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Fostering postsecondary education: descriptive analysis of programs at postsecondary institutions for foster care alumni in southern California
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Content
Fostering Postsecondary Success: Descriptive Analysis of Programs at Postsecondary
Institutions for Foster Care Alumni in Southern California
La Shawn Allen
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
December 2024
© Copyright by La Shawn Allen 2024
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for La Shawn Allen certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Rudy Roman
Sonja Johnson
Ruth Chung, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
iv
Abstract
This qualitative study used resilience and social theory as the framework to examine the
programs, resources, and services offered to foster care alumni (FCA) at nine Southern
California colleges/universities to mitigate the barriers to access, retention, persistence, and
completion of degree/certificate programs. The study used Flick’s four models of selecting
documents as they relate to FCA resources and services. Despite national and state efforts, FCA
remain an underserved population in postsecondary education, with significantly lower
enrollment and graduation rates compared to their peers. Data were collected through document
analysis of various forms accessed via the internet from these higher education institutions and
other organizations supporting FCA. The study found that the institutions offer resources and
supports in the form of independent living programs that include basic needs and personal
development and campus-based support programs that include academic and professional
development. Data suggests that these programs are essential to postsecondary education success
for FCA. Recommendations for practice include supporting foster families directly to advocate
for their students, increasing pre-access to communication points to FCA, and
colleges/universities to be more flexible in their program pathways and offerings as they relate to
FCA.
Keywords: foster youth, foster care alumni, postsecondary education, student success
v
Dedication
To my ancestors, whose strength, struggle, resilience, hope, and love I embody: … Dreams
deferred, … dream accomplished.
To my grandmother (Gladys Jeanette Franklin, AKA “Speedy”), I miss you daily. I wish you
could have been here with me as I finished this accomplishment, but you laid the foundation and
showed me the power of faith. I know your wings carried me to the finish line, and you are
smiling down from heaven, cheering me on … and dancing in celebration.
To my father (Anthony Jerome Allen), you were taken from this earth too soon without seeing
me grow up, but you gifted me the DNA that got me here. I hope I make you proud.
To my mother (Ruth Annette Crowell Bell), proof that a 13-year-old girl does not have to
become the status quo but can change it. Thank you for creating a counternarrative, personifying
BLACK GIRL MAGIC, being my best friend and role model, and always having my back. My
cheerleader, this one is for you. Your pom poms got us the championship.
To my younger sisters (Kerri, Camille, and Ruth). You are beautiful, strong, smart, Black women
(#BlackUnicorns). As an older sister, I hope I have paved the way for you to accomplish all your
dreams. Here is to shattering the glass ceiling and creating your own tables. The world is not
ready for your greatness.
vi
To my nieces (Genesis and Amor). Here is to all the role models you will and have seen in our
family. Your stories will be page-turners. Thank you for reminding me of the beauty and
innocence of this world. More importantly, providing happy and fun distractions when writing
became a chore. Here is to watching you grow and the world you will inherit and change.
To future and current foster care alumni pursuing their postsecondary goals, you can do it and
there are a number of us committed to spotlighting and removing barriers in support of you
achieving your goals.
vii
Acknowledgments
I cannot begin to acknowledge anyone along this journey without first giving honor to my
Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ! Without him, none of this would be possible. He has cultivated
and refined my village to bring me to and through this milestone. At times along this journey, I
have wished my trajectory would have been different, but I know the plans you have for me.
Jeremiah 29:11 “declares the LORD, plans to prosper you and not to harm you, plans to give you
hope and a future.” I know that this test is my testimony, and I thank you for your guidance,
love, tests, trials, and tribulations to get me here, for it is at this moment I can wholeheartedly
say, “But God.” Here is to where this degree will take me from here, the lessons I will learn
along the way, and the angels you send to help me along the journey from here.
To the youth who have or will experience foster care, you are the reason, I have the title,
Dr., and the reason I will continue to advocate for your success and removing all barriers to your
being able to fully engage in this world anyway you see fit; accessing and utilizing your gifts the
world at times forgets you have. Thank you and here is to a new narrative!
My family past and present: Gladys (deceased), my grandmother; Anthony (deceased),
my father; Ruth, my mother; my sisters Kerri, Camille, and “Baby” Ruth. My nieces, Genesis
and Amor. My aunt and uncles, and cousins who have loved me through all my accomplishments
in life. When I felt like I was not going to make it, giving me words of encouragement, places to
write, accountability for the process, and let me know that I was never alone on this path, I could
not have made it without you. To all of my family who supported me on my health journey and
making sure that I am still here to fight another day. Here is to a family that consistently defies
the odds and the negative stereotypes and statistics the world tries to assign us, that we fight and
prove wrong ALL the time. I LOVE YOU! You all are the best part of me!
viii
My Animo Inglewood Eagle Family: Who cheered me on during a pandemic to celebrate
this milestone. Who gave me the daily inspiration to challenge the status quo for all subgroups
and showed me that it can be. But, most importantly, to Dr. Sue Jean Hong, who inspired me to
start the program and continuously encouraged me along the way until I finished. Words cannot
express how much you have changed my life and given me a new lens on education. Thank you!
My Black Unicorns: My best friend for life, La Donna Weatherly, my “ride or die” since
college, who has never not been there for me. No matter the time or distance, when I need you,
you are there in any capacity, and this one was no different. Dr. Sonja Johnson, EdD, we started
this journey together, both not knowing where it would take us, but it has brought us closer
together. Even though we did not finish together, I am blessed that God placed you in my village
to support me in getting through. Your before and after work phone calls were the moments I
needed to release my frustration on the job, tears, laugh at our shenanigans, and keep me feeling
human and validated when everything felt like it was falling apart. You have been my
accountability partner and cheerleader. God ordered our steps because he knew I would need you
at this moment to complete the journey. Thank you for being my friend and defense committee
member. Here is to us still having the heart for the work. Michelle Green, my planner sister/twin,
who would have known the “enablers” we would become over stickers, washi tape, journals,
planners, pens, and all things that make writing and creativity fun. You always helped me to stay
grounded and focused on my purpose, health challenges, job transitions, late night and early
morning planning sessions, hotel rooms, planner conferences, sticker sales, and WaWa. We have
bonded over so many events, even this one. Thank you for your words of encouragement and
constant motivation. Allen’s Angels (Alicia Johnson, Jessica Smith, and Sasha Crossman),
whom I met through Animo Inglewood, but whom I have had to lean into during times of
ix
discomfort, but always have my back. You are truly my girls. Smith, even though you moved
back to the Bay, our connection has stayed strong, and Johnson, even though you have
transitioned to a new job, I am always blessed and excited that you hold me accountable to being
a friend by making sure that we are always planning some crazy simple trip, that ends up being a
crazy adventure, helping me stay balanced in work and life. Crossman, my yoga and sound bath,
Zen sister, who, no matter what has always helped me stay grounded and on this last leg of my
journey accountable to putting myself first and above others for once, getting this done. All of
you beautiful Black women are like none other. I am abundantly blessed to have you all in my
village. You true Black Unicorns and GOATs (Greatest of All Time)
My USC family: The “original” Thursday Cohort. Dr. Sonja Johnson (see your shout out
above). Dr. Danielle Wilson-Lendor, who had my back for all things USC since Day 1, from
conversations to supporting assignments, stressed phones, library hours, and the multitude of
side-eye laughs, not to mention my original defense committee member, thank you for truly
being a “my neighbor” and friend at USC. Dr. Melissa Naudin kept me laughing and on top of
assignments. Dr. Cory Reano, girl, you proved to me that a woman can do it ALL: work at a
university. Thank you for keeping me on top of all of my assignments, getting married, having a
baby, OH!, and completing a doctorate. Thank you for being my inspiration and always having a
smile, no matter what. Dr. Connor Ayers, my “triplet” friend, supported my need for energy by
providing me with caffeinated gum, allowing me into your family through photos and pandemic
celebrations (sharing your grandmother’s birthday driveby procession), and the family gifts I still
hold dear (#Crochet Love). Thank you all for your support, encouragement, and love. I am
grateful for meeting you all and hope we find each other on the same path in the future.
x
The dissertation committee and completion supporters: I would like to express my
deepest gratitude to the individuals who made the completion of this dissertation possible.
Dr. Ruth Chung, as my committee chair, your leadership and encouragement pushed me
to reach my fullest potential. Your dedication to my success has been instrumental, and I am
forever grateful. Thank you for supporting me in every way possible to cross this finish line. You
are truly a mentor and role model. Dr. Sonja Johnson, thank you for your unwavering support
and insightful feedback, motivation and accountability throughout this journey. Your support and
guidance have been invaluable. Dr. Rudy Roman, thank you for your thoughtful contributions
and for joining my committee to support my completion of this momentous event. Your
demeanor, energy, and passion is what is needed in the work of supporting others. A special
thanks to Jordan Silva, my advisor, whose wisdom and patience guided me through the many
complexities of this process, supporting me in the technical aspect of this journey, submitting
forms and documentation, and meeting deadlines, always with an encouraging word and letting
me know no that matter where I was in the process, I could get it done. (#BestAdvisorEver). I
would also like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to Guadalupe Montano, my editor, for your
meticulous attention to detail and commitment to ensuring the clarity and quality of my work. To
all of you, your encouragement, expertise, and belief in my abilities have been essential to the
completion of this dissertation. I am sincerely thankful.
Finally, to all of you who are now part of my family and my village, you made this
possible. In addition to those who prayed for me, gave me an encouraging word, or supported me
in any way, shape, or fashion on this journey, I want to sincerely thank you! (#ItTakesAVillage)
I am blessed to have you as part of mine.
xi
Here is to the use of this degree to push and change the world for the ones who are going
to inherit it, allowing me to be the vehicle of change, support, and advocacy, centering your
assets, for all the great things you will bring.
xii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Figures................................................................................................................................xv
Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................4
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................5
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................9
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................13
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................14
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................15
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................18
Foster Youth Educational Experiences and Impact...........................................................18
Foster Youth Secondary and Postsecondary Educational Experiences.............................20
Barriers and Support to Postsecondary Education.............................................................22
Models of Postsecondary Support for Foster Care Alumni...............................................36
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................39
Chapter Three: Methods ................................................................................................................42
Sampling Criteria...............................................................................................................43
Instruments and Procedures...............................................................................................45
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................54
Chapter Four: Results of Findings.................................................................................................56
Findings for Research Question 1......................................................................................56
xiii
Findings for Research Question 2......................................................................................61
Overall Research Findings.................................................................................................74
Other Findings ...................................................................................................................81
Summary............................................................................................................................81
Chapter Five: Discussion ...............................................................................................................83
Independent Living Programs............................................................................................84
Campus-Based Support Programs ...................................................................................100
Limitations and Considerations .......................................................................................107
Implications for Practice ..................................................................................................109
Recommendations............................................................................................................110
Future Research ...............................................................................................................112
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................114
References....................................................................................................................................116
xiv
List of Tables
Table 1: Southern California Postsecondary Educational Institutions Included in This Study 45
Table 2: General Search Engines 47
Table 3: University/Program Search Engines 48
Table 4: Selected Southern California Community Colleges With Programs and Resources
to Support Foster Care Alumni, General Demographics 57
Table 5: Selected Southern California State Universities With Programs and Resources to
Support Foster Care Alumni, General Demographics 59
Table 6: Selected Southern Universities of California With Programs and Resources to
Support Foster Care Alumni, General Demographics 60
Table 7: Range and Characteristics of Sampled Southern California Community College
Campus-Based Programs to Support FCA 65
Table 8: Range and Characteristics of Sampled Southern California State University
Campus-Based Programs to Support FCA 68
Table 9: Range and Characteristics of Sampled Southern University of California CampusBased Programs to Support FCA 71
Table 10: Rates of Basic Needs Insecurities Among California Community College Survey
Respondents by Student Life Experiences in 2023 92
xv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 28
Figure 2: Flick’s Four Factors for Selecting Documents 46
Figure 3: Map of California State University Campuses 53
Figure 4: Map of University of California Campuses 54
Figure 5: Characteristics of Programs Located at All Sampled Southern California
Postsecondary Institutions to Support FCA: Guardian Scholars/Next Up, Foster Youth
Resilience in Education 63
Figure 6: Percentage and Types of Postsecondary Educational Institutions Students in
California Attend 75
Figure 7: Percentage of Undergraduate Students Experiencing Homelessness by
Demographics 89
Figure 8: Percentage of Undergraduate Students Experiencing Food Insecurity by
Demographics 90
Figure 9: Basic Needs Insecurities Among Foster Youth at California Community Colleges 94
Figure 10: Basic Needs Insecurities Among Non-foster Youth at California Community
Colleges 95
1
Chapter One: Introduction
Foster youth face many challenges and traumatic experiences in their pursuit of a suitable
and stable lifestyle. Children who enter into the foster care system, for a multitude of reasons,
encounter being removed from their homes, separated from parental figures, placed with
strangers, and assigned to a social worker whose job it is to ensure their well-being. These events
create stress and trauma that many non-foster children do not have to imagine, navigate, or
survive. The initial removal from the home brings new neighborhoods and schools and the loss
of the familial (family, friends, routines) with little time to comprehend or fully adapt to the
change. These events could be repetitive and traumatic as a child experiences multiple
placements between foster homes and licensed children’s institutions. The National Workgroup
on Foster Care and Education reported that about two-thirds of foster youth experienced at least
two living placements, and one-third experienced at least four (California Department of
Education, 2020).
The impact of multiple placements is exacerbated by the amount of time foster youth
spend in them. They can spend anywhere from less than a month to over 5 years in a placement
(California Department of Education, 2020). Recent data collected by the California Department
of Education (2020) found that “approximately 28 percent of children in care stay for more than
[2] years” (p. 5). The priority of children placed in foster care is safety. However, this placement
cannot give way to the child’s education (Zetlin et al., 2004).
The length of time spent, as well as the number of placements and moves a child makes,
significantly affect their educational achievement. The California Department of Education
(2020) also identified that over a third of foster youth aged 17 and 18 had experienced five or
more school changes. These changes have long-term effects and further decrease the ability to
2
effectively transition out of the foster system into the next phase of life. For many, this is the
opportunity to pursue postsecondary education. Stoner (1999) described “the experience of
growing up in the foster care system as one that places them at high risk for failure and
misfortune” (p. 160). Furthermore, “children in foster care represent one of the most
educationally vulnerable populations of students” (Zetlin et al., 2004, p. 971). Knowing this, it is
not surprising that 4 years after leaving the foster care system, 46% of youth have not finished
high school, 25% will be homeless, 42% become parents, and only 20% will be able to support
themselves (Ferrell, 2004).
Academic deficits deeply harm children who have suffered neglect (Stone, 2007), which
is a major reason for removing them from their birth parents and placing them in foster care
(California Department of Education, 2020). According to 2018 data from the Adoption and
Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System, neglect accounted for 62% of removals. Foster
children score significantly below their non-foster peers on standardized tests, with researchers
reporting a deficit of between 15 to 20 percentile points (Emerson & Lovitt, 2003). Furthermore,
children in foster care who have experienced neglect have lower IQs and underachieve in
reading, comprehension, and writing compared to their foster counterparts who had not
experienced neglect (Stone, 2007). In math and/or reading, 30% to 96% were performing below
grade level (Emerson & Lovitt, 2003). Shin (2003) found that 33% of youth, with an average age
of 17.5 years, were reading below the sixth-grade level, 31% had reading skills between the sixth
and eighth-grade level, and 18% were reading at the ninth and 11th-grade level. These statistics
are indicative of students’ academic performance and create barriers to academic enrichment
opportunities that can support their aspirations. These include access to Advanced Placement
courses, honors courses, and academic-based scholarships.
3
Foster youth face academic challenges and struggle with behavior and social/emotional
issues and development. They are three times more likely to experience disciplinary actions than
their non-foster peers, with 24% being suspended or expelled from school, a rate significantly
higher than the national average of 7% (Scherr, 2007). the National Survey of Child and
Adolescent Well-Being (as cited in Wolanin, 2005) stated that children in long-term foster care
(minimum of 1 year) “had lasting or recurring physical or mental health problems … and low
social skills, low daily living skills, and a high degree of behavior problems” (p. xiii), claiming
that the length of time a youth spends in foster care can have a major impact. The consequence
of both deficit academic, social-emotional, and behavioral skills have even graver impacts on
foster youth as they age out of or are emancipated from the foster care system.
The majority of foster youth reach adulthood and exit the system deficient in social skills,
emotional development, and adequate academic and career preparation to sustain themselves
(Courtney, 2009; Davis, 2006; Day et al., 2011; Emerson, 2006). As a result, they are highly
susceptible to negative outcomes, including addiction, unemployment, homelessness, and
incarceration (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Courtney et al., 2001; Park et al., 2005; Reilly,
2003). However, if they can transition from state care into higher education and succeed there,
they can expand their options/opportunities and avoid these outcomes (Okpych & Courtney,
2014; Salazar, 2013). For these reasons, there are national and statewide initiatives underway to
increase and support postsecondary enrollment, retention, and graduation rates among foster care
alumni (FCA). In addition, many states have engaged in strategies to improve higher education
outcomes, including tuition and fee waivers, extended foster care, scholarships, higher education
partnerships, and campus support programs (Casey Family Programs, 2016). However, empirical
investigations of many initiatives are scant, inconsistent, and filled with gaps. Nonetheless,
4
postsecondary educational outcomes for FCA remain lower than the general population. Also,
FCA are more likely to drop out of college than youth who were not in foster care, with 7%
actually enrolling in college and only approximately 2% obtaining bachelor’s degrees compared
to about 24% of the general population (Randolph & Thompson, 2017).
Statement of the Problem
Foster youth and non-foster youth have similar college aspirations (Randolph &
Thompson, 2017). While 93% of foster youth report they want to attend college, only 4% obtain
a bachelor’s degree by age 26, compared to 50% of non-foster youth of the same age (Courtney
et al., 2011). Martin (2003) found that as many as 70% of foster youth reported a desire to attend
college. Still, the path to a college degree is arduous, and these students exhibit comparatively
poor outcomes at each step (Gillum et al., 2016). Foster youth are less likely to graduate from
high school, less likely to enroll in higher education, and, if they enroll, are less likely to
graduate than other young adults (Day et al., 2011). Specifically, researchers estimate that about
65% of foster youth graduate from high school or receive a general education development
(GED) diploma, compared to 87% for all youth aged 18 to 24 (Watt et al., 2019), making higher
education access percentages even lower.
