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Black middle school girls' self-efficacy for science

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Black middle school girls' self-efficacy for science

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Content Black Middle-School Girls’ Self-Efficacy for Science
Raleen Ann Miller
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Education
December 2024

© Copyright by Raleen Ann Miller 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Raleen Ann Miller certifies the approval of this Dissertation
David Cash
Kimberly Hirabayashi
Anthony Maddox
Patricia Elaine Tobey, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to understand Black middle-school girls’ perceptions of selfefficacy for science subjects. This study provided insight into the participants’ perceived
educational, familial, and community experiences that allow for understanding the sources of
self-efficacy they rely upon for academic motivation. Furthermore, this research revealed how
their self-perceptions and experiences contributed to their expectations for academic success and
future selection of science courses in high school and college, in addition to future career
aspirations. This study was conducted using qualitative research methods. Participants were 11
Black middle-school girls who attended Saturday enrichment courses in science provided
through a university-affiliated program. Data were derived from small-group and individual
semi-structured interviews and documents. The findings brought to light that mastery experience
and performance accomplishments, in addition to physiological and emotional states, were the
most potent sources of self-efficacy that increased participants’ beliefs in their ability to succeed
and achieve in science subjects.
Keywords: self-efficacy, middle-school girls, academic achievement, science, selfperceptions, motivation, career aspirations

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Dedication
“We look at science as something very elite, which only a few people can learn. That’s
just not true. You just have to start early and give kids a foundation. Kids live up, or down, to
expectations” (Jemison, 1994, as cited in Chicago Tribune, 2021, para. 7).
To all the educators in our nation’s public-school systems who teach Black girls in subjects
related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Courses at the high school level
include AP calculus (AB and BC), AP Physics C (mechanics and electricity & magnesium), AP
Biology. AP Chemistry, AP Physics, Quantum Physics, AP Environmental Science, AP Computer
Science A, AP Statistics, AP Genetics, AP Microbiology, Advanced Engineering Design,
Robotics, Coding, Electronics, AI (artificial intelligence), and Aerospace Engineering. For Black
girls to participate in such classes, they must be prepared, and that preparation starts at the
elementary school level. Furthermore, preparation becomes critical at the middle school level,
along with the development of positive self-efficacy for science related subjects. K – 12
educators hold the power, and I know they are up to the task. They have inspired me, they have
inspired the participants of my study, and they will continue to inspire young Black girls to
pursue their academic and career goals related to science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics.

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Acknowledgments
I am grateful to my family and friends and many others who have traveled alongside me
and have inspired me during my long doctoral journey. The completion of my program, and
especially the dissertation, would not have been possible without the special people who helped
me along the way.
Dr. Patricia Tobey, thank you for believing in me and understanding the ramifications of
my disability. You were understanding, empathetic, and supportive without being judgmental. I
would never have made it without you. I am grateful to you beyond measure.
Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi, as my professor for one of the critical educational psychology
courses of the Ed.D. program, you inspired me. Not only that, but your insights and guidance
regarding the writing of my dissertation after my proposal defense and my final defense were
game-changers and propelled me forward to the finish line.
Dr. David Cash, I sincerely appreciated your contribution to my dissertation, especially
related to your expertise and perspective regarding K–12 curriculum, instruction, and
administration. And to Dr. Anthony Maddox, I am appreciative that you joined my team of
committee members, especially considering your engineering background.
I would never have been able to conduct my study and complete my dissertation without
Dr. Tiffany Young. As my proxy interviewer, you provided a valuable service to me, the
participants, and the body of research on the subject of self-efficacy for science of Black middle
school girls.
Finally, I am indebted to the beautiful, intelligent, talented, Black girls who participated
in my study, the “Awesome Eleven.” It was my honor and privilege to have you as participants in
my study.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................x
Chapter One: Overview of the Study...............................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................6
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................7
Significance of the Study .....................................................................................................8
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................8
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature..........................................................................................13
Race and Gender Disparities in the STEM Workforce ......................................................14
STEM Diversity in Higher Education................................................................................15
High School and Middle-School Years and Long-Term Academic and Career Goals......16
The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Black Middle-School Girls for Science ..................18
Theoretical Framework......................................................................................................20
Summary............................................................................................................................22
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................23
Sample and Population ......................................................................................................24
Ethical Considerations.......................................................................................................27
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................27
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................28

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Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................30
Positionality .......................................................................................................................31
Summary............................................................................................................................32
Chapter Four: Findings..................................................................................................................33
Descriptions of Participants...............................................................................................34
Summary............................................................................................................................39
Program Context Analysis .................................................................................................40
Research Findings..............................................................................................................43
Vicarious Experience: Teachers, Administrators, and School Personnel as Role Models.51
Chapter Summary ..............................................................................................................58
Chapter Five: Discussion ...............................................................................................................61
Theoretical Framework......................................................................................................61
Research Question .............................................................................................................62
Discussion..........................................................................................................................62
Implications and Recommendations for Practice ..............................................................71
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................75
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................77
References......................................................................................................................................78
Appendix A: Informed Consent for Research................................................................................88
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter to Parent of Prospective Participants ........................................91
Appendix C: Interview Protocol ....................................................................................................92
Appendix D: Theoretical Alignment Matrix..................................................................................95

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List of Tables
Table 1: Self-Identified Ethnicity, Gender, Age, Grade of Interviewees (N = 11)........................ 35
Table 2: Self-Reported Scores (N = 11)........................................................................................ 39
Appendix D: Theoretical Alignment Matrix................................................................................. 95

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Document Word Cloud.................................................................................................. 42

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
For the United States to improve its proficiency in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) and increase its workforce in these fields, it is necessary to close the racial
and gender gaps in STEM careers and education. Considering the STEM labor force, Khan et al.
(2020) found a need for more professionals and personnel. The National Science Board (2024)
also made this need clear in their report, The STEM Labor Force: Scientists, Engineers, and
Skilled Technical Workers. Reporting on gender representation of STEM professionals and
personnel, Speer (2023) revealed that men hold two-thirds or more of jobs in STEM. Galvin et
al. (2024) revealed that regardless of a move in the direction of increased numbers of women in
the U.S. workforce, a significant gender gap persists in the fields of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics. Additionally, according to a March 2024 report published by the
National Science Foundation (NSF), females account for 35% of all STEM workers.
Underrepresented minorities such as Black, Hispanic, and American Indian or Alaska Native
people make up 24% of the STEM workforce, according to the National Center for Science and
Engineering Statistics (2023). Popo-Olaniyan et al. (2022) concluded that unrelenting challenges
continue to hinder diversity in STEM occupations. This finding is troubling since it is necessary
that a robust multiethnic, multiracial, and gender-diverse workforce in all STEM industries
becomes a reality to ensure global competitiveness and that the number of workers does not fall
below the projected need.
To underscore the essential need for diversity in jobs related to STEM and to assure
global competitiveness, Broder et al. (2019) made clear that racial, ethnic, and gender diversity
in the STEM workforce assures more creativity, efficiency, and productivity compared to
homogeneous groups. Young et al. (2019) also reported that there is a profound concern

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pertaining to the diversification of the U.S. STEM workforce as it relates to global
competitiveness. Additionally, in a seminal study by Alfred et al. (2019), findings made clear that
advancing women of color in STEM was imperative for U.S. global competitiveness. In January
2023, the NSF released a report about diversity and STEM that indicated that a diverse
workforce supplies capability for innovation by leveraging diverse points of view, diverse
backgrounds, and experiences. Furthermore, creativity, innovation, and technical skills relying
on expertise in STEM bring about a strong, flourishing STEM enterprise (NSF, 2024). It is to the
advantage of the U.S. STEM enterprise to diversify its workforce in terms of race and gender.
For that to happen, the STEM pipeline must be considered, and women of color need to account
for higher enrollment in STEM majors and higher graduation rates from colleges and
universities.
Minding the racial and gender gaps regarding STEM careers is of import, and so too is
minding the educational racial and gender gaps in STEM. Considering the STEM pipeline, from
K–12 education to higher education, including advanced and terminal degrees, an NSF (2024)
report made clear that compared to men, women, particularly women of color, account for lower
shares of college and university degree recipients in computer, information, and engineering
sciences. In fact, in a seminal study by Alfred et al. (2019), the researchers contended that the
disproportionate representations of women of color in the STEM workforce can be traced back to
the early years of K–12 education and persists throughout higher educational settings. In
addition, the findings of Young et al. (2019) highlighted that educators, policymakers, and
researchers need to strive to expand STEM career appeal, interest, and attainment in a population
of learners that is more mixed or varied. Black girls and young Black women represent a
distinctive community of STEM students that remain comparatively untried and untapped.

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Substantial consideration regarding the gender and racial gaps in STEM and solutions for closing
those gaps must be at the forefront of the U.S. STEM industry, colleges and universities, high
schools, middle schools, and elementary schools.
The solution for closing the racial and gender gap in the STEM workforce lies in closing
the racial and gender gap in the STEM pipeline and specifically contending with the leaky
pipeline that can be traced to students’ K–12 educational experiences (Assouline et al., 2023).
According to Assouline et al. (2023), one reason for the leaky pipeline might be that girls of
color have not received sufficient preparation for advanced STEM coursework. Furthermore,
Assouline et al. (2023) purported that due to limited access to STEM academic programs in
middle-school and high school, girls of color fall behind regarding their STEM academic and
talent development. Excellence gaps are created that lead to the narrowing of the STEM pipeline.
Although gaps in excellence and achievement in STEM subjects for girls of color may be
attributed to limited access and insufficient preparation, it is also necessary to comprehend forces
that improve or increase their academic success, regardless of access and preparation, starting
with elementary and middle-school. Considering motivation as a force that improves school
achievement, academic success and outcomes are related to self-efficacy beliefs as motivators.
Self-efficacy is the confidence students have in their academic capabilities, according to
motivation researchers such as Bandura (1977, 1986a, 1986b, 1997), Baumeister (2016), Britner
(2002), Broder et al. (2019), Schunk et al. (2014), Waddington (2023), and Zimmerman (2000).
In a landmark study by Zimmerman (2000), related to an essential motive to learn, self-efficacy
was determined to be a substantial predictor of learning and motivation, was receptive to
improving students’ learning methods, and predicted achievement outcomes. Hare (2018)
specifically asserted that positive self-efficacy had a profound influence on Black girls’ interest

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in subjects related to science, technology, engineering, and math. Moreover, Broder et al. (2019)
found that self-efficacy improved and interest in STEM careers increased as a function of
middle-schoolstudents displaying research projects at a conference, spotlighting the significance
of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, as a theory related to motivation, may unlock the true potential of
Black middle-school girls and result in consistent academic achievement in STEM subjects
throughout their academic careers. Such results will have a positive effect as these students
advance through the STEM pipeline and close the gaps in the attainment of STEM degrees and
representation in the STEM workforce.
Background of the Problem
According to a foundational study by Sadker and Sadker (1994), gender differences in
self-efficacy beliefs regarding science abilities have resulted in the disproportionate participation
of female students in advanced science courses in high school in comparison to male students. A
subsequent study by Britner (2008) concluded that for specific science courses, such as Earth
science, high school girls reported higher science self-efficacy and earned higher grades
compared to boys. However, in life science classes, females did not report stronger self-efficacy
but did report significant anxiety compared to males; nonetheless, females earned higher grades
(Britner, 2008). No gender differences were reported pertaining to physical science, according to
grades or self-efficacy, but female students responded with higher levels of overall science
anxiety (Britner, 2008). More recently, Webb-Williams (2018) asserted that despite boys and
girls demonstrating nearly identical academic performance levels for science, the majority of
females underestimated their capabilities, leading to few girls taking advanced science courses in
high school.

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Most recently, Jewell and Chen (2022) investigated the relationship between selecting
post-secondary STEM majors and AP STEM course‐taking in high school and whether the
relationship differs by race and gender. Results presented by Jewell and Chen (2022) specified
that advanced placement STEM course exposure and gender are significant forecasters of STEM
major selection, with males being more likely to pursue STEM majors at the college and
university level. The results of a study by Jewell and Chen (2022) indicated that exposure to AP
STEM courses is a significant predictor of STEM major selection. When considering the
relationship between a choice of STEM as a college major, exposure to AP STEM courses was
found to be similar for students of color and Caucasian students. It is clear that high school girls’
confidence related to science and the prospect of pursuing STEM majors in college lags behind
that of boys. This has implications regarding the STEM pipeline relevant to Black middle-school
girl’s self-efficacy beliefs which have an influence on academic achievement and future
academic and career choices.
Among the four sources of self-efficacy, the most influential sources for girls and women
with reference to science are known to be vicarious experience and social persuasion, whereas
the most influential source of science self-efficacy for boys and men is mastery experience or
performance accomplishments (Zeldin & Pajares, 2000). In a landmark study conducted by
Britner (2008) across science fields, boys’ science self-efficacy predicted grades in science
courses, and mastery experience was the only substantial self-efficacy predictor. Self-efficacy
was also the strongest predictor of science grades for girls. The results from a study by Britner
(2008) also revealed that the most significant predictor of self-efficacy in Earth science for girls
was mastery experiences, but vicarious experiences, physiological states, and social persuasions
were better predictors of science self-efficacy in physical science and life science classes. The

6
results of a study conducted by Britner (2008) support the results support from a foundational
study conducted by Bandura (1997). While studies have focused on dissimilarities between male
and female students regarding sources of self-efficacy for achievement in science, most have
focused on high school and college students (Broder et al., 2019; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Taken
together, such findings further substantiate the need for research involving middle-school
students, specifically females and girls of color.
Statement of the Problem
The percentage of women majoring in scientific fields at colleges and universities is
disproportionate to the number of women who make up undergraduate populations (Fry et al.,
2021). Fry et al. (2021) reported that according to an analysis by the Pew Research Center, trends
in STEM degrees granted to undergraduates are not likely to significantly narrow this gap.
Additionally, Hispanic and Black adults are unlikely to obtain STEM degrees when compared to
other degree fields (Fry et al., 2021). And while women now earn a majority of all undergraduate
and advanced degrees, they remain a small share of degree earners in fields like engineering and
computer science (NSF, 2024).
However, regarding high school enrollment in science classes, girls pulled even with
boys, although this was not the case when considering advanced science classes (NSF, 2024).
Girls still lag in the number of participants in high school computer science classes (U.S.
Department of Education’s Stats in Brief of 2023). This is particularly true for girls of color. This
was also documented in the U.S. Department of Education’s Stats in Brief of 2023. It reported
that higher percentages of males obtained high school credit in advanced courses like physics,
engineering, engineering/science technologies, and computer/information science. It is

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imperative that pathways in the STEM pipeline related to academic achievement in science in
middle and high school for Black girls must become the norm rather than the exception.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to understand Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy
beliefs and perceptions of science subjects. Relative to this understanding are encountering
situations that have shaped their perceptions, whether positive or negative. These are important
and may provide insight into specific sources of self-efficacy that Black middle-school girls
draw upon and implement for academic achievement in science. The present study also provides
critical insight into Black middle-school girls’ perceived educational, familial, and community
experiences that inform our understanding of the sources of self-efficacy they access. Moreover,
this research revealed how the participants’ self-perceptions and experiences contribute to their
expectations for academic success, their future selection of science courses in high school and
college, and their career aspirations.
To conduct this study, the sample included Black girls enrolled in middle-school, Grades
6, 7, and 8, who represent the age range of 11 to 13. I selected students from a science
enrichment program for inner-city middle-school girls of color hosted by a large, urban
university in a city on the west coast of the United States. A central research question guided this
study: What educational, familial, and community influences contribute to the science selfefficacy of Black middle school girls in a STEM-focused enrichment program?
To attain answers to the research question and insight into the statement of the problem,
Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977, 1978, 1986a, 1986b, 1997) was the theoretical
framework and lens for explaining and discussing the research findings.

