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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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The gamelan ensemble and its influence on Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire
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The gamelan ensemble and its influence on Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire
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Content
THE GAMELAN ENSEMBLE
AND ITS INFLUENCE ON MALAYSIAN AND INDONESIAN CHORAL REPERTOIRE
by
Yu Hang Tan
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS (CHORAL MUSIC)
December 2024
Copyright 2024 Yu Hang Tan
ii
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. v
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ vi
List of Musical Examples ............................................................................................................ viii
Preface............................................................................................................................................ ix
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... xi
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1
Limitation – Geographical.........................................................................................................................4
A Basic Definition of Gamelan .................................................................................................................9
Limitation – Types of Gamelan Ensemble..............................................................................................10
Methodology ...........................................................................................................................................14
Overview of Anticipated Results ............................................................................................................15
Presentation of Results............................................................................................................................16
Chapter 1 – Overview ................................................................................................................... 18
The Relationship Between Gamelan and Choral Music .........................................................................18
The Prevalence of Gamelan Music in Indonesia and Malaysia ..............................................................20
The Parallels Between Gamelan and Indonesian and Malaysian Cultures .............................................23
Nationalism Towards the Middle of the 20th Century in Indonesia and Malaysia.................................30
The Importance of Studying the Relationship Between Gamelan and Malaysian and Indonesian
Choral Music ...........................................................................................................................................35
Chapter 2 – The Gamelan Ensemble ............................................................................................ 38
The Origin of Gamelan............................................................................................................................38
Gamelan Sekaten.....................................................................................................................................41
Central Javanese Court-Style Gamelan...................................................................................................53
Bali ..........................................................................................................................................................56
Gamelan and the Western World ............................................................................................................59
Gamelan in Present-Day Indonesia .........................................................................................................70
Chapter 3 – The Influences of Javanese Gamelan on Choral Music ............................................ 74
Java..........................................................................................................................................................74
Geographical and Cultural History of Central and East Java..................................................................75
Javanese Gamelan ...................................................................................................................................82
Instrumentation........................................................................................................................................84
Form and Structure................................................................................................................................101
Tuning Systems.....................................................................................................................................110
iii
Overall Aesthetic...................................................................................................................................114
Javanese Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works.......................................................................................119
Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah (1994) by Daud Kosasih (b. 1964).....................................................121
“Kyrie eleison” from Indonesian Mass (2006) by Ivan Yohan (b. 1975).............................................127
Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Javanese Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works.....132
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................139
Chapter 4 – The Influences of Balinese Gamelan on Choral Music........................................... 141
Bali ........................................................................................................................................................141
Cultural History.....................................................................................................................................143
Balinese Gamelan..................................................................................................................................146
Instrumentation......................................................................................................................................152
Form and Structure................................................................................................................................160
Overall Aesthetic...................................................................................................................................169
Janger (2004) by Budi Susanto Yohanes (b. 1979)..............................................................................177
“Taboeh Gloria” from Misa di Pulau Dewata (2021) by Yosefano Ardani (b. 1997)..........................186
Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Balinese Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works......192
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................197
Chapter 5 – The Influences of Malay Gamelan on Choral Music .............................................. 199
Malaysia ................................................................................................................................................199
Cultural History.....................................................................................................................................202
Malay Gamelan .....................................................................................................................................204
Form and Structure................................................................................................................................225
Tuning Systems.....................................................................................................................................227
Overall Aesthetic...................................................................................................................................229
Malay Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works...........................................................................................233
Ikan Kekek (2018) by Tracy Wong (b. 1985)........................................................................................235
…About Gong, Ai, Na… (2009) by Chee Wei Wong (b. 1975) ............................................................243
Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Malay Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works.........249
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................252
Final Thoughts ............................................................................................................................ 255
Programming Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works................................................................................256
Future Research Directions...................................................................................................................257
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 259
Appendices.................................................................................................................................. 265
iv
Appendix A – Gamalen Influenced-Choral Works by Malaysian and Indonesian Composers............265
Appendix B – Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah by Daud Kosasih.........................................................267
Appendix C – “Kyrie eleison” from Indonesian Mass by Ivan Yohan.................................................271
Appendix D – Janger by Budi Susanto Yohanes..................................................................................278
Appendix E – “Taboeh Gloria” from Misa di Pulau Dewata by Yosefano Ardani..............................284
Appendix F – Ikan Kekek by Tracy Wong............................................................................................292
Appendix G - …About Gong, Ai, Na… by Chee Wei Wong.................................................................299
v
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Comparative Characteristics of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay Gamelan. ................. 13
Table 4.1: An example of balungan notated using the cipher system. ....................................... 106
Table 4.2: The "paired" melodic elaboration formula commonly employed by bonang
panerus and bonang barung. .............................................................................................. 108
Table 4.3: Pelog scale pitch names and meanings...................................................................... 111
Table 4.4: Slendro scale pitch names and meanings................................................................... 113
Table 4.5: Tone emphasis and omission of the six pathets in Javanese slendro and pelog
scales. .................................................................................................................................. 114
Table 5.1: A typical colotomic form in gong kebyar music. ...................................................... 155
Table 5.2: An example of kotekan, illustrating the combination of the sangsih and polos
parts, notated in table form using the cipher system........................................................... 162
Table 6.1: The lyrics of Timang Burung and the syllable count for each line............................ 225
Table 6.2: The tuning of the B-flat slendro scale of Malay gamelan. ........................................ 228
vi
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: A batik cloth. .............................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.1: From left to right: The Crown Jewels of Britain, the Chrysanthemum Throne, the
Pharaoh's crook and flail, and the Stone of Scone. ............................................................... 40
Figure 3.2: A gamelan sekaten performance. ............................................................................... 42
Figure 3.3: People carrying gunungan, a traditional food offering for the Sekaten celebration... 46
Figure 3.4: Gamelan sekaten instruments..................................................................................... 49
Figure 3.5: Johann Theodor de Bry's drawing of Javanese Dancers accompanied by gamelan
music. .................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.6: A drawing by an unknown artist from Charles Wheatstone's journal article titled
“On the Resonance, or Reciprocated Vibrations of Columns of Air” .................................. 63
Figure 4.1: One of the relief panels of Borobudur Temple featuring musicians playing bells,
lute, zither, and drums........................................................................................................... 77
Figure 4.2: Gong ageng. ............................................................................................................... 86
Figure 4.3: Siyem, gong ageng, and kempul. ................................................................................ 87
Figure 4.4: Kenong........................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 4.5: Kenong........................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 4.6: Kempyang................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 4.7: Bonang panerus and bonang barung. ........................................................................ 90
Figure 4.8: Peking or saron panerus, saron barung, and saron demung. .................................... 92
Figure 4.9: Gender slenthem, gender barung, and gender panerus. ............................................ 92
Figure 4.10: Gambang. ................................................................................................................. 93
Figure 4.11: Bedug........................................................................................................................ 95
Figure 4.12: Kendhang gendhing.................................................................................................. 95
Figure 4.13: Kendhang ketipung................................................................................................... 95
Figure 4.14: Kendhang ciblon....................................................................................................... 96
Figure 4.15: Rebab........................................................................................................................ 97
Figure 4.16: Suling........................................................................................................................ 97
Figure 4.17: Pesindhen. ................................................................................................................ 98
Figure 4.18: Penggerong. ............................................................................................................. 98
Figure 4.19: Pelog and slendro scales approximated in Western notation................................. 112
Figure 4.20: Mallets used in Javanese gamelan.......................................................................... 119
Figure 4.24: Javanese terrace rice field....................................................................................... 131
Figure 5.1: A gong kebyar performance. .................................................................................... 150
Figure 5.2: Gong ageng, kempul, and kemong............................................................................ 153
Figure 5.3: Kempli. ..................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 5.4: Trompong (top) and reyong (bottom)....................................................................... 156
Figure 5.5: Jegogan, ugal, pemade, and kantilan (left to right). ................................................ 158
Figure 5.6: Cengceng. ................................................................................................................. 160
Figure 5.7: Approximate notation of saih pitu (top) and selisir (bottom) in Western notation.. 167
vii
Figure 5.8: Javanese gamelan (left) and Balinese gamelan (right). ............................................ 173
Figure 5.9: Janger....................................................................................................................... 180
Figure 5.10: Kecak. ..................................................................................................................... 180
Figure 5.17: A sample rehearsal plan for Stephen Hatfield's Tjak, created by the author with
less vocally taxing syllables................................................................................................ 195
Figure 6.1: The Terengganu Gamelan Ensemble at the Kolam Palace in 1966, with Pak Mat,
a prominent Malay gamelan musician, pictured on the right playing the gambang........... 210
Figure 6.2: The original 213-year-old gamelan set from the Pahang court, now housed at the
Museum of Sultan Abu Bakar, played during the coronation ceremony of the 16th King
of Malaysia in 2019. ........................................................................................................... 210
Figure 6.3: Pakcik. ...................................................................................................................... 214
Figure 6.4: Malay gamelan instruments...................................................................................... 216
Figure 6.5: A sample notation for gong agong and gong suwukan. ........................................... 217
Figure 6.6: A bird eye's view of bonang..................................................................................... 218
Figure 6.7: The serentak (block octave) technique transcribed into Western notation. ............. 219
Figure 6.8: The bergilir (top) and berbunga (bottom) technique transcribed into Western
notation. .............................................................................................................................. 219
Figure 6.9: The irama dua technique transcribed into Western notation. .................................. 222
Figure 6.10: Sheet music of Timang Burung for saron I, saron II, and demung........................ 222
Figure 6.11: A sample notation for the gendang using the "t" and "o" system. ......................... 224
Figure 6.12: An example of bergilir technique. ......................................................................... 231
Figure 6.13: An example of irama dua technique. ..................................................................... 232
viii
List of Musical Examples
Example 4.1: The opening section of Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah. ..................................... 124
Example 4.2: Kethuk-like articulation in the alto part (mm. 11-12)........................................... 125
Example 4.3: The coda section (mm. 49-54) of Kosasih’s Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah...... 127
Example 4.4: The opening section of Kosasih's Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah. ..................... 136
Example 5.1: The slow opening of Janger. ................................................................................ 182
Example 5.2: The subito piano section in the “verse” set primarily to text-like onomatopoeic
syllables............................................................................................................................... 184
Example 5.3: The kecak section in Janger. ................................................................................ 185
Example 5.4: Bungas in the opening chant of "Taboeh Gloria." ................................................ 189
Example 5.5: A recurring rhythmic motif found through "Taboeh Gloria" as exemplified by
the soprano and alto parts in mm. 6-7................................................................................. 190
Example 5.6: The sempre legato section in "Taboeh Gloria.".................................................... 191
Example 6.1: Melody A - The first part of Ikan Kekek's original tune. ..................................... 238
Example 6.2: Melody B - The second part of Ikan Kekek's original tune. ................................. 239
Example 6.3: Motif #1 set to “Ikan kekek, hoi, iloi-iloi, ilai-ilai.”............................................. 240
Example 6.4: Motif #2 set to "na na na.”.................................................................................... 241
Example 6.5: Motif #3 set to "ting-in.” ...................................................................................... 241
ix
Preface
Growing up in Malaysia, music—particularly choral music—has always been a central
aspect of my identity. Singing in a choir was not merely a pastime, but a means of connecting
with others and expressing myself in a way that transcended words. However, despite the
profound impact choral music had on my sense of self, I often felt that something essential was
missing. My passion for choral singing and my cultural identity seemed to exist in separate
spheres. My ethnicity, culture, and ancestry were rarely reflected in the musical traditions in
which I participated. As I progressed in my career as a choral conductor, I increasingly felt a
need to reconnect with my cultural heritage and examine the influences that shaped the
communal singing tradition native to the Malay Archipelago. This dissertation is the culmination
of that exploration, focusing on the influence of gamelan music on choral repertoire from
Indonesia and Malaysia.
I distinctly recall bringing choirs to international choral competitions and auditions,
where we performed folk music from Malaysia and Indonesia, only to be told that our
performances did not meet the expected standard. The feedback often centered around the notion
that our singing did not align with the "correct" approach, particularly referencing the bel canto
vocal technique. This recurring experience underscored a deep disconnect between the cultural
music we sought to preserve and the expectations of Western vocal traditions. It became
increasingly evident to me that the rich diversity of our musical heritage—rooted in Southeast
Asia—was not being adequately recognized or valued within the broader context of global choral
music. This realization motivated me to further investigate and document how elements of
x
gamelan music—so fundamental to the musical traditions of Malaysia and Indonesia—could
challenge and enrich the established paradigms of choral performance.
In this dissertation, I examine how gamelan music, with its interlocking rhythms,
distinctive scales, and cultural significance, has influenced choral music in the Malay
Archipelago. Through this research, I aim to contribute to a broader understanding of the cultural
roots that inform choral music from this region while advocating for a more inclusive, equitable,
and decolonized approach to choral music education. By highlighting these cultural influences, I
hope this dissertation will serve as a starting point for fostering a deeper understanding of the
rich diversity present in the global choral landscape.
As choral music continues to evolve in an increasingly multicultural and globalized
context, it is imperative that we embrace the full spectrum of cultural expressions. I firmly
believe that incorporating diverse musical traditions into the choral classroom not only enriches
the repertoire but also fosters an environment of inclusion and respect for all voices. This work
represents my humble contribution to the ongoing effort to decolonize the choral classroom, to
celebrate the beauty and complexity of Southeast Asian musical traditions, and to promote a
more inclusive approach to music education for all.
xi
Abstract
This dissertation studies the performance practice of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay
gamelans and their influences on Malaysian and Indonesian choral music, emphasizing their
cultural and educational relevance. Originating from Indonesia, gamelan is a traditional musical
ensemble consisting of a variety of percussion instruments such as gongs, metallophones, and
drums. The music is characterized by its intricate interlocking patterns, cyclical structure, and
unique tuning systems. Gamelan plays a significant role in cultural rituals, ceremonies, and
performances, with different regional styles reflecting the diversity of Indonesian and Malaysian
musical heritage.
Using a comparative methodology, the study analyzes a selection of gamelan-influenced
choral pieces, providing practical suggestions for approaching these works at the end of Chapters
Four, Five, and Six. Six compositions are examined: Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah by Daud
Kosasih and "Kyrie Eleison" from the Indonesian Mass by Ivan Yohan explore the effects of
Javanese gamelan; Janger by Budi Susanto Yohanes and "Taboeh Gloria" from Misa di Pulau
Dewata by Yosefano Ardani represent Balinese gamelan; and Ikan Kekek by Tracy Wong
and ...About Gong, Ai, Na... by Chee Wei Wong illustrate Malay gamelan. This analysis reveals
how composers incorporate gamelan elements, such as motifs, scales, and interlocking rhythms,
into their choral writing.
The dissertation also delineates the unique musical features of each gamelan style.
Javanese gamelan is characterized by its lemah-lembut (gentle and calm) quality, emphasizing
layered melodies. Balinese gamelan is marked by sharp dynamics, rapid interlocking rhythms,
and ombak, a technique that produces quick overtone beats through paired tuning, collectively
xii
embodying the essence of ganas garang (fierce and vigorous). Malay gamelan, known for its
lighter instrumentation, exemplifies ayu dan sopan (elegant and polite), utilizing polyphonic
techniques like bergilir and berbunga to produce a shimmering texture. This examination
highlights how gamelan enriches the choral repertoire, fosters cultural inclusivity, and broadens
global perspectives within music education.
1
Introduction
Gamelan has a long and intertwined musical and cultural connection with Malaysian and
Indonesian choral music. Originating from the Malay Archipelago, which encompasses over
25,000 islands and peninsulas including modern-day Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, and
Brunei, gamelan is a cornerstone of traditional music in this region. Its bright and forward
timbre, interlocking motifs, and extensive use of motivic layering have shaped the soundscape of
Malaysian and Indonesian instrumental music and communal singing traditions. The rhythmic
patterns and musical scales of gamelan often resonate in traditional vocal music and present-day
choral works, with singers emulating its textures and timbres. Moreover, the cultural significance
of gamelan music and the common compositional devices in gamelan music often parallel the
ceremonial aspects and performance practices of Malaysian and Indonesian communal singing
traditions such as dikir barat from Northern Peninsular Malaysia and lagu saman from the
province of Aceh, Indonesia. The interconnections between gamelan and Malaysian and
Indonesian communal singing traditions reflect the profound shared musical and socio-cultural
values between these traditions, making gamelan an essential part of understanding the musical
nuances in Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire.
Gamelan holds a pivotal position in shaping the Malaysian and Indonesian choral
repertoire witnessed today. Preceding the arrival of European colonizers, the vocal tradition in
Southeast Asia primarily comprised monodic singing accompanied by percussion instruments.
While indigenous choral forms exist in the Malay Archipelago, such as the dikir barat from
Southern Thailand and Northern Peninsular Malaysia, the manggarai communal singing
tradition from West and Central Flores, and the Javanese gamelan traditions of pesinden (treble
solo) and penggerong (small tenor-bass choir), these forms differ significantly from Western
2
choral conventions. Thus, the Southeast Asian choral scene we see today is in fact a product of a
long evolution that goes back to its origin in Christian worship, first brought into Southeast Asia
as early as the 16th century. As newly independent nations emerged in Southeast Asia in the
mid-20th century and choirs engaged in international choral events, a surge of nationalistic spirit
permeated Southeast Asian choral circles. Composers began drawing inspiration from their
countries' musical traditions, creating sounds that are representative of their home country.
Naturally, gamelan, recognized as one of the most renowned gong-chime ensembles globally,
exerted a profound influence on Malaysian and Indonesian choral compositions, thereby
representing a crucial component in the study of choral repertoire between the two nations.
An intriguing subset of gamelan music is gamelan suara (human voice gamelan), which
utilizes the human voice to mimic the instrumental techniques of traditional gamelan ensembles.
This genre highlights the seamless integration of vocalization and instrumental motifs within the
communal music-making tradition. A striking example of how the principles of gamelan music
translate into non-instrumental performance is the Balinese monkey chant, kecak. Kecak features
interlocking vocal motifs, rhythmic stratification, and looped, repetitive ideas—hallmarks of
gamelan music—yet it is performed entirely with the voice. Though kecak is a relatively recent
invention, created in the early 20th century to cater to the growing number of tourists visiting
Bali, it effectively draws a connection between gamelan music and communal singing traditions
in Indonesia and Malaysia. The collective participation in kecak, with its rhythmic precision and
vocal interlocking, mirrors the communal spirit found in traditional gamelan performance. This
example underscores the deep cultural roots shared between instrumental gamelan and the vocal
traditions of Southeast Asia, further illustrating how gamelan influences choral music from the
region.
3
While gamelan significantly influences Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire, and
this genre is gaining traction on international choral stages, there remains a notable gap in
research on music from this region. Consequently, such music often falls prey to Eurocentric
performance practices and beauty standards, leading to tokenization and appropriation by
conductors seeking to "diversify" concert programs. For instance, the prevalence of fast tempos
and loud dynamics may create a falsely celebratory impression to Western audiences, prompting
conductors to feature these compositions as opening or closing pieces, even though they may not
have been originally intended for such contexts. This becomes particularly evident when these
compositions are selected to conclude a concert dominated by works from Western composers,
only to close the concert on a high note.
Currently, there is a substantial body of research literature concerning gamelan music, its
performance practice, and research specific to Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire.1
While these studies offer invaluable insights into various aspects of gamelan-influenced choral
music in the region, none have explicitly established a direct correlation between the gamelan
sonic palette and Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire. Fundamental inquiries, such as the
tonal adjustment of choirs to the Balinese 5-note pelog scale and pedagogical approach to
teaching the repetitive motifs, remain largely unexplored. As such, this doctoral dissertation aims
1 Automatic citation updates are disabled. To see the bibliography, click Refresh in the Zotero tab.Judith Becker,
“Percussive Patterns in the Music of Mainland Southeast Asia,” Ethnomusicology 12, no. 2 (1968): 173–91,
https://doi.org/10.2307/849928; Benjamin Elon. Brinner, Knowing Music, Making Music : Javanese Gamelan and
the Theory of Musical Competence and Interaction, Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1995); Abdul Khalil Hassan, Teuku Umar Ilany Teuku Iskandar, and Mohamad Faliq Che Adeni,
Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan (Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Bekangsaan (ASWARA) Malaysia, 2022);
Margaret J. Kartomi and Stephen. Blum, Music-Cultures in Contact : Convergences and Collisions, Australian
Studies in History, Philosophy & Social Studies of Music ; v.2 (Basel, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach, 1994);
Wasisto Surjodiningrat, Gamelan, Dance, and Wayang in Jogjakarta, [2d ed.]. (Jogjakarta: Gadjah Mada University
Press, 1971); Sarah Weiss, Listening to an Earlier Java: Aesthetics, Gender, and the Music of Wayang in Central
Java, vol. 237, Verhandelingen (Leiden: BRILL, 2006), https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004253698; Wong Huey Yi @
Colleen Wong et al., “The Development and Evaluation of Malay Gamelan Module for Schools and Communities,”
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 9, no. 7 (2019),
https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v9-i7/6090.
4
to address this scholarly gap by providing a comprehensive performance guide for choral
musicians seeking to perform and program Malaysian and Indonesian choral works influenced
by gamelan, grounded in both historical and cultural contexts.
Limitation – Geographical
This dissertation focuses solely on choral repertoire from Malaysia and Indonesia. The
analysis is conducted through the lens of three primary subcategories of gamelan music prevalent
between the two nations: (1) Balinese gamelan, (2) Javanese gamelan, and (3) Malay gamelan.
Combining Malaysia and Indonesia as one large region in this study offers several
advantages in understanding the influence of gamelan on choral repertoire within a broader
geographical context. The delineation of national boundaries between Malaysia and Indonesia
often reflects recent geopolitical developments rather than enduring cultural dynamics.
Geographically, Malaysia and Indonesia are the two largest countries in the Malay Archipelago
and the two nations share contiguous land borders and maritime boundaries. For example,
Malaysian Borneo, which comprises the states of Sabah and Sarawak, shares an 1881-kilometer
land border with Kalimantan, the Indonesian Borneo. Similarly, Sumatra Island is closer to
Peninsular Malaysia than the rest of the Indonesian Archipelago. Furthermore, Malaysia and
Indonesia share maritime boundaries in the Malacca Strait, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and the Java
Sea, which have historically facilitated trade and cultural exchange between the two nations. The
close geographical proximity of the two countries facilitated the transmission of ideas,
innovations, and inventions across the region via trade and maritime interactions, predating the
establishment of contemporary Malaysia and Indonesia. The close geographical proximity of the
two countries facilitated the transmission of ideas, innovations, and inventions across the region
5
via trade and maritime interactions, predating the establishment of contemporary Malaysia and
Indonesia.
Culturally, both nations exhibit significant similarities in terms of language, religion,
customs, and artistic expressions, owing to their shared Malay heritage and historical ties. The
origin of the Malay people dates to the Austronesian ethnic group that shares a common
linguistic and genetic heritage. Around 3000 BCE, the Austronesia people crossed the IndoPacific Ocean from the coast of modern-day Taiwan, and over hundreds of years, they eventually
settled in Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Madagascar, with some historians estimating they
traveled as far as the Americas.2 This prehistoric mass migration is commonly known by
historians as the Austronesia Expansion, an event that spread the language, culture, and
technology of the Austronesia-speaking people to new parts of the world in ways that can still be
witnessed today.
3 Since the Austronesian descendants formed the largest ethnicity in both
Malaysia and Indonesia, it is not surprising that both countries share numerous cultural parallels.
These similarities range from the Bahasa-based languages and dialects, visual and performing
arts, and the kingship and sultanate system native to both countries.
Both Malaysia and Indonesia share a common history of colonization, dating back to
1511 when the Portuguese first arrived at the port of Malacca in what is now the modern state of
Malacca, Malaysia. This event initiated a 400-year history of colonization by three European
powers and Japanese occupation in the region, during which the Portuguese, Dutch, and British
made enduring cultural, demographic, and political impacts on both nations. Despite being
colonized by these European powers in the same sequence, Malaysia and Indonesia transformed
2 Peter Bellwood, James J Fox, and Darrell Tryon, The Austronesians : Historical and Comparative Perspectives,
1st ed. (Canberra: ANU Press, 2006), https://doi.org/10.26530/OAPEN_458826.
3 Henry Spiller, Gamelan: The Traditional Sounds of Indonesia, ABC-CLIO World Music Series (Santa Barbara,
Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2004), 45.
6
differently over the centuries, eventually emerging as distinct countries with parallel historical
trajectories. For instance, the British exerted a more significant political and cultural influence on
Malaysia compared to Indonesia, having colonized Malaysia for 133 years from 1824 to 1957,
with a brief Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945, while only colonizing Indonesia for four
years from 1811 to 1815. Nevertheless, both nations were unified by a similar sense of
nationalism, leading to their independence in the mid-20th century.4 This shared history of
colonization and patriotic sentiment gave birth to a similar cannon of post-independence choral
works that reflects the diverse cultural influences and legacies of each nation, including the
cultures of the early inhabitants, four centuries of colonization, and nationalism.
The exclusion of neighboring Southeast Asian countries like Singapore and Brunei,
where gamelan is also part of the musical tradition, from this dissertation is informed by two
primary considerations: (1) the prevalence of gamelan music in these countries and (2) to
maintain a narrower focus on the shared cultural and musical parallels between Malaysia and
Indonesia, thus providing a more in-depth analysis of gamelan's impact on choral music within
this specific regional framework. Singapore is a small island-city country, where its modern-day
artistic expression is largely influenced by its multiculturalism, cosmopolitan nature, and the
country’s status as a global financial and commercial hub. The limited presence of gamelan
music in Singapore can be linked, in part, to the smaller proportion of Malays within the country,
where gamelan music is part of their musical heritage. Malays constitute just 13% of Singapore's
population, in contrast to Malaysia and Indonesia, where Austronesian peoples account for
62.5% and 95% of the respective populations.5
4
Jinn Winn Chong, “‘Mine, Yours or Ours?’: The Indonesia-Malaysia Disputes over Shared Cultural Heritage,”
Sojourn (Singapore) 27, no. 1 (2012): 1–53, https://doi.org/10.1355/sj27-1a.
5
“Population in Brief 2023” (National Population and Talent Division, Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office,
Singapore Department of Statistics, Ministry of Home Affairs, Immigration & Checkpoints Authority, and Ministry
7
In Brunei, gamelan activities and performances are part of the country’s cultural heritage,
albeit on a smaller scale than in neighboring Malaysia and Indonesia. This is largely due to the
significantly smaller population in Brunei (approximately 455,000 people in 2024) compared to
Malaysia (over 34 million in 2024) and Indonesia (over 279 million in 2024) and the long history
of kulintang music in Brunei.6 Kulintang is a type of tuned gong-chime ensemble reminiscent of
the gamelan ensemble. The kulintang ensemble is characterized by its arrangement of small,
horizontally laid raise-knob gongs alongside larger, hanging gongs and untuned drums. While
both gamelan and kulintang are integral components of the broader gong-chime tradition
prevalent in Southeast Asia, kulintang music exhibits distinct characteristics that set it apart from
gamelan music. One key difference is the melodic construction process in the gamelan ensemble,
which adheres to a colotomic7
skeletal structure dictating the entry of each instrument at
prescribed intervals. The colotomic structure in gamelan music refers to the use of specific gongs
and other instruments to mark the rhythmic cycles, creating a framework that divides the music
into sections of varying lengths. This structure organizes the piece by having different
instruments highlight various moments within the cycle, creating the distinct layered and cyclical
sound characteristic of gamelan. Kulintang music is also built on colotomic structure; however,
unlike gamelan, kulintang’s colotomic structure places less emphasis on temporal intervals,
allowing for greater flexibility and opportunities for improvisation. Additionally, Brunei’s focus
of Manpower, September 2023), https://www.population.gov.sg/files/media-centre/publications/population-in-brief2023.pdf; Malaysia’s National Statistics Organisation, “Population Table: Malaysia (Data as of 2024),” 2024,
https://open.dosm.gov.my/data-catalogue/population_malaysia; “Malaysia - People and Society,” CIA.gov,
September 3, 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/malaysia/#people-and-society; “Indonesia -
People and Society,” CIA.gov, September 3, 2024, https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/.
6 Bureau, US Census. Census.Gov, 10 January, 2024, www. Census.gov/.
7 A term coined by the ethnomusicologist Jaap Kunst to describe rhythmic patterns used in gamelan music. In a
colotomic structure, specific instruments (such as gongs) mark the beginnings and ends of rhythmic cycles that run
at different speeds, usually slowest for the bass instruments and fastest for the treble.
8
on preserving and promoting its own unique cultural identity and traditions may result in a
preference for indigenous musical forms, including kulintang music, over imported ones like
gamelan.8 Generations ago, the early Javanese immigrants introduced Javanese gamelan to
Borneo, which is now divided into three modern nations: (1) Brunei, (2) the Malaysia states of
Sabah and Sarawak situated in the far northeast and north of Borneo, respectively, and (3) the
three Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan that make up the remaining southern part of the
island9
. Although gamelan music persists in Brunei today, its primary presence lies in East and
South Kalimantan.10 As such, the prevalence of gamelan music in Brunei is relatively modest in
comparison.
To ensure clarity and focus throughout this dissertation, the research will concentrate
exclusively on Malaysia and Indonesia. While this transnational approach may limit the
exploration of gamelan music and choral traditions from a broader region, the inclusion of
neighboring nations such as Singapore and Brunei would introduce complexities that could
detract from the central thesis. Such a broad scope might dilute the depth of analysis regarding
the specific impact of gamelan music on choral repertoire in Malaysia and Indonesia. Music
scholars, such as Mazierska (b. 1964) and Győri (b. 1968), have similarly justified a
transnational approach by emphasizing its ability to highlight the interconnected yet distinct
cultural and musical exchanges between neighboring nations in their research on Eastern
European popular music.
11 Therefore, to maintain coherence and clarity in this study, it is
8 Terry Miller and Sean Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 1st ed. (Oxford: Routledge,
2008), 407, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203931448.
9 Mantle. Hood, The Evolution of Javanese Gamelan, Pocketbooks of Musicology ; 62-64 (Wilhelmshaven: Edition
Heinrichshofen, 1980).
10 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 407.
11 Zsolt Győri Ewa Mazierska, Ewa Mazierska, and Zsolt Győri, Eastern European Popular Music in a
Transnational Context: Beyond the Borders, 1st ed., Palgrave European Film and Media Studies (Cham: Springer
International Publishing, 2019), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17034-9.
9
essential to narrow the focus to Malaysia and Indonesia. This decision allows for a more in-depth
examination of the unique musical and cultural dynamics between these two nations within the
context of gamelan and choral music.
A Basic Definition of Gamelan
Before addressing the limitations on the subcategories of gamelan covered in this
dissertation, it is essential to establish a basic understanding of what gamelan means and how
this term will be employed throughout the document. A more comprehensive explanation of the
historical, cultural, and musical development of gamelan will be provided in Chapter Three.
The term "gamelan" encompasses three interrelated yet distinct aspects: (1) an ensemble,
(2) instruments, and (3) a style of music. First, gamelan is most commonly understood as an
ensemble or orchestra that consists of gongs, metallophones, and various untuned percussion
instruments. Together, these instruments produce a complex yet highly organized texture of
interlocking layers, a hallmark of gamelan music.
Second, the term "gamelan" can also refer to the gongs and metallophones used within
the ensemble. Although no single instrument in the gamelan ensemble is named "gamelan," this
usage arises from the unique nature of these instruments, which are almost exclusively associated
with gamelan music. Etymologically, the term "gamelan" derives from the Javanese word
"gamel," meaning to strike with the hand or a stick, reflecting the playing technique used for
gongs, metallophones, and untuned percussion instruments.
Finally, gamelan also describes a distinctive musical style: gamelan music. The musical
processes and structures of gamelan differ significantly from those of Western music. Rather
10
than relying on melodic and harmonic progression, as is typical in Western traditions, gamelan
music develops through the layering of musical textures. These stratified layers and interlocking
motifs are defining features of gamelan music. Furthermore, they parallel the concept of
communal interdependence found in modern-day Malaysian and Indonesian communities.
Limitation – Types of Gamelan Ensemble
This dissertation focuses on three specific subcategories of gamelan—Balinese gamelan,
Javanese gamelan, and Malay gamelan—for several reasons. Depending on the method of
classification and differentiation, gamelan can be categorized into up to 50 varieties.12 Typically,
subcategories of gamelan music are differentiated and categorized based on various factors,
including geographical region, cultural context, tuning systems, instrumentation, musical styles,
and historical development. For instance, the Balinese, Javanese, and Malay gamelan each have
distinct characteristics in terms of tuning, repertoire, and performance practices. Within these
regional categories, further subcategories may emerge based on specific cultural traditions, such
as courtly gamelan music, village gamelan music, or ritualistic gamelan music. Additionally,
variations in instrumentation, such as the presence of the pesindhen and penggerong singers, and
the suling bamboo flute, and stringed instruments such as the rebab and celempung, can
contribute to the differentiation of gamelan subcategories. Additionally, historical influences,
such as colonialism or gradual localization and assimilation of cultures with neighboring regions,
may further shape the development of distinct gamelan styles. Overall, the categorization of
gamelan subcategories is a dynamic process that reflects the diverse cultural and musical
landscapes of the communities in which they are practiced. In this dissertation, the scope of
12 Zsolt Győri Ewa Mazierska, Ewa Mazierska, and Zsolt Győri, Eastern European Popular Music in a
Transnational Context: Beyond the Borders, 1st ed., Palgrave European Film and Media Studies (Cham: Springer
International Publishing, 2019), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17034-9.
11
research will focus on three prominent subcategories of gamelan music: Balinese, Javanese, and
Malay. These subcategories have been selected due to their significant cultural and historical
importance within the gamelan tradition, as well as their widespread influence on choral
repertoire in Malaysia and Indonesia.
Javanese gamelan provides an entry point to virtually all types of gamelan styles from
both historical and musical standpoints. Primarily rooted in the 15th-century gamelan sekaten,
which serves as the precursor to nearly all gamelan forms, Javanese gamelan holds a
distinguished status as one of the earliest manifestations of the gamelan tradition. Despite often
being overshadowed by more ostentatious and rhythmic gamelan styles, the serene and deliberate
musical attributes of Javanese gamelan are foundational, both musically and socio-culturally, for
subsequent gamelan subcategories. Thus, the examination of Javanese gamelan provides an
essential framework for understanding the evolution of gamelan music and its broader sociocultural significance. From a musical perspective, Javanese gamelan presents distinctively softer
and mellower musical attributes, especially when compared to its Balinese counterpart. This
serene gracefulness, often termed as lemah-lembut in Malay and Javanese, is largely influenced
by two key factors: (1) the emergence of Sufism, a branch of Islam that esteems music as a
conduit for spiritual connection, and (2) its distinctive instrumentation, which blends traditional
gamelan percussions with mellower instruments such as the human voice, bamboo flute, and
select bowed and plucked string instruments. Such a distinctive array of instruments and
performance practices sets Javanese gamelan apart from other gamelan traditions, offering
valuable insights into the interpretation of choral compositions influenced by the soft and
tranquil aesthetics of gamelan music.
12
Balinese gamelan sheds light on the divergent paths of gamelan development under the
influences of different religious and cultural contexts in Indonesia and Malaysia. Given that Bali
predominantly practices Hinduism, Balinese gamelan offers a glimpse into the hypothetical
trajectory of gamelan had Islam not arrived in Indonesia. Renowned for its sharp and distinctive
sound, characterized by piercing timbres and forceful rhythms, Balinese gamelan stands apart
from other gamelan traditions, making it instantly recognizable “even to uninitiated listeners.”13
This unique sonic quality underscores the significant influence of Balinese gamelan on choral
compositions, particularly within the choral music landscape across the Balinese islands.
Derived from Javanese gamelan, Malay gamelan stands as one of the oldest hybrid
gamelan styles, having undergone centuries of musical evolution away from its “motherland.”
Typically employing the five-note slendro scale, Malay gamelan represents a fusion of Javanese
and traditional Malay musical elements, resulting in a unique style that is neither fully Malaysian
nor Indonesian. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that the absence of "authenticity" does not
detract from the significance of Malay gamelan, as gamelan remains a dynamic and everchanging musical style. Moreover, an examination of choral works influenced by gamelan
reveals that composers frequently integrate diverse musical elements from various gamelan
traditions and traditional sources, whether through deliberate artistic choices or unconscious
inspiration. Consequently, the exploration of Malay gamelan provides valuable guidance for
interpreting choral compositions influenced by hybridized gamelan traditions.
13 Spiller, Gamelan, 91.
13
Table 2.1: Comparative Characteristics of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay Gamelan.
Aspect Javanese Gamelan Balinese Gamelan Malay Gamelan
Texture Emphasizes smooth,
layered textures and
subtle dynamics
Bright, sharp, and highly
interlocking
Light, shimmering
texture with irama dua
and bergilir techniques
Melodic
Structure
More subtle and
meditative; melodies are
often slow and fluid
Fast, rhythmic, and
syncopated
Often characterized by
broken octaves and light,
quick alternations
between pitches
Instrumentation Primarily metallophones,
gongs, and drums
Similar to Javanese, but
often with more
metallophones and
cymbals
Similar to Javanese
gamelan, but a smaller
ensemble size
Rhythmic
Structure
Flexible rhythm, with a
focus on slow-paced
gongan
Fast-paced kotekan
interlocking rhythms
Steady pulse with
emphasis on interlocking
and listening across parts
Performance
Style
Focused on slow,
meditative, and regal
performances (lemah
lembut)
Energetic, dynamic, and
often aggressive (ganas
garang)
Restrained and elegant
(ayu dan sopan)
Cultural
Function
Used in court rituals,
traditional ceremonies,
and shadow puppet
performances
Associated with religious
and ceremonial events,
particularly Hindu
Balinese temples
Used in court rituals,
ceremonies, and public
events in rural
communities
Role of Gongs Gongs are used to mark
structural points, with a
focus on creating cyclical
patterns
Gongs have more
frequent changes,
marking dramatic shifts
Gongs are used in
tandem with other
percussion to highlight
key moments in the
music
Dynamics Emphasis on soft
dynamics and gradual
changes
Sharp contrasts, fast
shifts in dynamics and
tempo
Light dynamics with
subtle contrasts between
parts
14
While this dissertation focuses on the Balinese, Javanese, and Malay subcategories of
gamelan music, it is important to acknowledge the exclusion of other subcategories from the
study. The decision to narrow the scope to these three specific varieties was made to maintain
clarity, coherence, and feasibility within the research. The inclusion of all variations would
present challenges in terms of depth of analysis and research resources. By focusing on these
three varieties, this dissertation aims to provide a more in-depth understanding of how gamelan
music has shaped Malaysian and Indonesian choral works within the context of these diverse
cultural traditions. However, future studies could explore the influence of other gamelan
subcategories on choral repertoire to further enrich our understanding of this dynamic musical
tradition across Southeast Asia.
Methodology
This dissertation employs a qualitative analysis of secondary resources, focusing on
books, journal articles, and other scholarly works related to Javanese, Balinese, and Malay
gamelan, as well as choral music influenced by these traditions. The research process involves a
comprehensive review and synthesis of existing literature to understand the theoretical
frameworks and cultural contexts in which gamelan and choral music intersect. Key texts on the
history, characteristics, and performance practices of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay gamelan
form the foundation of this study. By examining these sources, the study identifies specific
elements of each gamelan tradition incorporated into choral works, such as rhythmic patterns,
instrumentation, and overall aesthetic approach. Additionally, the analysis includes how scholars
have interpreted the adaptation of gamelan elements into Western choral settings, offering
critical insights into the cross-cultural exchange between Southeast Asian and Western musical
traditions.
15
Grounded in secondary research, the methodology also compares the analysis of various
scholarly interpretations. Different perspectives on how gamelan influences have been integrated
into choral music are assessed, with attention to debates and discussions within the academic
community. This approach enables a multi-faceted understanding of the subject matter, exploring
both musicological analyses and ethnographic studies that illuminate the cultural and social
significance of gamelan-influenced choral works. By drawing on a wide range of sources, the
research aims to provide a comprehensive and nuanced account of how Javanese, Balinese, and
Malay gamelan have shaped contemporary choral compositions. Furthermore, the methodology
involves tracing the development of these influences over time, examining how contemporary
composers have reinterpreted traditional gamelan elements in response to changing cultural and
musical landscapes.
Overview of Anticipated Results
The anticipated results of this dissertation are expected to provide a comprehensive
understanding of the historical development of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay gamelans and how
these gamelan traditions have influenced Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire. Through
an in-depth analysis of selected compositions, the study will highlight specific musical elements,
such as texture, rhythm, and instrumentation, that have been adapted and reimagined within
choral settings.
Javanese gamelan contributes a sense of serenity and fluidity to the choral works, often
through the use of cyclical patterns and a more meditative pacing. In contrast, Balinese gamelan
adds dynamic energy and rhythmic complexity, with its intricate interlocking patterns and rapid
tempo shifts creating a vibrant choral texture. Meanwhile, Malay gamelan brings a pared-down
16
approach, emphasizing simplicity and clarity while reflecting the multicultural nuances of
Malaysian society.
Additionally, this research aims to demonstrate how these gamelan influences offer
unique pedagogical and performance opportunities within choral music. By incorporating
gamelan elements, these works may also serve as a bridge between different musical traditions,
fostering greater cultural understanding and appreciation among both performers and audiences.
The exploration of these choral works is anticipated to not only deepen the understanding of
gamelan-influenced music but also contribute to the broader discourse on the intersection of
traditional and contemporary Southeast Asian music practices.
Presentation of Results
The results will be presented in a structured manner across three chapters, each focusing
on a different gamelan tradition. Each chapter will begin with a historical analysis,
encompassing: (1) Geographical and Cultural History––regional and sociopolitical factors
shaping the gamelan; (2) Performance Practice––ensemble configurations, instrumentation,
forms and structures, tuning systems, and overall aesthetic and timbre. Following this historical
and performance practice overview, each chapter will also include (3) Analysis of Sample Choral
Works, providing concrete examples of how traditional elements are incorporated into
contemporary choral compositions. This approach will highlight the unique characteristics of
each gamelan tradition, their impact on modern choral music, and the integration of traditional
elements into choral settings, offering a clear and comprehensive view of the research findings.
A catalog of choral works influenced by gamelan will be included in the Appendix. This
catalog will compile a comprehensive list of Malaysian and Indonesian choral works influenced
by Javanese, Balinese, and Malay gamelan traditions. The catalog aims to serve as a valuable
17
resource for further research and performance, providing insights into the diverse applications of
gamelan influences in choral music.
18
Chapter 1 – Overview
The Relationship Between Gamelan and Choral Music
Gamelan and choral music from Indonesia and Malaysia share a close relationship. While
the gamelan and choral forms are distinctly different––one being a gong-chime orchestra and one
being a human voice-based ensemble––the texture and structure of gamelan music play a
significant role in shaping Indonesian and Malaysian communal singing traditions and modernday choral repertoire. The exact origin of gamelan is not well-documented. Scholars such as
Javanese gamelan expert Sumarsam (b. 1944) and Australian ethnomusicologist Margaret
Kartomi (b. 1940) believe that the gamelan ensemble began as an ensemble of bronze drums
around 300 BC with deep associations to supernatural powers and more recent research by
American ethnomusicologist Henry Spiller (b. 1956) suggests that the ensemble began long
before 300 BC in the form of a wood and bamboo-based wind and percussion ensemble.1
Regardless of what happened in reality, gamelan has played a significant role in the cultures
Malay Archipelago for thousands of years and it continues to find ways to change its role in
communities to fill new niches and perform new functions, combining the old musical and
cultural traditions with the new. Today, gamelan is an important source of national pride for
communities in the Malay Archipelago and continues to be taught through formal and informal
education. In 2021, gamelan was officially designated as an Intangible Cultural Heritage by
UNESCO.
1 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 1st ed., vol. 3 (Rochester: Boydell & Brewer, 2013); Margaret J.
Kartomi and Maria Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 2001, https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.45141; Henry
Spiller and Henry Spiller, Focus: Gamelan Music of Indonesia, 2nd ed, Focus on World Music (New York:
Routledge, 2008).
19
As one of the most prominent musical traditions in Indonesia and Malaysia, gamelan
often intersects with various communal singing traditions native to Indonesia and Malaysia. Prior
to the arrival of the European colonizers, the singing tradition in Indonesia and Malaysia was
primarily monodic and usually accompanied by percussion and gong chimes. There are some
“choral” forms native to Southeast Asia, such as dikir barat from the Malay peninsula, the
group-singing tradition of the Manggarai people from West and Central Flores, and the sindén
(treble solo) and penggérong (small tenor-bass choir) singing traditions in Javanese gamelan––
all of which are accompanied with different combinations of bronze gamelan instruments,
ranging from just a drum to multiple drums and gong-chime instruments.2 For example, in dikir
barat, the awok-awok (chorus) is typically accompanied by only a four-piece ensemble
comprising of rebana frame drum, tetawak, canang, and maracas. In the case of a Javanese
gamelan performance with a sindén, the treble soloist may be accompanied by a large orchestra
of drums, gongs, metallophones, and string instruments.
Although these communal and ensemble singing traditions may resemble the Western
choral-instrumental form, the structure of these traditional Indonesian and Malaysian
performances are by no means similar to Western choral singing which is often characterized by
four-part bel canto singing and Western harmonic language and compositional devices. Thus, the
modern-day Malaysian and Indonesian choral works in four-part harmonies that we see today
are, in fact, a product of a long evolution that goes back to its origin in Christian sacred music,
first brought into Indonesia and Malaysia as early as the 16th century by the Dutch and
Portuguese.3 As new nations were formed in Southeast Asia starting early 20th century and
2 André De Quadros, Focus: Choral Music in Global Perspective, 1st ed. (New York; London : Routledge, 2019. |
Series: Focus on world music: Routledge, 2019), 55, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429024627.
3
Ibid.
20
choirs began to participate in international choral festivals and competitions, the nationalistic
spirit became a norm among Indonesian and Malaysian choral musicians.4 Composers started to
turn their heads to the diverse and rich musical traditions of their country as sources of
inspiration for their compositions, “generating other universes of sound” that better reflect their
country’s own musical identity.5 Gamelan, being arguably one of the best-known gong-chime
ensembles in the world, once again, became a major point of reference for Indonesian and
Malaysian choral works.
The Prevalence of Gamelan Music in Indonesia and Malaysia
To understand the relationship between gamelan and choral repertoire from Indonesia
and Malaysia, it is necessary to first understand the prevalence and cultural significance of
gamelan in Indonesia and Malaysia. Gamelan is one of the oldest musical style of music native
to the Malay Archipelago. Nevertheless, this musical art is still deeply rooted in the modern-day
cultural fabric of Indonesia and Malaysia. It is widely practiced, performed, and appreciated
throughout the region and performances of gamelan can be found in diverse settings including
royal courts, temples, cultural centers, and academic institutions. In Indonesia, not only is
gamelan an integral part of traditional ceremonies, cultural events, dance performances, and
theatrical productions, it also acts as a walking billboard for Indonesian culture. Even before
Indonesia’s independence, the Dutch already utilized gamelan as an art to represent Indonesian
culture in early World Fairs such as the 1879 National and Colonial Industrial Exhibition at
Arnhem, Netherlands, 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris, and the 1893 World’s Columbian
4
Ibid., 62.
5 Margaret J. Kartomi and Stephen. Blum, Music-Cultures in Contact : Convergences and Collisions, Australian
Studies in History, Philosophy & Social Studies of Music ; v.2 (Basel, Switzerland: Gordon and Breach, 1994).
21
Exposition in Chicago.6 During the late 1800s and early 1900s, these Fairs shared the same
significance as today’s Olympic Games and World Cup, and “ they were concerned with
nationalism, rivalry, [and] ethnographic display [...]”7 When gamelan was performed and
displayed in these events, the music might have been scripted and even decontextualized to meet
the expectations of the West’s interest in exoticism at the time. Nevertheless, these events still
pointed to the significance of gamelan in displaying Indonesian national identity.
In Malaysia, gamelan music holds great cultural and musical significance throughout the
country, particularly in the states of Kelantan, Terengganu, and Johor. The gamelan tradition in
these regions, known as gamelan melayu (Malay gamelan), has been preserved and nurtured as
part of the local cultural heritage. Gamelan ensembles are used for various traditional
performances, including wayang kulit (shadow puppetry), mak yong (traditional dance-drama),
and other cultural events. Since Malaysia gained its independence from the British in 1957, the
Malaysian government has been promoting and preserving the gamelan tradition in Malaysia by
featuring and involving this genre of music in cultural festivals, academic programs, community
initiatives, and international events, including marketing initiatives by the Malaysia Tourism
Promotion Board. While gamelan is not as widespread in Malaysia as in Indonesia, its cultural
significance is still notable in specific regional contexts.
Mutual contact between the two countries and environmental and ecological similarity
are two major reasons contributing to the cultural significance and widespread practice of
gamelan in both Indonesia and Malaysia.8 As Spiller describes, modern national boundaries in
Southeast Asia are more of a reflection of its recent geopolitical events than its long-standing
6 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:82–88.