Estimates identify that among foster youth who complete high school or a GED, 42%
enroll in college compared to 69% of the young adult population (Courtney et al., 2011; Watt et
al., 2019). For FCA who attend college, studies have found that they have lower GPAs and are
less likely to graduate than the general student population or a subsample of first-generation
students from low-income families (Courtney et al., 2001; Davis, 2006; Day et al., 2011; Pecora
et al., 2006a; Unrau et al., 2012; Watt et al., 2019). Also, FCA who are in good academic
standing still advance slower through higher education than first-generation and low-income
5
students (Day et al., 2013). These educational disparities accrue until only 1% to 11% of FCA
obtain a bachelor’s degree, compared to 32.5% of the general population (Courtney et al., 2001;
Pecora et al., 2006a, 2006b; Watt et al., 2019; White et al., 2015; Wolanin, 2005).
To address these disparaging outcomes there is process data on how to construct a
campus support program and their associated challenges (Geiger & Beltran, 2017a, 2017b).
Campus-based programs and other resources are impactful in addressing multiple barriers and
effectively supporting FCA in completing their postsecondary education goals. Few of these
programs have documented academic outcomes, as there have been no rigorous academic or
applied evaluations of campus support programs (Geiger & Beltran, 2017a, 2017b; Watt et al.,
2013). Therefore, determining the direct impact of these programs and resources is hindered by
several factors, including limited research, gaps and inconsistencies in current research and
evaluation of current programs and policies, and limited communication within, between, and
across institutions regarding this population. As a result, FCA do not access higher education
institutions, persist through, and meet their goals.
Background of the Problem
The impediments to FCA postsecondary success start prior to their enrollment, continue
throughout their college experience, and have been well documented. Youth in foster care have
disruptive family, school, and neighborhood experiences, and this lack of continuity undermines
their academic achievement and college readiness (Clemens et al., 2016; Okpych et al., 2017;
Trout et al., 2008; Unrau et al., 2012). These barriers to academic success and social skill
development, as Watt et al. (2018) identified, hinder their skills and will regarding their
postsecondary education success and achievement.
6
Foster youth demonstrating low achievement can have negative perceptions of their
abilities. When they and those around them see their potential as limited, they experience little
encouragement and preparation for a college career (Watt et al., 2018). Students who have
experienced foster care are less likely to take college preparatory classes and report that they and
others typically do not perceive themselves to be “college material” (Watt et al., 2013, p. 1412).
These perceptions and the reality of their limited academic attainment/achievement have a
significant number of foster youth placed in special education classes, being held back,
remediated, and dropping out.
Foster youth also tend to struggle with social, emotional, mental, and behavioral health
issues and often receive no or poor quality behavioral and mental health services (Keller et al.,
2010; McMillen et al., 2005; Romanelli et al., 2009; Salazar, 2013). Lack of these services also
significantly lowers their academic achievement when their school attendance declines because
of suspensions and alternative placements related to these factors (i.e., continuation schools).
Finally, they lack financial, instrumental (housing), and emotional supports, which are critically
important for young adults seeking a college degree (Courtney et al., 2001; Dworsky & Pérez,
2010; Hass et al., 2014; Hernandez & Naccarato, 2010; Rosenberg & Kim, 2018; Wolanin,
2005).
Foster care alumni are present on numerous college campuses (Salazar et al., 2016) and
bring with them their intersectionality due to their various identities, characteristics, and life
experiences. State and federal governments and higher education institutions have sought to
address these intersecting identities through resources to ameliorate some obstacles to higher
education (Salazar et al., 2016).
7
Postsecondary educational resources and access mitigate barriers to these disparities for
FCA, supporting academic resilience and success. Okpych and Courtney (2019), in an analysis
of several college-level factors as predictors of degree attainment, found that students who
attended 4-year colleges were more likely to complete a 2- or 4-year degree than those enrolled
in 2-year institutions, despite variable background factors. Geiger and Okpych (2022) reported
that tuition waivers increased postsecondary academic success for FCA. Tuition waivers, when
combined with other resources like educational and training vouchers (ETVs) and campus
support programs, may promote college persistence.
National, Federal, and State Supports
Overall, FCA have limited resources and encounter numerous obstacles, but there is a
national movement underway to address these issues and help them pursue their educational
goals (Watt et al., 2019). The need for better postsecondary education outcomes for these youth
has captured the attention of several stakeholders and policymakers (Randolph & Thompson,
2017). For example, “policymakers, the child welfare community, higher education professional
organizations, colleges and state higher educational systems have started to address this issue
with calls for policy advances, practice innovations, and influential advocacy” (Randolph &
Thompson, 2017, p. 1).
In addition, there have been local, state, and federal efforts to expand various programs.
While not focused specifically on postsecondary education, several states have adopted extended
foster care, allowing youth to remain or re-enter foster care beyond their aging out at age 18,
which has improved outcomes (Courtney & Hook, 2017; Dworsky & Courtney, 2010; Watt et
al., 2019). Despite these efforts, gaps in support remain (Watt et al., 2019). Therefore, many
8
colleges and universities have developed campus-based support programs to address these gaps
(Watt et al., 2019).
College Supports
Campus-based support programs are quite diverse, but they generally include some
combination of mentoring/coaching, academic support, social networks/activities, and financial
assistance (Hernandez & Naccarato, 2010). Dworsky and Pérez (2010) identified resources
offered across various universities, including scholarships, direct service provision, and referral
services. These services are structured in a variety of ways and have multiple focuses.
Campus-based programs offer services and resources specific to their students (Randolph
& Thompson, 2017). Different programs offer support to youth while still in the system to
support their transition to college, while others are strictly offered to students after they enroll
(Randolph & Thompson, 2017). In addition to campus-based support programs, some states have
developed legislation to designate foster care liaisons on university campuses (Randolph &
Thompson, 2017). These liaisons provide a direct point of contact for former foster youth from
enrollment through graduation (Watt et al., 2019). These programs and resources, though
expansive, have not been rigorously evaluated in terms of their application or impact on
postsecondary academic success (Watt et al., 2019).
Collaborative Supports
Research shows that individuals who age out of foster care experience challenges related
to educational and social adjustment (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014). A college degree can improve
an individual’s social and financial well-being (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014). However, data about
FCA who attend college and graduate, as well as long-term outcomes, are largely unavailable or
9
limited. It is estimated that up to 10% of FCA enroll in 4-year institutions, and approximately 3%
to 5% graduate (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014).
Nonetheless, Watt et al. (2019) also found that collaborations have been formed among
states, colleges/universities, child welfare workers, and other advocates to identify strategies to
eliminate barriers and increase support for FCA at higher education institutions. There is a
scarcity of research related to FCA and higher education (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014). Thus,
scholars have consistently reported a need for more evaluations of programs and resources
supporting FCA in higher education (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014). As a result, the lack of research
has contributed to little progress in increasing postsecondary enrollment and graduation among
this population (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014). This lack of research creates the need to
systematically identify what is known about effective and ineffective practices related to FCA in
accessing, enrolling, and completing college (J. R. Rios & Rocco, 2014).
Theoretical Framework
Two significant theories ground the current study and identify student support to increase
the higher education success of FCA. They were resilience theory and social capital theory.
Resilience is relevant to the study because FCA will need to exhibit skills related to resilience as
they transition from foster care to college due to the high risks they have experienced and their
efforts to improve their postsecondary outcomes. In addition, according to Salazar et al. (2016),
their resilience is also how their success will be measured (i.e., education, employment, selfsufficiency, relationships and support systems, and positive participation and contribution to the
community). For youth transitioning out of foster care, social capital provides the opportunity to
build and rebuild connections and support that may have been lost or compromised by traumatic
10
experiences, separation from family, and restrictive or misguided child welfare policies (Salazar
et al., 2016).
Resilience Theory
Research on resilience supports the view that human psychological development is
highly buffered and self-righting and that resilient behavior can occur at any developmental stage
(Masten et al., 1990). Therefore, FCA seeking to enter into higher education institutions can
develop this characteristic and achieve their academic goals. The idea of resiliency provides hope
for FCA, as they are a vulnerable subpopulation of the foster care system. In addition to being
inadequately prepared academically and socially, these youths face the premature and abrupt
responsibility of self-sufficiency as they leave care to navigate independent living and the
challenges of postsecondary education. Resilience describes FCA who confront these challenges
in pursuit of creating a better life for themselves as they persist in attaining their goals. Authors
and researchers have defined resilience in a multitude of ways. Werner (1990) stated,
“Resiliency will enhance children’s ability to overcome life situations that place them at risk” (as
cited in Casey Family Programs, 2001, p. 8). According to Luthar et al. (2000), resilience is
defined as “a dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context of significant
adversity” (p. 543). In addition, Gilligan (1997) stated, “A resilient child is one who bounces
back from adversity and continues to function reasonably well, despite continued exposure to
risk” (as cited in Casey Family Programs, 2001, p. 8).
Casey Family Programs (2001) noted three characteristics of youth who are resilient:
self-esteem and self-confidence, sense of self-efficacy (a belief in their ability to affect their own
life), and a range of social and problem-solving approaches (p. 8). These characteristics are
typically measured by success in education, employment, self-sufficiency, relationships and
11
support systems, and positive participation and contribution to the larger society (Salazar et al.,
2016). To support academic success, resilience requires self-authorship and self-discovery.
When entering postsecondary education institutions, FCA navigate the negative effects of their
prior personal experiences (Salazar et al., 2016).
Luthar et al. (2000) described resilience theory as it relates to FCA success as they
transition out of care as “a dynamic process encompassing positive adaptation within the context
of significant adversity” developed from individuals’ interactions in their environments (p. 543).
Resilience theory provides the opportunity to look at FCA through an asset-based lens by
focusing on the characteristics, skills, habits, and behaviors this population has adopted to
support healthy and productive development and success (Salazar et al., 2016). Some of these are
social competence, problem-solving, autonomy, sense of purpose, flexibility, effective
communication skills, and an optimistic outlook toward the future are paramount for FCA
transitioning out of foster care to postsecondary education (Salazar et al., 2016). These skills and
characteristics support FCA in being competent and confident in planning for the future,
analyzing situations critically, and locating and effectively accessing and utilizing resources
(Salazar et al., 2016). They aid in establishing a sense of purpose, contribute to being goaldirected and achievement-motivated, and elicit the persistence and optimism required to meet
postsecondary education goals (Salazar et al., 2016).
In addition to addressing personal skills, resilience addresses the environmental factors
that can prevent academic success, as students demonstrate lower environmental stress,
providing protection from a breadth of negative outcomes (Salazar et al., 2016). This theoretical
perspective holds potential for care youth transitioning out of foster care and into postsecondary
education.
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Social Capital Theory
Social capital refers to the resources and support gained through relationships with others
(Salazar et al., 2016). Social capital can come in the form of emotional, psychological, physical,
informational, instrumental, and material assistance (Salazar et al., 2016). Sources of social
capital vary but generally include family, school, peers, and neighborhood or community. Foster
youth often leave state care with very little social capital (Watt et al., 2019). They typically have
few resources, marketable skills, or social support (Perry, 2006). Consequently, they are
vulnerable to unemployment, addiction, homelessness, and incarceration (Courtney & Dworsky,
2006; Courtney et al., 2001; Park et al., 2005; Reilly, 2003). However, if they can transition from
state care into higher education and succeed there, increasing their social capital, they might
expand their options and avert these outcomes (Okpych & Courtney, 2014; Salazar, 2013). The
three main components of social capital are the quantity of a person’s relationships, the quality of
those relationships, and the value of the resources gained through those relationships(Salazar et
al., 2016).
Therefore, for FCA to succeed, their relationships need to be of both value and quality.
The value of certain relationships may differ for FCA compared to other youth, as several studies
have found that closer relationships with biological families after aging out are associated with
lower levels of resilience, possibly because these family systems may still have significant
challenges with poverty, mental health, substance abuse, or violence (Salazar et al., 2016). This
association makes the presence of positive, nonfamilial relationships particularly important for
FCA. These relationships can be fostered at higher education institutions among peers and
through various social and academic affiliations, reducing psychological stress, as Perry (2006)
13
found, and laying the foundation for a supportive network to acquire their goals and build
resilience (Salazar et al., 2016).
Significance of the Study
As they transition out of care into postsecondary education, FCA have experienced
numerous challenges and continue to face them once enrolled. Identifying resources and
programs at institutions allows for recruitment efforts to be impactful in better matching students
with resource programs and supports to increase their persistence and graduation rates. In
addition, the identification of current resources, programs, and services allows for effective
utilization, determination of impact, and identification of gaps in resources. In turn, these efforts
can continue to meet this population’s needs, considering that many initiatives are starting to
target challenges prior to their college enrollment, such as primary and secondary academics and
well-being. Directly connecting students to the supports they need can increase resilience, social
capital, and the ability to address challenges to meet their academic and life goals.
Increasing FCA access and enrollment in higher education and supporting their retention
and graduation/completion requires identifying the resources and campuses with these resources.
Research has found that foster youth who want to attend college are unaware of the resources
available to them. The state of California, with the highest public education offerings for FCA,
provides the opportunity to generalize to other similar institutions. According to a review
conducted by the Aging Out Institute (2018), California has the largest number of programs and
“most comprehensive, state supported efforts throughout its public university system” to help
FCA (p. 2). Varied institutional structures provide students with multiple access points to
postsecondary education to increase their access and enrollment.
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Purpose of the Study
This study sought to identify resources for FCA at Southern California postsecondary
education institutions as a means of awareness and for supporting these students’ enrollment and
access. This descriptive study based on document analysis of publicly available information adds
more depth and breadth to the literature on the current status of resources for FCA.
Systematically identifying and analyzing resources available at each type of institution, this
research aimed to uncover gaps, trends, and successful practices, providing insights to inform
areas of need and highlight replicable strategies that can be adopted to improve outcomes across
different institutional contexts (OpenAI, 2024). This study aimed to address two research
questions:
1. What are some of the Southern California post-secondary educational institutions that
offer campus-based programs and resources to FCA?
2. What are the range and characteristics of services and programs available for FCA at
post-secondary educational institutions in Southern California?
A descriptive analysis approach was employed to create a dynamic picture and address
the research questions. According to Bowen (2009), descriptive document analysis requires
examining and interpreting data to elicit meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical
knowledge. The analytical procedure entailed finding, selecting, appraising (making sense of),
and synthesizing data contained in documents (Bowen, 2009). I then organized the data into
major themes and categories through content analysis (Bowen, 2009). Rather than relying on a
single data source, I collected data from both document analysis and data retrieval (Creswell,
2015, p. 19). Using both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and various
15
points of data strengthened the study (Patton, 2002). This process was complete in multiple
phases.
Definition of Terms
AB 12 created California’s Extended Foster Care Program, which allows eligible youth in
the child welfare and probation systems to remain in foster care until age 21 (California
Department of Social Services, n.d.-c).
Age/aging out (of foster care) is when a young person reaches a certain age, is legally
considered independent, and will, therefore, no longer have the support of the foster care system.
The age at which kids age out of the foster care system, also called the age of emancipation,
varies by state but will usually be between 18 and 21. In most states, the age at which kids age
out of the foster care system is 18 (Thomson Reuters, 2024)
Association of Independent California Colleges and Universities (AICCU) comprises
over 80 independent, nonprofit colleges and universities, which make up the ICCU sector. The
ICCU sector plays a pivotal role in the development of the state’s higher education offerings
(AICCU, n.d., para. 4)
CalFresh is a program “for low-income individuals who meet federal income eligibility
rules and want to add to their budget to put healthy and nutritious food on the table” (California
Department of Social Services, n.d.-a, para. 1).
California Chafee Grant is free money for current or former California foster youth to
help pay for college or career and technical training. Chafee Grants do not have to be paid back.
The funds may also be used to pay for childcare, rent, and transportation (California Student Aid
Commission, n.d.).
16
California College Pathways (CCP) is a statewide initiative that is helping foster youth
across the state achieve their higher education goals and move on to fulfilling careers (California
College Pathways, 2017).
California Guardian Scholar Program supports former foster youth as they pursue higher
education (Foster Club, 2024a).
California Renaissance Scholars aims to increase the college graduation rates for former
foster youth (Foster Club, 2024b).
CalWORKS is a welfare program that gives cash aid and services to eligible California
families in need (California Department of Social Services, n.d.-b).
Career/technical (trade/vocational) education refers to a program of study that involves a
multiyear sequence of courses that integrates core academic knowledge with technical and
occupational knowledge to provide students with a pathway to postsecondary education and
careers (California Department of Education, n.d.).
Chronic absenteeism refers to missing at least 10% of days in a school year for any
reason (Attendance Works, n.d.).
Foster care alumni (FCA) are adults who have spent time in foster care, kinship care, or
other out-of-home placements (Alumni Alliance, n.d.).
Foster Youth Resilience in Education (FYRE) Scholars Program at the University of
California, Irvine (UCI) provides “support to current and former foster youth attending UCI,”
with the aim to create a network that enhances the academic success and personal well-being of
current and former foster youth attending UCI (UCI Foster Youth Resilience in Education, n.d.,
para. 1).
17
Foster Youth Success Initiative (FYSI) is a program on California community college
campuses that is expanding access to academic support services and resources to help current
and former foster youth secure a certificate or degree or transfer to a 4-year college or university
(California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office, n.d.).
iFoster is a national nonprofit organization providing foster youth with the resources they
need to become successful adults (iFoster, 2021).
The Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) is a counseling and academic support
program designed to help low-income and first-generation college students succeed in college.
The purpose of these programs is to help students who face additional obstacles in higher
education succeed academically and graduate (The California State University, n.d.).
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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The purpose of this chapter was to review the literature on the barriers that FCA face in
pursuing higher education in relation to the impact of their foster care experiences, how these
same barriers and new ones are currently addressed for their academic success, and discuss
current federal and state initiatives and legislation, as well as campus-based programs and
resources to address this population’s needs. This chapter concludes with studies that have
focused on foster youth who have experienced positive outcomes and the supports needed to
retain FCA in postsecondary education institutions.
Foster Youth Educational Experiences and Impact
Foster youth, as a subgroup, are vulnerable to the deficits of any educational system. This
can limit their academic skills and capacity and disrupt their ability to meet academic goals.