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Significance of the Study
Sakellariou and Fang (2021) found distinct differences between high school girls and
boys when choosing academic courses during their post-secondary years. For example, girls’
academic choices were determined by the confidence they experienced in STEM subjects during
middle-school and high school. On the other hand, boys’ choices were solely driven by their
interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. In addition, Zeldin and Pajares
(2000) found that girls who are competent in science are reluctant to attempt STEM-related
careers due to low self-efficacy perceptions. Of even greater importance and significance is the
evidence put forth by Pajares and Urdan (2006) that specifies motivation, learning, selfregulation, and accomplishment cannot be discussed in the absence of the role played by selfefficacy beliefs. These scenarios point to why this study is significant.
Comprehension of Black girls’ perceptions of self-efficacy in science at the middleschool level aids in determining how to close gender and racial gaps pertaining to enrollment in
high school STEM-related courses and selection of STEM majors at the post-secondary level.
Understanding the role that perceptions of self-efficacy play in Black girls’ planning to pursue
high school academic courses in science will lead to the development of interventions to improve
self-efficacy. Furthermore, pinpointing which sources of self-efficacy these girls attribute to their
success and accomplishments in science subjects will inform the implementation of educational
programs to further increase and improve their self-efficacy. This should increase Black girls’
participation in advanced science courses in high school and college and provide equal
representation in science and STEM-related career fields.
Definition of Terms
• BIPOC: Acronym standing for Black, Indigenous, and other people of color.

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• Mastery experience or performance accomplishments: One source of self-efficacy is
defined as the interpreted result of a person’s own previous attainments. When a
person believes her efforts have been successful, her confidence to accomplish similar
or related tasks is raised (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
• Motivation: The process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained
(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Schunk et al. (2014) expounded on the earlier definition
by stating motivation refers to the processes that instigate and sustain goal-directed
activities. Both definitions reflect a social cognitive perspective on motivation.
Baumeister (2016) concluded motivation is a condition inside that desires a change—
a change in the self or a change in environment.
• Physiological and emotional states: A source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura
(1997), self-efficacy beliefs are informed by emotional and physiological states such
as anxiety, stress, fatigue, and mood. People learn to interpret their physiological
arousal as an indicator of personal competence by evaluating their own performance
under differing conditions. Strong emotional reactions to school-related tasks can
provide cues to expected success or failure (Bandura, 1986a, 1986b, 1997; Usher &
Pajares, 2008).
• Project-based learning (PjBL): An instructional technique proved to be effective
because it allows students to play an active role in their own learning process. By
participating in a PjBL model, students are able to construct their own knowledge and
reflect upon their learning projects, resulting in increased motivation and selfefficacy. (Shin, 2018). Project-based learning is more than just a teaching method. It
is a revitalization of education for students so that they can develop intellectually and

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emotionally. By using real-world scenarios, challenges, and problems, students gain
useful knowledge and skills that increase during heir designated project periods. The
goal of using complex questions or problems is to develop and enhance student
learning by encouraging critical thinking, problem-solving, teamwork, and selfmanagement.
• Self-efficacy: A person’s beliefs about her ability to complete a task and how well one
can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations (Bandura,
1997). Bandura has also defined it as one’s judgment of how well (or poorly) one will
cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one faces
(Bandura, 1986a, 1986b, 1997). Furthermore, self-efficacy is defined as “people’s
judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to
attain designated types of performances” (Bandura, 1986, p. 391).
• Social cognitive theory: A term used to describe several related constructs, including
self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, and social learning. Aspects of various concepts
and constructs all emphasize both the social cognitive nature of learning and are
focused on how social interactions influence learning (Bandura, 1986a, 1986b, 1997;
Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). It is also a theory that addresses how people acquire
knowledge, regulate their behavior, and create social systems to organize their lives
(Bandura, 1986a, 2012).
• Social and verbal persuasions: Supportive messages that can serve to bolster a
student’s effort and self-confidence, particularly when accompanied by conditions
and instruction that help bring about success (Bandura, 1997; Hattie & Timperley,
2007), are considered social persuasions. Verbal persuasions are characterized by

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encouraging words spoken by significant others, such as teachers, parents, family
members, or community members (Bandura et al., 2001; Hattie & Timperley, 2007).
• STEM fields: The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2018) of the U.S.
Department of Education has defined STEM fields to include mathematics, the
natural sciences (physical, biological, agricultural), engineering/engineering
technologies, and computer/information sciences.
• STEM pipeline: A term used to describe the educational pathway for students in the
fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), starting in early
education, through the middle-school and high school years and extending to higher
education degrees in STEM majors and subsequently a career in the field of STEM.
(Skrentny & Lewis, 2022). According to Skrentny and Lewis (2022), children,
adolescents, young adults, and adults progress through their education, which is
analogous to a single pipeline.
• Vicarious experience: One source of self-efficacy that involves observing a model
enact the same course of action the performer is about to enact. Seeing others perform
masterfully raises the observer’s own sense of self-efficacy (Bandura et al., 1980;
Bandura, 1997; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Organization of the Study
Following a conventional and customary five-chapter model, this dissertation includes
Chapter One, which focuses on the overview of the study. Chapter Two addresses the relevant
literature pertaining to the study, including race and gender disparities in the STEM workforce,
and in higher education, high school and middle-school years and long-term academic and career
goals, self-efficacy and STEM studies, the role of self-efficacy for Black middle-school girls and

12
a theoretical framework. Chapter Three highlights the research methodology, consisting of the
qualitative method, sampling, the process for data gathering, and analysis of the data. Chapter
Four focuses on the findings from the study, and Chapter Five presents the recommendations
proposed based on the study results.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This chapter delves into the problem of limited representation of Black females in high
school and college science courses and STEM majors. Additionally, this chapter speaks about the
limited representation of women of color, particularly Black women, in the STEM workforce,
which should not be ignored because diversification in the U.S. STEM workforce is a profound
concern that needs to be addressed (Burke et al., 2022; Fry et al., 2021; Young et al., 2019). The
underrepresentation of Black females in STEM, whether it is at the high school level, college
level, or career level, may be related to and traced back to the middle-school years when students
make decisions about high school courses they will take and the careers they will consider
(Akhsania et al., 2021; Ulas-Kilic et al., 2020).
The central topic of this study was the sources of self-efficacy that Black middle-school
girls employ as a means to academic achievement in science. The specific purpose of this study
was to understand Black middle-school girls’ experiences and perceptions of self-efficacy for
science. This study addressed a central research question: What educational, familial, and
community influences contribute to the science self-efficacy of Black middle school girls in a
STEM-focused enrichment program?
The review of the literature gives insight into the role self-efficacy plays in determining
Black middle-school girls’ motivation to pursue high school science courses and their motivation
to aspire to STEM majors in college and future careers in STEM. The literature on this topic will
also be discussed, including race and gender disparities in the STEM workforce, STEM diversity
in higher education, high school and middle-school years and long-term academic and career
goals, and the role of science self-efficacy for Black middle-school girls; although there are
limited studies on this specific topic. Finally, this chapter will conclude with a description of the

14
theory that guides and upholds the discussion encompassing Black middle-school girls’selfefficacy for science.
Race and Gender Disparities in the STEM Workforce
Hamrick (2019) and the National Science Board and NSF (2021), as well as Miriti (2020)
and Nice (2024), have made clear that a lack of diversity exists in the STEM workforce
according to race, gender, and ethnicity when compared to the overall U.S. population. Also, in
relation to almost half of the population employed in the U.S., Burke et al. (2022) reported that
women make up 34% of the STEM workforce. Black women constitute 14.1% of women in the
overall workforce and have continuously held the greatest level of female participation; however,
they only account for 2% of the STEM workforce (Sendze, 2023). It was also made clear by Bell
et al. (2019), Hsieh et al. (2019), and the National Science Board and NSF (2021) that the talent
pool from the overall population of the United States has been underutilized regarding the STEM
workforce to the detriment of positive production outcomes.
In addition, this undiversified STEM workforce of 36 million employees adversely
affects innovation and productiveness and can interfere with capacity building for a highly
functioning STEM workforce (Bell et al., 2019; Hamrick, 2019; National Science Board & NSF,
2021). Further, according to Popo-Olaniyan et al. (2022), “a homogeneous workforce limits the
range of perspectives brought to bear on complex problems, constraining the potential for
groundbreaking discoveries and transformative innovations” (p. 661). What Popo-Olaniyan et al.
conveyed is relevant to the inclusion of Black women to substantially increase diversity in the
STEM workforce. Moreover, the inclusion of minorities and women provides broad insights,
experiences, and perspectives that can instigate unique viewpoints pertaining to the advancement
of technology and scientific experimentation (Popo-Olaniyan et al., 2022). Therefore, there is a

15
need to significantly increase diversity in the fields of STEM to secure greater productivity,
leading-edge discoveries, and innovation.
STEM Diversity in Higher Education
The manner in which to increase diversity in the STEM workforce can be found in efforts
to increase the participation of underrepresented groups in the nation’s higher educational
institutions (National Science Board & NSF, 2021). Pertaining to the STEM workforce,
according to Pew Research (Fry et al., 2021), the persisting prospects for diversity are linked to
representation in the STEM educational system, most notably, the nation’s post-secondary
institutions. STEM workers are about twice as likely as other workers to have earned a
bachelor’s degree or more education (67% versus 34%), and roughly three-quarters of these
workers hold a degree in a STEM field. The 2021 Pew Research Center’s analysis and discussion
of STEM education data and STEM employment revealed that women and minorities are not
expected to and are unlikely to earn degrees in STEM compared to other degree fields.
Additionally, Fry et al. (2021) reported that in the United States, women and minorities
continue to make up a decreased portion of STEM college graduates in contrast to their share of
the adult population. Furthermore, in a study regarding gender representation and academic
achievement among STEM-interested students in college STEM courses, Bowman et al. (2022)
contended that significant equity gaps according to gender might be attributed to the lack of
female representation itself. According to Pew Research (Fry et al., 2021), a long path is ahead
for the future regarding the higher education pipeline and a substantial increase in diversity in
fields like engineering and computer science. Regardless, institutes of higher education have an
opportunity to address racial and gender gaps in STEM participation to subsequently create a
more diverse STEM workforce.

16
The effects of limited representation of females in college STEM courses and majors
have been adverse regarding academic success and sparse graduation rates. The study conducted
by Bowman et al. (2022) revealed that greater academic achievement in STEM for female
students was associated with female representation within a course. Additionally, women in
STEM college courses particularly benefitted more than their male counterparts from having a
female STEM professor. Most notable was the fact that female student representation had
significantly positive results for female students in courses in statistics, math, and the computer
sciences. Moreover, to reverse the trend of limited numbers of women of color in college STEM
majors, Alfred et al. (2019) reported that it is essential to comprehend the forces that obstruct as
well as support girls and women of color throughout their educational journeys. Armed with this
understanding, interventions for and the promotion of diversity, equity, and inclusion need to
begin during the middle-school and high school years, continue through college, and into the
STEM workforce (Alfred et al., 2019).
High School and Middle-School Years and Long-Term Academic and Career Goals
Concern for the increase in numbers of workers, racial and gender parity in the STEM
workforce, as well as the STEM student population at the university level, is connected to what
transpires for students in middle and high schools. According to Corrigan et al. (2023), the
academic decisions of middle and high school girls significantly influence attempts to overcome
gender disparity in STEM at the university level and beyond. Corrigan et al. proposed that
closing the gender gap in the majority of STEM disciplines requires comprehending gendered
disparities in the selection of high school STEM courses based on academic decisions made in
middle school. Furthermore, other researchers, such as Barksdale et al. (2022) and Broder et al.
(2019), proposed advancing K–12 educational programs in STEM to accomplish the closure of

17
the STEM gender gap in the workforce. The proposals made by these researchers benefit Black
middle-school girls as they make decisions about their academic futures and their career
trajectories.
A number of additional researchers have made clear that girls in Grades 6, 7, and 8 are
already contemplating future careers and the coursework that will prepare them for those careers
(Shapiro et al., 2015). In a quantitative study that included 755 girls from urban, rural, and
suburban areas in three states, Shapiro et al. (2015) concluded that keeping girls on the road to
broader STEM careers requires encouraging them to take the coursework that will prepare them
for such career choices. Additionally, Akos et al. (2007) made clear that middle-school girls’
participation in STEM-related classes is a first step out of the leaky pipeline and into the pipeline
that ultimately impacts high school and college course selection and leads to career options in
STEM fields. Moreover, Akhsania et al. (2021), Falco and Summers (2019), Steinberg (2013),
and Ulas-Kilic et al. (2020) all purported that to cultivate and elicit participation in STEM
subjects and majors, the middle-school years are the critical period where students make
decisions regarding high school academic course selection and career trajectories. It is apparent
that promoting girls’ participation in STEM courses at the middle-school level is an important
ingredient in evoking and obtaining their interest in and aspirations for future STEM courses at
the high school, college level, and future STEM careers.
The elicitation of girls’ interest, especially Black girls’ interest, toward STEM and
engagement in STEM subjects in middle school is of significant importance considering Speer’s
(2023) research results. In a study conducted in the United States, Speer found that, for the most
part, females, regardless of race, are lost before, during college, and after college, regarding
STEM education and careers. Additionally, males are more plausibly STEM-ready prior to

18
college, with greater interest, higher scores on science tests, and completion of AP science and
math courses at the high school level. Further, interest in STEM is not the only factor that
influences STEM readiness for girls. According to Wang (2013), intent to major in STEM is
directly affected by exposure to STEM subjects at the K–8 level, high school course selection,
12th-grade math achievement, and self-efficacy beliefs.
Alhaddab and Alnatheer (2015) researched future scientists and how women’s and
minorities’ math and science self-efficacy affects their STEM major selections. The researchers,
from the University of Southern California, concluded that strengthening minority students’selfefficacy for science and science preparation in high school produces an increased chance of
majoring in STEM disciplines. Alhaddab and Alnatheer conducted a longitudinal study based on
the NCES Education Longitudinal Study of 2002/06 that allowed for discernment into American
students’ educational experiences and outcomes over a decade. The results make clear that what
occurs for middle and high school students regarding math and science self-efficacy and
preparation influences their choices of STEM majors in college (Alhaddab & Alnatheer, 2015).
The Role of Self-Efficacy Beliefs of Black Middle-School Girls for Science
Self-efficacy plays a significant role in academic achievement. In general, according to
notable researchers in educational psychology (Bandura, 1997; Britner, 2008; Schunk &
DiBenedetto, 2021, 2022; Urdan & Pajares, 2002; Usher & Pajares, 2008; Zimmerman, 2000),
self-efficacy is a factor to be considered in academic achievement. Just as self-efficacy plays an
important role in academic achievement at all educational levels, it plays an equally impactful
role in academic achievement regarding STEM subjects for middle-school students.
Understanding students’self-efficacy in science subjects is imperative because self-efficacy has a