7
Ibid., 3:82.
8 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West; Spiller and Spiller, Focus; Józef M. Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in
Indonesia,” The World of Music 28, no. 3 (1986): 3–12; Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan.”
22
cultural politics.9 For example, Malaysia comprises mainland territory (Peninsular Malaysia) and
the northern part of Borneo Island. This union was formed in 1963 when the states of Sabah and
Sarawak from northern Borneo joined Malaya (the former name of Peninsular Malaysia). At that
time, Malaya also included Singapore, which later became an independent country in 1965.
Similarly, the Indonesian island of Sumatra is geographically closer to Peninsular Malaysia than
to the rest of the Indonesian Archipelago. This geographical proximity facilitated the exchange
of ideas, innovations, and inventions through trade and maritime contact long before the modern
nations of Malaysia and Indonesia were established.10
The ecological and environmental similarity between the two countries also contributed
to the widespread practice of gamelan in the region.11 Due to its proximity to the equator,
Indonesia and Malaysia share a warm and humid tropical climate as well as an abundance of
rainforest. Faced with similar environmental challenges and with access to similar natural
resources, it is not surprising that people from both countries developed similar musical
traditions. Bamboo, for instance, is a material commonly used in the region to make wind
instruments, such as suling (bamboo flute), a melodic instrument typically used in Javanese and
Sundanese gamelans. Bamboo’s naturally sonorous qualities also make it an ideal material for
resonators for metallophones used in a gamelan ensemble such as gendèr. As with bamboo,
wood’s sonorous qualities also make it an ideal material for a variety of mallets for gamelan
instruments and wooden metallophone instruments such as gambang. While wood and bamboo
are commonly found in the region, they often deteriorate quickly due to the region’s warm and
9 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 6.
10 Craig A. Lockard, Southeast Asia in World History, The New Oxford World History (New York ; Oxford
University Press, 2023), https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195160758.001.0001.
11 Mantle. Hood, The Evolution of Javanese Gamelan, Pocketbooks of Musicology ; 62-64 (Wilhelmshaven: Edition
Heinrichshofen, 1980).
23
humid climate. This is when bronze musical instruments such as gongs, gong chimes (a series of
tuned gongs placed on a wooden frame or resonator), and metallophones (a series of tuned metal
bars) came into existence. Unlike natural materials, bronze requires specialized skill to process
and transform them into musical instruments, and it is an expensive raw material. Nevertheless,
once bronze is forged it is a durable material, making it the solution to the question of “how to
produce musical instruments in an environment where everything rots quickly.”12 Unified by
geographical proximity and access to similar resources and with mutual contact within the
region, the practice of gamelan is disseminated across the region, making it an essential part of
the interconnected network of cultural traditions and practices in both countries.
The Parallels Between Gamelan and Indonesian and Malaysian Cultures
As one of the few instrumental ensembles native to the Malay Archipelago, the
performance practices of gamelan closely mirror Indonesian and Malaysian cultures.
Ethnomusicologists, including Sumarsam, Kartomi, Spiller, Mantle Hood (1918-2005), and Jaap
Kunst (1891-1960), have highlighted various parallels between gamelan performances and the
culture and lifestyle of the Indonesian and Malaysian people. Generally, two metaphors are
commonly employed by ethnomusicologists and musicologists: (1) gamelan as a socialbehavioral metaphor and (2) gamelan as a symbolic system of spirituality and good virtues.
Societal harmony, a value of paramount importance in the everyday life of Malaysian and
Indonesian people, is an image commonly used to portray the harmony achieved through the
interlocking parts in a gamelan composition. Jaap Kunst, the Dutch musicologist who was
credited with coining the term “ethnomusicology” drew parallels between gamelan compositions
and the bureaucratic social system in the Malay Archipelago:
12 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 10.
24
According to a Javanese conception, the rebab may be called the raja (king), and the
kendang the patih (prime minister) of the gamelan community (the gong, which subdivides
the composition according to fixed laws, may be called the jaksa (judge); in other words,
according to this view the rebab is admittedly the principal instrument, but it has delegated
the real work, i.e. the leading of the orchestral society, to the kendang, which, as it were,
translates the former’s instructions into a form easily understood by the community, whilst
the gong sees to it that all melodic phrases are equitably allowed the same length.13
The parallel between gamelan music and the bureaucratic social system was also
mentioned in the writing by a prominent Indonesian nationalist, Soetomo (1888-1938):
[…] each player is skilled in his own instrument: the kendang player in beating his
kendang and likewise those who play the gambang, saron, kempul, gong, rebab, and those
who sing. In addition, each performer has to know the melody; each has to know when to
play and when to stop. There must be teamwork in addition to each person’s own
competence. If each player performs expertly and understands and obeys the rules, players
will produce harmonious music. If each player is expert, disciplined, and willing to work
with others, the results will be pleasing. […] By working harmoniously, following
regulations (manut pranatan), to obey disciplines, [the musicians] can work together, not
jealous nor causing to show off one’s own work, so as to be able to have a result which is
harmonious, appropriate and not incongruent.14
In many ways, the musical structure of gamelan can be seen as a metaphor for an idealized view
of social harmony under a strict bureaucratic social system––the king (rebab) gives executive
power to the prime minister (gendhang), and the prime minister works with the chief justice
(large hanging gongs used to mark phrases) in ensuring a harmonious society (rukun) among the
rest of the instruments in a gamelan ensemble.15
While images of a bureaucratic social system are often associated with gamelan, modernday scholars are more inclined to view gamelan within a flexible leadership framework.
Benjamin Brinner’s (1924-2011) and Henry Spiller’s writings both argue that this perspective is
13 Jaap Kunst, Music in Java. Its History, Its Theory and Its Technique., 3rd, enlarged ed. ed. (The Hague: Nijhoff,
1973), 223.
14 Bahasa Indonesia to English translation by Paul W. Van der Veur and Soetomo, Toward a Glorious Indonesia :
Reminiscences and Observations of Dr. Soetomo, Monographs in International Studies. Southeast Asia Series ; No.
81 (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1987), 235–
36.
15 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:120.
25
a more accurate reflection of both the performance practice of gamelan and the kingship tradition
and social relations in ancient Malaysia and Indonesia. From the performance practice point of
view, the flexibility in emerging from and fading into a complex web of interlocking musical
ideas is quintessential to various forms of gamelan music. For instance, in Javanese gamelan,
leadership responsibilities within the ensemble change depending on the music, the individual
players’ strengths and weaknesses, and the interpersonal dynamics of performance. Brinner
describes melodic instruments such as the rebab and suling do not dominate like a Western
conductor; they lead, follow, mediate, and support other players in an interactive manner.16
Similarly, in ancient Malaysian and Indonesian societies, the balance of power was constantly
changing, and it relied heavily upon individual leadership styles. For example, in the Sultanate of
Mataram, the last major independent Javanese kingdom on the island of Java before it was
colonized by the Dutch in the mid-18th century, Nagtegaal points out that
The mutual ties between those who possessed political power were strictly personal and
did not apply to an entire group. The average person in a position of power was both patron
and client; his authority was based partly on the support of a number of subordinates and
partly on the favours of his superior. All these ties together made up a complex network
that was the official way, in the Java of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, of
exercising political power. In other words, this network was itself ‘the state.’17
The interactive nature of traditional political structures provides another parallel to the
fluidity of leadership in gamelan, where musicians, like political leaders, each have roles and
functions that extend beyond a fixed set.
16 Benjamin Elon. Brinner, Knowing Music, Making Music : Javanese Gamelan and the Theory of Musical
Competence and Interaction, Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995),
221–60.
17 Lucas Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java,
1680-1743, vol. 171, Koninklijk Instituut Voor Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde Leiden: Verhandelingen van Het
Koninklijk Instituut Voor Taal-, Land- En Volkenkunde Issue 171 of Verhandelingen Series (KITLV Press, 1996),
51–52.
26
There are also scholars who argue that the musical togetherness of gamelan music has little to do
with its connection to the ideal social harmony among Malaysian and Indonesian communities.
This perspective represents a minority voice, as most scholars highlight the parallels between
gamelan musical processes and societal harmony. In Pemberton’s Musical Politics in Central
Java, he shares that based on the stories he heard from old Javanese gamelan musicians from the
1970s, rivalry between players, musical revenge, and various forms of conflicts among the
musicians are so common that “it is surprising that Central Javanese musicians are capable of
playing ‘together’ at all.”18 Musical rivalry is particularly obvious in the performance of a
gamelan sekatèn, a special performance dedicated to celebrating the life of the Prophet
Muhammad. The playing of a sekatèn piece often begins with a long introduction performed by
the bonang, but the choice of the specific piece for the ensemble is typically determined by the
first demung player in the moment after the end of the bonang introduction. Because the bonang
player is responsible for leading the chosen piece, the demung player’s selection can either
highlight the bonang player's weaknesses or offer a simpler piece, knowing that their positions
will eventually be exchanged.19
Such lively dissonance also lies in the way gamelan “harmonies” are constructed. Unlike
Western music in which the harmonies are often conceived vertically, harmonies in a gamelan
composition are often an accidental coincidence between two interlocking motifs. This musical
structure is what American ethnomusicologist, William Malm (b. 1928) describes as linear.20
Linearity is an important concept in the construction of gamelan compositions, referring to how
18 John Pemberton, “Musical Politics in Central Java (Or How Not to Listen to a Javanese Gamelan),” Indonesia
(Ithaca), no. 44 (1987): 24.
19 Ibid., 25.
20 William P. Malm. Musical traits common to East Asian cultures. Britannica Academic https://academic-ebcom.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/East-Asian-arts/109412. Accessed March 15, 2021.
27
the music emphasizes melody and rhythm over vertical harmonies.21 Granted, there are times
when instruments such as the kajar––a small metallic gong playing the role of a timekeeper––
would appear to be providing a drone by repeating a note. However, these repeated notes
typically function as timekeepers while providing color, rather than to generate tension or release
by chord progression. Likewise, the long, resonant sounds created by the kempul––a set of large
hanging gongs––may appear to provide chord progression or bass notes, but they are only there
to provide colotomic structure to the music while coordinating the players.22 Such phenomena is
particularly evident for gamelan ensembles that are not tuned to the slendro pentatonic scale (dore-mi-sol-la-do), which is known for its ability to create harmonious-sounding cluster chords.
Therefore, harmonically speaking, the coincidence of notes between overlapping motifs may not
always be in consonance, especially from the perspective of Western music theory.
In addition to social-behavioral metaphors and parallels, gamelan music is often viewed
as a symbol of good virtues. The batik analogy with gamelan is typically used to demonstrate the
connection between gamelan and values such as patience, self-control, and the process of
renewal.23 Batik is a traditional textile art native to both Indonesia and Malaysia made with waxresistant dye on fabrics. Indonesian batik cloths often feature geometrical shapes and patterns
while Malaysian batik designs consist primarily of plants and floral motifs. Despite the different
aesthetics, “repetitive” is a quintessential quality in both Malaysian and Indonesian batik design
in terms of the design and drawing process. This is an attribute shared closely with the
construction of gamelan music, where musical ideas are often overlayed on top of each other,
21 Ibid.
22 Orkes Gamelan Pahang Di Raja’s recording of Lenggang Kangkung is an example of how the kempul acts to
colotomic structure rather than a bass or chord notes to the melody.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8donecx8Kk&ab_channel=MonoloQue-Topic
23 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:121.
28
creating a complex yet organized texture. In Philip Kitley’s (n.d.) Ornamentation and
Originality: Involution in Javanese Batik, he observes that the process of making batik is “an
extended exercise in self-control and an intimate involvement in stroking potent symbols, […]
radiating auspiciousness through their traditional associations.”24 As for the assessment of these
repeated patterns in batik, Weiss (n.d.) believes that a good batik design relies on three criteria:
(1) the refinement of the marks, (2) the clarity of the colors, (3) the intricacy of the minute details
and how they contribute to the design as a whole.25 This speaks about the traditional virtues the
Malaysian and Indonesian people associate with repetition and the importance of repeating a task
with focus, determination, and self-discipline. In other words, repetition is not viewed as
redundant but rather a process of renewal and re-creation.26 The batik analogy with gamelan goes
only so far because the process of batik drawing is usually done by one or two batik makers,
whereas gamelan involves a larger group. Nevertheless, this analogy still illustrates the
connection between the gamelan musical system and the morals cherished by the Malaysian and
Indonesian communities in general.
24 Philip Kitley, “Ornamentation and Originality: Involution in Javanese Batik,” Indonesia (Ithaca) 53, no. 53
(1992): 8, https://doi.org/10.2307/3351111.
25 Sarah Weiss, Listening to an Earlier Java: Aesthetics, Gender, and the Music of Wayang in Central Java, vol.
237, Verhandelingen (Leiden: BRILL, 2006), 43, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004253698.
26 Ibid., 237:25.
29
Figure 1.1: A batik cloth.
Source: Image permission granted by Yu Hang Photography. Photo by Yu Hang Tan.
The connection between gamelan and local cultures is also reflected in the calendrical
systems commonly used in Malaysia and Indonesia.27 Gamelan music is known for its cyclic
motion and the coincidence created by these cyclic repetitions. Melodic and rhythmic motifs of
varying lengths are often overlapped, creating a multi-meter texture. For instance, the bonang
may play a motif set in 4/4 while the demung plays a motif in 5/4. The interaction between these
motifs in varying lengths is what give gamelan music its unique characteristics. Likewise, the
multi-meter nature of gamelan music is congruent with the calendrical systems in ancient
Indonesia and Malaysia. Indonesians, especially Javanese and Balinese, employ a combination of
lunar-solar and other calendrical cycles of different durations, ranging from five to ten days per
cycle.28 The simultaneous occurrence of these calendrical systems would result in the periodic
27 David Goldsworthy, “Cyclic Properties of Indonesian Music,” The Journal of Musicological Research 24, no. 3–4
(2005): 309–33, https://doi.org/10.1080/01411890500234062.
28 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:120.
30
coincidence of the first or last days from different calendars. In Java, the five-day-week cycle
and the seven-day-week cycle are the most used calendrical systems for everyday business.29
Consequently, the two calendars will coincide every thirty-five days, and this point of
conjunction always has special cultural importance. Likewise, in gamelan, the moments where
the first and last notes coincide often hold special musical importance. These points of alignment
generally mark the beginning or the end of a musical passage, section, or entire composition.
Since the mid-20th century, numerous parallels have been drawn between gamelan and
local cultures as the academic world began its interest in studying gamelan from an
ethnomusicological perspective. While it may be impossible to verify whether gamelan drew
references and cultural concepts from the community it originates from or the other way around,
understanding the long and complex connection between gamelan and the Indonesian and
Malaysian culture provides a starting point to appreciate the role gamelan plays in influencing
modern day Malaysian and Indonesian choral compositions.
Nationalism Towards the Middle of the 20th Century in Indonesia and Malaysia
The Republic of Indonesia was formed in 1945 and Malaysia in 1957. As both nations
approached their independence in the middle of the 20th century, nationalists, politicians, and
performing artists started their search for cultural symbols that could evoke a sense of pride,
patriotism, and unity among the listeners. During this time, cultural activities, school music
curricula, and ceremonial and official functions focused on fostering national pride. Patriotic
songs and anthems were frequently composed for national holidays and state events to instill a
sense of belonging and pride among the citizens. Through it all, these nationalistic musical and
29 Ibid.
31
cultural activities would often draw on historical musical forms. Naturally, gamelan being one of
the most widespread musical traditions in both Malaysia and Indonesia became a common
cultural reference for both countries. However, gamelan’s role in shaping nationalism varies
between Malaysia and Indonesia.
As an ensemble native to Indonesia, gamelan is often employed as a symbol of national
identity for Indonesians. In the 20th century, a large-scale Indonesian nationalism movement took
place. Young nationalists advocated for unifying the country with one common identity from all
over the country and they began to connect. The height of this movement was marked by the
declaration of the 1928 Sumpah Pemuda (Youth Pledge).30 Sumpah Pemudi is a pledge that aims
to define the identity of Indonesians with three core ideas: (1) one nation, (2) one people, and (3)
one language of Indonesia. During this new political phase, nationalists from different parts of
the country started to consider various forms of performing arts to be the new identity of
Indonesia. While some called for traditional performing arts including court gamelan music as
national arts, some argued that this old music form was irrelevant and non-inclusive to the
extensive cultural diversity of the country. Some nationalists also suggested inventing an entirely
new form of music that could represent all Indonesians. Amidst this hotly debated conversation,
gamelan maintained its preeminence in cultural diplomacy and as a symbol of cultural unity. For
example, during President Soekarno’s term, gamelan was frequently featured in domestic and
international cultural and diplomatic events as part of his Proyek Mercusuar (Lighthouse
Project).31 Proyek Mersuar is a cultural and infrastructural development project with the goal of
increasing and improving the visibility of Indonesian cultural and infrastructural development in
the eyes of foreign investors and countries. The project started in late 1950s and continued until
30 Ibid., 3:5.
31 Ibid., 3:6.
32
the middle of 1960s. During this time, gamelan was the primary form of performance employed
by the government’s cultural mission abroad. When President Suharto took over Sukarno’s
regime in 1967, his administration’s fascination with gamelan and its related arts continued. It is
worth noticing that during Suharto’s administration, he enforced a “New Order” (Orde Baru),
which lifted Sukarno’s ban on Western culture. Despite a much-relaxed attitude towards Western
culture, Suharto’s government continued to use Javanese and Balinese gamelan music to
welcome presidential guests.32 In 1970, the Indonesian Cultural Office, with the support from
Suharto’s government, dispatched a group of Javanese and Balinese gamelan musicians to
represent Indonesia at the 1970 Osaka World Exposition.33 Gamelan as an instrument for cultural
diplomacy reached its peak during the 1986 World Expo in Vancouver, Canada when the
Indonesian government hosted the First International Gamelan Festival and Symposium.34 The
Festival featured three and half days of lectures and performances by Indonesian and Western
gamelan musicians and enthusiasts. These examples affirmed gamelan’s role of gamelan as
Indonesia’s soft power cultural diplomacy in international cultural events and in facilitating
cultural dialogues between Indonesia and the world. It solidifies gamelan’s role as a distinct
marker of Indonesia’s artistic expression and cultural identity.
In Malaysia, gamelan’s role in cultural diplomacy and shaping nationalism in the country
is characterized by two major aspects: (1) the promotion of cultural exchange between Malaysia
and its neighboring countries that share a similar gong-chime music tradition and (2) its adoption
into the Malay cultural identity. As depicted in this context, gamelan does not hold the same role
32 Ibid., 3:1–9.
33 Ibid., 3:7.
34 Jonathan Goldman and Jeremy Strachan, “Indonesian Cultural Diplomacy and the First International Gamelan
Festival and Symposium at Expo 86,” American Music (Champaign, Ill.) 38, no. 4 (2020): 428–53,
https://doi.org/10.5406/americanmusic.38.4.0428.
33
in shaping nationalism and cultural diplomacy as it does in Indonesia. This is largely because
gamelan is not native to Malaysia. While gamelan has found a presence throughout Malaysia,
especially in regions with deep historical ties with Indonesia, such as the state of Kelantan and
Terengganu, its origin lies in Java, Indonesia. The origin of gamelan affects the way the
Malaysian government features gamelan in domestic and international cultural event. As regional
neighbors, the relationship between Malaysia and Indonesia has always been characterized by
diplomatic pleasantries, with an emphasis on common historical roots and cultural traditions.
Conversely, this diplomatic nicety is also often marked by disputes over shared cultural
heritage.35 One of the most famous cultural wars between the two countries was when Tourism
Malaysia featured Rasa Sayang, a folk song commonly sung throughout the Malay Archipelago,
in a Malaysian tourism campaign in conjunction of the 50th anniversary of the Malaysian
Independence Day in 2007. Upon the release of the tourism campaign video, the Indonesian
government claimed that the song originated in the Moluccan islands. This dispute triggered a
series of “mine, yours, or ours” argument between Malaysia and Indonesia over the next two
years with both nations claiming the ownership of the batik textile, the wayang kulit shadow
puppetry, the kris dagger, and last but not least, gamelan.36 Therefore, when gamelan is featured
in national and international events in Malaysia, it is often used to emphasize the artistic and
cultural ties between Malaysia and its neighboring countries with a similar gong-chime musical
tradition. For example, Indonesia’s gamelan, Thailand’s piphat ensemble, and the Philippines’
kulintang ensemble. Secondly, gamelan is often commonly associated with the Malay culture.
Malaysia is a multicultural and multiracial country with the Malay, Chinese, and Indian people
35 Marshall Clark, “The Politics of Heritage: Indonesia-Malaysia Cultural Contestations,” Indonesia and the Malay
World 41, no. 121 (2013): 396–417, https://doi.org/10.1080/13639811.2013.804979.
36 Jinn Winn Chong, “‘Mine, Yours or Ours?’: The Indonesia-Malaysia Disputes over Shared Cultural Heritage,”
Sojourn (Singapore) 27, no. 1 (2012): 1–53, https://doi.org/10.1355/sj27-1a.
34
forming the three largest ethnicities. Since the Malay is one of the earliest settlers in present-day
Malaysia and the Malay community has deep historical ties with Indonesia, gamelan has been
adopted and incorporated into the Malay culture, and by extension part of the Malaysian culture.
Thus, it is evident that despite not being native to Malaysia, gamelan has significantly influenced
the development of Malaysian nationalism.
As with many newly formed and independent countries, reinforcing a sense of patriotism
was at the top of the priority list of both the Malaysian and Indonesian governments. In the
choral scene, this translates to government-supported choral competitions with a focus on folk
songs and patriotic music.37 In Malaysia, the Malaysian Ministry of Education started to organize
choir competitions in the 1970s. During this time, choirs were encouraged to perform music from
all genres. However, the participating choirs would often include at least one folk song or
patriotic song arrangement in their competition sets. By the early 2000s, the Ministry of
Education began to require participating choirs to sing at least one patriotic song in the Malay
language from the standard repertoire list. In 2009, as part of former Prime Minister Najib
Razak’s Kempen Satu Malaysia (One Malaysia Campaign), the government introduced the Kelab
Rukun Negara (National Principles Club) Patriotic Song Choir Competition, a nationwide choir
competition for public secondary schools, where the entire competition set must consist only of
patriotic songs.
It is undeniable that government-backed choral activities frequently carry government
propaganda. However, for Indonesian and Malaysian choral musicians, these competitions often
serve as catalysts for the establishment of new choirs and the advancement of traditional and
patriotic musical arrangements. These events have led to the creation of hundreds and thousands
37 Quadros, Focus, 62.
35
of new choral compositions annually, to the extent that arranging traditional folk melodies and
patriotic anthems has become a customary practice for composers of all skill levels in both
Malaysia and Indonesia. Frequently, composers incorporate traditional musical elements into
their arrangements to further amplify the message of nationalism, even within newly crafted
patriotic compositions.38 This choral phenomenon stands apart from other areas of the choral
world where religious activity predominantly drives choral singing. However, performing and
composing these choral arrangements have enriched Malaysian and Indonesian choral musicians’
appreciation and comprehension of folk and traditional musical forms. Over time, these
performances through competitions have created a platform for composers to integrate traditional
musical elements into their choral repertoire, leading to the emergence of a new canon of choral
works inspired by gamelan.
The Importance of Studying the Relationship Between Gamelan and Malaysian and
Indonesian Choral Music
Gamelan plays a crucial role in understanding and performing Malaysian and Indonesian
choral music with cultural sensitivity, similar to how string instruments were fundamental to
early European music. Just as string instruments shaped the texture and development of early
Western music, gamelan ensembles are integral to Malaysian and Indonesian choral traditions.
The earliest communal singing tradition in Indonesia and Malaysia was primarily monodic.
Typically, these vocal performances are accompanied by percussion and gong-chime
instruments, the two primary types of instruments in all gamelan subcategories. For example, the
vocal portion in the wayang kulit shadow puppetry, the dikir barat song-dance form, and the mak
yong, arja, lenong, janger, randai, and wayang wong theaters all feature a unison vocal melody–
38 Ibid.
36
–sung either by a soloist or a chorus––accompanied by different combinations of gongs and
drums. Hence, when choral composers employ these folk songs as the basis of their choral work,
the gamelan accompaniment would often be adapted into a choral version for several reasons: (1)
acquiring a gamelan ensemble, even in Southeast Asia, can pose logistical challenges and incur
significant expenses, (2) a cappella compositions can be performed conveniently when the choir
goes on tour, and (3) to simply feature the choir’s vocal agility and prowess in emulating
instrumental sounds.39 Even when composers decide to abandon the gamelan accompaniment
altogether in their arrangement or composition, it is often difficult, if not impossible, to erase the
traces of gamelan in these folk-based choral works. This is because most Malaysian and
Indonesian folk tunes were traditionally performed on or with gong-chime instruments. Thus, the
melodic structure of these songs often carries traces of the musical form, rhythmic motif, and
harmonic and melodic style of these instruments. Ikan Kekek, Wau Bulan, and Cing Cangkeling
are examples of folk songs that are influenced by the performance practice of gamelan from its
core. The melodies of these three examples are set entirely to the five-note slendro scale from
Javanese gamelan, the melodies are decorated with bunga (ornaments) typical of gamelan music,
and the structures embody the quintessential characteristics of gamelan music’s melodic motif:
short and cyclical.
The combination of gamelan-influenced melodies, vocal accompaniments, compositional
structure, and rhythmic motives in choral writings gave birth to a uniquely Indonesian and
Malaysian choral sound, reinforcing the association between the repertoire and its respective
region and nation. For example, “Kyrie eleison” from Ivan Yohan’s (b. 1975) Indonesian Mass
(2006) employed a famous folk tune from West Java, Cing Cangkeling as the basis of the Kyrie
39 Quadros, Focus; Angela Astri Soemantri, Michael Mulyadi, and Monty P. Satiadarma, “Choral Life of
Indonesia,” International Choral Bulletin, April 11, 2011, http://icb.ifcm.net/choral-life-indonesia/.u
37
movement. In the middle section of the movement, a vocal accompaniment comprised entirely of
short, interlocking motifs accompanies the slow and lyrical soprano line, mimicking the tradition
of a sinden (treble-voice soloist) performing with the Javanese gamelan orchestra.
Similarly, …About Gong, Ai, Na… (2009) by Malaysian composer, Chee Wei Wong (b. 1975),
employed similar compositional techniques by quoting fragments of Ikan Kekek, a famous Malay
folk song, and featured the slendro scale and repetitive rhythmic motif typical of Malay gamelan
throughout the composition to reinforce the “Malaysian-ness” of this original composition that
was intended to reflect the musical cultures of Malaysia. Over time, this concept of translating
traditional instrumental sounds into an entirely vocal composition “has invited and motivated
young composers to create dynamic musical innovations that reflect Indonesian culture”40 and it
created a distinctive canon of choral repertoire. While a composer’s artistic decision to include,
and oftentimes, amplify the effects of gamelan in choral compositions is not exclusively
conscious nor subconscious, the influence of gamelan on Malaysian and Indonesian choral
repertoire is widespread and provides an important entry point into understanding the historical
and cultural significance behind the compositional devices.
40 Soemaantri, Angela Astri, Michael Mulyadi, and Monty P. Satiadarma. “Choral Life of Indonesia.” International
Choral Bulletin, April 11, 2011. http://icb.ifcm.net/choral-life-indonesia/.
38
Chapter 2 – The Gamelan Ensemble
While this dissertation primarily examines the influence of Javanese, Balinese, and
Malay gamelans on Malaysian and Indonesian choral compositions, it is imperative to recognize
that none of these ensembles developed in isolation. These three gamelan traditions are the result
of a complex evolutionary process influenced by various factors, including local culture,
environmental influences, and socio-political connections between the two nations. While
gamelan is often linked with Javanese culture, its developmental history is multifaceted. Modernday gamelan performances that feature drums, gong chimes, metallophones, and a diverse array
of non-percussion instruments such as vocalists and stringed instruments, exemplify the
profound evolution of gamelan music from its ancient roots, including the era of gamelan
sekaten. This chapter explores the roots of gamelan, tracing its historical evolution and pivotal
moments in its development by examining historically significant subcategories such as gamelan
sekaten, court-style Javanese gamelan, as well as its encounters with the Western world,
shedding light on how these gamelan traditions were organized and the symbolism they
embodied.
The Origin of Gamelan
As with various prehistoric art and cultures, the precise origins of the gamelan ensemble
remain shrouded in mystery, awaiting further scholarly investigation. Fossil evidence of
kettledrums dating back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, discovered across the Malay
Archipelago, including Java, Bali, and Sumatra, suggests that early visitors, likely from Northern
Vietnam, introduced bronze objects and technology to the region around 300 BCE.1 These
1 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 1.
39
artifacts, commonly referred to as "bronze drums" by archaeologists due to their resemblance to
tools for producing sounds and possibly summoning rain, hint at the early presence of musical
instruments in the area.2
In The Evolution of Javanese Gamelan (1980), ethnomusicologist Mantle Hood (1918-
2005) offers a speculative narrative suggesting that Javanese rulers may have developed bronze
casting and forging techniques, leading to the creation of bronze percussions as early as 300
BCE.3 Hood proposes that these instruments, initially imbued with supernatural significance and
used for signaling purposes, gradually became integrated into Javanese culture, laying the
foundation for the development of gamelan music over time. Contrastingly, Dutch musicologist
Jaap Kunst (1891-1960), drawing from a wealth of archaeological, iconographical, and literary
sources, posits a later emergence of gamelan prototypes, dating back to the 1st millennium CE or
the early 2nd millennium.4 Evidence such as depictions of xylophone-like saron, bamboo flutes
(suling), and double-headed kendhang drums on ancient artworks like the 9th
-century Borobudur
Temple and 14th
-century Candi Panataran, along with references to gamelan instruments in old
Javanese literature and the Hindu epic 1st-millennium-CE Ramayana, support Kunst's
perspective.5
Despite varying interpretations and speculations among scholars, it remains indisputable
that gamelan has wielded profound influence within the cultures of Indonesia and Malaysia for
centuries. Across kingdoms worldwide, diverse objects have served as ritual artifacts and
symbols of "divine right." Examples such as the crown jewels of Britain, the Chrysanthemum
Throne of Japan, the Pharaoh’s crook and flail in ancient Egypt, and the Stone of Scone in
2 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 45.
33 Hood, The Evolution of Javanese Gamelan.
4 Kunst, Music in Java. Its History, Its Theory and Its Technique.
5 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 1.
40
Scottish coronations illustrate the widespread use of ritual objects across different cultures and
nations to signify and validate the divine authority of rulers throughout history. Similarly, within
the Malay Archipelago, kingdoms like the Medieval Hindu-Javanese kingdom and the Malaccan
Sultanate possessed various ritual objects, including musical ensembles predominantly
comprised of tuned metal percussion instruments—gamelan.
Figure 2.1: From left to right: The Crown Jewels of Britain, the Chrysanthemum Throne, the Pharaoh's crook and
flail, and the Stone of Scone.
Source: Image retrieved from Wikimedia Commons.
As Sumarsam and Spiller suggest throughout their writings, the creation of bronze
musical instruments and tools demanded considerable effort, skill, and resources, rendering them
closely associated with wealth, power, and prestige.6 Furthermore, due to their origins in metal
and fire, gamelan instruments were often imbued with supernatural significance.7 Consequently,
the performance of gamelan music held intrinsic importance, independent of any audience's
attention or appreciation, as it was perceived as a conduit for connecting with supernatural
forces. For the Javanese maharaja (kings) of the Majapahit kingdom, gamelan held profound
symbolic significance. Both rulers and subjects regarded the music as a microcosmic
6 Spiller and Spiller, Focus; Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West.
7 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 46.
41
representation of divine order, thereby viewing the development and performance of gamelan
music as a means for kings to fulfill their duty of upholding cosmic harmony.8 Across the ocean,
in Malaysia, the origins of Malay gamelan can be traced back to Central Javanese gamelan. The
evolution of Malay gamelan was intricately tied to court activities and received substantial
patronage from the monarchy. A notable example is seen in the state of Pahang in Malaysia,
where the demise of Sultan Ahmad Al-mu'adzam Shah (1836-1914) in 1914 resulted in the
decline of gamelan practices within the region.9 However, with the Sultan's daughter bringing the
tradition to the palace of her husband, the Sultan of Terengganu state, gamelan persisted and
flourished as court music, serving various ceremonial, ritual, and celebratory purposes.10 This
historical account highlights the crucial role of royal patronage in preserving and advancing the
gamelan tradition. Moreover, it offers a historical explanation for the interconnectedness
between gamelan music and both political authority and supernatural beliefs.
Gamelan Sekaten
Gamelan sekaten , an early type of gamelan ensemble originating from the Javanese
Islands of Indonesia, offers a compelling starting point for discussing the evolution of gamelan
music for two reasons. Firstly, due to its antiquity, gamelan sekaten likely preserves musical
styles reminiscent of pre-Islamic gamelan music, along with the ancient social values embedded
within its musical structure.11 Secondly, the instrumentation of gamelan sekaten encompasses
most of the "generic" gamelan instruments found in a diverse range of traditional, modern, and
hybrid gamelan ensembles.12 However, before delving into the study of gamelan sekaten, it is
8 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:123–26.
9 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 7–8.
10 Ibid.
11 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 48.
12 Ibid., 48–52.
42
imperative to grasp the geographical and historical context surrounding its development. This
journey traces back to the transitional period of Java from the Hindu-Majapahit kingdom to the
island's conversion to Islam during the 16th century.
Figure 2.2: A gamelan sekaten performance.
Source: Image permission granted by agendasolo.com. Photo by Denny Canyarasmi.
The significance of Java in both prehistoric and contemporary Indonesia stems from its
sizable population and substantial political and economic influence.13 With an area of 51,007
square miles, Java ranks as the third-largest island between Malaysia and Indonesia, following
Borneo (287,001 square miles) and West Papua (159,157 square miles). Despite its size not
being the largest in the region, historically, Java has always held the distinction of being the most
fertile and densely populated island in the Malay Archipelago. Presently, it remains a vital
political and socio-cultural hub in Southeast Asia, hosting Indonesia's three largest metropolitan
areas: Jakarta, the national capital, along with Bandung and Surabaya. This prominence can be
13 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West; Spiller and Spiller, Focus; Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan”;
Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia”; Sam Quigley, “The Raffles Gamelan at Claydon House,” Journal of
the American Musical Instrument Society 22 (1996): 5–41.
43
attributed in large part to Java's historical involvement in the coffee and spice trade. From as
early as the advent of Islam around 1000 CE, Java's north coast has served as a crucial
international port, facilitating trade routes for merchants from West Asia traveling to China. The
ports on the northern coast of Java are strategically located on the trade route between Persia,
India, the Port of Malacca situated in modern-day Malaysia, the Indonesian island of Sumatra,
and Mainland China. Since the 13th century, Java has been the home of several historically and
politically significant Southeast Asian empires, including the Medieval-Hindu Majapahit empire
(13th to 16th century), the Mataram kingdoms (16th to 17th century), the colonial center of the
Dutch East Indies, and the capital of the modern-day Indonesia, Jakarta.14 Hindu missionaries
from India landed in Java between 400 and 500 CE, introducing a concept of divine rule that
identified the monarchs as descendants of the gods whose primary responsibility was to preserve
cosmic order by reflecting it in their leadership and administrative style.15 Around 1000 CE, the
Indian Buddhist ideas arrived in Java by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and
India. Over time, the influences of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Javanese animistic practices were
blended into a uniquely Javanese religion and lifestyle, most notably reflected through the
Javanese versions of the Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, where new Javanese
characters were added throughout the stories. By 1300 CE, Islam was brought into the island by
Muslim traders who were more inclined to do business with residents who also practiced the
Islamic faith.16
Over the span of the next 300 years, Islam gradually permeated various regions of Java.
By the year 1600 CE, an Islamic kingdom known as Mataram ascended to prominence,
14 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 43–45.
15 Ibid.
16 Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia.”; Spiller and Spiller, Focus.
44
ultimately overthrowing its predecessor, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, and compelling Hindu
monarchs and aristocrats into exile on Bali. Legend, supported by historical documentation,
suggests that a select group of charismatic Javanese figures, referred to as wali sanga (nine
saints), played a pivotal role in establishing Java as an Islamic state.17 These individuals
succeeded in their missionary endeavors by skillfully introducing Islamic teachings in ways that
resonated with and were easily embraced by local communities. They adeptly integrated Islamic
concepts into the existing sociopolitical framework inherited from the Hindu-Javanese
kingdoms, notably encouraging rulers to adopt Islamic royal titles like sultan while upholding
their traditional role as custodians of cosmic order.18 Over time, they established powerful
Islamic domains in Northern Java, which eventually supplanted the Majapahit kingdom. It was
crucial for the leaders of these new Islamic realms to legitimize their rule in a manner that
resonated with their subjects and maintained continuity with the past.19 Thus, they appropriated
existing symbols of divine right to rule, including gamelan.
While direct evidence is lacking, folklore among the Cirebon people of the northern coast
of Java suggests that the nine saints were instrumental in the creation of gamelan ensembles,
among other traditional art forms. Consequently, gamelan and various other traditional arts in
Java became closely associated with Islamic teachings and concepts, despite their roots in the
pre-Islamic era. According to Javanese lore, the nine saints acquired three sets of heirloom
gamelan instruments from the rulers of Majapahit to confer divine legitimacy upon the Islamic
conquerors of the north coast.20 Conversely, Yogyakarta gamelan expert and writer Wasisto
Surjodiningrat (n.d.) believes that the nine saints crafted new sets of gamelan inspired by the
17 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 47.
18 Ibid.
19 Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia.”
20 Ibid.
45
Majapahit models.21 Regardless of the actual sequence of events, both narratives underscore
gamelan's significance as symbols of historical legitimacy and continuity, highlighting its pivotal
role in facilitating the smooth transition of authority to the new Islamic rulers.
Over time, the Islamic rulers in Java established a wide array of rituals and traditions of
utilizing the heirloom gamelan in significant ceremonies and festivals, including the birthday of
the Prophet Muhammad, also known as Sekaten or Garebeg Maulud.
22 In Cirebon, a port city on
the northern coast of Java, the Sekaten festival involves the ceremonial washing of all heirloom
items, including the gamelan instruments, followed by their public performance, attracting a
diverse audience of palace residents, guests, and civilians.23 At the Kasepuhan palace, the oldest
royal palace in Cirebon, gamelan sekaten is reserved for two other major Islamic festivities: Eid
al-Fitr, marking the end of Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha, commemorating the willingness of
Prophet Ibrahim to sacrifice his son Isma’il.24 Unlike the Sekaten festival at the Kanoman palace,
these occasions at Kasepuhan are exclusive to the royal families and invited guests. Today,
irrespective of their playing style, these ancestral gamelans are widely referred to as gamelan
sekaten, and the community of Cirebon views this style as the most Islamic form of gamelan.25
21 Surjodiningrat, Gamelan, Dance, and Wayang in Jogjakarta.
22 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 58.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid., 59.
25 Endo Suanda, “Dancing in Cirebonese Topèng,” Balungan 3, no. 3 (1988): 687.
46
Figure 2.3: People carrying gunungan, a traditional food offering for the Sekaten celebration.
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by Kembangraps.
Beyond its Islamic associations, gamelan sekaten holds significance as a marker of royal
legitimacy and historical continuity. As the Cirebon kingdom underwent fragmentation over
time, splitting into several smaller palaces, the heirloom gamelan instruments played a crucial
role. Whenever such splits occurred, a portion of the original gamelan sekaten ensemble would
be retained by the original palace, while the new palace would craft additional instruments to
complement the heirloom gamelan instruments they received, forming a new set. For instance, in
1677, during the first split of Cirebon resulting in the establishment of Kasepuhan (the elder) and
Kanoman (the younger) palaces, the original gamelan sekaten set was divided between them.26
26 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 373.
47
The bonang (raised knobbed gongs) and saron (metallophones) were housed at the Kasepuhan
palace, while the large hanging gongs were located at the Kanoman palace.27
The deep symbolic significance inherent in gamelan sekaten heavily influences both
performers and audience members in their assessment of the ensemble's musical aesthetic. In
Spiller’s research, he discovered that when these heirloom instruments are played, royal rulers
and civilians alike are more interested in the historical narrative and symbolic power they
embody. However, this emphasis on historical symbolism does not mean that the musical value
of gamelan sekaten is neglected. Rather, its timbre and intonation, even if it is out of tune by
Western standards, are respected for their connection to the past and treated with utmost
reverence. Consequently, the creation of new compositions for gamelan sekaten is a rare
occurrence, as the music’s significance lies not in innovation and virtuosic techniques, but rather
in its embodiment of sociopolitical values and the ceremonial act of performance. Similarly, the
tuning of these instruments is not prioritized, as the act of tuning, typically involving forceful
manipulation of the instrument's exterior and interior, is perceived to potentially diminish their
symbolic potency. Musicians would only stop using these instruments when the instruments
faced imminent deterioration, occasionally resorting to the substitution of newer instruments for
important performances. In contemporary times, where the appreciation of music often centers
around its ability to cater to individual aesthetic preferences rather than adherence to tradition,
gamelan sekaten maintains its revered status as a historically significant artifact. Most notably,
the people of Cirebon persist in associating this cultural and artistic legacy with the Islamic nine
saints. Although the concept of monarchy and the cosmic context surrounding gamelan sekaten
may have faded over time, it continues to represent a vital cultural heritage. More importantly,
27 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 58.
48
from an ethnomusicological perspective, its musical structure, principles, and instrumentation
embody the quintessential characteristics of a gamelan ensemble, offering an analytical
foundation for exploring other subcategories within the gamelan tradition.28
From an instrumentation perspective, gamelan sekaten embodies the quintessential
elements of a "generic" gamelan ensemble, showcasing a simplified and streamlined version
characteristic of traditional and modern ensembles alike. A typical "generic" gamelan ensemble
comprises three primary groups of instruments: gong chimes, metallophones, and untuned
membranophones.29 These instruments serve distinct musical roles, including providing a
rhythmic foundation (colotomic foundation), presenting simplified or abstracted melodies,
elaborating or varying melodies, and contributing drum patterns. This orchestration creates
stratified rhythmic and melodic layers, which are defining features of gamelan music. Gamelan
sekaten adheres closely to this template, featuring the following instrumentation:
1. Gongs chimes
a. two gongs (large hanging gongs used for marking phrases)
b. one bonang (large, higher-pitched, one-row gong chime playing elaborated or
varied melodies)
c. one ketuk or kajar (a small horizontal gong playing the role of timekeeper)
2. Metallophones
a. One demung (a lower-pitched metallophone playing abstracted or simplified
melodies)
b. One titil (a higher-pitched metallophone playing elaborated or varied melodies)
28 Ibid., 58–59; Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia”; David Harnish and Anne Rasmussen, Divine
Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia, 1st ed. (United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2011),
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195385410.001.0001.
29 Hood, The Evolution of Javanese Gamelan.
49
Membranophone
c. One bedug (a large drum playing an irregular but “configurative” drum pattern to
shape a musical phrase into different sections; providing a sense of musical
direction.30)
Figure 2.4: Gamelan sekaten instruments.
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photos by Anton Thohari.
30 Judith Becker, “Percussive Patterns in the Music of Mainland Southeast Asia,” Ethnomusicology 12, no. 2 (1968):
180, https://doi.org/10.2307/849928.
50
When these instruments play together, the interlocking motifs and distinctive timbre from
each instrument create an intricate web of polyphony that ethnomusicologists often refer to as
colotomy or colotomic form. The term "colotomy" originates from the Greek word kolotomía,
which is derived from kólon meaning "limb" or "part," and tomḗ, meaning "cut" or "section." It
refers to a hierarchical system of rhythmic organization that divides musical compositions into
distinct cycles or sections based on a recurring series of strokes played by specific instruments
known as colotomies. This interlocking rhythmic structure is one of the quintessential qualities
of gamelan music, particularly in Javanese, Balinese, and Malay gamelans. Typically, colotomies
consist of gongs or other percussion instruments and are spaced at regular intervals within the
rhythmic framework of the piece. For example, when lagu sekaten (the sekaten song) is
performed on gamelan sekaten , the gong plays every thirty-two beats, and this large chunk of
time is broken down into smaller periods by the lower-pitched demung playing the pokok, the
skeleton of the melody.31 To further facilitate the musicians to keep track of time, the small,
high-pitched kethuk with fast decay will mark off even smaller units of time. Together, these
colotomies weave a rhythmic foundation for the ensemble, guiding performers and listeners alike
through the progression of the music. It also serves as a means of communication among
musicians, ensuring synchronization within the ensemble.
Against the backdrop of the colotomic structure, each remaining instrument
simultaneously contributes a variation of the melody, resulting in a complex interlocking of
melodic parts. This practice of simultaneous melodic variation is not unique to gamelan sekaten;
it is a fundamental characteristic shared across various genres of gamelan music, both traditional
and modern. Typically, lower-pitched tuned instruments play a simplified version of the melody,
31 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 57.
51
known as balungan in Javanese gamelan. This melodic outline includes only the essential notes,
serving as a framework for higher-pitched and faster-moving instruments. However, various
gamelan styles prioritize distinct elements of the melody. For instance, in Javanese tradition,
emphasis is placed on beats four and two within the balungan.
32 Conversely, contemporary
Malay gamelan groups prioritize beat one, influenced by Western preferences favoring the
downbeat. In the context of gamelan sekaten, the lower-pitched demung is tasked with playing
the melodic skeleton, while the higher-pitched and smaller-sized bonang and titil, plays the
melody ornamented with additional notes while maintaining the core melodic contour. Although
this simplified overview of simultaneous melodic variation within gamelan sekaten overlooks
more intricate techniques like the kotekan (interlocking) method in Balinese gamelan, it serves as
a foundational understanding of how melodies are structured and performed in gamelan music.
The only element where gamelan sekaten differs slightly from other subcategories of
gamelan ensemble is the musical role it assigned to the bedug, a large drum. Unlike the drums in
a wide array of gamelan ensembles, whose primary musical role is to provide rhythmic patterns
and accents while coordinating all the rhythmic activity, the bedug in gamelan sekaten serves as
a ceremonial and signaling instrument. By virtue of its large size, its deep, resonant tone
punctuates key moments in the music, dividing a long musical phrase into the start, middle, and
conclusion. Typically, the bedug plays a fast rhythmic pattern toward the end of a musical phrase
to lead the music to the final gong stroke. American gamelan ethnomusicologist, Judith Becker
describes this drumming pattern as configurative because of its role in creating a sense of
musical direction.33 In this case, the role bedug plays in gamelan sekaten is more reminiscent of
the role of the large hanging gongs, whose role is to mark the beginning, transitions, and ending
32 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 359.
33 Becker, “Percussive Patterns in the Music of Mainland Southeast Asia,” 180.
52
of a musical performance rather than the role of timekeeping (which is performed by the kethuk
in gamelan sekaten) and “conducting” the ensemble with highly rhythmic aural signals.
The integration of colotomy and simultaneous melodic variation in gamelan sekate
creates a layered musical texture, offering insight into the social structure of traditional
Malaysian and Indonesian communities. Comparable to early kingdoms worldwide, societies
across the Malay Archipelago were historically segmented into distinct strata, with social order
contingent upon each class fulfilling its designated roles and preserving its status. For example,
during the Malaccan kingdom located in contemporary Malaysia, which lasted from
approximately 1400 to 1511, there existed bangsawan and keturunan diraja (nobility and
aristocracy), pegawai and birokrat (officials and bureaucrats), pedagang (merchants and traders),
rakyat (commoners and laborers), and hamba and khidmat (slaves and servants). From an
ethnomusicologist's viewpoint, the stratified musical texture of gamelan sekaten, and by
extension, other gamelan subcategories, mirrors the social organization of these traditional
Indonesian and Malaysian societies.
Raden Mas Adjeng Chakrahadikusuma (1909-1992), an Indonesian royal and cultural
figure conceptualizes gamelan in terms of a bureaucratic model where the rebab (a bowed string
instrument leading the musical transitions in Javanese gamelan) is viewed as the king; the king
gives executive power to the gendhang (a drum; the prime minister); the gong agung (the large
hanging group) as the chief justice; and the rest of the instruments as the subjects of these rulers,
where social order is maintained by each group performing their duties.34 Applying the notion of
king and cosmic order, the rulers (the colotomic structure and skeletal melodies) would be seen
as the central star of which the society (the elaborated melodies) revolves. Therefore, during the
34 Nagtegaal, Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680-1743.
53
Medieval-Hindu Majapahit kingdom, these rulers would be regarded as gods, and in Islamized
Java, the kalipatulah (God’s representative on the earth).35
Additionally, with its symbolic socio-political potency, gamelan music conditions both
players and audiences to accept social stratification as customary. When this symbol of privilege
is further reinforced by restricted access—such as during Islamic festivities at Kasepuhan, where
gamelan sekaten performances were once exclusive to royals and guests—gamelan serves as a
potent tool for reaffirming the concept of a stratified social hierarchy. As societal norms
regarding social strata transformed, rulers and gamelan musicians endeavored to reconcile these
archaic concepts with newer ideas, developing new styles of gamelan to fill new niches and
perform new functions. Nonetheless, irrespective of gamelan's evolution, its constant evolution
reaffirmed its symbolic significance in maintaining continuity with the past.
