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A framework for choral repertoire selection for Singapore children's (age 7 to 12 years) choirs for musicianship, vocal and social-emotional development
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A framework for choral repertoire selection for Singapore children's (age 7 to 12 years) choirs for musicianship, vocal and social-emotional development
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Content
CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
A Framework for Choral Repertoire Selection for
Singapore Children's (age 7 to 12 years) Choirs
for Musicianship, Vocal and Social-Emotional Development
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(CHORAL MUSIC)
December 2024
Copyright 2024 Wen Loong Tham (Nicholas)
CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................vi
CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Background ........................................................................1
Aims.............................................................................................................................................4
Methodology................................................................................................................................6
Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 2 Vocal Pedagogy, Physiological Development, and Choral Singing in
Childhood and Adolescence...............................................................................................13
Vocal Pedagogy within Choral Settings.....................................................................................14
Physiological and Developmental Changes in the Larynx ........................................................17
Range, Technique, and Healthy Singing Practices ....................................................................21
Gender Perception in Children's Voices.....................................................................................24
Singing Accuracy.......................................................................................................................27
Vocal Training Exercises............................................................................................................31
Sustained Tones......................................................................................................................32
Portamento exercises. ............................................................................................................33
Onset Exercises......................................................................................................................34
Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract Exercises...................................................................................36
Breath Support Exercises.......................................................................................................37
Laryngeal Position Exercises.................................................................................................39
Resonance and Vocal Tract Configuration Exercises ............................................................41
The Importance of Intone Speech..............................................................................................42
Choral Speech Repertoire: A Pathway to Vocal Development and Ensemble Participation .45
Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................47
CHAPTER 3 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood ............................................48
Cognitive processes ...................................................................................................................48
Attention and Focus...............................................................................................................48
Memory Systems ...................................................................................................................50
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Language and Communication ..............................................................................................51
Social and Emotional Cognition ............................................................................................51
Higher-Order Thinking ..........................................................................................................52
Learning Processes.................................................................................................................53
Sensory Processing and Perception .......................................................................................54
Motor and Spatial Cognition..................................................................................................54
Creativity and Imagination ....................................................................................................55
Metacognition ........................................................................................................................56
Adaptive and Automatic Processes........................................................................................56
Critical Thinking and Skepticism ..........................................................................................58
Executive Functions...............................................................................................................58
Music Training Effects on Executive Functions........................................................................68
Inhibitory Control ..................................................................................................................70
Cognitive Flexibility ..............................................................................................................71
Understanding Brain Plasticity ..................................................................................................73
The Impact of Musical Training on Brain Plasticity..................................................................73
Language Development .............................................................................................................78
Multitasking, Multimodality, and Metacognition in Music Education......................................82
Gender and Culture on Singing Development...........................................................................88
Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................89
CHAPTER 4 Music Education, Musical and Cognitive Development in Middle
Childhood...........................................................................................................................91
Music Education and Cognitive Development ..........................................................................91
Historical Milestones in the Concept of Musical Development ................................................94
Theoretical Models of Musical Development............................................................................96
Music Theory in Musical Development ..............................................................................103
Social Approaches to Musical Development .......................................................................105
Music and Early Language Acquisition...................................................................................106
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................110
Chapter 5 Social and Emotional Learning .......................................................................111
The Singapore Ministry of Education’s Framework for Social Emotional Learning ..............111
The Benefits of SEL.................................................................................................................113
The Cultivation of Self-Awareness..........................................................................................115
Drama as a Tool in Expanding Self-Awareness...................................................................117
Choral Music as a Medium for Social-Emotional Learning (SEL).........................................120
Fostering Empathy through Emotional Resonance..................................................................121
Promoting Perspective-Taking, Emotional Awareness, and Identity Development through
Choral Repertoire Selection.........................................................................................................123
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................128
CHAPTER 6 Music Learning Theories and Curriculum.................................................130
Zoltán Kodály (1882 - 1967) ...................................................................................................130
Edwin Gordon (1927 - 2015)...................................................................................................132
Learning Rhythms....................................................................................................................135
Learning Rhythm in the Preoperational Stage .....................................................................136
Transitioning to a Conservational Understanding of Rhythm .............................................137
Developing Interval Recognition in Children..........................................................................138
The Australian Kodály Certificate Curriculum........................................................................143
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................147
CHAPTER 7 Repertoire Selection...................................................................................149
Best Practices in Repertoire Selection and Programming for Community Children's Choirs.149
Arranging Educational and Engaging Music for Children’s Choirs........................................154
Frameworks for Choral Repertoire Selection ..................................................................155
The MACRO Framework for Choral Repertoire Selection in Singapore................................155
Musical Value.......................................................................................................................156
Appropriateness to Development and Maturity...................................................................156
Cultural Understanding Through Music ..............................................................................156
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Respect for Sensitivities.......................................................................................................157
Students’ Ownership, Voice, and Choice (Agency).............................................................157
The Proposed Framework for the Selection of Choral Repertoire ..........................................158
The Aspects: Align, Expand, and Connect (AEC)...............................................................159
The Five Dimensions...........................................................................................................160
Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................166
CHAPTER 8 Conclusion .................................................................................................167
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................171
v
CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
ABSTRACT
This dissertation presents a comprehensive framework for selecting and sequencing
choral repertoire tailored to the developmental stages of children aged 7 to 12, focusing on their
cognitive, physiological, and social needs. The study synthesizes existing literature across
multiple disciplines, including music education, choral pedagogy, developmental psychology,
vocal development, and cognitive sciences, to create a structured approach that integrates child
development theory with choral pedagogy. The framework, summarized by the acronym AEC,
emphasizes three aspects (Align, Expand, and Connect) and five key dimensions (Cognition,
Musicianship, Vocal Development, Social Emotional Skills, Cultural Awareness). By addressing
the disconnect between repertoire selection and the developmental capabilities of young singers,
this research aims to empower choral directors with informed decisions that enhance musical
skill development and foster cognitive, physiological, and social growth.
Keywords: Repertoire selection, pedagogical sequencing, choral music, middle
childhood, child development, vocal pedagogy, music education, cognition, musicianship, vocal
development, social-emotional skills, cultural awareness, AEC model/framework
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER 1
Introduction and Background
The selection of repertoire in choral settings often elicits diverse opinions from
stakeholders with vested interests. These stakeholders include school management, teachers
overseeing the choir, principals, board members, singers, and parents. Each group possesses
unique priorities that influence their perspectives on repertoire selection. School management
and teachers frequently emphasize educational objectives, public image, and institutional values
reflected by the choir. In contrast, singers and their parents prioritize personal enjoyment,
learning opportunities, and the emotional experiences afforded by the chosen music.
Additionally, key participants such as the choir director and pianist contribute their artistic vision
and technical considerations, further complicating the decision-making process.
The convergence of these varying viewpoints can lead to conflicts that threaten the
collaborative atmosphere essential for the choir’s success. Such conflicts are not solely logistical;
they can adversely affect the choir’s cohesion, performance quality, and the overall experience
for all participants. To mitigate these challenges and ensure that repertoire selection aligns with
both artistic and educational goals, it is critical to implement a structured decision-making
framework.
A well-defined framework for repertoire selection can provide a transparent and
systematic approach, enabling stakeholders to understand and navigate the rationale behind each
decision. This framework would serve as a tool for guiding the decision-making process while
offering clear justifications for the choices made, thereby addressing the diverse concerns of
stakeholders in a balanced and equitable manner. By establishing such a framework, choir
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directors can facilitate effective communication and foster a collaborative environment,
enhancing both the educational outcomes and artistic integrity of the choir.
In Singapore, there exists a notable deficiency of formally-trained young conductors, as
many individuals acquire conducting skills through less-specialized programs such as the
Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM) or Trinity Guildhall examinations.
This gap in formal training presents a unique challenge for the choral scene, given that effective
choral leadership is fundamentally tied to a conductor’s ability to make informed repertoire
selections. Thus, it is essential to provide guidance that encompasses various critical factors in
repertoire selection, including the vocal and physiological development of singers, their
cognitive advancement, musical maturation, and overall emotional and social well-being.
Incorporating age-appropriate materials is vital for sustaining singers’ interest and
engagement while fostering a conducive learning environment. Furthermore, exposure to music
from diverse cultures not only enriches the choir’s repertoire but also broadens the singers’
musical horizons, promoting inclusivity and a deeper appreciation for global musical traditions.
The latter is essential in creating a dynamic choral experience that resonates with a wider
audience and nurtures the artistic growth of choir members.
The repertoire selection process should extend beyond addressing the immediate
demands of programming for a single concert. Instead, it must be integrated into a
comprehensive, long-term developmental strategy that aligns with the singers' evolving
capabilities and musical aspirations. For directors working with children aged 7 to 12, it is
critical to consider the developmental needs of this age group when programming. Selecting ageappropriate repertoire that is both engaging and accessible is essential for sustaining interest and
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
fostering a positive choral experience. Incorporating a wide variety of musical materials exposes
children to diverse styles and cultures, laying the foundation for their future musical growth.
Simplified arrangements and shorter pieces are often more suitable for younger singers, while
rehearsals and performance demands should be structured to accommodate their developmental
stages. To support this holistic approach, the levels of difficulty and progression in repertoire
must be clearly defined and systematically structured. Such a framework enables conductors to
select repertoire that not only addresses the immediate needs of choir members but also provides
appropriate challenges, fostering their continuous growth and development throughout their
musical journey.
In October 2024, during the development of this dissertation, the Arts Education Branch
of Singapore’s Ministry of Education (MOE) introduced a guide (Ministry of Education, 2025)
for selecting vocal and choral repertoire, which was distributed internally among school
personnel and instructors. The release of this guide underscores the need for shared objectives
and an informed approach to repertoire selection in choral education. It aims to provide a
structured framework that not only supports technical and artistic growth but also fosters the
holistic development of students. The guide provided a framework, summarized by the acronym
MACRO, outlines five key principles: Musical value, Appropriateness to level of development
and maturity, furthering Cultural understanding through music, Respect for sensitivities, and
Ownership, voice, and choice (a.k.a. agency). This dissertation aims to investigate the MACRO
framework and build upon it to further enhance its application in choral repertoire selection.
This chapter outlines the aims of this dissertation and the methodology employed to
achieve them.
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Aims
The primary aim of this dissertation is to examine the selection of repertoire for children’s
choirs, specifically targeting members aged 7 to 12, corresponding to the primary school levels 1
to 6 in Singapore. Zimmerman (1986) highlights that the importance of musical development
during middle childhood is frequently neglected, as research tends to prioritize early childhood
and aging. Although the early years are fundamental for establishing foundational skills, the
middle childhood stage, which coincides with elementary education, is equally critical for
cognitive and musical growth. This developmental period provides essential opportunities for
skill refinement, enhanced musical comprehension, and the integration of music with broader
cognitive processes. In Singapore, children typically begin their formal education at the primary
level, enrolling in Primary 1 at the age of 7 and completing Primary 6 by the age of 12. Music is
included in the school curriculum, with lessons lasting between 30 minutes to an hour per week.
However, this limited instruction time does not encompass extracurricular activities such as
participation in musical groups, choirs, or bands, which are carried out during after school hours.
Choirs generally meet once a week for a two-hour rehearsal. The instructors for these ensembles
are typically specialists hired externally and are not included in the school’s permanent staff
count.
While acknowledging potential physiological and cultural differences between children in
Singapore and those in other regions, this study operates on the premise that children across
different cultural contexts share broadly similar developmental characteristics. Consequently, the
research draws upon global studies, established pedagogical frameworks, and widely recognized
recommendations for choral music education.
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
This dissertation proposes the development of a structured framework for repertoire
selection that aligns with the natural progression of typically-developing children’s vocal,
cognitive, social, and musical skills. Such a framework is particularly valuable for novice choral
conductors, who frequently base repertoire choices primarily on thematic, cultural, or narrative
aspects of concert programming. In the absence of a structured guide, such as a repertoire
reading session, many conductors resort to replicating the repertoire choices of established choirs
or selecting pieces based on aesthetic preferences—practices that do not always align with the
developmental and educational needs of young singers.
The study advocates for a more informed and developmentally appropriate approach to
repertoire selection, emphasizing the importance of understanding various aspects of a child’s
growth, including vocal range and physiological capabilities, cognitive development, socialemotional needs and musical maturation. By synthesizing theoretical, conceptual, and empirical
findings, the study offers actionable recommendations to guide conductors in selecting repertoire
that fosters musical growth, supports cognitive advancement, encourages social-emotional
development, and enhances vocal skill acquisition.
In this regard, this dissertation aims to fill a critical gap in current practice by providing a
more scientifically-grounded and pedagogically-sound approach to repertoire selection. Hedden
and Allen (2019) pointed out that many conductors select choral repertoire before assessing the
vocal and cognitive abilities of their singers, largely driven by logistical pressures related to
rehearsal scheduling and administrative duties. Such a practice, though pragmatic, often leads to
repertoire choices that either overextend or underserve the developmental capabilities of young
singers. By establishing a sequenced and age-appropriate catalog of choral music, this research
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
seeks to address this disconnect, offering practical guidelines that integrate child development
theory with choral pedagogy.
In summary, this dissertation attempts to bridge the gap between theory and practice by
providing novice and experienced conductors alike with a systematic, developmentally informed
approach to repertoire selection. This framework not only supports the vocal and musical growth
of children but also enhances their overall engagement and enjoyment in choral singing, thereby
contributing to both their immediate and long-term musical development.
Methodology
This dissertation, which focuses on selecting and sequencing choral repertoire for
children’s choirs aged 7 to 12, adopts a conceptual approach grounded in the synthesis of existing
literature. The methodology is designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of best
practices in repertoire selection without engaging in primary data collection or requiring
Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval. By drawing upon pre-existing studies, public
databases, and readily accessible materials, the research aims to consolidate knowledge that is
both reliable and widely applicable.
The conceptual repertoire selection framework developed for this study is an actionoriented model designed to function at both macro and micro levels. This framework is
constructed through an extensive literature review, drawing on research from music education,
choral pedagogy, developmental psychology, cognitive sciences, and vocal pedagogy, as well as
guidance from Singapore’s Ministry of Education’s Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)
framework and choral repertoire selection guidelines. By synthesizing insights from these
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
diverse fields, this study identifies and organizes principles that guide the selection and
sequencing of repertoire for young choirs. This interdisciplinary approach grounds the
framework in established theory and empirical evidence, providing a robust foundation for
practical recommendations. The framework aims to serve as a practical guide for choral
directors, facilitating repertoire selection and sequencing that aligns with the developmental
stages of young learners. Emphasizing age-appropriate, pedagogically-sound, and musicallyenriching repertoire, the framework seeks to balance the fostering of musical skills with respect
for the cognitive, physiological and social needs of this age group.
