ 5. What are the
institutional policies,
practices, and cultural
factors that either facilitate
or hinder the professional
growth and leadership
potential of African
American officers?
RQ 6. How do African
American officers
navigate challenges
related to bias,
discrimination, and
stereotypes while serving
in leadership roles or
positions of authority?
Perceptions and
treatment
Impact on career
progression
Perceptions and
Treatment
Intersectionality and
social dynamics
Individual
comparison bias
Support Systems and
Forging Identity
Influence support
Recognition of self
Multiple identity factors
Preferential treatment of others
Ignored for promotion
Not welcome in the “leader”
group
6/6
6/6
4/4
5/5
Behavior impacted by group
treatment
Racial bias in performance
evaluations
Needed supportive group
dynamics
Mentoring practices
Role of mentorship
Support as a leader
Self-worth impact
6/6
5/5
5/5
5/5
5/5
5/5
5/5
125
Research question Area of conceptual
framework
(priori code)
Code
(thematic codes)
Participants
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The lived experiences of African American officers in the U.S. Armed Forces were explored in this study. Focus was placed on the challenges faced by African American officers regarding assimilation, racism, and leadership at the institutional, unit, and individual levels in the U.S. Armed Forces. Systemic racism was explored within military culture, particularly the pressure to assimilate into a predominantly white norm, which impacts these officers' professional development and career progression. A qualitative, phenomenological approach was adopted, with semi-structured interviews applied to collect data from eight African American officers and Veterans to gain in-depth insights into their experiences. The analysis revealed six key themes: navigation of social identity, role and resource allocation, group belonging, daily experiences of racism impacting career progression, perceptions and treatment, and the importance of support systems and identity. The findings highlight the complex dynamics of race, identity, and belonging within the military environment, emphasizing the need for equitable treatment and robust support systems to foster diversity and inclusion. The study contributes to critical race theory by providing empirical evidence of how systemic racism operates within the military context, affecting the career trajectories of African American officers. The practice recommendations include developing targeted programs by the Department of Defense to support the success of young African American officers and implementing diversity training to mitigate the effects of systemic racism.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Thomas, Derek
(author)
Core Title
African American officer's experiences as leaders navigating the United States Armed Service
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
09/24/2024
Defense Date
09/07/2024
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
African American officers,assimilation,critical race theory,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,phenomenological research.,systemic racism,U.S. Armed Forces
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Riggio, Marsha Boveja (
committee chair
), Spann, Rufus (
committee member
), Trahan, Don Jr. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
derektho@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC11399B6BY
Unique identifier
UC11399B6BY
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Thomas, Derek
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Tags
African American officers
assimilation
critical race theory
phenomenological research.
systemic racism
U.S. Armed Forces