They are more inclined to experience the adverse impact of the educational system during
primary and secondary education and after emancipation. Lindner (2023) reported that 41% of
foster youth attend schools that rank in the lowest 30% of all schools in the United States. Burns
et al. (2022) also found that nearly half of all students in foster care were enrolled in the highestpoverty schools, those in which more than 80% of students are eligible for free or reduced-price
meals. High-poverty schools tend to experience resource challenges, including higher teacher
turnover, that can lower student outcomes (Burns et al., 2022). As an educationally vulnerable
population, these students are highly susceptible to negative outcomes.
The National Foster Youth Institute (n.d.) reported that over 40% of school-aged children
in foster care have educational difficulties. These difficulties are exacerbated by reasons like
chronic absenteeism due to placement changes, as 65% experience five or more moves during
their time in care (Lindner, 2023). School transfers are another reason, as 34% will change
19
schools five or more times before the age of 18 (Lindner, 2023). Court hearings, parental
visitations, and behavioral misconduct are also stressors; these youth are two to three times more
likely to be suspended than the general population (Lindner, 2023). Lastly, a lack of
social/emotional development due to neglect and other factors hinders formative educational
experience. These factors result in 50% of these youth requiring special education services,
performing low on localized and state assessments, being held back, and subsequently dropping
out of school; only 40% to 63% complete high school by the age of 18 (Lindner, 2023). These
and other barriers to equitable educational access permeate and extend beyond the formative
education years.
In addition, during these years, foster youth might experience homelessness or enter the
juvenile and criminal justice system. Once they are emancipated or age out of the system, they
become FCA and carry their experiences with them into the next phase of their lives, for which
they have not been adequately prepared or had access to resources to help them effectively
transition. This lack of access to resources and their experiences in the educational system
establishes the need for extensive support and transitional services to create equitable
environments for them to thrive in, through, and beyond their foster care stay.
Research has found that a significant factor hindering FCA’s transition to adulthood is
that they stop receiving state support after they turn 18 or 21, depending on their state, or age out
and are left to take care of themselves. However, they are not prepared based on their earlier
academic encounters and limited social/emotional development (Grills, 2013). Previous research
has indicated that, upon aging out, these youths are abruptly initiated into adulthood and must
rely on their limited personal resources and income for their survival (Unrau et al., 2012),
making day-to-day survival their priority over postsecondary academic ambitions and goals.
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Many of them will be unemployed, dependent on welfare, and/or at high risk of other tragic
outcomes, such as suicide (Gambrill, 2008). Twenty percent will experience homelessness
(Lindner, 2023).
In addition, Lindsey and Ahmed (1999) found that former foster youth are at a greater
risk than non-foster youth to receive public assistance to meet their most basic needs due to lack
of money, lack of stable housing, and difficulty seeking healthcare. These individuals are also
more likely to neglect seeking a college education compared to their peers (Gambrill, 2008),
though many aspire to continue their education and enter into an institution of higher education.
This is due to educational experience, mindset, personal perception of success, limited resources
and relationships that support their academic goals, current circumstances, and a multitude of
other obstacles and events they must navigate without effective reference points and resources.
Miller et al. (2017) reported that as few as one in 10 foster youth and alumni enroll in a
college or university. Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) substantiated these findings, adding to the
discussion that 67% of emancipated youth who attend college drop out. The barriers that FCA
experience in postsecondary education, the fact that most desire college degrees and
certifications, and the positive impact of meeting these goals on their livelihood establishes the
need for more concerted efforts to identify and evaluate how to assist them.
Foster Youth Secondary and Postsecondary Educational Experiences
Despite the hurdles to academic success, foster youth aspire to extend their education
through and beyond high school (Miller et al., 2017). Though experiences are different, one
commonality is that the majority of these students aspire to pursue postsecondary education or
training. Some overcome many obstacles and enroll in college programs. Merdinger et al. (2005)
identified that 79% of their study participants reported a desire to graduate from high school,
21
with 63% planning to continue their education beyond high school. McMillen et al. (2003) found
similar results in a study of 262 foster youth, of whom 95% reported planning to continue their
education beyond high school. Nationally, Emerson (2007) found that 70% of these youth want
to pursue postsecondary education or training. Blome (1997) also substantiated these previous
findings, as FCA maintain these aspirations despite barriers in the educational system.
Educational attainment for foster youth lags far behind their non-foster care peers in
standardized testing, formative education, and other educational outcomes, with just over half of
them completing high school (Unrau et al., 2012). In addition, average estimates of various
studies of high school completion rates suggest that approximately half of the youth between the
ages of 18 and 24 who have aged out of foster care have high school diplomas or GED diplomas
in comparison to over 70% of non-foster youth (Unrau et al., 2012). In comparison to their peers,
college attendance rates and degree completion are significantly lower for FCA. Approximately
20% of foster children who graduate from high school enroll in college, a rate 40% below that of
their peers who have not spent time in foster care (Wolanin, 2005).
Even more disturbing is that less than 5% of FCA graduate from a 4-year college, and 2%
to 6% earn a degree from a 2-year or community college (National Foster Youth Institute, n.d.).
This is due, in part, to gaps in their learning and social-emotional development from their
formative educational and life experiences that include their exiting the system (Hardin, 1988) in
addition to access to resources and supportive networks after emancipation and becoming an
FCA. If they are resilient enough and enroll in college, these students face even more challenges.
They have financial challenges, lack a support network, and lack awareness of resources and
programs to help them meet their academic goals.
22
Barriers and Support to Postsecondary Education
For foster youth, the financial resources, mentorship, support, stability, and guidance
needed to complete postsecondary education or training programs are not common (National
Foster Youth Institute, n.d.). Many FCA enter higher education significantly underprepared
compared to their peers because many do not have independent living, academic, and study skills
or the support network and resources required to persist toward program completion (Emerson,
2006, 2007; Wolanin, 2005). These deficits amplify the barriers to their success, as they lack the
support required to persist into, through, and beyond their degree/certificate attainment. There is
currently insufficient empirical evidence on support programs’ effectiveness and very little
information regarding what factors differentiate FCA who do and do not drop out of college
(Salazar, 2012). Hence, there is not a sufficient research base to indicate what factors these
programs’ leaders should focus on to maximize their students’ success (Salazar, 2012). Both the
foster care-specific and general population literature do, however, suggest a variety of factors
that might reasonably affect the college outcomes of youth with foster care experience (Salazar,
2012).
Salazar (2012), in a review of literature, identified the following five general supports
based on student and foster care experience that prominent researchers in the field have
substantiated: academic skill factors; college fit factors; maltreatment, trauma and physical
health; independent living stability; and social support factors (Burns et al., 2022; Courtney et
al., 2007; Davis, 2006; Day et al., 2013; Dworsky & Pérez, 2010; Emerson, 2006, 2007; Fried,
2008; Martin, 2003; Merdinger et al., 2005; Okpych, 2012; S. Rios & Nevin, 2009; J. R. Rios &
Rocco, 2014; Stoner, 1999; Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002; Unrau et al., 2012).
23
Academic skill factors include study skills, time management, goal setting, and
notetaking. These aid in establishing and addressing barriers in education prior to emancipation.
Research has found that the K–12 educational system hinders foster youth’s academic
performance. Unrau et al. (2012) found that FCA entered college with lower high school grade
point averages (GPAs) and held lower college GPAs than the general population of college
students, demonstrating they were less academically prepared despite their motivation and
optimism about the experience of college (Salazar, 2012). Dworsky and Pérez (2010) reported
similar findings from interviews with college support program personnel (Salazar, 2012).
Focused on factors related specifically to college retention in the general population,
Robbins et al. (2004) found 11 that were moderately associated with retention (Salazar, 2012).
Among these, three focused on the student’s academic strengths, which included academicrelated skills or academic skill factors (i.e., study skills and time management), high school
GPA, and standardized test scores (Salazar, 2012). A Midwest study of FCA aged 25–26 years
old (Courtney et al., 2011) found that 26% had dropped out of college, citing difficulty with
coursework as the primary reason (Salazar, 2012). The foster system hinders academic growth
significantly. Ensuring these students’ postsecondary education success requires addressing the
barriers the system poses both prior to and after emancipation.
College fit factors help students create a sense of belonging to the campus that increases
the likelihood of their success. Examples of college fit factors include connectedness through
activities/clubs, relationships, and services. Robbins et al. (2004), in a study of college retention,
found that the college fit factors of institutional commitment, satisfaction, and social
involvement predicted increased retention (Salazar, 2012). Dworsky and Pérez (2010) expanded
on this idea, finding that the absence of appropriate support by colleges impedes college fit by
24
creating a barrier to success (Salazar, 2012). These students have typically had limited
opportunities to build relationships and lay down foundations, so the campus now becomes and
needs to feel like home. The campus needs to offer resources and space for students to feel safe,
loved, and connected.
Maltreatment, trauma, and mental and physical illness are physical and emotional barriers
indicative of foster care experience that impede college and life success. Numerous studies have
found that mental health diagnosis rates for youth who have foster care experience are
significantly higher than among the general population (Courtney et al., 2007; McMillen et al.,
2005; Salazar, 2012). Other extensive studies have found a lifetime post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) prevalence in approximately 15% of FCA in late adolescence, compared with 6% to 7%
in the general population and 6% to 8% continue to struggle with PTSD as they approach their
transition to independence (Courtney et al., 2007; Courtney et al., 2011; McMillen et al., 2005;
Salazar, 2012). Thus, FCA brings these difficulties with them to college campuses (Salazar,
2012).
White et al. (2015) surveyed FCA who dropped out of college and commonly identified
their reason for leaving as emotional, behavioral, or family problems (Salazar, 2012). Dworsky
and Pérez (2010), in research on California and Washington postsecondary campus support
program directors and surveys of currently enrolled FCA, identified social/emotional support as
helping foster youth persist and graduate (Salazar, 2012). Emerson and Lovitt (2003) found that
concern about obtaining healthcare was an additional barrier. Merdinger et al. (2005), in a study
of FCA in college, found that 45.5% of participants did not have health insurance and that only
58.2% had obtained needed medical care (Salazar, 2012). In a qualitative study exploring themes
25
among FCA who graduated from college, Emerson and Lovitt (2003) also found that mental
health counseling was an essential element in their college success (Salazar, 2012).
Research has linked both maltreatment and trauma to problematic educational
experiences, including maladjustment in college (Banyard & Cantor, 2004) and lower
educational attainment (Duncan, 2000). Providing spaces and resources for both on- and offcampus provisions, mental health, and healthcare support the success of FCA in completing
postsecondary education endeavors. In addition, general food and physical health, through meal
plans and food stipends, help students focus and have the mental capacity to support their goals,
and these should be considered effective resources for these students.
Independent living stability refers to variables that need to be ameliorated to ensure that
students can thrive, meet their basic needs, and focus on their postsecondary academic goals.
Some examples are shelter, tuition assistance, childcare, books, employment, and clothing. The
two most cited reasons in research and literature are financial security and shelter (Dworsky &
Pérez, 2009; Gillum, 2016; Lee, 2021; Miller et al., 2017; Okpych, 2012; Randolph &
Thompson, 2017; Salazar, 2012, 2013). Interviewing current FCA students attending college,
80% reported their financial situation as fair or poor (Salazar, 2012). Highlighting the insecurity
many feel or experience with their current financial stability as they pursue their college goals
and potentially exacerbating other barriers to their completion and success (i.e., mental health
issues). Students who dropped out of college also mentioned financial stability (Courtney et al.,
2011) as a common issue preventing them from continuing their education. They either needed
to work, could not afford tuition and fees, or both (Salazar, 2012). Financial stability is a variable
of independent living stability that requires addressing, as FCA still grapple with consistent, safe,
26
and secure dwellings. Per Alternative Foster Services (n.d.), in California, close to 31% of
transition-age foster youth experience homelessness.
Foster care alumni suffer the impact of their foster care experience, as unsafe and
insecure shelter is the reason for displacement. For many, this introduction and the nature and
impact of the foster care experience means that some will experience shelter instability.
Merdinger et al. (2005) found that 23.1% of college students who experienced foster care at
some point have been without a place to stay. Through campus-based resource programs and
partnerships, many FCA have housing during the academic school year, but this is still a
concern. Securing stable year-round housing is a common problem for youth with foster care
experience who do not always have someone to live with during college breaks, holidays, and
summer vacations (Wolanin, 2005). These are times when FCA students should rest, relax, and
reset mentally and physically, yet they continue to seek shelter or have none at all. Alternative
Family Services (n.d.) noted that support systems are central to deterring or reducing
homelessness. The organization found that former foster youth in California who said they have
enough people to turn to are 44% less likely to experience homelessness later (Alternative
Family Services, n.d.). Thus, social support is essential to their resilience, sustainability, and
success.
Social support factors are the partnerships and communities that increase the likelihood
of success for those engaged by establishing positive relationships and reinforcement, as well as
additional resources. Social support can take four forms: emotional, informational,
companionship, and tangible/intangible. Perry (2006) found that youth with foster care
experience are likely to have lower levels of social support and a fractured social network due to
initial placement and subsequent disruptions. Making it difficult to identify and establish, and
27
lacking them as they emancipate from foster care, but necessary as FCA transition to
postsecondary education based on systems and structures. A study of transition-aged youth with
foster care experience found that only 40% of study participants reported having sufficient levels
of the four types of social support (Salazar, 2012). Other studies reviewed confirmed that youth
who have spent time in foster care often feel stereotyped, stigmatized, and devalued due to their
encounter with the foster care system (Salazar, 2012). These feelings create a perception and
sense of academic inferiority for these students (Salazar, 2012). Seeking to support FCA prior to
and during their transition and debunk these feelings as they seek to achieve their higher
education aspirations, Aherns et al. (2008, as cited in Salazar, 2012) explored the effects of
mentoring for youth in foster care and found that it had a trend-level effect on participation in
higher education.
In identifying social support factors, it is clear that the symbiotic relationship between
resilience and social capital equates to student success. In addition, identifying and seeking to
effectively address academic skills factors, college fit factors, maltreatment, trauma, mental and
physical health, and independent living stability are on the right track, as identified in Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs (Research History, 2012). Maslow identified five categories of needs that
enable progress and thriving through life: physical/physiological, such as air, water, food, sleep,
shelter, clothing; security/safety, such as health, employment, property, family, social stability;
social/love and belonging, like friendship, family, intimacy, sense of connection; self-esteem,
meaning confidence, achievement, respect of others, the need to be a unique individual; and selfactualization, encompassing morality, creativity, spontaneity, acceptance, experience, purpose,
meaning and inner potential (Figure 1).
28
Figure 1
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Note. From Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs by Research History, 2012
(https://www.researchhistory.org/2012/06/16/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs/). In the public
domain.
The tiered system begins with the foundational needs (physical) as the most basic and
evolves to the more complex (self-actualization), achieving individual potential. Maslow
identified physical/physiological needs as the most essential, making other needs inconsequential
without meeting these needs first, and therefore, the primary need that drives motivation (Simply
Psychology, 2024). As FCA seek to meet their postsecondary education goals, they must address
and remove barriers at every level, and the research lays the foundation for beginning this work.
29
This research is not summative in terms of the supports, programs, and services this
population requires. Instead, it offers a glimpse into the factors that should be the focus when
ensuring their success, their needs, and the obstacles they must overcome. Those outside of the
foster care network have begun to take notice in an effort to make sure that these students are
ready to transition into the next phase of their lives. At the federal and state level, efforts have
begun to support the factors that hinder FCA’s effective transition.
Legislation, Policies, Programs, and Initiatives to Support Postsecondary Education
Federal and state governments enacted legislation and policies to help this population
achieve academically. These seek to increase attendance, retention, and graduation among FCA
students. Some of these initiatives address the academic and social issues and challenges
experienced in and after foster care. Others focus specifically on higher education and supporting
outcomes as emancipated youth transition to college.
Researchers have been collecting statistics about youth in state foster care and their postemancipation outcomes since the 1980s (Barth, 1986; Festinger, 1983; Sims, 1998). These
statistics and other findings focused on research and studies around the challenges and
subsequent negative impact on emancipated youth and FCA. This research provided the
foundation for current initiatives and legislation centered on supporting foster youth’s transition
to independence and college attendance.
Assembly Bill 12 and Fostering Connections to Success Act
Significant research has examined the correlation between higher education degree
attainment and increased earning potential and financial stability. Annual earnings by education
data from 2010 to 2021 from the National Center for Education Statistics (n.d.) showed that,
among adults aged 25–34 who worked full-time and year-round, higher educational attainment
30
correlated with higher median earnings. The economic benefits of a college education are well
documented; however, data from studies of youth transitioning out of foster care indicate that the
college graduation rate for this population is very low (Dworsky & Pérez, 2009).
However, the research shows that foster youth perform significantly lower than grade
level, are held back a grade at higher rates, and are overrepresented in special education across
their K–12 education in comparison to their peers. These outcomes hinder their ability to
complete college degree programs. Their limited educational capacity and the removal of access
to resources due to emancipation can hinder their opportunities for access and assets to succeed
in this pursuit.
Assembly Bill 12 (AB 12), the California Fostering Connections to Success Act,
addresses the need for FCA to access federal funds after emancipation. This law acknowledges
the difficulties these young people must overcome to establish themselves in society. In 2010,
AB 12 extended the foster care age from 18 to 21 and allows FCA to continue to access and
receive services and benefits from the Department of Child and Family Services (DCFS) and
those afforded through probation offices. These services and benefits include housing assistance,
medical benefits through Medicaid, assistance with college or vocational education, emergency
financial support, and career development programs. Some programs are financially focused,
providing tuition assistance and scholarships (Randolph & Thompson, 2017). They support their
transition out of foster care and entrance into higher education. Eligibility is a collaborative
effort between FCA and individuals and agencies providing access to services and benefits, such
as social workers, probation offices, and DCFS. Participants must meet basic eligibility
requirements: being between 18 and 21 years old, subject to foster care placement by being
31
under the custody and control of a county child welfare agency, probation department, or tribal
agency prior to their turning 18.
The numerous ways in which an FCA can participate is an added layer of support for
postsecondary education goals. They are eligible to access resources by being in the process of
completing or having completed a high school or an equivalent program, being enrolled at least
half-time in a college, community college, or a vocational education program, holding
employment of at least 80 hours per month, participating in a program designed to promote or
remove barriers to employment, or having a medical condition that hinders the ability to meet
any of the other criteria.