Chapter Summary
This dissertation offers a comprehensive framework for the selection and sequencing of
choral repertoire specifically tailored for children's choirs aged 7 to 12. By synthesizing insights
from diverse disciplines and established guidelines, the study underscores the importance of ageappropriate, pedagogically sound, and musically enriching repertoire that aligns with the
developmental needs of young singers. The practical implications of this framework aim to
empower choral directors, facilitating informed decisions in repertoire selection that not only
enhance musical skill development but also foster the cognitive, physiological, and social growth
of children.
In this chapter, I have outlined the problem under investigation, the context of the study,
the aims of the research, the adopted methodology, and the conceptual framework guiding the
inquiry. As noted, this dissertation is grounded in an extensive review of existing literature
concerning repertoire selection, musical approaches, and child development, encompassing both
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions. As a result of this comprehensive literature synthesis
and thematic focus, the subsequent chapters are organized thematically, allowing for a coherent
exploration of the key elements that influence repertoire selection and its impact on children's
choral experiences.
Chapter 2 delves into vocal development, focusing on vocal pedagogy, physiological
changes, and choral singing in children and adolescents, emphasizing the role of choral directors
in promoting vocal health and adapting techniques to young voices. It discusses the physiological
changes in the larynx during childhood and puberty, highlighting the importance of supporting
healthy vocal development and preventing strain, especially during rapid growth phases. The
chapter reviews various vocal exercises, such as sustained tones and portamento, designed to
build vocal strength and control, tailored to children's unique physiological needs. It also
explores the significance of choral speech repertoire as a pathway to vocal development,
allowing children to participate in ensemble singing without the immediate need for pitch
accuracy, thereby fostering inclusivity and holistic musicianship. Additionally, the chapter
addresses gender perception in children's voices, noting behavioral adjustments rather than
anatomical differences as the cause of variations in vocal tract resonances between boys and
girls.
Chapter 3, on Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood, explores various cognitive
processes and their development during this critical period, emphasizing the role of music
training in enhancing cognitive functions such as working memory, inhibitory control, and
cognitive flexibility. It highlights the shared neural pathways between music and language,
noting that musical training can enhance verbal skills, including reading and prosody,
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
particularly in children with language delays. The chapter discusses the Critical Period
Hypothesis, which suggests a specific timeframe for optimal language acquisition, typically from
early childhood until puberty, and its implications for learning a second language. Additionally, it
examines the development of executive functions, distinguishing between "cool" and "hot", and
their roles in academic and social contexts. The chapter also addresses the importance of sensory
processing and perception in cognitive development, particularly in music, where children
integrate auditory, visual, and kinesthetic information. Furthermore, it explores the impact of
music training on brain plasticity, noting that musical training induces both structural and
functional changes in the brain, enhancing auditory and motor systems. The chapter concludes
with an analysis of how gender and culture influence singing development during middle
childhood, highlighting that societal perceptions and cultural contexts significantly shape
children's musical experiences.
Chapter 4, on Music Education, Musical and Cognitive Development in Middle
Childhood, explores the impact of music education on cognitive development, emphasizing
improvements in memory, attention, and spatial reasoning during the transition from the
preoperational to the concrete operational stage of cognitive development, as described by Jean
Piaget (1896-1980). It highlights historical milestones, such as Helmut Moog's (b. 1927) studies
on emotional engagement in music and the Swanwick-Tillman (1986) spiral model, which
suggests that children's musical behaviors evolve with age and experience. The chapter also
discusses theoretical models like Hargreaves and Lamont's (2017) exploration of cognitive,
social, and cultural factors in music learning. Additionally, it examines the interconnectedness of
music and early language acquisition, suggesting that musical elements in speech aid infants in
9
CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
learning language, as proposed by Brandt et al. (2012). The chapter underscores the importance
of social and cultural influences on musical development, drawing on theories from Lev
Vygotsky (1896-1934) and others.
Chapter 5 delves into the framework of Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) as outlined
by the Singapore Ministry of Education, which aligns with the CASEL model (2020). It
emphasizes the development of five core competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making, which are essential for personal
and social development. The chapter highlights the role of drama and choral music in enhancing
emotional intelligence and self-awareness, with dramatic narratives and choral repertoire serving
as tools for emotional exploration and empathy development. Engaging with drama sharpens the
ability to recognize non-verbal emotional cues, fostering empathy and introspection. Choral
music, with its collaborative nature, promotes teamwork, emotional awareness, and social
cohesion, offering therapeutic benefits and fostering a sense of community. The selection of
choral repertoire is emphasized as a means to promote identity development and social
responsibility, encouraging singers to connect with diverse cultural traditions and social issues.
Overall, SEL aims to cultivate well-rounded individuals who are reflective, empathetic, and
socially responsible, with music education playing a pivotal role in this process.
Chapter 6, on Music Learning Theories and Curriculum, explores the pedagogical
approaches of Zoltán Kodály (1882-1967) and Edwin Gordon (1927-2015), emphasizing music
education as a natural and intuitive process akin to language acquisition. Kodály's method
focuses on musical literacy through folk materials, starting with familiar patterns and
emphasizing early music education. Gordon's Music Learning Theory highlights audiation and
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
informal guidance, advocating for a developmental approach that mirrors language learning.
Both educators stress the importance of a structured, sequential curriculum that aligns with
children's cognitive development stages, using repetition, variety, and parental involvement to
reinforce learning. The Australian Kodály Certificate Curriculum exemplifies this approach,
offering a comprehensive framework for teaching music through a progressive sequence of
musical elements, including pitch, rhythm, and form, tailored to different developmental stages.
The chapter also discusses the application of Kodály principles in choral repertoire selection,
emphasizing culturally relevant music and a multi-sensory approach to foster musical growth and
engagement.
Chapter 7, on Repertoire Selection, provides a comprehensive exploration of best
practices and frameworks for selecting choral repertoire, particularly for community children's
choirs. It emphasizes the importance of aligning repertoire with the choir's educational objectives
and the singers' abilities, considering factors such as engaging melodies, quality text, and
singable keys. The chapter discusses the MACRO framework (Ministry of Education, 2025),
which highlights principles like musical value, cultural understanding, and student agency,
ensuring that repertoire selection supports both technical and holistic development. It also
introduces the Align, Expand, and Connect (AEC) framework, developed by the author, which
focuses on aligning repertoire with students' current skills while fostering their progressive
development. The chapter underscores the significance of culturally sensitive repertoire that
fosters empathy and cultural awareness, promoting a sense of belonging and identity among
students. Overall, the chapter provides valuable insights and practical guidance for choral
directors to curate a balanced and enriching musical experience for young singers.
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Chapter 8 concludes the dissertation by examining the selection of repertoire for
children's choirs, specifically targeting ages 7 to 12, and introduces the choral repertoire
selection AEC (Align, Expand, and Connect) framework. This framework provides a structured
approach to repertoire selection, ensuring alignment with students' abilities while promoting skill
development and cultural awareness. It integrates insights from established pedagogical
approaches, developmental psychology, and contemporary educational practices, offering a
practical tool for choral directors. The framework emphasizes inclusivity and accessibility,
accommodating diverse abilities and backgrounds, and integrates social and emotional learning
(SEL) to foster empathy and collaboration. It also highlights the ethical responsibilities of choral
directors in selecting culturally sensitive and pedagogically meaningful music. By transforming
repertoire selection into a strategic process, the framework fosters artistic excellence, cultural
preservation, and education, ensuring the continued relevance of choral music.
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER 2
Vocal Pedagogy, Physiological Development, and Choral Singing
in Childhood and Adolescence
Choral singing involves numerous interconnected elements, particularly vocal pedagogy
and vocal development. This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of vocal pedagogy,
physiological development, and their implications for choral singing in children and adolescents.
It begins by examining foundational techniques in vocal pedagogy within choral settings,
including breath support, resonance, and laryngeal positioning, as well as the ways these
elements differ between solo and ensemble singing. Special emphasis is placed on the role of
choral directors in promoting vocal health, refining tone quality, and adapting techniques to the
specific needs of young voices.
The chapter then addresses physiological and developmental changes in the larynx during
childhood and adolescence, noting significant shifts in vocal range, tone quality, and breath
control. Recognizing the impact of these changes on both vocal technique and vocal identity, the
chapter outlines key considerations for supporting children’s healthy vocal development and
preventing strain, particularly during puberty when rapid growth can greatly affect vocal
production.
A review of targeted vocal exercises, including sustained tones, portamento, onset
exercises, and semi-occluded vocal tract exercises, follows. Each exercise is discussed in relation
to its purpose in building vocal strength, control, and resonance. The chapter also emphasizes the
importance of vocal training exercises designed specifically for children’s unique physiological
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
needs, thereby equipping young singers with a robust foundation for future vocal pursuits, in
choral and solo singing contexts.
The chapter concludes by summarizing key recommendations for young singers’ vocal
development, particularly focusing on developing shared fundamentals between choral and solo
singing through foundational vocal mechanics. Emphasis is placed on helping children maintain
healthy subglottal pressure, which depends on balancing the contact quotient of the vocal folds
with airflow from the respiratory system. It is recommended that techniques requiring a lowered
larynx and singing in the extreme upper vocal range be postponed until children’s vocal
ligaments are more fully developed. By building a strong foundation, children are prepared for
freedom in exploring various singing styles or genres in the future.
Studies reviewed in the chapter did not find a significant correlation between age and
singing accuracy for children aged 6 to 12. However, gradual improvements in singing ability
tend to occur with age and increased musical exposure (Welch, 2006). Research by Wolfs et al.
(2023) suggested that music perception abilities are significant predictors of singing accuracy,
highlighting the importance of activities that foster pitch and rhythmic awareness. Additionally,
incorporating choral speech repertoire is recommended to engage children who are not yet
capable of singing in tune, offering them an accessible pathway into choral singing.
Vocal Pedagogy within Choral Settings
Cottrell (2017) offered a robust approach to vocal pedagogy in choral settings by
integrating historical methods with scientific insights to enhance vocal technique and the overall
choral sound. It is a valuable resource for choral directors looking to refine their teaching
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
methods and improve the vocal health and performance of their choirs. Cottrell (2017) provided
an in-depth examination of vocal pedagogy within choral rehearsals, with a focus on enhancing
choral tone through the application of historical vocal pedagogy principles and modern scientific
research. This section delved into four primary areas of vocal pedagogy: laryngeal position,
resonance, breath support, and phonation.
The significance of a lowered larynx in choral singing was highlighted in the chapter, as
it contributes to a warmer, richer tone quality (Cottrell, 2017). Additionally, Cottrell discussed
the importance of achieving resonance through a specific vocal tract configuration that includes a
low larynx, narrow epilarynx tube, wide pharynx, and slightly closed mouth (Titze & Story,
1997). This configuration, according to Cottrell (2017) is crucial for amplifying the voice and
achieving the desired brilliance and ring in the tone.
Breath support, a foundational aspect of good vocal tone, was explored in detail, with
Cottrell (2017) emphasizing the necessity of utilizing both chest and abdominal muscles in
conjunction with glottal resistance to maintain subglottal pressure (see Emmons, 2006). Cottrell
(2017) discussed various phonation techniques, such as sustained tones, portamento, and onset
exercises, which are instrumental in developing vocal strength and efficiency (see Cottrell,
2009). Cottrell (2017) also underscored the critical role of choral directors in facilitating the
success, health, and enjoyment of singing for choir members. Directors must possess a thorough
understanding of vocal anatomy, physiology, and acoustics to guide singers towards the ideal
tone quality and prevent vocal harm.
In a choral setting, the principles of phonation and vocal production differ from those of a
soloist in several key respects. Choral singers must prioritize blend and balance, ensuring their
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
individual voices harmoniously integrate with the ensemble (Cottrell, 2017). This contrasts with
soloists, who may aim for a distinctive tone and expressive freedom. Additionally, choral singers
must coordinate their phonation with others, requiring precise timing and synchronization, which
is less critical for soloists who have greater control over their sound and phrasing (Cottrell,
2017).
Tone quality in choral singing is often adjusted to match the ensemble's sound, focusing
on consistency rather than individuality, whereas soloists may seek a unique vocal timbre
(Cottrell, 2017). Dynamic range is another area of difference, with choral singers typically
working within a more limited range to maintain balance, whereas soloists can vary dynamics for
expressive effect (Cottrell, 2017).
Breath management in a choir is collective, emphasizing continuity and flow, whereas
soloists have more flexibility in breath placement (Cottrell, 2017). Articulation and diction are
prioritized in choral singing to ensure text intelligibility, which may differ from the soloistic
approach of shaping words to fit the musical line (Cottrell, 2017).
Vocal health is paramount for both soloists and choral singers, but the physical demands
of ensemble singing require adjustments, such as maintaining proper posture and breath support
during extended performances (Cottrell, 2017). Lastly, feedback and adjustment are more
generalized in choral singing, with singers needing to self-correct based on the ensemble's
overall sound, unlike soloists who receive immediate, individualized feedback (Cottrell, 2017).
While the fundamental concepts of vocal production are common to both soloists, such as opera
singers, and choral ensemble singers, choral singing requires specific adaptations to meet the
unique demands and objectives of ensemble performance. Solo singing emphasizes maximizing
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the unique qualities of the individual voice and employing a full, resonant vocal timbre. In
contrast, choral singing is an art form that prioritizes blending voices to create a unified group
sound, minimizing individual differences and emphasizing shared vocal qualities.
Focusing on the overlapping commonalities between solo and choral singing—such as
breath management, phonation, resonance, articulation, and healthy vocal habits—establishes a
solid foundation for voice production. This integrated approach equips children navigating the
physiological changes of puberty with the tools needed for vocal freedom as their voices mature.
By emphasizing core techniques that apply to both solo and ensemble singing, young singers
develop flexibility in their vocal expression and build a sense of control over their evolving
instruments. This holistic approach not only supports choral blend and ensemble performance
during adolescence but also provides singers with the versatility to pursue various vocal paths
post-puberty, empowering them with the freedom to engage confidently in solo or choral settings
based on their personal interests and strengths. The following section examines anatomical
differences between children and adults and explores techniques that promote healthy vocal
development and prevent strain or injury.
Physiological and Developmental Changes in the Larynx
Sataloff and Kost (2020) presented a thorough examination of the anatomical and
physiological transformations within the larynx. According to them:
Embryologically, the larynx develops most of its anatomic characteristics by the third
month of fetal life. At birth, the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone are attached to each
other. The laryngeal skeleton then separates, The laryngeal skeleton then separates, and
the slow process of ossification begins. The hyoid bone starts to ossify by 2 years of age.