19
considerable influence on learning outcomes and affects academic performance, achievement,
and success (Agus et al., 2021).
Britner (2002) conducted a seminal study with 268 Black middle-school students
regarding science self-efficacy and its relationship to motivation, achievement, self-beliefs,
gender, and gender orientation. Britner acknowledged that science self-efficacy studies have
most often been conducted with White students and encouraged researchers to conduct more
studies involving the BIPOC student population. Findings from the study by Britner indicated
that mastery experience and performance accomplishments, a source of self-efficacy for science,
were favorably affiliated with grades obtained by girls and by boys. Additionally, for female
students, grades were positively affiliated with science self-concept. Moreover, female students
reported greater self-efficacy for science and received better grades in their science classes.
In a subsequent study conducted by Britner and Pajares (2006) regarding sources of
science self-efficacy beliefs of middle-school students, mastery experience was the only source
that significantly predicted self‐efficacy for science. Similar to the results from a study by Britner
(2002), girls reported greater science self‐efficacy than boys. However, the study by Britner and
Pajares included 319 students, the majority of whom were White, middle-class, from a small,
Mid-Western city in the United States. In a subsequent quantitative study of 206 sixth-grade
students from an American suburban middle-school, Brown et al. found that students’selfefficacy beliefs significantly predicted their intentions to persist in STEM. The results from
Brown et al. agreed with the research findings of Pajares et al. (2000), who found no significant
differences in science self-efficacy beliefs between middle-school girls and boys.
In more recent work, Hare (2018) studied the perceptions and self-efficacy for STEM
subjects of eighth-grade Black girls in a high-minority American middle-school. Findings from

20
the qualitative study showed that STEM self-efficacy and the learning environment had a
substantial effect on Black females’ interest in STEM subjects. In the research conducted by
Hare, the potency of sources of self-efficacy was not determined. However, Chen and Usher
(2013) did investigate which sources of self-efficacy were more powerful than others. The study
by Chen and Usher looked at the sources of science self-efficacy relating to high school and
middle-school boys and girls who were representative of the BIPOC community. According to
Chen and Usher, their results bolstered previous findings that indicated performance mastery
experience and accomplishments were the most influential sources of self-efficacy that students
accessed, regardless of gender. In yet another study, by Kiran and Sungur (2012), middle-school
students’science self-efficacy and its sources were examined according to gender, where
participants represented various racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. All four sources of
self-efficacy, with the exception of vicarious experience, were discovered to be notably
associated with students’self-efficacy for science. Furthermore, females were determined to
experience substantially more emotional arousal and to provide positive communication to
classmates more than males.
Theoretical Framework
For this study, I utilized self-efficacy theory as the theoretical framework. Self-efficacy is
one of three theoretical constructs (self-efficacy, reciprocal determinism, social learning) of
social cognitive theory and was initially put forth by Bandura in 1977. Aspects of the various
constructs emphasize the social cognitive nature of learning and are focused on how social
interactions influence learning (Bandura, 1986a, 1986b, 1997; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
Furthermore, social cognitive theory emphasizes the dynamic and consistent interplay among
people (personal factors), the environment, and behavior itself (Bandura, 1977, 1986b, 1997,

21
2012). Specifically, self-efficacy is defined as “people’s judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances”
(Bandura, 1986a, p. 391). This definition is further described as a person’s beliefs about her
ability to complete a task and how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with
prospective situations (Bandura, 1997). Bandura also defined self-efficacy theory as one’s
judgment of how well (or poorly) one will cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses
and the circumstances one faces (Bandura, 1986a, 1986b, 1997).
Self-efficacy beliefs emanate from several sources. These four sources of self-efficacy
include performance accomplishments and mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social
and verbal persuasions, and physiological and emotional states. Bandura (1997) found that an
individual’s performance accomplishments or mastery experiences were the main source for
developing positive self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997; Britner & Pajares, 2006). The theory of
self-efficacy declares that learning also happens by observing others (e.g., vicarious experience;
Bandura, 1977). A person’s vicarious learning experiences are not simplistic and ensue from
observing others’ actions and behaviors and how those actions and behaviors produce
undesirable or desirable outcomes.
In addition, according to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy beliefs are informed by emotional
and physiological states such as mood, anxiety, stress, feelings, or fatigue. Strong emotional
reactions to school-related tasks can provide cues to expected success or failure (Bandura, 1986a,
1986b, 1997; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Furthermore, supportive messages that can bolster a
student’s effort and self-confidence, particularly when accompanied by conditions and
instruction that help bring about success (Bandura, 1997; Hattie & Timperley, 2007), are
considered social persuasions. Verbal persuasions are characterized by encouraging words

22
spoken by significant others, such as teachers, parents, family members, or community members
(Bandura et al., 2001; Hattie & Timperley, 2007). All tenets of self-efficacy theory were applied
throughout the research process of this study. The theoretical framework of self-efficacy was an
effective, utilitarian guide for comprehending participants’ self-efficacy beliefs for the academic
subject of science.
Summary
This chapter reviewed the literature regarding Black females in high school and college
science courses and STEM majors. This chapter also spoke about the limited representation of
women of color, particularly Black women, in the STEM workforce as it relates to the
diversification of the U.S. STEM workforce. Literature about the underrepresentation of Black
females in STEM, whether at the high school, college, or career level, was also reviewed as it
may be related to the middle-school years when students make decisions about high school and
college courses they will take and careers to be considered. The literature review also provided
insights into self-efficacy’s role in determining Black middle-school girls’ motivation to pursue
high school science courses and their motivation to aspire to STEM majors in college and future
careers in STEM. Furthermore, the theoretical framework of self-efficacy, a construct of social
cognitive theory, was explained and explored as part of the chapter’s literature review.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This study sought to examine Black middle-school girls’self-efficacy beliefs and
perceptions of the academic subject of science. I aspired to understand and determine what
influences their academic success and motivation for academic achievement regarding science.
In so doing, I investigated four sources of self-efficacy (e.g., mastery experiences, vicarious
experiences, social and verbal persuasions, emotional and physical states) in terms of how
participants utilized them to achieve and succeed in science. In making these determinations, I
gained insights into how this population develops positive self-efficacy for science.
The results of the present study uncovered how Black middle-school girls’selfperceptions and experiences, in relationship to self-efficacy, are important factors in choosing
subsequent science courses in high school, college, and future careers. This study used the
following research question to guide it: What educational, familial, and community influences
contribute to the science self-efficacy of Black middle school girls in a STEM-focused
enrichment program? The key aspects of my methodology included a qualitative approach to
research design and data analysis. The theoretical framework shaped the qualitative approach,
with all its elements, in that the individual’s appraisal of self-efficacy is more aptly explained by
examining how an individual chooses and incorporates various information regarding selfefficacy (Bandura, 1997). The qualitative approach, including interviewing, was also crafted and
chosen to best address the research question, which called for rich, robust, personal insights and
responses.
As I considered additional aspects of methodology, a sample of 11 was determined from a
population of Black middle-school girls selected using a non-probabilistic sampling strategy.
Regarding instrumentation, I used semi-structured interviews and document analysis for

24
investigation. Data collection involved interviews over a Zoom platform, using an alternative or
proxy interviewer. I manually coded the interview transcripts. This chapter addresses
positionality, limitations, and delimitations related to methodology. The following sections put
forth, in more detail, all components of the methodology employed in this study.
Sample and Population
As the goal of research was to describe and clarify a phenomenon by depending upon an
individual’s experience in given situations, a qualitative approach to study design was
appropriate (Maxwell, 2013; Stake, 2010). As Merriam and Tisdell (2016) put forth, qualitative
case studies share characteristics of other qualitative research, such as the investigator as the sole
instrument for data collection and analysis, the quest for understanding and meaning, inductive
investigative tactics, and a richly descriptive outcome. To this point, in studies regarding selfefficacy, Usher (2007) noted that qualitative research methods allow for deep understandings “of
the genesis of self-efficacy beliefs” (p. 202). Accordingly, as the investigator, I preferred a highly
expressive, revealing outcome to comprehend the participants’ self-efficacy beliefs and
perceptions of science.
In foundational studies conducted by Pajares (1996) and Schunk (1991), both researchers
emphasized that although many quantitative measures have been employed to investigate the
topic of self-efficacy, there needs to be continued complementary qualitative research that
examines the development of self-efficacy beliefs. Additionally, Pajares (1996) and Schunk
(1991) also emphasized the need to investigate how school children perceive such beliefs as
affecting their academic accomplishments and the paths they will follow. With this in mind and
given the study’s purpose, a qualitative research approach was both appropriate and essential.

25
A non-probabilistic sampling strategy was employed when I conducted this study. It is
one of the methods most used by qualitative researchers (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Purposeful
sampling, a form of non-probabilistic sampling strategy, and convenience sampling, a type of
purposeful sampling, were utilized. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined purposeful sampling as
the determination of a sample according to where the investigator would obtain the maximum
amount of awareness and understanding. Additionally, Robinson (2021) provided a description
of purposeful sampling as a nonrandom manner of making certain, specific classifications of
cases within a sampling universe that are depicted in the sample of a study.
The rationale for employing a purposeful sampling is that the investigator assumes that
certain, specific characteristics of individuals may have an important, novel, or distinctive
perspective on the experience in question, thus making their presence in the sample necessary
(Mason, 2002). Likewise, I assumed that the unique characteristics of gender and race, plus
middle-school grade level and academic achievement level, may result in a unique perspective
regarding the perceptions of self-efficacy for science subjects. According to Usher (2007) and
Schunk and DiBenedetto (2021) this demographic has rarely been studied in previous selfefficacy studies related to science.
I used convenience sampling, a type of nonrandom purposeful sampling, to select a
sample. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) put forth that convenience sampling entails the selection of a
sample based on variables such as location, money, time, and accessibility to respondents or
sites. I employed convenience sampling due to limited access to middle-school sites and
community-based programs that offer STEM enrichment to children ages 11 to 13. The sample
included Black girls enrolled in middle school, Grades 6, 7, and 8, who represented the age range
of 11 to 13. In addition, each participant was considered grade-level competent (i.e., meeting or

26
exceeding grade-level standards per grade established by the California Department of
Education) in science. I selected students from a STEM enrichment program for inner-city
middle-school girls of color hosted by a large, urban university in a city on the west coast of the
United States.
The enrichment program involved students from the city’s public school district, and the
program is considered a university–school partnership. It also involved a mandatory parent
component where parents regularly attended training and were in contact with teachers and
program administrators. I communicated with the program director regarding the inclusion
criteria used to select participants and the consent/assent form distribution. I anticipated the
approximate number of participants to be between eight and 12. The number of participants was
11. That said, there can be no minimum or maximum size for a qualitative study. The number
depends upon informational considerations as purported by Lichtman (2013) and Lincoln and
Guba (1985). In other words, in purposeful sampling, a researcher needs to sample to the point of
redundancy or saturation.
Since the purpose was to accomplish a maximum amount of information, sampling
should cease when novel information is no longer available from new participants (Lichtman,
2013; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) reported that redundancy and
saturation signify that an investigator starts to hear the same or similar responses to interview
questions or views behaviors that become common or alike during observations. Since it is not
possible to determine the point of saturation or redundancy in advance, a researcher must analyze
data along with the collection of data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I did just that, and after
interviewing 11 students, it became clear that redundancy and saturation had occurred.

27
Ethical Considerations
Pertaining to ethical considerations, I sent parents a letter (Appendix A) and asked if they
would like their daughters to participate. I then asked them to complete and sign a consent/assent
form to allow their daughters to be included in the study (Appendix B). Each parent signed the
consent portion of the form, and each participant signed the assent section. The consent/assent
forms were sent to parents before the study began. All 11 signed consent/assent forms were
returned prior to the first interview. I communicated to parents that all personal information
pertaining to their daughters would remain confidential and that fictitious names would be used
when reporting findings.
Additional ethical considerations were important to the integrity of the study. For
example, the actual name of the enrichment program was withheld. The pseudonym for the
university was designated as Sky Park University or SPU. The city where the university is
located remained anonymous, as well as the name of the state and the city’s public school
district. Furthermore, this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the
University of Southern California, substantiating the fact that ethical considerations were present
in the design and execution of this study.
Instrumentation
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) signified that using a combination of instruments improves
the credibility of results; therefore, I utilized semi-structured interviews and document analysis
to investigate the perceptions of self-efficacy for science subjects of Black middle-school girls.
The interviews were semi-structured, meaning I prepared a subset of questions before the
interviews. The leading questions were similar between each interview, but the wording and
order were not determined ahead of time, which allowed the proxy interviewer or alternative

28
interviewer to respond to the situation at hand, to the emerging viewpoint of a respondent, and to
new ideas on the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I used the interview to gather descriptive data,
in the participants’ own words, so that I, as the researcher, could develop insights and
determinations about how the girls in this study interpreted their experiences in science subjects,
as well as their educational, community, and familial experiences that shape understanding of
sources of self-efficacy. I developed the interview questions by considering the interview
questions utilized by Britner (2002) and the Sources of Science Self-Efficacy Scale, which was
adapted from a scale used to measure this construct in the domain of mathematics (see Lent,
Lopez, et al., 1996). Although the scale developed by Lent, Lopez, et al. (1996) was quantitative,
nevertheless, it allowed for introspection and analysis to assist in the development of my
interview questions. Moreover, Britner (2002) and Britner and Pajares (2006) also referred to the
same scale from the research of Lent, Lopez, et al. (1996) when they studied the science selfefficacy of middle school students. I also considered the questions posed in a mixed-methods
study by Usher (2007) to assist in generating my own.
Data Collection
Data collection entailed face-to-face, virtual interviews over a Zoom platform, using an
alternative or proxy interviewer. The alternative or proxy interviewer was a Black woman and a
doctoral candidate who had interview experience with children aged 11 to 13 and was also a
licensed clinical social worker. She was considered a skilled interviewer of children as she has
had substantial experience working with children of this age group. An interviewer of the same
race was preferred, especially when interviewing children of the BIPOC community. In addition,
the proxy interviewer had Citi certification for human subjects to be part of my study team.