Assembly Bill 12 is a direct response to research that identified that extending benefits
and services increases college education enrollment and persistence. Some programs are part of
statewide initiatives, such as the Governor Scholars program in the states of California and
Washington (Randolph & Thompson, 2017). These efforts include CCP, Education Reach for
Texans, Ohio Reach, Fostering Success Michigan, and Florida’s Reach/Positive Pathways
Program.
Courtney et al. (2007), in a longitudinal study of 732 participants aging out of foster care
and transitioning to adulthood from Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois, found that in comparison to
their peers in Iowa and Wisconsin, former foster youth from Illinois were nearly twice as likely
to have attended college and more than twice as likely to have completed at least a year of
college. They determined this difference in educational attainment to be because Illinois allows
youth to remain in foster care until age 21. Those in Wisconsin and Iowa exit the system at age
18. Research from the California Youth Transitions to Adulthood (CalYouth) Study evaluating
the impact of the California Fostering Connections to Success Act (AB 12) reported that among
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FCA enrolled in higher education, only 49.6% completed their first two semesters (Courtney et
al. 2018). Initiatives such as AB 12 are increasing the success of foster youth transitioning into
adulthood and enrolling in postsecondary education, but more resources are required to increase
FCA retention and completion.
Assembly Bill 2463 and Higher Education Outreach and Assistance Act for Emancipated
Foster Youth
According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (n.d.), there are over 390,000 youth
in foster care in the United States, of which approximately 20,000 are emancipated without
access to a permanent family. California has the largest population of youth in foster care in the
United States, with over 60,000 youth (Child Welfare Information Gateway, n.d.). As they age
out and transition to adulthood, those seeking to enroll in college require significant resources to
persist in their academic goals. In 2021, 77% of eligible youth in foster care, ages 14–21, left
care without receiving federally funded services to prepare them for adulthood and independent
living (Child Welfare Information Gateway, n.d.). Most foster care postsecondary students will
either attend a community (75%) or state (25%) college. California community colleges are,
therefore, essential to their academic success.
The initiatives, programs, and network of resources at these institutions and their focus
remove the barriers to enrollment, retention, and completion. In 1996, the California legislature
enacted the Higher Education Outreach and Assistance Act for Emancipated Foster Youth (AB
2463) to provide guidelines regarding the education of these students. This act requires that the
Board of Governors of the California Community Colleges and the Trustees of the California
State University offer outreach services to encourage these students’ enrollment in these
33
institutions and provide technical assistance to support them in the completion of applications for
admission and financial aid (Sackett & Mavor, 2003). Further, it pushes these bodies to
● Review housing issues for those emancipated foster youth living in college
dormitories to ensure basic housing during the regular academic school year.
● Provide technical assistance and advice to campuses on how to improve service
delivery.
● Track the retention of students who voluntarily disclose their status as emancipated
foster youth.
● Evaluate the extent to which current programs meet foster youth’s needs and how
outreach and retention services can be improved.
● Present a progress report on current and expanded services and efforts to increase the
number of emancipated foster youth who attend the university or a community
college and remain in school to earn a degree or certificate.
● Require the expansion of representation on appropriate advisory councils to include at
least one emancipated foster youth. (AB 2463, 1996, p. 91)
In addition, the law requires making sure identified students know of resources and programs,
collaborate with outside organizations in regard to student needs, and provide recommendations
that other academic institutions, such as the University of California and private and independent
colleges and universities, undertake similar efforts to assist emancipated students (AB 2463,
1996). This law was one of California’s initial attempts to address the concerns of FCA enrolled
in community colleges and state universities to persevere to completion. Though expansive, this
population’s needs, institutional changes, and requirements to function and thrive in society
require further and consistent considerations. Initiatives that followed expanded on the services
34
provided and the timelines for access and use. Another program at the federal level, the Chafee
Foster Care Independence Program, established the ETV program in 2002, which provides
former foster youth up to $5,000 in aid for higher education expenses (Watt et al., 2019).
Foster Care Independence Act
The Foster Care Independence Act, also called the Chafee Grant, has been important in
supporting FCA, which sought to expand services and considerations for this population of
students. President Bill Clinton signed it into law on December 14, 1999. The act helps current
or former California foster youth pay for college or career technical training/education by
providing up to $5,000 per year for students enrolled at least half-time. The following are the
requirements to be eligible to access, receive, and utilize these funds (CA Chafee Grant, 1999):
● an individual in or who was in foster care after the age of 16 and under age 23 when
applying may qualify for up to $5,000 per year if enrolled at least half-time
● An individual can use a Chafee Grant at any eligible California college or university,
or career or technical school, as well as schools in other states. All California
community colleges, California State University (CSU) campuses, and University of
California (UC) campuses qualify.
● An individual may use a grant for tuition costs as well as living expenses such as
childcare, rent, and transportation while enrolled in school.
However, an adolescent who leaves the foster care system before the age of 16 due to
being adopted, placed with a legal guardian, or being reunited with their family sacrifices their
education and training benefits (Wolanin, 2005). This federal initiative is a foundational move
made to directly support FCA in college. California has also established the Foster Youth
Success Initiative (FYSI) to directly address attendance and retention.
35
Foster Youth Success Initiative
In response to FCA’s low college enrollment, many states implemented college-specific
programs to increase their attendance and retention rates. California established the FYSI, a
statewide outreach and marketing campaign (Fried, 2007) conducted by the California
Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office (CCCCO). The goals of the initiative are to improve
access to student services and resources, access to academic support, academic
performance/achievement, completion of units, completion of programs and degrees, retention,
and transfer rates (Fried, 2007). The FYSI task force ensures these goals are met. The FYSI
emerged as a result of collaboration between leaders and representatives from numerous higher
education institutions and agencies. Their purpose is to help FCA transition out of the foster care
system, improve their access to college-level support services, and increase retention at CSU
campuses and community colleges. This endeavor is still a priority as only 20% of high school
graduates pursue postsecondary education and are 10% more likely to drop out of college within
6 years (Lindner, 2013).
California College and University Programs
Waters (2019) reported that support programs at the various higher education institutions
in California assist the roughly 35,000 current and former foster youth attending these
institutions. Of these students, about 4,000 attend the UC or CSU, and the remaining 88% attend
one of California’s 116 community colleges (Waters, 2019). These programs are diverse,
offering counseling, mentoring, emergency assistance, and personal support.
The state funds these services and programs, and California community colleges offer
programs like Next Up, also known as Cooperating Agencies Foster Youth Educational Support
(NextUp, n.d.). According to the CCCCO (n.d.), the Extended Opportunity Programs and
36
Services (EOPs) offer the Next Up program, which provides services and resources to help their
participants increase their confidence and ability to become successful, college-educated
individuals. The program offers eligible students support and services like help with books and
supplies, childcare, life skills, financial services, health services, transportation, tutoring, food,
and emergency housing (CCCCO, n.d.). The Next Up program is a supplemental program to
programs such as Guardian Scholars and Renaissance Scholars that also support former foster
youth.
The Renaissance and Guardian Scholars programs are located on college and university
campuses in California, offering a multitude of resources to current and former foster youth.
These resources support providing access to a college education and improving graduation rates.
They address financial and social/emotional support through services that include establishing
productive communities, stable housing, and career-path employment by partnering with campus
departments, clubs, and community organizations. These programs have various requirements
that include citizenship, GPA requirements, and academic counseling, all in an effort to address
and remove barriers to college completion. These California campus support programs seek to
address FCA’s multiple needs, the depth and breadth of which call into question why this
population is not more successful at achieving postsecondary academic goals. Seeking to help
these students achieve their goals takes many forms because of their distinctive experiences and
obstacles. To address these, supports and services have taken two common modes.
Models of Postsecondary Support for Foster Care Alumni
The literature on postsecondary education supports for FCA indicates that there are
several models. According to Salazar (2012), two of the most common modes of support for
37
youth previously in foster care are independent living programs (ILPs) and campus support
programs. These programs are instrumental in former foster youth’s educational success.
Independent Living Programs
Independent living programs are a primary mode of support for youth working toward a
variety of post-emancipation goals, including postsecondary education and training (Salazar,
2012). ILPs target the independent living factors that directly address the barrier related to
independent living stability. These factors allow foster youth who seek higher education
assistance with daily living necessities such as housing, transportation, healthcare, legal matters,
financial management, and employment (Salazar, 2012). Salazar (2012) presented examples of
effective ILPs and resources as determined by FCA who met their goals:
● accessing and navigating funding streams specifically for foster youth
● providing temporary support for students to cover essentials such as books, food, and
rent, especially if there are delays in access to financial aid
● childcare for students who are parents
● flexible housing options (i.e., year-round housing)
● partnerships that allow students to borrow, be given, or buy at reduced cost
necessities such as laptops, books, clothes, and food
● diverse and intensive academic and skill development services
Housing and food pantries are the most accessed of these resources across
college/university campuses. These resources support students with covering their basic needs
during breaks and holidays, when most FCA have a difficult time acquiring these resources,
because most campuses are closed. ILP programs differ across the country due to state funding
and populations’ distinct needs, with minimal evidence of what approaches are actually effective
38
at improving postsecondary outcomes (Salazar, 2012). The second common mode of support for
FCA is campus support programs.
Campus Support Programs
To better address this population’s needs and offer campus-focused support, a growing
number of 2-year and 4-year colleges also developed targeted support systems for their students
coming from foster care (Salazar et al., 2016). Campus support programs commonly offer
supports like scholarships, priority access to housing and course registration, tailored academic
services, mentoring, and referrals to off-campus services, some of which Dworsky and Pérez
(2010) and Hernandez and Naccarato (2010) reviewed. As it relates to programs and supports on
college/university campuses, interpersonal interactions with staff also have an impact on this
population’s success and are typically ignored or overlooked, such as (Salazar, 2012)
● encouraging students and refraining from judgment
● acknowledging students resilience
● being proactive in identifying and offering resources
● acknowledging that some students may still experience unfavorable circumstances
● assigning a faculty/student support staff member as an FCA expert
● starting a college-focused mentoring program with faculty and staff as mentors
● providing supports that other students receive from support systems (i.e., care
packages, moving)
● facilitating students’ campus integration (i.e., club membership/ activities)
● improving and expanding campus mental health services
These services are varied, but the research on their effectiveness is limited. There has
been a demonstrative lack of outcome data in evaluating the effectiveness of these programs,
39
according to Dworksy and Pérez (2010), and most of the data comes from interviews and
program staff, participants, and stakeholders regarding their perceptions of program effectiveness
rather than from empirical comparisons of outcomes (Salazar, 2012). Though ILPs and campus
support programs are the most common modes of FCA supports, research has also begun to
identify the impact of foster youth liaisons in helping them achieve their academic goals.
Foster Youth Liaisons
An additional layer of college support that increases the likelihood of FCA completing
postsecondary education that has not been the focus of much research is foster youth liaisons. A
liaison is not the equivalent of a campus support program. However, liaisons do provide a direct
point of contact for former foster youth from enrollment through graduation. Liaisons provide
communication and support in access to campus-based and community-based resources. There
have been no empirical studies of foster care liaisons in higher education. However,
professionals have made a compelling case for them (Casey Family Programs, 2010; Okpych &
Courtney, 2017).
Conclusion
As they age out of the system, FCA have the same academic ambitions as their non-FCA
peers (Watt et al., 2017). Despite their life experiences and intentional and direct support to assist
FCA in enrolling, continuing, and completing postsecondary education, their success rates
remain low. Research has reported that 7% of FCA enroll in college, though 93% of FCA want
to attend college (CCP, 2017). Though a significant number want to attend, only 20% actually
enroll, with 4% persisting and completing a bachelor’s degree by age 26 (CCP, 2017). The low
rates of FCA earning college degrees are indicative of the challenges this population faces as it
relates to their academic success after aging out.
40
Acknowledging and seeking to address some of these issues/challenges and change the
trajectory of the academic success of FCA, within the last 25 years, federal legislation has
extended and increased support to those aging out of care who are pursuing college degrees
(Okpych, 2012). These initiatives have been important, but federal support ends too soon, and
variability in state policies and college-specific services leaves many youth still with inadequate
support (Okpych, 2012). College-specific programs and services typically provide an array of
financial, academic, social/emotional, and logistical supports to help their participants stay in
school and graduate. Most of the campuses offering these programs and services are
concentrated in California and Washington (Dworsky & Pérez, 2010). Private philanthropy
supports many of these, at least in part, which contributes to the isolated experiences and
resources for former foster youth (Dworsky & Pérez, 2010).
There are multiple services, programs, and initiatives to address and support FCA’s needs
at higher education institutions, but research has found that foster youth who want to attend
college are unaware of the resources available to them. The child welfare system has not been
effective at encouraging and supporting postsecondary education pursuits (Dworsky & Pérez,
2009).
Therefore, the primary goal of this study, with California having the largest population of
foster youth, was to identify institutions with programs. The secondary goal was to determine
their characteristics and the services and supports they offer to FCA to support their completion
of degrees/certificates. The combination of these data collection methods provided answers to
the following research questions and access to FCA to higher education institutions and
services/resources that support their graduation/program completion:
41
1. What are some of the Southern California post-secondary educational institutions that
offer campus-based programs and resources to FCA?
2. What are the range and characteristics of services and programs available for FCA at
post-secondary educational institutions in Southern California?
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Chapter Three: Methods
This chapter describes the methods used to conduct a descriptive analysis of higher
education institutions that offer programs, resources, and support to FCA as it relates to access,
utilization, and academic success. The complexity of the educational and life experiences that
FCA bring to their postsecondary education requires pragmatism (Creswell, 2015). In essence,
“multiple methods, different worldviews, and different assumptions, as well as different forms of
data collection and analysis” (Creswell, 2015, p. 11). When some of these opportunities and
elements are missing because of a lack of access or information, research that contributes to
these closing gaps is essential. This research grants the bridge to the pragmatism required to
address a population’s characteristics that can influence their outcomes.
Descriptive analysis was based primarily on document analysis. Bowen (2009) described
document analysis as a systematic procedure for reviewing or evaluating documents, both
printed and electronic material. It is a method that consists of analyzing various types of
documents (Morgan, 2022). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) noted that the term “document” refers to
a wide variety of material, including visual sources, such as photographs, video, and film. Flick
(2018) heightened this finding by stating that visual material, like documents consisting of texts,
can be a source for qualitative analysis. Patton (2015) summarized this idea by claiming that
“any document containing text is a potential source for qualitative analysis” (p. 378). Documents
that may be used for systematic evaluation as part of a study take a variety of forms, from
advertisements to maps and charts (Bowen, 2009).
Document analysis is a valuable research method because it is less time-consuming and,
therefore, more efficient than other research methods because many documents are in the public
domain. Also, it involves fewer ethical issues, is an unobtrusive and non-reactive form of
43
research, and is cost-effective. Documents are stable, not impacted by an investigator’s presence,
and allow for more opportunities to conduct research that would otherwise be difficult to
undertake. Document analysis has been an underused approach to qualitative research (Bowen,
2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Morgan, 2012).
The first phase consisted of identifying nine higher education institutions in Southern
California that provide resources and support through services or programs to FCA and the
general demographics of these colleges/universities. The second phase involved noting these
programs’ characteristics to identify common and unique programs, assistance, and resources.
Sampling Criteria
California, with the largest population of foster youth (Child Welfare Information
Gateway, n.d.), was the state of focus because of its concentration of college-specific resources
and support for FCA (Dworsky & Pérez, 2010; CollegeStats, 2019). According to CollegeStats
(2019), there are currently 752 recognized colleges and universities in California. Due to the
limited scope of this research, not all institutions could be evaluated. I selected Southern
California because Los Angeles County has the largest number of entries into foster care in the
state (Foster Care Counts, 2022). To create depth and breadth to current research and previously
published literature, a sampling of each type of institution was included. The majority of FCA
enrolled at the postsecondary level attend community colleges and CSU and the UC campuses.
Therefore, I selected three institutions from each of these categories of higher education
institutions: CSU, UC, and community college. These institutions were in the Los Angeles
County region of Southern California. The geography expanded and moved to the neighboring
counties in the northern, western, and eastern regions depending on the data yield.
44
Trade/vocational (also called career/technical) institutions/programs and online programs
were excluded as there was limited information on their resources and access to FCA liaisons.
Therefore, in consideration of these types of institutions/programs, this discussion centers on
higher education institutions that offer these types of programs. Private institutions were also
excluded as the majority of resources from state funding, initiatives, services, and programs
support state-funded institutions. The variance in funding for institutions and eligibility impacts
the presence of FCA on college and university campuses. In addition, the majority of
California’s FCA students register at one of the types of institutions researched (CCP, 2017) to
complete postsecondary education, which allows the opportunity to further connect and evaluate
the resources provided.
As a resident of Southern California, I chose the institutions for this study based on
proximity to me. The initial hope was to visit campuses and interview staff of these programs,
specifically foster youth liaisons (as these positions are not found on many campuses), to get
both qualitative and quantitative data on the effectiveness of access to resources, utilization of
resources, and impact on retention and program completion of participants. However, during this
research, the nation was hit by a global pandemic, COVID-19, which impacted the ability to
conduct in-person interviews and access and communication with potential interviewees. Though
multiple virtual platforms were available (Zoom, Google Meets, Microsoft Teams, etc.),
schedules were hard to coordinate and conduct, introducing new challenges related to equity,
mental health, and the quality of interaction (OpenAI, 2024).
Table 1 lists the Southern California institutions included in the study, along with key
institutional characteristics.
45
Table 1
Southern California Postsecondary Educational Institutions Included in This Study
Name of institution Acronym Classification
California State University, Dominguez Hills CSUDH CSU
California State University, Los Angeles CSULA CSU
California State University, Los Angeles CSULB CSU
Compton Community College CCC CC
El Camino College ECC CC
Los Angeles Southwest College LASC CC
University of California, Irvine UCI UC
University of California, Los Angeles UCLA UC
University of California, Riverside UCR UC
Note. CSU = California State University; CC = community college; UC = University of
California
Instruments and Procedures
The following sections outline the phases of document analysis for this study.
The process of document analysis began with finding the documents for the study using
four factors recognized by Flick (2018): authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and
meaning. These factors are contextualized and explained in Figure 2. Utilizing these factors and
grounding the document analysis in authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning
supported the research in being trustworthy and credible.
46
Figure 2
Flick’s Four Factors for Selecting Documents
Note. From “Conducting a Qualitative Document Analysis” by H. Morgan, 2021, The
Qualitative Report, 27(1), p. 71. (https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2022.5044). In the public
domain.