Central Javanese Court-Style Gamelan
If gamelan sekaten is a good starting point to study the structure of a “generic” gamelan,
then the Central Javanese court-style gamelan is a gateway to understanding the evolution of
gamelan ensemble. Like the Islamic rulers in Cirebon who would develop new sets of gamelan
based on the original heirloom gamelan sekaten to establish their legitimacy to rule, royal
families in Central Java did just the same, except that they did it significantly more extensively.
The reason for this is simple: the rulers from the four main palaces in Central Java are
significantly wealthier.36 Oftentimes, they would compete by showing off their wealth through
their development and patronage of the arts. For example, during American artist, dance, and
photographer Hubert Stowitts’ (1892-1953) stay in various Central Javanese palaces from 1927
35 Ibid.
36 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 87.
54
to 1928, Stowitts noticed that these rulers would put on lavish musical productions to see who
could produce the most impressive show.37 Stowitts noted that these rulers would even go to the
great length of training their successors to be generous patrons of the arts. Naturally, given the
sociopolitical status of gamelan, gamelan was one of the artistic endeavors that these Central
Javanese rulers invested heavily in because developing and refining gamelan music would
enhance the status of these instruments, and by extension, the power of these royal households.
One of the most notable advancements made by the Central Javanese palaces to gamelan
sekaten was the incorporation of a soft-sounding ensemble alongside the original loud-sounding
components. The loud section comprised the three main instrumental groups: drums, gong
chimes, and metallophones, while the soft ensemble included instruments such as the rebab
(bowed two-string instrument), suling (bamboo flute), gambang (wooden xylophone), celempung
(plucked zither), gender (soft-sounding metallophone unique to Central Javanese gamelan), and
notably, pesindhen (treble soloists) and penggerong (tenor-and-bass chorus). According to
Kunst’s writings, the addition of the soft-sounding ensemble was an innovation that happened
around the 16th century.38 Although precise details regarding this evolution require further
evidence, scholars, in general, suggest that the addition of the softer ensemble rendered the
performance suitable for indoor settings.
The inclusion of vocals introduced a new element to gamelan performances: storytelling.
The pesindhen and penggerong typically sing words drawn from two renowned Javanese poetic
forms: pangkur and salisir.
39 Almost always, these poetic texts adhere to strict guidelines
regarding the number of lines and syllables per line, similar to the Malaysian poetic form known
37 Hubert Stowitts, “The Key to the Culture of Java” (unpublished manuscript, n.d.).
38 Kunst, Music in Java. Its History, Its Theory and Its Technique.
39 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 84–85.
55
as pantun. Since the texts often contain the same number of lines and syllables per line, poems
can be interchanged easily to fit into different gamelan music. The interchangeability of poems
enhanced the accessibility of gamelan performances to the audience, particularly for everyday
entertainment, while also enriching the storytelling aspect of the music. Furthermore, since
traditional Javanese poetry is usually sung rather than recited, these poetic texts became a natural
fit for gamelan instrumental music.40 From the perspectives of the royals, layering lyrical, linear
musical materials, such as vocal music and poetic texts, to the relatively more rigid colotomic
structure that mirrors the Hindu-Javanese concept of the cosmos, celebrates the enduring power
of the rulers and aristocrats and the persistence of ancient ideals in the everchanging society.41
Therefore, aided by support from the palaces, the addition of vocals to gamelan music eventually
became one of the hallmarks of Javanese gamelan music.
In court-style Central Javanese gamelan, alongside the addition of a full ensemble of softsounding instruments, a bigger drum section is featured. For example, in court-style Central
Javanese gamelan, the kendhang section includes kendhang gendhing (large drum), ketipung
(small higher-pitched drum). Outside royal palaces, other forms of Javanese gamelan would also
include ciblon or batangan (medium-sized drum) in their kendhang section, adding a wider range
of drum timbres to the performance.42 In gamelan sekaten, the bedug’s deep timbre, akin to that
of large hanging gongs, is utilized to mark the end of phrases and segment long musical pieces
into larger sections. In contrast, the kendhang family plays a more active leadership role in the
ensemble, similar to a conductor in Western music, but communicates through aural signals.
40 Ibid., 84.
41 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:115–38.
42 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 86.
56
These aural cues, whether subtle, consistent alterations or unobtrusive changes, indicate tempo
adjustments to the players, facilitating transitions into new musical sections.
The development of court-style Javanese gamelan serves as a microcosm reflecting the
broader evolution of gamelan music, embodying the layers of influence that define Javanese
society across different times. Originating from the competitive landscape among wealthy
monarchs in Central Java, court-style gamelan underwent extensive evolution, marked by
important innovations such as the incorporation of vocals, expansion of the drum section, and
addition of soft-sounding instruments. These developments are testaments to the dynamic nature
of gamelan music, showcasing its ability to adapt while preserving ancient traditions within an
ever-changing society. It is important to acknowledge that this discussion is limited to the lens of
court-style Javanese gamelan, providing an overview of its significance. Detailed performance
practices encompassing Javanese gamelan will be thoroughly explored in the upcoming chapter.
Bali
Just as gamelan sekaten offers a foundational insight into gamelan and court-style
Javanese gamelan provides a glimpse into its development, Balinese gamelan serves as a
microcosm illustrating what gamelan might have been like had Islam not reached Indonesia and
Malaysia. Even to untrained ears, the timbre and musical structure of Balinese gamelan can be
differentiated easily as compared to its Javanese counterpart. This again is a distinction that
comes from a different sociopolitical circumstance. Geographically, Bali is a neighboring island
located east of Java. Given the close proximity, early Balinese culture was heavily influenced by
Javanese, especially during the powerful Hindu-Medieval Majapahit kingdom (ca. 1300-1400)
whose administrative center was located in Java. Around the 1500s, as Islam was gradually
introduced to Java, many of these Javanese Hindu rulers, priests, noblemen, and aristocrats fled
57
to Bali. From this period until the Dutch colonization era, the Balinese royal courts were the
drivers of musical activities and the primary patron of the arts, thus playing the role of setting the
standards for the arts, ranging from court music to village gamelan.
From the 1500s to the 1900s, Balinese gamelan encompassed two primary subcategories:
gong luang and gamelan gambuh.
43 Gong luang, an early Balinese gamelan similar to the preIslamic gamelan sekaten, was the predominant subcategory on the island. Although the number
of instruments within the three major instrumental groups varied from gamelan sekaten, no new
musical instruments were introduced. Gamelan gambuh emerged later, believed to be influenced
by the court-style Central Javanese gamelan developed around the 1600s.44 It incorporated suling
gambuh (large bamboo flutes) and rebab, complementing the existing "generic" gamelan
instruments such as gongs, drums, and metallophones. Unlike its Javanese counterpart, gamelan
gambuh remained strictly instrumental, without the incorporation of vocalists such as pesindhen
and penggerong. A contemporary of gamelan gambuh was the expansive gong gede ensemble,
characterized by its extensive instrumentation and large instrument sizes, often requiring up to 50
players for performance. Unlike previous ensembles, such as gamelan sekaten, court-style
Javanese gamelan, gong luang, and gamelan gambuh, gong gede transcended court and village
performances to become integral to temple rituals and ceremonies. This playing style laid the
groundwork for the renowned 20th-century Balinese gamelan: gamelan gong kebyar.
The arrival of the Dutch in Bali in the early 1900s immediately impeded the musical
development in Bali. While the royals maintained their title, their court revenue was reduced
significantly and that impacted the courts’ ability to continue their patronage of the arts,
especially for court gamelans. As with the Javanese, Balinese royals and people have deep
43 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 2.
44 Ibid., 7.
58
reverence for gamelan music. Unfortunately, following colonization, these heirloom Balinese
gamelan sets were sold or pawned.45 With the decline of the court, so did the symbolism
associated with gamelan. Consequently, many of these instruments were kept in storage. In some
extreme cases, melted and reforged into other instruments or even bullets for the Japanese during
their World War II occupation of Indonesia.46 In some fortunate cases, they were given to
Balinese villagers, allowing these instruments to continue to develop within the protection and
appreciation of the native communities.
Initially, transferring court gamelan was seen as a humiliation by Balinese rulers. Given
the deeply rooted culture of communal cooperation in Balinese society and recognizing the
cultural significance of these heirloom court instruments, Balinese villagers organized
neighborhood associations called banjar to preserve and maintain these instruments.47 Over time,
under the stewardship of villagers, these former court gamelan sets transformed into one of
Indonesia's most significant musical legacies: gamelan gong kebyar, commonly known as gong
kebyar. The term "kebyar" translates to "flare" or "open up," illustrating the ensemble's dynamic
and rhythmic playing style. To accommodate the incredibly fast and virtuosic rhythms, various
new playing techniques emerged, including the kotekan (interlocking) technique, where an
impossibly fast musical passage is divided between two players on the same instrument, making
each interlocking part more manageable and less physically demanding.48 This technique
eventually became one of the hallmarks of Balinese gamelan music. As with many other postgamelan sekaten ensembles, gong kebyar incorporated soft-sounding instruments and expanded
45 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 381.
46 Ibid.
47 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 95–96.
48 Wayne Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music,” American Gamelan Institute,
Balungan, 4, no. 2 (1990).
59
the variety within each instrumental group, showcasing the ongoing evolution of gamelan music.
However, vocalists remain absent from the Balinese gong kebyar subcategory, highlighting the
unique incorporation of vocalists and sung texts as a distinctive feature in Javanese gamelan
music. Once again, the development of gong kebyar underscores how newer subcategories of
gamelan draw from their predecessors in terms of musical structure and instrumentation,
reflecting societal changes that happen around this century-old ensemble.
Gamelan and the Western World
The Western world’s early interest in gamelan music can find its roots in the Dutch
colonial presence across Malaysia and Indonesia. The Dutch first arrived in the Malay
Archipelago towards the end of the 16th century. Following an extensive military campaign, they
successfully wrested control of Malacca from the Portuguese in 1641, initiating a period of
Dutch rule that lasted 183 years in present-day Malaysia. Despite their extended presence in
Malaysia, the Dutch administration's primary focus lay on exploiting the economic prospects and
strategic advantages offered by the vast territory of Indonesia.49 With Malacca secured, the
Dutch gradually extended their political sway southward, eventually gaining dominion over
Indonesia by 1796 through the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC). During this period, Java was
the center of Dutch political and administrative affairs, naturally leading Dutch and other
European observers to take notice of one of Java's most significant musical forms: the Javanese
gamelan.
Javanese gamelan’s early interactions with Europeans yielded diverse reactions, ranging
from strange, unpleasant, fascination, and an expectation of exoticism. Gamelan’s earliest
documented contacts with the West happened between Javanese natives and European traders
49 Thomas Stamford Raffles, The History of Java, 1817.
60
during the Mataram kingdom around the 17th century. During this period, early visitors such as
German explorer Christoph Frick (n.d.) found the timbre of gamelan music unpleasant,
describing the music to be “making a mighty noise with some little Bells”50 a sentiment share by
British explorer Francis Drake (1540-1596) in the south coast of Java in 1580, who perceived the
music as “strange.”51
In another description, British writer on geography and exploration John
Barrow (1764-1848) referred to the instruments as “drums and squalling flutes.”52 Others held a
relatively indifferent attitude to gamelan. In 1795, Charles Thunberg (n.d.) described the music
as “not a bad effect a small distance.”53 Some artifacts from the first Dutch ship to sail to the
Malay Archipelago in the late 16th century included Johann Theodor de Bry’s (1528-1598)
drawing of gamelan performances and dancers (see Figure 3.4).54 These varied reactions,
50 Christoph Frick, Christoph. Schweitzer, and C. Ernest (Charles Ernest) Fayle, Voyages to the East Indies, The
Seafarers’ Library (London: Cassell, 1929), 141.
51 Maria Emma Mendonca, “Javanese Gamelan in Britain: Communitas, Affinity and Other Stories” (ProQuest
Dissertations Publishing, 2002).
52 John Barrow, A Voyage to Cochinchina, in the Years 1792 and 1793: Containing a General View of the Valuable
Productions and the Political Importance of This Flourishing Kingdom, Cambridge Library Collection - Travel and
Exploration in Asia (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 223, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316163320.
53 Carl Thunberg, Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, Made between the Years 1770 and 1779. In Four Volumes. ...
The Second Edition. By Charles Peter Thunberg, M.D. Knight of the Order of Vasz, Professor of Botany in the
University of Upsal, and Member of Various Academies and Learned Societies Both in Sweden and Other Countries
(London: printed for F. and C. Rivington, No. 62, St. Paul’s Church-yard; and sold by W. Richardson, Cornhill,
1795), 308.
54
61
spanning from indifference to negativity, highlight the differing cultural and musical
perspectives between the Western and Eastern traditions.
Figure 2.5: Johann Theodor de Bry's drawing of Javanese Dancers accompanied by gamelan music.
Source: Image permission granted by https://wellcomecollection.org. Original drawing and engraving by Johann
Theodor de Bry.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the Dutch relinquished Java to the British in 1811.
This marked the beginning of Europeans’ relative positive interest in the exoticism of gamelan
music. Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826), a prominent British colonial administrator in both
Malaysia and Indonesia during the 19th century, played a pivotal role in introducing gamelan to
Western audiences.55 In Indonesia, Raffles is best known for his role as the Lieutenant Governor
of Java (1811-1816) during the British occupation of the Dutch East Indies. At the end of his
55 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West.
62
term, he returned to England with a large collection of items, including two sets of gamelan.56
These two sets of Javanese gamelan later became the subject of musical studies by various
European composers and scholars. In his The History of Java (1817), a two-volume work on the
many aspects of Javanese life, Raffles extensively discussed Javanese arts and culture, including
providing a detailed account of European composers' reactions to a gamelan performance he
hosted at his home in England:
Ráden Rána Dipúra, a native of Java, who accompanied me to England, played on this
instrument several of his national melodies before an eminent composer, all of which
were found to bear a strong resemblance to the oldest music of Scotland, the distinctive
character of both, as well as of Indian music in general, being determined by the want of
the fourth and seventh of the key, and of all the semitones. By reiteration several of the
sounds are artfully prolonged much beyond their noted length, which produces an
irregularity of measure that might both perplex and offend the educated ear of an
accompanying timeist. The rhythm of the sections (from extention and contraction)
appears very imperfect.57
In 1828, English scientist and inventor Charles Wheatstone (1802-1875), who is known
for inventing the concertina, an English musical instrument, included a sketch (see Figure 3.6) of
the gender instrument he saw from Raffles’ gamelan and shared his findings on the tuning
system of this instrument.58 He wrote, “Of these plates there are eleven; their sounds correspond
with the notes of the diatonic scale, deprived of its fourth and seventh, and extend through two
octaves.”59 Wheatstone’s description and analysis of this particular gender instrument is also
supported by Baron Christian Bunsen (1791-1860), Minister Plenipotentiary of the King of
Prussia, who was quoted saying “[the] instruments of music have no quart or septima, but
otherwise our scale.”60 In 1885, British early phonetician and pioneer in the study of vowel
56 Ibid., 3:78.
57 Raffles, The History of Java, 579.
58 Charles Wheatstone, “On the Resonance, or Reciprocated Vibrations of Columns of Air,” The Quarterly Journal
of Science, Literature, and Arts, no. January to June 1828 (1828): 179.
59 Ibid., 178.
60 Quigley, “The Raffles Gamelan at Claydon House,” 17.
63
sounds Alexander Ellis (1814-1890) also wrote about the pelog and slendro scales of these two
sets of gamelan in his article entitled On the Musical Scales of Various Nations (1885) after
examining the gamelan sets while they were on display at the Royal Albert Hall.61 Although the
depth of Raffles' interest in gamelan music remains unclear, it is evident that the introduction of
these two sets of Javanese gamelan marked the beginning of European scholarly studies of
gamelan music. Presently, one of these two gamelan sets is exhibited at the British Museum,
while the other remains at Claydon House, where Raffles initially kept the gamelan sets upon his
return to Britain.62
Figure 2.6: A drawing by an unknown artist from Charles Wheatstone's journal article titled “On the Resonance, or
Reciprocated Vibrations of Columns of Air”
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by Mainz B. Schott Söhne.
61 Alexander Ellis, “Musical Scales of Various Nations1,” Nature 31, no. 804 (March 1, 1885): 488–90,
https://doi.org/10.1038/031488a0.
62 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:79.
64
The Raffles gamelan also plays an important role in examining the early process of
Westernization within gamelan culture. As previously mentioned, one of the sets is currently
exhibited at the British Museum. In Sumarsam’s research, he finds that the set reveals four
significant deviations from traditional Javanese gamelan instruments of the same era.63 Firstly,
these instruments are notably larger compared to the average Javanese counterparts. Secondly,
they are decorated with unusually intricate and opulent carvings and gildings, featuring motifs
like dragons and peacocks, uncommon during that period. Given Java's predominantly Islamic
culture, such zoomorphic designs contradict the Islamic principle of tawhid, which prohibits
representations of living beings to prevent idolatry.64 Thirdly, both sets feature much smaller
instrumentations than the usual Javanese gamelan. Lastly, some instruments from this set are
tuned to the Western diatonic scale, suggesting a fusion of musical traditions. Though the cause
remains uncertain, these deviations from the “standard” Javanese gamelan set align with a
popular hypothesis proposed by American gamelan scholar, Sam Quigley (n.d.).:
It is quite possible that he specified indigenous decorative vocabulary, which appealed to
his European taste; he may even have suggested some Westernizing alterations and then
left it up to the artisans to incorporate his ideas. Among the traditional motifs he could
have easily stipulated are: the intersecting flower-petal grillwork (common to many batik
designs) and the upholstery-like decorative beading on all the instruments, the undulating
C scrolls, and spiral-fluted precious treatment of the finial at the end of both the gong
stand and the gendèr key holders. The care with which the decoration was planned as an
integral part of each case piece and the quality of its execution are stunning. The carved
decoration is restrained but opulent; its gilding has great depth and complements the deep
ochre- painted ground. The heavily patinated bronze keys silently convey the great age of
the set, while the superb condition of the teakwood (Tectonis grandis) cases leads one to
wonder how much, if ever, the gamelan had been used before it was brought to the more
temperate climate of Great Britain.65
63 Ibid., 3:78–82.
64 Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia.”
65 Quigley, “The Raffles Gamelan at Claydon House,” 13–14.
65
Toward the end of the 19th century, gamelan began to make appearances in early World’s
Fairs and Expositions.66 During this time, these events are equivalent to today’s Olympic Games,
where nationalism and cultures are displayed on a global scale. Paired with the Western ruling
powers’ fascination with the exotic sounds from their colonies and colonialists’ desire to
showcase their cultural capital, gamelan was frequently employed to showcase arts and culture
from the Malay Archipelago. Participants at these early World’s Fairs are often interested “to
show the evolution of humankind from a so-called primitive stage to the modern world.”67
Therefore, gamelan of all subcategories was often scripted, fetishized, and appropriated to show
off the “high culture” and best side of the region. Therefore, it is unsurprising that court-style
Javanese gamelan and Balinese gamelan, known for their exceptionally fast rhythms, were
frequently featured at these events. For instance, at the 1882 World's Fair in England, a Javanese
gamelan from the court city of Yogyakarta was featured in daily performances at the Royal
Aquarium in Westminster, England.68 Gamelan music made significant inroads into the Western
consciousness through early World’s Fairs. At the 1889 Paris Exposition, French composer
Claude Debussy (1862-1918) was exposed to gamelan music, while Olivier Messiaen (1908-
1992) encountered Balinese gamelan at the 1931 International Colonial Exposition in Bois de
Vincennes.69 Both composers were deeply influenced by these encounters, with Messiaen
incorporating Balinese gamelan influences into his Turangalîla Symphony (1946-1948).70
66 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:82.
67 Ibid., 3:83.
68 Ibid., 3:88.
69 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 102–4.
70 William C. Bradbury II, “Volume I. ‘Huracan’ for Wind Ensemble. [Original Composition] and Volume II.
Messiaen and Gamelan: An Analysis of Gamelan in the ‘Turangalila-Symphonie,’” ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses (D.M.A., United States -- New York, Cornell University, 1991), ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global;
ProQuest One Academic (303942244), http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertationstheses/volume-i-huracan-wind-ensemble-original/docview/303942244/se-2?accountid=14749.
66
The quest to identify the precise compositional elements in gamelan music that may have
inspired Debussy remains a topic of ongoing debate among musicians. Some suggest that
Debussy was drawn to the distinct blocks of sound in gamelan, which diverged from traditional
harmonic progressions and linear melodies, while others propose that the cultural and social
significance of gamelan resonated with the composer's worldview.71 Regardless of the specific
allure for Debussy, his contemporaries, and Western audiences alike, it is evident that exposure
to gamelan music at international events significantly enhanced its recognition in the West. This
exposure transformed gamelan from an exotic curiosity into a prominent subject of study across
various academic fields, including ethnomusicology, cultural anthropology, and performance
studies, especially in the Western world after World War II.
Following World War II, music scholars from Europe and North America started to take an
interest in the ethnomusicological study of gamelan. Dutch scholar-official and inventor of the
term “ethnomusicology” Jaap Kunst, was one of the earliest advocates for gamelan studies.72
Kunst first arrived in Indonesia in 1919 as a violinist, performing throughout the country with his
trio. Upon his arrival, he was fascinated by the Central Javanese gamelan. The pianist and singer
from Kunst trio returned to the Netherlands but he stayed in the archipelago for another fifteen
years to study gamelan while working as an official of the Dutch colonial government. During
his time in Indonesia, and especially in Java, he studied with many important gamelan experts,
culminating in the publication of his most important book, De Toonkunst van Java (Music in
Java; 1934). This book soon became one of the most important literary works in introducing
71 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 102.
72 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:108.
67
gamelan music and non-Western music to the West, contributing to the development of the field
of non-Western music studies.73
Upon Kunst’s return to the Netherlands, he quickly emerged as one of the pioneering
figures in the interdisciplinary field of ethnomusicology. Throughout his work in
ethnomusicology, Kunst frequently referenced gamelan and his experience with Javanese music.
At the same time, in the mid-19th century, the Dutch colonial government and wealthy collectors
imported multiple sets of gamelan instruments to Europe. In 1946, Bernard Ijzerdraat Jr. (n.d.), a
war orphan under Kunst's care, founded the first all-Dutch gamelan group, Babar Layar.
Ijzerdraat's fascination with gamelan sparked after attending one of Kunst's organized
performances.74 Babar Layar was subsequently showcased regularly at the Tropen Museum in
the Netherlands and across Europe, effectively introducing and popularizing gamelan music to
Western audiences. However, the ensemble disbanded in 1954 when Ijzerdraat left for Indonesia,
where he later became one of the most influential experts in Indonesian music.
Across the continent, in the United States, Mantle Hood was a pioneering
ethnomusicologist whose work significantly contributed to introducing and promoting gamelan
music in North America. As with Ijzerdraat, Hood’s fascination with gamelan also started with
Kunst. In 1952, he moved from the United States to Amsterdam to study under Kunst, and later
joined Ijzerdraat’s Babar Layar gamelan ensemble. In the next six years, Hood traveled between
America and Indonesia to study with different Indonesian gamelan teachers. When he returned to
teach ethnomusicology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1958, he brought
with him a full set of Javanese gamelan named Kyai Mendhung (the venerable dark cloud). His
experience teaching ethnomusicology and gamelan music led him to come up with an important
73 Ibid.
74 Ibid., 3:109.
68
concept: bi-musicality.75 This concept advocates for Western musicians to acquire hands-on
experience of the music they study. Naturally, as he put his bi-musicality principle into practice,
he started to import more and more gamelan instruments for UCLA and invited Javanese
musicians to teach and guest lecture at the University. This marked the beginning of the
prevalence of gamelan studies in American higher education institutions. However, several other
logistical reasons further contributed to the popularity of gamelan studies in American
universities. As Henry Spiller (n.d.), Professor emeritus of music at the University of California,
Davis puts it,
They are visually stunning and aurally arresting, and so attract much attention; many of the
instruments are relatively easy to learn to play; and the ensembles accommodate fairly
large numbers of students. Because there are few Americans of Indonesian heritage, and
most Americans know very little about Indonesia, there is little change that ethnic identity
politics might mar the students’ innocent enjoyment of their gamelan music. At the
beginning of the twenty-first century, possessing a set of gamelan instruments is a
collegiate status symbol among American institutions of higher education.76
As highlighted by Spiller's sharing on gamelan, gamelan's distinctive musical and cultural
characteristics, coupled with its accessibility for learning and capacity to accommodate
numerous students, positioned it as an ideal non-Western musical ensemble for teaching
ethnomusicology in America. Spiller’s comment echoes the sentiments of ethnomusicologist
Ricardo Trimillos (b. 1947), who compares the inclusion of a gamelan program into a
comprehensive ethnomusicology curriculum in the United States to a landmark event, stating
that it is "as iconic as the establishment of a national airline in a 'proper' nation!"77
75 Ibid., 3:110.
76 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 104.
77 Ricardo D. Trimillos, “Subject, Object, and the Ethnomusicology Ensemble:,” in Performing Ethnomusicology,
ed. Ted Solís, 1st ed., Teaching and Representation in World Music Ensembles (University of California Press,
2004), 52, http://www.jstor.org.libproxy2.usc.edu/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pnqcf.5.
69
The accessibility of gamelan ensembles in Europe and the Americas since the second half
of the 20th century introduced a wide array of compositional styles and musical aesthetics to
Western composers. From the mid to late 20th century, composers and musicians such as Elaine
Barkin (b. 1932), Dennis Murphy (1934-2010), Henry Brant (1913-2008), Philip Corner (b.
1933), Daniel Goode (b. 1936), Colin McPhee (1900-1964), and Barbara Benary (b. 1946),
integrated gamelan techniques and compositional styles into their musical works, laying the
groundwork for subsequent instrumental and choral composers to draw inspiration from gamelan
in their compositions.78 James Tenney (1934-2006), an American composer of the late 20th
century, exemplifies the profound impact of gamelan's rhythmic patterns and tuning systems on
instrumental compositions. Tenney’s Road to Ubud (1986) was the first instrumental
composition ever written for the unique combination of gamelan and prepared piano. In this
composition, the prepared piano is tuned to a nine-tone equal temperament scale of which five
out of the nine notes in the scale would be played to create the iconic five-note pelog scale from
Javanese and Balinese gamelans.79 Richard Felciano (1930–2021) was another American
composer whose works were deeply influenced by gamelan music. Among his notable works is
In Celebration of Golden Rain (1977), a composition for gamelan and organ. In this piece,
Felciano skillfully employed the contrasting timbres and tunings of the organ and gamelan to
explore the dichotomy between Western and Eastern musical traditions, highlighting the
transformative potential when diverse cultures intersect. As articulated in the program notes,
Felciano described “the gamelan and the organ are in many ways complementary opposites
(East/West?), […] There is a sense of totality about each. The supposed conflict between tunings
78 Nathinee Chucherwatanasak, “Gamelan in North America” (University of Michigan Press, n.d.),
https://lsa.umich.edu/content/dam/cseas-assets/cseas-documents/Gamelan-in-North-America.pdf.
79 Robert Wannamaker, The Music of James Tenney (University of Illinois Press, 2021),
http://www.jstor.org.libproxy1.usc.edu/stable/10.5406/j.ctv23xmqrt.
70
seems to vanish if one views them as subject to the same acoustic laws[…].”80 The research,
musical compositions, and literary contributions of these composers and musicians have
significantly advanced the exploration of gamelan-influenced compositions spanning both
instrumental and choral genres.
The journey of gamelan music from its early encounters with European explorers to its
widespread influence on Western composers and scholars is a testament to the power of cultural
exchange and artistic innovation. From initial perceptions of strangeness and exoticism to deeper
scholarly explorations, gamelan's journey mirrors the ever-changing relationship between East
and West. As scholars like Jaap Kunst and Mantle Hood paved the way for ethnomusicological
studies, composers like Claude Debussy and Olivier Messiaen embraced gamelan's harmonic
languages, weaving them into Western compositions with transformative results. Through the
efforts of figures like Bernard Ijzerdraat Jr. and Henry Spiller, gamelan found a place in
American higher education, becoming a symbol of cultural diversity and artistic exploration. The
fusion of gamelan techniques with Western musical traditions, as seen in the works of composers
like James Tenney and Richard Felciano, continues to inspire new generations of musicians,
transcending boundaries and enriching the global musical landscape. In its ongoing evolution in
the modern day, gamelan continues to prove to be an extremely flexible platform for combining
old and new ideas.
Gamelan in Present-Day Indonesia
In parallel to its journey and influence in the Western world, gamelan continues to
transform locally in contemporary Indonesia, reflecting the dynamic interplay between tradition
and innovation in its native land. Just as it was appropriated abroad, gamelan was also
80 Richard Felciano, “In Celebration of Golden Rain,” Balungan 7 (2000): 148.
71
appropriated at home to serve the purpose of creating a unified Indonesian identity. Following
Indonesia's independence in 1945, the newly formed government promoted Bahasa Indonesia
(Indonesian language) as the national language. However, this same group of politicians and
nationalists could not come to a consensus on what to pick for the national music.81 Some
advocated for incorporating the best lagu daerah (regional music), while others championed
hybridized forms that combined Western forms with traditional Indonesian musical elements,
such as kroncong, a traditional Indonesian music genre that originated in the Portugueseinfluenced communities of Java in the late 19th century.82 Amidst this debate, court-style Central
Javanese gamelan, revered for its aristocratic associations, continued to receive significant
attention both at home and abroad, gradually becoming the de facto national music.
Despite the government's preference for showcasing Javanese gamelan at international
events and cultural celebrations, new gamelan ensemble subcategories and gamelan-inspired
music have emerged throughout the country. For instance, in Cirebon, a musical style called
tarling gained widespread popularity in the 1970s.83 As the name suggests, tarling ensembles
primarily feature guitar and suling as melodic instruments, accompanied by gamelan drums and
gong chime instruments. Essentially, this instrumentation mirrors that of the court-style Javanese
gamelan ensemble, albeit with the guitar and suling replacing the pesindhen (vocalist) and rebab
(two-string bowed instrument). Around the same time, in the late 1970s, dangdut was another
musical style that gained mainstream popularity in Indonesia, so much so that its popularity
spread to neighboring countries like Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei around the 1980s and
81 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:2.
82 Ibid., 3:1–3.
83 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 105.
72
1990s.84 Known for its lively rhythms, memorable melodies, and fusion of Indonesian, Indian,
and Arabic musical elements, dangdut differs from tarling with its distinctively less-gamelanlike sound. However, elements of gamelan can still be traced in dangdut, evident in the
occasional kendhang (drum) usage, synthesized gamelan instrument sounds, and the repetitive
motifs and ornamentation style reminiscent of gamelan music. Despite its perceived status as
"low-brow" music, Dangdut's immense popularity has elevated it to a status akin to informal
Indonesian national music.85 These innovations highlight Indonesian’s openness to combine the
ancient sounds of gamelan with newer, more Western-sounding musical styles. As Spiller noted
from his interactions with Indonesian musicians and audiences, “Many Indonesians see no
contradiction in continuing to cultivate musical styles with very different sounds.”86
Nevertheless, despite the constant evolution of gamelan music, some of the quintessential
musical qualities of gamelan, such as colotomic foundation, simultaneous melodic variation, and
drumming remain unchanged in many of these hybridized gamelan performances. This
phenomenon points at the importance of gamelan music as a traditional artistic heritage and
expressive form for many Indonesians. This is not to say, however, that gamelan music is
inflexible. Regional variation in gamelan music throughout the Malay Archipelago demonstrates
how gamelan performance practices are always adjusted to fit the music into new sociopolitical
and cultural contexts and the need to absorb new outside influences. This lays the groundwork
for 20th
-century choral composers to incorporate gamelan music into their choral works.
84 B. Barendregt, Sonic Modernities in the Malay World : A History of Popular Music, Social Distinction and Novel
Lifestyles (1930s – 2000s), vol. 290/5, Southeast Asia Mediated (Brill, 2014),
https://doi.org/10.26530/OAPEN_613356.; Andrew N Weintraub, Dangdut Stories: A Social and Musical History of
Indonesia’s Most Popular Music (Cary: Oxford University Press, 2010),
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195395662.001.0001.
85 Weintraub, Dangdut Stories: A Social and Musical History of Indonesia’s Most Popular Music.
86 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 105.
73
The next three chapters will delve into the impact of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay
gamelans on choral repertoire from Malaysia and Indonesia. Each of these gamelan traditions
possesses unique historical and musical significance, showcasing the remarkable adaptability of
gamelan music in responding to new sociopolitical demands while incorporating external
cultural and musical influences. Javanese gamelan, as one of the oldest forms situated in an
Islamic part of Indonesia, represents some of the oldest gamelan performance practices and
showcases the impact of Islam on its musical evolution. Balinese gamelan provides a glimpse
into how gamelan might have transformed in the absence of Islamic influence in the Malay
Archipelago, along with the transition from royal court patronage to community support.
Meanwhile, Malay gamelan stands out as a notable regional variation, especially as it extends
beyond its origins in modern-day Indonesia.
74
Chapter 3 – The Influences of Javanese Gamelan on Choral Music
Java
Java, an island located in the southeastern part of the Indonesian Archipelago, has the
longest recorded history of any part of Indonesia, dating back to over two thousand years. From
ancient kingdoms like Tarumanagara (4th to 7th centuries) and Majapahit (late-13th to early 16th
centuries) to the era of Hindu and Buddhist influence (4th to 15th centuries), Java has been a
crucible of diverse cultures and traditions. The island's history is marked by periods of
prosperity, conquest, and colonization, including the arrival of Islam in the 13th century and
Dutch colonial rule in the 17th century. Throughout these historical shifts, Java has retained a
distinctive cultural identity, blending indigenous traditions with influences from neighboring
regions and beyond.
Historical significance aside, Java also holds immense political and cultural significance
within Indonesia, making it one of the most well-known regions out of approximately 17,500
islands in the country. Since the 4th century, Java has been the center of several powerful empires
and kingdoms, hosting political centers of the Tarumangara kingdom, Sriwijaya Empire (7th to
13th centuries), Majapahit Empire (13th to 16th centuries, and Mataram Sultanate (16th to 19th
centuries).1
Its strategic location in the Indonesian archipelago has facilitated trade and cultural
exchange with the entire Southeast Asian region, contributing to its rich and diverse heritage.
Additionally, Java's fertile land has supported dense populations, fostering the development of
sophisticated societies and cultural traditions. Today, Java remains the political and economic
heart of Indonesia, housing the nation's capital, Jakarta, as well as numerous industrial and
1 Raffles, The History of Java; Spiller and Spiller, Focus.
75
commercial centers. Its cultural significance is evident in its arts, music, dance, literature, and
cuisine, which have influenced and shaped Indonesian identity on a national scale. Moreover,
Java's historical landmarks, such as Borobudur and Prambanan temples, draw millions of visitors
each year, further solidifying its status as a cultural and historical treasure of Indonesia. This
unique history and cultural diversity form the backdrop for the development of Javanese arts,
including the Javanese gamelan music, making Javanese gamelan a historically and musically
significant style in the study of gamelan-influenced choral repertoire.
Java encompasses the entire island, but culturally, only the eastern two-thirds belong to
the Javanese.2 The western third is inhabited by the Sundanese, whose music, language, and
culture diverge from the eastern part. To delve into Javanese gamelan, this chapter will
concentrate on Central and East Java, the culturally Javanese regions of the island.
Geographical and Cultural History of Central and East Java
Central and East Java's cultural landscape is a tapestry woven with influences from
various corners of the world, including India, China, West Asia, Europe, and the Americas. The
earliest documented gong-chime musical activities in Java consist of several large bronze
kettledrums that are generally attributed to the Đông Sơn culture from mainland Southeast Asia.3
The Đông Sơn culture (7th BCE to 1st CE) was a Bronze Age culture centered in what is now
northern Vietnam. This culture is known for its advanced bronze casting techniques, which
produced intricate and beautiful artifacts such as drums, weapons, and jewelry. These bronze
drums, in particular, are iconic symbols of the Đông Sơn culture and are characterized by their
large size, elaborate designs, and scenes depicting daily life, mythology, and ritual ceremonies.4
2 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 347.
3 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan.”
4
Ibid.
76
The introduction of the Đông Sơn kettledrums marks the inception of gamelan music all across
the Malay Archipelago, exerting a profound influence on its evolution and distinctive identity.
Over time, these bronze instruments found various roles in rituals involving musical
accompaniment in Java's Hindu and Buddhist temples. Artifacts recovered from these sacred
sites often depict a diverse array of instruments, many of which were influenced by Indian music
traditions. Notably, an 8th-century Hindu temple in Central Java revealed depictions of small
bells, cymbals, a three-stringed lute, and a bar zither. In the reliefs discovered at the 9th-century
Prambanan temple compound, a UNESCO World Heritage site situated in Yogyakarta, Central
Java, similar instruments were depicted.5 Moving ahead to the era of the Hindu Majapahit
kingdom, which was centered in East Java, additional instruments emerged. Among these were
the banana-shaped kemanak (metal slit drums struck with padded sticks), along with the reong
gong-chime instrument (still utilized in Balinese gamelans).6 Additionally, the predecessor of the
16th-century siter or celempung, a multi-stringed zither, was also uncovered in these HinduJavanese temples.7
5 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 348.
6
Ibid., 353.
7
Ibid., 353.
77
Figure 3.1: One of the relief panels of Borobudur Temple featuring musicians playing bells, lute, zither, and drums.
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by Gunawan Kartapranata.
Apart from reliefs and artifacts, various early literary works written in Jawi (or Kawi), a
script used for writing in several languages spoken in Southeast Asia, including Javanese,
Balinese, and Malay also mentioned the use of these bronze instruments. From these works, we
78
learned that these early bronze instruments were also used as signaling tools in battles.8 Their
softer counterparts, such as the suling and rebab––all of which are quintessential instruments in
Javanese gamelan––are used to accompany female dancers at court. Additionally, these literary
compositions highlighted the widespread utilization of drums and gong-chime instruments in
accompanying topeng (masked dance) and wayang kulit (shadow puppetry) performances across
Central and East Java.9 These instruments were utilized to add depth to the artistic expression,
but more importantly, to imbue the performances with symbols of power, prestige, and the
cosmos (see “The Origin of Gamelan” and “Gamelan Ssekaten” in Chapter 3 for more
information on the symbolic power of gamelan).
The process of Islamization in Java commenced in the 13th century, marked by the
arrival of Arab Muslim traders and scholars.10 Over the span of approximately three centuries,
Islam gradually permeated the island, starting with the establishment of the Sultanate of Demak
on the northern coast of Java around 1478.11 By the end of the 16th century, Islam had become
the dominant religion in Java, replacing Hinduism and Buddhism.12 The shift to Islam influenced
Javanese culture, including its music. Nevertheless, because Islam was introduced to Java
through Sufism, a branch of Islam that embraces music as a means to achieve spiritual
enlightenment and connection with the divine, it facilitated its integration with existing HinduBuddhist traditions in Java.13 Traditional artistic forms were adapted to incorporate Islamic
teachings, exemplified by the replacement of human and animal figures with intricate arabesque
patterns on various artifacts, including musical instruments like the gender and saron in Javanese
8
Ibid., 342; Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 95.
9
Ibid., 51.
10 Raffles, The History of Java; Spiller and Spiller, Focus; Quadros, Focus.
11 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 47.
12 Ibid.
13 Harnish and Rasmussen, Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia.
79
gamelan.14 Despite the prohibition of idolatry, these designs often resembled motifs of humans
and animals, showcasing a gradual assimilation of Islam into the existing Hindu-Buddhist
aesthetics. This cultural blend is evident in the adoption of Arabic terminology for Javanese
Buddhist practices and the transition of Hindu raja or maharaja (king) to sultan. Javanese
gamelan, rooted in pre-Islamic traditions, also transformed to embrace Islamic influences,
notably seen in the gamelan sekaten ensemble (go to “Gamelan Sekaten” in Chapter 3), an
ensemble whose main function is to provide music during the Sekaten (also known as garebeg)
week dedicated to commemorating the birth of Prophet Muhammad.15 According to Javanese
gamelan scholar R. Ng. Tumenggung Aria Warsadiningrat (1897-1984), gamelan sekaten was
created by one of the Javanese Muslim saints (wali sanga) to facilitate the transition from Hindu
kingship to Muslim sultanate.16
Kangjeng Sunan Kalijaga, a wali of Javanese descent who was accomplished in all fields
of knowledge, suggested that in order to be successful the plan must make use of [an
aspect of] Javanese culture loved by the Javanese people and regarded by them as sacred,
namely, the gamelan. A gamelan would be placed near the mosque, and would be played
very loudly, so that it could be heard from afar and could be heard especially clearly from
nearby. Surely many people would come to the mosque to see and hear the gamelan, for
it had been a long time since the people had heard one that they really enjoyed, and
furthermore they regarded the gamelan as venerable and sacred. Those who came would
be allowed to look at or listen to the gamelan provided that ihey made a promise. The
wali said, "If you listen, you must be willing to convert to Islam." If a person accepted
[Islam], he would be told to cleanse and purify himself before praying. This cleansing is
called wulu. When he had cleansed himself, he would be taught to recite the sahadat
kalih [confession of religious faith]—in Arabic, syah hadadtin. Then his conversion to
Islam would be confirmed.17 (Warsadiningrat 1987, translated by Susan Walton)
14 Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia,” 5.
15 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 48.
16 Ibid., 47.
17 Alan H. Feinstein and Judith O. Becker, Karawitan: Source Readings in Javanese Gamelan and Vocal Music.
Volume 2, Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia ; No. 30 (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan
Press, 1987), 55, https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.17577.
80
From this, it can be seen that the inception of gamelan sekaten serves as a microcosm illustrating
the intricate interplay of religious and cultural dynamics in Java's history.
The arrival of Islam in Java also ushered in the introduction of a significant musical
instrument into the Javanese soundscape: the rebab (for detailed information about the rebab, see
"Instrumentation"). Originating not from Java but likely of Persian or Arabic descent, the rebab
made its way to Java through Islamic trade routes spanning North Africa, the Middle East, parts
of Europe, and Southeast Asia. Its integration into Javanese music introduced the possibility of
non-vocal lyrical melodic lines and a bright and nasal timbre that was never heard before in the
ancient gamelan sekatenn. The rebab's popularity is reflected by its inclusion in various early
Javanese vocal performances, wayang kulit (shadow puppetry theater), and inevitably, Javanese
gamelan. Within the realm of gamelan music, the rebab emerged as a defining element of
Javanese gamelan, setting it apart from other gamelan traditions.
The early 1500s marked the first documented visit of Portuguese traders and explorers in
the Malay Archipelago, including Java. The arrival of the Portuguese introduced plucked lutes,
the rebana frame drum, and various musical forms such as the Portuguese courting dance
corridhino, whose influence can still be heard in kroncong, a type of Indonesian popular music
generally believed to have been introduced by the Portuguese sometime around the 16th
century.18 In 1596, Dutch influence began to take hold in Java with the establishment of the
Dutch East India Company (VOC) in the region. Employing a divide-and-conquer strategy, the
Dutch manipulated rival Javanese rulers, reshaping the cultural landscape of Java. This
manipulation led to the split of the central Javanese palace into two competing courts in 1755:
Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta (Yogya).19 This division, fueled by Dutch interference, gave
18 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 336, 244.
19 Ibid., 349.
81
rise to intense rivalries between the two courts, described by Stowitts as "hot houses of Oriental
intrigue and mystery." These rivalries profoundly influenced the development of court-style
Central Javanese gamelan, with each court developing its own distinctive style. For instance,
gamelan Surakarta takes pride in being alus (refined and elegant), featuring soft-sounding
instruments and padded mallets.20 Conversely, gamelan Yogyakarta is characterized by its
robustness and extensive instrumentation, reflecting the court's aspiration to outshine its
counterpart through the massiveness of its ensemble size.21 Amid the British colonial era in Java,
the two courts underwent additional division, leading to the formation of two smaller royal
courts: the Mangkunegaran in Surakarta and the Paku Alaman in Yogyakarta.22
Despite the growing presence of Europeans in Java during the colonial era, traditional
artistic forms in Java appear to have had little European influence. Unlike the relatively peaceful,
gradual introduction of Islam to the region facilitated by trade and slow cultural assimilation, the
arrival of the European colonial powers in Java was often accompanied by conflicts and
exploitation. The Dutch, in particular, established control over Java through the Dutch East India
Company in the 17th century, imposing their authority through military force and economic
dominance.23 While there is no direct evidence that explains the limited incorporation of Western
musical instruments, scales, and style of performance in traditional Javanese music, scholars
generally hypothesize that this has to do with the upheaval caused by the colonial powers, which
included the dismantling of traditional kraton (royal palaces) and the exploitation of Java's
resources for colonial gain. These events compelled the people to intensify efforts to protect and
conserve their heritage, particularly during the colonial era from the 17th to the early 20th
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid., 350.
22 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 69.
23 Thomas Stamford Raffles Sir, The History of Java, v. 1-2 (Project Gutenberg, n.d.).
82
century. It was not until about two decades after Indonesia gained independence in 1945 that the
first significant fusion between Javanese and Western art occurred: campursari ("mixture of
essences").24 Initially, campursari blended Javanese gamelan with Western European
instruments like the cak and cuk (similar to ukuleles), violin, cello, double bass, guitar, and flute,
commonly found in keroncong ensembles.25 Over time, it transformed to incorporate elements of
Indonesian pop music, film scores, and other musical genres.
Following the three-year Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1945, Indonesia saw the
eruption of the Indonesian Revolution lasting from 1945 to 1949, ultimately resulting in the
expulsion of the Dutch colonial rule. Throughout these turbulent political shifts, Javanese
traditional arts and cultures endured, albeit undergoing shifts in sociocultural significance and
symbolism.
Javanese Gamelan
Javanese gamelan encompasses a wide range of ensemble types rooted in the cultural
heritage of the Javanese people. Similar to Balinese and Malay gamelan traditions, Javanese
gamelan can be classified into various subcategories such as gamelan klenéngan, gamelan
surakarta, and gamelan salendro.
26 These ensembles exhibit distinctions in their musical
repertoire, performance techniques, and instrument configurations, all of which typically reflect
the socio-cultural values and artistic preferences of the subcultures from which they originate.
For example, courtly gamelans from Surakarta and Paku Alaman courts feature a combination of
loud and soft instruments, creating a stratified musical and rhythmic texture that reflects
historical social hierarchies.
24 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:15.
25 Ibid., 3:27–31.
26 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 353.
83
Despite regional variations, the central Java court-style gamelan is the most predominant
and popular playing style in Java and on international stages. The prevalence of central Java
court-style gamelan traces its roots to the powerful Islamic Mataram kingdom, which rose to
power in the 16th century.27 As with their Majapahit predecessors, the rulers of these kratons
(palaces) all utilized gamelan as one of the means to establish their legitimacy to rule and heirs to
the previous empires. As time went on, the Mataram kingdom split into smaller kratons.
By the early 17th century, the Dutch colonial government’s divide-and-conquer strategy
further accelerated the division in Java. In 1755, the Treaty of Giyanti signed between the Dutch
and Javanese royals effectively divided the Mataram Sultanate into two major principalities––
Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat (Yogyakarta Palace) and Kraton Kasunanan Surakarta
(Surakarta Palace)––each ruled by its own Sultan.28 These principalities each have a smaller
kraton in their city: Kraton Mangkunegaran in Surakarta and Kraton Paku Alaman in
Yogyakarta.29 Under this strategy, the Dutch effectively constrained the political influences of
the native rulers and pitted the kratons against each other.
As the political and administrative power of the four central Javanese palaces waned
during the Dutch colonial era, they redirected their focus towards preserving and fostering
cultural pursuits. Oftentimes, these cultural endeavors were driven by a desire to outshine one
another. Unlike royal palaces in other regions of Indonesia, the central Javanese rulers inherited
substantial financial resources.30 Naturally, gamelan, a symbol of status and authority for these
Javanese royals, became a common platform for competition between the kratons. This rivalry,
while rooted in unjust colonial policies, catalyzed the development of central Java court-style
2727 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 45.
28 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:78.
29 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 69.
30 Ibid., 70.
84
gamelan music. Over time, this solidified central Java court-style gamelan as the region's
predominant form, unanimously becoming the quintessential embodiment of Javanese
gamelan.31
Prior to exploring the performance practice of central Javanese court-style gamelan, it is
imperative to establish its cultural boundaries through definition. Geographically, Java is divided
administratively into three provinces—Jawa Barat (West Java), Jawa Tengah (Central Java),
and Jawa Timur (East Java). "Central Java" with capitalization refers to one of these provinces,
while "central Java" in lowercase denotes the broader cultural region encompassing Yogyakarta,
Surakarta, and other culturally central Javanese regions. Thus, central Java court-style gamelan
refers to the gamelan music originating from these culturally central Javanese regions. It is
important to note that due to the widespread popularity of this style, it is commonly known as
Javanese gamelan or central Javanese gamelan, but some local musicians and audiences
sometimes identify it as Gaya Solo (Solonese or Surakarta style).32 For clarity, going forward,
central Javanese court-style gamelan will be termed simply as Javanese gamelan. The subsequent
section will delve into (1) instrumentations, (2) musical forms, (3) tuning systems, and (4) the
overall aesthetics of Javanese gamelan.