The thyroid and cricoid cartilages ossify during the early 20s, and the arytenoid cartilages
ossify in the late 30s. Except for the cuneiform and corniculate cartilages, the entire
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laryngeal skeleton is ossified by approximately age 65. In the infant, the epiglottis is
bulky and omega shaped; it does not open to its normal adult configuration until puberty.
At birth, the angle of the thyroid cartilage is about 110 in the male and 120 in the female.
These relationships also remain fairly stable until puberty. At birth, the larynx is located
high in the neck, resting at about the level of the third cervical vertebra (C3). It descends
to about the level of C5-C6 by the age of 5 and continues gradual descent, lying at about
the level of C6-C7 between ages 15 and 20. Descent continues throughout life in both
sexes. As the larynx descends, vocal tract length relationships change, and average vocal
pitch tends to become lower. In infancy, the membranous and cartilaginous portions of
the vocal folds are equal in length; by adulthood, the membranous portion accounts for
approximately three-fifths of vocal fold length. Total vocal fold length is 6 to 8 mm in the
infant, but increases to 12 to 17 mm in the adult female, and to 17 to 23 mm in the adult
male. The dimensions of all other aspects of laryngeal anatomy increase, as well. (page
63)
As seen here, the embryological progression of the larynx, alterations in vocal fold
dimensions, and the impact of aging on respiratory capabilities all influence singing.
Additionally, the authors scrutinized the microscopic alterations evident in the laryngeal
musculature, the epithelial composition of the vocal folds, laryngeal cartilaginous structures,
temporomandibular joint, oral mucosal tissue, and the epithelial configuration of the tongue.
Trollinger (2003) added:
Between the ages of 1 and 4 years, the fibers that eventually become the vocal ligament
begin to develop, and by the age of 6, they start layering; less superficial layering than
deep layering is evident (Ishii, Akita, Yamashita, & Hirose, 2000). The ligament is not
identifiable in the larynx until around the age of 8 years (Hirano, 1981), but it becomes
so, and strengthens and develops more layers though the teen years (Morrison &
Rammage, 1994). This particular ligament is important as it is a key player in vocal
registration in singing and subsequent vocal singing range development (Titze, 1996)
(page 89).
Trollinger (2003) further observed that young children under the age of 7, who have
underdeveloped vocal ligaments, typically produce high and low sounds through vertical
laryngeal movement, both in speech and singing. The purpose of the vocal ligament, also known
as vocal cords, is to enable the production of high-pitched vocalizations, which is particularly
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crucial for singing in humans and for high-pitched sounds in other animals such as pigs (Titze,
1996). The vocal ligament is a thin, fibrous structure connecting cartilages within the vocal folds,
resembling a string and functioning similarly to the strings of musical instruments. It has a nonuniform cross-section, being thicker at the ends and thinner in the middle, which contributes to
its strength and flexibility.
The mechanical properties of the vocal ligament allow for the initial easy extension
followed by resistance to further elongation, which enables it to support large tensions (Titze,
1996). The fundamental frequency of the ligament's vibration can be calculated using a formula
that considers stress, density, and length. For high-pitched sounds, such as those produced by
female singers, the stress level required is much higher than what muscles alone can generate.
The cricothyroid muscle applies force to the ligament, amplifying the stress due to the thinness
of the ligament, thus enabling the high-frequency vibrations necessary for singing.
For singers, the vocal ligament is essential for achieving a wide pitch range. Its string-like
oscillation must be maintained without obstruction to produce clear, high-pitched sounds. Any
growths on or near the ligament can perturb its function, which is why surgeons take great care
in maintaining the integrity of the ligament during procedures. Singers can also free the ligament
by relaxing the thyroarytenoid muscle to ensure its unencumbered movement.
In American females, puberty usually starts between the ages of 8 and 15, while in
American males, it typically begins between the ages of 9.5 and 14. Puberty is generally
complete by ages 12 to 16.5 in females and 13.5 to 18 in males. The most active period of voice
mutation occurs between the ages of 12.5 and 14, and it is usually completed in both sexes by
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age 15.5. This mutational voice phase typically lasts around 1.5 years but can extend up to 3
years (Sataloff & Kost, 2020).
Changes to the laryngeal mechanism during vocal mutation make singing more
challenging, especially for males (Loui et al., 2015). Vocal mutation, a physiological process
associated with puberty, presents significant challenges to singing, particularly for males. This
phenomenon, characterized by the growth of the larynx and the subsequent lengthening and
thickening of the vocal cords, results in a deeper voice (Welch, 2006). Laryngeal modifications
can lead to various vocal challenges, including shifts in vocal range (Demorest & Clements,
2007), increased vocal instability (Hutchins & Peretz, 2012), and the necessity for technical
adjustments (Pfordresher & Brown, 2007).
The pubescent voice change often necessitates a reevaluation of vocal range, as the
lowering of the voice can cause a shift towards the lower end of the spectrum (Demorest &
Clements, 2007). This shift may require singers to transpose familiar songs or seek out new
repertoire that better suits their new vocal range. Additionally, the voice may exhibit greater
instability during this period, being marked by breathiness or hoarseness, which can impact the
precision and quality of singing (Hutchins & Peretz, 2012).
Technical adjustments are paramount as singers acclimate to their new vocal apparatus.
The altered size and shape of the larynx, along with changes in vocal cord length and thickness,
demand a reevaluation of vocal technique, including breath support and sound production
(Pfordresher & Brown, 2007). The timbre of the voice also changes, becoming deeper and
potentially losing some of its previous brightness, which may require singers to explore new
methods for expressive vocalization (Welch, 2006).
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The emotional implications of vocal mutation should not be overlooked. The voice is
intricately linked to one's identity, and the changes it undergoes can evoke feelings of selfconsciousness or discomfort, potentially affecting a singer's willingness to perform (Clements,
2002). Furthermore, the physical discomfort or pain that can accompany the rapid growth of the
larynx may hinder vocal practice and performance (Demorest, 2001).
Range, Technique, and Healthy Singing Practices
Sataloff and Kost (2020) offered an in-depth analysis of the vocal changes that occur
across the human lifespan. The authors discussed the initial vocalizations of infants, noting that
the birth cry typically has a frequency of about 500 Hz (493.88 Hz, B4 on the keyboard) and that
the larynx at this stage exhibits limited mobility, primarily vertical movements, with an
appearance similar to that of primates.
As a child grows, there is a gradual descent in the mean fundamental frequency of
speech, reaching approximately 275 Hz (277.18 Hz, C#4 on the keyboard) by the age of 8. Until
puberty, both males and females maintain similar fundamental frequencies. The physiological
frequency range, which refers to the highest and lowest sounds a child can produce, stays mostly
the same during childhood. However, the musical frequency range, or the ability to produce
musically acceptable sounds, expands. This indicates that between the ages of 6 and 16,
significant developmental changes in the voice are not so much about the absolute range, which
remains constant at about 2 1/2 octaves, but rather about improvements in control, efficiency, and
quality (Sataloff & Kost, 2020). In other words, this means a focus on the expansion of the
musical vocal range, and not phonation range.
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Understanding this principle is crucial for structuring the training of young voices. Vocal
pedagogy should focus on strengthening and harnessing the natural developmental process,
rather than prematurely emphasizing exercises aimed at expanding the extremes of the vocal
range, which can be particularly harmful to the still-developing vocal apparatus of young singers
(Sataloff & Kost, 2020).
The vocal range of children aged 6-7 is a critical consideration in elementary music
education. Choksy (1991) provided insightful guidance on this matter, emphasizing the
importance of understanding the natural range within which young children can comfortably and
accurately reproduce melodies using a head tone. This range typically spans from D to A or Bflat (Choksy, 1991). It is crucial to note that there is a distinct break in the voice around middle
C, where the vocal production shifts from a head tone to a chest tone (Choksy, 1991).
Choksy (1991) also pointed out that the studies on children's vocal range often present
conflicting results, as they tend to depict extreme ranges at which children can produce any
recognizable pitch rather than the ranges in which young children naturally sing songs (Choksy,
1991). This distinction is vital for ensuring that children sing within a comfortable range to avoid
vocal damage and to facilitate the development of proper vocal techniques. The author further
stressed the importance of considering only the range in which the child can accurately produce a
head tone, as this is the range in which songs can be comfortably sung (Choksy, 1991). This
approach aligns with historical findings, such as Paulsen's research from 1895, which identified
the comfortable singing range for children as D to A (Choksy, 1991).
The vocal range of children aged 7 to 12 varies with their physiological vocal
development. According to Houlahan and Tacka (2008), children in Grade 2 (approximately 7-8
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years old) can sing in tune from C to high D. By Grade 3 (approximately 8 to 9 years old), their
range extends up to high Eb, and by Grade 4 (approximately 9 to 10 years old), they can sing up
to high E. These ranges are general guidelines and can vary depending on each child’s vocal
development. The authors emphasized that young voices have less volume, less endurance, and
naturally higher ranges than adult voices, and it is important for instructors to accommodate
these characteristics when selecting repertoire and conducting vocal exercises (Houlahan &
Tacka, 2008).
The rationale behind these vocal ranges is rooted in the physiological and developmental
characteristics of children's voices. At this age, children's vocal folds are shorter and thinner
compared to adults (Sataloff & Kost, 2020; Pfordresher & Brown, 2007), resulting in a naturally
higher pitch range (Houlahan & Tacka, 2008). Additionally, their lung capacity and breath
control are still developing, which affects their ability to sustain notes and project their voices
with volume (Houlahan & Tacka, 2008). Children should avoid singing with a lowered larynx.
Children's larynges are soft and flexible and have not yet ossified (Sataloff & Kost, 2020). This
flexibility means they are unable to withstand the strain placed on the larynx when it is
intentionally lowered. In addition, singing higher pitches naturally requires the larynx to rise, as
children's larynges tend to move up and down with pitch changes (Sataloff & Kost, 2020).
Engaging in the practice of singing with a lowered larynx at a young age can lead to maladaptive
vocal habits that may persist into adulthood, potentially affecting both their singing and speaking
abilities. Singing at high pitches with excessive loudness should also be avoided, as children’s
vocal folds lack fully developed vocal ligaments (Trollinger, 2003). Without these ligaments,
there is no safeguard to regulate how far the vocal folds stretch. Although the folds are elastic,
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they remain vulnerable to damage from excessive strain. Developing healthy singing habits early
is essential to prevent vocal injury and support long-term vocal health. Music educators must
consider these factors to avoid straining young voices and to foster a positive and healthy singing
experience. Selecting repertoire that fits within these vocal ranges ensures that children can sing
comfortably and confidently, which is essential for their musical development and enjoyment.
Gender Perception in Children's Voices
The vocal mechanisms of children are virtually identical until puberty, with differences in
accuracy reported with respect to gender (Hedden, 2012). Before puberty, boys tend to speak
with lower vocal tract resonances than girls, although with the same pitch (Cartei et al., 2013).
The pre-pubertal vocal tract exhibits no significant anatomical sex dimorphism, yet boys are
observed to speak with lower vocal tract resonances, or formant frequencies, compared to girls,
despite their fundamental frequency (F0, or pitch) being equivalent (Perry, Ohde, & Ashmead,
2001, as cited by Cartei et al., 2013). This phenomenon is not attributable to differences in the
length of the vocal tract, as there is no substantial anatomical variation between genders before
puberty (Fitch & Giedd, 1999; Vorperian et al., 2011, as cited by Cartei et al., 2013). Instead, the
observed discrepancy in formant frequencies is believed to be a consequence of behavioral
adjustments that children make to their vocal tract.
The vocal tract's resonant properties, which are influenced by its length and shape, are
critical determinants of the formant frequencies that characterize the timbre of the voice
(Vorperian & Kent, 2007, as cited by Cartei et al., 2013). Lower formant frequencies are
associated with a more baritone-like quality, while higher formant frequencies confer a tenor or
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soprano-like timbre (Titze, 1994). The behavioral modifications that children employ to alter
these resonances may include lip protrusion or spreading and larynx lowering or raising (Reby et
al., 2005, as cited by Cartei et al., 2013).
The rationale behind boys' propensity to produce speech with lower vocal tract
resonances may be rooted in social learning and the internalization of cultural norms surrounding
gender expression (Banerjee & Lintern, 2001; Serbin et al., 2001, as cited by Cartei et al., 2013).
Children are exposed to gender-typed behaviors and vocal characteristics from a young age,
which they may imitate in an effort to conform to societal expectations (Martin, Eisenbud, &
Rose, 1995; Munroe & Romney, 2006, as cited by Cartei et al., 2013). The capacity to control
and manipulate vocal parameters, as evidenced by the ability to shift formant frequencies,
suggests that children are cognizant of the acoustic differences associated with gender in adult
voices and can consciously or unconsciously adjust their own vocal behavior to reflect these
distinctions (Cartei et al., 2013).
Mecke and Sundberg's (2010) study not only identified the acoustic features contributing
to gender perception in children's singing voices, but also quantified the listeners, of the general
public, success rate in gender identification. The listening test, conducted with a jury panel that is
presumed to consist of randomly selected individuals (as the paper does not specify), resulted in
a 66% correct identification rate. This rate is significantly above chance levels, indicating that
participants were able to identify the target musical features more accurately than would be
expected by guessing. This finding indicates that while listeners can generally discern gender
from children's singing voices, there remains a degree of uncertainty, suggesting that the
identification cues are not entirely reliable.
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The study's findings also highlighted the role of formant frequency characteristics,
particularly the fourth formant (F4), in accurate gender identification. Lower formant frequencies
tend to be perceived as indicative of boys, while higher formant frequencies are associated with
girls. The fourth formant frequency exhibited the strongest correlation with listeners' responses,
underscoring its importance in the gender identification process (Mecke & Sundberg, 2010).
Furthermore, the study revealed that singing culture and training influence the acoustic
properties of children's singing voices. For instance, boys from a German boys' choir exhibited
lower F3, F4, and F5 formants, potentially reducing the likelihood of their voices being mistaken
for girls' voices.
While listeners can often tell the difference between a male child and a female child
singing voice with a success rate of 66%, such identification is not perfect. Formant frequency
characteristics, particularly the fourth formant, are key factors that influence listeners' ability to
accurately identify the gender of child singers. The influence of singing culture and training on
these acoustic properties further affects the success rate of gender identification (Mecke &
Sundberg, 2010).