As previous research noted that college-based programs are a key component to FCA’s
higher education success, information was collected and categorized on institutions that provide
these resources, along with the characteristics, services and assets of these programs. In addition,
general demographic information was collected for each campus, such as location, cost, and
number of programs offered. Relevant information was collected and filtered, such as the types
of degrees offered. The information collected was further filtered on institutions in Los Angeles
County to make data collection manageable and moved to bordering counties, depending on the
findings. College-based programs and their characteristics and service/support at these Southern
California institutions were the focus of the other data collection phases of the study.
47
I conducted identification and secondary data analysis using publicly available
information gathered via general search engines. Table 2 presents the name and site address of
the general search engines accessed.
Table 2
General Search Engines
Name Website
Google www.google.com
Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com
California Department of Social Services www.cdss.ca.gov
California Department of Education www.cde.ca.gov
National Center for Educational Statistics https://nces.ed.gov
College Statistics www.collegestats.org
48
Table 3 lists the colleges/universities with FCA programs and their corresponding
website addresses to access information for analysis.
Table 3
University/Program Search Engines
Name Website
Programs
NextUP https://nextup.cccco.edu
California College Pathways www.cacollegepathways.org
Universities/colleges
Compton Community College https://www.compton.edu
El Camino Community College https://www.elcamino.edu
Los Angeles Southwest College https://www.lasc.edu
California State University, Dominguez Hills https://www.csudh.edu
California State University, Los Angeles https://www.calstatela.edu
California State University, Long Beach https://www.csulb.edu
University of California, Irvine https://uci.edu
University of California, Los Angeles https://www.ucla.edu
University of California, Riverside https://www.ucr.edu
49
In addition, I utilized prior research through articles, white papers, and executive
summaries using university library links to ground the conversation. To access the information,
general search engines were filtered using keywords and relevant phrases:
● aging out
● college/university
● foster care alumni
● foster care alumni programs
● graduation rates
● graduation rates by subgroup
● postsecondary education
● student support programs
The keyword searches provided general demographic information on college/university-based
programs for FCA students, contact information for these programs’ directors, and general
academic data for the college/university (graduation rates, subgroup graduation data, program
information). The following sections describe the phase-specific procedures for this study.
Phase I: Southern California Postsecondary Education Institutions With FCA Programs
Using the general search engine Google to identify Southern California colleges and
universities with programs supporting FCA. Again, I used particular words and phrases for each
search:
● California State University(-ies)
● community college
● map
● Southern California
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● University of California
These searches yielded images and websites of institutions from analyzing the data from
several universities and colleges. I reviewed their individual websites (Table 3) to determine if
they had FCA programs, resources, or services. If one could not be determined or located in this
general search, then I selected the next college/university to the north, east, or west based on the
closest geographical location. If the campus had FCA programs, I searched their school website
for the institution’s general demographics to use in Phase 2 data retrieval to “uncover meaning,
develop understanding, and discover insights relevant to the research questions” (Bowen, 2009,
p. 29).
Phase 2 (General and School-Specific): Southern California College-Based Foster Care
Alumni Programs
I gathered the characteristics of the programs and resources at nine Southern California
higher education institutions, delineated in Phase 1, using data retrieval. From the institutions, I
searched their school-specific websites beginning with distinct keywords for programs,
“Guardian Scholars,” “Renaissance Scholars,” “Educational Opportunities Programs (EOP),”
and general keywords or a combination of “foster care alumni,” “support/resources,” “foster care
student supports/services,” and “student supports and services.” Additionally, once I visited the
websites, I used tabs, links, and drop-down menus to access information not easily found through
keyword searches. I used these sources to determine all the resources, programs, eligibility, and
continuous access requirements, as well as their directories and departments. I documented
further information that was essential to the research questions.
I analyzed data collected in Phase 2 prior to data collection in this phase. Data retrieved
during this phase came from general search engines, school-specific sites, and links on these
51
pages that provided detailed information on school-specific resources, programs, requirements,
and information pertinent to the research question.
Supplementary Phase: Foster Care Alumni Postsecondary Education Statistics
Foster care alumni’s participation was passive, as I did not collect data directly from
these students. I sought only general statistics and trends in relation to their academic success
and potential access and utilization of resources on campus. I sought statistics on FCA academic
outcomes by accessing school-specific and general search engines as well as the websites of the
California Department of Social Services, the California Department of Education, the National
Center for Educational Statistics, and College Statistics. I used keywords for the initial searches
for educational statistics for this population:
● academic outcomes
● academic performance
● California
● California State University
● community college
● completion rates
● education statistics
● FCA
● foster care alumni
● foster youth
● four-year college/university
● graduation rates
● graduation rates at [specific college/university]
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● postsecondary
● postsecondary education
● Southern California
● subgroup
● University of California
I used combinations of these keywords to search for data (i.e., 4-year college completion
rates for youth in California). I expanded these searches when they yielded limited or no
information and used more specific criteria and keyword combinations. This also expanded the
search engines used, as I could find no specific data or statistics and only general data from
organizations that directly support FCA, such as the National Foster Youth Institute. I referenced
white papers (Merdinger et al., 2005; Miller et al., 2017), articles (Pecora et al., 2006a, 2006b;
Villegas et al., 2014), and executive summaries (Bangser, 2008; Benedetto Nietz, 2008; Krinsky
& Liebmann, 2011) to distend the search of educational statistics for the FCA and non-FCA.
Summary of Sample Institutions/Preliminary Analysis
I selected nine Southern California campuses. Three were community colleges: El
Camino College (ECC), Compton Community College (CCC), and Los Angeles Southwest
College (LASC). From the 23 CSU campuses (Figure 3), I selected three: CSU Dominguez Hills
(CSUDH), CSU Long Beach (CSULB), and CSU Los Angeles (CSULA). I selected three of the
10 UC campuses (Figure 4): UC Irvine (UCI), UC Riverside (UCR), and UC Los Angeles
(UCLA).
53
Figure 3
Map of California State University Campuses
Note. The map includes all 23 CSU campuses. Adapted from CSU Requirements, by East Los
Angeles College, 2024 (https://www.elac.edu). In the public domain.
54
Figure 4
Map of University of California Campuses
Note. The map includes all 10 University of California campuses. Adapted from Visit
Universities, by University Culture, 2024 (https://universityculture.org). In the public domain.
I excluded trade/vocational schools and online schools, as I did not find information related to
the subgroup of study. Many community colleges offer trade and vocational certifications, and
all of the colleges/universities selected have online programs or offer online courses.
Data Analysis
I utilized Creswell’s (2015) six steps in the data analysis: organization and preparation of
all data, reading through all the data, coding them, creating a description or determining themes
for further analysis, connecting themes and descriptions, and interpreting the data. The first step
was to review the data from document analysis. I completed this step using Bowen’s (2009)
55
description of document analysis, which involved skimming (superficial examination), reading (a
thorough examination), and interpretation of a first-pass document review to discover significant
and relevant data. Document analysis was the catalyst for pathways of inquiry pursued through
direct further analysis and attempts at quantitative data collection (Patton, 2002). I then
conducted content analysis (Bowen, 2009), where I organized and prepared the data based on the
research questions and the type of information gathered. I recorded detailed documentation and
tracked information mining. In completion of Steps 2 and 3, I analyzed and sorted documents
into similar categories and coded based on school, program, types of resources, and general
academic data. I determined and distinguished overall and non-identified themes and patterns
from demographic and quantitative data to ascertain themes pertinent to the research. I then
combined these themes and categories to create a narrative of the data and trends. In addition, the
final step was interpreting all data to compare against previous literature and provide conclusions
and recommendations to include in subsequent chapters.
56
Chapter Four: Results of Findings
This chapter provides an overview of the analysis of the sample institutions, which
include community colleges, CSU campuses, and UC campuses in Southern California. I outline
the study’s findings through the review of general demographic information for each institution,
the resources and programs they offer to support FCA, and an assessment of these programs’
characteristics. Two major patterns were observed: ILPs and campus-based programs. These
yielded four additional patterns: basic needs, personal development, academic, and professional
development. The purpose of this descriptive analysis research was to identify the types of
resources Southern California postsecondary education institutions offered to increase FCA
access and enrollment in higher education by supporting their retention and graduation. This
study sought to answer two research questions:
1. What are some of the Southern California post-secondary educational institutions that
offer campus-based programs and resources to FCA?
2. What are the range and characteristics of services and programs available for FCA at
post-secondary educational institutions in Southern California?
Findings for Research Question 1
The first research question asked about institutions that offer resources and support to
FCA. To identify them, I analyzed maps of the different types of institutions (excluding private
institutions, trade, and online schools) based on their geographic location and their websites. This
analysis produced general demographic information that I further explored for benefits and
programs. I sought demographics for undergraduates, as this research focused on increasing
enrollment, access, and success for FCA, and most enter as undergraduates or are considered
undergraduates, as they are not completing their programs and certifications.
57
Community Colleges
Table 4 shares the general demographic information for the three community colleges.
Table 4
Selected Southern California Community Colleges With Programs and Resources to Support
Foster Care Alumni, General Demographics
Compton El Camino Los Angeles
Southwest
Student population 4,802 19,944 3,586
FCA programs Guardian Scholars
Next Up
Project Tipping Point
Guardian Scholars
Next Up
Cougar Guardian
Scholars
Next Up
Program home EOP Student Services EOP
Number of
degrees/programs
59 125 57
Offers
career/technical
program
Yes Yes Yes
Cost of tuition and
fees
$1,142 $1,144 $1,238
Full-time or part-time
enrollment
Both Both Both
58
All three community colleges had career/technical programs and 100% acceptance rates
due to the open-admissions policy, similar tuition and fees, and full- and part-time options for
students. At all these institutions, the FCA programs were Guardian Scholars and Next Up. In
addition, CCC had an additional program and layer of support through Project Tipping Point.
Additionally, ECC had a higher student enrollment and offered more undergraduate degrees and
programs than CCC and LASC.
California State University Campuses
Table 5 shares the general demographic information for the three CSU campuses
analyzed.
59
Table 5
Selected Southern California State Universities With Programs and Resources to Support Foster
Care Alumni, General Demographics
Dominguez Hills Los Angeles Long Beach
Student population 13,969 22,737 32,931
FCA programs Toro Guardian
Scholars
Guardian Scholars Guardian Scholars
Program department Educational
Opportunity Program
Educational
Opportunity Program
Student affairs
Offers career/technical
program
Yes Yes Yes
Cost of tuition and fees $7,064 $6,818 $7,008
Acceptance rate 89% 87% 40%
Full-time or part-time
enrollment
Both Both Both
Note. Cost (tuition and fees) is in-state only. Student populations (in-person and online) are only
for undergraduates. Adapted from College Search, by College Evaluator, 2024
(https://collegeevaluator.com). In the public domain.
Though their student enrollment, acceptance rates, and program offerings differ, these
institutions have similarities. They have comparable tuition and fees, and all offer
career/technical programs and full- and part-time enrollment options. They all have Guardian
Scholars programs as their primary direct support for FCA.
University of California Campuses
Table 6 shares the general demographic information for the three UC campuses reviewed
for this research.
60
Table 6
Selected Southern Universities of California With Programs and Resources to Support Foster
Care Alumni, General Demographics
Irvine Los Angeles Riverside
Student population 28,662 32,423 22,911
FCA programs CA College
Pathways
iFoster
FYRE Scholar
United Friends of the
Child
Bruin Guardian
Scholars
Guardian Scholars
Foster Youth
Services
Program department Student services Student activities Office of foster
youth services
Number of
degrees/programs
100 124 80
Offers career/technical
program
Yes Yes Yes
Cost of tuition and fees $14,237 $13,747 $14,170
Acceptance rate 21% 9% 69%
Full-time or part-time
enrollment
Both Both Both
Note. Cost (tuition and fees) is in-state only. Student populations (in-person and online) are only
for undergraduates. Adapted from College Search, by College Evaluator, 2024
(https://collegeevaluator.com). In the public domain.
These institutions have analogous costs for tuition and fees, offer career/technical
programs, and provide full- and part-time enrollment. Also, UCLA and UCR have Guardian
Scholars. In addition, UCI has FYRE Scholars. One difference is that UCR also has foster youth
61
services, and it runs its FCA programs from their own office, which is not shared with other
programs. Lastly, UCI has partnerships that extend beyond FYRE with United Friends of the
Child, iFoster, and CCP, which offer extended support to FCA. This is not the only point of
divergence for these institutions.
Findings for Research Question 2
The second research question asked about the range and characteristics of services and
programs available for FCA in higher education institutions in Southern California. To address
this question, the document analysis produced two major observations: ILPs and campus-based
programs. These two findings produced four additional findings. Independent living programs
yielded two types of programs: basic needs and personal development. Campus-based programs
fall into the categories of academic and professional development.
Finding 1: Independent Living Resources (Observations: Basic Needs and Personal
Development)
Independent living programs support FCA with the skills and resources to function in
day-to-day living, which would be needed regardless of being enrolled in college. These skills
include basic needs, such as housing, transportation, food, and personal development. Personal
development resources are support offered to help students become healthy and productive
people and make connections to the campus and the outside world. These included personal
counseling, life skills workshops, and athletics.
Finding 2: Campus-Based Resources (Observations: Academic and Professional
Development)
Campus-based programs are essential to navigating and succeeding at the higher
education institution and in career/employment or professional growth. These programs were
62
characterized by academic and professional development resources. Academic resources
included priority registration, book/supply vouchers, and tutoring. Professional development
resource examples included internships, resume writing support, and uniforms. Figure 5 presents
general information for the programs identified at the institutions examined and the emerging
themes. Figure 5 was derived from an analysis of the information in Tables 7–9, which depict the
range and characteristics of the institutions examined in this study. These tables include the name
of the program, eligibility, requirements for proof of eligibility and/or to continue accessing
resources, and support offered.
63
Figure 5
Characteristics of Programs Located at All Sampled Southern California Postsecondary
Institutions to Support FCA: Guardian Scholars/Next Up, Foster Youth Resilience in Education
64
Table 7 represents the range and characteristics of the FCA programs offered at
community colleges. Compton Community College, with the added program of Project Tipping
Point, filled the gap of the Guardian Scholars/Next Up program, as I did not find professional
development supports affiliated with this program, though I found no requirements to continue
access to the program. At LASC, I found no programs to support basic needs and professional
development. All institutions in this category had eligibility requisites, as well as personal
development and academic resources for FCA. Table 8 represents the range and characteristics
of the FCA programs offered at CSU campuses. All CSUs had resources that fell into all
categories of both independent and campus-based programs. Table 9 represents the range and
characteristics of the FCA programs offered at the UC campuses reviewed. All three had
resources that fell into all categories of both independent and campus-based programs. Irvine and
Riverside are the only two UC campuses that vary in their accessible information. At UCI, the
FYRE program did not present information on eligibility requirements and/or continued access
to support. At UCR, resources all fell under the categories of basic needs, personal development,
or academics.
Table 7
Range and Characteristics of Sampled Southern California Community College Campus-Based Programs to Support FCA
Community
college Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal development Academic Professional
development
Compton
Guardian
Scholars/
Next Up
Current/
former
foster
youth
16–25 years
old
Enrolled
Contact social
worker
Referral (FCCC)
Contact from
program
EOPS application
Enrollment/
education plan =
9 units
Dorm assistance
Rent
Food
Emergency housing
Transportation
Life skills Tutoring
Priority
registration
Books/supplies
Project
Tipping
Point*
Current/
former
foster
youth
18–25 years
old
HS diploma/
GED
Monthly TAP card
Monthly gas card
On-site case
management
Full tuition
Books/supplies
On-site case
management
El Camino
Guardian
Scholars/
Next Up
FYS application
Enrollment
application
Meeting
w/educational
counselor
Education plan
Transportation Personal guidance
Assistance applying
for personal
guidance
Community
enrichment activities
Textbooks
Course
materials
School
supplies
Tools/
equipment
Uniforms
6
5
Community
college Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal development Academic Professional
development
Enrollment = 6
units
Participate in
events and
workshops
GS personnel
meeting weekly
Progress report
Maintain
cumulative 2.0
GPA
Maintain 50%
pace of unit
completion
Tuition
assistance
Admission to
4-yr
university
Application
fees
Mentoring
Book/
supply
vouchers
Assistance
with priority
registration
Los Angeles
Southwest
College
Guardian
Scholars/
Next Up
Current/
former
foster
youth
Live with
relative
Have open
case
Current
enrollment
17–30 years
old
Maintain 2.0 GPA
or better
Application
Life skills workshop
Community
enrichment activities
Personal counseling
Clubs/organizations
Athletics
Priority
registration
Scholarship/
financial aid
Academic
counseling
Personal
counseling
Computer lab
Educational
enrichment
activities
Peer tutoring
6
6
Note. FCCC = Foundation for California Community College; FYS = foster youth services; EOPS = Educational Opportunity
Programs and Services. HS = high school diploma; GED = general education degree; GS = Guardian Scholar
* Project Tipping Point has highly personalized support not identified on the website but called out.