Instrumentation
The Javanese people classify instruments within a Javanese gamelan ensemble based on
several criteria: the instrument's shape and construction, its position on the stage (front or back),
its volume, the playing technique (one or two-handed), and its musical function. To facilitate
comparison with Balinese and Malay gamelans in the following chapters, the instrumentation of
31 Spiller and Spiller, Focus; Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West; Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan”;
Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia.”
32 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 349.
85
Javanese gamelan will be grouped according to the first criterion: the shape and construction of
the instrument. In general, instruments in the Javanese gamelan ensemble can be categorized into
five major groups: (1) vertical hanging gongs, (2) horizontally suspended kettle gongs, (3) keyed
instruments, (4) membranophones, and (5) non-percussion instruments.
The first group comprises three hanging gongs, all suspended vertically by ropes from a
wooden frame: (1) gong ageng, (2) siyem or gong suwukan, and (3) kempul. These gongs serve
to mark phrases within Javanese gamelan compositions. Gong ageng, the largest of the trio,
boasts an average diameter of 32 inches, reaching up to 52 inches. Its immense size and
thickness produce a deep, resonant sound, often described as a vibration that is meant to be felt
rather than heard. Crafted to induce a sensory experience, gong ageng often features a pitch that
generates ombak (waves; not to be confused with the ombak produced by paired tuning in
Balinese gamelan; see the next chapter), adding to its impressive tone. Revered for its spiritual
significance, gong ageng is still frequently struck during opening ceremonies for important
occasions. Interestingly, while gong ageng often marks the beginning of events, it does the
opposite in Javanese gamelan music, symbolizing closure. As Spiller described, gamelan tends to
be “end-weighted,” in the sense that all motifs, drum beats, and colotomic layers lead to an
“inevitable and satisfying close” that is always marked by the final stroke of the gong ageng.
33
As can be seen in the colotomic structure below (see figure X), the ladrang form––one of the
most commonly used colotomic foundations for Javanese gamelan compositions––concludes its
cycle with the stroke of the gong ageng.34 The next gong is called siyem, a medium-sized gong
traditionally used to mark the end of a shorter colotomic cycle. The siyem produces a low pitch,
but the effect is not as visceral as the gong ageng, and its pitch is more distinctive. Therefore, it
33 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 72.
34 sIbid., 74.p
86
is common for a Javanese gamelan ensemble to include several siyems tuned to different pitches.
However, it is Javanese gamelans rarely include more than one gong ageng. Kempul, the
smallest of the trio, is a collection of four to five hanging gongs that produces a higher pitch with
less resonance. Each of these gongs marks phrases at different frequencies. In gamelan music, a
common guideline is that smaller instruments produce higher pitches and play at a quicker and
more frequent pace. This principle extends to the three hanging gongs discussed. Usually, gong
ageng sounds no more than twice within a complete colotomic cycle. The substantial gaps
between its notes are then filled by evenly spaced beats from other colotomic instruments,
including but not restricted to the siyem and kempul, as outlined in the "Form and Structure"
section.
Figure 3.2: Gong ageng.
Source: Image permission granted by https://www.flickr.com/photos/myriamba/. Photo by Myriam Bardino.
87
Figure 3.3: Siyem, gong ageng, and kempul.
Source: Photo by the author.
The second group of instruments, referred to as pencon in Javanese, consists of kettle
gongs suspended horizontally. This group comprises four instruments: (1) kenong, (2) kethuk, (3)
kempyang, and (4) a pair of bonangs. These instruments are positioned on strings within wooden
frames, which occasionally serve as resonators. Kenong is a set of five to seven high-pitched
horizontally laid gongs, and each of the gongs is placed in an individual wooden frame. The
kenong gongs are the largest out of the five instruments in the pencon group. Although large in
size, the shape and dense material of the kenong facilitate the production of high-pitched tones
that resonate for a long time. To enhance the lingering reverberation, kenong players typically
raise the mallet immediately after striking the instrument, allowing it to resonate freely. Kenong's
resonant quality renders it a slower-sounding instrument in Javanese gamelan, frequently
employed to mark and delineate phrases, similar to the musical function of the three
aforementioned gongs: gong ageng, siyem, and kempul. The subsequent instrument, kethuk, is a
small, knobbed gong struck with a padded stick. Kethuk has a fast decay due to its smaller size
and the damping technique known as perdam. Perdam is a common technique in gamelan music
that involves muting the instrument by gently placing the mallet or finger on it following the
88
initial strike. In the case of kethuk, players would place the mallet on the raised knob after it is
hit, dampening the decay. Kempyang is a smaller version of kethuk, producing a higher-pitched
sound with fast decay. Within the ensemble of resonant gongs and metallophones in the Javanese
gamelan, the crisp “thuk” and “pyang” sounds of the kethuk and kempyang stand out distinctly to
all musicians. Consequently, these instruments are entrusted with the responsibility of keeping
time and subdividing lengthy colotomic cycles into evenly spaced units of time. The final pencon
instrument is the bonang, comprising ten to fourteen small gongs arranged horizontally in two
rows, with each row spanning one octave. In Javanese gamelan, the bonang is found in pairs: the
lower-pitched bonang barung and the higher-pitched bonang panerus. The pair overlaps by one
octave, with the upper octave of bonang barung matching the lower octave of bonang panerus.
Both bonang barung and bonang panerus serve melodic roles. As previously noted, in gamelan
music, smaller and higher-pitched instruments tend to play faster parts. Following this principle,
bonang panerus, in contrast to the lower-pitched bonang barung, plays a faster and more
intricate simultaneous melodic variation of the balungan (core melody) performed by the third
group of instruments in Javanese gamelan: the metallophones.35
35 Spiller and Spiller, Focus.
89
Figure 3.4: Kenong.
Source: Photo by the author.
Figure 3.5: Kenong.
Source: Photo by the author.
90
Figure 3.6: Kempyang.
Source: Photo by the author.
Figure 3.7: Bonang panerus and bonang barung.
Source: Photo by the author.
91
The keyed-instrument category consists of three major types of instruments: (1) saron,
(2) gendèr, and (3) gambang. Saron is a generic term for a bronze, xylophone-like instrument
with six or seven keys that cover one octave. In Javanese gamelan, the saron instrumental family
is made of lowest-pitched saron demung, the middle-range saron barung, and the highestpitched saron panerus, also known as peking. Most Javanese gamelans include two or four
instruments of each size. Typically, the saron demung and saron panerus play the core melody
in octaves whereas the saron panerus performs the elaborated melody layer, where each note is
often played twice and lasts only half the rhythmic value of the original note.36 The second
subgroup comprises the gendèr, an essential group of instruments in Javanese gamelan. Gendèr
instruments are keyed, with keys thinner than those of the saron. Unlike the saron, each key of
the gendèr has its own resonating tube tuned to its specific pitch. Additionally, gendèr
instruments are typically played with soft mallets, in contrast to the wooden mallets used for
sarons. This allows the gendèr to produce a reverberant tone with a slow decay, reminiscent of
an organ. In the Javanese gamelan, the gendèr family includes the lowest-pitched gendèr
slenthem, the middle-ranged gendèr barung, and the highest-pitched gendèr panerus. The
gambang is the last instrument within the keyed instrument category. Unlike the saron and
gendèr, the gambang is a xylophone featuring 18 to 21 wooden keys. Due to its wooden
construction, the gambang produces tones with a fast decay, enabling players to execute rapid,
virtuosic melodic patterns. Among the keyed instruments, the saron instruments are played using
uncovered wooden mallets, whereas the gendèr instruments and gambang are struck with discshaped mallets covered with soft padding.
36 Ibid., 79.
92
Figure 3.8: Peking or saron panerus, saron barung, and saron demung.
Source: Image permission granted by Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Surakarta. Photo by an unknown
photographer.
Figure 3.9: Gender slenthem, gender barung, and gender panerus.
Source: Image permission granted by Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Surakarta. Photo by an unknown
photographer.
93
Figure 3.10: Gambang.
Source: Image permission granted by Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Surakarta. Photo by an unknown
photographer.
The fourth group of instruments is the membranophone. In Javanese gamelan, a wide
array of kendhangs may be used for different songs and occasions. However, most Javanese
gamelan ensembles include four drums: (1) bedug, (2) kendhang gendhing, (3) kendhang
ketipung, and (4) kendhang ciblon. The bedug is a large barrel-shaped drum beaten by two sticks.
Similar to the largest vertically-hung gong, known as the gong ageng, the bedug produces a
deep, booming sound, playing only at key moments throughout the performance. The substantial
intervals between bedug beats are filled by more rapid beat patterns from relatively smaller
drums, commonly referred to as kendhang in Javanese or gendang in Malay. Kendhangs are
barrel-shaped drums with two heads, typically with one head larger than the other. Positioned on
the floor, a stand, or the player’s lap, kendhangs allow percussionists to strike each head with
one hand. While kendhang players may occasionally use sticks, they primarily employ their
hands, enabling them to produce a diverse range of timbres unique to bare-handed percussion.37
Traditionally, kendhang gendhing and kendhang ketipung (or ketipung) are played by a single
37 Ibid., 86.
94
percussionist. In a Javanese gamelan ensemble, when these two drums are used together, they
form a pair referred to as kendhang kalih (two drums). Because of its larger size, the kendhang
gendhing creates low-pitched tones that complement the high-pitched sounds produced by the
ketipung, providing a grounding effect. As with many Southeast Asian musical styles and
instruments where names echo the timbre and playing technique, kendhang ketipung’s name is
an onomatopoeic reflection of the three primary sounds it produces: “keteg,” “tak,” and
“pung.”38 “Keteg” is a soft tap, “tak” is a sharp, muted sound produced by hitting the center of
the ketipung with the entire hand, and “pung” is a high-pitched sound produced by a quick hit on
either sides of the drum with the index finger. Together, the kendhang kalih pair contributes a
wide array of unpitched timbres to the performance, maintains tempo with their “business as
usual”39 patterns, guides the ensemble through various musical sections with differing tempos,
and provides aural cues to the ensemble to end a performance with previously agreed-upon beat
patterns. The fourth drum commonly used in Javanese gamelan is kendhang ciblon, also known
simply as ciblon, which is a medium-sized drum played by hand. Typically, it is played by the
same percussionist who handles the kendhang kalih pair. The name "kendhang ciblon" is derived
from a unique traditional central Javanese water song-dance performance of the same name, in
which performers strike the water surface with various parts of their hands and arms to create a
complex interlocking rhythm with diverse timbres.40 In comparison to the previously mentioned
pair, the kendhang ciblon part is more virtuosic and faster, featuring a greater variety of timbres
reminiscent of the water performance.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid., 86.
40 Ibid., 86; Bambang SRI Atmojo, “Kendhangan Pamijen Gending Gaya Yogyakarta,” Resital 11, no. 1 (2013),
https://doi.org/10.24821/resital.v11i1.495.
95
Figure 3.11: Bedug.
Source: Image permission granted by tvonenews.com. Photo by Galih Manunggal.
Figure 3.12: Kendhang gendhing.
Source: Image permission granted by tvonenews.com. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Figure 3.13: Kendhang ketipung.
Source: Image permission granted by tvonenews.com. Photo by an unknown photographer.
96
Figure 3.14: Kendhang ciblon.
Source: Image permission granted by tvonenews.com. Photo by an unknown photographer.
The fifth group in the Javanese gamelan tradition consists of non-percussive instruments,
including the rebab (a bowed, two-stringed lute-like instrument), suling (wooden bamboo flute),
celempung (a plucked ziter), pesindhèn (treble soloist), and penggèrong or gèrong (tenor-andbass chorus). In contrast to their percussive counterparts, this ensemble is commonly nicknamed
the “soft-sounding ensemble.”41 Given that non-percussive instruments are either rare or entirely
absent in other gamelan styles such as Balinese and Malay, the soft-sounding ensemble stands
out as one of the defining characteristics of Javanese gamelans. From both a musical and
historical perspective, the incorporation of singers and non-percussive instruments alongside
drums and bronze instruments represents a significant creative evolution in gamelan music. The
origins of Central Javanese gamelan can be traced back to the 16th-century gamelan sekaten,
which featured only drums, gong chimes, and kettle gongs, gong chimes. The inclusion of nonpercussive instruments allowed Javanese gamelan to explore new musical structures, introducing
long, melodic lines with subtle nuances into performances, a musical quality that percussion
instruments alone cannot achieve. During performances, the soft-sounding ensemble typically
41 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 71.
97
adheres to the colotomic structure set by the loud-sounding ensemble. This blending is frequently
seen as a metaphorical representation of the juxtaposition between traditional Hindu concepts of
royalty and the cosmic realm, alongside newer influences brought about by Islamic preachers
and European colonizers.42 Here, the "new" elements remain connected to and subordinate to the
established prestige of the "old."
Figure 3.15: Rebab.
Source: Image permission granted by rotterdam.wereldmuseum.nl/. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Figure 3.16: Suling.
Source: Image permission granted by rotterdam.wereldmuseum.nl/. Photo by an unknown photographer.
42 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:124.
98
Figure 4.1:
Source: Image permission granted by rotterdam.wereldmuseum.nl/. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Figure 3.17: Pesindhen.
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by Adityakhairulsani.
Figure 3.18: Penggerong.
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by Dok Pribadi.
99
The soft-sounding instruments can be grouped by two primary roles: elaborating (rebab,
suling, and celempung) and storytelling (pesindhèn and penggèrong). Rebab is the most used
elaboration instrument in Javanese gamelan. Rebab is a bowed, two-stringed instruments with a
body made from half a coconut shell over which a thin animal skin is stretched. Its timbre is
bright and nasal, reminiscent of erhu from the Chinese orchestra. Unlike the other gamelan
instruments––such as the gong ageng, siyem, kempul, saron, and gendèr––which are typically
tuned to a specific scale (see “Tuning System” for more detailed information) unique to the
entire ensemble, the fret-less nature of rebab makes it compatible with any gamelan set. The
suling is an end-blown bamboo flute with four or five holes. Suling players usually have two
sulings, each tuned to pelog and slendro, so they can switch between compositions set in
different tuning. Both rebab and suling (and solo vocalists as well) perform florid
ornamentations and variations on the same melody but with soaring sustained notes, dramatic
trills and vibratos, and to a greater extent of rhythmic freedom. Conventionally, gamelan
instruments performing complex interlocking motifs are valued by their ability to arrive at pillar
notes at the same time. However, this does not apply to suling and rebab as they would
sometime arrive at the pillar pitches slightly before or after the rest of the instruments, a quality
interpreted as being expressive.43 The celempung is a zither-like multi-stringed plucked
instrument supported on four legs. The number of metal strings in a celempung comes in even
numbers, ranges from 20 to 26 strings. Each pitch comes in a pair of strings tuned to the same
note and placed closely to each other. The player would treat the pair as a single string, resulting
in a richer and shimmery tone with a tremolo-like effect.
43 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 134.
100
Storytelling is one of the hallmarks of Javanese gamelan made possible by the texts sung
by the pesindhèn (solo treble vocalists) and penggèrong or gèrong (tenor-and-bass chorus). The
storytelling and singing aspect of the Javanese gamelan is so important that no Javanese gamelan
is complete without vocalists––be it a small group of soloists or a chorus. The addition of sung
texts in Javanese gamelan performances can trace its roots to tembang, an old form of Javanese
poetry where the words are more commonly sung rather than recited.44 While the words sung by
the pesindhèn and gérong come from another form of Javanese poetry, known as pangkur, there
is no denying that the singing culture in central Javanese culture paved the way for this
innovation.45 The pangkur poems are traditionally set to a fixed number of syllables per line and
line per stanza, making it convenient for singers to sing the same melody to another other poems
composed in the pangkur style. When the music falls short to hold the poem's entirety, singers
would resort to a shorter, four-line poetic form known as salisir.
46 In salisir poems, the first two
lines set the theme, while the last two lines convey a moral or lesson. Usually, the initial couplet
links to the final two lines through rhymes and witty wordplay, offering great entertainment
value for the audience. In a time without microphones and with drums and bronze instruments
creating a volume that far surpasses that of the human voice, pesindhèn and gèrong sing with an
"open, loud, and transparent" tone, ensuring clear projection of their texts.47 “Transparent” here
is an adjective Andrew Weintraub borrowed from American ethnomusicologist, William Malm
(b. 1928) who is best known for his research in Japanese traditional music. In Malm’s research,
he describes the timbre of Asian music as transparent because every individual voice or
44 Ibid., 84.
45 Ibid., 84–85.
46 Ibid.
47 Andrew N. Weintraub, “The ‘Crisis of the Sinden’: Gender, Politics, and Memory in the Performing Arts of West
Java, 1959-1964,” Indonesia (Ithaca) 77, no. 77 (2004): 66.
101
instrumental part possesses a high degree of timbral completeness – in other words, a sound that
does not blend easily.48 Similar to other song-dance traditions found across Malaysia and
Indonesia—like the communal singing tradition of Malaysian dikir barat, the lagu saman
tradition from Aceh, and the Balinese kecak performance—where singers typically sit on the
floor, pesindhèn and gèrong sit on the floor in the frontmost of the ensemble, either cross-legged
or on their knees.
The specific positioning of these five instrument groups is not standardized, but
generally, they are set up so that softer-sounding and smaller instruments are closer to the
audience. Larger instruments like the bedug and gong ageng are placed further back to avoid
blocking the audience's view while ensuring that quieter sounds are audible. When it comes to
paired instruments like the bonang barung and bonang panerus, they are typically arranged
either side by side or at right angles to each other, depending on the desired balance and amount
of interaction required between the players.
Form and Structure
All subcategories of gamelan music adhere to a specific musical framework to organize
the intricate weave of interlocking motifs and rhythmic patterns. When analyzing the form and
structure of gamelan compositions, most scholars typically refer to the fundamental colotomic
pattern as the "form," while the additional musical layers are termed the "structure."49 Javanese
gamelan forms are categorized based on the interlocking and coinciding patterns produced by
colotomic instruments like the gong, kenong, kethuk, kempyang, and kempul. Each form is
48 William P. Malm. Musical traits common to East Asian cultures. Britannica Academic https://academic-ebcom.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/East-Asian-arts/109412. Accessed March 15, 2021.
49 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music; Spiller and Spiller, Focus; Kartomi and
Mendonça, “Gamelan.”
102
distinguished by its unique name and characterized by varying lengths, emphasis on beats, and
combinations of recurring rhythmic patterns from the colotomic instruments. Built upon this
foundational form is the “structure,” comprising balungan (the abstracted melody) and
kembangan (the elaborated melody). This discussion will delve into the prevalent forms in
Javanese gamelan and explore the attributes and interaction between the abstracted and
elaborated melodic layers.
Ladrang is one of the most commonly used foundational colotomic cycles in Javanese
gamelan.50 The ladrang form is a 32-beat-long cycle. In gamelan music, the larger the
instrument, the slower its beat pattern, and this general rule of thumb is vividly represented in the
rhythmic breakdown outlined in the figure below. The timeline at the top delineates all thirty-two
beats constituting the cycle, with each stroke represented by an abbreviation. Notably, the
considerable temporal gap between successive gong ageng strokes (designated as "G")
undergoes subdivision by the contributions of smaller instruments. This division adheres
consistently to a regular binary pattern: the gong ageng strikes every thirty-two beats, while the
kenong and kempul strike every eight beats, albeit with the kempul being offset by four beats
(denoted by "W" in the figure, an abbreviation for wela, which means absence or "rest" in
Western music theory). Additionally, the kethuk strikes every four beats, while the kempyang
strikes every two beats.
The culmination of these interlocking regular beats forms a stable rhythmic foundation
upon which the abstracted and elaborated melodic layers evolve. In the colotomy of Javanese
gamelan, upholding a consistent tempo is not of the utmost importance; instead, it is the nuanced
emphasis and de-emphasis of specific beats in each cyclic repetition that creates a hierarchy of
50 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 74.
103
beats, guiding the players through the musical development of the composition.51 This
hierarchical arrangement of beats leads to the most significant beat or moment within the
colotomy: the final stroke of the gong ageng. In the realm of Javanese gamelan, the striking of
the gong ageng not only signifies the conclusion of the cycle but also marks the beginning of the
subsequent musical phrase or section.
While ladrang represents only one among the diverse array of colotomic forms employed
in Javanese gamelan, it represents two fundamental principles inherent in Javanese gamelan
colotomy: (1) the use of repetitive, interlocking beats, and (2) the correlation between an
instrument's size and its frequency of play. A comprehensive discussion of all forms is precluded
due to their sheer abundance and shared characteristics, as well as adherence to similar
principles. Forms such as lancaran, ketawang, and gendhing exhibit similar musical
characteristics, and they are differentiated primarily by variations in phrase length,
instrumentation, and patterns of beat emphasis and de-emphasis.52
While standardized form is one of the hallmarks in Javanese gamelan and gamelan music
in general, it is important to mention that not all Javanese gamelan music is built upon these
standard forms. Pathetan, sulukan, ayak-ayakan, sprepegan, and sampak represent some
important cannons of repertoire within the tradition of Javanese gamelan that are not followed by
any form.53 Typically set to an irregular meter and phrase length, these pieces are used to set the
atmosphere of a performance before or after the main song. The absence of a formal,
standardized colotomic form in these subcategories allows for these performances to initiate and
51 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan.”
52 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 74–75.
53 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 361.
104
halt abruptly, making them great incidental music in theatrical performances and music to be
filled in quiet moments between transitions in a performance.
The discussion on forms and structures in Javanese gamelan music will be incomplete
without discussing one of the essential compositional techniques and performance practice in
Javanese gamelan: the interplay between balungan (the abstracted melody) and kembangan (the
elaborated melody). As aforementioned, most Javanese gamelan music is built upon a
standardized colotomic form or follows a “form-less” structure. What distinguishes these
compositions is the essential melody the song carries, making balungan and kembangan two
important topic of discussion in the study of Javanese gamelan.
Before exploring the performance practice of balungan and kembangan, it is crucial to
clarify their roles and how they interact during a performance. While the concept of layering a
melody over a steady beat structure may seem straightforward, it is actually a complex and
contentious idea among scholars. One perspective argues that the abstracted melody resides
within a single octave, while another contends that balungan represents an abstraction of multioctave melodies drawn from various sources.54
Sumarsam posits that neither the abstract nor the elaborated melody is explicitly
performed on any instrument; instead, this abstract inner melody informs the performers' choices
about what to play.55 This raises the question: Does balungan truly serve as a guide for melodic
elaboration? American ethnomusicologist and gamelan scholar Marc Perlman (b. 1962) suggests
that balungan is purely a conceptual guide, serving as the basis for musical interpretation.56
54 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:115–38; Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 75–82.s; Marc Perlman,
Unplayed Melodies (University of California Press, 2004).
55 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:130.
56 Marc Perlman, “The Traditional Javanese Performing Arts in the Twilight of the New Order: Two Letters from
Solo,” Indonesia (Ithaca) 68, no. 68 (1999): 1–37, https://doi.org/10.2307/3351295.
105
Perlman's view is supported by gamelan expert Mitropradongga (n.d.), who told him, "If you try
to memorize the balungan, you'll easily forget it, but if you fill it with rebaban, kendhangan,
gendèran, or whatever else you're familiar with, it will stick."57 This suggests that referring to
balungan as the abstracted melody and kembangan as merely the elaborated and varied melody,
fitted within a standardized form, may not fully capture the complexity of their roles. After all,
no single term in Javanese (or Malay) encompasses the range of expression associated with
"music." Gamelan's musical processes emphasize dynamic interaction between individual parts,
highlighting "dialogue" over ketepatan dan kecermatan (precision).58 This explains Perlman's
suggestion that balungan is not always a clear guide for the elaborating parts, and supports
Sumarsam’s sensual metaphorical description of the interaction between balungan and
kembangan in a performance:
The musicians played with skill and the same feel for the piece. The tranquility of the
irama vied with the melodic realizations (wilet) in arousing desire (malatsih). [Their
rendition] was just the right length for a dalang’s janturan. They played so together [that
the feeling of the gendhing (rasaning gendhing)] was obtained. So they played on and on.
They played the gendhing for a long time. Then it sped up and moved into inggah section
(munggah). The longer it lasted, the more intimate with one another (gulet) the individual
rendition became; they seized (rebut) the thrill of satisfaction. The musicians were all
sexually aroused, eager, and randy, feeling (rasa-rasa) as if they couldn’t stand it any
longer.59
Balungan
Balungan, a term derived from the Javanese word meaning "skeleton" or "frame,"
embodies the underlying melody perceived by musicians. This melody is performed on three
saron instruments: the saron demung (the lowest-pitched), the saron barung (the mid-range), and
the saron panerus (the highest-pitched). Typically, saron demung and saron barung collaborate
57
58 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:132.
59 Ibid., 3:132–33.
106
to articulate this abstracted melody, resulting in a balungan part resonating in octaves.60
Meanwhile, the high-pitched saron panerus may either play the balungan part homorhythmically
or double each note, albeit with a duration half that of the original note, creating a shimmery
texyture spanning three octaves. The table below (see Table 1) illustrates this concept using the
cipher system. In music, the cipher system is a method of notating pitches with numbers, where
each number represents a specific note within a scale. This system is frequently employed in
gamelan notation. For example, in a slendro scale, the pitches may be represented as 1 (low do),
2 (re), 3 (mi), 5 (sol), and 6 (la). Please note that each box in the table corresponds to a single
beat.
Table 3.1: An example of balungan notated using the cipher system.
Balungan played by
saron demung and
saron barung
1 2 3 2 5 3 2
Saron panerus 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 2 5 5 3 3 2 2
Since each instrument covering only one octave, octave displacement is a common
practice among saron players. For example, when a note goes beyond the octave, the player
would substitute the pitch with a lower-pitched note. Nevertheless, as a result of the blend of the
three instruments, a composite melody that reflects the “correct” melodic contour will always be
perceived by the players and audiences.61 Rhythmically, the balungan part typically follows a
regular pattern, with a note corresponding to each beat of the colotomic cycle. For example, in a
composition structured in the thirty-two-beat-long ladrang form, the balungan comprises
60 Marc Perlman, Unplayed Melodies.
61 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 77.
107
precisely thirty-two notes. To facilitate note groupings, gamelan players will organize these notes
into gatra (groupings), typically consisting of four notes each.62 The rhythmic accent of the
gatras usually falls on beat four and the last note of each colotomic cycle, which again,
highlights the end-weighted nature of musical phrases in Javanese gamelan music. In Javanese
musical tradition, rhythmic hierarchy assigns rhythmic priorities to beat four, followed by beat
two, and then beats one and three.63 Consequently, even-numbered beats receive greater
emphasis, diverging from the Western music convention where rhythmic accents predominantly
occur on beat one.
Kembangan
The essence of kembangan lies in the spontaneous realization and expansion of the
abstracted melodic framework, known as balungan, through the utilization of various
conventional yet flexible formulas for melodic variation. Originating from the Javanese and
Malay word kembang, meaning flower, kembangan stands as one of the defining attributes of
Javanese gamelan music. Elaboration instruments in gamelan can generally be classified into two
groups: bronze percussive instruments and non-percussive instruments like the rebab and suling.
The first group includes saron panerus, bonang barung, and bonang panerus. As
previously discussed in the section on Javanese gamelan instrumentation, saron panerus
enhances the balungan by playing each note twice, creating a tremolo-like, shimmering texture
that highlights the abstracted melodic layer for both players and audiences. Conversely, bonang
panerus and bonang barung employ a slightly more intricate approach to elaborating the
abstracted melody. Rather than simply repeating each note twice, the bonang player elaborates
62 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 362.
63 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 77–78.
108
pairs of notes at a time.64 For instance, they might play the first two notes of the balungan (1-2)
and repeat the pair twice (1-2-1-2). Following the principle that smaller, higher-pitched
instruments play faster and more rhythmically, the bonang panerus typically plays twice as fast
as the bonang barung. Once in a while, the bonang panerus player might omit certain notes,
indicated by rests in the notation, thereby introducing further melodic variety to the performance.
Table 3.2: The "paired" melodic elaboration formula commonly employed by bonang panerus and bonang barung.
Bonang
panerus
1 2 1 Rest 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 Rest 3 2 3 2
Bonang barung 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 2
Balungan 1 2 3 2
As illustrated in the Table 4.2 above, the kembangan process results in a stratified musical
texture notable for its consistent density across instruments, manifesting in varying numbers of
notes per cycle and distinctive timbres. This ties back to Malm's description of gamelan music as
"transparent," emphasizing how each layer intertwines yet remains distinctly recognizable.65
The second category of elaborating instruments comprises non-percussive instruments
such as singers, rebab, suling, gambang, and celempung. Due to the nature of these instruments,
their parts typically showcase greater rhythmic flexibility and melodic ornamentation. For
instance, the gambang wooden xylophone is often played with two mallets, allowing for faster
playing compared to saron players, who use only one mallet. Conversely, the rebab, pesindhèn,
and penggèrong singers are what Spiller describes as "free instruments" in a sense that they can
produce a wide range of pitches and exhibit large ranges.66 These free instruments, lacking fixed
64 Spiller, Gamelan, 80.
65 William P. Malm. Musical traits common to East Asian cultures. Britannica Academic https://academic-ebcom.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/East-Asian-arts/109412. Accessed March 15, 2021
66 Spiller, Gamelan, 134.
109
pitches, contribute to creating subtle variations in pitch and timbre, taking advantage of their
ability to sustain long notes and execute crescendos and diminuendos while performing.
Even though these layers possess distinct characteristics, they adhere to the fundamental
contour. Javanese gamelan musicians are esteemed for their profound comprehension and
familiarity with the music in the condensed balungan form. Moreover, their skill lies in their
ability to expand upon this abstracted melody during performance by drawing upon a wide array
of conventional formulas.67 This process partially explains how gamelan performers frequently
perform complex, multi-layered music for extended durations from memory alone. Spiller offers
an interesting analogy to illustrate polyphonic stratification in Javanese gamelan music,
comparing the interplay between balungan and kembangan to a person walking a dog.
The human is likely to move ahead at a steady pace, while a dog typically will race
ahead, run back and forth, or linger behind for a moment before racing on ahead again.
The dog’s mileage is significantly greater than the human’s, but both walk the same path,
cover the same ground, and arrive at the same destination at the same time; the difference
is that the human walks like a human, and the dog walks like a dog.68
This metaphor illustrates that the slower-moving abstracted melodic layer represents the
"human," while the kembangan embodies the "dog." However, it is essential to note that this
human-and-dog analogy does not fully apply to free instruments like the rebab and vocalists.
These instruments sometimes heighten the contrast between the free and fixed parts by arriving
slightly ahead of or after the fixed instrumental sections. In certain Javanese gamelan
subcategories, particularly those originating from the western part of the Javanese island, free
instruments may even perform their parts in an entirely different tuning system.69
67 Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the West, 3:130–37.
68 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 58.
69 Andrew N. Weintraub, “Theory in Institutional Pedagogy and ‘Theory in Practice’ for Sundanese Gamelan
Music,” Ethnomusicology 37, no. 1 (1993): 29–39, https://doi.org/10.2307/852243.
110
Tuning Systems
In Javanese gamelan music, the tuning system plays a fundamental role in shaping the
style and symbolism of the music. Unlike Western instruments, which typically adhere to
standardized pitches, Javanese gamelans are tuned to two primary types of laras, or scales:
slendro and pelog. However, these scales are not standardized in terms of tonal intervals and
absolute pitches. The term "laras" encompasses both the musical scales and the broader concept
of harmony and agreement, guiding the tuning process for each gamelan set. In most Western
musical ensembles, instruments can often be interchanged between ensembles due to their
standardized tuning. Javanese gamelan instruments, on the other hand, are tuned as a cohesive
set. Each gamelan set is meticulously tuned to a unique version of laras and often to a specific
pitch standard. Consequently, with the exception of freely-tuned instruments such as pesindhen
treble soloists, penggerong chorus, and fret-less rebab, gamelan instruments must be played as a
unified set to stay “in tune.” The distinct tuning and intonation of each gamelan set are highly
valued by experienced listeners, with discussions surrounding the interval differences between
notes and the overall pitch of the set being favorite topics among players and audiences alike.70
This emphasis on tonal variation is deeply rooted in socio-cultural values, as shown by historical
practices such as prohibiting village gamelan ensembles from replicating the tunings of royal
court ensembles.71 Moreover, the tuning process itself is often considered sacrilegious, as
altering the pitch of bronze gamelan instruments through scraping, filing, and pounding is
believed to affect their symbolic potency, reflecting the intimate connection between tones,
timbres, and cultural identity in Javanese gamelan music.72
70 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 358.
71 Ibid.
72 Spiller, Gamelan, 59.s
111
Pelog is one of the two primary tuning systems in Javanese gamelan music, characterized
by its non-equidistant arrangement of seven pitches. In pelog, the intervals between these pitches
vary significantly in size, ranging from very small (approximately 90 cents) to quite large (over
400 cents). Despite this variation, the seven pitches are consistently denoted with the same
names, akin to the familiar do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do sequence of the Western diatonic scale. As
shown in Table 4.3, the tone names do not derive from onomatopoeia but are instead often based
on the names of various objects. For example, the second pitch, called gulu, takes its name from
the Javanese word for neck, throat, or windpipe, with no direct musical reference to the pitch
itself.
Table 3.3: Pelog scale pitch names and meanings.
Pitch (In Cipher System) Name Meaning
1 Penunggul or bem First or no meaning
2 Gulu Neck, throat, or windpipe
3 Dada or dha-dha Chest
4 Pelog No meaning
5 Lima Five
6 Nem Six
7 Barang Thing, item, or stuff
Traditionally, compositions in pelog primarily utilize five of these seven pitches,
rendering pelog effectively a form of pentatonic scale. On some rare occasions, musicians may
use all seven pitches. However, the sixth and seventh tones would still only be played sparingly
for special effects, similar to the use of accidentals in Western tonal music. Audiating73 the
73 Audiation in music is the process of mentally hearing and understanding music when it is not physically present.
Developed by music educator Edwin E. Gordon, it involves imagining musical sounds, rhythms, and structures in
one’s mind, aiding in skills such as sight-reading, composition, and improvisation.
112
sound of pelog can be challenging without prior experience playing or listening to Javanese
gamelan music, compounded by variations in the scale between gamelan ensembles. A rough
approximation of the pelog scale in Western solfege would be ti-do-mi-fa-sol, or denoted as 2-3-
5-6-7 in the cipher system commonly used by gamelan musicians. Notably, the intervals between
the five pitches in pelog can range from small (ti-do or 2-3 and mi-fa or 5-6) to large (do-mi or 3-
5), an important attribute of pelog as compared to the five-tone equidistant slendro counterpart.
Figure 3.19: Pelog and slendro scales approximated in Western notation.
The slendro tuning system in Javanese gamelan music is characterized by its pentatonic
scale with pitches spaced at nearly equidistant intervals. Unlike the pelog scale, no standard pitch
is assigned to the slendro scale, adding to its complexity when explained within Western music
conventions. The average interval between the five notes of slendro is approximately 240 cents,
equivalent to about two-and-a-half piano keys, resulting in pitches that lie between the
conventional notes found on a piano.74 Despite this, to audiences unfamiliar with slendro, its
structure resembles the conventional pentatonic scale comprising do-re-mi-sol-la (1-2-3-5-6).
74 Spiller, Gamelan, 78.
113
Each pitch in slendro is assigned unique tone names, although modern usage often refers to them
by numbers.75
Table 3.4: Slendro scale pitch names and meanings.
Pitch (In cipher System) Name Meaning
1 Barang Thing, item, or stuff
2 Gulu Neck, throat, or windpipe
3 Dada or dha-dha Chest
5 Lima Five
6 Nem Six
Pathet is another important concept in the discussion of tuning systems in Javanese
gamelan music. The word “pathet” originates from the Javanese term meaning "to restrain." It
encompasses a system of tonal hierarchies wherein certain notes are accentuated over others,
associating different configurations of pitches with varying moods or emotions. Both the slendro
and pelog scales feature three pathets each. In the case of slendro, these pathets are established
by prioritizing the stability of certain pitches over others, often by placing them in rhythmically
prominent positions, such as at the conclusion of musical phrases.76 This parallels the
arrangement and emphasis of pitches within Western tonal music, where harmonic progressions
drive the music forward. Conversely, the three pelog pathets are distinguished by a combination
of pitch emphasis, de-emphasis, and selective omission of two out of the seven available notes,
resulting in all pelog pathets being pentatonic. This selective emphasis and omission are depicted
in the table below, illustrating the tones emphasized or omitted to create distinct pathets within
the pelog scale.
75 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 358.
76 Ibid., 359.
114
Table 3.5: Tone emphasis and omission of the six pathets in Javanese slendro and pelog scales.
Scale Pathet Tones emphasized (in
order of importance)
De-emphasized
tones
Slendro Nem (six) (1)-2-3-5-6 6, 2 1
Sanga (nine) 1-2-(3)-5-6 5, 1 3
Manyura (peacock) 1-2-3-(5)-6 6, 2 5
Pelog Lima (five) 1-2-3-5-6 1, 5 4, 7
Nem (six) 1-2-3-5-6 5, 6 4, 7
Barang (thing) 2-3-5-6-7 6, 2 1, 4
The distinctive combination of various pitches and their hierarchical arrangement generates
pathets imbued with distinct qualities, often correlated with specific moods and the time of day
or night. For instance, in the traditional wayang kulit shadow puppetry performances, different
acts are frequently aligned with distinct pathets, symbolizing the progression of events in the life
of the story's protagonist.77
Overall Aesthetic
The distinct sound of Javanese gamelan music, shaped by its musical construction,
performance practice, instrumentation, and socio-cultural values, sets it apart from its Malay and
Balinese counterparts. Within Javanese gamelan, three major musical hallmarks emerge: (1)
unhurried elegance, (2) linearity and transparency, and (3) bright and forward timbre. However,
it is important to acknowledge that, as with any musical genre, Javanese gamelan exhibits
numerous regional and compositional variations and exceptions, making it challenging to
encapsulate its essence with just a few characteristics. Nonetheless, for the purpose of focusing
this discussion on the most common musical attributes found in both Javanese gamelan music
77 Spiller, Gamelan, 84.
115
and choral works influenced by it, the subsequent sections of this chapter will center on these
three qualities.
Unhurried elegance, or lemah-lembut in Javanese, is the most significant musical quality
of Javanese gamelan. This is particularly evident when comparing the playing style to the
Balinese gamelan which is known for being its fast rhythm and fiery energy. Within Java itself,
gamelan traditions outside of the central Javanese area are often described by listeners as kasar
(crude, rough) or gagah (strong, robust).78 This soft, mellow, lyrical, and serene quality is
attributed to several factors. Firstly, the incorporation of soft-sounding instruments such as the
human voice, various bowed and plucked string instruments, and the bamboo flute contributes to
the overall mellowness of the music. In particular, the human voice has its limitations; it can only
sing at a certain speed without blurring the sung texts. As a result, Javanese gamelan
performances featuring vocalists are often set in a more singable range and slower tempo.
Secondly, the prevalent use of padded mallets for striking the instruments, as opposed to the
uncovered metal mallets typical of Balinese gamelan, further enhances the warm, rounded
quality. Additionally, the influence of Sufism, a branch of Islam that reveres music as a conduit
to the divine, has profoundly shaped the musical-cultural landscape of Java. Sufism was
introduced to the island of Java by Arab traders in the 15th century.79 Since then, Sufism has
become deeply rooted in Java, with over ninety percent of Java's population identifying as Sufi
Muslims today. Consequently, in line with Sufi teachings, Javanese gamelan music is often
characterized by its controlled and serene demeanor, particularly when contrasted with the more
vibrant and dynamic style of its Balinese counterpart.
78 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 350.
79 Pacholczyk, “Music and Islam in Indonesia.”
116
The soft and mellow quality of Javanese gamelan music, often described as alus
(refinement) holds significant esteem among musicians, audiences, and even the Indonesian
government.80 This appreciation traces back to Indonesia's independence era, where the national
radio station, Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI), consistently prioritized the broadcast of Javanese
gamelan music.81 Furthermore, the release of several influential recordings of Javanese gamelan
performances by RRI and the government's preference for showcasing Javanese gamelan at
cultural diplomacy events further amplified Javanese gamelan’s widespread recognition.82 The
preference for Javanese gamelan finds its roots in a rich historical legacy dating back to the
medieval-Hindu Majapahit Kingdom, as well as the sophisticated court culture that has defined
Javanese gamelan for centuries. This historical significance led to Javanese gamelan being
selected as a vehicle for promoting the country’s unique history and culture, as is best reflected
in how Javanese gamelan is often emphasized within music programs in government-supported
schools. Consequently, the alus characteristic, once emblematic of Javanese gamelan and a
source of pride for Javanese culture, transformed into a national musical standard. However, this
preference for Javanese gamelan raised concerns about overshadowing other traditional music
forms in Java. Over the past two decades, the Indonesian government has responded by
increasing support for diverse subcategories and practices of gamelan in Java.83 This effort aims
to prevent the marginalization of non-central Javanese court-style gamelan traditions and ensure
the preservation of Java's rich musical heritage. These developments point toward the
significance of Javanese gamelan's aesthetic and its broader impact on Indonesian musical
80 Perlman, “The Traditional Javanese Performing Arts in the Twilight of the New Order: Two Letters from Solo,”
3.Perlman, “The Traditional Javanese Performing Arts in the Twilight of the New Order: Two Letters from Solo.”
81 Spiller, Gamelan, 88.
82 Ibid.
83 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 350.
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culture, laying the groundwork for exploring Javanese gamelan-influenced choral compositions
in the next section.
Linearity and transparency are two musical characteristics of Javanese gamelan that go
hand in hand. Linearity and transparency are two words used by American ethnomusicologist,
William Malm to describe the sonority and musical structure of East Asian music. According to
Malm, “linearity” refers to the way East Asian music emphasizes melody and rhythm over
vertical harmonies; and “transparency” refers to the high degree of timbral distinctiveness of all
voice parts.84 This unique aesthetic emerges from two key factors: the structural organization of
Javanese gamelan music and the integration of both "loud" and "soft" ensembles. In Javanese
gamelan, as well as in other gamelan traditions, each instrument fulfills a distinct melodic and
rhythmic role, prioritizing linearity over harmony. For instance, the interaction between the
balungan (abstracted melody) and kembangan (elaborated melody) is guided by an internalized
melody known to the musicians, rather than a predetermined chord progression provided by the
slower-moving balungan. Similarly, while the extended sequence of repeated notes produced by
the time-keeping kethuk and the lingering resonance of the large gong ageng may bear a
resemblance to drone harmony, their principal role within the ensemble is to maintain tempo and
signify the advancement of the colotomic structure. In other words, each instrumental part is
connected by rhythm and melody, and no part is subordinate to the other.
The discernible compositional structure of Javanese gamelan accounts for one aspect of
the distinct separation of musical layers.85 However, it is the integration of both "loud" and "soft"
ensembles that contributes most significantly to the “transparent” quality of Javanese gamelan
84 William P. Malm. Musical traits common to East Asian cultures. Britannica Academic https://academic-ebcom.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/East-Asian-arts/109412. Accessed March 15, 2021.
85 Weintraub, “The ‘Crisis of the Sinden’: Gender, Politics, and Memory in the Performing Arts of West Java, 1959-
1964.”
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music. For example, traditional gamelan instruments like the gongs and drums establish a
foundational colotomic structure with their interlocking rhythms, newer additions such as
vocalists and wooden bamboo flutes introduce melodic elements that soar above the percussive
backdrop, each lending its distinctive timbre. The timbral contrast between the two groups is
further accentuated by the unique sounds of the individual instruments within both instrumental
groups. For instance, the large hanging gongs including gong ageng and kempul contributes a
dark, warm, highly reverberant sound to the music, whereas smaller instruments like the saron
and gender resonate with a bright ring. Particularly noteworthy is the soft-sounding ensemble,
featuring the bowed rebab, plucked celempung, wooden bamboo flute, and human voice, each
contributing a highly distinctive timbre.
Bright and forward is one of the defining characteristics of gamelan music, and this holds
true in Javanese gamelan. In most gamelan ensembles, bronze instruments like bonangs, sarons,
and genders contribute significantly to this timbral brightness. Unlike most other subcategories
of gamelan where the bright timbre comes primarily from the bronze percussion instruments, in
Javanese gamelan, the impression of bright and forward comes from an interesting interplay
between singers and bronze instruments. This is primarily because of the way the bronze
instruments are struck in Javanese gamelan and the singing style employed by the pesindhen and
penggerong singers. First, to accommodate the soft-sounding instruments, the bronze
instruments are often played with padded mallets.
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Figure 3.20: Mallets used in Javanese gamelan.
Source: Photo permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Naturally, the use of soft mallets creates a relatively warmer and less piercing tone in
contrast to the Balinese bronze instruments, traditionally played with uncovered metal mallets.
However, the tone is far from dark or dull; rather, it resembles the bright, resonant sound
produced by the marimba or glockenspiel, which are often played with mallets featuring soft
rubber heads. This relatively “darker” tone is compensated and complimented by the bright and
nasal singing style of the pesindhen and penggerong singers, a style drastically different from the
bel canto tradition familiar to Western musicians. Though the exact reasons for this vocal
technique remain speculative, it is believed to be influenced by the inherent brightness of
Javanese gamelan's predecessor, gamelan sekaten, and the need to cut through the dense texture
of percussion instruments.
Javanese Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works
Javanese gamelan plays a significant role in shaping choral works from Malaysia and
Indonesia. As the mother of all gamelan music, Javanese gamelan represents one of the most
prominent musical traditions all across Southeast Asia. Therefore, even though gamelan is
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primarily an instrumental musical form, its unique musical texture, timbre, and performance
practice have become a rich source of inspiration for choral composers. This trend became
particularly pronounced as both nations approached independence from European colonial
powers in the mid-20th century, seeking to establish a new musical identity that is rooted in their
cultural heritage and historical legacy. Today, the distinct sounds of Javanese gamelan remain a
point of pride for choral musicians, especially when their works are showcased on international
stages. The following discussion will delve into two choral compositions––Daud Kosasih’s
Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah (1994) and “Kyrie eleison” from Ivan Yohan’s Indonesian Mass
(2006), aiming to showcase three fundamental musical qualities of Javanese gamelan: (1)
unhurried elegance, (2) linearity and transparency, and (3) bright and forward timbre. Through
this exploration, practical insights will be provided for educators teaching choral repertoire
influenced by this tradition.
There exists a vast array of Javanese gamelan-influenced choral works that could have
been chosen instead of these two. While both compositions are original, sacred, a cappella choral
pieces, each exemplifies the musical traits of Javanese gamelan in a distinct manner. Rindu
Kepada Kediaman Allah adheres to a stricter and more traditional style of Javanese gamelan,
whereas "Kyrie eleison" from the Indonesian Mass showcases a freer and more conceptual
reference to Javanese gamelan. Additionally, these compositions cater to different skill levels.
Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah is composed in a more economical and approachable manner,
while "Kyrie eleison" features more divisis and challenging vocal techniques. Moreover, the
emotional expression in the texts differs between the two compositions. Rindu Kepada
Kediaman Allah expresses praise and admiration in an introspective manner, characterized by
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slow and gradual musical development, while Yohan divides the texts in “Kyrie eleison” into
contrasting musical sections.
While this discussion aims to highlight the three musical hallmarks of Javanese gamelan,
it is imperative to acknowledge the complexity within the construction of any choral works––
arrangements and original compositions alike. Unless clearly outlined by the composer, a
composer's choice to reference a particular gamelan style is not always conscious or
subconscious. Furthermore, there are often overlaps among different gamelan subcategories. For
instance, while it is generally true that all subcategories of gamelan exhibit a bright and forward
timbre, the specific performance practice contributing to this timbre may vary between different
subcategories. Therefore, the subsequent discussion serves as a reference and guide for choral
musicians to approach the distinctive compositional techniques and styles found in gamelaninfluenced choral works with a more profound comprehension of Javanese gamelan performance
practices.
Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah (1994) by Daud Kosasih (b. 1964)
Daud Kosasih – Biography
Daud Kosasih (b. 1964), is considered one of the pioneers in using pitch material from
gamelans and other instrumental forms. As with many graduates of the Asian Institute for
Liturgy and Music (AILM) in the Philippines, Kosasih’s compositional style was significantly
influenced by his time at AILM. The institute encourages Asian composers to create works that
reflect the musical heritage of their home countries. However, unlike many of his Indonesian
colleagues, most of Kosasih’s original compositions are not written with the intention of adding
choreography in the folkloric style, nor do the materials come directly from popular Indonesian
folk songs. This compositional style is rather uncommon in today’s Indonesian choral scene. In
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recent years, Indonesian choir’s active participation in local and international choral
competitions and festivals has encouraged more and more composers to write short original
compositions and arrangements of Indonesian folk songs that allow singers to perform it with
choreography. His introspective compositional style sets him apart from his contemporaries,
inspiring new generations of young choral composers to take on more liberal approaches to
writing in the style of gamelan and other gong-chime orchestras native to Southeast Asia.86
Kosasih is highly educated across Asia and Europe. He first received his bachelor’s
degree in composition and choral conducting from the AILM, then a scholarship to pursue his
second degree at the Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts, studying composition.