This study informs us that timbre differences in children exist mainly due to learned
vocal tract configurations. This means that children's vocal qualities are not solely a result of
anatomical differences but are significantly shaped by behaviorally acquired adjustments, such as
lip positioning or larynx height. These configurations are often influenced by social and cultural
factors, where children unconsciously adopt vocal traits that align with gender norms or the
vocal models they observe.
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In practical terms for choral music, this suggests that children’s timbre can be adaptable
and is influenced by their environment and training. Choir directors can take advantage of this
flexibility by selecting repertoire and exercises that encourage a range of vocal qualities and
timbres. This approach allows children to explore and develop a variety of vocal sounds, helping
them discover their voices in a way that is both expressive and aligned with the choir's overall
sound goals.
Singing Accuracy
The investigation into vocal abilities among elementary school children, as reported by
Wolfs, Boshuizen, and Brand-Gruwel (2023), yielded significant insights into the predictors of
singing accuracy. In this study, the researchers utilized the Implicit Tonal Ability Test (ITAT) and
the Vocal Musical Ability Test (VMAT) to measure musical perception and vocal abilities,
respectively. Cognitive abilities were assessed through standardized Dutch performance tests.
The Implicit Tonal Ability Test (ITAT) assesses participants' ability to perceive and interpret
various musical features, including pitch, tonality, and timing. This test consists of 49 multiplechoice questions, designed to gauge how well participants can identify tonal relationships
without explicit formal training. Participants typically listen to audio sequences and respond by
selecting the most appropriate answer from multiple options. The ITAT was developed for use
with children aged 6 to 12 and is analyzed using the Rasch measurement model to ensure
reliability and validity across diverse age groups. Similarly, the Vocal Musical Ability Test
(VMAT) is an assessment tool designed to evaluate vocal abilities in children, consisting of three
main components: singing accuracy, melodic achievement, and rhythmic performance. The test
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includes 20 items for singing accuracy, 22 for melodic achievement, and 15 for rhythmic
performance, taking approximately 20 minutes to complete. Participants engage in tasks such as
pitch-matching, singing melodies, transposing melodies, and reproducing rhythmic patterns, with
performance evaluated based on correct pitches and timing. The VMAT aims to provide a
comprehensive measure of children's vocal musical abilities, considering factors like age and
music education.
The participants in the study consisted of 233 elementary school children, aged between 6
and 12 years old, with a distribution of 37 children aged 6, 37 aged 7, 38 aged 8, 39 aged 9, 44
aged 10, and 38 aged 11-12 (including 6 children aged 12). Among these participants, there were
122 females . The children were enrolled in two different types of elementary schools located in
the south of the Netherlands: a Waldorf school in an urban area (n = 187) and a Dutch public
school in a rural area (n = 46). Some basic reading skills were required for the participants to
understand the test items, but reading music notation was not necessary as the musical test items
did not rely on visual input. Additionally, demographic information was collected regarding age,
gender, school type, and participation in music education outside of elementary school. The
findings indicated that singing accuracy was most accurately predicted by a combination of
gender, and music perception abilities (Wolfs et al., 2023). Gender emerged as a factor, with
females demonstrating higher singing accuracy on average, a phenomenon that warrants further
exploration to understand its underlying causes. This is consistent with other research on
children's singing, which has highlighted sex-related differences in pitch-matching accuracy,
with girls generally outperforming boys in this area (Franklin & Franklin, 1988; Mang, 2006).
Trollinger (2003) found that a higher speaking voice was associated with better pitch-matching
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accuracy, with girls demonstrating greater accuracy than boys among preschool children. Barrett
et al. (2018) also reported gender-related differences in singing competency, with girls
outperforming boys in specific musical tasks, such as those requiring text recollection. The
underlying reasons for these differences remain unclear but may involve multiple factors. Girls
tend to exhibit more positive attitudes toward music overall—particularly toward singing—and
demonstrate stronger behavioral self-regulation compared to boys. Franklin and Franklin (1988)
suggested that boys and girls might process information differently. Additionally, social factors
and attitudes toward singing could influence these differences, as some research indicates that
boys may show varying levels of accuracy and interest in singing compared to girls (Hornbach &
Taggart, 2005; Phillips & Aitchison, 1998). Similarly, other studies have noted a decline in boys'
singing accuracy as they develop (Leighton & Lamont, 2006; Mang, 2006).
Returning to the Wolfs et al (2023) study, music perception abilities, of pitch, rhythm,
tonality, timbre and loudness, were identified as a significant predictor of singing accuracy.
Children with strong musical perception skills were more likely to exhibit accurate singing. This
underscores the importance of incorporating activities that develop musical perception in music
education curricula.
Furthermore, Wolfs et al. (2023) did not find a significant relationship between age and
singing accuracy within the 6 to 12 age range. This finding suggests that vocal accuracy is not a
skill that develops uniformly with age during these years. Rutkowski (2015) reported a
significant correlation between children's use of singing voice and singing accuracy, but notes
that this correlation does not extend to tonal aptitude. This suggests that while vocal
development may play a role in accuracy, it does not necessarily correlate with age. Furthermore,
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the findings of Papageorgi et al. (2022) indicated that singing behaviors in young children can
vary widely based on age, sex, and experience, which complicates the relationship between age
and singing accuracy. Pfordresher and Demorest (2020) similarly proposed that while singing
accuracy can improve with practice, its progression is not necessarily linear or directly tied to
age. Although age may play a role in vocal development, it does not guarantee consistent
improvement in singing accuracy in all children. Instead, practice emerges as a key factor in
enhancing singing accuracy.
Wolfs et al. (2023) concluded with a recommendation that educators focus on enhancing
children's musical perception through activities that involve repetition and prediction of musical
patterns, scales, intervals, and intonation, as well as transposing melodies and repeating rhythmic
patterns. These strategies aim to improve singing accuracy across all age groups and genders.
In another recent research on children's vocal proficiency emphasized the crucial roles of
age and musical experience in developing singing accuracy. Demorest et al. (2017) conducted an
extensive study using a pretest-posttest design over 7 months to assess the impact of daily
singing instruction on the vocal precision of kindergarten-aged children. The study compared the
singing accuracy of children receiving daily instruction with a control group without formal
music instruction. Results indicated that both groups improved in pitch-matching tasks from the
pretest to the posttest phase. Notably, the experimental group, which received structured musical
education, demonstrated significantly greater progress, suggesting that increased musical
experience through instruction can accelerate the development of accurate singing in young
children. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating a gradual enhancement in
children's singing abilities as they age and gain musical exposure (Welch, 2006), as well as more
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recent work showing that children with strong musical perception skills are more likely to exhibit
accurate singing (Wolfs et al., 2023). Additionally, the research underscored the individual
variability in singing development, influenced by factors such as family environment,
opportunities to sing, and personal attitude toward music, all of which contribute to the
accumulation of musical experience and the subsequent refinement of singing skills (Demorest et
al., 2017). The assumption that early childhood abilities extend into the elementary years relies
on the belief that older children develop more advanced musical skills over time. It is also
important to note that development may not follow a strictly linear path. Swanwick and Tillman
(1986, as cited in Welch, 2022) proposed a spiral model of musical development, suggesting that
musical behaviors can change with age and experience, emphasizing that the development of
musical behaviours is possible rather than being fixed (Welch, 2022). Regardless of the
trajectory, with time and experience, children are likely to re-engage with these concepts, leading
to continuous growth and refinement of their abilities. The following section explores theories on
how children develop musically.
Vocal Training Exercises
Cottrell (2017) presented a comprehensive approach to enhancing vocal technique and
efficiency in choral singers. The author described various exercises and techniques to achieve
this, each designed to address specific aspects of vocal production. The exercises and techniques
discussed by Cottrell are primarily intended for choral singers of various levels, including adults.
While many of the principles can be adapted and applied to children aged 7-12 with some
modifications to accommodate their vocal development and attention spans, the lowering of the
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larynx should be avoided as it is a muscular movement that is in direct conflict to children
singing higher pitches. For children in this age range, it's important to keep the exercises fun,
engaging, and age-appropriate.
Sustained Tones
Sustained tone exercises are advocated as a means to build muscle tone and develop
strength in the core of the voice, specifically targeting the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscles (Cottrell,
2009). These exercises are akin to weight training for the voice, aimed at improving stamina and
vocal health (Miller, 1986). Sustained tone exercises are a fundamental component of vocal
pedagogy, particularly within the context of choral rehearsals. The focus of these exercises is on
building strength and endurance in the vocal mechanism, especially the TA muscles (Cottrell,
2009). Cottrell (2017) emphasizes the significance of sustained tones in developing vocal
stamina, resonance, and potentially expanding vocal range.
The physiological basis for these exercises lies in the anatomy of the vocal folds. Each
vocal fold consists of a body and a cover that are loosely coupled together (McCoy, 2004). The
body comprises the TA muscle at its core, surrounded by a multilayered area of soft tissue called
the lamina propria. The cover is a thin layer of skin cells called the epithelium or mucosa
(McCoy, 2004). During phonation, the TA muscles engage, bringing the vocal folds together, and
the forced air causes the mucosa to vibrate rapidly (Vennard, 1967).
Sustained tones are historically documented in singing treatises dating back to the 18th
century and have been prescribed as the first step in vocal training (Austin, 2007). Singing
sustained tones on each scale degree for a full octave, both ascending and descending, is a
demanding task that yields significant results over time if practiced regularly (Cottrell, 2009).
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The benefits of sustained tones are multifaceted. They increase the strength of the TA
muscle, resulting in a stronger tone quality, greater resonance, increased vocal stamina, and
potentially expanded vocal range (Miller, 1986). This exercise is particularly effective in the low
register, where it can build greater strength in the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscle (Cottrell, 2009).
Choral directors can employ these exercises at the beginning of rehearsals during vocal
warm-ups, either a cappella or with piano accompaniment. Historical, clinical, and scientific
data suggest that beginning rehearsals with sustained tones is an effective way to improve vocal
function and quality in singers (Stemple et al., 1994).
Portamento exercises.
Portamento exercises play a crucial role in vocal pedagogy, particularly within choral
rehearsals, as they facilitate the development of the cricothyroid (CT) muscles and enhance
coordination with the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscles. These exercises are essential for achieving
legato singing and register equalization, both of which are fundamental for producing a smooth,
connected vocal line (Cottrell, 2009). Historically, portamento has been advocated by notable
pedagogues such as Mancini and Manuel Garcia, who provided definitions and techniques for its
implementation. Mancini described portamento as “the passing and blending of the voice from
one tone to another, with perfect proportion and union, in ascending as well as descending”
(Mancini, 1923, p. 111), while Garcia included portamento exercises in his treatise, The
Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing (Garcia, 1984; Austin, 2004).
The physiological basis for portamento exercises involves the CT and TA muscles, which
together lengthen and shorten the vocal folds, thereby affecting both pitch and timbre (Hirano et
al., 1970). When executed correctly, portamento exercises gently stretch and relax the CT
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muscles, promoting coordination between the CT and TA muscles. This coordination is pivotal
for achieving true legato singing and register equalization, along with other beneficial vocal
qualities.
In choral voice building, portamento exercises are employed to train singers in utilizing a
constant and well-supported breath flow. Singers practice portamento over a moderately wide
interval while focusing on maintaining a unified tone quality. This practice helps to coordinate
the actions of the CT and TA muscles (Cottrell, 2009). In clinical settings, portamento exercises
are used in vocal function exercises, as outlined by Stemple et al. (1994), which involve long
vocal slides from the bottom to the top of the range and vice versa. These exercises require
stretching and relaxing the CT and TA muscles, training smooth coordination across a range of
pitches, all while maintaining sustained breath support.
To introduce portamento exercises in a choral rehearsal, singers are instructed to start on
a moderately low pitch and ascend to a perfect fifth above without any break in tone, then
descend back to the original pitch. This simple exercise allows singers to focus on maintaining
consistent tone quality and vowel production for both notes. As singers become more
comfortable with the fifth interval, the exercise can be modified to include smaller or larger
intervals as their technique develops.
Onset Exercises
Onset exercises focus on achieving firm glottal closure, which is crucial for efficient
vocal production and a resonant tone. Cottrell (2009) recommends the coup de la glotte
technique (discussed later on) for this purpose. Onset exercises are a critical component of vocal
pedagogy, particularly within choral rehearsals, as they concentrate on the initiation of
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phonation, which is fundamental to achieving a clear and efficient vocal sound. Cottrell (2017)
discusses three types of vocal onset: aspirate, plosive, and balanced. However, the chapter
emphasizes the importance of a firm onset, such as the coup de la glotte technique, to eliminate
breathiness and promote complete glottal closure and firm phonation.
The aspirate onset involves the vocal folds being abducted when the airflow begins,
leading to an audible [h] sound and incomplete adduction, resulting in a breathy phonation. The
plosive onset, on the other hand, is characterized by complete adduction of the vocal folds just
prior to phonation, followed by a buildup of subglottal pressure and a forceful burst of the vocal
folds, often resulting in a harsh, glottal sound (Stark, 1999).
The balanced or coordinated onset is the most preferred type, where the vocal folds are
abducted prior to phonation but brought into oscillation at the precise moment the airflow begins.
This type of onset requires precise coordination but does not specify the type of glottal closure
during phonation, potentially allowing for either firm or loose phonation (Stark, 1999).
Manuel Garcia’s (1984) coup de la glotte, is a type of firm onset that is distinct from the
aforementioned types. It involves a firm adduction of the vocal folds leading to firm glottal
closure during phonation, which is essential for a tone with brilliance and ring. Garcia's
description of the coup de la glotte as "similar to the action of the lips in pronouncing the
consonant [p]" (Garcia, 1984, pp. 41-42) highlights the importance of this technique in
developing a beautiful tone in singers.
Firm glottal closure is essential for efficient vocal production and is achieved through the
action of two sets of laryngeal muscles: the interarytenoids (IA) and the lateral cricoarytenoids
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(LCA). Both sets of muscles are crucial for the closure of the larynx and the production of a firm,
brilliant, and efficient tone.
Incorporating the coup de la glotte into choral rehearsals involves teaching singers the
sensation of firm closure. Cottrell (2009) suggests having singers sing the American English
phrase, "uh-oh," to experience the sensation of firm glottal closure, which can then translate into
firmer, clearer tone quality in performance.
Onset exercises are vital for refining the initiation of phonation in choral singers. By
focusing on a firm onset, such as the coup de la glotte, choral directors can help singers set the
vocal mechanism to produce a firm, brilliant, and efficient tone, which is essential for a resonant
choral sound.
Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract Exercises
Semi-occluded vocal tract exercises (SOVTEs), such as humming and lip trills, are
prescribed for their numerous benefits, including efficient vocal production and the release of
habitual tensions (Titze, 2006). These exercises involve partial occlusion of the vocal opening
and include humming, lip and tongue trills, voiced labiodental or bilabial fricatives ([v] and [β]),
and singing through a straw. SOVTEs are a valuable set of techniques in vocal pedagogy,
particularly within choral rehearsals, as they offer numerous benefits to healthy vocal production
(Titze, 2006; Cottrell, 2017).
The acoustic benefits of SOVTEs are substantial. These exercises allow singers to
achieve more acoustic output with less vocal effort, requiring less pressure to initiate and sustain
phonation. SOVTEs help to tune the vocal tract, facilitating the discovery of the singer's formant,
which is crucial for vocal projection and resonance (Nix & Simpson, 2008). Additionally,
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SOVTEs promote a higher ratio of thyroarytenoid (TA) muscle activation to cricothyroid (CT)
muscle activation, which is beneficial for vocal health by balancing the forces involved in
phonation (Titze, 2006).
Practically, SOVTEs offer improved breath management due to greater resistance to the
flow of breath, which enhances breath control. They also provide a high degree of sympathetic
vibration, mimicking the sensation of a resonant voice and releasing habitual tensions in the
tongue, lips, and jaw. Furthermore, these exercises encourage singers to be more extroverted and,
for all but the nasal consonants, require the soft palate to be raised, which is beneficial for tone
quality (Titze, 2006).
Incorporating SOVTEs into vocal warm-ups is straightforward. Singers can perform an
entire vocalize or a phrase of repertoire using a semi-occluded posture and then repeat it with a
vowel. This approach allows singers to experience the immediate difference between the semioccluded posture and a vowel, highlighting the benefits of these exercises. The use of humming,
lip trills, and tongue trills is encouraged as a way for choral directors to utilize semi-occluded
postures. These exercises greatly enhance tone production and vocal health and should be used
liberally throughout rehearsals (Cottrell, 2017).
Breath Support Exercises
Breath support exercises are fundamental in controlling subglottal pressure and balancing
muscular forces during expiration, crucial for high-quality vocal tone (Emmons, 2006). Cottrell
(2017) emphasized the necessity of utilizing both chest and abdominal muscles in conjunction
with glottal resistance. Breath support is a cornerstone of vocal pedagogy, particularly within
choral rehearsals, as it directly influences vocal tone quality.
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Breath support is best defined as the control of subglottal pressure, requiring an
understanding of both airflow and subglottal pressure (Vennard, 1967). Airflow refers to the
measure of air flowing from the vocal opening, managed by the musculature of the rib cage and
abdomen. Subglottal pressure measures air pressure just below the vocal mechanism, managed
by the laryngeal structures.
Cottrell (2017) highlighted three principles for refining breath support pedagogy: the
necessity of using both the chest and abdomen for breathing, the balancing of opposing muscular
forces during controlled expiration, and the dependence of breath support on firm glottal closure
(Emmons, 2006).
The muscular processes that expel air from the lungs past the vocal folds are referred to
as expiratory force. Choral pedagogy has traditionally focused on utilizing abdominal muscles to
support tone. However, Thomasson and Sundberg (1999) stresses the importance of also utilizing
the chest, specifically the intercostal muscles, which play a vital role in breath support.
Studies indicate a complex interaction between thoracic and abdominal muscle groups
during singing (Sonninen et al., 2005). Inspiration begins with the contraction of the diaphragm
and relaxation of the abdominals, followed by the expansion of the chest cavity by the external
intercostals. During expiration, the balance shifts to the muscles of expiration, with the
diaphragm relaxing slightly and the abdominals and internal intercostals contracting to expel air.
Glottal resistance is also critical in breath support. Without correct vocal fold
configuration, the tone will sound breathy and weak regardless of expiratory force (Austin,
2007). Firm glottal closure results from the contraction of the interarytenoid and lateral
cricoarytenoid muscles and is essential for a well-supported tone.
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Historical approaches to breath support revealed that early teachers of singing minimized
the importance of breath support in favor of emphasizing glottal resistance (Austin, 2005b).
Pedagogues such as Manuel Garcia, Louis Mandl, and William Shakespeare each had methods
for teaching breath support, balancing inspiratory and expiratory forces, and using firm glottal
closure.
In rehearsal, focusing on muscular action and expiratory force is essential, while also
introducing singers to the sensation of firm glottal closure. Exercises that facilitate this type of
glottal configuration will develop breath support. Light glottal onsets, staccato exercises, or
Lamperti's candle imagery can help eliminate loose glottal closure or posterior glottal chink in
singing.
Breath support exercises are crucial for choral singers to develop a consistent and wellsupported vocal tone. By understanding and applying the principles of airflow, subglottal
pressure, expiratory force, and glottal resistance, choral directors can guide their singers toward a
more robust and resonant choral sound.
Laryngeal Position Exercises
To achieve a lowered larynx, which contributes to a warmer tone quality, laryngeal
position exercises like the "yawn-sigh" are suggested (Cottrell, 2017). This position is conducive
to good vowel sounds and encourages relaxation in the neck and throat. Laryngeal position
exercises are a critical component of vocal pedagogy, particularly within choral rehearsals, as
they significantly influence vocal tone quality. Cottrell (2017) explained how the impact of
laryngeal position on tone quality, relaxation, and vowel production, offering techniques for
choral directors to implement in their rehearsals.
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The larynx, which houses the vocal folds, is controlled by two muscle groups: the
infrahyoid muscles, which lower the larynx, and the suprahyoid muscles, which raise it. A
lowered larynx encourages relaxation in the neck and jaw and aids in the production of good
vowel sounds. It also contributes to a warmer, richer tone quality by lengthening the vocal tract,
which alters the resonance frequencies (Cottrell, 2017).
Cottrell further emphasized that a comfortably lowered larynx is a significant part of
vocal pedagogy, with historical figures such as Manuel Garcia and Julius Stockhausen
advocating for a tone with warm, rich, and supple colors balanced with brilliance and ring
(Cottrell, 2017; Austin, 2007).
To achieve a lowered larynx in choral rehearsals, various techniques are suggested.
Singers can lightly palpate their Adam's apple to feel it rise when they swallow and lower when
they yawn. This physical sensation can be associated with the desired laryngeal position.
Additionally, the "yawn-sigh" sensation or singing any vocalize through the position of a
beginning yawn can help singers understand and maintain a lowered laryngeal position.
Voice-building exercises using [o] and [u] vowels, particularly in the mid to low range, can
encourage a lowered laryngeal position. Portamento gestures are also helpful, as they allow
singers to keep the larynx low while ascending in pitch (Miller, 1986).
Cottrell also discussed the effect of laryngeal position on vowel quality. According to the
source-filter theory of voice production, vowels are created by specific resonances of the vocal
tract called formants. A lowered larynx lengthens the vocal tract and lowers all formant
frequencies, resulting in warmer and richer vowel sounds, often referred to as "tall vowels"
(Cottrell, 2017; Sundberg, 1987).
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Laryngeal position exercises are essential for choral singers to develop a warm, rich tone
quality and to produce clear vowel sounds. By understanding and applying techniques to achieve
and maintain a comfortably lowered larynx, choral directors can guide their singers toward a
more unified and resonant choral sound.
However, laryngeal positioning is not recommended for children, as their larynxes are
soft and flexible (Sataloff & Kost, 2020). Children under the age of 6 typically control their pitch
by moving their larynx up and down (Trollinger, 2003). Additionally, children younger than 8
lack fully developed vocal ligaments (Hirano, 1981, as cited by Trollinger, 2003), which impairs
their ability to protect their vocal folds from physical strain resulting from the antagonistic
actions of the extrinsic laryngeal depressor and elevator muscles.
Resonance and Vocal Tract Configuration Exercises
Resonance can be achieved through free resonance, an acoustic process where specific
frequencies are reinforced depending on the size and shape of the vocal tract (McCoy, 2004). A
comfortably low larynx contributes to the darkness of tone due to the elongation of the vocal
tract, which affects the acoustic spectrum. The brightness in tone quality, often referred to as
"resonant tone," is produced by a vocal tract configuration that yields significant acoustic energy
in the upper partials of the spectrum. Resonance exercises aim to maximize acoustic energy in
the upper partials of the spectrum, producing a resonant tone. This involves a specific vocal tract
configuration, including a lowered larynx, firm glottal closure, raised soft palate, and slightly
closed mouth (Titze & Story, 1997; Cottrell, 2017; McCoy, 2004). This configuration, often
referred to as the "inverted megaphone shape," yields acoustic properties ideal for classical and
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choral singing (Titze & Story, 1997). These adjustments help to create the necessary conditions
for vocal resonance by affecting the vocal tract's shape and length.
Vocal tract configuration exercises use imagery and techniques to foster the correct
configuration for resonance, such as singing with certain consonants to encourage a raised soft
palate (Cottrell, 2017). Exercises that encourage a raised soft palate, such as singing with [p] or
[t] consonants, are recommended. The role of the soft palate in resonance is crucial, as it
regulates the opening between the oral cavity and the nasal cavity. Singing with a lowered soft
palate allows air to pass freely through the nasal cavity, resulting in a nasalized tone. Conversely,
a raised soft palate seals off the nasal cavity from the airflow, eliminating nasality and
contributing to a resonant tone (Austin, 1997; 2000). Firm glottal closure is another critical factor
in achieving resonant tone. The configuration of the vocal folds during vibration significantly
contributes to the resonance of the voice, with firm glottal closure resulting in increased energy
in the higher overtone frequencies (Austin, 2005a).
Vocal tract and firm glottal exercises are essential for choral singers to develop a tone that
is both dark and bright, warm, and resonant. By understanding and applying the principles of
vocal tract configuration, and firm glottal closure, choral directors can guide their singers toward
a more resonant and unified choral sound.
The Importance of Intone Speech
Traditional choir recruitment practices frequently neglect the developmental progression
from a child's first attempts at singing to the attainment of pitch accuracy. Many choirs currently
prioritize recruiting singers who can consistently stay on pitch, often excluding those who are
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still in the process of developing this essential skill. This dissertation advocates for the
incorporation of choral speech repertoire as an inclusive strategy that eliminates the necessity for
precise musical pitches. By doing so, it enables the participation of children who have not yet
had the opportunity to engage in singing.
The journey from no singing ability to accurate pitch production involves several
interconnected skills. These skills include ear recognition, cognitive pitch schema, and muscle
memory (Yuskaitis et al., 2015; Reifinger, 2012; Dye et al., 2010). Based on the author's 18 years
of experience as a singing coach for children in early and middle childhood, it is commonly
observed for children to initially sing out of tune. This lack of coordination and control in pitch
production is a natural part of the learning process, as children are still developing the necessary
vocal skills and control (Asztalos, 2021; Rutkowski, 2015). Ear recognition involves the ability
to discern different pitches and intervals, while cognitive pitch schema (e.g. the solfedge system)
refers to the mental mapping of these pitches, enabling the child to reproduce them accurately
(Choksy, 1999). Muscle memory plays a significant role as well, as it governs the coordination
between breath control, laryngeal positioning, and vocal fold engagement necessary for pitch
production.
One of the critical challenges in today’s choral landscape is the tendency for many choirs
to focus on recruiting “ready-made” singers—those who already meet certain performance
standards, such as pitch accuracy and vocal technique, before even joining the ensemble. While
this approach may streamline rehearsals and ensure higher performance quality in the short term,
it raises significant concerns about the long-term development and sustainability of the choral art
form.
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A contributing factor to this reliance on ready-made singers is the limited use and
availability of choral speech repertoire in many ensembles. Choral speech repertoire, which
emphasizes rhythm, diction, articulation, and phrasing, offers a crucial pedagogical foundation
that can help singers develop essential musical skills even before achieving accurate pitch
production. However, the scarcity of such repertoire in mainstream choral programs has
constrained conductors, who are often forced to prioritize pitch accuracy over other fundamental
aspects of music-making.
This overemphasis on pitch at the recruitment stage neglects the holistic experience of
choral singing. Elements such as rhythmic unity, clear diction, expressive phrasing, vocal timbre,
dynamics, and performance skills are equally important and can be developed in singers who
may not yet have perfected their intonation. By sidelining singers who struggle with pitch in
favor of those who already meet these criteria, choirs miss an opportunity to cultivate and nurture
emerging talent that could contribute significantly to the choral community in the future.
If all choirs continue to focus solely on recruiting singers who are already proficient, it
raises the question: how do we grow our pool of singers? Such selective practices create a barrier
to entry for many potential choristers, particularly those who may have the passion and
dedication but lack early exposure to musical training. Rather than exclusively targeting skilled
singers, choral directors should consider implementing more inclusive recruitment strategies that
provide pathways for growth. This might include incorporating choral speech repertoire that
builds foundational skills, offering training programs, or establishing preparatory ensembles
where less-experienced singers can develop at their own pace.
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Moreover, choirs that embrace the development of singers from diverse starting points
contribute to a richer and more vibrant choral culture. They provide opportunities for a wider
range of individuals to experience the joy of singing, regardless of their initial skill level. By
doing so, they foster a sense of community, inclusivity, and shared learning, ultimately
expanding the reach and impact of choral music.
Choral Speech Repertoire: A Pathway to Vocal Development and Ensemble Participation
Choral speech repertoire offers an innovative solution to the issue of inclusivity in choir
settings. By focusing on rhythm, articulation, phrasing, and dynamic expression without the strict
requirement of discrete pitches, choral speech allows children to participate in ensemble musicmaking from the outset. This repertoire can utilize high, mid, and low vocal registers, as well as
ascending and descending glides, which help students explore their vocal range and develop
pitch control gradually. Additionally, integrating eurhythmics, where movement corresponds
with vocal production, can reinforce the connection between bodily actions and vocal expression,
further supporting the development of accurate pitch.
Choral speech repertoire not only reduces the pressure to perform with pitch accuracy but
also enhances key musical skills that are crucial for future vocal development. Perhaps by
allowing children to experience ensemble singing and develop their voices in a supportive, lowstakes environment, they are more likely to progress to accurate pitch production as their ear
recognition, cognitive pitch schema, and muscle memory mature.
For many children, this developmental process requires time, consistent exposure, and
appropriate pedagogy. The Kodály method (Choksy, 1999), for instance, introduces children to
singing through the use of rhymes and rhythmic chants before progressing to songs with small
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tonesets. By gradually introducing limited pitch sets, children are encouraged to first focus on
rhythmic patterns, diction, and phrasing, laying a strong foundation for later pitch development.
This sequence mirrors the broader idea that pitch reduction through choral speech repertoire can
be an effective developmental tool in choral settings.