6
7
Table 8
Range and Characteristics of Sampled Southern California State University Campus-Based Programs to Support FCA
California
State
University
Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal
development Academic Professional
development
Dominguez
Hills
Toro Guardian
Scholars
Experienced
kinship care
Current/
former foster
youth
Experienced
homelessness
Application
Court ward letter
TGS contract
TGS orientation
Image release
forms
Attend 3 one-onone check-ins
w/TGS
counselor
(semester)
Attend 2
workshops
(semester)
Progress report
Emergency
support
No/low-cost
medical
services
Financial
literacy
workshops
Immediate
student
support
Emergency
housing
Student
development
Student leadership
On-campus
networking
Community
building
Student support
Volunteer
opportunities
Peer mentorship
Priority
registration
Scholarships
Book grants
Career
counseling
Internship
resources
Work-study
Los Angeles
Guardian
Scholars
Current/
former foster
youth
Ward of the
court
Previous under
legal
guardianship
Applied/enrolled
GSP application
Court
dependency
letter
Submit
Audio/visual
release form
Attend meet and
greet
Transportation
On-campus
housing
support
Peer mentorship Financial aid
guidance
Priority
registration
Book grants
Educational
counseling
Academic
advisement
Career
exploration
workshops
6
8
California
State
University
Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal
development Academic Professional
development
Attend 2
meetings
(semester)
Attend 3
workshops
(semester)
Pre-admission
counseling
Pre-registration
Long Beach
Guardian
Scholars
Current/
former foster
youth
CSULA GS
application
Foster youth
verification
documentation
Welcome/intake
appointment
GS needs
assessment
GS new student
orientation
Follow on
Instagram
Meet w/EOP
financial aid
counselor
(x1/semester),
GS counselor
(x2/semester),
GS resource
coordinator
(x2/semester)
On-campus
housing
assistance
Counseling and
support
Community
activities
Financial advising
and support
GS summer
experience
Life skills
Life coaching
Academic
counseling
Computer lab
Educational
activities
EOP grant
Priority
registration
Short-term
laptop loan
Tutoring
services
Summer bridge
Professional
development
workshops
69
California
State
University
Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal
development Academic Professional
development
Participate in GS
professional
development
workshops
(x2); GS
gatherings
(x2); GS
engagement
activities (x1)
Note. TGS = Toro Guardian Scholars; GSP = Guardian Scholars Program; GS = Guardian Scholars; EOP = Educational Opportunity
Program
7
0
Table 9
Range and Characteristics of Sampled Southern University of California Campus-Based Programs to Support FCA
University
of California Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal
development Academic Professional
development
Los Angeles
Bruin
Guardian
Scholars
Current/former
foster youth,
kinship,
guardianship,
AB12,
unaccompanied
minor or
probation youth
undergraduate
Proof of
dependency
BGS
application
Attend new
student
orientation
Complete
intake with
an MSW*
Continuous
enrollment
as BGS
Maintain
appropriate
conduct and
community
behavior
Housing
Emergency
housing
Short-term loan
Meal vouchers
Commuter and
transportation
Health and
wellness
Financial assistance
Community events
Counseling and
psychological
resources/
24-hr hotline
Access
End-of-year
celebration
Graduation photo
session
Scholarships
Emergency
scholarships
Book shopping
Computer
scholarships
Priority
enrollment
Academic
support
Grants
Graduate school
waivers
Employment
Internships
Professional
development
funding
Workshops
Irvine
Foster
Youth
Resilience
in
Education
Dependent/
ward of court
Probation foster
youth
Youth subject to
legal
guardianship/
Housing
CalFresh
assistance
Food pantry
Fresh hub
Hygiene pantry
Monthly workshops
FYRE peer
mentoring
On-campus liaison
referrals
Community support
Community lunches
Priority
enrollment
assistance
Textbook
scholarships
Textbook loan
program
Career support
Career pathways
Career toolkit
Resume review
Job and internship
applications
71
University
of California Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal
development Academic Professional
development
voluntary
placement
AB 12
Dependent
(Indian tribe,
consortium of
tribes, tribal
organization)
E-textbook web
links
Chromebook
loan program
Learning and
academic
resources
Testing material
Printing
Tutoring
Scholarship
Laptop and
hotspot loan
program
Academic
support
Personalized
writing tutor
Career
exploration
Riverside
Guardian
Scholars
Current/
former foster
youth
16–26 years old
Independent
financial aid
status
Ward of court
document
Housing
assistance
Family housing
Basic living
expenses
Emergency
funds
Priority housing
Hygiene pantry
Enrichment activities
Mentoring
Mental and physical
health services
Financial aid
Guidance
Counseling services
Community lunch
Community
activities
Academic
support
Student
programming
Personalized
writing tutor
Admission and
enrollment
assistance
Priority
registration
7
2
University
of California Eligibility Requirements
Programs
Independent living Campus-based
Basic needs Personal
development Academic Professional
development
Emergency
tuition
Textbook
assistance**
Note. Proof of dependency includes a letter from a social worker, ward of court letter, court documentation, guardianship papers;
BGS = Bruin Guardian Scholars
*MSW not defined in search.
**Textbook assistance for those students with demonstrated need who were in foster care for any period of time during adolescence
(i.e., ages 10–18).
7
3
74
Overall Research Findings
This section replies to the research questions that guided this research:
1. What are some of the Southern California post-secondary educational institutions that
offer campus-based programs and resources to FCA?
2. What are the range and characteristics of services and programs available for FCA at
post-secondary educational institutions in Southern California?
This research identified institutions offering resources and programs to FCA from the
three public segments (UC, CSU, and community colleges; Figure 6). Private nonprofit and forprofit were not included in the research. For-profit institutions have the lowest
attendance/enrollment preference. Furthermore, for-profit institutions’ primary objective is to
generate profit or financial gain for their owners, shareholders, or stakeholders and focus on
revenue that exceeds their expenses. This typically impacts students in larger tuition, fees, and
costs in comparison to other institutions. and contributes to creating barriers for FCA, who
already encounter financial barriers to independent living.
75
Figure 6
Percentage and Types of Postsecondary Educational Institutions Students in California Attend
Note. Adapted from Higher Education in California: California’s Higher Education System, by
Public Policy Institute, 2024 (https://www.ppic.org/wp-content/uploads/higher-education-incalifornia-californias-higher-education-system-october-2019.pdf). In the public domain.
I found three Southern California community colleges providing support to remove
barriers to FCA academic success: CCC, ECC, andLASC. I also found three CSU campuses:
CSUDH, CSULB, and CSULA. Three UC institutions also offered services: UCI, UCLA, and
UCR. The variance in institutions allows FCA to have choice in their higher education options as
it relates to their preparedness and acceptance. A major difference in these institutions for FCA is
their acceptance rates.
Acceptance Rates
Community colleges have an open admission policy. This policy requires that students
need to have either obtained a high school diploma or a general education degree. This is the
only requirement for admission, making their acceptance rates 100%. California State
Universities were the next educational institutions to have high acceptance rates, with the lowest
76
being 40% and the highest being 89%. Private institutions followed the CSU with acceptance
rates ranging from 12% to 49%. The UC had the lowest acceptance rates of all institutions, with
UCLA having an acceptance rate of 9% and other campuses’ rates being as high as 69%. The
variance in acceptance rates allows for FCA with differentiated educational experiences and
preparation to still have options for their access to higher education institutions. Once accepted,
the second barrier/consideration in which these institutions were different was the size of the
student populations.
Student Population
It was expected that with a 100% acceptance rate, community colleges would have a
higher student population. However, the higher education institutions with the largest student
populations were the UC, followed by the CSU, community colleges, and, lastly, private
institutions. The number of students attending a school can impact the number of
degrees/programs offered. As FCA enter institutions as undergraduates and remain there because
they are not achieving their academic goals, the degree programs offered to this population were
examined. In addition, the differentiation in degrees and programs addresses the access and
enrollment barrier, providing more entry points to secondary education.
Undergraduate Degrees/Programs and Career/Technical (Vocational/Trade) Programs
The number of undergraduate/degrees and programs offered was a direct correlation to
the student population at the majority of higher education institutions. The higher the student
population, the more undergraduate degrees and programs. Evaluating these institutions in total
across categories, they all offered approximately the same number of degrees/programs. All three
community colleges offered 241, all three CSU campuses offered 214, and all private institutions
offered 243. The UC, with the largest population, also offered the most degrees/programs: 304.
77
Separate from these degrees/programs are the requirements for completion and the structure of
the program, which can impede completion for FCA. All selected Southern California Schools
offered career/technical (i.e., vocational/trade) degree programs, identifying the need to support
varied academic goals.
Career/technical (i.e., vocational/trade) degree programs offer a structured pathway to
acquire skills, achieve financial independence, and establish a successful career (OpenAI, 2024).
These programs hold significant value for FCA due to several key reasons (OpenAI, 2024):
• Practical skills and job readiness: These programs focus on hands-on learning and
practical skills development that directly prepare students for specific careers. This
practical approach can be particularly beneficial for FCA who may not have had
consistent support or stability growing up, as it equips them with tangible skills that
are immediately applicable in the workforce.
• Shorter time to credential: Many career and technical programs are shorter in duration
compared to traditional academic degrees, allowing FCA the opportunity to enter the
workforce quickly. This can provide a faster pathway to financial independence and
stability, which is crucial for individuals who may not have a strong support network.
• Focused support and guidance: Programs often offer more personalized support and
guidance, including career counseling, mentorship opportunities, and connections to
industry professionals. For FCA who may lack a strong familial support system, these
resources can play a crucial role in navigating their educational and career paths.
• Increased earning potential: Graduates of career and technical programs often have
competitive earning potential in their chosen fields. This financial stability can
78
significantly impact FCA, who statistically face higher rates of economic hardship
and unemployment compared to their peers.
• Pathway to further education: Career and technical programs can serve as a stepping
stone to further education and training. Many programs offer opportunities for
certification or licensure that can be built upon with additional coursework or
experience, allowing alumni to continue their educational journey as their career
goals evolve.
• Community and network building: Participating in career and technical programs
provides FCA with opportunities to build connections in their chosen industry and
community. These networks can provide ongoing support, professional development
opportunities, and potential job leads throughout their careers.
The applied learning approach, personalized support, and potential for quick entry into
the workforce make these programs particularly beneficial for individuals who may have
experienced adversity and instability during their formative years in foster care (OpenAI, 2024).
Addressing multiple factors that serve as barriers to their success, FCA benefit from
opportunities to learn quickly, apply their knowledge directly to their employment, and
enrollment flexibility to accommodate their individual circumstances and goals.
Full-Time/Part-Time Enrollment
All institutions researched offered full- and part-time enrollment. In addition, the
majority also offered online degree/certificate programs, depending on the course of study. The
flexibility offered for attendance allows FCA the option to create the balance for both academic
success (degree/program completion) and independent living. Depending on the pathway chosen,
FCA can access a myriad of resources such as versatility in attendance, reduced financial
79
impediments, access to priority registration, and financial aid. For FCA cost can be a major
deterrent to their enrollment and attendance.
Cost (Tuition and Fees)
Colleges and universities researched varied in their cost. Community colleges averaged
less than $1,500 a year, making them the most economical option and the least expensive.
California State Universities cost less than $8,000/year. University of California educational
institutions cost less than $15,00 a year. Private educational institutions were the most expensive,
ranging in cost from $46,136 to $66,742. Cost is a major barrier for FCA as there are numerous
other financial commitments that they must navigate and incur to achieve both independent
living and attainment of academic goals. These expenses include survival needs such as food,
housing, and transportation and those associated specifically with education, like books and
materials. Once an institution is identified, FCA have a multitude of resources available to help
them overcome obstacles, depending on their acceptance to and enrollment in a university.
Participation and continued access to these programs are dependent upon eligibility and other
requirements.
Support Services: Eligibility, Access, and Continued Support Requirements
To access and be eligible for all programs, FCA must have had previous or current foster
care experiences, out-of-home placement, tribal affiliation, instability in housing, ward of the
court, or guardianship, though not easily communicated via each school’s institution (i.e., ECC).
However, the establishment of the Guardian Scholars program and the FYRE program at UCI
(Figure 5) convey that there are minimum expectations to be able to access, especially for
institutions that are public and accessing public funding to host the programs. The majority of
80
campuses also have an age (ranging from 16 to 30 years old) and enrollment requirement for
undergraduate students.
Once accepted into the program, some institutions have requirements to continue
receiving support services. These also ranged broadly from application and verification of status
forms to audio/visual release forms. All institutions had a requirement to attend an orientation
and meet with a counselor, program coordinator, or academic advisor (initially or bi-weekly).
Some institutions called out an academic requirement for enrollment.
Loyola Marymount University and all the community colleges studied required students
to enroll in a minimum number of units (i.e., 6–12 units/semester) and maintenance of good
standing, with ECC and LASC requiring a cumulative GPA) of 2.0 or better. El Camino College
even requires that FCA stay on by completing at least half a full courseload per term. At UCLA,
the requirement is that a student have continuous enrollment and not violate norms regarding
behavior. Centering the need for academic performance and campus engagement, most campuses
require FCA to attend workshops for professional development and personal connection. At
CSULB, students are required to follow the university’s Instagram account. This allows them to
stay continuously connected to the school, resources, and events in the program and on campus.
In addition, some campuses, such as CSULB, The University of Southern California, and Loyola
Marymount University, require that FCA also submit a free application for federal student aid,
providing additional access to resources to address financial barriers to completion and
sustainability. These requirements are essential to developing the social skills many FCA might
lack from their time in foster care and will need to succeed both on and off campus. In fostering
their capacity to succeed, supporting the multitude of needs of FCA is paramount, which all of
these campus programs attempt to do.
81
Other Findings
All institutions examined had directors and other staff members to contact as it related to
the programs and resources offered on their campuses. The majority of programs were run
through either student affairs, student services, or EOP offices on campuses. As both a point of
communication and information on all campuses, programs had social media (i.e., Instagram,
Facebook, Twitter) accounts advertised. Many postsecondary education institutions partner with
other programs and organizations to extend resources to FCA. These programs include iFoster,
CalWorks, CalFresh, CARE, RISE, and CCP. There were no institutions studied that had
accessible impact data for FCA, such as graduation rates, demographic data, program
completion, or disciplines of concentration.
Summary
Awareness of the resources and services that institutions offer to increase FCA access
and enrollment in higher education is key to supporting their retention and graduation. This
population’s educational outcomes, as they are addressed, will increase the number of FCA
eligible to enroll, especially since their desire has not decreased. Their completion rates have not
improved, making the resources and services at these institutions the focal point of their success.
This study centered on a small number of Southern California institutions to identify resources
and how they address FCA’s needs. Two major findings emerged from the document analysis:
independent living programs/resources and campus-based programs/resources. Each finding
produced two additional observations regarding resources: basic needs, personal development,
academics, and professional development. Additional findings were that institutions partner with
outside organizations and programs to provide services and extend their reach by utilizing social
82
media platforms to communicate with students. In addition, though there are resources offered to
FCA, there is limited to no data on the impact of these programs on academic success.
The evidence demonstrated that various Southern California postsecondary education
institutions offer services to FCA students, but the correlation between their impact and
discussions of use and access is not clear. This study supports prior research, as the resources
address the barriers FCA face in their transition to higher education, such as independent living
skills, academic skills, study skills, or the support network and resources required to persist
toward program completion (Emerson, 2006, 2007; Wolanin, 2005). Specifically, the general
supports are in academic skill factors, college fit factors, maltreatment, trauma and physical
health, independent living stability, and social support factors (Burns et al., 2022; Courtney et al.,
2017; Davis, 2006; Day et al., 2013; Dworsky & Pérez, 2010; Emerson, 2006 & 2007; Fried,
2008; Martin, 2003; Merdinger et al., 2005; Okpych, 2012; S. Rios & Nevin, 2009; J. R. Rios &
Rocco, 2014; Stoner, 1999; Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002; Unrau et al., 2012). This study also
amplifies the findings of Salazar (2012) and Johnson (2021), as there is still insufficient
empirical evidence of support program effectiveness and very little empirical information
regarding what factors differentiate FCA who do and do not drop out of college (Salazar, 2012).
These gaps demonstrate the need to continue the analysis of the supports offered to FCA to
bolster the research base to indicate what factors these programs should focus on to maximize
success for the students they serve (Salazar, 2012).
The next chapter will address the research questions as they relate to the data and present
recommendations for practice and future investigation.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
As a goal, many foster youth transitioning to adulthood seek to pursue a postsecondary
education (Johnson, 2021; Salazar et al., 2017). Significantly impacting this goal, Unrau et al.
(2012) found that FCA are at a significant disadvantage as it relates to their readiness for college
in comparison to those who have not experienced foster care (Randolph & Thompson, 2017). In
addition, when it comes to higher education, FCA struggle with navigating the demands of both
independent living and fulfilling their academic requirements (Randolph & Thompson, 2017).
Navigating this duality takes many forms, constituting the difficulty for FCA to achieve this
goal, including lack of supportive adults and encouragement to pursue higher education, not
graduating high school, inadequate housing and financial resources, substance abuse, having
children, lack of independent living and college preparation, physical and mental health
challenges, lack of connection to resources and services, lack of campus involvement, and lack
of academic support and school/career planning (Salazar et al., 2017). These difficulties create
substantially lower postsecondary education enrollment, retention, and completion rates in
comparison to the general population (Salazar et al., 2017).
To address some of these difficulties and recognizing the need to better support FCA,
myriad programs and supports have been enacted to support foster youth transitioning to both
adulthood and higher education (Salazar et al., 2017; Randolph & Thompson, 2017). This vested
interest in improving the postsecondary education outcomes of FCA has been demonstrated both
through legislation and policies on a federal and state level (i.e., Chafee Grant) and campusbased support programs (i.e., Guardian Scholars) engaging numerous stakeholders and
policymakers (Randolph & Thompson, 2017).
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This research sought to identify Southern California postsecondary education institutions
that offer support to FCA. This research also investigated the resources and programs for FCA
attending these institutions. The findings of this research build awareness of schools and services
provided for FCA students to strengthen their academic outcomes in terms of attendance,
retention, persistence, and completion.
This research is significant because it identifies the current resources and programs at
institutions to support recruitment efforts, improving the potential of an effective match of
students with these assets to increase the likelihood that once enrolled, they will continue and
culminate. In addition, identification of current resources, programs, and services provides for
effective utilization, determination of impact, and identification of gaps in resources.
Substantiating that once enrolled, these programs and services continue to meet FCA needs.
Moreover, the findings and lack thereof of this research speak to its significance. The findings
revealed that resources offered across campuses can be inconsistent, lacking, and difficult to
determine, creating a barrier to access and utilization for FCA. The absence of access to and
utilization of these supports significantly impacts FCA’s overall postsecondary academic success
and goal completion.
The purpose of this chapter is to address the issues described in Chapter One, respond to
the research questions, and connect the data to previous research. Additionally, implications for
practice, recommendations, and considerations for future research are presented.
Independent Living Programs
Independent living programs were the first universal finding of these research
observations. This finding includes the following two observations: basic needs and personal
development. The following sections discuss how each observation is defined and found on
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Southern California higher education campuses to support the FCA studied in this research. The
services and resources provided are not linear and can be found across observations.
Independent living programs, as they relate to FCA on postsecondary education
campuses in this research, share the same goal and mimic many of the services and resources
provided by the California Department of Social Services Independent Living Program. These
resources “offer training, services and programs to assist current and former foster youth achieve
self-sufficiency prior to and after leaving the foster care system” (California Department of
Social Services, 2024, para. 1). The department identifies services provided as daily living skills,
money management, building self-esteem, financial assistance with college or vocational
schools, educational resources, housing (transitional housing), and employment. These same
skills define ILPs as outlined in this research.