29
An interviewer of the same race was preferred, especially when interviewing children of
the BIPOC community. Possible differences regarding gender, age, race, social, educational
background, or social class related to power relationships and contrasts can conceivably increase
significantly. Saldaña (2011) and Seidman (2019) spoke of how differently people speak to each
other depending upon assumed social contexts and roles. The objective of this study, related to
the interview process, was to create a positive, comfortable atmosphere between interviewer and
interviewee, one of security, equity, and comfort, as Saldaña (2011) and Seidman (2019)
suggested. By utilizing an alternative or proxy interviewer, I believe that I diminished negative
perceptions of any power relationship due to my race.
In further consideration of the racial background of an interviewer compared to the
interviewees in a qualitative study, when writing about social group identities relevant to
research studies and the interviewing relationship, Seidman (2019) reported that in American
society, with its racist history, participants and researchers of different ethnic and racial
backgrounds may encounter challenges in affirming a positive and effective interviewing
relationship. McGrath et al. (2019) also considered the cultural and power dimensions of the
interview situation. In so doing, McGrath et al. proposed a third person be involved in
interviews, or one person as an alternative or proxy interviewer, who is more culturally sensitive
to interviewees’ backgrounds and situations. McGrath et al. also reported that having someone of
the same race, ethnicity, and gender may reduce implicit and explicit power relationships. My
objective as a researcher was to reduce the power relationships that Seidman (2019) and
McGrath et al. reported in their research studies.
Virtual interviews occurred over 4 months on Saturday mornings between October 2021
and January 2022. A Zoom platform was necessary due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The STEM

30
enrichment program for inner-city, Black middle-school girls at Sky Park University took place
over a virtual platform due to COVID-19 restrictions at the time of this study, which necessitated
virtual interviews. My intention was to interview participants in small focus groups. Four focus
groups were put together by the administrators of the Saturday Scholars Group. Due to attrition
associated with illness on the day of two scheduled focus groups, I ended up having one person
in two of the intended focus groups.
Pertaining to the training of my proxy interviewer, we met virtually several times prior to
the first interview and reviewed interview questions with an emphasis on flexibility and
elicitation of genuine responses. Although the questions were constructed beforehand, I made
clear to my proxy interviewer that the questions were a guideline, and she was free to deviate if
she determined that was the best course of action. Furthermore, as I was listening to each of the
interviews, I allowed my proxy interviewer full access to me via text; therefore, if she needed
guidance about how to proceed, I was immediately available to assist her. On occasion, I sent
comments to the proxy interviewer for probing and prompting the participants. Finally, the
document I analyzed was the program description published on the Saturday Scholars Group
(pseudonym) website.
Data Analysis
For the research question, the interview question reflected how each participant felt and
thought about pursuing and succeeding in science courses in high school and college in addition
to future careers in STEM-related occupations. For the research question, the interview questions
reflected each girl’s perceived educational, familial, and community experiences that formed her
comprehension of the sources of self-efficacy for science. I manually transcribed the interviews.
Additionally, I manually coded the transcribed interviews. After I coded the interviews, I

31
analyzed the data and searched for connections between patterns, concepts, and themes relevant
to the questions. I analyzed data using the constant comparative method of data analysis. As
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described, constant comparisons pertain to comparing one set of data
with a second set of data to find differences and similarities. On a comparable dimension, data
are grouped. A temporary label is given to the dimension and subsequently becomes a category.
The objective of constant comparisons is to detect patterns in the data.
Positionality
Positionality is a researcher’s standpoint and worldview and refers to a researcher’s social
identities, such as gender, class, race, ability, ethnicity, and geographical location, and how these
identities intersect (Secules et al., 2021). As a White person, I have not experienced racial
prejudice and discrimination as a student in elementary, middle-school, high school, or college.
As a female, I experienced gender bias in elementary and middle-school regarding my potential
for academic excellence in STEM subjects, such as mathematics, science, and engineering. Due
to the fact that I attended an all-girls high school and a women’s college for my undergraduate
degree, gender bias was less noticeable. I did not experience gender bias during graduate school;
however, I entered a speech-language pathology graduate program that was predominantly
female. Unfortunately, I believe the damage from the gender bias I experienced in elementary
and middle-school pertaining to science, mathematics, and engineering resulted in my low selfconfidence and low self-efficacy in high school for these subjects. That resulted in my reluctance
to pursue the hard sciences at the post-secondary level to become a medical doctor or an
engineer.
Because of my personal educational experiences in elementary and middle school, which
I believe resulted in my low self-confidence and low self-efficacy for science and math, I needed

32
to be aware of my own biases while conducting this study. A researcher in qualitative studies is
not an objective participant but is the instrument by which the study is conducted (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Although this is not necessarily a negative feature of qualitative studies, it is
important to acknowledge it. As a female who has dealt with gender bias in her childhood
educational experience, there were no occurrences when I connected with the information
provided by participants because they did not report low self-confidence in science due to being
female. As the instrument, there was a risk that I could have drawn conclusions that mirrored my
own experiences. I believe that my lived experience did not seem to result in bias.
Following the suggestion Merriam and Tisdell (2016) put forth, I used triangulation to
minimize the risk of drawing conclusions that mirrored my own experiences and, therefore,
sought alternative explanations for the findings. The components of triangulation that I utilized
were intended to increase the credibility of my findings. For example, in addition to interviews, I
added document analysis. I believe that using the strategy of triangulation diminished personal
bias on my part as the researcher and resulted in credible findings.
Summary
This study’s qualitative research design allowed for a thorough investigation into the
perceptions and experiences of Black middle-school girls regarding their self-efficacy for the
academic subject of science. Chapter Four puts forth research findings and data analysis from
semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Finally, Chapter Five considers the findings
and provides recommendations for practice, implications for K–12 educational leadership, and
recommendations for future research.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to comprehend Black middle-school girls’ perceptions and
experiences of self-efficacy for science. Their perceptions provided insight into the sources of
self-efficacy that the students draw upon for the purpose of academic achievement in science
subjects. The theoretical framework utilized to answer the research question of this qualitative
study is self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in her potential and
ability to execute behaviors needed to bring forth specific performance accomplishments
(Bandura, 1977, 1986a, 1986b, 1997). I used the theory of self-efficacy to structure, explore, and
examine the data accumulated from a document and interviews. Taking into consideration the
theoretical framework of self-efficacy, several themes surfaced attributed to the four sources of
self-efficacy (i.e., mastery experience or performance accomplishments, physiological and
emotional states, vicarious experience, social and verbal persuasion). This study sought to
answer a central research question: What educational, familial, and community influences
contribute to the science self-efficacy of Black middle school girls in a STEM-focused
enrichment program?
Each of the 11 participants put forth thoughts and ideas about current science classes or
science classes taken in previous years. The responses from the 11 participants contributed
interesting findings to help understand the topic of self-efficacy as it relates to Black middleschool girls’ self-efficacy for science. The main findings made clear that mastery experience that
mastery experience and performance accomplishments, in addition to physiological and
emotional states, were the two sources of self-efficacy participants appeared to draw upon that
enhanced their belief in science achievement more than the other two sources of self-efficacy
(i.e., vicarious experience, social and verbal persuasions). Chapter Four presents the findings

34
utilizing the theoretical framework of self-efficacy theory to arrange, coordinate, and analyze the
data. First, I will describe the participants; second, I will present the findings; and finally, I will
discuss the findings.
Descriptions of Participants
This study consisted of three small-group interviews and two individual interviews with
11- to 13-year-old Black middle-school girls who attended enrichment courses in science at the
Saturday Scholars Group. Table 1 presents a detailed description of participants that includes
self-identified information. The participants answered three questions pertaining to significant
people whom they considered influential in their lives (e.g., family, friends, teachers, classmates,
neighborhood/community members, and school personnel). The girls also shared about
themselves as science students, the science classes they had taken, and their ability and
confidence in science. Personal stories were elicited to acquire each girl’s thoughts and feelings
about the kind of science student she believes she is. In addition, each participant was asked to
reflect upon her positive experiences in science classes and how those will assist her in becoming
a successful science student in high school and college, as well as a successful employee in a
scientific career. Moreover, one interview question inquired about role models, and one
specifically inquired about Black women in history who have inspired them.

35
Table 1
Self-Identified (SI) Ethnicity, Gender, Age, Grade of Interviewees (N = 11)
Participants’
pseudonyms
SI ethnicity SI gender SI age SI grade
Britany Black Female 12 7
Dineesha Black Female 13 8
Heaven Black Female 12 7
Jamika Black Female 13 8
Kati Black Female 13 8
Keesha Black Female 11 6
Juliah Black Female 13 8
Maleena Black Female 12 7
Marah Black Female 12 7
Meesha Black Female 12 7
Tyra Black Female 13 8
Britany
Britany disclosed that although she enjoys science classes and has performed well
academically in all the classes, Britany would like to become a digital artist. Nevertheless, she
mentioned that her success in science courses could influence a career choice, but it depends
upon whether she changes her mind about digital art. Britany described herself as kind,
hardworking, artistic, and smart. At school, she and her friends hang out at lunch and nutrition,
walk on the track, and sometimes buy things at the student store.
Dineesha
Dineesha likes to hang out with friends and spend time with her family. She hopes to be a
lawyer and thinks science might be helpful in some law cases. One of her favorite science classes
was with a teacher in sixth grade because she was a great teacher, and there were experiments
and many notes that helped her learn. Her other favorite science class was in fifth grade.

36
Heaven
Heaven shared that she has a close family. Her sister and mother tell Heaven she is smart.
She aspires to be a medical doctor, and her mother told her that she believes she can do it. In her
free time, Heaven likes to roller skate and run track. Heaven helps at her church with her sister,
and they sometimes feed unhoused people.
Jamika
Jamika has decided to become an astronaut and work at NASA. She is committed to her
goal and is looking forward to taking higher-level science and math courses in high school and
college. Jamika shared that she is outgoing, likes to get to know people, and believes she is a
good friend. When Jamika is not studying or reading, she hangs out with her friends and family.
Jamika considers herself a sports person.
Kati
Kati talked about herself as curious, energetic, shy, and nerdy. Although Kati is interested
in science and likes her science classes, when she grows up, she would like to have her own
business and go into business law. She told the interviewer, “What I really want to do is the
business side of things.” Kati’s favorite science class was environmental studies since the teacher
made the class fun and there were projects that she liked.
Keesha
Keesha expressed that she is close with her cousin and two special friends outside of
school. She also has three close friends who are in her class. Keesha likes to play Minecraft, do
homework, and journal. She also told the interviewer that her peers at school would say she is
nice but also a little shy. Keesha has enjoyed her science classes from first grade through fifth

37
grade. Pertaining to middle-school, Keesha liked one science class where she conducted an
experiment with baking soda and vinegar and another with dry ice and warm water.
Juliah
Juliah communicated that she is close to her sister, mother, and two significant friends at
school. She shared that she is talkative and laughs a lot. Juliah likes to read and play volleyball.
Regarding her favorite science class, she immediately responded, “The one I’m taking now in
eighth grade.” Juliah is not sure what she wants to be when she grows up, but she looks forward
to going to college.
Maleena
Maleena revealed that she is very close with her sister and her mom. Her friends say that
she is a “teacher’s pet.” Maleena also talked about her friends at school as more energetic than
she is. She is calmer at school compared to her friends. Her favorite things are watching TV and
playing volleyball. She likes to do group projects in science. Regarding favorite science classes,
Maleena enthusiastically proclaimed a summer science class she took at a college affiliated with
the Saturday Scholars Group.
Marah
Marah loves the outdoors. She shared that her friends describe her as fun, adventurous,
and smart because she is on top of her grades. Marah would like to be an anesthesiologist when
she grows up. She talked about science as one of her favorite subjects. She finds science
interesting and remarked that there is much depth to science, and she wants to be more invested
in it. Marah’s favorite middle-school science class was about the human body.

38
Meesha
Meesha shared that her friends consider her to be kind, smart, and fun. Sometimes,
Meesha likes to hang out with her friends, and other times, she likes to go to her cousin’s house
to hang out. One science class that Meesha really likes is her current health class. She likes
learning about mental health and nutrition and considers the information to be resourceful and
helpful. Regarding a future career, Meesha does not know exactly what she wants to do, but she
does not think it will involve science.
Tyra
Tyra likes to dance, listen to music, and paint. She wants to be a professional dancer
when she grows up. Tyra realizes that she must complete high school and go to college. She
knows that she will be taking more science courses in the future and looks forward to them.
Tyra’s favorite science class was in sixth grade with [Name] because she did experiments, wrote
many notes, and really learned very much.
Table 2 indicates ratings for both ability and confidence in science. Participants were told
that ability means that one has the skill for doing something or the talent or know-how to do
something. Participants were also told that confidence means feeling sure of oneself and sure of
one’s ability to do science. It is knowing and believing that one is capable. The self-reported
scores are based on a scale used by Usher (2007) in a research study regarding sources of
mathematics self-efficacy for Black middle-school girls. The range of responses for ability was
1–10, with 1 being the lowest level of ability and 10 being the highest level. The range of
responses for confidence was also 1–10, with 1 being the lowest level of confidence and 10
being the highest level. During the interviews, the participants verbally indicated their responses.

39
Table 2
Self-Reported Scores (N = 11)
Participant Rating for ability Rating for confidence
Britany 9.5 10
Dineesha 8 9
Heaven 9.5 9
Jamika 9 10
Juliah 9 8
Kati 8.5 6
Keesha 8 9
Maleena 8 9
Marah 9.5 8
Meesha 6 3.5
Tyra 8 9
Note. Rating mean for ability = 8.5. Rating mean for confidence = 8.2. Scale adapted from
Tracing the Origins of Confidence: A Mixed Methods Exploration of the Sources of Self-Efficacy
Beliefs in Mathematics (Publication No. 3264109) [Doctoral dissertation, Emory University], by
E. L. Usher, 2007. Copyright 2007 by Ellen L. Usher.
Summary
Pertaining to the autographical profiles of participants, issues of race came up in the
interviews. The participants’ Black identity was indicated when they discussed the influences in
their lives as relevant to academic success in science. For example, one participant made clear
that her role model was a Black, female administrator of the Saturday Scholars Group. Another
participant specifically mentioned two Black administrative assistants of the Saturday Scholars
Program as role models because both were college graduates. She thinks she will be able to
graduate from college because they did. One participant referred to Black female teachers who
taught her in elementary school. As she made clear, those teachers had a profound influence on

40
her due to the fact they were of the same race and gender as herself. Furthermore, five
participants brought up contemporary and historical figures who have had an influence on them
regarding the pursuit of STEM studies and STEM careers. The role models included astronauts
Sally Ride, Mae Jameson, and Ellen Ochoa, in addition to Katherine Johnson, a mathematician
and aerospace technologist; Dorothy Vaughn, a mathematician and NASA’s first Black manager;
and Mary Jackson, a mathematician and aerospace engineer. All are women of color except for
Sally Ride.
Program Context Analysis
I reviewed the home page of the Saturday Scholars Group website and conducted a word
cloud analysis pertaining to the program’s goals and characteristics. The information gleaned
from the website describes the Saturday Scholars Group as part of a comprehensive program for
inner-city students. The description includes the overall program’s vision and goals, the work
they do today and how it evolved, information about the program’s innovative and
comprehensive approach, the college immersion element, the expansion project, facts, and
statistics. The college immersion element is an innovative and strategic approach to college
preparedness and completion in partnership with a local university. The expansion project entails
extending the program to additional areas of the city that will include students from various high
schools. Furthermore, the information speaks to the number of participants per year, grade levels
served, and the commitment scholars and their families make to the 7-year program. The
Saturday Scholars Group’s comprehensive program provided an analysis of themes relative to
this study’s research question.
The themes unearthed from reviewing the website are similar to those that arose from the
analysis of the interviews. Regarding the research question, relative to mastery experience, the