After receiving his second degree, he moved to Taiwan to begin his master’s degree at the
Tainan Theological College and Seminary, where he studied composition and choral conducting
and arranging.87
Currently, he is the principal of the Classical Music Division of Methodist Charles
Wesley School, oversees the education branch of the Yamaha Era Musika Medan Music School,
and holds the position as a minister of music at the Methodist Indonesia Jemaat Gratia Church in
Medan. Additionally, Kosasih is also a sought-after jury and guest speaker at local and
international choral festivals and competitions. Outside of his busy teaching schedule, he also
directs the Methodist-2 Chamber Choir in his hometown, Medan, performing frequently in
Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.88
86 André de Quadros, Focus: Choral Music in Global Perspective (New York, NY: Routledge, 2019), 61-62; Ken
Steven, email exchange with the author, Los Angeles, March 21, 2021.
87 Steven, email exchange
88 Ibid
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Analysis of Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah
Set in a moderately slow tempo, Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah (How lovely is your
dwelling place) beautifully embodies the tranquility and unhurried elegance of Javanese
gamelan. Unlike choral works influenced by the rhythmic and vigorous Balinese gamelan, the
quiet lyricism and mystic serenity are what makes this composition unique, providing a quiet and
introspective interpretation of the texts from Psalm 84. The composition is set to the first,
second, and fourth verses of Psalm 84. When asked why he omitted the third verse of the psalm,
Kosasih shared that he enjoyed how Johannes Brahms’ (1833-1897) left out the lengthier third
verse in his famous Wie lieblich sind deine Wohnungen (How lovely are your dwelling places;
1868) and made the entire fourth movement flow better – and he wanted to do the same.
Coincidentally, Kosasih’s decision to leave out the third verse of Psalm 84 made this
composition even more reminiscent of the gendhing form, a composition form for Javanese
gamelan compositions set in fixed meter and relatively slow tempo. The gendhing form usually
consists of at least two sections, merong and inggah, each of which can be repeated. Merong
tends to be more contemplative and inggah is usually bolder and louder albeit without reaching a
bombastic or overly celebratory level. To achieve that, Kosasih sets Section A to the first verse
from Psalm 84, Section B to the longer and more emotional second verse, and the reprise of
Section A to the fourth verse. In general, all verses in this composition exude the joy of a pilgrim
traveling up to Jerusalem, then up into the temple to celebrate one of the feasts. However, a
devout Christian and a composer known for his introspective compositional style, Kosasih wants
to convey this joy in an introspective manner, rather than an outward expression of praise and
adoration. To do that, Kosasih sets each of the three verses to distinctive combinations of
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voicings, word paintings, and countermelodies – each evokes an unrepeated yet continuous
mood.
Additionally, Kosasih also referenced the tones, scales, and musical texture in Javanese
gamelan through the composition to further transport the listeners into the Javanese gamelan
sound world. Set entirely in the D pelog scale (D-F#-G-A-C#-D) without any accidentals, the
composition opens with a tone cluster comprising the first three notes of the D pelog scale (D,
F#, and G). To heighten the gamelan effect, the vocal accompaniments predominantly feature
onomatopoeic syllables like “ding” and “dong,” evoking the resonant tones produced by striking
tuned bronze instruments. Additionally, syllables such as “du” recall the muffled sound of
metallophones like the saron, while “u” echoes the melodic timbre of the suling flute.
Example 3.1: The opening section of Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah.
In the second measure, the tenors introduce a short melismatic countermelody sung in [u]
vowel to imitate the sound of suling, a bamboo flute. This countermelody will appear several
more times throughout the composition, usually towards the end of a phrase, a common
performance practice for suling. The upper voices join in two measures later, dancing lightly
around the lower voices to co-create an ethereal layer of sounds evocative of the hanging gongs
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in Javanese gamelan. The stage is now set for the Section A, set to “Betapa disenangi tempat
kediamanMu, ya Allah semesta alam” (How amiable are thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts!). In
Section A, the melody is always echoed between the upper and lower voices, painting the picture
of the pilgrim walking into the spacious tabernacle. To avoid these overlapping legato lines from
sounding too blended, Kosasih assigned the role of kethuk or kenong to the altos by having them
sing short countermelodies set entirely to staccato (see mm. 11-12 in the excerpt below).89
Example 3.2: Kethuk-like articulation in the alto part (mm. 11-12).
The reason for the seemingly out-of-place staccati has to do with the padded mallets used
in Javanese gamelan. Unlike Balinese gamelan, most of the mallets used in Javanese gamelan are
padded with thick cloth.90 The resulting effect is a warm, reverberant sound that can get too
blended if all instruments are played with the same articulation. Hence, mixing contrasting
articulations became a common playing technique in Javanese to ensure that the interwoven
89 In Javanese gamelan, kethuk and kenong are medium-size kettle gongs which their primary function is to
underline the musical structure and provide simple accompaniment to the melody. Kosasih, email exchange
90 Sumarsam. “Introduction to Javanese Gamelan” Wesleyan University, 1999.
https://sumarsam.web.wesleyan.edu/Intro.gamelan.pdf Accessed on March 2, 2021
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layers were discernible.91 Towards the end of the section, all voices soar together in high
tessitura in homophony and fortissimo for the first and only time in the entire work at “ya Allah
semesta alam” (O Lord of hosts!), expressing the feeling of awe the pilgrim experiences.
A two-measure interlude connects the apex to the Section B set to “Jiwaku hancur
karena merindukan pelataran-pelataran Tuhan; hatiku dan dagingku bersorak sorai kepada
Allah yang hidup” (“My soul longeth, yea, even fainteth for the courts of the Lord; my heart and
my flesh crieth out for the living God.”). In this section, the melody is no longer presented in
canon. The first half of the verse is sung by the tenors and basses, accompanied by
countermelodies sung by the treble voices. In the second half of the verse, the roles reverse.
While this section is texturally simpler, the resulting mood is more personal. The way the voices
join together enhances text clarity and makes the text feel more like an outcry of passion.
Kosasih indulges in some word paintings here, he emphasizes the word “hancur” (broken or
shattered) to descending motion in m. 25, and sets “bersorak sorai” (cheering and shouting) to
dotted rhythm in m. 25, one of the few times he utilized dotted rhythm in the composition.
According to the composer, employment of word painting may be considered the least
"gamelan" characteristic in the entire composition.92 However, it serves as a poignant reminder
that gamelan-influenced choral compositions still possess distinct qualities separate from
traditional gamelan music––be it Javanese, Balinese, or Malay gamelans. The focus is not on the
extent to which the composer adheres to gamelan performance practices, but rather on how they
seamlessly integrate gamelan elements into the choral form.
The final verse is a reprise of Section A, returning the work to singing adoration and
praise. To enhance the sound of praising, Kosasih makes a small variation in the alto
91 Ibid
92 Email exchange with Daud Kosasih, Los Angeles, March 22, 2021.
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countermelodies set entirely in staccati. He adds a note that is one or two steps higher than the
penultimate note at the end of each countermelody, making the lines more praiseful––literally
and musically. The coda begins with an unexpected accelerando, creating tension all just for the
composition to arrive at the last two words, “memuji engkau” (praising thee). The final two
words are set to a shimmering cluster in the D pelog scale, evoking the rich tonal colors of a
Javanese gamelan tuned to pelog.
Example 3.3: The coda section (mm. 49-54) of Kosasih’s Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah.
“Kyrie eleison” from Indonesian Mass (2006) by Ivan Yohan (b. 1975)
Ivan Yohan – Biography
Yohan’s (b. 1975) interest in choral music began when he began his study in accounting
at the Parahyangan Catholic University, where he sang at the university choir and took private
voice and conducting lessons. Upon completing his accounting degree, Yohan moved to the
Netherlands to pursue a bachelor’s degree in classical singing at the Utrecht Conservatory. After
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receiving his degree in voice, Yohan stayed at the Conservatory to begin his master’s degree in
choral conducting, studying under the direction of Rob Vermeulen (b. 1961). As part of his
studies, Yohan completed a student exchange program in Lithuania, where he studied choral
conducting with Vytautas Miškinis (b. 1954) and vocal performance with Algirdas Janutas (b.
1961).93
An accomplished tenor in both the choral and solo singing scene, Yohan was chosen as
one of the Indonesian delegates for the Asian Youth Choir in 2002, 2006, and 2007. As a soloist,
he has performed Handel's Messiah, played the role of the First Sailor in Henry Purcell’s Dido
and Aeneas, and Sanjaya in the Kali, an Indonesian opera written by Tony Prabowo (b. 1956),
among many others major works, which are all well presented on his website.94
Before moving to Brussels, where he currently lives, Yohan was the conductor and music
director of the Parahyangan Catholic University Choir (PCUC). In 2014, he conducted PCUC at
the 51st International Choir Competition in Spittal an der Drau, Austria, led the ensemble to the
first place, and received special commendation for best interpretation of a modern piece. In 2016,
Yohan founded SWARA, a Brussels-based choral ensemble committed to the promotion and
performance of modern a cappella repertoire. Yohan earned the Special Award for Excellent
Conducting Performance at the Béla-Bartók 27th International Choir Competition 2016 in
Debrecen, Hungary and Best Conductor Award at the Baltic Sea International Choir Competition
2018 in Jurmala, Latvia. Since 2017, Yohan has worked as one of the associate conductors of Le
Concert Spirituel in collaboration with the principal conductor Hervé Niquet (b. 1957) in a
project specializing in works by Orazio Benevolo’s (1672-1605), a Renaissance composer, who
93 Yohan, Ivan. “Biography.” ivanyohan.com, 2017. https://www.ivanyohan.com/biography. Accessed February 1,
2021
94 Ibid
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was rediscovered recently. In addition to working with SWARA, he is also one of the conductors
of the Ghent Singers, a professional vocal ensemble based in Ghent, Belgium and the director of
the Moroccan Philharmonic Choir in Rabat, Morocco.95 To date, his choral works have been
premiered by various choirs from Asia, Europe and North America, and published by Porfiri &
Horváth Publishers (Germany), Earthsongs (United States) and Miela Harmonija
(Lithuania/Japan).96
Analysis of “Kyrie eleison” from Indonesian Mass
"Kyrie eleison" from Ivan Yohan's Indonesian Mass exemplifies a new trend among
choral composers, where they assert their individuality by freely interpreting Javanese gamelan
in their compositions. The contemporary Southeast Asian choral landscape is now more diverse
and globalized than ever, thanks in part to international choral festivals, competitions, and
government initiatives promoting native traditions alongside Western standards.97 These
platforms have empowered composers to experiment with and fuse native traditions with other
musical cultures, leading to the emergence of a new Southeast Asian choral sound that is more
multicultural than before. In email exchanges with the composer, Yohan stated that “[“Kyrie
eleison”] was more of a free interpretation of gamelan style – the way I interpreted it was based
on what I heard while growing up in Java.” Yohan’s free interpretation of the gamelan is
reflected through the way he combined the two Javanese gamelan scales––the pelog (do-mi-fasol-ti) and slendro (do-re-mi-sol-la) scales––with the Western diatonic scale, and how he added
pitch degrees non-native to those gamelan scales to create a color he described as “using-buthiding.” While the resulting sonority is evocative of gamelan, this is a color that will never be
95 Yohan. “Biography.” ivanyohan.com, 2017.
96 Ibid
97 De Quadros. Focus: Choral, 2019, 57.
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heard in a traditional gamelan composition. This is because a complete set of gamelan is actually
a double set, with one set tuned to pelog and the other to slendro.
98 The two will never be played
simultaneously.
“Kyrie eleison” is a movement that looks to combine different types of tone series. Each
section is rooted in a tonal center, but it is not tonal in the way a conventional Western choral
composition would be. The movement begins with a chant set to the melody of the first line of a
famous Sundanese folk song, Cing Cangkeling.
99 This prayerful opening chant is set firmly in
the C-pentatonic slendro scale, one of the two oldest and most commonly used scales in
Indonesian gamelan music. The altos, tenors, and basses join in two bars later, responding to the
sopranos by repeating “kyrie eleison'' set only on G2 and G3. This is a moment of transition from
slendro to diatonic because G is the fifth degree of the scale, which is the only common degree
shared by the Western diatonic scale, the slendro scale, and the pelog scale. In the following
response, the lower voices begin to sing notes “foreign” to the slendro scale, modulating the
opening section into a mixture of A-major and A-aeolian mode, but there is never a cadence to
confirm the modulation. The next section (starting m. 25) begins with staggered entrances from
the lowest voice to the highest. According to Yohan, the inspiration behind this is the Javanese
rice terrace in West Java, where he grew up.100 All voices join together towards the end of the
section, producing a C pelog tone cluster (mm. 34 to 57). Again, the last chord does not confirm
the tonal center of the section but rather suggests colors.
98 Email exchange with Daud Kosasih by the author, Los Angeles, March 22-23, 2021.
99 Email exchange with Ivan Yohan by the author, Los Angeles, February to March, 2021.
100 Email exchange with Daud Kosasih by the author, Los Angeles, March 22-23, 2021.
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Figure 3.21: Javanese terrace rice field.
A prominent quality of Javanese gamelan in this movement is the utilization of
interlocking motifs and the pesidhen-like vocal timbre in the "Christe eleison" section. This
imparts the quintessential linear and transparent quality reminiscent of Javanese gamelan.
Following the C pelog tone cluster, Yohan gives audiences the first taste of the characteristic
gamelan texture by setting the “Christe eleison” to four heterophonic overlapping melodies. The
interwoven melodies begin in the lemah-lembut (unhurried elegance) style characteristic of
Javanese gemalan. With each repetition of the looped motif, the tempo becomes gradually faster,
moving the music to the fast “Christe eleison” section. In contrast to the previous Javanese
gamelan-like texture, the lower voices now sing shorter note values with staccati peppered
throughout the motifs, creating an intricate web of polyphony to accompany the slow and lyrical
soprano line. The juxtaposition of the two textures produces a "transparent" effect, allowing each
line to be distinctly audible even as they intertwine. At this point, Yohan wants the soprano to
represent the pesindhen, the treble-voice soloist or choir in Javanese gamelan, and the lower
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voices as the Javanese gamelan orchestra. Upon mentioning how to create the nasal yet light
timbre in pesindhen-style singing, Yohan shared that he would not encourage choirs to mimic the
vocal techniques used by pesindhen singers. “They always sing sitting on their knees (silå) and
they use microphones,” said Yohan, “which means it’s totally different [from] classical choir
singing.” However, he did agree that maintaining resonance near the singers' facial masks is vital
for achieving a bright timbre. He suggested for introducing nasal sounds selectively, particularly
when the sopranos are singing closed vowels like [i] and [e], or when the pitch drops to a
comfortable range for them to incorporate nasal resonance. To assist the nasal tone production,
Yohan set most of the long melismatic lines in the pesindhen section to the [i] vowel from
“Christe,” a naturally closed and pressed vowel that is easy for singing nasal.
The “Christe eleison'' section, again, ends with a tone cluster of C pelog. However, this
time, the cluster is formed by terraced entrances that start with the higher voices, creating the
image of an inverted rice terrace. The tone cluster ends with a sustaining bass note on G2,
returning the movement back to the C slendro tonal center. Once again, the opening chant is
heard, but this time sung by the tenors and sopranos in canon. As with the harmonic structure of
the opening section, “foreign” pitches are added gradually into the slendro scale. The final
section modulates gradually to A major, concluding the movement with a hypnotic A major with
sixth and ninth chords, reminiscent of the overtones released by the gong-chimes and
metallophones at the end of a Javanese gamelan performance.
Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Javanese Gamelan-Influenced Choral
Works
This section offers practical suggestions for choral musicians on performing and teaching
choral works influenced by Javanese gamelan. As previously noted, Javanese gamelan music is
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characterized by three main qualities: (1) unhurried elegance, (2) linearity and transparency, and
(3) a bright, forward timbre. Among these, the lemah-lembut quality—serene, mystical, and
unhurried—is a hallmark of Javanese gamelan. Festivals and competitions play a crucial role in
circulating repertoire and performance conventions in Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia
and Indonesia. According to Soemantri (n.d.) et al., the proliferation of festivals may result from
the support provided by the Indonesian Department of Culture and Education and the Social
Department, as well as the Malaysian Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Tourism, Arts,
and Culture. As De Quadros (b. 1958) explains, “Indonesia has a strong culture of competition in
general, and competitions are an essential rite of passage to professionalism and recognition in
traditional music.”101 To illustrate the sheer volume of choral competitions held annually,
consider the 2017 choir competition organized by the Minahasan Evangelical Church in North
Sulawesi. This competition involved nearly all of its 951 constituent churches. In that year alone,
235 choirs participated, including one choir with 210 singers and another with 414 singers.
While traditional musical arts significantly influence choral works in Malaysia and Indonesia,
choral competitions also play a crucial role. Motivated by a competitive spirit, choral
musicians—singers, conductors, composers, and arrangers—are driven to create highly virtuosic
choral works. These pieces often feature extensive divisi, fast tempos, and dense, complex
interlocking rhythms to showcase the choirs' skills. Over time, this has led to the misconception
that all gamelan-influenced choral works are fast and rhythmic, a quality that does not align with
the characteristics of Javanese gamelan. This misconception explains why there are relatively
few choral works that emulate the slow and mellow nature of Javanese gamelan. Therefore,
when performing a choral work modeled after Javanese gamelan, it is important to emphasize its
101 Quadros, Focus, 62.
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lemah-lembut quality. This approach contrasts with the louder, more rhythmic, and extremely
fast interlocking motifs typical of Balinese gamelan performances.
To achieve this unhurried quality, in addition to maintaining a moderately slow tempo,
there are several other techniques to consider. First, it is essential to keep the gong-like
onomatopoeic syllables warm and rounded. Onomatopoeia such as “dong,” “deng,” “ding,”
“dang,” “gung,” and “gong” is frequently used in choral compositions to imitate the sounds of
bronze gongs and membranophones. What sets a Javanese gamelan-influenced choral work apart
from those influenced by other gamelan subcategories is the sound of the gongs. In Javanese
gamelan, the use of softly padded mallets and sticks covered with natural fibers produces softer
and warmer gong sounds compared to other gamelan subcategories, such as Balinese gamelan.
However, it is important to emphasize that this does not mean the sounds of the Javanese gongs
and gong-chime instruments are dark. It simply means that when struck by padded mallets, the
softer impact results in a less clangy and metallic timbre. To replicate this warmth, choirs should
aim for a tall, warm sound similar to bel canto singing, positioning the vowels of the
onomatopoeic syllables closer to the middle of the mouth. Avoid making these sounds too nasal
and pressed, as that would produce a timbre more characteristic of Balinese gamelan.
Furthermore, to enhance the warm tone, the consonants in these vocables should be gentler,
reflecting the way the gongs are struck. Common consonants like [d] and [g] should be sung
gently rather than being modified toward the more aspirated and percussive [t] and [k].
Linearity and transparency are key elements in performing Javanese gamelan-inspired
choral works. Although Javanese gamelan is known for its gentle and mellow sound, this should
not be mistaken for creating a blended choral sound where each voice part blends into the other.
Each group or family of instruments in a Javanese gamelan ensemble has a specialized musical
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function and a distinct timbre that stands out, as described by William Malm using the terms
linear and transparent. In a choral context, this means that unless it is clear that voice parts are
mimicking the same kind of gamelan instrument, attempts to achieve a blended tone through
aligning vowel shape, resonance, and vocal technique should be limited to each individual voice
part. To achieve this in choral performance, conductors can encourage each voice part to emulate
the role of a different instrument. For instance, in the opening section of Kosasih’s Rindu
Kepada Kediaman Allah, the following timbral suggestions can be made based on the rhythm,
articulation, and musical contour of each of the four voice parts:
1. Bass: Imitate the gong ageng, siyem, or kempul (large hanging gongs) with a deep,
resonant, and reverberant timbre, as indicated by the accented, slow-moving notes.
2. Tenor: Alternate between the suling (bamboo flute) for legato lines and the bonang
panerus (medium-sized gong chimes) for accented notes. The suling has a bright and
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warm sound, while the bonang panerus is resonant and reverberant but lighter than
the large hanging gongs imitated by the bass.
3. Alto: Alternate between the suling for legato phrases and the dry-sounding kethuk,
which marks time and delineates phrases, indicated by the staccato “du” sound.
4. Soprano: Alternate between the rebab and the pesindhen singer, transitioning from
“u” sounds to text. Both the rebab and pesindhen produce a bright, forward, and
slightly nasal tone that typically stands out in the ensemble.
Example 3.4: The opening section of Kosasih's Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah.
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Achieving a bright and forward timbre is a crucial guidepost for performing Javanese
gamelan-influenced choral music. Unlike Balinese gamelan, where the bright and clangy timbre
primarily derives from bronze instruments struck with uncovered metal mallets, the brightness in
Javanese gamelan predominantly comes from the rebab, suling, and the pesindhen and
penggerong singers. From a vocal technique perspective, it is imperative to recognize that this
timbre lies outside the Western bel canto singing tradition and technique, yet it is equally valid
and sophisticated. Producing this bright, forward timbre involves several key aspects:
1. Forward resonance placement:
Forward placement can be achieved by positioning the tongue forward and keeping the back
of the tongue relaxed and low. An effective metaphor to instruct singers is to have them
imagine using the tip of their tongues to remove a piece of peanut butter stuck at the back of
their teeth. This imagery encourages proper forward tongue placement, facilitating a bright
tone.
2. Mouth positioning:
Smiling while singing can also aid in producing a bright timbre. This technique stretches the
mouth back and upward, preventing the back of the tongue from rising and obstructing the
forward placement of sound. This is particularly evident in the facial expressions of
pesindhen singers.
3. Higher larynx position:
Unlike the Western bel canto tradition, which emphasizes a low larynx position for a rich,
warm tone, the vocal technique used by the pesindhen and penggerong singers benefits from
a higher larynx position. Allowing the larynx to rise slightly can produce a brighter and more
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"pressed" sound. This higher larynx position contributes to the distinct, penetrating quality of
the timbre, aligning with the traditional Javanese vocal style.
4. Breath support and control:
Adequate breath support is essential for maintaining a consistent, bright tone. Encourage
singers to focus on steady breath control, keeping the airflow smooth and sustained. This
controlled breath should be paired with an awareness of airflow, gently directed toward the
front of the mouth to enhance brightness.
5. Vowel shaping:
Proper vowel shaping is critical for achieving the desired timbre. Vowels should be modified
to favor a brighter resonance. For instance, altering the shape of "ah" vowels to be more "eh"
and “ee”-like can contribute to a more forward and bright sound. Encouraging singers to
focus on the purity and clarity of vowels will help maintain the brightness associated with
Javanese gamelan vocals.
6. Producing a nasal but healthy tone:
To achieve a nasal but healthy tone, singers should focus on directing the sound towards the
nasal cavities without straining the vocal cords. This can be done by lifting the soft palate
slightly and allowing the resonance to focus in the mask of the face, which includes the area
around the nose and cheekbones. Exercises such as humming while gently massaging the
sides of the nose can help singers feel the vibrations in the correct area, promoting a nasal
tone. Ensuring that the jaw is relaxed and the tongue remains flexible will prevent tension
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that can lead to unhealthy vocal production. Singers can also practice gentle sirens or glides
on an “ng” sound to further develop this nasal resonance.
By integrating these vocal techniques, singers can effectively emulate the bright, forward,
and slightly nasal timbre characteristic of Javanese gamelan music, enhancing the authenticity
and richness of the choral performance.
Conclusion
Tracing its origins to the 13th-century gamelan sekaten, the predecessor of Javanese
gamelan, Javanese gamelan is often considered the "mother" of all gamelan forms. The interplay
of membranophones and bronze instruments in Javanese gamelan introduced two quintessential
musical qualities: an interlocking colotomic structure and a bright, forward timbre. Distinguished
by its history as court music and the influence of Islam, particularly Sufism in Java, Javanese
gamelan is characterized by its unhurried and mellow musical traits. Despite these unique traits,
the competitive choral culture prevalent in Southeast Asia often favors faster, showier, and more
virtuosic styles, such as Balinese gamelan, over the more subdued Javanese style. This
preference has led to a relative scarcity of choral works that explicitly reference Javanese
gamelan traditions. A similar trend is observed in compositions influenced by Malay and
Balinese gamelans, where composers would often combine the gamelan elements with
compositional devices borrowed from a broad spectrum of traditional musical arts available in
Malaysia and Indonesia, such as the kecak monkey chant from Bali, joget from the Pahang state
of Malaysia, and dikir barat from northern Malaysia and Southern Thailand––a song-dance form
popularized by Malaysian choral composer Tracy Wong’s wildly popular arrangement of Wau
Bulan. Additionally, these influences are often infused with non-Indonesian and non-Malaysian
musical elements, such as Western harmonic progression and rhythmic devices, to further
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enhance the richness and diversity of the compositions. Perhaps the blending of various musical
influences with gamelan elements in choral works can be justified by recognizing that gamelan
music itself did not develop in isolation. Since as early as the 1st century CE, the Malay
Archipelago's strategic location facilitated the exchange of ideas, cultures, and innovations. The
bronze instruments in Javanese gamelan, for instance, trace their roots to the Đông Sơn bronze
culture of present-day Vietnam. It is essential to remember that this dissertation focuses on
choral works influenced by gamelan music, rather than gamelan-choral works.
This raises an important question: how can the influence of Javanese gamelan be
identified in choral repertoire? The answer lies in understanding the performance practices of
Javanese gamelan discussed earlier, which can be summarized into three main qualities: (1)
unhurried elegance, (2) linearity and transparency, and (3) bright and forward timbre. The
objective of this dissertation is not to prescribe definitive guidelines for performing choral works
influenced by gamelan music but to offer a framework for interpreting and appreciating the
nuanced elements characteristic of gamelan. While contemporary choral compositions may place
less emphasis on Javanese gamelan, its cultural and historical significance remains profound. It
is only through the recognition of Javanese gamelan, the foundational "mother" of all gamelan
subcategories, that one can fully appreciate the rich diversity within the gamelan tradition. An
appendix at the end of this dissertation includes a list of choral works influenced by gamelan,
serving as a resource for further exploration.
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Chapter 4 – The Influences of Balinese Gamelan on Choral Music
Bali
Drawing over 5.2 million tourists in 2023 alone, Bali is arguably Indonesia’s most
famous island.1 Unlike Java, Bali's fame does not stem from its size or political significance but
rather from its rich cultural heritage and international acclaim. This reputation blossomed in the
1920s and 1930s when prominent European and American artists like Walter Spies (1895-1942),
Colin McPhee (1900-1964), Margaret Mead (1901-1978), and Gregory Bateson (1904-1980)
visited Bali. They created numerous literary and artistic works that highlighted Bali’s tropical
climate, pristine natural beauty, vibrant arts scene, and mystical charm rooted in pre-Hinduism.
Recognizing Bali's growing international reputation, the Indonesian government has continually
developed it as a premier tourist destination. Despite its small size—only 2,147 square miles
with a population of under 800,000—Bali has garnered more attention than Java, which covers
53,588 square miles and has a population of 156.4 million.2
Since the 1800s, scholars and writers have frequently noted Bali's artistic vibrancy, where
every individual is seen as both an artist and a farmer. Modern Balinese society has transformed
significantly, yet this perception of a deeply ingrained artistic culture persists. This is largely due
to the influence of Saivite Hinduism, a form of Hinduism that incorporates pre-Hindu elements
and encourages the integration of arts into religious practice.3
In Bali, the word "karya" signifies
both ritual work and artistic work, reflecting how deeply intertwined music and art are with
1 Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi Bali, “Perkembangan Pariwisata Provinsi Bali Mei 2024,” July 2024,
https://shorturl.at/a9fE9.
2
Ibid.
3 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 379.
142
religion and daily life.4 This connection is especially evident in the role of music in Balinese
temples. Elaborate musical performances accompany prescribed rites and offerings, aiming to
purify and revive the annual religious cycle, thus bridging the past and present. Music also marks
every stage of a Balinese person’s life, from birth to cremation, highlighting its profound
significance in both religious and everyday contexts.5
Balinese gamelan is a cornerstone of the island's musical and artistic life, permeating
traditional cultural events, ceremonial occasions, theater, dance performances, and even modern
diplomatic events. Similar to its Javanese counterpart, Balinese gamelan has undergone
extensive evolution, transitioning from royal courts to villages and eventually to influential
modern conservatories. Throughout its history, traditional elements such as rhythmic motifs,
elaboration methods, and formal structures have been continuously adapted to suit the musical
functions and changing tastes of its audiences. Today, Bali hosts over twenty-five distinct
gamelan styles, differentiated by ensemble size, instrumentation, tuning, performance practice,
and socio-cultural functions. While certain compositions and playing styles are widely
recognized across the island, each region generally has its own preferred performance style.
According to Kartomi, some of these regional playing styles are exclusive to a few villages,
where each village may possess a single gamelan set, while others might own several standard
ensembles. Despite these regional variations, each gamelan set carries unique social significance
and function. Moreover, Balinese people believe that the older the gamelan set, the greater its
spiritual power and magical properties, paralleling the Javanese tradition of passing down
heirloom gamelan instruments to maintain divine right and legitimacy.6
4
Ibid.
5 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan”; Spiller, Gamelan.
6 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan”; Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” in The Garland Handbook of
Southeast Asian Music, ed. Terry E. Milller and Sean Williams, 1st ed. (New York: Routledge, 2008).
143
Bali and Java, close neighbors, share numerous cultural and traditional elements. The
musical traditions of both islands exhibit common features and organizational principles, hinting
at shared origins. For instance, the imagery of the Javanese Majapahit Kingdom and the Demak
Kingdom from Java's northern coast continues to influence Balinese models of refinement and
behavior, serving as a foundation for various types of music, theater, and poetry.7 The primary
similarity between Javanese and Balinese gamelans is that both ensemble are composed of
different bronze instruments and percussions, and their music features interlocking musical
layers; music is organized into four layers: (1) colotomic framework, (2) basic melody, (3)
elaborated melody, and (4) drumming. However, as Spiller puts it, even “untrained ears” can
discern significant differences in musical expression between the two.8 This is largely because of
the different details in the musical composition and playing techniques. These differences reflect
the distinct social, cultural, and political contexts experienced by each island. The following
sections will delve into the cultural history of Bali and the performance practices of Balinese
gamelan, highlighting the rich tapestry of influences and traditions that shape this vibrant
musical form.
Cultural History
As a close neighbor of Java, Bali has experienced significant cultural influences and
shared various musical and technological innovations with Java since as early as the 9th century.
Javanese immigrants introduced Indian philosophical ideas about cosmic cycles, the divine
authority of god-kings, and the influence of a spirit world on humans to Bali as early as the first
century, particularly during the peak of the Majapahit Kingdom in the 14th and 15th centuries.
7 Spiller, Gamelan, 47.
8
Ibid., 91.
144
The Balinese assimilated these ideas into their existing beliefs, creating a unique Balinese belief
system with elements of Hinduism. This is why even to this day, Balinese ritual activities often
emphasize honoring ancestors and local spirits, encouraging mutual cooperation and social
balance.9
In the 1500s, as Java gradually converted to Islam, many Javanese supporters of
Hinduism, especially aristocrats who refused to convert, fled to Bali. These aristocrats brought
priests, artisans, musicians, dancers, and other artists with them, further increasing the presence
of Hinduism in Bali, which explains its predominance in modern-day Bali. The Javanese
aristocrats and their artists were eventually incorporated into the highest classes of an
increasingly stratified society in Bali. Influenced by the culture of royal patronage for the arts,
Balinese royal courts became centers of musical patronage. Gamelan, already an established and
beloved style of music in the region, flourished under royal patronage. Similar to the Javanese
royals, the Balinese royals used gamelan to exhibit their wealth and legitimize their authority.
Given this unique history centered on Balinese Hinduism, scholars like Spiller describe Balinese
gamelan as a representation of what gamelan music might have been if Islam had not arrived in
the Malay Archipelago.10
For centuries, rituals have been the primary impetus for music-making in Balinese
culture. These rituals encompass life-cycle events such as birthdays, marriages, cremations,
tooth-filing ceremonies, naming ceremonies for infants, and temple festivities. These practices
are deeply influenced by the Balinese Hindu theological framework known as Panca Yadnya
(Five Sacrificial Offerings). Traditionally, villagers attend odalan, a temple festival held every
210 days, featuring performances and ritual music by gamelan musicians and dancers. In
9 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan”; Spiller, Gamelan, 91–92.
10 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan”; Spiller, Gamelan, 91–92.
145
addition to odalan, significant life-cycle rituals are celebrated in temples within traditional
Balinese society. Those who can afford to hire performers typically include gamelan music,
dance, and staged performances in these rituals.11
For the Balinese, gamelan performances themselves constitute active ritual offerings. As
Kartomi notes, "Both the sound structure of the music and the decorated cases of the musical
instruments embody codes parallel to those within ritual formulae, food offerings, and
cosmology."12 In Balinese Hindu rituals, three essential elements are involved: thought, sound
(word, and voice), and action. The intricate preparation required for a gamelan performance, the
sound it produces, and the collaborative nature of its musical construction, all contribute to its
status as an "elaborate offering with efficacious qualities necessary to complete a ritual."13
Today, Bali is home to over 20,000 Balinese Hindu temples, many of which remain
central to ritual music.14 For major temple rituals, organizers often hire multiple gamelans to
perform at different times or simultaneously in various locations, creating a unique spatial effect
integral to Balinese performing arts. Each gamelan ensemble holds distinct spiritual value,
cultural symbolism, and historical reference. When multiple ensembles perform concurrently,
they collectively create an aural representation of the cosmos, interweaving multiple legendary
pasts. This convergence of past and present fosters a communal spiritual experience, as intended
by the organizers of these festivals.15
Outside of temples, Balinese people also view gamelan as a reflection of village order.
Large hanging gongs like the gong agung represent respected elders, low-pitched metallophones
11 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 384–86.
12 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 385.
13 Ibid.
14 Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi Bali, “Perkembangan Pariwisata Provinsi Bali Mei 2024.”
15 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 384–86.
146
symbolize older adults, midrange metallophones correspond to adults, drums denote community
leaders, and the higher-pitched instruments represent the younger generation.16 Similar to the
Javanese, the Balinese attribute various extramusical associations to individual instruments. For
instance, in Prakempa, one of Bali’s earliest musical treatises, extensive cosmological
connections are made between gamelan instruments and their spiritual significance.17 Made
Mantle Hood (n.d.), an ethnomusicologist currently teaching at the University of Putra Malaysia,
in his analysis of the Prakempa manuscript written in archaic Balinese, notes:
In the passages of the text, the Prakempa insists that students of gamelan music pay
proper respect to music instructors and their teachings. Its stanzas guide practitioners
towards cultivating awareness that bronze is a medium for not only providing music for
rituals, but also to sound out the tones of the gods. […] All of these elements are linked to
the origins of the Balinese universe itself. Three written letters called wisah, taleng, and
cecek stand for the universe’s embodiment in the Hindu Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and
Shiva. This means sound, and therefore, music itself is notated according to symbols that
represent the divine origin of the universe.18
This explains the common association of the gong ageng, the largest gong in Balinese gamelan,
with the divine mountain and the Hindu god Shiva, and the trompong gong-chime instrument
with the lotus held by Vishnu.
Balinese Gamelan
As with Javanese gamelan, there is a diverse arrays of gamelan subcategories existing in
Bali, distinguished by instrumentation, ensemble size, and its socio-cultural functions. In general,
scholars such as Spiller, Kartomi, Sutton (b. 1949), Suanda (n.d.), Williams (n.d.), and Harnish
(n.d.) categorize these regional variations into three broad historical periods: (1) tua (old),
referring to the period before the fall of the Majapahit Kingdom and the beginning of the
16 Kartomi and Blum, Music-Cultures in Contact : Convergences and Collisions, 385.
17 Ibid., 386.
18 Made Mantle Hood, “Notating Heritage Musics: Preservation and Practice in Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia,”
Malaysian Journal of Music 5, no. 1 (2016): 59.
147
powerful Balinese-Hindu courts, (2) madya (middle), referring to the period when gamelan was
heavily supported by Balinese royal households, and (3) baru (new), the post-Dutch colonial
period when various musical innovations were incorporated into the predominant form of
modern-day Balinese gamelan, gong kebyar.
19
The term "tua" refers to the period before the fall of the Majapahit Kingdom in Java.
During this era, due to the proximity between Bali and Java, a type of gamelan known as gong
luang developed, similar to the Javanese gamelan sekaten, the earliest form of gamelan from
Java. According to Balinese scholar Pande Made Sukerta (b. 1953), gong luang was brought to
Bali from the Majapahit Kingdom as early as the 13th century.20 Given the great age of gong
luang, the exact instrumentation requires further research. Nevertheless, scholars generally agree
that gong luang’s instrumentation resembles that of Javanese gamelan sekaten, including large
hanging gongs, metallophones, and untuned drums. One of the few existing gong luang sets,
currently housed in Tangkas, a village located in the southeastern part of Bali, also includes a
bedug. Bedug is a large, barrel-shaped drum that creates a deep, resonant sound. This instrument
traces its origin to the Cirebonese gamelan sekaten, which again, points to the connection
between gong luang and the Javanese gamelan sekaten. During this time, the instruments in the
gong luang ensemble are exclusively tuned to the pelog system, a seven-note scale with nonequidistant intervals.21
During the middle era, gamelan gambuh and gong gede emerged as the predominant
subcategories of gamelan music in Bali. The middle period of the development of Balinese
19 Spiller, Gamelan; Kartomi and Blum, Music-Cultures in Contact : Convergences and Collisions; Miller and
Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music; Suanda, “Dancing in Cirebonese Topèng”; Harnish
and Rasmussen, Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia.
20 Pande Made Sukerta and A. L. Suwardi, “"Laras-Gender-Sebuah Proses,” in Enam Tahun Pekan Komponis Muda
1979-1985: Sebuah Alternatif (Jakarta: Dewan Kesenian Jakarta, 1976).
21 Spiller, Gamelan, 92.
148
gamelan was a time when the Javanese royal households started their patronage of gamelan
music. During this time, Javanese gamelan musicians introduced soft-sounding instruments into
the “generic” gamelan instrumentation, a notable innovation in Javanese gamelan music. Given
the historical ties between Bali and Java, the Balinese gamelan gambuh also incorporated softsounding instruments the way the Javanese court-style gamelans did, including instruments such
as the suling gambuh (large bamboo flutes) and the rebab (bowed string instrument). The
melodies played by these soft-sounding instruments would be laid atop the colotomic structure
created by various kettle gongs, gong-chimes, metallophones, and membranophones, reminiscent
of the musical structure of central Javanese court-style gamelan. Gamelan gambuh primarily
accompanied courtly song-dance performances, focusing on tales from Eastern Javanese dramas.
Like gong luang, gamelan gambuh was tuned to the pelog scale. While now rare in Bali, its
influence endures in the aesthetics, pelog scale, and colotomic structures of the newly developed
gong kebyar.
22
Gong gede emerged as another predominant gamelan style during the middle period, best
known for its vast instrumentation and the massiveness of the individual instruments. It often
required up to fifty musicians to perform. Due to its grandeur, gong gede is often the preferred
choice for ceremonial music in courts and temples. The ensemble's elaborate instrumentation and
magnificence draw parallels with the Javanese gamelan Yogyakarta, known for its extensive
instrumentation, reflecting the court's desire to showcase its wealth. Today, gong gede ensembles
are typically scaled down to provide ceremonial music for weddings, graduations, and other
important social and diplomatic events.23
22 Ibid.; Sukerta and Suwardi, “"Laras-Gender-Sebuah Proses.”
23 Spiller, Gamelan, 92.
149
During the middle period, several other gamelan ensembles existed, including gamelan
semar pegulingan and gamelan pelegongan. These ensembles adopted the musical structure of
gamelan gambuh, featuring melodies played by soft-toned instruments and colotomic forms
executed by a combination of gongs and drums. What distinguishes them from gamelan gambuh
is that the gong-chimes and metallophones not only provide the colotomic structure but also play
the melody. Although these ensembles are rarely performed today, they served as models for the
20th-century gong kebyar, particularly in the utilization of gong-chimes and metallophones for
melodies and variations.24
Gong kebyar is the musical legacy of the new period and the development of this new
type of gamelan is closely related to the impact of Dutch colonization. The Dutch first made
contact with Bali in 1597 when Dutch explorer Cornelis de Houtman (1565-1599) landed on the
island, and they gradually established political and economic control.25 Despite allowing local
cultural practices, including traditional arts, to continue, Dutch control over political and
economic affairs limited court revenues, leading to a decline in patronage for the arts,
particularly for court gamelans. As a result, many Balinese court gamelans were sold, pawned, or
given to villagers. This decline diminished the symbolic power of court gamelans. According to
Kartomi, many of these ensembles fell into disuse, with some being melted down and reforged
into new instruments. In extreme cases, during World War II, instruments were even melted into
bullets for the Japanese occupation forces in Indonesia.26
24 Ibid.
25 Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music.”
26 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 381–82.
150
Figure 4.1: A gong kebyar performance.
While Dutch colonization stripped gamelan of its prestigious status among traditional
arts, it also motivated the Balinese to unite in preserving their cultural heritage. When the Dutch
forcefully took over Bali in 1908, they effectively ended the power and influence of the Balinese
rulers.27 This marked the end of royal patronage for Balinese gamelan but also the rebirth of the
tradition under the support of banjars, local Balinese community organizations. Due to the
Balinese-Hindu social ideal of mutual cooperation, Balinese culture is deeply rooted in a strong
sense of communal interdependence. Despite the Dutch's divide-and-conquer ruling strategy, this
communal spirit remained strong. In fact, it was this communal bond that enabled traditional
arts, including gamelan, to continue developing without royal support. Following the Dutch
conquest, the banjars took collective control of the performing arts, managing the building and
27 Kent L. Gee and Jeremy Grimshaw, “The Acoustics and Culture of the Balinese Gamelan,” The Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America 146, no. 4 (2019): 2778–2778, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.5136622.
151
maintenance of common resources like temples and meeting places, and applying the same
principles to preserving gamelan music.28
The Dutch strategy of dividing and conquering further motivated communication
between various Balinese kingdoms and regions. The banjars communicated and shared
innovations with each other. For instance, a banjar in North Bali might develop a new gamelan
playing technique and share it with a southern banjar. Eventually, this increased inter-banjar
communication led to the creation of a new style of gamelan music called gong kebyar. The
word "kebyar" in Balinese means "to burst open" or "to flare up," reflecting the style’s
flamboyant, highly rhythmic, and virtuosic interlocking motifs, known as kotekan.
29 As for the
word "gong," it is commonly used among the Balinese to refer to an ensemble composed of
bronze gongs and percussive instruments; therefore, it is often used interchangeably with the
term "gamelan." Gong kebyar is unique to Bali for its exuberance and for embodying Balinese
communal interdependence and mutual cooperation. It has become a vital component of Bali’s
image as an international tourist attraction in the twenty-first century, showcasing both the
island’s rich cultural heritage and the enduring spirit of its people.30
Today, gong kebyar stands as the most iconic and significant subcategory of gamelan
music in Bali. Originating in north Bali around 1915, it rapidly spread across the island. Gong
kebyar started as a musical innovation but quickly transformed into a cultural movement by the
mid-20th century, symbolizing change in the Balinese gamelan soundscape and inspiring
collaboration and creativity among performers, composers, and choreographers. Its influence
28 Spiller, Gamelan, 95.
29 Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music.”
30 Gee and Grimshaw, “The Acoustics and Culture of the Balinese Gamelan”; Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of
Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music.”
152
extended beyond music, impacting various art forms, “even the plastic arts.”31 Due to its
widespread popularity and unique amalgamation of various traditional regional gamelan styles
all across Bali, scholars, audiences, and musicians often refer to gong kebyar simply as Balinese
gamelan. Therefore, moving forward, the discussion regarding the influence of Balinese gamelan
on Malaysian and Indonesian choral works will be viewed through the lens of gong kebyar. The
term gong kebyar and Balinese gamelan will also be used interchangeably.
Instrumentation
To grasp the musical qualities and unique timbre of Balinese gamelan that distinguish it
from its Javanese counterpart, it is essential to first examine the instrumentation of the Balinese
gong kebyar ensemble. While Balinese gamelan employs similar instruments to Javanese
gamelan, there are notable differences in their construction and performance practices. Both
repertoires are structured using a combination of linear melodies and a colotomic foundation.
Nevertheless, as previously mentioned, even to untrained ears, the sound of Javanese and
Balinese gamelans is markedly different. The instrumentation of the gong kebyar will serve as a
clear illustration of these differences. As in Chapter Four and the forthcoming Chapter Six, the
instruments in gong kebyar will be categorized based on their shape and construction to facilitate
comparison across different gamelan subcategories. This approach groups the instruments into
five categories: (1) vertical hanging gongs, (2) horizontally suspended kettle gongs, (3) keyed
31 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music, 381.
153
instruments, (4) membranophones, and (5) unpitched bronze instruments, allowing for easier
identification of similarities and distinctions between Javanese, Balinese, and Malay gamelans.
The first category includes three hanging gongs: gong ageng, kempur or kempul, and
kemong. As in Javanese gamelan, the gong ageng is the largest gong in the gong kebyar
ensemble, marking the beginning and end of performances and significant musical passages
within a composition. In Balinese gamelan tradition, there may occasionally be two gong agengs,
but never more than two. The sparse strokes of the gong ageng are further divided by the kempur
or kempul and kemong, with the latter being the smallest hanging gong.32
Figure 4.2: Gong ageng, kempul, and kemong.
The kempli, a small gong laid horizontally on a frame, serves as a timekeeper. This
addition contributes a unique musical quality to the gong kebyar tradition. In Javanese gamelan,
32 Spiller, Gamelan, 96–102.
154
and most other gamelan subcategories, the colotomic structure is produced by a group of bronze
instruments, and the steady beat is never played continuously and explicitly by any single
instrument. The addition of the kempli, which plays the role analogous to a metronome, is
likened to the overall faster tempo and more rhythmic nature of Balinese gamelan music. To
ensure that the sound of the kempli reaches all ensemble members, the kempli is typically
positioned in the middle of the ensemble.33
Figure 4.3: Kempli.
Source: Photo by the author.
As illustrated in the table below, these three hanging gongs collaborate to create a
composite colotomic pattern along with the kempli. Please note that the colotomic pattern in
Table 5.1 is represented using letters rather than the cipher system. The letters indicate which
instrument is struck at each beat; for example, G represents the gong ageng, M stands for the
kemong, P indicates the kempur, and T denotes the kempli. Since each of these instruments may
have multiple gongs tuned to different pitches, players have the flexibility to choose which gong
33 Gee and Grimshaw, “The Acoustics and Culture of the Balinese Gamelan.”
155
to strike. Therefore, the letters refer to the instruments themselves rather than the specific pitch
being played.
Table 4.1: A typical colotomic form in gong kebyar music.
Gong ageng G
Kemong M
Kempur P P
Kempli T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
Composite
pattern
T T T T&P T T T T&M T T T T&P T T T T&G
The next group of instruments consists of the horizontally suspended kettle gongs, also
known as gong chimes. Similar to gong chimes in Javanese and Malay traditions, these
instruments comprise a series of tuned kettle gongs suspended horizontally on ropes across an
ornately designed wooden frame or stand. In gong kebyar, there are two gong-chime
instruments: the lower-pitched trompong and the higher-pitched reyong. The trompong typically
has around ten kettle gongs played with two mallets. It is an older instrument originating from
Balinese gamelans from the Old and Middle Periods and is occasionally included in pieces for a
nostalgic touch. Since the trompong gongs are arranged in a single row and the instrument is
long, the player's movements are athletic and almost dance-like. The reyong, the higher-pitched
equivalent of the trompong, usually has twelve gongs covering two octaves. Unlike the
trompong, which is traditionally played by one person, the reyong requires four players, two for
each octave, performing highly complex interlocking parts known as kotekan.
156
Figure 4.4: Trompong (top) and reyong (bottom)
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Kotekan is a compositional device and performance technique where a complex, virtuosic
musical phrase is broken into two interlocking parts, making each part more manageable. This
creates the illusion of a single, cohesive melody that would be impossible for one person to play
alone. As ethnomusicologist Hardja Susilo described his experience of kotekan during the First
International Gamelan festival in Vancouver, Canada in 1986, “half the group plays as fast as
they can, and the other half plays as fast as they can, in between.”34 This musical quality reflects
the collaborative nature and importance of communal interdependence deeply rooted in Balinese
culture, especially after the fall of the Balinese royal courts when community organizations like
the banjar took over the preservation of traditional arts such as gamelan. Unlike gong-chime
instruments in Javanese and Malay gamelans such as bonang and bonang, which are typically
arranged in two rows, the Balinese gong chimes are arranged in a single row, with the gongs
arranged from lowest to highest, from left to right.