The adoption of choral speech repertoire as a foundational practice can transform choir
recruitment by shifting the focus from selecting "ready-made" singers to nurturing potential. This
approach aligns with the principle of inclusivity, allowing children at different stages of vocal
development to experience the joys of choral singing. Furthermore, it fosters a sense of
belonging, encourages perseverance, and instills confidence in young singers who might
otherwise be discouraged from participating in choral activities. However, to fully implement
this approach, there is a pressing need for more choral speech repertoire to be written and made
accessible to conductors and educators, thereby enabling this method to be widely adopted.
Reimagining choir recruitment practices through the lens of inclusivity requires
acknowledging the developmental journey that young singers undergo. By emphasizing choral
speech repertoire and reducing the immediate demand for pitch accuracy, choral educators can
create an environment that prioritizes holistic musicianship over narrow standards of ability. This
approach not only supports the cognitive and physical development of pitch accuracy but also
ensures that more children have the opportunity to experience the rich, collaborative nature of
choral singing. Addressing the lack of choral speech music is crucial in enabling this shift,
ensuring that educators have the necessary resources to cultivate inclusive and developmentally
appropriate choral programs.
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Chapter Summary
The chapter delves into the intricate relationship between vocal pedagogy and
physiological development in choral singing, particularly focusing on children and adolescents.
It highlights foundational techniques such as breath support, resonance, and laryngeal
positioning, emphasizing the role of choral directors in promoting vocal health and adapting
techniques to young voices. The document discusses the physiological changes in the larynx
during childhood and adolescence, noting significant shifts in vocal range and tone quality. It
reviews targeted vocal exercises like sustained tones and portamento, which are crucial for
building vocal strength and resonance. The importance of exercises tailored to children's
physiological needs is emphasized to provide a robust foundation for future vocal pursuits.
Key recommendations for young singers include developing shared fundamentals
between choral and solo singing, focusing on healthy subglottal pressure, and postponing
techniques requiring a lowered larynx as well as singing in the extreme vocal range until vocal
ligaments are more developed. Studies suggest that music perception abilities significantly
predict singing accuracy, highlighting the importance of activities fostering pitch and rhythmic
awareness. The chapter also explores the differences between solo and choral singing, noting that
choral singers must prioritize blend and balance, contrasting with soloists who aim for a
distinctive tone. Additionally, the chapter emphasizes the importance of inclusive recruitment
practices in choirs, advocating for the use of choral speech repertoire to engage children who are
not yet capable of singing in tune, thus providing an accessible pathway into choral singing.
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CHAPTER 3
Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
Middle childhood (the period between approximately 6 and 12 years of age) is a critical
stage of development during which children experience significant growth in their cognitive
abilities. This period is marked by rapid advancements in problem-solving, memory, attention,
and reasoning skills, laying the foundation for more complex intellectual tasks. Understanding
cognitive development in middle childhood is essential for designing effective educational and
developmental programs, particularly in domains such as music education, where cognitive and
motor processes intertwine. According to research in the cognitive sciences, understanding
human cognition requires an examination of various mental domains and processes. This chapter
begins with an outline of selected cognitive skills that provide a foundational framework for
exploring key aspects of cognitive function. Next is an examination of executive functions,
focusing on the effects of music training on inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility, followed
by a discussion of brain plasticity and the role of music training in enhancing it. Additionally,
language acquisition in childhood is explored. The chapter concludes by analyzing how gender
and culture influence singing during middle childhood.
Cognitive processes
Attention and Focus
Attention and focus are critical components of cognitive psychology, playing a significant
role in how individuals process information and interact with their environment. Attention can be
defined as the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment
while ignoring other things (Nuttin, 1975; Rueda et al., 2021; American Psychological
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Association, 2018). It involves the allocation of cognitive resources to relevant stimuli, enabling
individuals to process information more efficiently and effectively (Nuttin, 1975). Focus, on the
other hand, refers to the sustained attention on a particular task or stimulus over a period of time,
allowing for deeper processing and understanding (Shiffrin, 1976).
Attention is also described as having a limited capacity, meaning that individuals can
only process a certain amount of information at a time (Rudy & Wagner, 1975). This limitation
necessitates the use of selective attention, where individuals focus on relevant inputs while
excluding irrelevant ones (Shiffrin, 1976). This selective process is crucial in managing the
overwhelming amount of information that individuals encounter daily (Nuttin, 1975). The ability
to focus attention is influenced by several factors, including motivation, task complexity, and
individual differences in cognitive capacity (Nuttin, 1975). The ability to focus is particularly
important in complex tasks that require the integration of multiple pieces of information (Nuttin,
1975).
Research in cognitive psychology has shown that attention is not a singular process but
involves multiple stages and mechanisms. For instance, the initial stage of attention involves the
detection of stimuli, followed by the allocation of cognitive resources to process the relevant
information (LaBerge, 1976). This process is dynamic and can be influenced by both internal
factors, such as motivation and goals, and external factors, such as the complexity of the
environment (Nuttin, 1975). Divided attention, on the other hand, describes the ability to manage
multiple tasks simultaneously, such as driving while holding a conversation, though typically,
this ability is limited and subject to the nature of the tasks (American Psychological Association,
2018).
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Sustained attention allows children to focus on musical tasks for extended periods,
whether practicing an instrument or engaging in group rehearsals. It is crucial for learning
complex musical pieces that require consistent effort. Selective attention helps children filter out
distractions, enabling children to focus on the conductor’s cues, rhythmic patterns, or specific
sections of a musical score. Divided attention is important when children are required to perform
multiple tasks simultaneously, such as playing an instrument while following a score or
responding to the dynamics of other musicians in an ensemble.
Memory Systems
Memory is the cognitive function responsible for encoding, storing, and retrieving
information. Working memory, a short-term system, temporarily holds and manipulates
information, facilitating tasks such as mental calculations or following multi-step directions.
Long-term memory includes various subtypes, such as episodic memory (personal experiences),
semantic memory (facts and general knowledge), and procedural memory (skills and tasks), each
serving distinct roles in retaining information over extended periods. Metamemory, or the
awareness of one’s memory abilities, allows individuals to recognize their memory limitations
(American Psychological Association, 2018), and apply strategies for improvement, such as
using mnemonic devices.
Working memory enables children to hold short sequences of musical notes or rhythmic
patterns in their mind, a skill essential for sight-reading, learning new pieces, or improvising on
the spot. Long-term memory in music is essential for storing learned pieces, scales, and chord
progressions, which are foundational for skill retention and technical development. Metamemory
allows children to become aware of their memory strengths and weaknesses, helping them
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identify which musical elements need additional practice, enhancing their self-directed learning
in music.
Language and Communication
Language and communication skills encompass a range of abilities that support
interaction and self-expression. Receptive language involves understanding spoken or written
language, while expressive language is the ability to produce coherent language. Pragmatic skills
focus on using language appropriately in social settings, such as turn-taking and interpreting nonverbal cues. Inner speech, the silent conversation individuals have with themselves (American
Psychological Association, 2018), aids in planning and self-regulation, contributing to organized
thought processes (Verhaeghen & Mirabito, 2021).
Receptive language enables children to understand verbal instructions, musical terms, and
the emotions conveyed through music. Expressive language is vital as they learn to communicate
their own interpretation of pieces through dynamics, articulation, and phrasing. Pragmatic skills
are crucial in group settings, where children learn to interpret non-verbal cues from conductors
or peers, ensuring harmony and coordination in ensemble performances. Inner speech allows
children to silently reinforce instructions, which aids self-regulation and focus during individual
or group performances.
Social and Emotional Cognition
Social and emotional cognition includes abilities that help individuals understand and
respond to social situations. Theory of Mind is the capacity to recognize and infer others'
thoughts, perspectives, and intentions, fostering empathy and effective social interactions
(American Psychological Association, 2018). Emotion recognition and regulation refer to
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identifying one’s own emotions and managing them appropriately, a skill essential for personal
well-being and interpersonal harmony. Empathy, the ability to connect emotionally with others’
feelings, is critical for developing compassionate relationships and effective social behavior
(Davila-Barrio et al., 2023).
Theory of Mind in music helps children understand and anticipate how their actions (e.g.,
playing softly or loudly) may impact group dynamics, fostering empathy and cooperation.
Emotion recognition and regulation allows them to identify and manage emotions that may arise
in performance settings, such as stage fright or frustration during practice. Empathy allows
children to connect emotionally with both the music and their peers (Wu & Lu, 2021), possibly
enhancing interpretive skills and ensemble unity as they learn to express and respond to the
emotional content of a piece collectively.
Higher-Order Thinking
Higher-order thinking allows individuals to think beyond the immediate and concrete.
Abstract and logical thinking enables understanding of complex concepts that are not grounded
in physical reality. Deductive and inductive reasoning involve drawing conclusions based on
general principles or specific observations, respectively. Moral and ethical reasoning involves
evaluating actions based on structured systems of thought that develop through a series of stages,
guiding individuals in decision-making by considering universal principles of justice and
equality, rather than merely conforming to societal norms (Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977).
Abstract and logical thinking is key as children begin to understand theoretical concepts
like harmony and counterpoint, which require abstract reasoning beyond simple, concrete ideas.
Deductive and inductive reasoning allow them to apply general music rules to specific pieces or
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draw general principles from specific musical experiences, aiding in their understanding of
musical form and structure. Moral and Ethical Reasoning emerges in a musical context as
children develop an understanding of music’s societal and cultural implications, considering
issues like respecting others' interpretations and understanding musical heritage.
Learning Processes
The American Psychological Asssociation dictionary (American Psychological
Association, 2018) defines learning as “the acquisition of novel information, behaviors, or
abilities after practice, observation, or other experiences, as evidenced by change in behavior,
knowledge, or brain function. Learning involves consciously or nonconsciously attending to
relevant aspects of incoming information, mentally organizing the information into a coherent
cognitive representation, and integrating it with relevant existing knowledge activated from longterm memory.” Implicit learning occurs subconsciously, without active intention, while explicit
learning is a conscious, effortful process. Adaptive learning involves adjusting behaviors in
response to feedback or changing circumstances. Cognitive strategies, such as chunking
(grouping information), using mnemonics (memory aids that use patterns, associations, or
imaginative techniques to help people remember information more easily), and visualization, are
techniques that aid in encoding and retrieving information more effectively (Lah et al., 2014).
Implicit learning allows children to absorb musical structures, such as patterns and
phrasing, through exposure, without conscious effort, which often leads to a more natural sense
of timing and pitch. Explicit learning is used when they deliberately learn specific techniques or
musical knowledge, such as scales or note names. Adaptive learning in music is crucial for
adjusting practices based on feedback, allowing children to modify their technique or dynamics
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in response to their teacher’s or conductor’s guidance. Cognitive strategy use — like chunking,
mnemonics, or visualizing patterns — may help children remember complex musical passages
and improves efficiency in learning.
Sensory Processing and Perception
Sensory processing is the ability to interpret multisensory input from the environment, a
function critical for navigating and understanding the world. Sensory integration, or
multimodality, involves combining information from different senses, such as sight and sound, to
form coherent perceptions. Spatial awareness refers to understanding one's position and
movements in relation to objects and the environment, supporting activities such as driving and
sports. Temporal processing allows individuals to organize events in sequence and perceive the
passage of time, essential for day-to-day functioning and planning (Finnerty et al., 2016).
Sensory integration is essential in music, where children must integrate auditory, visual,
and sometimes kinesthetic information simultaneously. For example, reading sheet music
(visual) while playing an instrument (kinesthetic) and listening to their own sound (auditory).
Spatial awareness helps children understand their position in relation to other ensemble
members, allowing for coordinated performances and staging positions. Entrainment is the
spatiotemporal coordination between two or more individuals, often in response to a rhythmic
signal, and is particularly important in musical contexts where it involves temporal
synchronization and affective states (Phillips-Silver & Keller, 2012). It enables musician to
maintain the correct tempo and synchronize with others during a performance.
Motor and Spatial Cognition
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Motor and spatial cognition involves coordinating and executing movements. Fine motor
skills require precise control of small muscles, often for tasks such as writing, while gross motor
skills involve larger movements, like walking or jumping. Motor planning, or praxis, is the
ability to conceive, organize, and carry out movement sequences, a skill critical in both routine
activities and complex motor tasks. Mental motor imagery can effectively prime the brain for
physical actions, enhancing the learning and execution of motor skills (Bennet & Reiner, 2022).
Fine motor skills are critical for children learning to play instruments that require
precision, such as piano or violin. Gross motor skills are involved in larger movements, such as
conducting or playing percussion instruments. Motor planning (praxis) is essential for conceiving
and executing sequences of musical actions, such as a complex drum pattern or a series of finger
positions on a woodwind instrument. Talamini et al. (2022) found that musicians possess
superior auditory mental imagery abilities compared to non-musicians, which aids in their
learning and performance.
Creativity and Imagination
Creativity is the process of generating new ideas, often involving divergent thinking, or
the capacity to come up with multiple solutions to a problem (American Psychological
Association, 2018). Conceptual blending refers to combining distinct concepts to produce novel
insights or innovative ideas. Pattern recognition, the ability to identify recurring structures or
regularities, is crucial in problem-solving and is foundational in the arts, sciences, and everyday
decision-making.
Divergent thinking, or lateral thinking (creative thinking in which an individual solves a
problem or reaches a decision using strategies that deviate from commonly used or previously
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taught strategies), supports improvisation and creative musical composition, allowing children to
generate multiple musical ideas or variations. Conceptual blending enables them to combine
different musical concepts, like rhythm and melody, to create unique sounds or styles. In a 12-
year longitudinal study, Schneider et al. (2023) argues that musical training enhances pattern
recognition abilities, which significantly contribute to the process of learning new pieces.
Metacognition
Metacognition is the awareness and regulation of one's cognitive processes (American
Psychological Association, 2018). Self-awareness allows individuals to reflect on their own
thoughts and behaviors, which is fundamental for self-improvement and goal-setting. Selfregulation in learning involves setting goals, monitoring progress, and adjusting strategies to
optimize outcomes. Judging learning and understanding enables individuals to assess their
mastery of material and determine areas needing improvement, fostering effective study habits
and lifelong learning.
Self-awareness helps children recognize their strengths and weaknesses in music,
enabling targeted practice and skill improvement. Self-regulation in learning is important for
setting musical goals, monitoring their own progress, and adjusting their strategies (American
Psychological Association, 2018). Judging learning and understanding allows children to
evaluate their mastery of musical concepts, guiding their practice efforts and enhancing their
confidence in performance.