41
results showed that innovative, scientific classroom activities and projects are a key program
component in general and the Saturday Scholars Group in particular. The words that were
evident in the word-cloud analysis included “academic,” “scientific process,” “special
workshops,” “projects,” and “innovative.” Additionally, academic support, advisement, arduous,
rigorous workshops, and comprehensive seminars provided by teachers were themes in the
analysis that were also similar to themes associated with the research question.
From the word-cloud analysis, themes materialized relative to the research question, and
vicarious experience encompassed parents and family. Furthermore, themes that surfaced in
consideration of social and verbal persuasion comprised the following: support, guidance,
advisement, community, and parents. As the word-cloud analysis describes, this program has
components that allow students to thrive and feel confident, and the information gleaned from
interviews also indicated the participants’ confidence. There appears to be a connection between
the program’s setup and what I found in the interview data. For example, participants mentioned
support, guidance, and advisement from teachers, administrators, and administrative assistants,
as well as a positive community feeling about being part of the program. Additionally,
participants spoke of their parents being involved and communicating with their teachers,
administrators, and administrative assistants. The themes in the interview data regarding the
research question also materialized from analyzing the program’s information on the home page
of the website.
After removing identifying language, I used the remaining language in the analysis to
create a single word cloud. Figure 1 reflects the relative frequency of the language utilized. It
also reflects the most prevalent verbiage used, with the size of the word displayed corresponding
to the relative frequency. In other words, the larger the word, the more commonly it appeared

42
within the information on the home page. The frequency of the words suggests the priorities of
the university-aligned program, as well as the focus and specific aspects of its vision, goals, and
mission. Most noticeable are the words “academic,” “parent,” “events,” and “admissions.” Right
after that, the words “seminars,” “comprehensive,” “support,” “scientific,” and “community” are
prominent. Such program elements lend themselves to uplifting and encouraging scholars while
providing a rigorous, innovative science curriculum.
Figure 1
Document Word Cloud

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Research Findings
The purpose of this study was to determine how Black middle-school girls’ selfperceptions and experiences in science influence their expectations for academic success in
science and career choices beyond middle-school. From the interviews conducted, various
themes materialized. Detailed below are themes that arose, which are organized based on the
theoretical framework of this study. These themes allow for further description and
understanding of two sources of self-efficacy, mastery experience or performance
accomplishments and physiological and emotional states, as sources of self-efficacy that the
participants access to achieve academically in science.
Mastery Experience: Classroom Activities
One theme was associated with mastery experience and performance accomplishments as
a source of self-efficacy: classroom activities. All 11 participants commented on the importance
of various classroom activities in their science classes. Eight girls talked about projects, four
spoke of experiments, three shared about hands-on work and projects, two specifically
mentioned activities, two participants talked of notetaking, two students specified labs, and one
participant noted debate. Many of them mentioned more than one type of classroom activity or
project. Taken together, numerous participants considered involvement in such classroom
activities and projects fun and enjoyable. In addition, the students generally expressed that they
liked the activities and projects, which resulted in liking the subject of science. Furthermore,
engaging in various classroom activities helped participants feel they could do science, get good
report-card grades, and do well on their science projects and assignments.
Nine girls in the study spoke about classroom activities and projects as being fun and
enjoyable. For example, Britany stated, “As a science student, I think science is really fun, and I

44
like to do experiments because I like to learn new things, and I like practicing different things,
like learning how different things work.” In addition, Britany shared, “I remember we made a
sound-wave project, and it was fun, and we heard the sound of waves, and another one was we
added substances like salt, sugar, and it was fun to see how they all changed.” Lab projects were
the important elements in Heaven’s favorite science classes. Heaven expressed, “My favorite
Saturday class is the one where we’re doing like project-based lab work, and it’s really fun, and I
like to work with the microscope and learn about cells, and I think that’s really interesting and
fun.” Similarly, Kati voiced, “In our regular science class, we had to do a no-thumb lab, and it
was very complicated, and it was very fun, and we were mostly laughing, and I got an A in the
class, too.” Britany, Heaven, and Kati made clear that being involved in science classroom
activities like experiments, a sound-wave project, lab projects, and a no-thumb lab are fun,
enjoyable, and interesting.
The majority of the participants spoke of how much they liked classroom activities and
projects and how much more they either liked the subject of science or wanted to learn more
about science because of their fondness for projects, experiments, hands-on work, labs, and other
activities. Case in point, Heaven explained, “In my Saturday science classes, we had a lot of cool
experiences like projects and stuff, and that kind of brought me into science and made it more
interesting, so I want to do more.” It seems apparent that Heaven attributes wanting to take more
science classes in the future to the classroom projects she has experienced in the science classes
she has taken in the past. Corresponding to what Heaven explained is what Marah shared: “And I
like hands-on things in science, and it was really fun for me, and it made me want to do science
more, like [to] this day.” Tyra echoed what Marah shared,

45
My friends talk about experiments, like one we did on Saturday when we had an egg in
vinegar, and we talked about our observations, and it was cool, and we want to do more
science, especially if it’s like that.
Kati, Marah, and Tyra were no exception when it came to equating their involvement in
scientific classroom activities with wanting to take more science classes.
Regarding their involvement in diverse classroom activities, students discussed being
able to do science, learning more because of classroom activities and projects, and getting good
grades in science classes. In particular, Dineesha talked about experiments using a microscope:
I really like when we do the microscope and stuff. … Like, I learned the different types
of cells and immortal cells, I feel like I am discovered something, and I found that very
cool, and it intrigues me and inspires me. … My best science teacher is Mr. [Name]
because we do more hands-on experiments and activities with him, and the things that we
use are, like, so different, and I learn more with him, I think.
Britany simply stated, “So, if I try my best to do a science experiment in another class or
a science project, then I will most likely be able to do it, especially because we have done a lot.”
Sharing a similar point as Britany, Heaven mentioned, “[Because] the projects brought me into
science. Now, I get As in science, and I work hard.” All three students had something in
common pertaining to science classroom activities. They associated science experiments,
activities, and specific projects with inspiration, learning more, getting excellent grades, and the
likelihood of succeeding in project-based activities in the future.
Closely related to what Dineesha, Britany, and Heaven shared, Jamika described how
completing certain classroom science projects influenced her positive attitude toward achieving
in future science classes. She asserted, “I had positive experiences in science classes where we

46
did projects, and some were hard, but those things automatically kinda push me to want to have
challenges and to want to do well in all science classes.” She also remarked, “I get personal
satisfaction with projects when they’re hard, but when I do well in it, I say, ‘Ok, if you can do
this, then you can do that other science class that everyone thinks is hard.’” Jamika also stated, “I
have already chosen a career path when I grow up and doing well in my science classes with
projects is going to help.” She continued, “I feel like the positive experiences I have had so far
will not only go toward being an astronaut but also making me feel really proud of myself.” She
concluded, “And encouraging myself to go for those harder science courses in high school and
college so that I know I can do it and so that I always have faith in myself.” It is evident that
Jamika views her accomplishments in her past and current activity-based science classes as
catalysts to future success as a science student in high school and college, as well as in her career
as an astronaut.
Analyzing the interviews produced findings related to classroom activities and projects,
which were fun, enjoyable, and likable. Additionally, engagement in classroom activities and
projects seemed to foster feelings of competence as a science student. Considering likeability, it
appeared that when participants expressed that they liked fun, enjoyable, and engaging classroom
projects and activities, in general, it elicited a likeness for the subject of science. Examples given
included a sound-wave project, a Play-Doh project, working with the microscope and lab
projects, science experiments, and other hands-on activities. When referring to fun and engaging
projects and activities, participants linked those attributes to liking them and consequently liking
science as a subject. Moreover, participants referenced that accomplishing project goals and
completing classroom activity challenges helped boost their overall can-do attitude toward
science, including taking harder high school and college courses.

47
Britany shared, “One time, with one of my science teachers, I was asking a question
about rocks, and he was explaining the different parts of it and stuff like that.” She said, “He was
telling us there are different places where you can find rocks, and I thought it was really cool,
and he was so knowledgeable, and I could find different rocks around where I live.” Britany
continued, “I just learned so much from this teacher and his science classes.” In addition, Britany
talked about classes and teachers from the Saturday Scholars Group. Britany remarked, “I like
the science classes that I have online on Saturdays. They’re really fun and engaging and
informational, and the teachers are excellent.” It appears evident that Britany views her teachers’
competence as a reason why she has learned so much in science.
Complementing what Britany shared regarding knowledgeable teachers, Jamika
specifically noted her environmental science teacher as being knowledgeable. Jamika shared, “I
really enjoy learning science, especially when it’s taught by a good teacher, and I’ve really loved
science, and also, I’ve had really good science classes.” Jamika noted, “I had this environmental
class last semester, and I think it was one of my favorite classes because the teacher was really
cool and knowledgeable.” She continued, “He explained things really well, and, like, it wasn’t
really repetitive because I don’t like when we learn the same things over and over again.” Jamika
added, “And the way the teacher explained things, he didn’t get angry if you didn’t get it right
away, and how he wasn’t repetitive was good.” She continued, “Oh, and we took notes [because]
he encouraged it, and I thought that helped.” Jamika conveyed clear and concise reasons as to
why her environmental science teacher was competent.

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Physiological and Emotional States: Supportive, Approachable, Caring Teachers
Physiological and emotional states are a source of self-efficacy considered in this section.
One specific theme emerged pertaining to physiological and emotional states: supportive,
approachable, caring teachers.
The participants shared experiences with science and supportive, approachable, and
caring teachers. Each of them spoke about their feelings in connection with supportive,
approachable, and caring teachers. For instance, Kati shared her feelings about her
environmental science teacher. Kati mentioned that she and other students felt happy in his class.
Her words were,
Last semester, I had environmental studies, and that teacher really made that class fun,
and he made sure that we felt happy, and we did, and I felt confident too, and sometimes
he would let us do projects and stuff like that.
The theme of supportive, approachable, and caring science teachers was also referenced
by Keesha. She said, “My science teachers from first grade to fifth grade have always been sweet
to me and made me feel good about myself in science.” Likewise, Maleena communicated, “My
science teacher pushes us and tells me I do well in science, and he pushes us so we can learn the
curriculum, and that makes me feel good.” Tyra spoke about Ms. [Name], a sixth-grade teacher,
as approachable and caring. She proclaimed,
In sixth grade, what I liked about my science teacher is that she was funny, and I feel like
she was one of the teachers who cared, and she not only cared about our education, but
she cared about us as people.

49
From the specific interview data, Kati, Keesha, Maleena, and Tyra shared their positive
feelings about science and mentioned they felt good about science. They all attributed their
positive feelings to science teachers they have had in the past.
Marah, Maleena, and Meesha also shared feelings about teachers. Marah talked about her
middle-school science teachers by stating,
I have had two science teachers in middle school, and both have made me feel confident
in science because they never put me down; like sometimes they may have been
frustrated if I just wasn’t understanding something at all, but with them explaining it, they
made me feel good about science, and I understood it thoroughly.
Marah’s remark makes clear that these two science teachers related to her with care and support.
Maleena expressed, “I really like how my science teacher cares because he makes everything
fun, and it’s never boring, and he never puts people on the spot [because] you could get the
answers wrong then.” Similarly, Meesha let the interviewer know that different teachers have
been kind and warmhearted. She noted, “My fifth-grade teacher, she was really sweet, and she
had us do a lot of work, but like she wasn’t too strict on it, and I felt good in her class.” Marah,
Maleena, and Meesha contributed thoughts, feelings, and ideas related to the theme of
supportive, caring, and approachable teachers.
With respect to the theme of supportive, approachable, caring teachers and their
relationship to physiological and emotional states, participants spoke of how teachers made them
feel good, happy, confident, cared for, smart, uplifted, welcome, and motivated. One participant
spoke about her feelings of happiness being in Mr. [Name]’s class and of her peers being happy
in his class. Other participants echoed this sentiment as well. Moreover, of significance was the
common report that feeling happy and feeling good about teachers and their science classes had

50
an impact on participants’ motivation, confidence, and understanding of the subject matter
presented in various science classes.
Section Summary
Analysis of the interviews designated one theme related to mastery experience and
performance accomplishments, and one theme was associated with physiological and emotional
states. The theme relative to the source of self-efficacy referred to as mastery experience and
performance accomplishments was classroom activities. Pertaining to physiological and
emotional states as a source of self-efficacy, the theme that surfaced was supportive,
approachable, caring teachers.
Regarding classroom activities as a theme related to mastery experience, all participants
shared that classroom activities like experiments, hands-on activities, activity-based science
classes, and various projects were their favorites and preferable to other instructional models.
They also expressed that participating in these types of activities helped them learn more, and
they got better grades because of the various classroom activities. Participants also mentioned
certain projects pertaining to specific topics, such as a sound-wave project, lab projects, the use
of microscopes, and learning about cells and immortal cells. Additionally, the participants
communicated their interest, motivation, and enthusiasm about projects and activities related to
their accomplishments as science students.
The intention of this study was to identify the perceived educational, familial, and
community experiences that form Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy for science. Numerous
themes surfaced from the interviews conducted. Based on the theoretical framework, the themes
were organized to provide further explanation for the role vicarious experience and social and
verbal persuasion play in shaping Black middle-school girls’ science self-efficacy.

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Vicarious Experience: Teachers, Administrators, and School Personnel as Role Models
This section explores vicarious experience as a source of self-efficacy. The vicarious
experience of observing a model successfully perform tasks or achieve outcomes desired by an
observer can have a strong influence on self-efficacy. Additionally, people make positive
judgments about their own capabilities by observing others like themselves accomplish tasks.
One theme was brought to light upon analyzing the data: teachers, administrators, and school
personnel. Regarding teachers, administrators, and school personnel as role models, four students
identified teachers, two participants named administrators, and two girls specified individuals
who are part of school personnel and serve as administrative assistants. Three participants did
not designate a teacher, administrator, or a specific person who is considered a part of school
personnel as a role model.
Participants made clear that teachers, administrators, and school personnel have served as
role models. For instance, Britany let the interviewer know her role model is a Black female
administrator for the Saturday Scholars Group. Britany shared, “She’s really nice. She inspires
me, and she always goes over the code of ethics, and it helps inspire me to be able to be a
hardworking person in the future.” Britany continued, “She’s a successful person because she
graduated from [university] and stuff, and I want to be able to graduate from that [university].”
Britany is aware that her role model completed the task of earning a doctorate and views her as a
successful and inspirational person; thus, Britany is likely to absorb positive beliefs about herself
related to attaining similar goals based on her role model’s achievements.
Similar to what Britany shared, Dineesha mentioned two Black female administrative
assistants from the Saturday Scholars Group she considers to be her role models. Dineesha
explained, “[They] are my role models because they’re very generous, and they started the

52
Young Black Mathematicians Program, or YBM, a special club at our school, just for us, and
they want to help us and see us succeed.” She added, “They just want us to do better, and that’s
why they’re my role models.” Dineesha mentioned three reasons these two women are her role
models. One is their generosity, another is an accomplishment, and the other is their commitment
to students’ wellbeing. The vicarious experience of observing her Black female role models will
probably have a strong influence on Dineesha’s self-efficacy for science.
The positive influence role models have on students who are of the same race and gender
was made apparent from the responses put forth by Jamika. Black female elementary teachers
became Jamika’s role models. She stated, “I don’t really have any teachers who are role models,
currently, but in elementary school, I definitely did when I went to elementary school, and a lot
of my teachers were Black … women.” Jamika continued, “It made me feel good because
women are finally acknowledged as being able to go to college and able to have these
experiences and able to go into STEM fields.” She also conveyed, “So, I think the fact that I just
saw that early on in life helped me develop this concept of, well, if a guy can do it, then a woman
can do it, too, especially a Black woman.” Jamika also made it clear to the interviewer that her
elementary school teachers inspired her to go to college and have a great job in the future.
Decidedly, Jamika’s role models have influenced her. Because of her role models, Jamika is
motivated to achieve what they achieved and maybe more.
Kati exemplified the positive influence of role models in connection with vicarious
experience. She remarked, “One teacher that I really think impacted me and is my role model is
my sixth-grade teacher, who I had for history, science, and English.” Kati realized how
influential this teacher had been in her life. She stated, “It does motivate you to want to take on
what your role model is doing in life because it kinda impacts on you. Like, I can do that, too,

53
and they show you that you’re capable of doing it.” Assuredly, a link appears to exist between
Kati’s positive role model and Kati’s belief that she can achieve academically and has the
capability to do so.
During interviews, participants also spoke of teachers, administrators, and school
personnel as role models, adding to comments about family role models. The majority of
students talked about their teachers as role models, followed by administrative assistants, school
personnel, and administrators. Participants who included these types of role models did so
without hesitation and with enthusiasm. The girls who were interviewed revealed that various
role models, such as teachers, administrators, and school personnel, have shaped their positivity
regarding their confidence in science.
Social and Verbal Persuasion
Two themes surfaced related to social and verbal persuasion, one of the four sources of
self-efficacy. The themes include teachers, as well as parents and family members.
Teachers
When speaking of teachers, nine participants mentioned teachers who influenced,
encouraged, and reassured them. Most notably, Britany asserted that she feels confident as a
science student because, in her classes, the teachers encourage her. Specifically, Britany
declared, “In my classes, the teachers encourage us and that we can do it, and so, I am confident
I will be able to complete the experiments and assignments we have in science.” When referring
to encouragement from teachers, Tyra disclosed,
My sixth-grade science teacher for lab at Saturday Scholars Group really influenced me
because I learned so much from her, and she let me know I could do it and encouraged
me, like I could be a good science student.