34 Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music.”
157
The third group of instruments in the Balinese gong kebyar ensemble is the genderfamily instruments, which include the keyed metallophones: jegogan, ugal, pemade, and
kantilan. Unlike in Java, where saron-family instruments—xylophone-like instruments with
metal bars sharing a common resonating chamber—are prevalent, saron instruments are
uncommon in the Balinese gong kebyar ensemble. Saron instruments are more frequently
utilized in earlier gamelan subcategories, such as gong luang and gong gede, highlighting the
connection between early Balinese gamelan variations and their Javanese predecessors. Instead,
Balinese gamelans feature a large section of gender-family instruments. The primary difference
between gender and saron instruments is that each key of a gender instrument has its own
resonating tube, resulting in a clearer distinction between individual pitches. Similar to their role
in Javanese gamelan, gender instruments also play the main melody in Balinese gamelan. This
melody is known as pokok, meaning "tree trunk" in Balinese, Javanese, and Malay. The term
pokok refers to the rule of melodic construction and the role of each melodic instrument in
Balinese gamelan: the larger and lower-pitched instruments play the more abstract version of the
melodic and rhythmic structure, forming the pokok (tree trunk) for the bunga (flower)—the
melodic variations and smaller beat divisions played on smaller and higher-pitched
instruments.35
35 Spiller, Gamelan, 96–102.
158
Figure 4.5: Jegogan, ugal, pemade, and kantilan (left to right).
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by an unknown photographer.
The jegogan, the lowest-pitched gender instrument in the gong kebyar ensemble, is a
five-key metallophone typically played with a soft mallet, producing a deep and sustained sound.
As the lowest-pitched gender, the jegogan part typically includes only the essential notes of the
pokok melody, moving at a slower pace compared to other gender instruments. The other
gender-family instruments—ugal, pemade, and kantilan—are collectively known as gangsa
(bronze). These gangsa instruments have more keys than the larger, lower-pitched jegogan and
are usually struck with hard wooden mallets, creating the bright, metallic timbre characteristic of
Balinese gamelan. The ugal, the lowest-pitched gangsa, leads the gangsa section and plays a
more intricate and varied version of the pokok melody. The pemade (an octave higher than the
ugal) and kantilan (an octave higher than the pemade) play an even more elaborate and virtuosic
version of the pokok melody. To incorporate all the additional notes in this elaborated melody,
the pemade and kantilan players often use the kotekan technique, dividing the melody into two
interlocking parts. Since pemade and kantilan are paired instruments, up to eight players may sit
side by side when the kotekan technique is required. The resulting effect is a shimmering timbre
filled with rhythmic energy, creating a virtuosic auditory and visual experience that is central to
gong kebyar performances.36
36 Ibid.
159
The fourth category of instruments consists of membranophones or drums. Reflecting the
ensemble's heavy reliance on interlocking parts, gong kebyar frequently includes two drummers
who play in an interlocking fashion. Much like their counterparts in Javanese gamelan,
drummers in Balinese gamelans are tasked with initiating and ending the music, keeping the
tempo, and giving auditory signals to guide musicians through different sections of the
performance.
The final category of instruments in the Balinese gong kebyar ensemble comprises the
untuned bronze cymbals, known as cengceng. These cymbals are distinct to the Balinese
gamelan tradition. Unlike cymbals in European orchestras, which are held one in each hand,
Balinese cengcengs are designed differently. Players hold two cymbals, one in each hand, and
strike them against additional cymbals mounted on a wooden floor stand. This arrangement
allows for rapid alternation between the hands, enabling the player to achieve an exceptionally
fast tempo. As their name implies, cengceng produces a bright, clangy sound. Typically, up to
six cymbals are employed in a gong kebyar performance, further enhancing the ensemble's
already bright, vibrant, and complex timbre.37
37 Gee and Grimshaw, “The Acoustics and Culture of the Balinese Gamelan.”
160
Figure 4.6: Cengceng.
Source: Image permission granted by nowbali.co.id. Photo by Joannes Rhino
Form and Structure
As with most gamelan subcategories, Balinese gamelan music is structured around
stratified polyphony, where various interlocking melodic variations are layered over a core
melody. Musical compositions in this tradition are referred to as tabuh or gending, terms that
apply not only to Balinese gamelan music but also to vocal and other instrumental music genres.
The central melody, known as pokok (meaning "tree trunk"), adheres to a colotomic structure.
This core melody is typically performed by the large, low-pitched gender-family instrument
called jegogan, while the melodic variations and embellishments are played by the smaller,
higher-pitched ugal, pemade, and kantilan. The melody is supported by a colotomic framework
established by the time-keeping kempli and a group of hanging gongs, including gong ageng,
kemong, and kempur. Up to this point, the musical structure of Balinese gamelan closely
resembles its Javanese counterparts.38
38 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 381–82.
161
A key distinction between Balinese and Javanese gamelan lies in the use of kotekan
instruments: the pemade and kantilan. These instruments feature interlocking figurations, with
two players executing parts of a single, highly virtuosic, and often exceptionally fast melodic line
on one instrument. While this impressive technique is a hallmark of Balinese gamelan, the
instruments performing kotekan are traditionally considered "the least important to a given
composition" and are usually added toward the end of the compositional process.39 This belief
parallels a similar tradition in Javanese gamelan, where larger and lower-pitched instruments are
deemed more symbolically and musically significant. In both Balinese and Javanese gamelans,
the massive gong ageng often receives an honorific title and is revered for its deep, resonant
sound, which is more an aural effect to be felt than heard. The importance of these larger and
lower-pitched instruments is further reflected in the end-weighted structure of both Javanese and
Balinese gamelan music, where rhythms, melodies, and elaborations are designed to lead toward
the final stroke of the gong ageng.
Unlike Javanese gamelan, where the softer instruments and vocal lines are the highlights,
kotekan is arguably the most unique and significant aspect of a Balinese gamelan performance.
Kotekan is both a compositional device and a performance technique where a fast melody is
divided into two interlocking parts, each played by a different musician. Together, the players
produce a seamless musical line on instruments of similar range and timbre. Occasionally, both
parts are performed on a single instrument. The skill of a good kotekan player lies in their ability
to coordinate so well that the audience perceives a single musical line. As composer Wayne
Vitale described:
Perhaps the most startling aspect of this polyphony is the extreme tempo of the music,
which seems to reach beyond human capabilities. [...] It seems to many upon hearing to
the sound of a machine, some frenetic music box set to twice its normal speed.
39 Ibid., 381–82.Kartomi and Blum, Music-Cultures in Contact : Convergences and Collisions, 381.
162
Experiencing a live performance by a Balinese gong kebyar gamelan, one finds that the
players (normally about twenty-five) are producing this mass of sound through a
rhythmic synchronization of musical parts. Despite the seamlessness of the figurations, it
is clear that their mallets are falling at different moments. [...] One might imagine, as an
analogy, the text on this page being read by two narrators, one of whom pronounces only
the letters A through M, and the other N through Z, yet fitting those sounds together so
perfectly that we hear them as one speaker.40
Typically, each half of the melody is limited to only one or two pitches. This limitation
allows players to execute their parts faster and more accurately, with the entire kotekan phrase
usually encompassing a maximum of four pitches. Generally, the two upper notes are known as
sangsih, while the lower part is called polos. As illustrated in the figure below, all the silent
moments in the sangsih part are filled with notes in the polos part, and vice versa.41
Table 4.2: An example of kotekan, illustrating the combination of the sangsih and polos parts, notated in table form
using the cipher system.
Sangsih –
Note #1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sangsih –
Note #2
2 2 2 2 2
Polos –
Note #1
3 3 3 3
Polos –
Note #2
5 5 5 5 5 5
The resulting effect is a continuous, unbroken sequence of notes that enhances the overall
performance with richer sonority and heightened rhythmic excitement. One might wonder:
"What is the challenge of playing a few notes at breakneck speed?" The difficulty lies in the
precise coordination required between the two musicians to produce a clear composite melody.
40 Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music,” 1.
41 Ibid., 2–4.
163
This necessitates starting their patterns on the correct keys and having fully internalized the core
melody played by the jegogan, as the kotekan patterns shift with the melody's movements.
Consequently, kotekan players must master the abstracted core melody thoroughly, enabling
them to focus on aural cues from the drums and swiftly transition between passages. Due to the
precision required, kotekan musicians have no room for improvisation; their parts are
meticulously prearranged and rehearsed to ensure flawless execution of the interlocking
rhythms.42
Although gamelan is often associated with "group improvisation," improvisation is rare
in Balinese gong kebyar music. This rarity stems from the need to maintain interlocking parts,
particularly between the kotekan instruments, throughout the performance, and the metrical
functions of many instruments. Additionally, Balinese gamelan is generally much faster than
other gamelan subcategories, making group precision, rather than on-the-spot improvisation, the
measure of success. While there is limited room for improvisation, it is confined to the lead
drummer and jegogan, the melodic leader. When accompanying staged performances such as
theater and narrative dance, the drummers and jegogan player provide aural cues at the end of
musical phrases or sections, signaling the ensemble to adjust the music to follow the
performance. Occasionally, the lead drummer and jegogan might improvise transitions to allow
dancers and actors time to shift between scenes.43
Balinese gamelan music typically follows a tripartite structure: introduction, body, and
ending. This structure reflects the belief in the extramusical and anthropomorphic significance of
music, with the sections often referred to as the head, body, and foot. The head section is usually
unmetered, similar to the Central Javanese gamelan tradition where a tenor or bass soloist opens
42 Spiller, Gamelan, 100–101.
43 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 381–82.
164
with a long, unaccompanied introduction known as bawa. In Balinese gamelan, where vocalists
are rare, the unmetered opening is usually performed by a few instrumentalists, setting the
atmosphere for the metrically structured body.44
The body or middle section employs metric gong cycles and may be repeated several
times depending on the occasion. This is particularly evident in the portable processional
gamelan ensemble known as beleganjur or gamelan gong beleganjur. Beleganjur, a playing style
from the middle period, typically includes drummers and a large group of gong players who
process behind the royal family and their guests. Beleganjur players excel at repeating the
"body" of the music to match the procession's pacing, following aural cues from the lead
drummer to move seamlessly between parts. The body of a Balinese gamelan performance can
range between sixty-four to one-hundred-and-twenty-eight beats.45
The ending or "foot," however, is significantly shorter, usually lasting only eight to
sixteen beats.46 Unlike Western music, which often concludes with a gradual slowdown,
Balinese gamelan usually ends with a gradual tempo increase culminating in the final stroke of
the massive gong ageng. This tradition of accelerating towards the performance's conclusion and
ending with a loud sound has influenced various communal singing traditions, including the
renowned Balinese kecak song-dance performance (Balinese monkey chant) and the dikir barat
communal singing tradition from Southern Thailand and Northern Peninsular Malaysia.
Tuning Systems
44 Ibid., 382.
45 Ibid.
46 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan,” 382.
165
Most Balinese gamelan music employs a pentatonic scale. Generally, these tuning
systems fall into two major forms: pelog and slendro. As with Javanese gamelan, Balinese
gamelan tuning does not follow a universally accepted standard, and each ensemble is valued for
the unique musical characteristics of its specific pentatonic scale. Metal smiths use their own
tools to tune the instruments, adjusting pitches to the musicians' or owner's preferences, leading
to significant differences between individual slendro or pelog tunings.
In general, Balinese gamelans tuned to slendro are quite comparable to Javanese slendro,
given that the slendro scale is defined by five notes spaced at nearly equidistant intervals within
an octave. Even with a different starting pitch, its structure often resembles the conventional
pentatonic scale comprising do-re-mi-sol-la. The Balinese pelog scale, however, is more
distinctive. The seven-tone Balinese pelog scale selects five out of the seven tones, creating
various pentatonic pelog modes.47 The chosen notes are named "dong," "deng," "dung," "dang,"
and "ding," a tone naming system reminiscent of the Western solfege. The two unchosen notes
are called penyorog (inserted tone) or pemero (false tone), serving as auxiliary pitches. When
these auxiliary tones are omitted, the remaining five tones form a pentatonic modal scale. The
pitch names, "dong," "deng," "dung," "dang," "ding," are assigned from lowest to highest, with
the vowel color suggesting the ascending notes of the scale. As Canadian composer Murray
Schafer (1933-2021) notes in his choral composition titled Gamelan (1979):
The gamelan music of Bali and Java uses an unusual pentatonic scale, different from that
employed in Chinese pentatonic music. The Balinese call these five tones dong, deng,
dung, dang, ding. The words have an onomatopoeic suggestiveness, as the initial 'd'
reminds us of something struck, while the 'ng' recalls the ringing of a gong or idiophone.
The changing colours of the vowels from dark to light suggest the rising notes of the
scale.48
47 Spiller, Gamelan, 96.
48 Murray Schafer, Gamelan: A Composition for Four Voices (Bancroft, Ontario, Canada: Arcana Editions, 1979).
166
These pitch names facilitate the oral transmission of musical lines, as gamelan music—whether
Javanese, Balinese, or Malay—is traditionally taught by rote. Today, despite the availability of
written notation using the cipher system, where pitches correspond to numbers, most Balinese
gamelan musicians continue to sing their instrumental parts using traditional Balinese tone
names. This practice persists both out of respect for the Balinese tone name system and because
the multi-syllable nature of Balinese numbers makes it challenging to sing fast-moving lines to
numbers.
Out of the various seven-tone pelog scales in the Balinese gamelan tradition, the saih pitu
(row of seven) system from the middle period gamelan gambuh is one of the most revered tuning
systems because of its close association with the Balinese royal courts and sacred music. Figure
5.7 is an approximation of saih pitu notated using the Western notation system by Kartomi,
showing a resemblance to C aeolian. Adhering to the rule of the pelog scale, all modal variations
from the seven-tone saih pitu is made of five chosen notes (dong, deng, dung, dang, and ding)
and two unchosen tones (penyorog and pemero). Of the various modal combinations, the most
popular mode derived from the saih pitu is the pentatonic selisir (see Figure 7). Selisir is also
commonly known as saih gong (row of gong tones) or saih lima (row of five), and it is important
not to confuse selisir with the salisir poems commonly sung by vocalists in Javanese gamelan.
Higher-pitched selisir scales are typically used in the old court music and the lower-pitched ones
are usually reserved for accompanying song-dance performances performed on gamelan gambuh
and gamelan semar pegulingan, two types of Balinese gamelans from the middle period. The
selisir scale was so revered that various non-gamelan instrumental groups, especially the ones
playing for temples and the former Balinese royal courts, would be tuned to selisir.
49
49 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 382–84.
167
Figure 4.7: Approximate notation of saih pitu (top) and selisir (bottom) in Western notation.
While Figure 5.7 above offer a useful framework for understanding the sounds of the
seven-tone saih pitu and the pentatonic selisir scales, it is important to note the qualifier
"approximate." Balinese tuning systems, much like Javanese ones, exhibit flexibility, as
evidenced by the total number of cents in each scale. In traditional Western music theory, a welltuned octave spans 1200 cents. However, as depicted in these figures, the total cents for the saih
pitu and selisir scales add up to 1128 and 1213 respectively. Therefore, it is crucial to recognize
that these figures represent rough approximations. As Spiller noted regarding gamelan tuning
systems, "the precise boundaries between what sounds 'in tune' and what sounds 'out of tune' are
challenging to define and remain the subject of intense debate among musicians."50
In Balinese tradition, tonality and scales play a significant role in conveying distinct
emotions, symbols, and social functions. For example, gamelans tuned to saih pitu are often
reserved for ceremonial music in courts and temples due to their perceived potency in bridging
50 Spiller, Gamelan, 55.
168
the divine and human realms, evoking imagery of the past suitable for temple festivals and
rituals. Saih gender wayang, named for its association with the accompaniment of wayang kulit
shadow puppetry, is linked to evening settings and ancestral spirits from epic narratives.51 On the
other hand, saih angklung is noted for its melancholic quality, thus typically employed in funeral
music and other rites marking life cycles.52 Despite the profound meanings associated with
tonality and scales in Balinese culture, practical considerations may prevail in communities
where only one gamelan set is available for all occasions. In such cases, different musical
repertoires and playing techniques are adapted to suit the nature of each event. For instance,
solemn occasions may feature slow-paced music played with softly padded mallets.53
Understanding the pelog and slendro scales and their unique symbolism is fundamental in
Balinese gamelan music. However, one of the most striking characteristics of Balinese gamelan
is the concept of paired tuning. In this tradition, instruments are often tuned in pairs, with each
pair consisting of a male and female instrument. While the instruments are virtually identical, the
female instrument is tuned slightly lower in pitch. When played together, they produce not two
distinct notes, but a tiny pitch difference that creates a vibrant, shimmery, vibrato-like pulsating
effect known as ombak. Ombak is an acoustic phenomenon, also called beating or overtone
beating, where two sound waves of slightly different frequencies interfere with each other,
resulting in a fluctuation in sound intensity perceived as periodic variations in volume. The
closer the pitch difference, the faster the shimmer; a wider pitch difference results in slower
undulation. Ideally, ombak in Balinese gamelan should fall between five to eight beats per
second. Older Balinese gamelans typically have slower beatings, while modern ones such as
51 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia.”
52 Ibid., 384.
53 Kartomi and Mendonça, “Gamelan.”
169
gong keybar tend towards faster beatings to accommodate faster and more virtuosic tempos.
Anything outside the five to seven beats per second range is considered out-of-tune by Balinese
gamelan musicians. Each gamelan, including Balinese gamelan, has its own distinctive overall
tuning. In practice, all instruments in a Balinese gamelan ensemble can be doubled and tuned
slightly apart. However, when resources are limited and only a few instruments can be
transported to the performance venue, only gender-family instruments such as jegogan, calung,
and jublag will be doubled and tuned in pairs.54
Overall Aesthetic
From a distance, it might be difficult for those unfamiliar with gamelan music to
distinguish between Javanese and Balinese gamelans. However, once the music begins, Balinese
gamelan immediately sets itself apart from its Javanese and Malay counterparts with its dynamic
energy, rapid tempos, and striking contrasts in volume and rhythm, features that even untrained
ears can easily recognize. This distinctive sound arises from unique instrumentation, the
construction of the instruments, and its specific performance practices. While regional variations
and musical exceptions exist within any subcategories of gamelan, making it challenging to
capture its essence in just a few words, this discussion will highlight two of the most notable
characteristics of Balinese gamelan: (1) ganas garang (fierce and ferocious) and (2) bright and
shimmery.
Balinese and Javanese gamelans often represent two ends of a spectrum: Javanese
gamelan is more subdued and meditative, while Balinese gamelan is fast, rhythmic, virtuosic,
and contrasting. The Balinese describe these qualities as ganas garang, meaning fierce and
ferocious. The bold and powerful nature of Balinese gamelan is immediately evident both aurally
54 Ibid., 3.
170
and visually, largely due to the extensive use of the kotekan interlocking technique and the
generally faster tempo of the music. Kotekan, a hallmark of Balinese gamelan, has existed since
the early development of the music but became fine-tuned and widely used over the past one to
two hundred years. This style, with its abrupt changes in mood, dynamics, and tempo, and its
highly virtuosic interlocking patterns requiring exceptional coordination among players, emerged
as a way for Balinese gamelan to stand out from other regional gamelans. Additionally, gamelan
serves not only as a medium for ritual music and entertainment but also as a platform for
musicians to showcase their skills and compete with one another. Driven by a desire for
increasingly virtuosic performances, many traditional Balinese gamelan pieces were modified for
a faster playing style. This was achieved by streamlining instrumentation and even melting down
larger instruments to create smaller metallophones and kettle gongs better suited for performing
kotekan.
Kotekan patterns are known for filling the smallest subdivisions of the beat. Even when
the pokok melody plays quarter notes at 50 bpm, the kotekan subdivides the beat into much faster
notes, often four or eight times quicker. In Western notation, this could be shown as quarter or
half-notes for the pokok, with sixteenth notes for the kotekan. This complexity is intensified
because kotekan is typically used at the music's peak, where excitement and drama are conveyed
through tempo rather than melodic or harmonic changes. Thus, kotekan becomes particularly
challenging as it often appears in the fastest sections of the music. For example, in the Balinese
nyog cag kotekan, one of the most difficult to play, the pokok melody's climax can reach 140
bpm, resulting in 280 notes per minute for each part of the kotekan, or 560 notes per minute in
171
the entire kotekan melody.55 To enhance the virtuosity, musicians frequently accelerate until the
kotekan players can no longer keep up, then transition to the next section.
As with conducting fast choral music where efficiency is key in the conductor’s gesture
and extraneous movements such as head and knee movements and swaying left and right can
detract from the clarity of the ictus, kotekan requires just the same level of focus and efficiency
in movements. When paired with a fast tempo, the crisp and angular movements from the
kotekan players create an illusion of ganas garang that contrasts with the slow and legato
movements as one would often observe from the Javanese and Malay gamelan performers. The
relatively slow tempos in Javanese and Malay gamelans allow the players to have elegant
rebounds through their wrists and elbows, so much so that in competitive settings, the players
would even perform dance-like choreography while playing. When the crisp movements are
combined with the music's extreme tempo, seemingly surpassing human capabilities, it creates
the fierce and ferocious impression described by the Balinese.
In addition to being ganas garang, bright and shimmery is another hallmark quality of
Balinese gamelan music, attributed to three factors: (1) the predominance of metallophones in
Balinese gamelan ensembles (2) the absence of soft-sounding ensemble, and (3) the ombak effect
due to paired tuning. Prior to discussing the bright and shimmery texture of Balinese gamelan, it
is important to acknowledge that most, if not all, subcategories of gamelan embody the quality of
bright and forward. This is because of the natural construction of the bronze instruments and also
the overall brightness in Southeast Asian languages and folk songs. However, each gamelan
subcategory has different performance practices that contribute to creating their version of
55 Vitale, “Kotekan - the Technique of Interlocking Parts in Balinese Music.”
172
brightness, Balinese gamelan included. In Balinese gamelan tradition, this aural brightness is
largely attributed to the unusually large section of gender-family instruments.
Gender-family instruments are metallophones with each metal bar amplified by an
individual resonating tube. As depicted in the photo below from the Javanese and Balinese
gamelan sets from the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Department of Music, the Balinese
gamelan ensemble is made up primarily of gender-family instruments (xylophone-like
instruments on the bottom half of the image in the photo on the right); while there are some
genders and saron-family instruments (both metallophone instruments) in Javanese gamelan, it
only makes up at most half of the ensemble, almost at par with the other gong chime instruments.
The sound difference between metallophones and gong-chime instruments is significant, largely
due to their construction. Metallophones, such as gender and saron-family instruments in
gamelan, made of tuned metal bars struck with mallets, produce a bright, clear, and more
piercing sound. In contrast, gong-chime instruments, consisting of a set of bossed gongs
suspended on a frame and struck with mallets, emit a richer and mellower sound. The gongs'
rounded shape and larger surface area vibrate at lower frequencies, resulting in a warm, resonant
tone. This contrast in timbre between the metallophones and gong-chime instruments contributes
to the dynamic and layered texture of gamelan music. Thus, in the case of Balinese gamelan
where the proportion of bronze instruments is skewed towards the genders, the overall timbre of
the ensemble becomes significantly brighter and more piercing than that of the Javanese set.
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Figure 4.8: Javanese gamelan (left) and Balinese gamelan (right).
Source: Image permission granted by Center for Southeast Asian Studies at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa.
Photos by unknown photographers.
The absence of a large, soft-sounding ensemble in Balinese gamelan greatly intensifies its
bright and clangy timbre. In Javanese gamelan, a balance is maintained between the prominent
bronze and percussion instruments and a softer ensemble featuring vocalists, suling (bamboo
flute), and rebab (a bowed string instrument similar to the erhu). While the soft-sounding
ensemble produces bright, nasal tones, particularly from the pesindhen (treble soloist), it adds a
legato, flowing texture that softens the sharper edges of the metallic sounds. This smoothness
contrasts with Balinese gamelan, which generally omits the soft ensemble except in pieces
evoking nostalgia for Javanese heritage. By relying primarily on gongs, chimes, and percussion
without this smoother layer, Balinese gamelan accentuates a bright, percussive, and angular
texture, heightening its uniquely vibrant and energetic sound.
The discussion on the brightness of Balinese gamelan naturally leads us to another key
characteristic of its sound: the shimmery quality, primarily attributed to the practice of tuning
instruments in pairs. Paired tuning involves tuning each instrument of an identical pair slightly
differently in pitch, resulting in rapid overtone beatings known as ombak when played
simultaneously. This shimmering effect, while not exclusive to Balinese music, is uniquely
amplified through paired tuning. In Javanese gamelan, large hanging gongs are often constructed
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and tuned to allow their pitch and volume to oscillate. As Spiller notes in his discussion on the
gong ageng in Javanese gamelans, "The overall effect is quite visceral; it is little wonder that the
Javanese often consider a gong to be a repository of spiritual power, and even give them proper
names and royal titles."56 The Balinese share this love for oscillating sounds, which led to the
invention of paired tuning to further enhance the already resonant and undulating quality of their
bronze instruments. When the fast overtone beatings created by paired tuning combine with the
rapid tempo of Balinese gamelan, the resulting effect is vibrant and shimmery. While the origins
of this invention are still under scholarly investigation, the ombak effect is distinctively Balinese.
This shimmery effect enhances the dynamic nature of Balinese gamelan music, setting the
Balinese gamelan tradition apart with a literal auditory brilliance.
Balinese Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works
Balinese gamelan is one of the most frequently referenced subcategories of gamelans in
choral arrangements and compositions from Malaysia and Indonesia, and this is largely
attributed to three reasons: (1) Balinese gamelan’s unique history, (2) Bali’s international
reputation, and (3) Balinese gamelan’s virtuosic nature.
Firstly, the unique history of Balinese gamelan plays a crucial role in its prominence.
While Balinese gamelan is not as old as its Javanese counterpart, Balinese gamelan represents a
distinct evolution of the traditional gamelan music form. After the fall of the Majapahit Empire
in the 15th century and the subsequent spread of Islam in Java, many Javanese artists, musicians,
and craftsmen migrated to Bali, bringing with them their musical traditions. However, unlike
Java, which saw a significant transformation in its musical landscape due to Islamic influence,
56 Spiller and Spiller, Focus, 72.
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Bali remained predominantly Hindu. This allowed Balinese gamelan to preserve and further
develop pre-Islamic musical traditions. Balinese gamelan thus embodies what Indonesian
gamelan music might have transformed into had it not been influenced by Islamic cultural
changes. The preservation of Hindu traditions in Bali enabled a unique development of gamelan
music under the stewardship of community-owned organizations like the Balinese banjar. This
community-based approach contrasts with the more court-centered musical traditions of Java,
leading to a distinct style characterized by its unparallel ganas garang energy and complex
kotekan interlocking rhythms. The historical development of Balinese gamelan also includes the
adaptation and incorporation of various regional influences, making it a rich and diverse musical
tradition. Its ability to integrate different musical elements while maintaining a core identity has
made it particularly appealing to composers and arrangers. By referencing Balinese gamelan,
choral compositions can draw upon a deep well of cultural and musical history, adding layers of
meaning and context to their works.
Bali’s international reputation significantly contributes to the prominence of Balinese
gamelan, making it a popular reference in choral compositions. As Kartomi noted, tourists flock
to Bali for its beaches, luxury resorts, and the cultural hub of Ubud, where nightly performances
are geared toward visitors.57 This tourism boom has led to the formation of many performing
groups, provided crucial revenue for many Balinese villages, and motivated artists to innovate.
Although catering to tourists has led to some misunderstandings and performance adjustments, it
has also assisted in the preservation of endangered traditional arts, such as the gamelan gambuh,
and boosted the development of modern-day gong kebyar. This global fascination with Bali and
its vibrant cultural scene has increased international exposure to Balinese gamelan.
57 Margaret J. Kartomi et al., “Indonesia,” 399.
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Consequently, compared to regional gamelans from lesser-visited and represented areas, such as
the gamelan kulitang from Borneo (not to be confused with the Filipino kulintang ensemble) and
caklempong from Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, elements of Balinese gamelan have become more
frequently incorporated into contemporary choral compositions. This increased incorporation has
solidified Balinese gamelan's influence in modern choral writing.
The virtuosic nature of Balinese gamelan is a significant reason why it is frequently
quoted in choral works. Known for its extreme tempi and technically demanding kotekan
interlocking motifs, Balinese gamelan aligns with choral musicians' desire to showcase their
vocal prowess through challenging repertoires. Choral competitions are the primary drivers of
choral music development in Southeast Asia, paralleling the influence of Balinese gamelan on
the region's musical landscape. As De Quadros remarked, "Festivals and competitions are one of
the primary means by which repertoire and performance conventions are circulated today" in
Indonesia's choral repertoire development.58 These competitions promote excellence and
innovation, pushing choirs to achieve higher standards and undergo rigorous training. This
competitive choral culture mirrors the virtuosity sought by Balinese gamelan musicians.
Consequently, composers often incorporate elements of Balinese gamelan, such as fast
interlocking patterns, onomatopoeic syllables mimicking gamelan instruments, and dense choral
divisi reflecting the rich instrumentation of the Balinese gong kebyar tradition. Just as tourism
and literature have boosted Bali's international reputation, these choral competitions enhance the
exposure of Balinese gamelan, making it a popular reference in choral music.
The upcoming discussion will examine three choral compositions––Budi Susanto
Yohannes’ Janger and Yosefano Ardani’s “Taboeh Gloria” from Misa de Pulau Dewata–––to
58 Quadros, Focus, 62.
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illustrate two key aspects of Balinese gamelan: (1) its powerful and intense ganas garang
quality, and (2) its bright and shimmering timbre. This exploration aims to offer practical
guidance for choral educators on teaching and performing choral pieces influenced by Balinese
gamelan. These specific compositions were chosen for their representation of Balinese gamelan’s
characteristics within the context of choral music. Yohannes’ Janger, originating from secular
contexts, vividly displays the dynamic and energetic qualities associated with ganas garang,
illustrating the adaptation of Balinese gamelan elements into non-religious musical contexts. In
contrast, Ardani’s "Taboeh Gloria" is deeply rooted in sacred traditions and, while not directly
referencing Balinese gamelan through onomatopoeia and kotekan, emphasizes the ethereal and
luminous timbres typical of Balinese gamelan music used in ceremonial settings. By studying
these compositions, choral educators can gain practical insights into how to interpret and convey
the distinct qualities of Balinese gamelan in choral performances, enriching their teaching and
enhancing the appreciation of this influential musical tradition.
Janger (2004) by Budi Susanto Yohanes (b. 1979)
Budi Susanto Yohanes – Biography
Budi Susanto Yohannes is widely recognized in Indonesian choral music for his
significant impact as both a conductor and composer. Like many Southeast Asian choral
musicians born in the late 20th century, Yohannes initially pursued a career in electrical
engineering before transitioning to music. He began his journey as a self-taught musician,
delving into choral conducting and composition without formal training. His career in choral
music began around 1999 when he founded and directed the Gracioso Sonora Choir in Malang.
Since then, he has led the ITS Student Choir and the Difertimento vocal ensemble, guiding these
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groups to participate in major international festivals and earn numerous accolades in cities such
as Busan, Miltenberg, Cantonigros, Rimini, Debrecen, Torrevieja, and Seghizzi.59
In 2012, Yohannes took a pivotal step in his musical education by enrolling in the
Bachelor of Arts in Music and Choral Conducting program at the Korean National University of
Arts. This decision marked a formal entry into musical training after establishing himself as a
respected figure in the Indonesian choral community. His journey exemplifies a common path
among choral musicians in Southeast Asia, often beginning their formal musical education after
gaining experience and recognition in the field.60
Budi is not only known for his conducting prowess but also for his significant role as a
choral clinician throughout Indonesia and as an adjudicator in various national and international
choir competitions. His compositions, such as Janger, Meplalian, Luk Luk Lumbu, and
Tardigadingdangdo, are celebrated as early late-20th
-century choral works influenced by
gamelan music, influencing subsequent compositions in the subcategory. Budi's ability to
seamlessly integrate original ethnic elements from Indonesian traditional music into
contemporary pieces has earned him recognition globally. Today, his works have been published
by Earthsongs USA, Carus-Verlag, and Kontrapunkt Hungary.61Through his multifaceted career,
Budi Susanto Yohannes continues to elevate Indonesian cultural diversity and musical traditions,
solidifying his reputation as a leading figure in the international choral community and a cultural
ambassador for Indonesia.
59 Budi Susanto Yohanes, “Budi Susanto Yohanes,” International Choral Conductors Federation, 2023,
https://choralconductors.it/portfolio-articoli/budi-susanto-yohanes/.
60 Ibid.
61 Ibid.
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Analysis of Janger
Janger is a choral rendition of the Balinese song-dance performance of the same name,
capturing many quintessential qualities of Balinese gamelan. Traditionally, the janger songdance performance is performed by Balinese youth during evening parties, featuring trancelike
humming, dancing, and legato singing from treble singers, accompanied by boisterous physical
and vocal outbursts from tenors and basses. As with many communal singing traditions in Bali,
the performance is accompanied by instruments from the Balinese gamelan ensemble, most
notably the suling (bamboo flute) and a set of kendangs (drums). In addition to singing melodies
set to traditional poems, the performers often use vocables that mimic the sounds of Balinese
gamelan to enrich the musical layers. While janger is now considered a signature traditional
performance of Bali, it only dates back to the 1930s, around the same time the world-renowned
Balinese kecak monkey chant performance was created by Balinese dancer Wayan Limbak and
German artist Walter Spies.62 The origins of janger and kecak are debated among scholars, but
there may be a significant connection to the influx of tourists to Bali starting in the 1920s.63
During that period, the Dutch colonial government began to promote Bali as an international
tourism destination.64 By the 1930s, tourism on the island was flourishing, attracting visitors
interested in the unique arts and cultures of Bali. The traditional janger performance often
includes a section of kecak chant and choreography, suggesting a link between the two.65
Yohannes' version of Janger remains faithful to its traditional roots, reflecting strong influences
62 Ni Made Ruastiti, “Designing The Elderly Janger Dance Model In Tonja Village Denpasar,” Mudra : Jurnal Seni
Budaya 31, no. 3 (2016), https://doi.org/10.31091/mudra.v31i3.58; Kendra Stepputat, The Kecak and Cultural
Tourism on Bali, 1st ed., vol. 11, Eastman/Rochester Studies in Ethnomusicology (United Kingdom: Boydell &
Brewer, 2021), https://doi.org/10.1017/9781800103092.
63 Stepputat, The Kecak and Cultural Tourism on Bali.
64 Ibid.
65 Ibid.; ibid.
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from Balinese gamelan music. The rich history behind the traditional janger performance is
evident in this arrangement’s adherence to traditional musical processes, making it a vibrant and
authentic representation of Balinese culture.
Figure 4.9: Janger.
Source: Image permission by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Figure 4.10: Kecak.
Source: Photo by the author.
A staple in the multicultural choral music scene, Janger is one of Yohannes’ most
popular choral works. Set for SSAATTBB chorus, each voice part in this arrangement takes
turns to play the different musical roles from a traditional performance of janger, including
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vocalists, dancers, kettle gongs, metallophones, and drums. Yohannes’ Janger can be broken up
into five major sections: (1) the gentle opening, (2) the fast second verse, (3) the slow gamelanlike interlude, (4) the percussive kecak section, and (5) the reprise of the opening verse. As with
the traditional janger performance, where the performers usually begin with an elegant,
“feminine” dance, Yohannes’ Janger opens with a slow, andante section set entirely in the
classic Balinese pentatonic pelog scale centered on E (E-F-G-B-C). In this section, the lower
voices each sing a polyphonic part set to onomatopoeic syllables such as “bong,” “tung,” and
“pong,” weaving together a colotomic structure quintessential to any gamelan music. On top of
this slow colotomic structure lays the legato melody sung by the treble voices with occasional
accents and staccati peppered throughout to add articulatory surprises to the audience.
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Example 4.1: The slow opening of Janger.
The opening section provides an excellent example to choral educators on how to teach
and analyze choral works influenced by Balinese gamelan music. As hinted by the different
vocables sung by each voice part, each voice part mimics a different instrument, thus the need to
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make the vocal timbre between the voice parts as contrasting as possible. A general rule of
thumb in gamelan music: the lower the range of the instrument, the warmer its timbre, and this
rule can be applied to the SATB configuration of the arrangement. For example, the basses can
be thought of as the large hanging gongs, while the trebles play the role of the smaller gender
instruments.
A dramatic two-measure allargando transitions from the slow opening to the allegro
section, beginning with a classic staggered entrance from the highest voice to the lowest, creating
a shimmery E pelog cluster. At this point, the singers sing a long chain of text-like vocables––
“Cak, ara kijang jangi janger kopyak epong; Koprak sede kopyak sedopak dedopong”––
imitating the diverse sonorities of Balinese gamelan, ranging from the bright and forward sounds
“cak” of the cengceng to the deep and sonorous “pong” of the gong ageng. In addition to
unexpected accent and staccato markings, this section is brought to life with two sudden
occurrences of subito piano (suddenly soft) set to the text “sriag sriog” (swaying to and fro). To
further enhance the drama of this section, Yohannes added two short moments of subito piano
set to the text “sriag sriog” (swaying to and fro). These moments capture the audience’s attention
with a sudden loss of sound, mimicking a traditional Balinese gamelan performance where
loudness and the impression of ganas garang (fierce and ferocious) is often contrasted with
unforeseen moments of quiet intensity.
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Example 4.2: The subito piano section in the “verse” set primarily to text-like onomatopoeic syllables.
From this fast, loud section, the music dramatically shifts to a short, soft, and meditative
transitional passage, reflecting the abrupt transitions typical of Balinese gamelan music. In this
section, the singers take on the roles of gamelan instruments and janger dancers: the basses
mimic the warm “bong” of the larger gongs, the tenors and altos being the smaller gender
instruments that produce a bright “ding,” and the soprano being the graceful janger dancers
while singing the vocables “nya” and “ja” set to relatively slower rhythm. At the end of the sixmeasure slow section, a swift three-measure transition set entirely to “ja” leads the music to the
kecak section, the most chaotic and percussive section of the entire piece.
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Example 4.3: The kecak section in Janger.
The Balinese kecak dance has its roots in shaman chants and dances, which explains the
mystical, unsettling, percussive, speech-like quality of this section. As with how the traditional
kecak performances are always accompanied by dancers and a pared-down gamelan ensemble,
this section includes a repetitive gamelan-like ostinato from the basses and a dance-like melody
from the sopranos, while the altos and tenors chant the vocable “cak” in four different rhythms to
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create a thick, complex web of interlocking motifs. The concept of contrasting timbre among the
voice parts remains essential here. Similar to how the gamelan-like layers in the opening section
need to be performed with contrasting timbre in each voice part, the same concept applies here,
particularly with the four parts chanting the same vocable of “cak” but each to a different
rhythm. For example, the soprano 2s and tenor 1s can chant their rhythm in a bright, slightly
nasal tone, while the altos and tenor 2s can use a darker, more robust tone to further clarify the
layers.
A brief, gamelan-like interlude marked by subito piano transitions the music back to the
reprise of the opening section. As explained in the "Form and Structure" section, Balinese
gamelan music typically follows a tripartite structure: head, body, and foot. The head is usually a
slow, improvised introduction, followed by an extensive middle section with a cyclical colotomic
structure, leading to a disproportionately short conclusion. This piece exemplifies that structure,
with a concise reprise or concluding section. The reprise returns to the opening section, where all
the singers perform a long chain of vocables that mimic the sounds of gamelan. To conclude,
Yohannes incorporated a three-measure coda set to fortissimo, with all four voice parts singing
in close harmony. This creates a dizzying E-pelog cluster that culminates in a powerful ending,
with all singers shouting the word "janger!"
“Taboeh Gloria” from Misa di Pulau Dewata (2021) by Yosefano Ardani (b. 1997)
Yosefano Ardani – Biography
A self-taught choral musician with a focus in sacred music and Balinese
ethnomusicology, Yosefano Ardani began his endeavors in choral music in 2015 with the Petra
Christian University Students Choir while he was completing his degree in Civil Engineering
and Planning at the University in Surabaya, Indonesia. During his time at the University, he
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started to sing with the Petra Christian University Students Choir, which he quickly became an
active member and performed regularly as a recitalist in the Coach and Coach Assistants’ Vocal
Recital organized by the University’s Church Music Appreciation and Development Program.
He is now a member of the alumni team of the Petra Choir, with whom he has performed at
numerous churches and institutions across various provinces in Indonesia, including East Java,
Central Java, Yogyakarta, Bali, and West Papua. His achievements with Petra Chorale include
winning first place at the prestigious International JS Fest 2022 in Finland.66
Since he started singing with the Petra Choir, Yosefano began to study voice and choral
music under the tutelage of different Indonesian musicians, including Rubin Lukito (n.d.),
Aprilia W. Takasenserang (n.d.), and Aris Sudibyo (n.d.). His passion for choral music has also
taken him abroad to participate in masterclasses held throughout Southeast Asia masterclasses.67
An active member in the church choral scene, Ardani has directed various church choirs
in Surabaya, the second-largest city in Indonesia, including the Church Choir of Gereja
Reformed Injili Indonesia Gempol, Surabaya Reformed Evangelical Youth Choir, and the
Church Choir of Gereja Reformed Injili Indonesia Kertajaya. Recently, he founded two new
vocal ensembles, the Nunc Dimittis Vocal Ensemble and Ne Adverseris Vocal Ensemble.
Outside of his work as a choral director, Yosefano also teaches voice, composition, and
arrangement privately. To date, some of his choral works has been published by j.b.music
Musikverlag in Germany.68
66 Yosefano Ardani, “Yosefano Ardani,” MuzikSEA, 2023, https://www.muziksea.com/composer/53-yosefano-fardani.
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid.
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Analysis of “Taboeh Gloria” from Misa di Pulau Dewata
“Taboeh gloria” is the second movement of Yosefani Ardani’s Misa di Pulau Dewata. As
the title suggests, this mass is a fusion of Western European choral style with Balinese gamelan
music. The word “taboeh” means “to beat the percussion instruments” in Balinese, and this word
shares an identical meaning with the root word of gamelan, “gamel,” which means “beating
something with hands or sticks” in Javanese. Therefore, the title “Taboeh gloria” can be
understood can beating the gamelan instruments while worshipping, or in the context of the
human, “to shout the glory of the God Most High.” Unlike Yohannes’ Janger, “Taboeh gloria”
represents a more abstract reference to the traditional Balinese gamelan music. At first glance,
this movement appears unexpectedly "Western" due to the homophonic texture and the Gloria
text from the Catholic Mass. The typical interlocking rhythm and extensive use of onomatopoeic
syllables such as “gong,” “dong,” and “cak” one would expect from a typical gamelaninfluenced choral work is nowhere to be found. However, it is precisely this divergence that sets
the composition apart, highlighting the wide stylistic variety present in gamelan-inspired choral
music.
The movement begins with a recitative-like duet performed by two treble soloists, with
the chorus softly humming a G pelog (G-B-C-D-F#) cluster, mirroring the typical opening style
of Balinese gamelan. The duet is adorned with mordent-like grace notes, reminiscent of the
ornamentation commonly added by the ugal, pemade, and kantilan—three smaller gender-family
instruments known for enhancing the pokok core melody with bunga (ornamentation).
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Example 4.4: Bungas in the opening chant of "Taboeh Gloria."
In Balinese music, bunga is often more valued than the pokok, as a player's skill is often judged
by their ability to embellish the core melody spontaneously. In the choral arrangement, this
translates to grace notes being emphasized slightly on the downbeat, similar to the treatment of
appoggiatura in Baroque compositions.
An unexpected sforzando abruptly ends the opening chant, shifting the music from
tranquil to subito animato e marcato (suddenly animated and bold). The music remains relatively
homophonic with occasional polyphonic countermelodies sung by the tenors and altos. While
rooted in the G pelog scale, the harmonies consist mostly of open fourths and fifths, with accents
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and marcato throughout. What makes this section uniquely Balinese gamelan is the syncopated,
recurring rhythmic motif as exemplified in mm. 6-7 in the soprano and alto parts.
Example 4.5: A recurring rhythmic motif found through "Taboeh Gloria"
as exemplified by the soprano and alto parts in mm. 6-7.
Syncopation is a key element that contributes to the impression of ganas garang in Balinese
music, adding rhythmic drive and energy. This quality is uncommon in Javanese gamelan music,
where the rhythm typically consists of consecutive eighth and quarter notes. In performing
homophonic passages set in syncopated rhythm, Balinese musicians value ketetapan (precision
and togetherness), meaning that instead of assigning contrasting timbres to each voice part,
unification in terms of timbre, vowel shape, and resonance should be emphasized to create a
cohesive sound. In addition to unifying the timbres across voice parts, attention should be
focused more on consonants than vowels. In Balinese gamelan tradition, players often use the
perdam (muting) technique when performing fast, rhythmic passages on bronze metallophone
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instruments. This technique involves musicians pressing their fingers on the instrument
immediately after striking it to dampen the sound, creating a more detached, punctuated effect
rather than the naturally resonant and sustained sounds typical of the bronze metallophones. This
enhances rhythmic precision and dynamic contrast. While the muting technique is not directly
applicable to the human voice, singers can achieve a similar effect by emphasizing consonants,
particularly ending consonants, in words like “excelsis,” to add crispness and angularity to the
performance.
In Balinese culture, collective effort toward communal goals and values is highly
prioritized in nearly every aspect of life. This ethos is reflected in Ardani's extensive use of
interlocking patterns in the slow, sempre legato (always legato) middle section starting at m. 26.
Example 4.6: The sempre legato section in "Taboeh Gloria."
At this point, each voice part sings a different melody, and while the sopranos and tenors may
seem to carry the melody, the other voices are equally important. Unlike Western music, which
often features soloists delivering melodic material supported by accompaniment, Balinese
gamelan ensembles emphasize collective musical creation. Seemingly non-melodic phrases
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interweave to form a larger, complementary countermelody to the top voices. Towards the end of
the slow middle section, Ardani employs a typical Balinese gamelan compositional device:
accelerando, which leads the music back to the energetic and articulated opening section. In
Balinese gamelan music, accelerando is executed by gradually increasing the tempo over several
measures and speeding up toward the end of the phrase, adding suspense and forward
momentum.
At the reprise, Ardani introduces a syncopated one-measure rhythmic motif for two treble
soloists. Set in the higher tessitura (E5 to G5), this repeating motif creates a timbre reminiscent
of the bright and clangy Balinese cymbals that often come in pairs, the cengceng, adding
rhythmic excitement and complexity. True to Balinese gamelan tradition, which often concludes
music with a disproportionately short ending, Ardani finishes the movement with a five-measure
coda-like ending set to fortississimo.
Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Balinese Gamelan-Influenced Choral
Works
This section offers practical guidance for choral musicians on performing and teaching
choral works influenced by Balinese gamelan, with a focus on two defining traits: (1) ganas
garang, an intense and fiery musical character, and (2) the bright and shimmery timbre that sets
Balinese gamelan apart. Before delving deeper into the discussion, it is important to
acknowledge that both Javanese and Balinese gamelan share the bright, forward resonance and
linearity inherent to gamelan music. However, Balinese gamelan distinguishes itself through its
more explosive and penetrating sonic energy. Readers can refer to the previous chapter for
suggestions on achieving the bright and forward timbre, as well as bringing out the linear and
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transparent quality relevant to both choral works influenced by Javanese and Balinese gamelans.
Therefore, this section will focus on the unique intensity and brilliance of Balinese gamelan,
qualities that make it a dynamic and vibrant force within Southeast Asian music.
Conveying the Ganas Garang Energy in Balinese Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works
The term ganas garang refers to a ferocious, aggressive, and commanding musical
character, and this quality is often a result of sharp attacks, rapid tempo shifts, and intricate,
interlocking rhythms rather just an expression of chaos, strength, and anger. To convey ganas
garang in a choral setting, performers are encouraged to focus on several aspects:
1. Texture over diction
Balinese gamelan is known for its intricate rhythms and rapid interlocking patterns,
creating a dynamic and exhilarating energy. In choral writing, this can be mirrored by using fast,
tightly coordinated rhythmic phrases spread across different voice parts, each set to a unique text.
While diction is important, at high tempi, the text or even onomatopoeic syllables can be treated
as timbral and textural elements rather than as conveyors of meaning. This is evident in Pontas
Purba’s gamelan-inspired arrangement of Sik Sik Si Batu Manikkam, where the text becomes
more of a texture. The piece begins with a moderately fast tempo, presenting tongue-twisting
strophic text in homophony, but in the coda, each repetition is raised to a higher key and a faster
tempo, shifting the focus from storytelling to showcasing the singers' articulation speed. In this
context, it is acceptable for singers to miss a few words or syllables; the priority should be
rhythmic and intonational precision to maintain the overall timbre.