Basic Needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Figure 1) provides the foundation for the physical and
psychological requirements for fulfilling a productive life. Of these requirements he defined as
basic needs. Maslow defined basic needs as the bedrock of the hierarchy including food, water,
air, shelter, clothing, warmth, sleep, and health. These needs are the biological requirements for
human survival (OpenAI, 2024). Maslow believed that people are motivated to fulfill these needs
first and that other needs become secondary until they are met (OpenAI, 2024). Without meeting
these needs, the body cannot function properly, and people cannot be expected to think or
achieve anything higher (OpenAI, 2024). Therefore, for FCA skills and supports that meet their
basic needs are essential to their success, academic and otherwise.
Addressing basic needs insecurity is not new to college/university campuses. Instead, it
gained even more prominence after COVID-19. The California Intersegmental Working Group
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on Student Basic Needs was established in August 2021, after the inception of California
Education Code Section 66023.5, to develop recommendations for the Governor’s Council for
Postsecondary Education that identify opportunities to better support students’ basic needs and
increase their success. Their executive brief features 20 recommendations proposed by the
working group that focus on streamlining supports, reducing barriers, and maximizing the uptake
of publicly available resources and services. The recommendations are organized by
opportunities to strengthen basic needs support through intersegmental, regional, and state-level
partnerships.
The California Intersegmental Working Group on Student Basic Needs consisted of 10
higher education leaders, experts, practitioners, and various student representatives, including
from the 12 institutions represented in this research. This working group also developed its own
basic needs working definition and guiding principles. Understanding that basic needs are
fundamental to students’ dignity and success throughout their higher education experience, to
which FCA are not immune (California Intersegmental Working Group on Student Basic Needs,
2022). They address the following insecurities: food security, housing security, financial
stability, health and wellness, child/dependent care, transportation, and technology and
broadband (California Intersegmental Working Group on Student Basic Needs, 2022). Knowing
that basic needs differ and can evolve, in seeking to better understand the diversity of student
needs and experience, this working group did not develop a broader definition of basic needs
(California Intersegmental Working Group on Student Basic Needs, 2022). Instead, the working
group established aspirational principles that frame the above broad definition and guide their
recommendations (California Intersegmental Working Group on Student Basic Needs, 2022):
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• Meeting students’ basic needs is foundational to affordability, accessibility, and
student success throughout higher education. At the core of basic needs are food
security, housing security, and financial stability. Basic needs can also be expanded to
include other student supports—described above—that are also key to upholding
students’ dignity, belonging, academic achievement, and professional success.
• Students’ challenges with basic needs reflect long-standing struggles with inequality,
inequity, and systemic racism. In addressing basic needs, institutional leaders,
policymakers, faculty, and staff should center equity, accessibility, sustainability, and
justice and work to affirm and support students with disproportionate basic needs
experiences.
• Meeting students’ basic needs is a shared responsibility. Higher education institutions
cannot solve these issues on their own. Therefore, higher education entities should
collaborate intersegmentally and regionally—with each other, with local and state
government, and with philanthropic and community organizations — to more
effectively support students along the full spectrum of basic needs.
The work and considerations of multiple stakeholders, legislation, and focus on basic needs
insecurity identify this observation as essential to all subgroups/marginalized populations, as
they are significantly impacted by all these insecurities (Elliott & Fitzgerald, 2021; Randolph &
Thompson, 2017; Salazar, 2017).
Postsecondary education institutions, in understanding these needs root their work in the
same definitions already discussed. The UC, in its Basic Needs Initiative (also born from the
California Education Code 66023.5), identifies (The University of California Basic Needs
Initiative, 2024):
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Basic needs insecurity, or the lack of the minimum necessary supports for well-being, has
pervaded universities nationwide for decades, and the UC is no exception. Over the last 18 years,
the total cost of attendance at institutions has more than doubled, making it more difficult for the
university's most historically underserved students to thrive in college. Foster care alumni are
among this population, and access to these services supports their retention at these institutions.
The University of California Basic Needs Initiative (2024), found on all 10 UC campuses,
defined basic needs as
The minimum resources necessary to holistically support all students in their daily lives.
An ecosystem that supports financial stability by ensuring equitable access to nutritious
and sufficient food; safe, secure and adequate housing (to sleep, study, cook and shower);
healthcare to promote sustained mental and physical well-being; affordable
transportation; resources for personal hygiene care; and emergency needs for students
with dependents. (paras. 6–7)
When just focusing on housing stability and food insecurity, research conducted by the
UC (2020) found that FCA undergraduate students experienced homelessness at a percentage
greater than double that of non-foster youth (Figure 7). Food insecurity was found to be almost
20% higher among FCA versus non-foster youth (Figure 8), calling out the need for FCA to
receive support at these institutions.
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Figure 7
Percentage of Undergraduate Students Experiencing Homelessness by Demographics
Note. Adapted from The University of California’s Next Phase of Improving Student Basic
Needs, by Regents of the University of California Special Committee on Basic Needs (The
University of California), 2020. (https://basicneeds.ucop.edu/_files/uc-next-phase-of-improvingstudent-basic-needs.pdf). In the public domain.
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Figure 8
Percentage of Undergraduate Students Experiencing Food Insecurity by Demographics
Note. Adapted from The University of California’s Next Phase of Improving Student Basic
Needs, by Regents of the University of California Special Committee on Basic Needs (The
University of California), 2020. (https://basicneeds.ucop.edu/_files/uc-next-phase-of-improvingstudent-basic-needs.pdf). In the public domain.
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The UC’s research all had support to address these basic need insecurities (i.e., housing,
financial, food, transportation, and hygiene). All institutions offered housing assistance,
including emergency (UCLA) and family and priority (UCR) housing. Both these institutions
also identified financial support for FCA, short-term loans, and emergency funding for basic
living expenses. UCLA was the only institution that also provided support for transportation and
college commuters. UCLA and UCI established food insecurity support programs with meal
vouchers, food pantries, and CalFresh assistance and access to Fresh Hub, an on-site food pantry.
UCI and UCR both have hygiene pantries. UCLA was the only school that called out health and
wellness support. The UC institutions are holding true to their Basic Needs Initiative removing
barriers by addressing the insecurities that are impacting FCA and other marginalized subgroups.
When each type of institution is considered in the research, community colleges
identified basic needs according to the state’s education code as including housing, food,
clothing, technology, childcare, and mental health resources, which also supported the need for
institutions to begin the work of addressing students’ basic needs as a barrier to resilience and
success in their academic outcomes. Starting with the 2022–2023 academic year, all community
colleges in the state have received funding to create dedicated basic needs centers on their
campuses to support students’ access to necessities such as food, housing, childcare,
transportation, health care, and technology. Identifying basic needs insecurities allowed for data
to be collected as to the subgroups impacted using their voices in student survey collection on
these campuses.
Data from the Community College League of California (2023) Taskforce reported that
basic needs insecurities by student characteristics revealed that students who have been in foster
care along with those in the military, those convicted of a crime, and students whose
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parents/guardians do not claim them as dependents are significantly more likely to report basic
needs insecurities (Table 10).
Table 10
Rates of Basic Needs Insecurities Among California Community College Survey Respondents by
Student Life Experiences in 2023
Food insecurity Housing insecurity Homelessness
All students 47% 58% 24%
College enrollment status
Full-time (at least 12 credits) 49% 58% 27%
Part-time (fewer than 12 credits) 44% 59% 20%
Dependency status
Dependent 43% 48% 24%
Independent 51% 66% 25%
Student receives the Pell Grant
Yes 54% 67% 26%
No 42% 52% 23%
Student has children
Yes 56% 70% 26%
No 44% 55% 23%
Single parent status (only among parents)
Non-single parent 49% 60% 21%
Single parent 72% 86% 39%
Relationship status
Divorced 60% 78% 39%
In a relationship 52% 60% 26%
Married or domestic partner 43% 62% 20%
Single 46% 56% 24%
Widowed 38% 72% 42%
Student has been in foster care
Yes 81% 82% 68%
No 45% 57% 21%
Student served in the military
Yes 64% 76% 57%
No 46% 58% 22%
Employment status
Employed 50% 62% 25%
Not employed, looking for work 46% 58% 23%
Not employed, not looking for
work
28% 40% 14%
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Student has been convinced of a crime
Yes 71% 84% 57%
No 46% 57% 23%
Note. Adapted from Affordability, Housing, and Food Access Taskforce Report. Real
College California: Basic Needs Among Community College Students, by Community
College League of California, 2023.
(https://ccleague.org/sites/default/files/images/basic_needs_among_california_communit
y_college_students-final-2023.pdf). In the public domain.
This same research/study found that when foster youth were compared to non-foster
youth on the basis of food, housing, and homelessness insecurity, the statistics were significantly
disparaging from 2019 to 2023. Non-foster youth experienced these insecurities considerably
less than foster youth. Over time, non-foster youth showed little change in these insecurities as
they almost remained constant, even decreasing in the securities of food (decreased by 3%) and
housing (decreased by 4%) and slightly increasing in homelessness (increased by 3%).
Compared to non-foster youth, 2023 showed the greatest disparities in these insecurities: food
(36%), housing (25%), and homelessness (47%). However, no matter the year, foster youth had
between 21% to as high as 47% disparity in insecurities (Figures 9 and 10).
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Figure 9
Basic Needs Insecurities Among Foster Youth at California Community Colleges
Note. Adapted from Affordability, Housing, and Food Access Taskforce Report. Real
College California: Basic Needs Among Community College Students, by Community
College League of California, 2023. (https://ccleague.org/sites/default/files/images/
basic_needs_among_california_community_college_students-final-2023.pdf). In the
public domain.
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Figure 10
Basic Needs Insecurities Among Non-foster Youth at California Community Colleges
Note. Adapted from Affordability, Housing, and Food Access Taskforce Report. Real
College California: Basic Needs Among Community College Students, by Community
College League of California, 2023. (https://ccleague.org/sites/default/files/images/basic_
needs_among_california_community_college_students-final-2023.pdf). In the public
domain.
The California community colleges in this research, LASC, ECC, and CCC, were all
identified in this research and the research of the Community College League of California. All
but one had easily identified resources. The only community college in which there was no
specific basic needs support, according to the information retrieved, was LASC. El Camino
College only identified transportation support. The most thorough captured was CCC, which
filled gaps between their two programs (Guardian Scholars/Next Up and Project Tipping Point)
in which they identified the need for housing (dorm assistance and emergency), food, and
transportation. There were gaps in the communication of the community colleges studied on
access to these resources to support FCA in their retention. In addition, not offering these
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services highlights the need for such programs. These are the major supports offered at these
institutions in comparison to others, such as the UC, which also provides financial and hygiene
support.
These institutions, along with the UC and CSU, seek to adhere to California Education
Code 66023.5, and many implementing the Basic Needs Initiative have varying approaches to
addressing their students’ needs. Critical to student success at the CSU, the Basic Needs
Initiative takes a holistic look at students’ well-being both inside and outside the classroom, from
housing and food security to mental health (CSU, 2022).
Identifying the specific resources provided across the observations and across the 23 CSU
campuses, though in contradiction to what was identified in this research. Across all three CSU
campuses researched, there were resources to support housing (either on-campus or emergency).
CSULA was the only one to identify transportation. The only one to include medical supports
was CSUDH. However, the information presented by the CSU (2022) stated that all 23 campuses
offered the following supports:
● food pantry and food distribution programs
● campus health centers
● emergency grants and funds
● CalFresh application assistance
● website to connect students to on- and off-campus resources
However, these resources were not straightforwardly found. The lack of easily identifiable
resources to FCA for basic needs creates an access point and a barrier to student success. In
addition, inconsistency in reporting information about these programs limits access to resources
and, therefore, unintentionally creates barriers to academic success.
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Personal Development
The second observation that emerged from this finding, ILPs, was personal development
in which the resources and supports were those that increase the viability of one’s mental, social,
emotional, financial, cultural, and life skills development. Though basic needs are essential for
all development, the observation of personal development was found to have the greatest number
of resources identified across the institutions researched.
Life Skills
These are the skills required to sustain a livelihood, such as cooking, transportation, and
cleaning, and allow for self-sufficiency and independence (OpenAI, 2024). These skills are
essential for FCA who, while in foster care, might not have developed these skills but need them
to navigate the world after foster care and during their postsecondary education, especially if not
living on campus and if they have roommates. The institutions that had these resources had them
quantified directly as life skills workshops or as personal guidance assistance, life coaching,
student support and development, student leadership, or 1st-year experience support. Institutions
that did not have life skills identified (all UCs and CSULA) had, at minimum, some sort of
personal development as part of their resources for supporting FCA.
Social and Emotional
Social and emotional supports are those that help with strategies and skills that allow for
the formation of healthy relationships and connections to others, resources, the campus, and
community-based connections. For FCA, the root of their foster placements disrupted their
capacity to establish, build, and develop productive social and emotional connections that are
required for navigating higher education institutions. Resources and supports that enable FCA to
fill the gaps in their development allow them the ability to succeed. This skill development area
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manifests in the ability to navigate the campus effectively, utilize office hours and other
academic support services, and overall advocate for themselves in new and unfamiliar situations.
The nine colleges/universities had at least two of the three identify a social/emotional
skill/support. These supports across institutions took the form of on-site case management,
personal guidance, monthly workshops, peer mentoring, on-campus liaison referrals, guidance
counseling, and general mentoring. Though this observation is more expansive, resources fall
under mental/physical (health and well-being) and culture-based resources.
Mental/Physical (Health and Well-Being)
Mental/physical health and well-being aid in ensuring FCA’s success in higher education
and life. Supporting these needs allows them to have the mental and physical strength to sustain
the demands of a postsecondary education. Institutions that address these barriers understand that
this population’s academic success requires more than just supporting their academic needs. Not
all the institutions had resources that could be classified in this observation (i.e., UCI, CCC,
CSUDH, and CSULA), but all had some version of mental/physical (health and well-being)
support. The breadth of these services included counseling and psychological services (with 24-
hour hotline access), mental and physical health services, personal counseling, student
psychological services, wellness services, health and counseling referrals, and counseling and
support. These services allow access and help FCA direct their path of success through these
resources.
Cultural and Community Connection
Cultural supports and services help FCA connect to their environments and themselves.
Connecting to their campus through a variety of avenues allows this population to have multiple
access points and opportunities to succeed academically because of this relationship and
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commitment to the institution. Connecting to themselves allows them to see themselves as
academics and identify with the assets of their culture. More importantly, they begin to cultivate
themselves and their personal culture, identifying their intersectionality as academics, increasing
their likelihood for success. LASC and CSULA were the only institutions where cultural
resources were not directly identified, but when social and emotional supports are considered,
the only institution without identified supports in either category was CSULA.
Cultural/community connections provide culturally competent services, and connecting them
with resources that honor their heritage and traditions can foster a sense of belonging and
empowerment on higher education campuses (OpenAI, 2024). All the community colleges called
for some type of cultural or community connections through community enrichment. The only
community college to call out clubs/organizations and athletics as a means to meet this
requirement was LASC. All campuses called them out in different manners. The UCs offer
community events, activities, lunches, supports, enrichment activities, and end-of-the-year
celebrations. All but one CSU (CSULA) identified connections: on-campus networking,
community building and activities, volunteering, and Guardian Scholar experiences.
Financial Literacy and Stability
Foster care alumni often need support in managing finances, including budgeting, saving,
and understanding banking systems (OpenAI, 2024). They may require guidance on accessing
financial aid, scholarships, and student loans (OpenAI, 2024). These two factors make the need
for FCA financial programs essential to their success, especially on college campuses where they
are steering new financial processes and large sums of money and decisions as it relates to
payments, allocations, and tracking of all funds. The researched institutions have, at minimum,
determined the need for these programs, with the exception of community colleges. Community
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colleges had no identified financial support for FCA, creating a significant gap in supports, as
most FCA attend community colleges. These resources might be offered, but they were not
easily identifiable by a layperson seeking to support or access resources for this population. The
variety of programs across campuses also provides further gaps, creating inconsistency in student
experiences. For example, CSU institutions have financial assistance, but CSULB added the
additional support of financial advising, making it the only CSU that provided both financial
advising and support. Both UCI and UCR also provided financial assistance to FCA.
Independent living programs support the basic needs and personal development skills
required to enter into postsecondary education. Higher education institutions that provide these
services address one of the barriers to FCA enrollment, retention, and completion. The breadth of
these programs across various institutions demonstrates the needs and significant gaps in FCA
access to resources that support their academic success.
Campus-Based Support Programs
As discussed in the section on the first finding and found through previous research, such
as that by Geiger et al. (2018) on various campus-based support programs, services such as
mentorship, financial aid, and academic counseling are key to FCA success. Salazar (2012) and
Salazar et al. (2016) found that the key elements that help retain FCA students in higher
education included campus-based support programs and as integral to their success. All the
institutions highlighted campus-based support programs to provide FCA with access and
completion of postsecondary education goals, making this the second major observation of this
research’s findings. This finding includes two additional observations of academic support and
professional development.
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FCA often face significant barriers to accessing, thriving in, and completing higher
education (OpenAI, 2024). Campus-based support programs as they relate to FCA on higher
education campuses in this research have the same/similar services and only vary slightly in the
breadth of these services, depending upon the institution and structure to address these
impediments. These services are academic and professional. Academic and professional campusbased support programs play a critical role in mitigating these challenges and fostering an
environment conducive to their academic and personal success (OpenAI, 2024) through and
beyond their postsecondary education.
Academic
Foster care alumni are often underrepresented in higher education due to various factors,
including financial instability, lack of family support, and educational disruptions (OpenAI,
2024). Academic and campus-based support programs aim to provide financial assistance,
admission support, and course material supplies to assist their academic persistence and
achievement (OpenAI, 2024). Therefore, for FCA, this level of support is crucial to their
postsecondary education goals, bolstered by the research, as all institutions studied had them.
Financial Assistance/Aid
A significant obstacle for FCA is the cost of attending college, second to lacking the
skills and education to be eligible for enrollment (OpenAI, 2024). Financial assistance/aid in the
form of scholarships, grants, loans, emergency funds, and tuition, admission, and application
waivers specifically targeting FCA reduce financial burdens and increase access to education
(OpenAI, 2024). Without financial support, many FCA find higher education inaccessible
(OpenAI, 2024). Financial assistance programs reduce the costs associated with attendance and
daily life, including housing, meals, and transportation. These funds also support FCA in
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removing the barrier created by financial insecurity and the potential additional costs associated
with enrolling and attending these institutions. Though loans are a viable source of financial
assistance for FCA, financial aid reduces the reliance on these forms of financial support,
allowing FCA to focus on their coursework. This primary source of support to FCA was found at
all institutions researched, solidifying the need for financial assistance/aid to support the
necessity to support these students’ enrollment and completion. At UCLA, this support also
includes graduate school waivers, removing barriers, and addressing postsecondary education
goals.