54
Jamika also brought up reassurance and encouragement from teachers: “I like when
teachers tell you that you’re doing a good job and reassure you [because] I feel that it motivates
us to do even better for the next thing that you’re doing.” She added, “I really appreciate when
science teachers acknowledge you for what you’re doing because it pushes you to do even
better.” Complementing what Britany, Tyra, and Jamika shared about encouragement and
reassurance from teachers, Juliah conveyed her thoughts about specific science teachers. Juliah
proclaimed, “My current science teacher lets me know when I do well in science, and yeah, it
feels like I can do more.” The influence, reassurance, and encouragement from science teachers
added to findings related to social and verbal persuasion.
Teachers who have encouraged and reassured students have provided social and verbal
persuasion as a source of self-efficacy that the students draw upon to feel confident in their
science abilities. This was made apparent when many of the girls shared examples of
encouragement they received from specific teachers, acknowledgement for their efforts from
certain teachers, supportive actions, and even tangible rewards for doing well on science tests.
Moreover, the participants expressed that they felt more motivated to continue doing their best in
subsequent science classes due to their teachers’ reassurances. Continuation of performing her
best in future science courses was made clear when one participant shared that her teacher has
inspired her to become a hardworking student in the future. Another shared that as a role model,
her teacher’s accomplishments in life have made an impact on her. More specifically, she
mentioned that because her science teacher graduated from college and got good grades, she
believes she is capable of doing the same.

55
Parents and Family Members
Nine participants shared about parents or family members in connection with social and
verbal persuasion. All nine girls spoke of receiving positive messages from parents or other
members of their families. Of the students who talked about receiving positive messages,
Britany communicated that her parents support her. She stated, “They help me to keep
trying when I kinda give up.” Additionally, Dineesha shared about her auntie and uncle, who
have voiced positive messages. She expressed, “One of my aunties and one of my uncles told me
they believed I could grow up to be a doctor, and I thought that was pretty cool.” She stated,
“But I mean, I prefer to be a lawyer, but it was still pretty cool that they said that to me, and I
was like, ‘Wow, I guess they think I’m pretty smart.’” From what Dineesha shared, it is obvious
that her aunt and uncle’s affirming messages have made an impact. From what Britany and other
girls shared it is apparent that parents’ constructive and heartening words have encouraged them
to keep on going in the face of difficulties [when science gets really hard].
Feeling supported by her parents was also communicated by Jamika. She shared the
following, “My teachers told my parents that I’m a really good science student, and they talked
to me about it.” Jamika added, “They said, ‘We’re proud of you, and we need you to keep doing
this because this is what we taught you, and we’re proud of you.’” Jamika continued, “It was
really nice to feel that and to feel, like, good enough, and I was doing well in my science
classes.” Juliah expressed that her parents believe she can do well in science. She told the
interviewer, “My parents tell me to get As in science, and like they both tell me, ‘I know you
can.’” In like manner to Juliah, Kati’s father told her that she was smart and she can achieve in
science. Kati declared, “I like talking to my daddy about science [because] he’s really smart, and
he tells me I’m smart, too.” In addition, Kati mentioned, “My dad got me and my siblings a

56
science experiment kit, so after we used it, he said, ‘Kati, you can achieve anything you want in
science.’” It is apparent that uplifting verbal messages from Jamika, Juliah, and Kati’s parents
have contributed to their positive beliefs about science achievement.
Parents have had an impact on other participants, as well. For example, Keesha said this
about her father, “My dad is dedicated to science, and he tells me about cool experiments, and I
do them, and he says, ‘Way to go, baby girl, you did great!’ and then I want to do more stuff like
that.” She also shared, “My dad is really interested in the grades I get in science and when I get
good grades, he is so happy and tells me how proud he is.” It is Maleena’s mother who has made
an impact on her regarding science. Maleena reported, “My mom took us to a science museum,
and it was about biology, and the scientist was holding a real human heart, and I touched the
heart.” She carried on the conversation by saying, “I’m kinda glad my mom did that [because]
now I feel better about science classes I’ll have to take when I have to touch organs of the body.”
Whether it is experiments a mom or dad provides, encouraging words, or unique science
experiences a parent provides, they resulted in Keesha and Maleena’s desire to continue science
education.
Tyra has had discussions about science with her family members. Tyra voiced the
following,
I feel like my family talks about hot topics, and the hot topics we talk about are like my
older cousin is in his 2nd year of college, and with him, we’ve had a discussion about
science, and the discussion revolved around the universe and how the world would look
in the future and stuff like that.
She kept going by saying, “And we watched science videos about the earth and stuff, and then
when we have discussions, my dad and mom tell us that we can succeed in different areas of

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science.” Tyra concluded by sharing, “It’s really cool to talk on science topics with your family,
and it makes me want to keep on taking more science classes.” Tyra’s family discussions have
influenced her desire to continue her science education, an indication of the influence of social
and verbal persuasion.
It is evident that parents and family members have played a positive role in the lives of
participants by exposing them to science experiments, having family discussions regarding
scientific knowledge, and participating in a field trip to a science museum. Furthermore, each of
the nine participants who shared about parents and family members and their science education
revealed they had received supportive messages from either mothers, fathers, aunts, or uncles.
Moreover, both the supportive messages and various family activities resulted in the girls’ desire
to continue taking science classes and doing more experiments, feeling positive about taking
more science classes, believing in themselves as science scholars and feeling good enough, and
persisting if science becomes difficult.
Section Summary
Upon analysis of the interviews, one theme emerged for vicarious experience and
modeling, and two themes emerged for social and verbal persuasions; both are sources of selfefficacy. The theme related to vicarious experience was teachers, administrators, and school
personnel. The two themes related to social and verbal persuasion included teachers, parents, and
family members. Findings associated with each theme allowed for a clearer understanding of
participants’ self-perceptions, as well as educational, community, and familial experiences, that
shape their self-efficacy for science.
The responses of participants brought to light the influence of role models on their
confidence and motivation attributed to learning science. Role models are integral to vicarious

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experience as a source of self-efficacy. Relative to specific school-based role models, four
students referred to teachers as role models, whereas two recognized an administrator, and two
named school personnel, such as administrative assistants. The girls who indicated a role model
appeared to be reflective, deliberate, and intentional in their responses, underscoring the
profound influence role models have had in their lives.
In addition to vicarious experience, this study considered another source of self-efficacy,
social and verbal persuasion, as a possible influence contributing to the participants’ confidence
and motivation for science. Participants shared about teachers, parents, and family members in
reply to discussion items related to receiving positive feedback as science students, from
individuals in their lives. Their replies revealed that parents and teachers provided a similar
amount of substantial support and positive feedback related to each girl’s academic situation in
science classes. Participants who commented on the praise, encouragement, uplifting messages,
and rewards given to them by teachers, parents, and family members also spoke of the fact that
they want to continue taking more science classes and feel good about doing so.
Chapter Summary
This study sought to understand how Black middle-school girls’ experiences and selfperceptions in science affect their expectations for academic achievement in science courses and
careers beyond middle-school. Additionally, this study inquired about perceived educational,
familial, and community experiences that shape Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy for
science. Considering the four sources of self-efficacy theory, namely mastery experience,
physiological and emotional states, vicarious experience, and social and verbal persuasion,
themes emerged from the analysis of small-group and individual interviews of 11 participants.

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The research question inquired about mastery experience and physiological and
emotional states as sources of self-efficacy. It allowed for the expression of the participants’
perceptions and noteworthy events from previous and current science courses that influence their
expectancy of future academic success in science and for careers beyond middle-school. From
the analysis of the interview transcripts, one theme emerged for both mastery experience and
physiological and emotional states as sources of self-efficacy.
Regarding mastery experience as a source of self-efficacy, the primary theme that
became apparent was classroom activities and PjBL activities. Enthusiasm related to
participants’ involvement in various experiments, projects, and hands-on academic tasks was
made clear during the interviews. The students’ successful involvement in past and present
project-based classroom activities positively influenced their belief in being successful in
subsequent science classes and, for some, pursuing an occupation related to science.
When looking at physiological and emotional states, the theme that came forth from the
analysis of interview transcripts was approachable, supportive, and caring teachers. It was made
clear that participants felt confident about achieving in their science classes. Also, the more the
students achieved, the better they felt emotionally. In addition, caring and approachable teachers
evoked feelings related to motivation, intelligence, confidence, being uplifted, and happiness.
The research question looked at sources of self-efficacy, referred to as vicarious
experience and social and verbal persuasion. One theme pertaining to vicarious experience that
materialized was teachers, administrators, and school personnel. The role models were associated
with students’ confidence in their abilities to achieve in science classes. Participants expressed
that if a teacher, administrator, or administrative assistant from their school with whom they
identified could be successful, they could as well.

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Two themes surfaced pertaining to social and verbal persuasion. They included teachers,
parents, and family members. Because teachers provided verbal praise, encouragement, tangible
rewards, and acknowledgement of students’ efforts, participants communicated their feelings of
motivation about pursuing more challenging courses in science. This was also shown to be true
for parents and family members.
This chapter supplied the findings from small-group and individual interviews of 11
Black middle-school girls who all participated in the Saturday Scholars Group on the campus of
an urban college that focused on science classes. The qualitative analysis of the interview
transcripts and document analysis generated information related to the girls’ experiences and
self-perceptions pertaining to four sources of self-efficacy. Chapter Five will discuss
recommendations on the basis of the findings and what middle-school science programs could
consider to boost students’ self-efficacy for the subject of science.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand Black middle-school girls’
perceptions and experiences of self-efficacy for science. Participants were selected from a
program called the Saturday Scholars Group. This university-affiliated program extends outreach
efforts to neighborhood families in close proximity to the university and provides Saturday
classes in various subjects, including science. Additionally, the students receive wrap-around
services such as tutoring and teacher and administrative involvement from their middle schools.
Furthermore, the Saturday Scholars Group consists of a mandatory parent participation
component, which includes parent courses and easy access to and communication with teachers,
administrators, and administrative assistants. The majority of interviews conducted for this study
were small groups with two individual interviews. During these interviews, each of the girls
communicated their thoughts, feelings, experiences, and opinions about confidence in learning
science. Their perceptions provided insight into the sources of self-efficacy that the students
drew upon for the purpose of academic achievement in science subjects. In this chapter, I will
offer a more in-depth discussion of the findings as well as their implications for practice and K–
12 leadership. Over and above, recommendations for further research will be discussed.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework utilized to answer the research question of this qualitative
study is self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in her potential and
ability to execute behaviors needed to bring forth specific performance accomplishments
(Bandura, 1977, 1986a, 1986b, 1997). I used the theory of self-efficacy to structure, explore, and
examine the data accumulated from a document and participants’ interviews.

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Research Question
The study sought to answer one main research question: What educational, familial, and
community influences contribute to the science self-efficacy of Black middle school girls in a
STEM-focused enrichment program? The findings revealed important aspects of the participants’
experiences that related to each of the four sources of self-efficacy (e.g., mastery experience,
physiological and emotional states, vicarious experience, social and verbal persuasion). For
example, classroom activities and teacher competence were two themes relative to mastery
experience. The theme of personal confidence, in addition to supportive, approachable, and
caring teachers, became apparent concerning physiological and emotional states. The three
themes that emerged for vicarious experience were family role models, teachers, administrators,
and school personnel, in addition to role models who are historical and contemporary figures.
With reference to social and verbal persuasion, the three themes that came to light were teachers,
peers, parents, and family members. The following section considers the most significant
findings and discusses their meaning and importance.
Discussion
Considering the separate narratives of the 11 interviewees, in addition to the document
analysis, several key findings emerged. The findings brought to light that mastery experience and
performance accomplishments, in addition to physiological and emotional states, were the two
sources of self-efficacy participants appeared to draw upon that enhanced their belief in science
achievement more than the other two sources of self-efficacy (i.e., vicarious experience, social
and verbal persuasions). Moreover, major themes were found in relation to each of the four
sources of self-efficacy (i.e., mastery experience and performance accomplishments,
physiological and emotional states, vicarious experience, social and verbal persuasions). In

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particular, classroom activities appeared as a major theme connected with mastery experience
and performance accomplishments.
Teachers, as a theme, had an influence on participants relative to physiological and
emotional states, social and verbal persuasions, and vicarious experience. As a further matter,
parents, family members, and historical and contemporary figures were themes that materialized
from the data analysis. More distinctly, the theme of teachers, as well as parents and family
members, is related to social and verbal persuasions as a source of self-efficacy, whereas the
theme of historical and contemporary figures pertained to vicarious experience in addition to
teachers, administrators, and school personnel. The following provides a more concise
description of the findings corresponding to the four sources of self-efficacy (i.e., mastery
experience and performance accomplishments, physiological and emotional states, vicarious
experience, social and verbal persuasions).
Mastery Experience and Performance Accomplishments
In self-efficacy theory, mastery experiences are situations where an individual completes
a difficult endeavor or task or overcomes a challenge. Similarly, performance accomplishments,
a type of mastery experience, assist learners in the organization of beliefs regarding their abilities
(Bandura, 1997). Successful academic experiences can enhance self-efficacy, while unsuccessful
academic experiences may diminish self-efficacy. Additionally, a heightened sense of selfefficacy built on past experience can elicit the resolve to persist regardless of setbacks and
challenges. Considered the most influential source of self-efficacy by pioneering researchers
such as Bandura (1997), Usher and Pajares (2008), Schunk and Usher (2012), mastery
experience and performance accomplishments supply specific evidence that an individual is able
to succeed, reinforcing self-efficacy beliefs and improving self-confidence. This study’s findings

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indicated that classroom activities were a powerful theme related to this source of self-efficacy.
Moreover, the theme of classroom activities contributed to participants’ positive perceptions
concerning academic achievement in science.
Classroom activities were most notable as a theme that emerged in the interview data. It
was associated with the research question, specifically mastery experience and performance
accomplishments, which are a source of self-efficacy. All participants either referred to PjBL
experiences or discovery-type science activities that elicited their interest, motivation, positive
attitudes toward the subject of science, and confidence. In addition, the students expressed that
positive outcomes related to their performance in such experiences and activities brought forth a
sense of accomplishment and excellent grades for science, which they could build upon for
future success in science courses.
What I found is supported by the research literature. For example, Shin (2018) asserted
that the instructional method of PjBL has shown itself to be efficacious because it permits
students to participate actively in their own academic learning process. From what the
participants shared, it was obvious that their active participation in numerous science activities
was productive in both learning and evoking a belief in their abilities to achieve success in
subsequent science courses. This coincides with the research of Bandura (1997) and Usher and
Pajares (2008), which provided evidence that a student’s belief in her individual skills and
abilities reinforces her self-efficacy. Shin (2018) also postulated that when students engage in
PjBL activities or types of discovery science activities, an increase in self-efficacy and
motivation results. It became evident from the interviews that participants constructed their own
knowledge subsequent to their engagement in classroom activities and reflected upon their
activities, generating positive attitudes and expressions of self-confidence and self-efficacy.