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From a rehearsal standpoint, while breaking down tongue-twisters into smaller units,
teaching translations, chanting texts on a single pitch, and gradually introducing the melody can
improve fluency, it is important not to make mastering every word the primary goal. A study on
speech perception found that the inferior frontal cortex can predict what word a person is likely
to hear up to two-tenths of a second before the superior temporal gyrus processes the sound. In
other words, audiences may "fill in" missing syllables themselves, especially when phrases are
repeated throughout the composition.69 What is more important is conveying the joyful, childlike
excitement of the tongue-twisting lines. Therefore, singers should focus on articulating rhythms
with precision and force, emulating the sharp attacks of Balinese gamelan's gangsa (bronze
metallophones) and cengceng (cymbals), underscoring the idea that in some musical contexts,
texture and timbre can take precedence over textual clarity.
2. Sudden dynamic shifts:
The dynamic range in Balinese gamelan is exceptionally wide, moving rapidly between
extremely soft, nearly whispered passages and sudden, explosive bursts of intense sound.
Conductors should emphasize these contrasts by clearly marking subito forte (suddenly loud) and
subito piano (suddenly soft) dynamics, allowing the choir to transition seamlessly between
moments of tension and release. It is crucial to remind singers that in choral works influenced by
Balinese gamelan, the most powerful moments often occur not in the loudest sections, but in the
abrupt drop in volume. This sudden decrease can be one of the most captivating elements of the
performance, creating an effect comparable to a steep drop, which surprises and engages the
listener.
69 Matthew K Leonard et al., “Perceptual Restoration of Masked Speech in Human Cortex,” Nature
Communications 7, no. 1 (2016): 13619.
195
In instances where crescendo and diminuendo are used instead of sudden dynamic shifts,
the volume changes should be gradual yet dramatic. This technique will help capture the
volatility and driving force of ganas garang, fully immersing the audience in the bold, dynamic
tension that is characteristic of Balinese music.
3. Rehearse vocally demanding rhythmic sections with efficient syllables
Often, vocally demanding onomatopoeic syllables like “chak,” “tak,” “kek,” “tuk,” and
“pak” appear in choral works influenced by Balinese gamelan. While these syllables are
impressive in performance, they can be tiring for singers during extended practice. Therefore, it
is acceptable to temporarily replace them with less percussive words or nonsense syllables
during rehearsals. This is especially relevant for pieces that incorporate the famous Balinese
monkey chant, known as kecak. For example, sustaining the syllables “chak” and “ka” with
accents, tenuto, and staccato can be exhausting. In Stephen Hatfield’s (b. 1956) Tjak (1997), a
work influenced by kecak and Balinese gamelan, replacing the chain of “cak” and “ka” with
words like “watermelon” not only adds humor to the rehearsal but also emphasizes vocal health
and efficient practice for the choristers.
Figure 4.11: A sample rehearsal plan for Stephen Hatfield's Tjak, created by the author with less vocally taxing
syllables
Emulating the bright and shimmery timbre
The bright quality of Balinese gamelan is a defining characteristic among all gamelan
subcategories, but it is particularly exceptional in this style. This intense brightness stems from
the extensive use of gender-family and saron-family instruments, combined with hard, metallic
mallets, resulting in a vibrant and resonant sound. To replicate this timbral brightness in a choral
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setting, readers should apply the same vocal techniques discussed in the previous chapter on
Javanese gamelan (see “Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Javanese GamelanInfluenced Choral Works), but to an even greater extent.
However, brightness is not the only defining timbral quality of Balinese gamelan; it also
features the shimmering ombak effect—an acoustic phenomenon produced by pair-tuned
instruments that create rapid overtone beatings. While the previous chapter has provided
suggestions for achieving a bright and forward vocal timbre, this section will focus specifically
on emulating an ombak-like effect in choral settings.
1. Vibrato:
Vibrato can be used sparingly in Balinese music during slower passages to mimic the
ombak effect. In Balinese gamelan, ombak—characterized by fast overtone beatings—arises
from paired tuning, where each instrument exists in pairs, with one instrument tuned slightly
higher or lower than its counterpart. This intentional detuning creates a vibrato-like effect, as the
slight pitch variations generate rapid fluctuations in sound. From a physics and acoustical
standpoint, vibrato involves periodic changes in pitch and amplitude, produced by variations in
airflow and tension in the vocal folds, resulting in a rich and expressive sound. This is analogous
to how ombak creates dynamic overtones through the interplay of closely tuned instruments.
While it is technically feasible to instruct half of a choir to sing slightly lower by a few
cents, this approach is often impractical, especially since choirs may not maintain perfect
intonation. To authentically emulate the unique quality of Balinese gamelan, choirs can
incorporate vibrato during slower moments. However, for faster sections, where clarity and
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articulation are essential, it is advisable to refrain from using vibrato to maintain precision and
impact.
By focusing on these two key traits—ganas garang and the bright, shimmery timbre—
choral musicians can capture the unique intensity and brilliance of Balinese gamelan. This
approach will ensure a performance that is both vibrant and authentic, offering a powerful
interpretation of this distinctive musical tradition.
Conclusion
Balinese gamelan music is renowned for its showstopping, virtuosic nature, characterized
by the impossibly high technical demands placed on players to execute the intricate interlocking
kotekan patterns. This musical tradition is deeply rooted in communal practices, with the banjar
communal organizations taking over the management and conservation of gamelan ensembles
when the Dutch assumed control over the royal courts. The uniquely bright and forward timbre
of Balinese gamelan attributed to its unusually large section of gender-family instruments,
unmatched by any other gamelan subcategories, further distinguishes it.
While Balinese gamelan is often recognized for its fast-paced, dramatic performances—
aptly described by the Balinese term ganas garang—it is crucial to not neglect the moments of
calm and slow music. These quieter sections provide essential contrast, as the impact of loud
passages is amplified by preceding silence. This dynamic interplay is a hallmark of Balinese
gamelan, reflecting the sharp contrast within the music.
For choral educators approaching works influenced by Balinese gamelan, several
techniques can be invaluable. Emphasizing rhythmic precision and the interplay of vocal parts
can effectively mimic the interlocking patterns of gamelan instruments. Attention to consonants
over vowels can introduce the crispness and angularity reminiscent of the perdam (muting)
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technique used by gamelan musicians. Additionally, maintaining contrasting timbres within
voice parts can enhance the layered, polyphonic textures characteristic of gamelan music.
This discussion serves as a foundational guide for appreciating and teaching choral works
influenced by Balinese gamelan. It is crucial to recognize that, like other gamelan subcategories,
Balinese gamelan encompasses a diverse array of regional variations and continues to transform.
Engaging deeply with this music not only opens a window into its rich cultural heritage but also
provides insight into its dynamic performance practices, enriching the choral repertoire and
educational experience
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Chapter 5 – The Influences of Malay Gamelan on Choral Music
Malaysia
Malaysia, a Southeast Asian nation renowned for its cultural diversity and historical
richness, holds a significant place in the world of traditional music, particularly in relation to
gamelan. Geographically, Malaysia is strategically located in the heart of Southeast Asia,
bordered by Indonesia to the south, Thailand to the north, and the South China Sea to the east
and west. This central location has historically made Malaysia a crossroads of various cultures,
facilitating the exchange of artistic traditions, practices, and innovations. Moreover, its strategic
location and the calm waters along the Straits of Malacca and Penang Island made it a popular
trading center as early as the 13th century, attracting traders from Europe, the Middle East, India,
and China. As Freeman (n.d.) puts it, “This constricted waterway between West (peninsular)
Malaysia and the island of Sumatra, although relatively remote from the major foci of world
population concentration and development, ranks among a handful of strategic shipping
gateways around the globe that have played a preeminent role in ocean-borne trade.”1
Driven by its strategic position and the abundance of natural resources, the Portuguese,
Dutch, and British took a keen interest in Malaysia throughout the Age of Exploration and
Colonialism.2 The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a stronghold in Malacca in
1511, drawn by the lucrative spice trade and the strategic control of the Straits of Malacca.3 The
Dutch followed in the 17th century, seeking to dominate regional trade and exploit the wealth of
the Malay Peninsula. The British, recognizing the strategic and economic potential of Malaysia,
1 Donald B Freeman, The Straits of Malacca: Gateway or Gauntlet, 2003, 1.
2
Ibid., 33.
3
Ibid.
200
established control over Penang, Singapore, and later the entire Malay Peninsula in the 19th
century.4 Malaysia's abundant natural resources also attracted these colonial powers, including
gold deposits in Pahang and Kelantan, as well as tin and silver in Selangor and Perak (where
perak translates to "silver"). The country’s extensive timber resources, along with its flatlands
and gentle slopes that are ideal for rubber plantation, further heightened its appeal to these
colonial interests, especially the British. While the exact number of plantations varied over time
as new estates were developed and older ones expanded during the British colonial era, by the
1930s, Malaysia had become the world's largest producer of rubber, with thousands of rubber
estates across the peninsula, particularly in states like Johor, Pahang, and Selangor.5
Historically, the spread of gamelan music to Malaysia can be traced back to the 19th
century, during the era of the Johor-Riau Sultanate located in the southernmost of the Malay
Peninsula.6 The close political and cultural ties between the Malay Peninsula and the Indonesian
archipelago, particularly with the courts of Java and Bali, facilitated the introduction and
assimilation of gamelan music into Malay culture. The Johor-Riau Sultanate, being a prominent
maritime power, played a crucial role in this cultural exchange. The sultans of Johor and Riau,
who were enthusiastic patrons of the arts, embraced and adapted gamelan music, incorporating it
into numerous royal court events. This included the Majlis Pertabalan Raja (royal coronation
ceremony), weddings, and Islamic holidays such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, and
entertainment for the royal families.7
4 Lockard, Southeast Asia in World History, 89.
5 Lockard, Southeast Asia in World History.
6 Abdul Khalil Hassan, Teuku Umar Ilany Teuku Iskandar, and Mohamad Faliq Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas
Permainan (Akademi Seni Budaya dan Warisan Bekangsaan (ASWARA) Malaysia, 2022), 1.
7
Ibid.
201
As the gamelan tradition journeyed from Indonesia to Malaysia, it experienced a unique
process of distillation and preservation, often maintaining elements that have transformed or
been lost in their place of origin. While gamelan music in Indonesia has continuously
transformed, integrating various local influences and modern elements, the Malay adaptation
preserved the tradition in a more static form, reflective of the styles and practices prevalent at the
time of its introduction. This preservation is similar to how languages retain archaic features
when they migrate. For instance, the French spoken in Quebec, Canada, retains linguistic
elements that have transformed in contemporary France. Similarly, Malay gamelan has preserved
certain traditional aspects, such as the small ensemble size reminiscent of the 13th-century
gamelan sekaten from Java, which is often regarded among scholars as the mother of all gamelan
forms.8 Additionally, Malay gamelan performances often feature vocalists, a quintessential
element of traditional Javanese gamelan that is less commonly found in contemporary gamelan
performances. The Malay tradition upholds this practice, maintaining a rich repertoire of
gamelan music with vocalists singing in Javanese, including pieces such as Ayak-ayak, Babar
Layar, Togok, Mulih, Ketawang, Geliong, Gambuh, Lambang Sari, Perang Manggong, and
Raden Inu.
9 This adherence to traditional elements highlights the distinct and enduring character
of Malay gamelan, preserving features that have transformed or diminished in modern
Indonesian versions.
The significance of gamelan music in Malaysia extends beyond its historical origins,
embodying a rich blend of indigenous and foreign elements that reflect the country's
multicultural identity. While gamelan music in Malaysia has preserved features that have
8 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music; Spiller, Gamelan; Kartomi and Blum,
Music-Cultures in Contact : Convergences and Collisions.
9 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 8.
202
transformed or diminished in modern Balinese and Javanese gamelans from Indonesia, it has also
integrated unique indigenous and foreign influences, shaped by Malaysia's diverse cultural
environment. This adaptation has led to the development of distinctive styles and repertoires,
known as Gamelan Melayu (Malay gamelan), which incorporate local musical elements such as
folk tunes, rhythmic motifs, and performance practices that do not originate from the Malay and
Indonesian performing arts tradition.10
The next section explores the cultural history of Malaysia, recognizing how the unique
elements of Malay gamelan are products of Malaysia’s rich and varied historical and cultural
interactions. Understanding this context provides deeper insight into how Malaysia's
multicultural heritage has influenced and enriched its musical traditions.
Cultural History
Malaysia’s cultural history is a complex amalgamation shaped by its diverse ethnic
communities and extensive historical interactions. As aforementioned, Malaysia is located at the
strategic crossroads of maritime Southeast Asia and has long been a melting pot of cultures,
religions, and traditions. This multiculturalism is primarily shaped by the indigenous Malay
population, alongside significant communities of Chinese, Indian, and various indigenous ethnic
groups from the states of Sabah and Sarawak from East Malaysia, also known as Borneo
Malaysia. The demographic composition of Malaysia, as of recent estimates, consists of
approximately 69.7% Bumiputera (including Malays and indigenous peoples), 22.8% Chinese,
6.9% Indian, and 0.6% others.11 Over centuries, Malaysia has absorbed influences from its
10 Wong Huey Yi @ Colleen Wong et al., “The Development and Evaluation of Malay Gamelan Module for Schools
and Communities,” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 9, no. 7 (2019),
https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v9-i7/6090.
11 Malaysia’s National Statistics Organisation, “Population Table: Malaysia (Data as of 2024).”
203
neighboring countries and colonial powers, including the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, all of
which have contributed to its complex cultural landscape.
This multicultural heritage has provided a wealth of cultural references and inspirations
for contemporary composers of Malay gamelan and Malay gamelan-inspired choral works.
Initially, Indonesian gamelan music from Java and Bali was integrated into the royal courts of
the Malay Sultanates, where it was adapted to local tastes and ceremonial functions. Today,
Malaysian composers draw upon this rich history while incorporating diverse cultural elements
to create a unique Malay gamelan sound representative of contemporary Malaysia’s cultural
heritage and identity. In particular, the fusion of Chinese and Indian musical traditions has led to
innovative compositions that mirror Malaysia's pluralistic society. Modern Malay gamelan works
often blend traditional gamelan instruments with Chinese pentatonic scales and Indian rhythmic
patterns, resulting in a distinctive sound that sets them apart from their Javanese and Balinese
counterparts. An example of this cultural amalgamation is Junyi Chow’s (b. 1982) Ikan Kekek
(2012), a choral arrangement of a Malay folksong traditionally performed on gamelan
instruments. This arrangement not only preserves the essence of the traditional Malay folksong
and the interlocking motifs typical of gamelan music but also integrates a recurring two-measure
motif set in 7/8 + 3/4 meters that is reminiscent of Indian tabla music and a newly composed
middle section influenced by the Chinese orchestra and erhu, a traditional Chinese bowed string
instrument. Such compositions create a sonic landscape that is distinctly Malaysian, reflecting
the country’s cultural mosaic.
The unique history of preservation and development of gamelan music in Malaysia serves
as a microcosm of its past and future. Unlike the more homogeneous musical traditions of Java
and Bali, which have remained relatively insulated, Malaysia's gamelan tradition has been
204
marked by two contrasting aspects: (1) a dynamic evolution through the integration of the
diverse cultures in contemporary Malaysia and (2) a deliberate effort to preserve the ancient
gamelan tradition brought into the Malay Peninsula by Javanese immigrants since as early as the
15th century. This historical context reflects Malaysia's broader societal approach, where
multiculturalism involves not just the coexistence of diverse cultures but also their active
preservation and mutual enrichment. Consequently, Malay gamelan and Malay gamelan-inspired
choral works highlight the creative possibilities inherent in Malaysia's cultural diversity, offering
a vibrant and unique contribution to both traditional and contemporary music.
Malay Gamelan
Malay gamelan was largely developed in the royal courts of Pahang and Terengganu,
forming the foundation for Malay gamelan pedagogy and performance practice—both traditional
and contemporary. This section of the dissertation organizes the narrative chronologically,
starting from the 15th century in Java, moving through significant historical events that brought
gamelan to Malay courts, and highlighting the role of influential figures and institutions in its
preservation and formalization.
Malay gamelan shares a deeply intertwined history with Javanese gamelan. By the 15th
century, gamelan music had become highly popular in the Indonesian archipelago, particularly in
cities and islands around Central Java.12 The newly established Islamic Sultanate of Demak,
located on Java's northern coast, incorporated various pre-Islamic symbols of divine right to rule,
including gamelan sekaten music. They showcased gamelan sekaten in important court events
and religious festivities, most notably at Garebeg Maulud (Prophet Muhammad's birthday), one
12 Spiller, Gamelan, 47.
205
of the most important Islamic events.13 To ensure a smooth transition of authority from the
Buddhist-Hindu Kingdom of Majapahit to the new Islamic Kingdom of Demak, the Demak
Sultanate actively spread gamelan music west and northward to cities like Banjar, Kutai, and
Palembang.14 Though lacking documented evidence, given the symbolic power of gamelan at
that time, scholars generally speculate that this dissemination of gamelan music was a strategic
political move by the Sultan to position himself as a protector and advocate of traditional arts and
heritage, thereby appealing to his subjects.15 Over the centuries, as Javanese people migrated
throughout the region for trade, religious purposes, and sometimes in search of refuge, Javanese
gamelan gradually made its way to the then-Malaya or Tanah Melayu (Malay land).16
Unlike the early forms of Javanese and Balinese gamelans, which were commonly
performed in both villages and royal courts with distinct playing styles, Malay gamelan initially
emerged primarily as court music. Although gamelan music had begun to spread across the
region that now includes Malaysia and Indonesia as early as the 15th century, it did not truly
flourish in the former Malaya until the 19th century, primarily within royal courts. In 1811,
dancers and gamelan musicians from the Riau-Lingga Sultanate were brought to Pahang to
perform at a royal wedding celebration between the sister of a high-ranking minister from
Pahang and the eldest son of Sultan Mahmud Syah III (1761-1812) of Riau-Lingga.17 Following
this event, gamelan music began to thrive in Pahang, eventually developing into the popular
musical form known as Joget Pahang, a gamelan song-dance performance that continues to this
13 Ibid., 58.
14 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 2.
15 Miller and Williams, The Garland Handbook of Southeast Asian Music; Sumarsam, Javanese Gamelan and the
West.
16 Lockard, Southeast Asia in World History; Kunst, Music in Java. Its History, Its Theory and Its Technique.;
Raffles, The History of Java.
17 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 1–2.
206
day.18 The Joget Pahang art form became so prominent in Pahang that British colonial
administrator Frank Swettenham (1850-1946) documented a performance of it during his visit to
Sultan Ahmad al-Muadzam Shah (1882-1914) in 1875.19 However, Swettenham mistakenly
identified it as a Javanese gamelan performance, highlighting the deep cultural and historical
connections between Malay and Javanese gamelans.20 He also noted that gamelan was absent
from other parts of the Malay Peninsula at that time, though this assertion lacks scholarly
validation.
Towards the end of the 19th century, gamelan music slowly traveled northward to the
state of Terengganu when Joget Pahang was performed at the wedding of Sultan Ahmad of
Pahang’s daughter, Tengku Long, to Sultan Zainal Abidin III (1866-1918) of Terengganu in
1885.21 Even though the marriage did not last, the Terengganu Sultan was deeply captivated by
the gamelan music in Joget Pahang. He borrowed gamelan players and instruments from Pahang
and Riau-Lingga to continue the tradition of incorporating gamelan music in important court
events and rituals in his palace but without dancers.22 While Malay gamelan was first established
in Pahang, it was the state of Terengganu that developed and preserved the Malay gamelan
tradition. After Sultan Ahmad of Pahang’s death in 1914, there was a lack of interest in
preserving Joget Pahang among his heirs and court leaders.23 To preserve this unique gamelan
tradition that the Pahang court had established, Sultan Ahmad’s wife, Che Zubedah (n.d.)
decided to bring along her gamelan set to Terengganu when she moved from the Pahang palace
to live with her daughter, Tengku Ampuan Mariam (1889-1975) who married the Sultan of
18 Jafar Norsafini and Thiagarajan Premalatha, “Performing Joget Gamelan through Archives and Social Memory,”
Cogent Arts & Humanities 10, no. 1 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2254043.
19 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 1–2.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.; Norsafini and Premalatha, “Performing Joget Gamelan through Archives and Social Memory.”
23 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 1–2.
207
Terengganu’s son, Tengku Sulaiman (1895-1942).24 Fortunately, both Tengku Ampuan Mariam
and her mother were two active advocates for and enthusiasts of traditional arts, especially
gamelan music. They wanted to revive the culture of gamelan music and Joget Pahang, and
fortunately, their interest was strongly supported by Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s husband, Tengku
Sulaiman, who was at that time the crown prince of Terengganu. Influenced by Tengku Ampuan
Mariam, when the crown prince rose to the throne in 1921, he founded a gamelan ensemble for
the state of Terengganu known as Gamelan Terengganu.
25 He even hired former gamelan
musicians from Pahang to provide formal gamelan training to his court musicians and young
musicians in Terengganu who were interested in gamelan art.26 As for Tengku Ampuan Mariam,
her interest focused mostly on teaching the Joget Pahang choreographies to female dancers from
Terengganu, which eventually developed into a new dance known as Tarian Gamelan
Terengganu (Terengganu gamelan dance).27 By 1936, the royal couple successfully acquired
their own gamelan set, and performances were frequently held at their Maziah Palace in
Terengganu.28
Tengku Ampuan Mariam also produced numerous manuscripts, drawings, poems, and
essays about gamelan and the dances she learned as a young girl, and the ones she
choreographed.29 Today, these writings serve as valuable historical and traditional references for
Malay gamelan. It is said that there were 95 gamelan compositions and about 60 pieces
accompanied by dance, with the majority inherited from Pahang and the rest developed and
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Norsafini and Premalatha, “Performing Joget Gamelan through Archives and Social Memory.”
28 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 1–2.
29 Farahi Kamaruddin, “Tengku Ampuan Mariam: Permaisuri Berjiwa Seni,” The Patriots - Asia, 2018,
https://thepatriots.asia/tengku-ampuan-mariam-permaisuri-berjiwa-seni/.
208
refined in Terengganu.30 Her contribution to the gamelan arts in Malaysia was widely recognized
and she was lovingly referred to as Bonda Gamelan Terengganu, the mother of gamelan
Terengganu.31
As Tengku Ampuan Mariam and Tengku Sulaiman continued their efforts to develop
gamelan music in Terengganu in the early 1920s to 1930s, the then Sultan Pahang, Sultan Sir
Abu Bakar (1904-1974) also began his interest in reviving the gamelan tradition Pahang. To do
so, Sultan Sir Abu Bakar brought in a village Javanese gamelan troupe from Lipis, a region
located in the northwest of Pahang to perform in his court.32 This is one of the few documented
early gamelan ensembles in Malaysia that are hosted in a village. Nevertheless, there is still very
little information about the ensemble. According to the court’s documentation, they were the
only gamelan ensemble in Pahang at that time.33 When Sultan Sir Abu Bakar became the Sultan
of Pahang in 1973, he then requested the return of the gamelan set Che Zubedah brought to
Terengganu in 1914 to revive the tradition in Pahang.34 After some negotiation, he paid about
$25,000 USD to Tengku Ampuan Mariam, which is equivalent in purchasing power to about
$145,992.10 today, an increase of about 483%.35 While it is hard to put a price tag on traditional
heritage, especially for one that is imbued with various mythical and symbolic powers, this price,
in many ways, reflects the rarity of gamelan in Malaysia at that time and the challenges of
acquiring these bronze instruments. While this lacks scholarly backing, this can explain why the
early development of gamelan music in Malaysia was largely limited to the wealthy royal courts.
30 Norsafini and Premalatha, “Performing Joget Gamelan through Archives and Social Memory.”
31 Kamaruddin, “Tengku Ampuan Mariam: Permaisuri Berjiwa Seni.”
32 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 1–2.
33 Ibid., 2.
34 Ibid., 2–4.
35 Ibid., 4.
209
At the beginning of the 1940s, gamelan Terengganu began its decline as World War II
began and its great patron, Sultan Sulaiman passed away in 1942. Since then, the gamelan set
(see Figure 6.1) has been stored away in the Kolam Palace, which eventually became the
residence of Tengku Ampuan Mariam.36 As mentioned earlier, in 1973, this gamelan set was
given to Sultan Sir Abu Bakar of Pahang and it is now on display in the Museum of Sultan Abu
Bakar in Pahang (see Figure 6.2). Today, this historic gamelan is an important reference for the
basic instrumentation of Malay gamelan, comprising of keromong, gambang, saron kecil, saron
besar, gendang, gong kecil, gong besar, and three kenongs.
37
36 Ahmad Syamiem Mohd Sukarno, “Cinta Pandang Pertama: Gamelan Melayu,” Gangsapura (blog), July 2, 2020,
https://gangsapura.com/blogs/special-picks/cinta-pandang-pertama-gamelan-melayu.
37 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 2–4.
210
Figure 5.1: The Terengganu Gamelan Ensemble at the Kolam Palace in 1966, with Pak Mat, a prominent Malay
gamelan musician, pictured on the right playing the gambang.
Source: Image permission granted by Gangsapura Gamelan Group. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Figure 5.2: The original 213-year-old gamelan set from the Pahang court, now housed at the Museum of Sultan Abu
Bakar, played during the coronation ceremony of the 16th King of Malaysia in 2019.
Source: Image permission granted by Gangsapura Gamelan Group. Photo by an unknown photographer.
Malay gamelan did not begin to spread beyond the royal courts of Pahang and
Terengganu until the early 1980s when it was introduced at the National Cultural Complex on
Jalan Tun Ismail in Kuala Lumpur. During this time, seven contract musicians, referred to as
Cultural Artists of the National Cultural Complex, were trained under the guidance of Haji
Ahmad Omar bin Haji Ibrahim (1942-2005). Haji Ahmad Omar was instrumental in preserving,
211
developing, formalizing, and transitioning Malay gamelan from a court-based art form to one
that could be studied academically. His efforts, along with the National Cultural Complex's
promotion of Malay gamelan, led to the systematic notation of the music (see
“Instrumentation”). Despite this advancement, teaching methods varied and were largely based
on imitation of court musicians from Pahang and Terengganu, such as Pak Mat, a prominent
musician from Tengku Ampuan Mariam’s court.38
The 1990s saw a significant growth in Malay gamelan, driven by the establishment of a
Malay gamelan ensemble at the National Cultural Complex and the introduction of gamelan in
government schools and higher education institutions as part of their music programs or
extracurricular activities.39 The creation of the Akademi Seni Budaya (Academy of Arts and
Culture) marked the first time Malay gamelan was formally offered as a major field of study in
the Music Faculty’s Diploma program. However, according to Abdul Khalil Hassan (b. 1955), a
key author of Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan (Malay Gamelan: Basic Techniques; 2022), the
teaching methods remained relatively unstandardized. It was not until 2008 that Malay gamelan
pedagogy was formalized through the efforts of the National Academy of Arts, Culture, and
Heritage (ASWARA), Malaysia's largest and most significant institution specializing in
traditional Malaysian arts. With the increasing number of Malay gamelan courses offered by
ASWARA, various techniques that were previously approached differently and given different
names were documented, categorized, and assigned formal names, such as Irama Satu, Irama
Dua, Irama Bertingkah, and Bertingkah dan Beragam.40
38 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 2–4.
39 Ibid
40 Ibid
212
Despite being a borrowed musical tradition from Java, today, Malay gamelan is deeply
ingrained in modern-day Malay culture. The term Malay gamelan reflects this synthesis of
influences and the assimilation of gamelan music into the Malay culture. Instead of labeling this
style as Javanese gamelan or using regional-specific terms like gamelan from Pahang or
Terengganu, scholars and audiences generally refer to it simply as Malay gamelan. The cultural,
historical, and genetic ties between Malay and Javanese people, rooted in their shared
Austronesian ancestry, help explain this naming convention. The Javanese Malaysians, who are
either fully or partially of Javanese descent, represent the largest portion of the demographic in
Malaysia. This group primarily hails from Central Java and has a history of migration to
Malaysia dating back to the Shailendra era (6th to 9th century) and continuing through the
Singhasari and Majapahit periods (12th to 14th century). Further waves of migration occurred
during the Dutch East Indies colonial period and World War II, as many Javanese sought new
opportunities or were brought over as forced laborers. Over time, Javanese Malaysians have
integrated into the local Malay culture, adopting Malaysian as their primary language and often
intermarrying with other ethnic groups. This assimilation has led to their recognition as Malays
under Malaysian law, paralleling the situation of Javanese in Singapore. Given this extensive
integration and cultural blending, gamelan music in Malaysia has transformed into a distinct
form known as Malay gamelan. It acknowledges the historical contributions from the Javanese
while also recognizing the unique developments and adaptations that occurred within the Malay
courts of Pahang and Terengganu.
From a traditional communal singing standpoint, gamelan music has long been integral to
various performances, even before it flourished in the royal courts of Pahang and Terengganu.
Despite the limited historical documentation of gamelan music in the Malay Peninsula prior to its
213
first recorded performance in the Pahang court in 1811 and little is known about whether
gamelan was performed in villages, its influence on traditional Malay vocal arts is evident.
Gamelan instruments such as drums, gongs, and gong-chime instruments of various sizes have
always been a central part of Malay communal singing traditions. These include wayang kulit
shadow puppetry, dikir barat song-dance form, and various theatrical forms such as arja, mak
yong, and wayang wong.
Wau Bulan, one of the most iconic songs from the dikir barat song-dance tradition,
exemplifies the deep connection between Malay gamelan music and traditional vocal
performances. In a typical dikir barat performance, Wau Bulan is accompanied by a small
ensemble of gongs and drums, while singers seated cross-legged on the floor perform
interlocking upper body movements. The connection between this song-dance performance and
Malay gamelan extends beyond the use of gamelan instruments in the ensemble. It is most
evident in the core melody sung by the performers, which is characterized by the slendro
pentatonic scale (1-2-3-5-6) and a narrow melodic range. This narrow melodic range is a
defining feature of Malay gamelan music, where the instruments are typically limited to one
octave. This is because Malay gamelan, like its Javanese and Balinese counterparts, expands its
music through the addition of layers, interlocking motifs, and rhythmic complexities rather than
harmonic progression, which requires more pitches. This approach creates a rich, intricate
texture without relying on a wide range of notes. This limitation was influenced by the
challenges of constructing bronze instruments, as well as the difficulty of carrying them,
particularly when used in the pakcik processional tradition, also known as pacik talempong in
Javanese. In the pakcik tradition, players have to carry one or two gongs in one hand while
striking them with the other, limiting the number of gongs due to their weight and resulting in
214
melodies confined to just four or five notes. Although Wau Bulan does not originate from the
pakcik tradition, it shares this characteristic with most Malay gamelan music: using only six
notes from the slendro pentatonic scale. This feature is also present in numerous other traditional
Malay folk songs, such as Ikan Kekek (four notes), Ulek Mayang (five notes), Timang Burung
(five notes), and Lenggang Kangkung (six notes). These songs can be performed by singers
alone, by Malay gamelan ensembles, or as a blend of both, further reinforcing the link between
Malay gamelan and Malay folk songs.
Figure 5.3: Pakcik.
Source: Image permission granted by commons.wikimedia.org. Photo by an unknown photographer.
If Javanese gamelan is considered the mother of all gamelan variants, and Balinese
gamelan offers a glimpse into what gamelan might have been had Islam never arrived in
Southeast Asia, then Malay gamelan provides a microcosm of what happens when gamelan is
brought abroad, where its performance practice undergoes two drastically different musical
processes: preservation in its original state or adaptation and assimilation into the local musical
scene.
215
The following section will examine (1) the instrumentation, (2) form and structure, (3)
tuning systems, and (4) the overall aesthetic of traditional Malay gamelan. Although traditional
Malay gamelan can be further categorized into specific subcategories such as Pahang gamelan
and Terengganu gamelan, these are often grouped together in scholarly discourse. This approach
is justified by several factors: the proximity and close relationship between the Pahang and
Terengganu courts, which facilitated the exchange of ideas between their respective gamelan
ensembles; the relatively short history of Malay gamelan development, beginning in 1811, which
has led to minimal differentiation between the two subcategories; and the shared influence of
early training from Javanese gamelan musicians. This raises the question of contemporary Malay
gamelan. Although contemporary Malay gamelan has emerged, incorporating non-traditional
instruments and playing techniques, the focus of this discussion remains on traditional practices,
which serve as a crucial foundation for understanding and evaluating these newer innovations.
Instrumentation
A standard Malay gamelan ensemble from the courts of Pahang and Terengganu typically
consists of ten instruments.41 Similar to Javanese gamelan, these instruments can be categorized
according to their musical functions, materials, and construction, and playing techniques. In this
section, the instruments will be organized based on their construction into four groups: (1)
vertical hanging gongs, (2) horizontally suspended kettle gongs, (3) xylophone-like keyed
instruments, and (4) membranophones.
41 Ibid., 14–15.
216
Figure 5.4: Malay gamelan instruments.
Source: Photo by the author.
The first group, vertical hanging gongs, includes two instruments: (1) gong agong and (2)
gong suwukan. Like their Javanese and Balinese counterparts, these two large hanging gongs
serve the purpose of marking the beginnings and endings of musical phrases or complete cycles.
However, unlike Javanese and Balinese ensembles, which often feature three to five large
hanging gongs, the Malay gamelan ensemble typically includes only two. The gong agong is the
largest instrument in the Malay gamelan set and is colloquially referred to as gong besar (big
gong) due to its size. It is usually struck at the end of a complete song cycle. This final strike is
typically preceded by two measures played on the gong suwukan, also known as gong kecil
(small gong), which provides an aural cue to the performers that the cycle is nearing its
conclusion. Because the gong agong and gong suwukan are played infrequently throughout the
217
performance, they are usually handled by a single player using a softly padded mallet. The
standard notation for these gongs includes the entire core melody, making it easier for the player
to keep track of the progression. A small above note indicates the note for the small gong,
while a note enclosed in a circle denotes the note for the big gong (see Figure 5). As illustrated in
this figure, these large vertically hanging gongs are typically struck at the end of a measure,
further emphasizing the end-weighted nature of gamelan music. Compared to other gongs, the
technique required for playing the gong agong and gong suwukan is considered the simplest, as
they are played infrequently and do not require dampening or melodic elaboration. Given the
massiveness of these gongs, they are usually positioned near the back of the ensemble.42
Figure 5.5: A sample notation for gong agong and gong suwukan.
Gong suwukan Gong agong
| 1 3 2 3 | 3 1 3 2 | 6 3 2 3 | 2 5 2 ○1 |
The second group, horizontally suspended gongs, consists of the kromong and kenong,
which are both found in Javanese gamelan, except that the Javanese refer to the kromong as
bonang barung. The kromong, or keromong, comprises ten gongs arranged in two rows of five,
suspended over tightly tied ropes on a wooden frame. The row closest to the player is one octave
lower than the upper row. In Malay gamelan, the kromong primarily plays the main melody and
occasionally provides countermelody. It is typically struck with two hard mallets covered with
rope, one in each hand.43
42 Ibid., 39–40.
43 Ibid., 22–23 and 38.
218
Figure 5.6: A bird eye's view of bonang.
Upper octave
Lower octave
There are three foundational techniques for playing the kromong in traditional Malay
gamelan: (1) serentak (block octave), (2) bergilir or bertingkah (broken octave), and (3)
berbunga (ornamented). The term serentak translates to "simultaneously," involving the player
striking octaves at the same time. In notation, serentak notes are represented by two numbers
with a slash pointing left or right; “/” (pointing right) indicates the lower note played with the
right hand, and vice versa. The positioning of the numbers also indicates pitch, with a dot
underneath a number denoting a lower pitch and a dot above indicating a higher pitch. For
example, if a regular number is placed to the left of a number with a dot below it, the left hand
plays the higher note while the right hand plays the lower note (see Figure 6.7).44
44 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan.
1
~B♭4
2
~C4
3
~D4
5
~F4
6
~G4
6
~G5
5
~F5
3
~D5
2
~C5
1
~B♭5
Player
219
Figure 5.7: The serentak (block octave) technique transcribed into Western notation.
In the bergilir or bertingkah technique, the melody is played in broken octaves, guided by
the flow of the notes and the player's comfort (see Figure 6.8). The berbunga technique, meaning
"with flower," is an advanced form of ornamentation involving a brief, appoggiatura-like bunga
(flower) that temporarily displaces the main note before resolving into it (see the note with *
above in Figure 6.9). Unlike traditional appoggiaturas that resolve stepwise, bunga in Malay
gamelan can be spaced as far apart as one octave due to the gapped nature of the slendro scale.
Figure 5.8: The bergilir (top) and berbunga (bottom) technique transcribed into Western notation.
The kenong is the second type of horizontally suspended kettle gong in a Malay gamelan
ensemble. It is essentially a larger version of the kromong, except that each individual kettle
220
gong is suspended over a separate wooden box with ropes tied around it. In the Malay gamelan
tradition, the kenong typically consists of five gongs, whereas in Javanese gamelan, it can range
from five to seven. The kenong produces the pitches do, re, mi, sol, and la (or 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 in
cipher notation commonly used by gamelan musicians). Unlike the kromong, which is struck
with two mallets, the kenong is played with a single mallet due to its slower melodic rhythm. It is
usually struck on the last beat of every two measures, adding resonance and emphasis to the core
melody. This aligns with the general principle in gamelan music that the larger the instrument,
the slower its playing pace. Despite the large size of the kenong gongs, their timbre is bright and
resonant, with pitches in the same range as the kromong’s lower octave. The notation for the
kenong is similar to that used for the gong suwukan, where the core melody is fully notated, but
only the notes marked with a ∪ above them ( for gong suwukan) are played on the kenong (see
the notes with a ∪ above in Figure 6.10). Playing the kenong is relatively straightforward. As
Abdul Halil Hassan, the principal author of the Malay gamelan textbook used by ASWARA
National Academy of Arts Culture and Heritage, notes, “Kenong tidak mengunakan sebarang
teknik pukulan” (“the kenong does not require any special striking technique”). The key
requirement is for the player to lift the mallet immediately after striking, allowing the sound to
resonate fully.45
The next category of instruments in the Malay gamelan ensemble is the keyed
instruments, including both the saron-family instruments and the gambang. The saron is a
metallophone found in gamelan ensembles, consisting of six to seven tuned bronze bars arranged
on a wooden frame and played with a mallet to produce the core melody. The Malay gamelan
ensemble shares an identical setup with its Javanese predecessor, featuring three types of sarons:
45 Ibid., 38.
221
the lowest-pitched demung (equivalent to the saron demung in Javanese gamelan), the middlerange saron I (known as saron barung in Javanese gamelan), and the highest-pitched saron II
(referred to as saron pekin or saron panerus in Javanese gamelan). Despite differences in
naming, these instruments are identical in construction and timbre. The demung, the largest of
the three, plays an octave lower than saron II and two octaves lower than saron I. Due to its size,
demung typically plays on the second and fourth beats of each measure and occasionally
provides countermelodies to the main melody played by saron I. Saron I generally plays the
downbeat of each note, providing the core melody for the entire ensemble. The core melody is
often elaborated upon by the highest-pitched saron II, using the irama dua (second melody)
technique, where each note is played twice, halving the rhythmic value of the original note. All
three saron instruments require the use of the perdam damping technique, a method also
employed on the saron instruments and the time-keeping kethuk in Javanese gamelan. Perdam
involves muting the instrument by gently placing the fingers on the bar immediately after
striking it, creating a crisp, staccato-like sound instead of allowing the note to resonate with a
slow decay. While this technique may seem simple in theory, it demands a high level of
coordination between the hands, as a single quarter note is transformed into two eighth notes,
requiring both striking and muting gestures.46
46 Ibid., 27–30.
222
Figure 5.9: The irama dua technique transcribed into Western notation.
Figure 5.10: Sheet music of Timang Burung for saron I, saron II, and demung.
The gambang, on the other hand, is a xylophone-like instrument made of 18 to 21 tuned
wooden bars spanning three octaves, all placed on a common wooden resonator box. It is
typically played with two mallets, primarily playing the core melody and occasionally the
countermelody. Due to its wooden construction, which produces a relatively fast decay,
223
gambang does not require the perdam muting technique, allowing for the execution of fast,
virtuosic passages. As a result, the gambang part often employs the serentak technique (octave
doubling in homophony), bergilir (broken octave), berbunga (appoggiatura-like ornaments), and
a combination of serentak and irama dua. Together with the three saron-family instruments, the
keyed instruments in Malay gamelan create a multilayered, shimmery texture, where each note
of the core melody sounds in octaves, occasionally producing a tremolo-like effect through the
irama dua technique.47
The final category of instrument is the membranophone. Unlike its Javanese and Balinese
counterparts, traditional Malay gamelan features only one drum in the entire ensemble: the
gendang. Also known as kendhang in Javanese, the gendang is a two-sided hand drum with
animal skin stretched over both ends of a wooden body. One drumhead is smaller than the other,
with the larger surface typically made from cowhide and the smaller from goatskin. The gendang
is usually played by a seated musician, either on the floor or on a small stool, with the drum
resting on their lap. In the absence of the time-keeping kethuk and kempyang from Javanese
gamelan, the gendang takes on dual responsibilities: maintaining and adjusting the tempo, and
providing aural cues through pre-rehearsed rhythmic patterns to guide the ensemble through
musical transitions. This role becomes especially crucial when the ensemble accompanies
theatrical performances or provides background music for events like a VIP entrance, where the
music must be repeated or truncated to ensure it ends at the appropriate moment. On these
occasions, the ensemble will listen closely to the gendang to know when to transition to the next
section or skip a part entirely. Traditionally, the player strikes the drum surfaces directly with
their hands, producing two distinct sounds: “tong” and “tak.” The tone from the larger surface is
47 Ibid., 34–36.
224
colloquially referred to as "tong" or "dong," with the open "o" vowel suggesting a dark, resonant
quality. The drier, crisper sound from the smaller surface is known as "tak," with the glottal "k"
sound highlighting its sharp, staccato-like character. Before Malay gamelan was systematically
notated using the cipher system, the gendang part was taught orally, with the teacher chanting
rhythms like "tong-tak-tak-tak, tong-tak-tak-tong” to the student. Continuing this tradition, as
shown in Figure 11, gendang notation is unique in using letters instead of numbers, with "t"
representing the "tak" sound on the smaller surface and "o" representing the "tong" sound on the
larger surface. Symbols such as "." and "/" indicate eighth and quarter rests, respectively.48
Figure 5.11: A sample notation for the gendang using the "t" and "o" system.
Gendang: | t t t o | .t .t .t o | .t / .t .o |
Given Malay gamelan's connection to Javanese gamelan, it is not surprising that vocalists
are sometimes included in performances. However, unlike in Javanese gamelan, where the
inclusion of a vocalist is more common, Malay gamelan performances feature vocalists less
frequently. The vocal timbre in Malay gamelan is not as bright and forward as that of the
pesindhen vocalists in Javanese gamelan. In the Malay tradition, these singers are simply called
penyanyi (singers) or vokalis (vocalists). Some traditional Malay gamelan pieces that include
vocal parts are Togok, Timang Burung and Gambuh Nyanyi.
Although vocalists are less commonly featured, Malay gamelan is almost always
performed with dancers. When gamelan was first introduced in 1811 at the Pahang court, it was
performed with a group of dancers. This became so popular that the performance was widely
referred to as Joget Pahang (Pahang Dance), with the gamelan music becoming secondary to the
48 Ibid., 68–70.
225
dance.49 This tradition continued when gamelan was introduced to Terengganu, where Tengku
Ampuan Mariam, the queen of Sultan Sulaiman, took the lead in training and choreographing
dances for the gamelan troupe.50 While the inclusion of dancers has little direct influence on
Malaysian gamelan-inspired choral works, it has become a common point of reference for choirs
looking to incorporate choreography into their performances.
Form and Structure
The form and structure of Malay gamelan music are characterized by a distinctive
strophic nature, a feature that has not been extensively researched. Generally, the music is highly
repetitive, following a strophic form that reflects the traditions of Malay folk songs, often set to
pantuns—poems with multiple stanzas, each having the same number of lines and similar
syllables per line. This is best illustrated by the lyrics of Timang Burung, one of the most wellknown gamelan songs traditionally performed with vocalists, where each line in the verses
consists of strictly seven to eight syllables:
Table 5.1: The lyrics of Timang Burung and the syllable count for each line.
Stanza Line Syllable Count
Verse 1 Timang-timang burungku sayang,
Mari ku timang, mari ku dendang.
Hati rindu pada cik abang,
Siang malam terbayang-bayang.
8
8
7
8
Refrain 1 Timang burung,
Anak raja turun ke taman.
4
7
Verse 2 Timang-timang burung terebang,
Hinggap mari di dahan kayu.
Wajah tuan terkenang-kenang,
Tidur tak lena, makan tak lalu.
8
8
8
8
Refrain 2 Timang burung,
Ala sayang si lambang sari.
4
8
Verse 3 Anak merbuk, anak merpati, 8
49 Norsafini and Premalatha, “Performing Joget Gamelan through Archives and Social Memory.”
50 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 2–4.
226
Turun mari di atas dahan.
Abang seorang kekasih hati,
Tiada yang lain darimu tuan.
7
8
8
Refrain 1 Timang burung,
Anak raja turun ke taman.
4
7
Verse 4 Anak tiong terbang sekawan,
Turun mari dahan berduri.
Di angin lalu ku kirim pesan,
Rindu ku tanggung seorang diri.
8
7
8
8
Refrain 2 Timang burung,
Ala sayang si lambang sari.
4
8
Verse 5 Burung nuri terbang tinggi,
Turun mari di atas dahan.
Mari-mari kekasih hati,
Aku rindu padamu tuan.
8
7
7
7
Refrain 1 Timang burung,
Anak raja turun ke taman.
4
7
As with the Balinese and Javanese gamelans, in traditional Malay gamelan performances,
music is stratified through the use of various instruments, each playing a specific role. The basic
melody is typically played on the saron-family instruments, particularly the saron I and the
saron II, while the melody is further elaborated by the gambang and the keromong. The kenongs,
gong suwukan, and gong agong provide background accompaniment, while the beat is
maintained by the gendang.
A typical Malay gamelan performance starts with a single instrument—usually the
keromong or gambang—playing a brief introduction based on the core melody, followed by the
full ensemble joining in. At the end of each musical cycle, the piece transitions into a quieter
section where only the instrument that initiated the introduction plays a short transitional phrase,
guiding the ensemble back into the cycle. The performance usually concludes by gradually
slowing down, which creates a sense of resolution. These qualities are well illustrated in Echoes,
Volume 1 and Volume 2, a collection of traditional Malay gamelan songs recorded by
Gangsapura, a Malay gamelan ensemble directed by Teuku Umar Ilany Teuku Iskandar (b.
227
1989), the Malay gamelan instructor at ASWARA.51 In both albums, all 15 songs adhere to a
strophic form. Each piece begins with a solo instrument introducing the core melody, and then
the entire ensemble joins to create a rich, layered sound. Additionally, all the songs conclude
with a slight slowing down, further emphasizing the cyclical aspect of the performance.
For listeners unfamiliar with the structure of Malay gamelan, paying attention to the
saron-family instruments is helpful, as they typically carry the main melody. Once listeners
become acquainted with the core melody, they can focus on the elaborating instruments such as
the gambang and keromong. In moments of confusion regarding the cycle, attention should be
directed toward the two large hanging gongs: gong suwukan, struck on the last beat of two
measures before the final beat of the cycle, and gong agong, which signals the end of the cycle.
However, it is important to note that hearing the sound of the gong agong can be challenging.
Due to the massiveness of the gong agong, the sound it produces is extremely low, resulting in
more of an awe-inspiring vibration that is meant to be felt rather than heard, an effect that is
perceived as rather subtle.
Tuning Systems
Unlike Javanese gamelans, which utilize both pelog and slendro tunings, the Malay
gamelan exclusively employs the slendro scale, with the tonic, or "do," starting on B-flat. This
adherence to a tuning convention has contributed to a more uniform sound among Malay
gamelan ensembles, distinguishing them from their Indonesian counterparts. In Java and Bali,
the pitch and tuning differences among various ensembles contribute to their unique identities.
However, in the Malay gamelan tradition, performers collectively decided to tune their
51 Gangsapura Gamelan Group, Echoes: Gamelan Melayu, Album, vol. 1, 2 vols., 2019; Gangsapura Gamelan
Group, Echoes: Gamelan Melayu, Album, vol. 2, 2 vols., 2019.
228
instruments according to the first set of gamelan brought to the Pahang court in 1811, which
utilized a slendro scale that followed the notes do-re-mi-sol-la-do, beginning on B-flat.52
Table 5.2: The tuning of the B-flat slendro scale of Malay gamelan.