Supplies
Supply grants and supply loan programs that provide funding and access to books,
technology, and course materials are essential to academic success for FCA (OpenAI, 2024). By
reducing financial stress, ensuring equitable access to resources, improving academic
performance, and promoting retention, these grants play a critical role in leveling the playing
field for FCA, enabling them to thrive in their academic pursuits and achieve long-term success
(OpenAI, 2024). All institutions offered some a supply grant or support to FCA students.
Supplies are essential to students’ success of students and access. Institutions that offer uniforms
for job employment, such as ECC, extend support to FCA beyond the academic to their future
success. Many institutions have course platforms required to effectively engage and
communicate learning and content mastery. Supply grants and loans ensure that FCA have equal
access to the same high-quality academic resources as their peers. This contributes to a more
level playing field in the following ways (OpenAI, 2024):
● Access to required course materials: Many courses require textbooks, reading
materials, specialty supplies (i.e., lab equipment, art supplies, calculators, compasses,
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and tools), or software that are integral to a student’s success. Without supply grants,
loans, and accessible free resources, FCA may skip purchasing these resources or
have limited access to labs and short-term rentals, putting them at a disadvantage. By
covering these costs, grants ensure that FCA have the tools to complete assignments
and fully engage in their studies. UCI had the most identified breadth as it related to
supplies also calling out printing and testing materials as a layer of academic support
they offer. This institution also understood that printing (i.e., midterms, papers, final
projects, theses, and dissertations) and having access to testing materials (i.e., blue
books and scantrons) could be unforeseen and unintentional barriers to FCA
postsecondary academic success.
● Access to technology: Increasing reliance on digital learning and online courses
requires access to appropriate technology (such as laptops, tablets, hotspots,
Chromebooks, and software) is essential. Many FCA may not have access to these
devices on their own, and campus labs have hours that could impede access. Supply
grants and loans that fund technology ensure FCA can participate fully in virtual
classrooms, conduct research, and complete assignments.
Services
Once FCA gain access to college, academic challenges often arise due to previous
educational disruptions and inconsistent support throughout their schooling (OpenAI, 2024).
Foster care alumni benefit from academic advising, tutoring services, and access to educational
resources to help them succeed in their studies. This support may include assistance with course
registration, priority registration/enrollment, educational counseling, and accessing disability
services if needed. Campus-based programs that address these challenges can significantly
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enhance access and academic performance. These types of campus-based support programs were
located across all institutions, solidifying their need.
Professional Development
Foster care alumni face challenges as they navigate higher education and transition into
the workforce. In addition to academic support, professional development is crucial for FCA to
ensure they can thrive in their careers and achieve long-term success. Professional development
support plays a vital role in equipping FCA with the skills, confidence, and networks needed to
excel in their professional lives, bridging the gap between their postsecondary and lifelong
success (OpenAI, 2024). Many professional development programs partner with local
businesses, organizations, or alumni networks to offer FCA meaningful job placements,
internships, or cooperative education opportunities that directly align with their career goals
(OpenAI, 2024). The forms of professional development were categorized into three areas:
employment and career development, workshops, and career exploration and counseling.
Employment and Career Development
Assistance with job readiness skills, job search strategies, resume building, and interview
preparation is necessary. Foster care alumni may also need help securing internships or part-time
employment opportunities that align with their career goals. Work experience is one of the most
important factors for career success. Programs that offer paid internships, stipends, or workstudy opportunities allow FCA to gain work experience without sacrificing financial stability.
This enables students to focus on gaining industry-related experience without having to balance
unrelated part-time jobs for income. Job placement services offered by professional development
programs can also assist FCA in finding employment post-graduation. In addition, they can earn
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entrance into potential careers in which they seek to gain employment after their postsecondary
education completion.
Workshops
Workshops provide FCA with practical skills. These programs help students translate
academic knowledge into real-world applications, increasing their employability. Many FCA
face self-doubt or imposter syndrome as they enter the professional world due to their prior
educational and life experience in the foster care system. Professional development programs
help build confidence, teaching students how to present themselves professionally and navigate
workplace dynamics. Foster care alumni often face higher unemployment and underemployment
rates compared to their peers.
Career Exploration and Counseling
Foster care alumni often need tailored advice on how to identify career paths, write
resumes, prepare for interviews, and navigate the complexities of job searches. Career services
and professional development programs offer the structured guidance that many FCA lack from
their personal networks. These students often require individualized career counseling to address
their needs and circumstances. Dedicated career counselors who understand the challenges FCA
face can provide personalized guidance, helping students navigate specific challenges such as
career indecision, financial limitations, or balancing school and work.
Many FCA may not have had guidance in planning long-term career goals. Professional
development programs assist by helping students set realistic career goals, identify steps to reach
those goals and connect them to the necessary resources. For many FCA, career advancement
may require ongoing education and skill development even after they graduate. Many institutions
provide alumni access to career services and professional development workshops long after they
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graduate. This continuous support helps FCA adapt to changing industries, acquire new skills,
and stay competitive in the workforce. Certain career paths may require additional certifications
or ongoing professional development. Programs can help FCA identify these needs and offer
guidance on obtaining relevant certifications that boost employment aptitude.
These professional development skills, though essential to FCA’s lifelong success,
survival, and capacity, are not supported across institutions. Assistance for developing these
skills was found at all CSUs researched but not at all UCs and community colleges. For example,
UCR, CCC, and LASC had no identified/categorized professional development resources or
services for FCA. Identifying further gaps in the research as it relates to this population and their
access and completion of goals and future/continued success.
The symbiotic relationship of both academic and professional development resources as a
support is a crucial element in ensuring the long-term success of FCA into, through, and beyond
postsecondary education institutions. They provide access to resources during and preparation
for after completion in the form of financial assistance/aid, supplies, services, employment and
career development (i.e., internships, mentorship, career counseling, networking opportunities),
workshops, and career exploration and counseling. These programs help FCA bridge the gap
between education and employment. They foster confidence, provide much-needed guidance,
and build essential soft skills, academic navigational skills, and job-related competencies
(OpenAI, 2024). Ultimately, academic and professional development support enables FCA to
transition from college to graduate education opportunities and career pathways (OpenAI, 2024).
Investing in academic and professional development has long-term benefits for FCA (OpenAI,
2024). These resources and support help FCA complete programs and pursue education and
careers that align with their strengths and passions, leading to greater education, career
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satisfaction, and success. Increasing their likelihood of completing programs, continuing their
educational pursuits and securing higher-paying jobs, success in their fields, and career stability
and growth.
Limitations and Considerations
In the consideration of any research or experimental study, there will always be
limitations, and this study is no different. Researchers attempt to limit these barriers to ensure the
reliability and validity of the data and findings. In doing so, researchers acknowledge where
there could be anticipated challenges, such as in the population under consideration and research
methods used.
Document analysis as a research methodology has three major limitations inherent in
documents that affect the interpretation of results and definitive research conclusions, making it
not always advantageous (Bowen, 2009). Bowen (2009) and Morgan (2021) both addressed
these limitations. The first limitation is insufficient detail (Bowen, 2009) or limited information
(Morgan, 2021). Typically, documents are produced for a purpose other than research,
independent of a research agenda, so they usually do not provide sufficient detail to answer a
research question. In some cases, information does not exist.
There is little statistical data on FCA graduation rates and other academic outcomes
because of anonymity, inconsistency in data collection, or the lack of data altogether. As a
marginalized subgroup, research on their postsecondary academic success has taken place only
over the past decade or so, mainly through case studies and qualitative research, and there are
still significant gaps in the literature.
The second major limitation of document analysis, low retrievability, calls out that
documents are sometimes not retrievable, difficult to retrieve, or there is not enough data to
108
complete a study that matches a researcher’s interests (Bowen, 2009; Morgan, 2021). Yin (1994)
noted that access to documents may be deliberately blocked (Bowen, 2009). Determining their
success in relation to their non-FCA counterparts can prove difficult when the data do not exist,
or there is no public access. At the postsecondary level, quantitative data on this population is not
accessible, requiring the analysis of articles, dissertations, and theses.
The limitations of lack of information or insufficient detail and low retrievability lead to
the third major limitation of document analysis: bias selectivity (Bowen, 2009; Morgan, 2021).
An incomplete collection of documents leads to fewer opportunities to check for bias and
suggests bias selectivity (Bowen, 2009; Morgan, 2021). For example, Bowen (2009) described it
in an organizational contact based on Yin’s (1994) findings:
In an organizational context, the available (selected) documents are likely to be aligned
with corporate policies and procedures and with the agenda of the organization’s
principles. In addition, they may also reflect the emphasis of the particular organizational
unit that handles record-keeping (i.e., Human Resources). (p. 80)
This statement can also be applied to the educational context as school data and reporting align
with the mission of the school, departments, student population supports, and other academic
entities.
These limitations should not be viewed as disadvantages to this methodology but as
potential flaws (Bowen, 2009). When considering document analysis, cost-effectiveness and
efficiency offer advantages that outweigh its limitations (Bowen, 2009). However, I made all
efforts to address these and other limitations. The most significant was accessing and analyzing
multiple sources of data to allow for contextualization and grounding of the research,
contributing to the conversation around how to best support these students toward meeting their
109
academic goals. In addition, objectivity and sensitivity were demonstrated in the selection and
analysis of data from documents to increase the credibility and validity of data and mitigate some
of the limitations.
Implications for Practice
This study’s findings should be used to inform the practices of those supporting FCA as
they seek to access, persist, and complete higher education and career goals. These include K–12
and higher education institutions (including FCA support programs, educators, administrators,
student support professionals, and foster youth liaison), child welfare agencies and advocates, the
juvenile justice system, DCFS, and FCA. Working collaboratively to hear from and establish
resources and supports (i.e., wraparound services) can help to responsively and proactively fill
the gaps often established by foster care experience. This research also sought to inform
policymakers as to the supports and resources currently found on Southern California campuses
vary depending on the type of institution in the breadth and depth of these offerings.
Policymakers should partner with postsecondary education institutions and FCA to ensure that
policies and financial allocations are meeting this population’s needs across institutions equitably
to support their access and persistence through and beyond academic goals. To support this
population, institutions should partner with stakeholders to address communication, retention,
and goal completion.
Postsecondary institutions should work with marketing and communication teams to
bolster their communication to FCA as it relates to a detailed and comprehensive accounting of
resources offered, access, and eligibility to these resources to assist FCA in maximizing their use
of them and removing barriers to their postsecondary success. Postsecondary institutions should
also partner with more graduate programs, businesses, and community institutions to expand
110
their offerings as it relates to FCA and their academic and career goals for the 1% to 11% (J. R.
Rios & Rocco, 2014; Johnson, 2021) FCA that complete programs and still need support
navigating the world. This research illuminates the challenges FCA face as they seek to access
higher education and, more importantly, the resources offered to them. Information from this
study can be used to expand educational policy and institutional communication, staffing, and
resource/service offerings at Southern California campuses. Moreover, this research contributes
to the literature on the scope and profundity related to independent living and campus-based
supports while accentuating the need for research on the gaps that persist around this population.
Recommendations
This section provides further recommendations for additional stakeholders crucial to the
success of FCA as it relates to their access, retention, and completion of higher education goals.
Recommendation 1
The first recommendation is to support foster families directly to advocate for their
students. Foster families must participate in foster and kinship care education to host foster
children. As part of their participation, they should include information/courses to support their
knowledge and programs accessible at colleges/universities. Foster families that are looking to or
have foster children in middle and high school placed with them should be provided content that
they can check on or staff contact information for FCA programs as it relates to possible
campuses students are seeking to attend. Informing the families supports access by creating
another access point. In addition, this means that social workers and other service providers
should also be informed, increasing the communication points as it relates to independent living
and campus-based programs.
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Recommendation 2
The second recommendation is to increase pre-access communication points to FCA, by
partnering with secondary institutions as it relates to resources and services offered. Most FCA
rely on their college and career counselors for support. However, many high school counselors
are unaware of the resources directly provided for this population of students. Counselors should
form partnerships with postsecondary site liaisons to support students wanting to attend these
institutions in accessing these resources. Creating a direct bridge from high school to college will
ensure that these students access the resources available to them and are more likely to utilize
them and persist through college. This bridge could provide direct contact with the person at the
college/university, field trips to the institution, or representatives knowledgeable of the resources
sharing them at secondary institutions via site interest visits. In addition, a partnership between
these two entities will extend support to FCA, as students will be aware earlier as to what it takes
to succeed academically and socio-emotionally before they start, creating proactive connections
and transitions from secondary to postsecondary endeavors.
Recommendation 3
The third recommendation is for colleges/universities to be more flexible in their program
pathways and offerings as it relates to FCA. Colleges/universities should offer and have more
dedicated online degree programs with direct support, as a means of flexible programming for
FCA. This means content and counselors that support students. Increasing the likelihood that
students will attend and complete programs offered as many of the current barriers (i.e.,
transportation, books, etc.) can be removed. Addressing the barriers means having a committed
counselor to support FCA. A counselor who focuses on students’ educational trajectory and
supports them in making sure that they continue on their path to completion. Though this
112
addresses a significant number of barriers, the counselor would need to develop a program that
also supports the socio-emotional connection to build the students’ social capital and not just
focus on the resilience of the students as it relates to their completion of programs. Partnerships
should also include opportunities for counselors to have printed and other materials accessible at
their secondary campuses for students to access.
Based on this study, these are a few recommendations to support FCA in accessing,
persisting, and completing postsecondary education goals. However, all means of support should
be utilized to increase opportunities for success.
Future Research
The research on FCA, the resources and services offered at higher education institutions,
the data on this population, and their completion of postsecondary education identifies the need
for more expansive research. This research identified the Southern California institutions that
offer resources and services to FCA and the types of supports offered. However, there is still
more information to be sought to remove barriers for this population as it relates to their access,
persistence, and completion of post-secondary education. Future research should seek to
determine the direct impact of access to these supports on college persistence and completion.
The Southern California institutions researched identified the resources and services available,
but there was no data or information on access, utilization, and impact on FCA success. Each
campus has programs to support this population, but their completion rates are still very low,
even with intentional funding and provisions. The number of services and programs offered also
implores the question of knowledge and access.
This study accessed the services and programs offered with intentional time and
consideration. Foster care alumni seeking to find support could have a hard time accessing all
113
that is available to them if not informed and told of the availability of these resources. In
addition, many services are for students in general, and the ones that are specific to this
population could be difficult to determine without an informed liaison. Resources could overlap
with those provided to students with disabilities and be housed in the same offices/locations.
Thus, future research should examine how these provisions are communicated to remove
challenges and create access points for students. Much of the research thus far consists of
interviews with FCA about their college experiences and reviews of these experiences. Future
researchers should interview foster youth liaisons, as well as college and career counselors and
those offering/supporting services to FCA.
Communication among and across institutions is paramount. This research found
there were inequities in the resources, eligibility, and requirements of populations.
Considerations that need to be considered are students with intersectionalities. For
example, FCA and Special Education designations, or immigrant and FCA. Institutions
involved in removing and addressing barriers for this population must be in
communication, to share resources, information/knowledge to have profound impacts on
their success and outcomes.
Hearing directly from FCA is paramount. Yet, to extend the conversation and build on
current knowledge, research should also include other stakeholders, such as high school
counselors and foster families. Their voices can provide more context to this population's
experience on college campuses and program reform and policies. Lastly, future research should
seek to locate and share education data as it relates to this population.
Understanding that their identification on college/university campuses can, at times, be
difficult to determine, quantitative data as it relates to the programs at institutions in which
114
students are finding success can be impactful. For example, there is a need for more data on the
support programs students utilize, the degree/certificate programs in which they succeed, and the
time required to complete programs to inform how we support this population. Therefore, there
is a need to extend the research on these students, the obstacles they face, the stakeholders,
resources, and programs they access, and the direct impact and outcomes of college admission,
retention, and completion.
Conclusion
According to J. R. Rios and Rocco (2014), though 70% of FCA reported wanting to
attend college, on par with their non-FCA peers, only an estimated 20% enroll, with 1% to 11%
actually completing their postsecondary education endeavors. With the number of FCA reporting
they want to attend and complete college and the percentage actually completing this goal, it is
imperative to identify and remove limitations to their success and increase the supports afforded
to them.
This study found that there are a significant number of resources offered as it relates to
independent living and campus-based supports at Southern California colleges and universities to
assist FCA in persisting and completing college. These resources vary in their offerings, breadth,
and depth. Creating inequitable access and utilization across college/university campuses. Also,
the research revealed the necessity for more direct means of communicating and connecting FCA
students with these resources. There was purposeful intention in seeking out these resources,
which at times was cumbersome and required persistence to deduce the required information,
creating an unintentional barrier for students to access at these campuses. The observations
support Johnson’s findings (2021) that there needs to be a concerted effort to work across and
within disciplines to increase communication as it relates to continued research, theory, practice,
115
and implementation to assist in removing barriers for FCA to postsecondary education goal
completion. Colleges and universities need to continue their efforts in offering, communicating,
and determining their impact on FCA to increase their potential to complete their academic and
career goals.
116
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This qualitative study used resilience and social theory as the framework to examine the programs, resources, and services offered to foster care alumni (FCA) at nine Southern California colleges/universities to mitigate the barriers to access, retention, persistence, and completion of degree/certificate programs. The study used Flick’s four models of selecting documents as they relate to FCA resources and services. Despite national and state efforts, FCA remain an underserved population in postsecondary education, with significantly lower enrollment and graduation rates compared to their peers. Data were collected through document analysis of various forms accessed via the internet from these higher education institutions and other organizations supporting FCA. The study found that the institutions offer resources and supports in the form of independent living programs that include basic needs and personal development and campus-based support programs that include academic and professional development. Data suggests that these programs are essential to postsecondary education success for FCA. Recommendations for practice include supporting foster families directly to advocate for their students, increasing pre-access to communication points to FCA, and colleges/universities to be more flexible in their program pathways and offerings as they relate to FCA.
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Fostering postsecondary education: descriptive analysis of programs at postsecondary institutions for foster care alumni in southern California
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