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In a study by Deutscher et al. (2021) pertaining to PjBL, results showed that the projectbased science curriculum, which includes numerous types of classroom activities, brought about
gains in students’ science learning outcomes and engagement. In addition, Buck et al. (2014)
found that the inclusion of collaborative classroom science activities and inquiry-based science
experiences improved Black girls’ attitudes toward science in Grades 3 through 6. Although the
participants were in Grades 6 through 9, in general, they had similar experiences to those in a
study conducted by Buck et al. The participants expressed their own positive attitudes toward
science in addition to positive feelings, confidence, interest, and motivation. Most importantly,
this study’s findings indicated that project-based activities appear to have positive outcomes in
terms of mastery experience and performance accomplishments, a source of self-efficacy.
Physiological and Emotional States
Physiological and emotional states, another form of self-efficacy, are related to physical
and emotional reactions that can affect an individual’s perceptions of her personal confidence
(Bandura, 1997; Pajares & Urdan, 2006; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Negative physiological states
such as unpleasant emotional reactions (e.g., sadness, frustration, fear, anxiety, pain, fatigue) can
bring forth feelings of incompetency or vulnerability, which can negatively influence selfefficacy. On the other hand, alternative emotional reactions, such as pride, inspiration, joy, and
happiness, can improve self-confidence and self-efficacy (Kavanagh & Bower, 1985). Emotions,
moods, feelings, and stress levels contribute to how an individual feels about her abilities to
achieve or succeed. In this study, physiological and emotional states contributed significantly to
participants’ positive self-confidence and self-efficacy for achievement in science.
As a source of self-efficacy, physiological and emotional states are linked with the
research question. The specific theme that surfaced from analyzing the interviews that pertained

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to physiological and emotional states was supportive, approachable, and caring teachers. All 11
participants communicated how teachers influenced their affirmative feelings and emotions
through care, concern, support, and the fact that their teachers were approachable and
communicative. Lazarides et al. (2021) posited that ongoing feedback loops in communication
and respectful interactions with students are two important elements of teacher support. This
study’s participants mentioned positive, supportive, personal discussions with teachers that were
also considerate and genuine, coinciding with the results of Lazarides et al. (2021). The Black
middle-school girls who were involved in this research revealed that the teacher support they
received made them feel significantly better about their engagement in science in addition to the
belief in their own ability to achieve. This speaks to the contribution positive emotional states
have to Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy beliefs for science.
Besides the research of Lazarides et al. (2021), Darby (2005) studied relational pedagogy
relative to student and teacher relationships which also sheds light on this study’s findings.
According to Darby (2005), learning outcomes improved when students felt teachers were
passionate about teaching and a supportive learning environment was provided. Various students
in this study spoke about how much their science teachers cared about them and their learning
and made sure their classroom environment was nurturing and encouraging. One stated that her
science teacher cared about everyone as people and not just as students. Darby (2005) also
posited that encouraging, caring, and reassuring teachers made middle-school students feel more
comfortable. Considering the responses of 11 out of 11 participants that referred to supportive,
approachable, and caring teachers, it follows that they must have felt comfortable based on the
research findings of Darby (2005). Also, the majority of the participants reported receiving good
grades in their middle-school science classes, pointing to positive student outcomes.

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In another study by Bergin and Bergin (2009), regarding students’ attachment to teachers
and parents, higher grades are affiliated with a safe and secure attachment to both. In this study,
participants commented on their positive relationships and attachments to their parents; however,
more often, they commented on their affirmative and beneficial attachments to their science
teachers, which allowed them to feel more confident about science as an academic subject.
According to Bergin and Bergin (2009), these good feelings and attachments are also affiliated
with a readiness and eagerness to accept and confront challenges (e.g., additional courses of
increased rigor and complexity), which results in higher academic achievement. Taking into
consideration the findings of Bergin and Bergin (2009), what I found most telling and substantial
relative to this study is that one participant spoke about her feelings of happiness being in Mr.
[Name]’s class and of her peers being happy in his class as well. Numerous participants indicated
how happy they felt with particular teachers in the program.
Vicarious Experience
When an individual observes another person accomplish a task, this experience of
observation can have a significant impact on self-efficacy. According to Bandura (1989), in his
early research regarding self-efficacy theory, appropriate vicarious experiences are essential to
enhancing a student’s self-efficacy, especially when students view individuals as role models.
Additionally, the effect of vicarious experience is heightened when individuals discern a
common relationship, based on various factors, between their ability and the ability of the model
(Bandura, 1997). Common factors or characteristics include gender, race, age, and
socioeconomic background. The majority of role models the participants discussed were similar
to themselves according to gender and race. Participants also revealed that various historical and
contemporary role models (e.g., Mae Jemison, Madam CJ Walker, Henrietta Lacks, Sally Ride,

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Ellen Ochoa, Kimberly Bryant), who shared the participants’ racial and/or gender characteristics,
influenced their self-efficacy and self-confidence. However, the impact of historical and
contemporary role models was not as robust when compared to role models such as teachers,
administrators, and school personnel.
Vicarious experience is a source of self-efficacy. One theme that was unearthed upon
analysis of the interviews was teachers, administrators, and school personnel. Eight out of 11
participants referred to the fact that either a teacher, administrator, or persons considered
assistants, known as school personnel, had a significant impact on their motivation to achieve in
science. Additionally, these eight students explicitly designated these individuals as role models.
The girls also made clear the gender and race of their role models. All of their role models, also
known as social models, were women of color, with the majority being Black women. This is
notable since students are apt to comprehend and assimilate some of the optimism, positive
beliefs, and high levels of self-efficacy role models demonstrate (Ackerman, 2018). Moreover,
social models are seen as similar to an individual with reference to constructs such as race,
ethnicity, gender, occupation, age, or socioeconomic group function as a strong basis for
comparison (Capa‐Aydin, 2018; Schunk, 1983a, 1987).
From the specific information regarding the race and gender of participants’ role models,
it is evident that the individuals they emulate have provided an image of success that has
influenced their self-efficacy. This is in accordance with the research findings of Bandura (1994)
and Pajares (2002), both of whom found that vicarious experience leads to an improved level of
self-efficacy when an individual acknowledges that she can imitate approaches to
accomplishment. Furthermore, becoming familiar with social models’ commitment to excellence
and success can increase a student’s self-efficacy by giving the impression that she is capable of

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similar accomplishments (Olsson et al., 2016; Schunk & Pajares, 2009). It can be seen that
teachers, administrators, and school personnel provided positive role models, including positive
self-beliefs and behaviors, for this study’s participants; therefore, they are likely to absorb some
of those positive characteristics about themselves.
Social and Verbal Persuasions
Another source of self-efficacy linked to the research question is social and verbal
persuasions. Social persuasion is the influence of persons such as parents, teachers, or peers
indicating the student is capable of performing a certain action or task, whereas verbal
persuasions are the spoken encouragement by significant others (Bandura et al., 2001; Hattie &
Timperley, 2007). Both social and verbal persuasions given by teachers, parents, community,
and family members can also enhance perceptions of efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Furthermore,
according to Arslan (2012), positive self-efficacy of middle-school science students is correlated
with social and verbal persuasions as a source of self-efficacy. In this study, although social and
verbal persuasions had a positive effect on participants’ self-efficacy for science, the effect was
not as profound as that of mastery experience or physiological and emotional states.
Teachers
One of the themes pertaining to verbal persuasions that surfaced from the interview data
analysis was teachers. A majority of participants, nine out of 11, brought up the fact that their
teachers have been a consistent source of encouragement, especially their science teachers. This
finding is consistent with the literature on student motivation in middle-school. Regarding
student motivation in middle-school, Wentzel (1997) found that caring teachers were described
in many ways; one was providing constructive feedback, verbal praise, and positive and
encouraging messages. The results from Wentzel’s study (1997) suggested that students’

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perceptions of supportive teachers who care are related to the academic efforts of students. From
what this study’s participants shared, it appeared their academic effort was positively influenced
by the praise and thoughtful messages of encouragement that their teachers bestowed upon them.
The support and inspiration from teachers are considered a positive component of a
student’s educational experience and have been linked to positive academic outcomes. To
illustrate the importance of social and verbal persuasions as a source of self-efficacy relating to
teachers, Schunk and DiBenedetto (2021) purported that when a person receives positive verbal
feedback while engaging in a complicated task, that results in the person’s belief that she
possesses the skills and capabilities to succeed. In addition, Won et al. (2017) found that the
social and verbal persuasions from teachers were a notable forecaster of the self-efficacy of
students, and in turn, students’ academic self-efficacy became a potent predictor of their
expected exam scores and continued academic success. Moreover, Chen and Usher (2013)
reported that students who receive positive verbal messages from teachers achieve excellent
grades. The participants made clear that during class experiments and activities, teachers
presented words of encouragement, praise, and positive messages about their performance. They
also reported earning excellent grades in science subjects. The supportive science teachers
participants have encountered in their academic experience, who provided social and verbal
persuasions, have influenced their self-efficacy for science.
Parents and Family Members
An additional theme that came to the surface after analyzing the interviews was parents
and family members. Similar to the theme of teachers, nine out of 11 girls in this study
communicated how parents and family members have provided praise and uplifting messages
toward their academic efforts in science. This brings up the real possibility that the components

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of the Saturday Scholars Group, pertaining to parent training, involvement, and engagement, had
an impact in terms of positive verbal messages given to the girls in this study. The content of the
interviews also suggested that parents and family members were influential in many ways
regarding the students’ academic motivation and achievement.
The interviews brought forth how the theme of social and verbal persuasions influenced
the girls’ self-efficacy. In terms of predicting academic self-efficacy, only social and verbal
persuasions from parents and teachers, and not peers, had significant unique contributions to
middle-school students’ self-efficacy for science. My findings bear this out. Simply put, peers
was not a substantial theme that appeared from analysis of the interviews, regarding social and
verbal persuasions. Schunk and Pajares (2009) reported that parents can promote their children’s
academic self-efficacy by providing persuasive support. In addition, Schwarzer et al. (2014)
found that students’ confidence in their academic potentiality can also be assisted and bolstered
by social and verbal persuasion from significant others such as teachers, family members, and
parents. Furthermore, according to Bandura (1997) and Rosenthal and Zimmerman (2014), social
and verbal persuasions will improve a student’s belief system regarding her capability, which is
essential to comprehending and mastering a course of action or a specific task. Lastly, in a study
by Arslan (2012), middle-school students reported that they developed their perceptions and
beliefs related to self-efficacy through social and verbal persuasions, mastery experience, and
performance accomplishments. My findings agree with and reinforce what the literature says.
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
As teachers, administrators, and educational leaders contemplate solutions to improving
science self-efficacy and academic achievement in science for middle-school girls of the BIPOC
population, Shields (2010) proposed a transformative approach to leadership that considers both

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broader social change, social justice, educational revisions, and offers guidelines for practice.
Transformative leadership also speaks to both the common and collective good as well as the
individual good (Freire, 1998; Montuori & Donnelly, 2017; Shields, 2010). Additionally,
transformative leadership honors the responsibilities of educators and leaders through a
dedication to the benefit of all stakeholders (Caldwell et al. 2012). Due to the fact that it
emphasizes social change, both the collective and individual good and the involvement of
multiple stakeholders, transformative leadership connects with the three recommendations I
proposed pertaining to this study’s findings.
When viewing my recommendations through the lens of transformative leadership,
consideration of the research findings of Shields (2010) and Montuori and Donnelly (2017) are
most relevant and applicable to teachers, administrators, and educational leaders. First, Shields
(2010) made clear that it is essential to inquire about what each individual needs to achieve and
then provide appropriate and adequate resources. It is evident that this study’s participants need
hands-on learning activities, PbL strategies and programs, supportive, approachable, caring
teachers, and role models similar to themselves. Secondly, Montuori and Donnelly (2017)
clarified that transformative leadership is both aspirational and a summons for educators to
engage in a collaborative, caring journey with students into new teaching and leadership
endeavors. Collaboration is a hallmark of the Saturday Scholars Group that has resulted in selfefficacy and positive academic outcomes for the participants. Thirdly, Shields (2010) also
recognized that each student’s academic preparation was paramount for realizing her potential.
Since this study’s findings made clear that self-efficacy is an essential part of the academic
preparation process, transformative leadership would allow for considerable attention to selfefficacy theory. It is evident that embracing transformative leadership across various school

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districts and settings will provide possibilities and alternatives to enact future change regarding
science education for middle-school girls of the BIPOC community.
Recommendation 1: Classroom Hands-On Activities and Project-Based Learning
As this study revealed, hands-on activities and PjBL can serve as valuable instructional
strategies and resources for teachers and administrators to implement to support Black middleschool girls’ self-efficacy for science and, ultimately, their academic achievement. The literature
supports my findings. For example, according to Shin (2018), hands-on activities and PbL
influence students’ motivation and self-efficacy when utilized for classroom instruction.
Additionally, Robinson et al. (2022) found that when hands-on science activities were
consistently provided for upper-grade elementary (i.e., Grades 4, 5, and 6) schoolgirls, a
sustained interest in science subjects and a motivation to pursue science classes resulted. In
addition to the research of Robinson et al. (2022), Buck et al. (2014) found that positive attitudes
toward science and improved self-efficacy for science subjects were a function of collaborative
hands-on activities, a supportive teacher, and PbL techniques.
Moreover, as Brown et al. (2016) purported, a project-based instructional approach to
STEM subjects significantly increased students’ perceptions of usefulness for STEM, persistence
in science, interest in STEM courses, STEM self-efficacy, and achievement. The research
findings make clear that the hands-on activities and PbL strategies enhance, improve, and
increase students’ motivation and self-efficacy for science. I recommend that teachers and
administrators consider including hands-on activities and PbL when designing courses and
planning curriculum.