Adaptive and Automatic Processes
Adaptive and automatic processes enable efficiency and flexibility in cognitive
functioning. Automaticity is the ability to perform familiar tasks with minimal conscious effort,
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such as walking or typing, allowing cognitive resources to be allocated elsewhere (American
Psychological Association, 2018). Heuristic thinking, or heuristics (cognitive shortcuts or rules
of thumb) uses mental shortcuts for rapid decision-making, helpful in situations requiring quick
judgments (American Psychological Association, 2018). While heuristics are efficient for rapid
decision-making, they are not foolproof and can lead to errors or biases. Awareness of cognitive
biases is crucial for mitigating their effects. By understanding that these biases exist and
recognizing situations where they might occur, individuals can take steps to counteract them. For
example, in decision-making processes, being aware of biases like "representativeness" or
"availability” (p.66) can help individuals question their initial judgments and consider alternative
perspectives (Bower, 1975, ). This awareness can be enhanced through education and training,
which can provide strategies for identifying and addressing biases in various contexts (Baron,
1978). Moreover, cognitive psychology suggests that biases can be managed by adopting a more
analytical approach to problem-solving, which involves deliberate and conscious processing of
information rather than relying on intuitive judgments (Estes, 1978). This approach can help
individuals to critically evaluate their thought processes and reduce the influence of cognitive
biases on their decisions and actions (Estes, 1978).
Automaticity allows children to perform basic musical tasks, such as reading notes or
playing scales, without consciously thinking about them, freeing cognitive resources for more
complex aspects of performance. Heuristic thinking aids in quickly identifying patterns or
shortcuts in music, such as recognizing chord progressions or common rhythmic motifs.
Cognitive bias awareness helps children become aware of personal preferences or assumptions,
allowing them to broaden their appreciation for diverse musical genres and styles.
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Critical Thinking and Skepticism
Critical thinking involves evaluating information and arguments with a skeptical,
analytical approach. Fact-checking ensures the accuracy of information, helping prevent the
spread of misinformation. Reflective thinking enables individuals to gain insights from past
experiences, while ethical deliberation requires considering moral and societal implications when
making decisions, especially in complex or ambiguous scenarios.
Fact-checking and analysis are essential when studying music history or theory, as
children learn to evaluate sources and understand the context of pieces. Reflective thinking
enables children to analyze past performances, identifying areas for improvement and reinforcing
successful techniques. Ethical deliberation in music may involve considering cultural sensitivity
or respect for musical heritage, encouraging practicioners to make thoughtful decisions about
repertoire and interpretation. Beveridge (2022) emphasizes the need for music educators to
navigate the fine line between cultural appropriation and cultural appreciation, advocating for a
respectful exploration of source cultures
In summary, these cognitive processes represent a selection of the vast array of mental
functions that contribute to human cognition. Each domain plays a unique role, interacting
dynamically with others to facilitate learning, decision-making, and adaptation in an everchanging world. This framework serves as a foundation for understanding how cognitive skills
underpin our thoughts, actions, and interactions.
Executive Functions
Executive functions are higher-order cognitive processes that enable goal-oriented
behavior (American Psychological Association, 2018). Planning and organization are essential
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skills within this domain, involving the setting of goals and the arrangement of steps to achieve
them. Problem-solving is the ability to analyze and resolve issues efficiently, drawing upon prior
knowledge and strategies (American Psychological Association, 2018). Inhibitory control refers
to the capacity to resist impulses, avoiding actions that may be inappropriate or disruptive.
Cognitive flexibility is the mental agility to adapt to new information or altered circumstances,
crucial for navigating complex, ever-changing environments (American Psychological
Association, 2018).
Planning and organization in music helps children set practice goals, such as mastering
specific pieces by certain times, and organize practice sessions for optimal skill development.
Problem-solving aids children in addressing musical challenges, such as difficult transitions or
complex rhythmic passages, fostering resilience and adaptive strategies. Inhibitory control helps
children focus on their part without impulsively shifting focus, particularly in group settings
where they must resist the urge to play over others. Cognitive flexibility is essential for adapting
to new musical directions or making real-time adjustments when improvising or following the
conductor’s cues.
Executive functions (EFs) refer to a set of cognitive processes that are crucial for the
regulation of goal-directed behavior, encompassing inhibitory control, working memory, and
cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2013; Miyake et al., 2000). Executive functions enable
individuals to manage their thoughts and actions amidst distractions and to adapt effectively to
new or changing circumstances. The development of executive functions is a vital aspect of child
development, with profound implications for academic success, social behavior, and mental
health (Diamond, 2013; Morrison et al., 2010).
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Effective planning and organization, both components of executive function, are integral
to successful music learning. Musicians must plan their practice sessions, organize their learning
strategies for mastering a piece, and set goals for their musical development. This involves
breaking down complex pieces into manageable sections, identifying areas that need
improvement, and systematically working towards fluency and precision (Zelazo, 2015). The
ability to plan and organize is also essential for preparing for performances, where musicians
must manage their time, resources, and focus to ensure a successful outcome.
Fernández García et al. (2021) conducted a systematic review on executive functions
(EFs) to provide a comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and socio-emotional
components of EF development during middle childhood, specifically in children aged 6 to 12
years. The review distinguishes between "cool" and "hot" executive functions, which are
essential for understanding how children regulate their behavior and emotions in response to
environmental demands. Covering studies published between 2015 and 2020, the review
included 44 studies focused on children within this age range, examining both cool and hot EFs.
To ensure methodological rigor, the quality of each study was evaluated using the NewcastleOttawa Scale (NOS).
The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) is a widely-used tool for assessing the quality of
non-randomized studies, particularly in meta-analyses. It evaluates studies across three main
criteria: the selection of study groups, the comparability of groups, and the ascertainment of
either exposure or outcome for case-control or cohort studies, respectively. The NOS assigns a
maximum score of 9 or 10, depending on whether the study is a cohort or cross-sectional study.
Studies scoring 6 or higher on the NOS are considered to have high methodological quality.
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Adapted from Herzog et al. (2013; as cited in Fernández García et al., 2021), the NOS is
extensively used to enhance the reliability and validity of findings in systematic reviews and
meta-analyses.
Cool Executive Functions (EFs). Cool EFs are primarily involved in goal-directed
behavior and adaptive responses to novel situations, with strong implications for academic
achievement. These functions encompass the ability to maintain and manipulate information,
suppress automatic responses, and switch between tasks (Fernández García et al., 2021).
Working Memory (WM). WM is a fundamental component of executive functions,
responsible for the simultaneous processing and storage of information. This cognitive skill is
critical in music learning, particularly for one to read and perform music. For instance, musicians
must remember and process notes, rhythms, and dynamics while simultaneously playing their
instrument. The ability to retain and act on this information in real-time is essential for both
sight-reading and rehearsed performances (Miyake et al., 2000). Moreover, working memory
supports mental rehearsal, where musicians visualize and mentally practice a piece of music
before physically playing it, thereby enhancing their performance through cognitive preparation
(Diamond, 2013). WM is frequently studied through the lens of Baddeley and Hitch's model
(Baddeley, 1992), which identifies three primary subcomponents: verbal WM, visuospatial WM,
and the central executive. Verbal WM, also known as the phonological loop, processes verbal
and acoustic information passively. Visuospatial WM, or the visuospatial sketchpad, manages
visual information and is further divided into static visual WM, which processes unchanging
visual information, and dynamic spatial WM, which handles changing spatial information. The
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central executive serves as the system's control center, overseeing the manipulation, recall, and
processing of both verbal and visuospatial data (Fernández García et al., 2021).
In the systematic review by Fernández García et al. (2021), WM emerged as the most
frequently studied cool executive function, with 24 of the 44 selected studies focused on this
area. However, the subcomponents of WM received varying levels of attention: verbal WM was
examined in 17 studies, static visuospatial WM in 8 studies, dynamic visuospatial WM in 4, and
the updating ability in only 2 studies. The updating ability, distinct from the central executive,
involves the capacity to replace or update current content in WM with new information and to
inhibit information that is no longer relevant to the task. This updating function is essential for
cognitive flexibility, allowing individuals to adapt to new information and changing
environments. Verbal WM was often assessed using WM span tasks, which test the retention and
manipulation of verbal information over short periods.
The "N-back" paradigm (Fernández García et al., 2021) is a widely used task for
assessing the updating ability of WM. In this task, participants are presented with a sequence of
stimuli and must indicate when the current stimulus matches one presented "N" steps back in the
sequence. This task requires continuous monitoring and updating of WM contents, as
participants must keep track of the sequence and compare each new stimulus with the one that
appeared "N" steps earlier. The "N-back" task is commonly employed in both cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies to examine the development of updating ability in children. Findings suggest
that updating ability, as measured by the "N-back" task, improves significantly between the ages
of 10 and 11, possibly due to decreased activation of prefrontal regions during middle childhood.
However, longitudinal studies have not observed significant improvement in updating ability
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between ages 7 and 9, indicating that development in this area may accelerate in later stages of
middle childhood (Fernández García et al., 2021).
The review underscores the central role of WM in cognitive development, emphasizing
its importance in both academic and social contexts. A deeper understanding of WM
development can assist in identifying specific deficits in children, which in turn can inform
educational and clinical practices tailored to support cognitive growth.
Inhibitory Control. Inhibitory control refers to the capacity to regulate attention,
behavior, and emotions by overriding impulses to maintain focus on a task. It involves the
suppression of inappropriate or dominant responses, a skill that is crucial for managing attention,
emotions, and behavior (Aron, 2011). The development of inhibitory control is strongly
associated with the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, a brain region essential for executive
functions (Aron, 2011). During childhood, this ability undergoes significant development,
contributing to the broader maturation of self-regulatory capacities (Diamond, 2013). Inhibitory
control is frequently assessed through tasks designed to measure different subcomponents of this
function, reflecting the complex nature of inhibitory control (Fernández García et al., 2021).
Research indicates that from around age 3, two subtypes of inhibitory control can be
distinguished. The first subtype is the ability to inhibit an automatic or prepotent response, which
is required in tasks involving a univalent stimulus that presents a conflict between two response
options. An example of this is the Day-Night Task, where participants must respond with the
opposite of what is depicted—such as saying "night" when shown an image of the sun. The
second subtype involves the capacity to resist interference from distractors, necessary in tasks
where stimuli with conflicting features require selective attention to the relevant cue. The Stroop
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Task is a well-known example, as participants must name the ink color of a word rather than read
the word itself, often requiring suppression of incongruent information (Fernández García et al.,
2021).
In the systematic review by Fernández García et al. (2021), inhibitory control emerged as
the second most studied cool executive function, with 19 out of 44 studies focusing on it. These
studies employed a variety of tasks to examine different subcomponents of inhibitory control.
For instance, 10 of the studies investigated the inhibition of prepotent responses using tasks such
as the Stop-Signal Reaction-Time Task and the Go/No-Go Task. The remaining studies examined
the ability to suppress distractor interference through tasks like the Stroop Color-Word Task.
Developmentally, inhibitory control shows significant improvement with age, particularly
between 6 and 12 years. Studies using tasks such as the Response Set Task demonstrate that
inhibition errors decrease substantially between ages 6 and 8, with performance stabilizing after
this period (Fernández García et al., 2021). These findings suggest that the ability to inhibit
automatic responses and resist interference matures through middle childhood, reaching nearadult levels by ages 12 to 14. As a complex skill, inhibitory control plays a crucial role in
cognitive development, enabling children to regulate their responses and focus their attention
effectively. Understanding its developmental trajectory provides valuable insights into both
typical and atypical cognitive functioning in children.
Cognitive Flexibility. Cognitive flexibility is a fundamental component of executive
functions, involving the capacity to adapt cognitive strategies in response to new and unexpected
environmental demands. It generally comprises two distinct processes: "task-switching" and "setshifting." Task-switching refers to the ability to alternate between tasks based on changing cues.
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For example, in the classic number-letter task-switching paradigm, participants must categorize a
number/letter stimulus as either a vowel/consonant or odd/even, depending on its screen position
(Fernández García et al., 2021).
Set-shifting, in contrast, requires shifting attention between different features of a single
stimulus based on changing rules. An example is the Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task
(DCCS), where participants sort stimuli based on characteristics like color or shape, depending
on the specific instruction provided for each trial. This task demands that participants redirect
their focus between different attributes of the same stimulus according to the current rule.
In the systematic review by Fernández García et al. (2021), cognitive flexibility was
measured in 10 out of the 44 studies that were scrutinized, with a primary focus on set-shifting
abilities. Specifically, nine of these studies examined set-shifting through various tasks, with the
DCCS being a commonly used measure. Only one study included task-switching. Research on
set-shifting indicates significant performance improvements with age, especially from around 8
years onward, reflecting developmental advancements in cognitive flexibility during middle
childhood.
As a central component of executive functioning, cognitive flexibility supports the
development of more complex functions such as planning and abstract reasoning. Understanding
its development is crucial for identifying typical and atypical cognitive functioning in children,
as cognitive flexibility is essential for successful adaptation in both academic and social contexts.
Hot Executive Functions. Hot executive functions (EFs) refer to a subset of executive
functions primarily engaged in socio-emotional processes, including decision-making, delay of
gratification, and theory of mind (ToM). These functions are essential for managing emotions
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and motivations, particularly in situations involving social interactions or emotionally charged
responses. Hot EFs are activated in contexts that elicit emotional and motivational states, often
requiring individuals to balance immediate gratification against long-term rewards. These
functions are associated with the orbitofrontal and ventromedial regions of the prefrontal cortex,
areas linked to emotional processing and motivation regulation. These prefrontal regions are
closely connected to the amygdala and other parts of the limbic system, underscoring their role in
emotional regulation. Specifically, studies indicate that hypoactivity in the ventromedial
prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) can lead to heightened amygdala responsiveness, particularly in the
context of negative emotional information (Hayes et al., 2012). This relationship underscores the
vmPFC's role in modulating emotional responses, suggesting that its dysfunction may contribute
to emotional dysregulation observed in various psychological disorders (Eden et al., 2015).
Likewise, the functional connectivity between the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and the amygdala
has been shown to be crucial for processing emotional cues and making decisions based on
emotional context (Mason et al., 2015; Koush et al., 2019). Disruptions in this connectivity can
lead to difficulties in emotional regulation, as evidenced by studies linking OFC dysfunction to
various affective disorders (Kito et al., 2012; Apergis-Schoute et al., 2018).
Compared to cool EFs, which encompass cognitive processes like working memory and
inhibitory control, the development of hot EFs during middle childhood is less thoroughly
documented. However, existing studies suggest that hot EFs, such as decision-making and delay
of gratification, improve through middle childhood and continue to mature beyond this period.