Western Tempered
Scale
B♭ C D F G B♭’
Solfeggio Do Re Mi Sol La Do
Intervals in cents
(100 cents = half step)
Major 2nd
(200 cents)
Major 2nd
(200 cents)
Minor 3rd
(300 cents)
Major 2nd
(200 cents)
Minor 3rd
(300 cents)
The original tuning of that first set was based on a non-tempered scale, which is a
tradition that has unfortunately diminished over time. According to Hassan (n.d.), while many
contemporary Malay gamelan ensembles continue to tune to the pentatonic slendro scale starting
on B-flat, they now typically follow the Western tempered scale convention. This adaptation has
been criticized by some purists but as Hassan shares, it was a much-needed adjustment was made
to accommodate a broader audience, as the Malay gamelan was a relatively new tradition for
Malaysian listeners. Consequently, to untrained ears that are more accustomed to the Western
tempered scales, Malay gamelan performances may sound more familiar and "in tune" compared
to their Javanese and Balinese counterparts.53
It is important to note that there are also some Malay gamelan ensembles that tune to
slendro starting on C, a practice more common among school gamelan groups. This approach is
particularly beneficial for young students as it allows them to read music without the
52 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 18–19; Wong et al., “The
Development and Evaluation of Malay Gamelan Module for Schools and Communities.”
53 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan, 18–19.
229
complexities of key signatures. Furthermore, performing in C can facilitate collaboration with
other instruments tuned to C, making the slendro scale more accessible for these learners.
Overall Aesthetic
Although the Malay gamelan has roots in the Javanese tradition, its development,
particularly through the influence of royal courts and the unique cultural context of Malaysia, led
to an aesthetic that blends elements of both Malay and Javanese traditions. However, as with any
musical genre, exceptions occur, especially in contemporary Malay gamelan, where nontraditional techniques and instruments are often incorporated. For instance, in recent years, there
has been a growing trend of Malay gamelan ensembles performing pop music to engage younger
audiences. Additionally, newer techniques, such as striking the gong chimes with wooden
mallets not covered with ropes or soft fibers, are used to produce a sharp, crisp sound, similar to
the timbre found in Balinese gamelans. However, this discussion will focus on the core aesthetics
of traditional Malay gamelan. The following sections will explore these key characteristics: (1)
ayu dan sopan (elegant and polite), (2) shimmery, (3) and an overall sense of lightness.
Ayu dan sopan (elegant and polite) are two Malay adjectives often used to describe the
performance of Malay gamelan. While these terms may not be the “standard” descriptors for
Malay gamelan, they do reflect its historical roots as court music and the broader cultural values
of the Malay people, which emphasize courtesy, gentleness, and refinement. Originating in the
royal courts of Pahang and Terengganu in the early 19th century, Malay gamelan absorbed the
courtly values of dignity, decorum, and restraint. The music was not merely a form of
entertainment but also an embodiment of the court's sophistication and cultural refinement,
prioritizing a performance style that is measured, controlled, and graceful.54 These qualities are
54 Mohd Sukarno, “Cinta Pandang Pertama: Gamelan Melayu.”
230
in harmony with Malay cultural values, where politeness and gentleness—known as adat or
customary practices—are paramount. Musically, the ayu dan sopan aesthetic manifests in the
gentle, flowing melodies and the careful balance between instruments, creating a sound that is
halus (fine) and lembut (soft). The music is characterized by moderate tempos and a restrained
use of dynamics, avoiding sudden loud or soft passages, which contribute to a smooth and
polished sound.
The aural perception of ayu dan sopan is further enhanced by the warm quality of the
instruments used in Malay gamelan. Unlike the Balinese tradition, which features a large family
of metallophones often played with hammer-like uncovered wooden mallets, Malay gamelan
includes only three bronze saron-family instruments, all played with softly padded mallets. This
choice of instrumentation and playing technique results in a sound that embodies a sense of
gentleness and warmth. The thematic content of Malay gamelan also aligns with this aesthetic. It
focuses primarily on topics such as friendship good morals, and folk stories, avoiding themes of
war, conflict, violence, and the supernatural.55 This approach reflects the influence of Sunni
Islam, practiced by the majority of the Malay population in Malaysia, which promotes peace and
moral integrity in artistic expression. Together, these elements create a musical tradition that not
only defines Malay gamelan’s unique sound but also reflects the cultural ideals of elegance,
politeness, and moral virtue central to Malay identity.
Shimmery texture is another hallmark of Malay gamelan, achieved through a blend of
specific techniques and structural elements. A key component is the bergilir (taking turns)
technique, also known as the broken octave. This technique involves layering notes at different
55 Heather Strange, “Women and Culture: Between Malay Adat and Islam. By Wazir Jahan Karim. Boulder:
Westview Press, 1992. Xv, 255 Pp. $34.95,” The Journal of Asian Studies 52, no. 3 (1993): 785–86,
https://doi.org/10.2307/2058928.
231
octaves, creating a bright and intricate sound by doubling notes across octaves. The bergilir
technique is frequently used on the keromong and gambang instruments, adding a rich,
shimmering quality to the music.
Figure 5.12: An example of bergilir technique.
The irama dua technique further enhances this texture by dividing each note into two
identical pitches, halving its time value and generating a collage of bright, resonant "points."
Additionally, the colotomic structure formed by the kenong, gong suwukan, and gong agong
weaves a low-pitched, darker web of polyphony with their slower decay times, enriching the
overall texture. Despite its smaller ensemble size compared to Javanese and Balinese gamelan
and the absence of paired tuning—where instruments are tuned slightly apart to create a vibratolike effect—Malay gamelan achieves its distinctive shimmery quality through these carefully
interlocking techniques and the specific roles of its instruments.
232
Figure 5.13: An example of irama dua technique.
A light texture is another unique quality of Malay gamelan. Unlike the larger and more
complex ensembles of Balinese and Javanese gamelan, a standard traditional Malay gamelan set
comprises only ten instruments. This contrasts sharply with an average Javanese gamelan set,
which includes around fifteen instruments, and the even larger ensembles of the Balinese
tradition, where some gamelan subcategories like gong gede historically required up to 50
players.56 For example, while a Javanese gamelan ensemble features multiple drums such as the
bedug, kendhang gendhing, kendhang ketipung, and kendhang ciblon, the gendang is the only
drum in the entire Malay gamelan, contributing to a more streamlined sound.
Additionally, the absence of the highly virtuosic kotekan technique, which is a hallmark
of Balinese gamelan and involves intricate interlocking patterns, further reduces the frenetic
quality of the music in Malay gamelan. This contributes to a more serene and less complex
auditory experience. The ensemble’s sound is also more homogeneous compared to Javanese
gamelan, which includes a variety of soft-sounding and non-percussive instruments such as the
56 Spiller, Gamelan, 93.
233
rebab, suling, celempung, and pesindhen and penggerong singers. Malay gamelan, on the other
hand, consists solely of bronze and wooden instruments, leading to a more uniform timbre.
Moreover, Malay gamelan’s avoidance of paired tuning—common in Balinese gamelan,
where instruments are deliberately tuned a few cents apart to create a vibrato effect—further
contributes to its lighter, airier texture. The absence of paired tuning reduces the amount of
doubling within the ensemble, enhancing the overall sense of lightness in the music.
Malay Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works
In the contemporary music scene, the Malay gamelan also became a symbol of the
broader Malaysian identity and the collaborative cultural heritage that has shaped various forms
of Malaysian music. Since independence in 1957, multiculturalism has been a key national
identity promoted by the government. This is best reflected in the texts and music of Malaysian
patriotic songs, which often feature a collage of different musical traditions in a three-to-fourminute song.57 Keranamu Malaysia (2000), Budi Bahasa Budaya Kita (2005), Malaysia
Gemilang (2024), and Anak Malaysia (2024) are examples of patriotic songs that combine
musical elements from various ethnic groups such as Malay, Chinese, Indian, and the indigenous
groups of Sabah and Sarawak. As one of the most predominant musical traditions in the country,
Malay gamelan is frequently featured in these productions.58 Nevertheless, it is important to
point out that despite the predominance and significance of Malay gamelan in the Malaysian
musical scene, this genre is still typically confined to traditional music and academic settings,
and it rarely appears in mainstream genres.59 These patriotic songs provided an important avenue
57 Shazlin Hamzah, “Unisonance in Singing Malaysian Popular Patriotic Songs: Bridging Collective Integration
through Music,” Jebat: Malaysian Journal of History, Politics and Strategic Studies 47, no. 3 (2020): 403–27.
58 Ahmad Awang et al., “A Semantic Analysis of Malaysia’s Patriotic Songs,” Advanced Science Letters 22 (May 1,
2016): 1373–79, https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2016.6616.
59
234
for the Malaysian audience to become familiar with the Malay gamelan, especially as they are
played nationwide in the months leading up to Independence Day on August 31st each year.
In the choral world, these gamelan-infused patriotic songs played a significant role in
integrating Malay gamelan into Malaysian choral repertoire. Following Malaysia's independence,
the government emphasized fostering patriotism among the younger generation, which included
supporting competitions that highlighted folk and patriotic music.60 Beginning in the 1970s, the
Malaysian Ministry of Education organized choir competitions that encouraged the inclusion of
at least one Malaysian folk or patriotic song. By the early 2000s, this transformed into a mandate
requiring choirs to perform at least one patriotic song in Malay from a standard repertoire list. In
2009, as part of former Prime Minister Najib Razak’s One Malaysia Campaign, the Kelab Rukun
Negara (National Principles Club) Patriotic Song Choir Competition was introduced, requiring
all choirs to exclusively perform choral arrangements of patriotic songs. To distinguish
themselves, choral musicians began arranging these songs in a variety of styles—ranging from
pop and jazz to traditional folk and Western European-style four-part harmony. Given that the
essence of Malay gamelan is often present in the melodies of these folk and patriotic songs,
composers had the option to transform these melodies into entirely new styles like pop and jazz,
retain their traditional form, or blend both approaches—a technique most commonly used in
competitions. Given that these competitions typically allowed only one accompanying
instrument, with most choirs opting for the piano, choirs seeking to incorporate gamelan
elements would often translate the timbre and interlocking textures of Malay gamelan music into
the choral and piano arrangements. It is important to point out that this artistic choice to amplify
gamelan effects was not always a conscious or subconscious decision. Yet, it underscored the
60 Hamzah, “Unisonance in Singing Malaysian Popular Patriotic Songs: Bridging Collective Integration through
Music.”
235
deepening connection between gamelan and the Malaysian choral sound. Over time, these
competitions transformed into a creative platform where choral musicians could experiment with
different ways to integrate Malay gamelan elements into their works, resulting in innovative
arrangements, adaptations, and new compositions that celebrated this distinctive fusion, creating
a sound unique to Malaysian choral repertoire.61
This section will explore two Malaysian choral compositions: Tracy Wong’s (b. 1985)
arrangement of Ikan Kekek (2018), a traditional Malay folk song, and Chee Wei Wong’s (b.
1975) …About Gong, Ai, Na… (2009), an original work. These pieces illustrate different aspects
of Malay gamelan: the traditional and the blended. Ikan Kekek captures the essence of traditional
Malay gamelan, featuring interlocking motifs, rhythmic layering, and a core melody that reflects
the gamelan’s classic style. In contrast, …About Gong, Ai, Na… highlights the gamelan's
shimmering qualities through techniques like bergilir and irama dua while blending influences
from Chinese opera and Indian tabla, showcasing Malaysia’s diverse musical landscape. These
compositions are chosen to help choral educators understand how to interpret and present the
unique qualities of Malay gamelan in choral settings, emphasizing the rich variety within the
subcategory of Malay gamelan-influenced choral music.
Ikan Kekek (2018) by Tracy Wong (b. 1985)
Tracy Wong – Biography
From Malaysia, Tracy Wong is a prominent choral conductor, music educator, composer,
vocalist, and pianist with a deep passion for advancing Malaysian choral music. She currently
holds the position of Assistant Professor of Choral Studies at Western University in Ontario,
61 Ibid.; Shazlin Hamzah and Adil Johan, “Malaysian Music and Social Cohesion: Contemporary Responses to
Popular Patriotic Songs from the 1950s to 1990s,” JATI - Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 25, no. 1 (June 2020):
191–209, https://doi.org/10.22452/jati.vol25no1.10.
236
Canada, where she leads the Chorale and Les Choristes ensembles and instructs in choral
conducting.62
Wong completed her Doctor of Musical Arts and Master of Music Performance (Choral
Conducting) degrees at the University of Toronto, under the mentorship of Dr. Hilary Apfelstadt.
Her exceptional work in the field has been recognized with two Elmer Iseler National Graduate
Fellowships in Choral Conducting and the McMaster University Student Union Teaching Award
for the 2018-2019 academic year.63
Known for her expertise as a clinician and educator, Wong specializes in pedagogydriven composition and rehearsal techniques, crafting meaningful choral experiences through
collaborative commissions, customized workshops, festivals, and artist residencies. She is
dedicated to exploring the nuances of performance practice, vocal technique, and choral artistry.
Her compositions are available through publishers like Cypress Choral Music (Canada), Graphite
Publishing, Indianapolis Children’s Choir Publishing House (US), Oxford University Publishing,
and Young Choral Academy (Malaysia), and have been performed by choirs from Malaysia,
North America, Europe, and Southeast Asia at numerous international events.64
Analysis of Ikan Kekek
Ikan Kekek is a Malay folk song about ponyfish. As with many other gamelan folk tunes,
the melody of Ikan Kekek is simple and consists of only four notes: do, re, mi, and sol. Despite
the simplicity and repetitiveness of the melody, this song is brought to life by the indirect
expressions and metaphors in the pantun (poem). Pantun is a disjunctive form of poetry that
comes in two parts: the first two lines form the pembayang (shadow), which usually connects to
62 Tracy Wong, “About,” Tracy Wong Music, 2024, https://tracywongmusic.com/about.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
237
the isi (the heart of the message) through rhymes and verbal associations. In Wong’s
arrangement, different types of fish, such as the ikan kekek (ponyfish) and ikan gelama (soldier
croaker fish), serve as the pembayang that link to three main messages: (1) “My dear is beautiful,
but her laugh is not graceful” (“sungguh cantik sayangku amboi, tapi ketawa mengilai-ngilai”),
(2) “If you want to be wise, study hard and don’t be lazy” (“kalau adik nak jadi pandai, mari
belajar janganlah lalai”), and (3) “Kindness will always be remembered and encouraged” (“hati
terkenang, mulut tersenyum; budi yang baik, rasa dijunjung”). The original melody comprises
two parts: the well-known part A which begins with “ikan kekek mak iloi-iloi,” and the slightly
suspenseful part B. These two parts will be referred to as Melody A and Melody B respectively.
Originally arranged for treble choir, Wong’s Ikan Kekek has since been adapted into
various configurations, including SA, SSAA, SAB, and SATB. This analysis focuses on the
SATB version. Influenced by Malay gamelan, this arrangement is constructed with three
interlocking motifs, either accompanying the main melody or serving as transitional material as
the music unfolds.
The introduction begins with the first motif set to “ikan kekek, hoi, iloi-iloi, ilai-lai”
(“The ponyfish, hey!”; “Iloi-iloi” and “ilai-ilai” are onomatopoeic syllables). This repetitive
motif is presented in the first eight measures, fragmented into multiple smaller interlocking parts
across all four voices in a loop. Starting at m. 9, this motif is condensed into two interlocking
parts sung by the lower voices, accompanying Melody A sung by the treble voices. At the end of
Melody A, the arrangement transitions into a newly composed section clearly influenced by
Malay gamelan. In this eight-measure transition, two new repetitive, interlocking motifs are
introduced. To ease the shift from the opening to the new section, Motif #2 (“na na na…”) sung
by the lower voices is presented simultaneously with Motif #1 from the introduction (“ikan kekek
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mak iloi-iloi…”) sung by the altos. Four measures later, the soprano introduces Motif #3 in this
composition set to “ting-in” in a series of repeated eighths in the style of irama dua, a technique
commonly found in the gambang and saron II from Malay gamelan. This compositional device,
often referred to as rhythmic layering, is typical in gamelan music, where the music develops by
overlaying new material onto existing motifs.
Example 5.1: Melody A - The first part of Ikan Kekek's original tune.
239
Example 5.2: Melody B - The second part of Ikan Kekek's original tune.
240
Example 5.3: Motif #1 set to “Ikan kekek, hoi, iloi-iloi, ilai-ilai.”
241
Example 5.4: Motif #2 set to "na na na.”
Example 5.5: Motif #3 set to "ting-in.”
The brief gamelan-inspired transition leads the music back to the first verse, with the
second part of the verse—Melody B—now introduced homophonically. Wong sets Melody B to
an entirely new and contrasting texture: homophony, or serentak in the Malay gamelan
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terminology. This effect is reminiscent of the brief moments in Malay gamelan when the whole
ensemble abandons interlocking motifs and plays in serentak. Malay gamelan, as with various
other subcategories of gamelan, is known for its interlocking and polyphonic textures. However,
these intricate webs of polyphony are sometimes punctuated by unexpected moments of serentak
that typically occur toward the end of a musical phrase or section, capturing the audience’s
attention with an abrupt textural change. Similar to the Javanese gamelan tradition, where
ketepatan (accuracy) is valued, Malay gamelan also measures the quality of a performance by
the ensemble’s ability to arrive at these pre-agreed homophonic moments.65 Therefore, particular
attention should be given to the pickup to m. 33, where all four parts begin to sing
homophonically.
A swift, two-measure modulation drives the music from E major to F# major, introducing
the second verse accompanied by all the previously introduced Motif #1, #2, and #3. Similar to
the Melody B from the first verse, the Melody B of the second verse is set entirely to
homophony. At the end of Melody B, a newly composed, melismatic soprano solo—reminiscent
of Malay solo folk songs—is added, circling the arrangement back to the opening motifs. This
solo passage is similar to the transitional moment in many traditional Malay gamelan
performances when the music enters a quieter section, with only the instrument that initiated the
introduction playing a short transitional phrase to guide the ensemble back into the cycle.
Tracy Wong's arrangement of Ikan Kekek is a compelling representation of Malay
gamelan performance practice and aesthetics. The piece captures the essence of Malay gamelan
through its intricate use of interlocking motifs, the careful attention to timbral clarity, and the
balanced texture that reflects the lightness and elegance central to this tradition. First, the original
65 Hassan, Teuku Iskandar, and Che Adeni, Gamelan Melayu: Asas Permainan.
243
tune of Ikan Kekek is set in a moderately slow tempo, with a melodic rhythm that is also
unhurried, giving the arrangement an overall sense of elegance central to traditional Malay
gamelan. Second, despite having multiple interlocking motifs, the texture of this arrangement is
significantly lighter compared to other Indonesian and Filipino folk song arrangements inspired
by gamelan or kulintang (a gong-chime and percussion ensemble similar to gamelan). The motifs
are limited to three and are always set to contrasting onomatopoeic syllables, adding textural and
aural clarity for the audience. Finally, the shimmering texture stems from two aspects: (1) the
extensive use of interlocking motifs throughout the arrangement, and (2) the use of irama dua in
the second motif, which directly points toward the texture commonly heard on the saron II and
gambang. Most importantly, the incorporation of these Malay gamelan elements not only
highlights the connection between Malay gamelan and traditional vocal arts but also
demonstrates its adaptability within a choral context. By translating these gamelan principles into
a choral setting, Wong offers an accessible entry point for choral musicians to explore, teach, and
perform works influenced by Malay gamelan.
…About Gong, Ai, Na… (2009) by Chee Wei Wong (b. 1975)
Chee Wei Wong – Biography
Chee Wei Wong (b. 1975) is a Malaysian composer, choral conductor, and educator born
and raised in Sibu, Sarawak.66 Upon completing his diploma in Music Composition with a minor
in piano performance from the Malaysian Institute of Art, Wong attended the Xi’an
Conservatory of Music where he was trained under the tutelage of the Chinese renowned
66 Chee Wei Wong. “Wong Chee Wei (黄志伟).” Society of Malaysian Contemporary Composers. SMCC , October
2017. http://www.smccomposers.com/wong-chee-wei6528840644245352025565289.html. Accessed on March 14,
2021
244
composer, Dr. Yu-Yan Rao (b. 1933). Later on, in 2018, he completed his doctoral degree at the
Nanjing Normal University, where he studied with Chinese musicologist, Dr. Yuan-Yong Xu (b.
1964).67
Wong is an active advocate for promoting new Malaysian music compositions. Over the
years, he has led and participated in numerous talks, panels, training courses, concerts, music
festivals aiming at introducing and promoting Malaysian composers. In 2009 and 2010, his
compositions were featured at Forumplus, a prestigious music event organized by the Malaysian
Philharmonic Orchestra. In 2011, he collaborated with the world-renowned Malaysian dancer
and choreographer, Swee Keong Lee (b.1967) in a contemporary production of the Chinese
classic, The Butterfly Lovers (2011). A year later, the production was nominated for one of
Malaysia’s most esteemed art awards, the Boh Cameron Art Award. In 2012 and 2014, he was
invited to participate in “Hark! The Songs of Homeland,” a Malaysian choral and contemporary
art song concert, where he published several of his compositions. In 2013 and 2015, he coorganized the Sound Bridge International Modern Music Festival with the Society of Malaysian
Contemporary Composers. Very recently, he received two awards at the 5th China-ASEAN
Music Festival Composition Competition and at the 3rd China National Music Festival Academy
Awards Composition Competition.68
In addition to his work as a composer and choral conductor, Wong is also teaching at the
Malaysian Institute of Art. He is currently the vice-president of the Society of Malaysian
Contemporary Composers and a visiting scholar at the Nanjing Normal University.69
67 Chee Wei Wong. ...About Gong, Ai, Na… Singapore: MuzikSEA. 2009.
68 Wong “Wong Chee Wei” SMCC, 2017.
69 Ibid
245
Analysis of …About Gong, Ai, Na… (2009)
…About Gong, Ai, Na… is an a cappella SSA composition written by Chee Wei Wong in
2009 to symbolize the unity of Malaysia's three major ethnic groups—Malay, Chinese, and
Indian—through three distinct vocables or timbres, each reflecting their respective musical
traditions and languages. According to Wong, "gong" represents Malay gamelan music, "ai"
mimics the bright timbre of Chinese opera, and "na" imitates the sounds of South Indian
languages commonly spoken in Malaysia, such as Tamil and Malayalam.
70
This piece is structured into three contrasting sections, each reflecting different aspects of
Malay gamelan's aesthetic: (1) the lively opening set exclusively to "na," (2) the gentle, flowing
middle section, and (3) a reprise of the opening, where Wong masterfully reinterprets the initial
motifs. The work begins with an energetic introduction, featuring a syncopated melody layered
over shimmering repeated notes sung simultaneously a major second apart, echoing the bright,
interlocking textures characteristic of Malay gamelan. The extended chain of repeated notes in
this section draws on the irama dua technique, commonly found in the melodic patterns of the
kromong, gambang, and saron-family instruments, contributing to the piece's shimmering and
resonant quality.71 The close harmony between the voices singing the "na" drone evokes the
subtle dissonance often present in Malay gamelan, where slightly out-of-tune notes create a
distinctive texture. This sense of ambiguity is a hallmark of the gamelan's complex tonal
landscape. Like in Javanese and Balinese gamelans, the music in this composition is structured
horizontally, with harmonies emerging organically from the intersection of notes on the same
beat.
70 Email and text exchanges with Chee Wei Wong by the author. Los Angeles. January to March, 2021; Interview
with Susanna Saw, the conductor who commissioned and premiered ...About Gong, Ai, Na… by the author. Los
Angeles, March 17, 2021.
71 Ibid.
246
A brief passage of triplets transitions the music into a tranquil middle section set in pelog
scale not found in any subcategories of Malay gamelan, making this section arguably the least
Malay gamelan-like in the entire composition. As previously noted, Wong’s interpretation of
gamelan in this work is quite free. Although this section is based on the pelog scale (do-mi-fasol-ti), the musical style here leans towards the ayu dan sopan (elegant and polite) aesthetic of
Malay gamelan.72 Gamelan was introduced to the Pahang state in central Peninsular Malaysia by
Javanese traders, and it was predominantly performed in courts. As a result, the musical structure
of Malay gamelan tends to be more regal and less rhythmic. Wong captures this courtly and
unhurried aesthetic by assigning the melody to a soprano soloist (or a small group of singers)
while the lower voices mimic the roles of colotomic instruments like the kenong, gong suwukan,
and gong agong in Malay gamelan. He instructs the soprano to sing the melody in a "folksonglike vocalization,".73 To produce the desired bright, forward timbre, the [i] vowel should be
emphasized and elongated instead of the [a] vowel. Additionally, the tongue should be placed
forward, with the back of the tongue relaxed and not lifted. Imagining a slight smile can help
ensure the tongue remains as forward as possible, creating a timbre that might seem unusually
bright by Western standards. Given that the melody in this section is intended for a soloist, Wong
encourages singers to embellish the melody with bunga (ornaments), much like the high-pitched
saron II, gambang, and kromong in Malay gamelan, which typically expand and ornament the
core melody played by the rest of the ensemble.74
As the section progresses, Wong applies the irama dua technique to the ascending and
descending pelog scale, splitting each quarter note into two repeated eighth notes. To assist with
72 Interview with Malay gamelan musician, Dr. Colleen Wong by the author. Los Angeles. March 6, 2021.
73 Interview with Chee Wei Wong by the author. Los Angeles. January 21, 2021.
74 Ibid.
247
the quick re-articulation of these chains of eighth notes, Wong suggests separating the syllable
“gong” with a slight glottal stop—a performance direction included in the manuscript, though
not in the version published on MuzikSEA.75
Right before the reprise of Section A, a four-bar transitional material borrowing the
melody of Ikan Kekek, a Malay children’s song, is used to connect the contemplative middle
section with the rhythmic final section. Borrowing materials from traditional folk songs is a
common compositional technique in choral works influenced by gamelan ensembles, just as with
“Kyrie eleison” from Ivan Yohan’s Indonesian Mass, where the movement opens with a chant
set to the melody of Cing Cangkeling, a famous Sundanese folk song.
In the reprise, the emphasis shifts away from harmonies, instead spotlighting linearity and
textural lightness—two hallmarks of Malay gamelan music.76 As previously mentioned in the
chapters on Javanese and Balinese gamelan, “linearity” is a term frequently used by American
ethnomusicologist William Malm (b. 1928) to describe the sonority and musical structure
prevalent in East Asian music, including Malay gamelan. Linearity, as Malm explains, is the
focus on melody and rhythm over vertical harmonies. This concept is particularly evident in the
reprise of Section A, where each voice part performs looped, interlocking motifs, with these
motifs being exchanged between voices every few measures. Although certain voice parts may
appear to act as drones by repeating a single note, these notes serve a crucial function similar to
the long chain of repeated notes often heard on saron II in Malay gamelan, establishing tempo,
expanding the melody, and adding a glistening timbre rather than creating harmonic tension or
resolution.
75 Interview with Susanna Saw by the author. Los Angeles. March 17, 2021.
76 Malm. Musical traits. Britannica (n.d.)
248
Lightness, a quintessential aesthetic of traditional Malay gamelan music, is reflected in
the reprise through the distinct timbral qualities of each voice part, echoing the thin
instrumentation of Malay gamelan. Although Malay gamelan features a more pared-down
instrumentation and a simpler colotomic structure compared to its Javanese predecessor or the
elaborate and virtuosic Balinese gamelan gong kebyar, it still relies on fundamental elements
common to all gamelan genres. These elements include interlocking motifs, a colotomic
structure, and multiple simultaneous melodies that complement the core melody. This means that
despite being texturally lighter, an intricate web of polyphony remains at the core of Malay
gamelan. Therefore, to avoid aural clutter, Malay gamelan music often clarifies complex
interlocking sounds through the unique combination of each instrument's timbre, register, and
articulation. Wong employs a similar approach to ensure that the three interlocking vocal parts
do not sound muddled. In the reprise, all three voice parts are distinguished by contrasting
syllables and different articulations. For example, from mm. 82 to 86, the soprano 1s sing with
legato—similar to the sound of the kromong with its slow decay; the soprano 2s with accents—
mimicking the saron-family instruments that are always played with the perdam muting
technique; and the altos with tenuto—reminiscent of the resonant kenongs punctuating the
phrases. To add even more individuality to the voice parts, Wong assigned part to a different
vocal register. The soprano 1s are placed in the middle-high range, the soprano 2s set in the
middle range, while the altos are in the lower range. By doing so, Wong allows each line to
resonate clearly within its own space. This approach maintains the quality of lightness in Malay
gamelan, where each instrument plays a specific melodic and rhythmic role, and ensures that the
distinctive timbre of each voice part can be easily heard.
249
As there are no words or translation, the beauty of ...About Gong, Ai, Na… comes from
its timbre, musical structure, and the nonsense syllables itself. Wong might not have referenced
only Malay gamelan in this original composition, but that made this work a wonderful
representation of the multiculturalism of Malaysia. The reference Chinese opera and South
Indian dialects in this composition highlights the unique socio-cultural backdrop of which the
Malay gamelan developed and flourished since it arrived in the Malay Archipelago 200 years
ago. Today, while Malay gamelan is often studied in its traditional form, its evolution cannot be
detached from these “foreign” cultural influences. Wong’s work not only honors traditional
elements of Malay gamelan but also showcases how this musical form has been shaped by
Malaysia’s rich cultural tapestry.
Practical Suggestions on Teaching and Performing Malay Gamelan-Influenced Choral
Works
Given Malay gamelan’s roots in Javanese gamelan, it shares several foundational
characteristics with its Javanese counterpart, most notably the bright and forward timbre, as well
as a sense of transparency and linearity, qualities that are common across all gamelan
subcategories. To achieve these shared qualities in choral performance, please refer to the
foundational techniques discussed in Chapter Four, which cover vowel modification,
articulation, and tonal balance.
This section will focus primarily on the qualities unique to Malay gamelan: its restraint,
tranquil and elegant character (ayu dan sopan), the shimmery texture created by broken octaves,
and the overall lightness of texture due to smaller instrumentation. The following suggestions
will guide educators and conductors in conveying these distinct traits when teaching and
performing Malay gamelan-influenced choral works.
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1. Embodying Restraint and Elegance (Ayu dan Sopan)
Malay gamelan, much like the presence of a royal family, is steeped in grace, restraint,
and an understated elegance. Its qualities are akin to the steady, unchanging nature of a king—
regal, composed, and ever graceful. This elegance is reflected in the music's legato techniques,
which aim for a seamless flow from note to note, much like the gentle pace of a royal procession.
To achieve this effect in choral singing, focus on connecting phrases smoothly without abrupt
breaks or harsh consonants. Encourage singers to engage their breath support fully, maintaining a
warm, bright tone reminiscent of the soft, padded mallets used in Malay gamelan. These mallets
create a sound that is not only bright but also rounded and warm, offering a sense of calm rather
than intensity.
The moderate tempo is another essential aspect, mirroring the measured and unhurried
pace of royal life—no sudden changes, no dramatic outbursts. Dynamic shifts should be gradual
and subtle, avoiding the kind of sharp, forceful crescendos one might expect in Balinese
gamelan. The overall goal is smoothness in both the vocal lines and the dynamic shaping, with
transitions as fluid as a royal decree—never rushed, but deliberate and considered.
While Malay gamelan maintains these qualities of tranquility and elegance, the
multicultural nature of Malaysia means that its modern performance practices are not rigidly
confined to tradition. It is not uncommon to encounter influences from other gamelan traditions,
most notably the Balinese. The showy, virtuosic elements of Balinese gamelan, with its fast
tempos and sharp dynamic contrasts, occasionally find their way into modern Malay gamelan
works. These dramatic moments can be an exciting addition to performances, acknowledging the
fluidity of cultural boundaries in contemporary compositions. After all, composers are often
251
drawn to the brilliance and energy of other musical influences for its ability to captivate
audiences, providing a sharp contrast to the ayu dan sopan quality of Malay gamelan.
2. Bring Out the Broken Octaves Texture (Bergilir)
In Malay gamelan, the shimmering effect is created through the bergilir or bertingkah
technique, which involves the use of broken octaves. While this technique is traditionally
performed by a single instrumentalist on a single instrument in gamelan music, in a choral
context, the broken octave texture is often distributed across two voice parts. While this division
in the choral composition context reduces the need for individual singers to leap between
octaves, it also poses practical challenges for performers.
When teaching bergilir-influenced choral passages, directors can instruct singers to
stagger their entrances in octaves, ensuring that no single section dominates. This creates a
smooth, blended texture, where each section picks up the melody where the previous one leaves
off. The result is a continuous, interlocking flow of sound that mimics the seamless interplay
found in gamelan music. To achieve this, it is crucial for each section to enter with precision,
maintaining a light, clear tone that enhances the shimmering quality.
Choral directors should also encourage singers to listen closely to one another, ensuring
that the parts interlock harmoniously rather than competing for dominance. This approach gives
the impression that the broken octaves are emerging from a single, cohesive sound source. A
helpful rehearsal strategy is to break down the staggered entrances into smaller units, rehearsing
these overlapping sections slowly before gradually increasing the tempo. This allows singers to
internalize the subtle timing required for executing bergilir effectively.
To further aid in mastering these broken octave passages, conductors should avoid
sudden tempo changes or exaggerated tempo shifts, as Malay gamelan typically maintains a
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steady pulse when building this kind of texture. Once the ensemble has achieved a steady pulse,
directors can introduce gradual phrasing to enhance musicality, prioritizing smooth transitions
that reflect the elegance and restraint inherent in Malay gamelan music.
3. Keep it Light
The lightness in timbre and texture of Malay gamelan is a key characteristic that sets it
apart from the denser and heavier sounds of its Javanese and Balinese counterparts, reflecting its
historical function as court music. For centuries, Malay gamelan has accompanied royal
ceremonies and rituals, prioritizing grace and subtlety over grandeur. This tradition continues
through smaller ensembles that feature delicate instruments, facilitating a refined musical
expression.
In a choral context, this lightness can be achieved by steering clear of heavy vibratos,
concentrating on consistent breath support to prevent vocal strain, and maintaining a moderately
soft dynamic level throughout the performance. Rehearsals should emphasize clarity and
precision in articulation, especially with consonants, while encouraging bright yet warm vowels.
It is essential for singers to avoid forcing their sound, particularly at higher dynamics, in order to
retain the subtlety intrinsic to this musical tradition. This approach to vocal timbre is similar to
the sound of Renaissance and Baroque music, particularly in small chamber music settings.
Indeed, Malay gamelan can be viewed as the chamber ensemble equivalent of Javanese gamelan,
underscoring the significance of maintaining a light vocal production when performing choral
works influenced by Malay gamelan.
Conclusion
The chapter on Malay gamelan-influenced choral works has explored the intricate
connections between traditional Malay gamelan and contemporary Malaysian choral
253
compositions. The unique qualities of Malay gamelan, such as its textural lightness, shimmery
textures, and the use of interlocking motifs, have found a new life in these choral works, where
they are reinterpreted and adapted to suit vocal ensembles.
Notable examples of Malaysian choral works influenced by Malay gamelan include
Tracy Wong's Ikan Kekek and Chee Wei Wong's ...About Gong, Ai, Na.... These compositions
not only embody the rich traditions of Malay gamelan but also serve as a bridge between
traditional Malaysian musical practices and the global choral community. By carefully
incorporating elements such as serentak (homophonic texture) and irama dua (a rhythmic
layering technique), these composers have successfully merged traditional sounds with
contemporary choral techniques. Their works provide a microcosm of Malaysia’s
multiculturalism, highlighting how the confluence of diverse ethnic and cultural influences
shapes the nation’s musical landscape.
Chee Wei Wong's ...About Gong, Ai, Na... stands out as a particularly compelling
example of how multiculturalism in Malaysia has shaped the development of Malay gamelaninfluenced choral works. By integrating gamelan-inspired motifs, rhythms, and timbres into his
composition, Wong offers a glimpse of the future of Malay gamelan-influenced choral works,
where the diverse cultural influences of Malaysia continue to inspire and transform. This piece
not only highlights the adaptability of Malay gamelan in a choral context but also points at the
potential for future works that draw on Malaysia's multicultural heritage to create new and
innovative choral music.
Studying Malay gamelan in the context of choral music offers unique insights that
distinguish it from other forms of gamelan, such as the Javanese and Balinese traditions. While
Javanese gamelan is renowned for its complex colotomic structures and Balinese gamelan for its
254
dynamic and virtuosic performances, Malay gamelan presents a more pared-down, texturally
light, and rhythmically straightforward approach. This simplicity does not equate to a lack of
depth; rather, it reflects the aesthetic priorities of the Malay cultural context, where elegance,
subtlety, and clarity of expression are highly valued. In the broader context of world music, the
inclusion of Malay gamelan alongside the more widely studied Javanese and Balinese traditions
highlights the diversity within gamelan music itself. By focusing on Malay gamelan, choral
musicians and scholars gain an understanding of how different cultural influences and historical
contexts shape the evolution of musical practices. This knowledge is invaluable in a choral
setting, where the translation of instrumental music into vocal arrangements requires a deep
appreciation of the original music’s texture, form, and aesthetic.
255
Final Thoughts
The interplay between gamelan and choral music in Malaysia and Indonesia is deeply
embedded in the region's rich cultural tapestry, spanning centuries of history. With its origins in
the Malay Archipelago, gamelan serves as a cornerstone of traditional music, characterized by
vibrant timbres, interlocking motifs, and layered textures. These musical elements have
significantly shaped both non-gamelan instrumental and vocal traditions, leading singers to
emulate gamelan's unique characteristics in their performances.
Traditional choral forms, such as dikir barat and lagu saman, exemplify the profound
influence of gamelan on vocal arts. These forms often develop through motivic layering,
incorporating the bright, forward timbre characteristic of gamelan, along with the distinct pelog
and slendro pentatonic scales. In recent years, as choral arts have flourished—especially through
numerous competitions in Southeast Asia—a wealth of new choral works has emerged, including
arrangements and original compositions. Composers increasingly draw inspiration from their
cultural heritage, making gamelan a frequent reference point. This fusion has led to the creation
of a new canon of Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire, wherein traces of gamelan can be
found, effectively serving as a walking billboard for the region, especially when Malaysian and
Indonesian choirs travel abroad for concert tours and competitions.
While gamelan prominently influences many Malaysian and Indonesian choral
compositions, it is essential to recognize that most composers do not adhere strictly to traditional
gamelan forms. Unlike Canadian composer Murray Schafer, whose Gamelan strictly adheres to
the Balinese pelog scale and features only the five Balinese tone names—dong, deng, ding, dang,
and dung—most contemporary composers blend various gamelan subcategories with influences
from other traditions, enriching their works. For instance, Budi Susanto Yohanes’ arrangement
256
of Janger is rooted in the Balinese gamelan style, characterized by its use of the pelog scale and
interlocking motifs. Within this framework, the Balinese kecak dance is incorporated into the
middle of the piece. This seemingly out-of-place addition of kecak in an otherwise Balinese
gamelan-inspired arrangement infuses the piece with a vibrant rhythmic energy that resonates
with the ganas garang spirit of Balinese gamelan. Similarly, Chee Wei Wong's …About Gong,
Ai, Na… merges Malay gamelan with musical elements from Malaysia's Chinese and Indian
communities, showcasing the three major ethnicities in Malaysia: Malay, Chinese, and Indian.
The presence of diverse musical elements in Malaysian and Indonesian gamelaninfluenced choral works enhances the study of this topic, offering a deeper understanding of the
cultural and musical dynamics at play. Just as short individual motifs in gamelan music combine
to form a cohesive whole, gamelan serves as a lens through which to appreciate the Malaysian
and Indonesian choral scene. This exploration enriches the understanding of the region's artistic
expressions and underscores the importance of preserving and promoting these traditions within
contemporary choral practices. By doing so, the cultural significance of gamelan can remain
vibrant and relevant in today’s musical dialogues, fostering deeper connections to the diverse
identities that shape the musical narratives of Southeast Asia.
Programming Gamelan-Influenced Choral Works
Incorporating gamelan-influenced choral works presents a valuable opportunity for
educators to engage with Southeast Asia's rich cultural tapestry, facilitating the decolonization of
the choral classroom. By diversifying teaching methods and repertoire, educators can move away
from the Western European tradition as the standard reference. However, merely programming
(see Appendix A for a list of repertoire influenced by gamelan from Malaysia and Indonesia) this
repertoire is akin to inviting a diverse group of people to the table without ensuring that everyone
257
has a voice. Understanding the underlying context enables true inclusivity, which is why this
dissertation examines not only gamelan-influenced choral repertoire but also the ensemble itself
and its impact on choral music. A deep understanding of the cultural significance and musical
symbolism behind them is what helps lift the performance off the page, foster positive singer
engagement with the composition, and most importantly, make the performance a meaningful
experience for everyone involved. For instance, lacking this contextual understanding, the
repetitive nature of gamelan may be perceived as simplistic while the concept of ombak could be
regarded as out-of-tune by Western standards. However, gaining insight into the ensemble's
construction and the techniques used in its musical development enables a reinterpreted
perspective; what may initially appear monotonous and dissonant can grow into a powerful
symbol of communal interdependence and ancestral creativity. By teaching this context, a deeper
appreciation for the narratives embedded within these compositions can be fostered, encouraging
a more inclusive and nuanced musical dialogue.
Future Research Directions
This dissertation serves as a foundational exploration of gamelan influences in choral
music, revealing several pathways for future research. Investigating regional variations within
gamelan practices could illuminate how local traditions impact choral adaptations. Additionally,
exploring contemporary composers who incorporate gamelan elements might provide valuable
insights into the ongoing evolution of these traditions in modern choral settings. Another
promising avenue lies in the pedagogical implications of gamelan-inspired works. Research
focused on effective teaching methods for integrating these influences into choral practice could
equip educators with practical tools for enhancing their programs while celebrating the
multicultural heritage of Malaysia and Indonesia.
258
Exploring the intersections of gamelan and choral practices highlights connections that
extend beyond academia into the realm of cultural storytelling. These connections celebrate
communal interdependence and foster a richer musical dialogue that transcends borders, uniting
diverse communities. Engaging with these traditions cultivates not only well-rounded musicians
but also advocates for cultural inclusivity and understanding. Embracing the influences of
gamelan invites a reevaluation of traditional Western frameworks, allowing for a deeper
exploration of the complexity and beauty inherent in music as a bridge to cultural connection. In
doing so, the vital narratives of Southeast Asian music can resonate for generations to come.
259
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Appendices
Appendix A – Gamalen Influenced-Choral Works by Malaysian and Indonesian
Composers
Please note that this is not a conclusive list, but rather a starting point for exploring choral works
influenced by gamelan. Additionally, most compositions do not strictly adhere to one specific
gamelan style. The "Gamelan Influence" column provides suggestions of the predominant styles
present in each piece.
Title Composer/Arranger Country Gamelan Influence
Hela Rotane Trad. Moluccan, Arr. Ken
Steven
Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Mari Rayakan Ken Steven Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Paris Barantai Trad. Kalimantan, Arr. Ken
Steven
Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Sik Sik Si Batu
Manikkam
Trad. Batak, Arr. Pontas Purba Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Tokecang Trad. Sundanese, Arr. Ken
Steven
Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Toki Gong Sambil
Menari
Trad. Moluccan, Arr. Christian
Tamaela
Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Toki Tifa Christian Tamaela Indonesia Balinese and
Javanese gamelan
Janger Trad. Balinese, Arr. Budi
Susanto Yohanes
Indonesia Balinese gamelan
Meplalian Trad. Balinese, Arr. Budi
Susanto Yohanes
Indonesia Balinese gamelan
"Kyrie eleison" from
Indonesian Mass
Ivan Yohan Indonesia Javanese and
Balinese gamelan
"Taboeh Gloria" Misa
di Pulau Dewata
Yosefano F. Ardani Indonesia Javanese gamelan
Gai Bintang Trad. Madurese, Arr. Budi
Susanto Yohanes
Indonesia Javanese gamelan
Luk Luk Lumbu Trad. Javanese, Arr. Budi
Susanto Yohanes
Indonesia Javanese gamelan
Padang Bulan Trad. Javanese, Arr.
Adhifaricho Putra Hardana
Indonesia Javanese gamelan
266
Rek Ayo Rek Trad. Javanese, Arr. Stefanus
Vincent
Indonesia Javanese gamelan
Rindu Kepada
Kediaman Allah
Daud Kosasih Indonesia Javanese gamelan
Ikan Kekek Tracy Wong Malaysia Malay and Balinese
gamelans
Ikan Kekek Yu Hang Tan Malaysia Malay and Balinese
gamelans
...About Gong, Ai, Na... Chee Wei Wong Malaysia Malay gamelan
Buka Yu Hang Tan Malaysia Malay gamelan
Ewa Bule Trad. Kelantanese, Arr.
Muhamad Amirul Bin Abdul
Hamid
Malaysia Malay gamelan
Lenggang Kangkung Trad. Malay Archipelago, Arr.
Junyi Chow
Malaysia Malay gamelan
Mak Inang Trad. Malay Archipelago, Arr.
Vivian Chua
Malaysia Malay gamelan
Rasa Sayang Trad. Malay Archipelago, Arr.
Yu Hang Tan
Malaysia Malay gamelan
Singkap Siaga Tracy Wong Malaysia Malay gamelan
Wau Bulan Trad. Kelantanese, Arr. Tracy
Wong
Malaysia Malay gamelan
267
Appendix B – Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah by Daud Kosasih
The sheet music below is included with permission from the composer and publisher for use
solely within the context of this dissertation.
268
269
270
271
Appendix C – “Kyrie eleison” from Indonesian Mass by Ivan Yohan
The sheet music below is included with permission from the composer and publisher for use
solely within the context of this dissertation.
272
273
274
275
276
277
A
278
Appendix D – Janger by Budi Susanto Yohanes
The sheet music below is included with permission from the composer and publisher for use
solely within the context of this dissertation.
279
280
281
282
283
284
Appendix E – “Taboeh Gloria” from Misa di Pulau Dewata by Yosefano Ardani
The sheet music below is included with permission from the composer and publisher for use
solely within the context of this dissertation.
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
Appendix F – Ikan Kekek by Tracy Wong
The sheet music below is included with permission from the composer and publisher for use
solely within the context of this dissertation.
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
Appendix G - …About Gong, Ai, Na… by Chee Wei Wong
The sheet music below is included with permission from the composer and publisher for use
solely within the context of this dissertation.
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This dissertation studies the performance practice of Javanese, Balinese, and Malay gamelans and their influences on Malaysian and Indonesian choral music, emphasizing their cultural and educational relevance. Originating from Indonesia, gamelan is a traditional musical ensemble consisting of a variety of percussion instruments such as gongs, metallophones, and drums. The music is characterized by its intricate interlocking patterns, cyclical structure, and unique tuning systems. Gamelan plays a significant role in cultural rituals, ceremonies, and performances, with different regional styles reflecting the diversity of Indonesian and Malaysian musical heritage.
Using a comparative methodology, the study analyzes a selection of gamelan-influenced choral pieces, providing practical suggestions for approaching these works at the end of Chapters Four, Five, and Six. Six compositions are examined: Rindu Kepada Kediaman Allah by Daud Kosasih and "Kyrie Eleison" from the Indonesian Mass by Ivan Yohan explore the effects of Javanese gamelan; Janger by Budi Susanto Yohanes and "Taboeh Gloria" from Misa di Pulau Dewata by Yosefano Ardani represent Balinese gamelan; and Ikan Kekek by Tracy Wong and ...About Gong, Ai, Na... by Chee Wei Wong illustrate Malay gamelan. This analysis reveals how composers incorporate gamelan elements, such as motifs, scales, and interlocking rhythms, into their choral writing.
The dissertation also delineates the unique musical features of each gamelan style. Javanese gamelan is characterized by its lemah-lembut (gentle and calm) quality, emphasizing layered melodies. Balinese gamelan is marked by sharp dynamics, rapid interlocking rhythms, and ombak, a technique that produces quick overtone beats through paired tuning, collectively embodying the essence of ganas garang (fierce and vigorous). Malay gamelan, known for its lighter instrumentation, exemplifies ayu dan sopan (elegant and polite), utilizing polyphonic techniques like bergilir and berbunga to produce a shimmering texture. This examination highlights how gamelan enriches the choral repertoire, fosters cultural inclusivity, and broadens global perspectives within music education.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Tan, Yu Hang
(author)
Core Title
The gamelan ensemble and its influence on Malaysian and Indonesian choral repertoire
School
Thornton School of Music
Degree
Doctor of Musical Arts
Degree Program
Choral Music
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
01/09/2025
Defense Date
01/09/2025
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
choir,Choral Music,choral repertoire,choral singing,ethnomusicology,gamelan,gamelan choral music,Indonesia,Indonesian choral music,Indonesian folk music,Malaysia,Malaysian choral music,Malaysian folk music
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Grases, Cristian (
committee chair
), García Corona, León F. (
committee member
), Sparks, Tram (
committee member
)
Creator Email
yuhang93@gmail.com,yuhangta@usc.edu
Unique identifier
UC11399F8L7
Identifier
etd-TanYuHang-13723.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-TanYuHang-13723
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
Tan, Yu Hang
Internet Media Type
application/pdf
Type
texts
Source
20250110-usctheses-batch-1232
(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
choral repertoire
choral singing
ethnomusicology
gamelan
gamelan choral music
Indonesian choral music
Indonesian folk music
Malaysian choral music
Malaysian folk music