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Recommendation 2: Necessity for Supportive, Approachable, and Caring Teachers
The results brought to light the importance of supportive, approachable, and caring
teachers pertaining to the participants’ self-efficacy and academic success in science. Findings
from previous studies also shed light on the impact of support, care, and approachability of
teachers regarding students’ motivation and academic success in science subjects. In particular,
Alsop (2020) included the importance of positive and supportive relationships between middleschool students and teachers in promoting high academic success and self-efficacy for science.
Additionally, Rabenberg (2013) concluded that the influence of supportive and caring science
teachers predicted middle-school girls’ confidence and interest in science subjects.
Furthermore, findings from the research of Buck et al. (2014) regarding Black elementary
school girls in Grades 3 through 6 indicated that a supportive lab teacher for science classes
contributed to the improvement of attitudes toward science as well as self-efficacy for science.
Moreover, Dorfman and Fortus (2019) determined that middle-school students’ close, caring
relationships with teachers influenced their motivation to succeed and achieve in science.
Demonstration of care, concern, support, and approachability by science teachers is
recommended when teaching Black middle-school girls to elicit, promote, and maintain their
self-efficacy and success in science subjects. School district in-service training programs for
science teachers should include how science teachers can develop awareness, behaviors, and
positive pedagogical practices that foster and implement these characteristics.
Recommendation 3: Utilizing Self-Efficacy Theory in Planning Successful Science
Programs
This study demonstrated the significance of self-efficacy beliefs in the relationship to
students’ academic achievement in science. Previous studies also concluded that self-efficacy

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beliefs are linked to academic success in science subjects. For instance, Ardura and Galán (2019)
noted the importance of increasing students’ self-efficacy for science to advance students’
learning strategies which affect academic achievement. Similarly, Hwang et al. (2015) concluded
that a reciprocal relationship occurs between self-efficacy beliefs and academic achievement. In
addition, Buck et al. (2014) determined that Black girls’ self-efficacy for science can increase
even when they previously exhibited low self-efficacy and even low attraction to science
subjects. Furthermore, Alsop (2020) purported that research pertaining to self-efficacy has
recognized the positive relationship between self-efficacy for middle-school students (i.e.,
Grades 6 through 8) and academic achievement in science. Hwang et al. (2015) also made clear
that it is essential to integrate the tenets of self-efficacy into pedagogical practices and utilize
interventions that focus on academic achievement and self-efficacy. Considering the strong link
between students’ self-efficacy beliefs and academic achievement, it is recommended that
interventions be provided by educators, school psychologists, academic advisors, and school
counselors that mark and emphasize both self-efficacy and academic success.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study addressed Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy for science and considered
self-efficacy as a motivating factor that improves school achievement, academic success, and
academic outcomes. The participants were enrolled in Grades 6, 7, and 8 and ranged in age from
11 to 13 years. The girls were part of the Saturday Scholars Group, a program affiliated with a
university. This specialized program included outreach to families as well as coordination and
collaboration among the university, middle school, parents, teachers, administrators, the
instructors for the Saturday science courses, and the program’s administrative staff. It also
required parents to attend training and be in contact with teachers and program administrators

76
consistently. I recognize that the participants came from a unique situation relative to the
Saturday Scholars Group. Their situation does not reflect that of the majority of Black middleschool girls throughout the United States.
Therefore, I recommend that further research include urban and rural public middle
schools without university–school partnerships whose purpose is to promote academic
excellence in STEM subjects. This is needed to generalize findings and increase the knowledge
base from which educators can draw to make informed decisions about science program
development.
In addition, while a number of studies regarding middle-school students’ self-efficacy for
science have been published, Schunk and DiBenedetto (2021) made clear that the demographic
of Black middle-school girls has rarely been studied. I recommend participant diversity to
ascertain more conclusive results for this demographic separately and in comparison to girls and
boys of all racial groups. Future research could also include the component of different
socioeconomic groups within the Black population and between socioeconomic groups
according to race and gender. By expanding the participant base to include the characteristic of
socioeconomic status (SES), results regarding the effects of race, gender, and SES on selfefficacy beliefs will help educators comprehend what is necessary for all students to
academically thrive and succeed in science subjects. Furthermore, my final recommendation to
scholars, researchers, and educators is to extend and enhance other ways of measuring selfefficacy beliefs for science by utilizing a mixed methods approach to research design, utilizing a
quantitative approach to research design, and utilizing gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) to
evaluate the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences on Black middle-school girls’
self-efficacy beliefs for science. In other words, self-efficacy would be part of the motivation

77
component in the gap analysis. For example, the model could assess the KMO (knowledge,
motivation, organization) influences on Black middle-school girls’ science achievement. Taken
together, my recommendations will yield a wide range of research results and findings that will
equip educational leaders and practitioners with important data for their decision-making
processes.
Conclusion
The aim of this study was to understand Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy beliefs
and perceptions of science subjects. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986a, 1986b, 1997)
was used to frame the research, which included the four sources of self-efficacy (e.g., mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, social and verbal persuasions, emotional and physical states).
Findings showed that mastery experience, performance accomplishments, and physiological and
emotional states were the sources of self-efficacy participants appeared to draw upon most for
believing in their ability to achieve in science. Because middle-school girls’ self-efficacy beliefs
and self‐perceptions for science subjects are potent predictors for identification with future
careers in STEM fields and motivation to pursue high school and college STEM courses (Kang
et al., 2019), this study adds to the body of research on this subject. The results call for
expanding Black middle-school girls’ positive experiences with science (e.g., PbL, supportive,
approachable, caring teachers, using self-efficacy theory in planning science courses) to increase
their positive self‐perceptions of STEM and self-efficacy for STEM. This expansion will prevent
a leaky STEM pipeline and increase the number of girls and young women of color enrolled in
high school science courses, college STEM majors, and future STEM careers.

78
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Appendix A: Informed Consent for Research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH
Study Title: Black Middle-School Girls’ Self-Efficacy Beliefs for Science
Principal Investigator: Raleen A. Miller
Department: Rossier School of Education
INTRODUCTION
If you are reading this form as the parent/legal guardian of a participant, “you” also refers to your
child.
If you are giving consent for another person, “you” refers to that person.
We invite you to take part in a research study. Please take as much time as you need to read the
consent form. You may want to discuss it with your family, friends, or your personal doctor. If
you find any of the language difficult to understand, please ask questions. If you decide to
participate, you will be asked to sign this form. A copy of the signed form will be provided to
you for your records.
KEY INFORMATION
The following is a short summary of this study to help you decide whether you should
participate. More detailed information is listed later in this form.
1. Being in this research study is voluntary–it is your choice.
2. You are being asked to take part in this study because it will help educators better
understand how Black middle-school girls’ perceptions and experiences contribute to
their expectations for academic success and future selection of science courses in high
school and college, in addition to their scientific career aspirations. The purpose of
this study is to understand Black middle-school girls’ perceptions of self-efficacy for
science subjects. Self-efficacy refers to the beliefs about one’s ability to perform
specific tasks.
Procedures will include a 60-minute small-group interview with other Black middle-school girls.
3. There are risks from participating in this study. The most common risks are the
possibility of becoming embarrassed while sharing information about yourself. More
detailed information about the risks of this study can be found under the “Risk and
Discomfort Section.”

89
4. You may not receive any direct benefit from taking part in this study; however, the
possible benefits to you for taking part in this study may include: discussing science
with your friends and becoming aware that your friends view you as a capable science
student. This may increase your confidence regarding science courses. It might also
strengthen your friendships. In addition, you may become more aware of your own
academic strengths for scientific projects, endeavors, and additional coursework.
RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Interviews: Some of the questions may make you feel uneasy or embarrassed. You can choose to
skip or stop answering any questions you do not want to.
PRIVACY/CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. Efforts will be
made to limit the use and disclosure of your personal information to people who are required to
review this information. We may publish the information from this study in journals or present it
at meetings. If we do, we will not use your name.
The University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Human Subject’s
Protections Program (HSPP) may review your records.
The investigators are required to report certain cases with the potential of serious harm to you, or
others, such as suicidality or child abuse, to the appropriate authorities.
STATEMENT OF CONSENT
I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have been given a
chance to ask questions. All my questions have been answered. By signing this form, I am
agreeing to take part in this study.
Name of Research Participant Signature Date Signed
(and Time*)
Legally Authorized Representative
Name of Legally Authorized Signature Date Signed
Representative (and Time*)

90
Minor/Youth Participant (Ages 11–13 years)
If your child agrees to participate, have your child sign here.
Name of Child Child’s Signature Date Signed
(and Time*)
Name of Parent Signature Date Signed
(and Time*)
Second parent/legal guardian is not available to sign because he/she/ze is deceased, unknown,
incompetent, or not reasonably available, or only one parent has legal responsibility for the care
and custody of the child (45 CFR 46.406).
Name of Second Parent Signature Date Signed
(and Time*)
Person Obtaining Consent
I have personally explained the research to the participant and the participant’s legally authorized
representative (parent/guardian) using non-technical language. I have answered all the
participant’s questions. I believe that the participant and the authorized representative
(parent/guardian) understands the information described in this informed consent and freely
consents to participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Signature Date Signed
Informed Consent (and Time*)

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Appendix B: Recruitment Letter to Parent of Prospective Participants
October 25, 2021
Dear Parent of ____________,
My name is Raleen Miller, and I am a graduate student at the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education. I am very much interested in understanding Black
middle-school girls’ experiences in science as they pertain to “self-efficacy.” Self-efficacy is a
person’s belief in her ability to succeed in a particular situation. An example is a student who
feels confident that she will be able to learn the information in science and do well on a quiz,
test, project, and in future science classes. Self-efficacy can play a role in not only how a student
feels about herself but whether she will be successful in present and future science courses.
To understand Black middle-school girls’ self-efficacy for science, I will be conducting
research with girls from the Saturday Scholars Group. I would very much like the opportunity to
interview your daughter to learn about her experiences as a science student. The interviews will
be conducted virtually in a small group of two to three girls of similar age who are in the
program. Students will participate in one interview on a Saturday during their Saturday Scholars
Group program. The interview will last from 40 to 60 minutes. Students will receive a small gift
of appreciation for their time.
If you are willing to allow me the opportunity to talk with your daughter in a small-group
situation, I would appreciate it if you contacted me. You may email me at raleenmi@usc.edu. Or
you may call me at 202-430-2659. I would be happy to discuss the research further and tell you
how we will proceed. Please reply no later than October 31, 2021. I truly look forward to hearing
from you.
Sincerely,
Raleen A. Miller, Doctoral Candidate, USC Rossier School of Education

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Appendix C: Interview Protocol
This section details the questions asked.
1. What is your name?
2. Tell me all about yourself. Interviewer prompts:
• How do people in your life (family members, friends, classmates, people from
your neighborhood) describe you? What do you think they would say about
you? Maybe they would say you were friendly, funny, smart, kind, a good
friend, curious, likes to read, or dance, or tell stories, likes to learn new things,
enjoys school. Those are just examples a person might say about someone
else. What would people say about you?
• What kinds of things do you like to do when you are not in school?
• Who are people you admire or look up to? Tell me something about the
people you most admire or look up to.
3. I will ask you some questions about science courses. Try to remember all of the
science classes you have taken. Interviewer prompts:
• As a science student, tell me about yourself.
• Ability means you have the skill for doing something or you have the talent or
know-how to do something. On a scale of 1 (lowest) to 10 (highest), how
would you rate your ability in science? Where would you be on the scale?
Why?
• Outside of school, what do you like to do that relates to science?
4. You just rated your ability in science. Now, here is something else to think about.
Interviewer prompts: Confidence means you feel sure of yourself and your ability “to

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do” science. It is knowing and believing you are capable. Now, rate your confidence
in science on a scale of 1 (lowest) to 10 (highest). Tell me why you rated yourself in
this way. What would make you feel like you have more confidence in science?
5. Share a story that explains something about the kind of student you are in science.
You could share something that happened to you that involves science, and perhaps
your parents, grandparents, your auntie or uncle, teachers at school, teachers at your
enrichment classes, friends, a pastor, minister, YMCA, or Boys and Girls Club leader.
6. Talk to me about your family, friends, and science.
• What do your parents, grandparents, auntie, or uncle tell you about science?
• What would your parents, grandparents, auntie, or uncle tell your teachers
about you as a science student?
• What do your friends tell you about science?
• Do your friends ever let you know you are doing well in science? Do they
encourage you?
7. Talk to me about the science teachers you have had.
• How did a teacher or your teachers make you feel about how you do in
science?
• Describe the best teachers you have had in science. What made her (or him)
the best?
• What could your teachers do to help you feel more confident in your science
abilities?
8. Think about your life. Who is a role model for you? Why is that person a role model
for you?

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• Do you have any role models that are family members? If so, who are they?
• Do you have any role models that are teachers? If so, who are they? Why do
you feel they are role models?
• Do you have any role models that are scientists, or engineers, doctors, nurses,
astronauts?
• If you have a role model in your life, does he or she seem to make you feel
good about yourself or that you could do something he or she does?

95
Appendix D: Theoretical Alignment Matrix
Research questions Theoretical framework Data instrument questions
How do Black middleschool girls’selfperceptions and
experiences in science
influence their
expectations for academic
success in science and
careers beyond middle
school?
Self-efficacy theory
(Bandura, 1977, 1986a,
1986b, 1997)
Mastery experience or
performance
accomplishments (MEPA)
Physiological and emotional
states (PES)
Interview Questions 3a, 3b,
3c, 5 (MEPA)
Interview Questions 4a, 7a,
7c (PES)
What are the perceived
educational, familial, and
community experiences
that form Black middleschool girls’self-efficacy
for science?
Self-efficacy theory
(Bandura, 1977)
Vicarious experience (VE)
Social and verbal
persuasions (SVP)
Interview Questions 2c, 8a,
8b, 8c, 8d (VE)
Interview Questions 6a, 6b,
6c, 6d, 7b (SVP)
Demographic Questions 1,
2a, 2b
Appendix D: Theoretical Alignment Matrix

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand Black middle-school girls’ perceptions of self-efficacy for science subjects. This study provided insight into the participants’ perceived educational, familial, and community experiences that allow for understanding the sources of self-efficacy they rely upon for academic motivation. Furthermore, this research revealed how their self-perceptions and experiences contributed to their expectations for academic success and future selection of science courses in high school and college, in addition to future career aspirations. This study was conducted using qualitative research methods. Participants were 11 Black middle-school girls who attended Saturday enrichment courses in science provided through a university-affiliated program. Data were derived from small-group and individual semi-structured interviews and documents. The findings brought to light that mastery experience and performance accomplishments, in addition to physiological and emotional states, were the most potent sources of self-efficacy that increased participants’ beliefs in their ability to succeed and achieve in science subjects.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Miller, Raleen Ann (author)

Core Title Black middle school girls' self-efficacy for science

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2024-12

Publication Date 11/15/2024

Defense Date 11/15/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic achievement,career aspirations,middle-school girls,Motivation,Science,self-efficacy,self-perceptions

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