The developmental trajectories of hot EFs are distinct from but likely interdependent with those
of cool EFs, with each type reaching maturity at different stages (Kendler & Kendler, 1975).
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The systematic review by Fernández García et al. (2021) highlighted a relative paucity of
research on hot EFs compared to cool EFs, with only a limited number of studies focusing on
areas like ToM, delay of gratification, and decision-making. This gap indicates a need for further
investigation to better understand the developmental trajectory of hot EFs and how they integrate
with cool EFs. Understanding hot EFs is of particular importance for education, clinical practice,
and research, as these functions play a crucial role in social regulation and peer relationships
during childhood.
Integration of Cool and Hot Executive Functions. The systematic review by Fernández
García et al. (2021) emphasized the interdependence of cool and hot EFs, suggesting that they
form an integrated system where cognitive and socio-emotional components work together,
particularly in contexts that require emotional regulation. While cool EFs contribute significantly
to academic success, hot EFs are closely associated with social skills. This interconnectedness is
particularly relevant in neurodevelopmental disorders, where EF deficits are common,
underscoring the need to address both cool and hot EFs for a comprehensive approach to
development.
In summary, the review by Fernández García et al. (2021) advances our understanding of
EF development by distinguishing between cool and hot EFs and highlighting their unique
trajectories during middle childhood. These findings offer valuable insights for educational and
clinical practice, enabling more tailored approaches to support children’s cognitive, social, and
emotional development.
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Music Training Effects on Executive Functions
The impact of music training on executive functions (EFs) in childhood has been a topic
of significant academic interest, with numerous studies exploring this relationship. Executive
functions—cognitive processes such as inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility—
are essential for regulating attention and behavior and are crucial for child development.
Research suggests that music training may serve as an effective intervention to promote the
development of these functions in children (Bowmer et al., 2018; Hennessy et al., 2019).
Understanding the role of executive functions in music learning, as well as their
enhancement through music training, offers valuable insights into how these cognitive processes
are both applied and developed through musical engagement. As children participate in music,
they may exercise executive functions in tasks that involve problem-solving like when learning
new pieces, and adapting to the dynamic demands of performance. This active application
reinforces and develops these critical cognitive skills, offering a unique context in which
executive functions are both exercised and enhanced.
A systematic review by Degé and Frischen (2022) highlighted how the majority of
studies conducted to date found a positive influence of music training on executive functions,
particularly on inhibition. Some studies have found improvements in various aspects of EFs,
including working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility (Degé & Frischen, 2022).
However, the review also noted that variations in participant age, type, and duration of music
training across studies present challenges for drawing consistent conclusions. Additionally, the
lack of quality studies with standardized methodologies complicates the generalization of
findings to broader populations and varied settings (Degé & Frischen, 2022).
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The systematic review by Degé and Frischen included 21 studies, selected through a
multi-step process. Initially, a comprehensive literature search across databases (PubMed,
PsychInfo, Web of Science, and Scopus) yielded 278 records. After removing duplicates, 133
records remained for title and abstract screening. Of these, 50 reports were reviewed in full, and
21 studies met the inclusion criteria. Studies were excluded if they employed a cross-sectional
design or were not peer-reviewed. The review process incorporated a risk of bias analysis to
assess study quality, categorizing studies by design and emphasizing randomized studies to
reduce potential bias. The analysis focused on the impact of music training on various EFs, with
inhibition receiving particular attention as the most frequently studied component.
The authors categorized studies into those with and without randomization, finding that
15 of the 21 studies employed some form of randomization. Among these, 14 studies reported a
positive effect of music training on at least one EF, with inhibition control as the most commonly
studied component. In fact, inhibition was the EF most consistently shown to improve with
music training, with 86% of studies that measured inhibition reporting positive effects.
Specifically, 10 out of 13 randomized studies documented such effects, indicating a relatively
robust impact across different types of music training and age groups. Rhythm-guided movement
and beat synchronization were especially effective for younger children. The review suggests
that music training may facilitate structural neural plasticity, further supporting its positive effect
on inhibition (Degé & Frischen, 2022).
Despite these encouraging findings, the review acknowledges several limitations.
Concerns around generalizability highlight the challenges of applying these findings universally
across different populations and contexts. While music training shows a reliably positive effect
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on inhibition, findings for other EFs, such as working memory and cognitive flexibility, were
more inconclusive, with positive and null results occurring with similar frequency. This
inconsistency indicates a need for additional research to clarify music training’s effects on these
other EF components. The review also notes the potential for publication bias, as studies with
significant findings are more likely to be published. This bias could influence the overall
conclusions of the review.
In conclusion, while most studies suggest a positive effect of music training on executive
functions, particularly on inhibition, further rigorous research is needed to confirm these findings
and explore effects on other EFs. Future research should aim to standardize the type and duration
of music training and prioritize high-quality studies with low risk of bias.
Inhibitory Control
Inhibitory control, defined as the ability to suppress an immediate dominant response, is a
strong predictor of academic and career success, socioemotional well-being, financial stability,
and physical health (Hennessy et al., 2019). The process of learning to play a musical instrument
involves multiple sensorimotor processes and engages cognitive skills such as inhibition and task
switching (Hennessy et al., 2019). In the context of music learning, inhibitory control is
indispensable for sustaining discipline during both practice and performance. For instance,
musicians must resist the impulse to play out of turn in an ensemble, adhere strictly to the tempo
dictated by a conductor, and maintain concentration on intricate passages despite potential
distractions. This aspect of executive functioning is vital for cultivating the self-regulation
necessary for mastering a musical instrument and performing effectively in group settings. In a
longitudinal study of children from underserved communities beginning at age 6, Hennessy et al.
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(2019) found that structured extracurricular programs, especially music-based training, can
accelerate the development of inhibitory control and associated brain networks in early
childhood. Rodriguez-Gomez and Talero-Gutiérrez (2022), in their systematic review, confirmed
the positive impact of early music training on the development of executive functions,
highlighting significant improvements in inhibitory control and, to a lesser extent, advancements
in working memory and cognitive flexibility.
Cognitive Flexibility
Cognitive flexibility, another key aspect of executive function, refers to the capacity to
shift between different tasks or mental frameworks and to adapt to changing conditions
(Diamond, 2013). In the context of music, cognitive flexibility is essential when musicians
transition between different sections of a piece, adjust to changes in tempo or key, or engage in
improvisation. For example, in ensemble playing, musicians must frequently switch their focus
between their own part and the collective sound of the group, adjusting their performance to
maintain harmony and synchronization with others (Zelazo, 2015). This ability to adapt quickly
and efficiently is a direct application of cognitive flexibility in a musical setting.
Saarikivi et al. (2016) explored the relationship between cognitive flexibility, as
measured by set-shifting task performance, and the maturation of neural sound discrimination in
9-11 year-old children, both with and without music training. The findings indicate that children
who demonstrated higher cognitive flexibility, as evidenced by better set-shifting performance,
exhibited enhanced maturation in neural sound discrimination, as reflected in larger mismatch
negativity (MMN) responses (Saarikivi et al., 2016). The MMN is a component of the auditory
event-related potential (ERP) that is elicited from electroencephalography (EEG) brain signals
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when there is a change in a repetitive acoustic pattern. This suggests that these children possess
more accurate sound discrimination abilities.
In the musically-trained group, children with superior set-shifting skills displayed robust
MMN responses at a younger age, implying that they have progressed further in the maturation
and training-related enhancement of their neural capacity to discriminate sounds compared to
their less flexible peers (Saarikivi et al., 2016).
For non-musically trained children, an age-related increase in MMN amplitude was
observed exclusively in those with higher cognitive flexibility, suggesting that efficient setshifting ability can expedite the development of neural sound discrimination in the absence of
formal music education (Saarikivi et al., 2016). Additionally, the research revealed that highperforming children, irrespective of music training, experienced an age-related increase in P3a
amplitude, which is associated with attention processes (Saarikivi et al., 2016). This suggests that
children with better set-shifting skills also demonstrate faster maturation of the P3a response,
signifying improved top-down control of attention.
In summary, the findings of Saarikivi et al. (2016) underscore the pivotal role of
cognitive flexibility in the maturation of neural mechanisms responsible for sound discrimination
and attention in 9-11 year-old children, regardless of their music training status. The study posits
that children endowed with greater cognitive flexibility are likely to manifest more sophisticated
auditory processing and attention skills, which may contribute positively to their music learning
and cognitive development.
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Understanding Brain Plasticity
Brain plasticity, or neuroplasticity, refers to the brain's capacity to reorganize by forming
new neural connections throughout life in response to learning, experiences, and environmental
changes (American Psychological Association, 2018). While neuroplasticity persists throughout
adulthood, facilitating learning and adaptation, there is considerable evidence to suggest that its
extent diminishes with age (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Villeda et al., 2014). Aging is
associated with a decline in neurogenesis (i.e., the process by which new neurons are formed in
the brain), reduced synaptic plasticity, and alterations in dendritic spine morphology (Bloss et al.,
2011; Fan et al., 2017). These age-related changes in brain structure and function can limit the
brain's plastic potential and may contribute to cognitive decline and challenges in acquiring new
information or skills in later life. Despite this, the brain retains some plasticity even in older age,
and engaging in cognitively stimulating activities can help to maintain and potentially enhance
neuroplasticity (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009).
The Impact of Musical Training on Brain Plasticity
Brain plasticity can be broadly categorized into two types: structural plasticity and
functional plasticity. Musical training has been shown to induce both structural and functional
changes in the auditory system at various levels, from the brainstem to the auditory cortex (Wong
et al., 2007; Bermudez et al., 2009; Lappe et al., 2008). These changes reflect the brain's
adaptation to the specific demands of musical perception, such as pitch discrimination and
rhythm. Additionally, motor areas of the brain also exhibit plastic changes due to musical
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training, as evidenced by increased activity in the primary motor cortex and other motor-related
areas (Hyde et al., 2009; Lahav et al., 2007).
Gaser and Schlaug (2003) examined structural differences in the brains of professional
musicians, amateur musicians, and non-musicians using voxel-based morphometry (VBM).
Their research revealed that professional musicians had significantly larger gray matter volumes
in motor, auditory, and visual-spatial brain regions compared to non-musicians, with amateur
musicians showing an intermediate increase. These findings suggest that long-term musical
training may lead to use-dependent structural changes in the brain. Furthermore, the study found
that the cerebellum was particularly sensitive to the effects of musical training, displaying a
monotonic relationship between musician status and gray matter volumes. The research was
conducted exclusively on male subjects to avoid gender interaction effects and potential
confounding factors related to the menstrual cycle. These findings are consistent with previous
studies (e.g., Elbert et al., 1995; Pantev et al., 1998) and animal studies (e.g., Black et al., 1990;
Isaacs et al., 1992) that have reported structural brain changes associated with skill acquisition
and motor activity.
Beyond the direct effects on the auditory and motor systems, musical training has been
linked to enhancements in cognitive functions, such as auditory working memory and attention.
Herholz and Zatorre (2012) proposed that the reward value and positive feedback associated with
music may contribute to the efficacy of musical training compared to other less rewarding
paradigms.
Herholz and Zatorre (2012) also discussed the potential neuroprotective effects of
musical training in aging, suggesting that musicians may exhibit enhanced neural encoding of
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sounds and better auditory temporal acuity (Parbery-Clark et al., 2011, 2012). They provide a
compelling case for the use of musical training as a framework for understanding brain plasticity,
with implications for both basic neuroscience research and clinical applications.
The researchers emphasized how plastic changes can occur throughout the lifespan,
although early musical training appears to be particularly effective. They note that plasticity in
the brain diminishes in the elderly, especially for unimodal motor training, but suggest that
multimodal training, such as that involved in musical activities, might still be beneficial. Their
work suggests that musical training can mitigate some effects of aging in the brain and that even
in old age, anatomical changes can be observed as a result of training, although they may not be
as extensive as in younger individuals. Thus, while the brain's plasticity might be more limited in
older age, the potential for plasticity and the benefits of training are not entirely lost.
Herholz and Zatorre (2012) underscored the importance of studying the underlying
mechanisms of plasticity on a network level, particularly the role of multimodal interactions
during complex skill learning. Music education has been shown to facilitate motor plasticity,
especially in individuals recovering from conditions such as stroke (Ripollés et al., 2015). Music
therapy, which frequently incorporates rhythmic auditory stimulation, has been demonstrated to
improve motor recovery and promote neural plasticity in stroke survivors (Ripollés et al., 2015).
This evidence suggests that music, particularly through its rhythmic elements, can have a
substantial impact on motor functions and the neural pathways associated with movement.
In a related study, Rodríguez-Fornells et al. (2012) examined the effects of Musicsupported Therapy (MST) on individuals with chronic stroke, focusing on neuroplastic changes
and functional improvements. The study included a cohort of 20 individuals with chronic stroke
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and a control group of 14 healthy participants. The MST intervention involved a series of
sessions over four weeks, designed to train both fine and gross motor movements using
electronic keyboards and drum sets.
To assess changes in brain activity and connectivity, the researchers employed
neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The findings
revealed a significant restoration of activity and connectivity in the auditory-motor regions of the
affected hemisphere following the intervention, an effect not observed in the control group.
These neuroplastic changes were accompanied by notable improvements in the motor function of
the paretic hand, as evaluated through motor tests.
The researchers acknowledged several limitations of their study, including the small
sample size, variability in lesion location and size among participants, and the relatively young
age of the stroke group. Despite these limitations, the findings suggest that MST may serve as an
effective neuro-rehabilitation tool for enhancing motor function, as well as potentially improving
cognitive and emotional outcomes in individuals with chronic stroke.
Music learning integrates sensory systems, motor functions, and cognitive processes.
Music learning involves the complex integration of sensory systems, motor functions,
and cognitive processes. The act of playing music requires the engagement of multiple sensory
modalities, including auditory, visual, and motor systems, which, in turn, activate higher-order
cognitive functions (Herholz & Zatorre, 2012). The integration of auditory and motor functions
is particularly crucial for musical performance, as training in these areas can enhance auditorymotor coactivations (Bangert & Altenmüller, 2003; Chen et al., 2008a, 2008b). This multimodal
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interaction is further substantiated by studies demonstrating that musical training can improve
the processing of audio-visual incongruities (Paraskevopoulos et al., 2012).
The effective integration of auditory and motor functions is often achieved by
emphasizing the development of inner hearing and the practical application of musical concepts
through singing and movement. In the book Solfege in the Classroom by Papp et al. (2016),
highlighted various strategies to facilitate the co-activation of auditory and motor skills, both of
which are essential for successful musical performance.
A key aspect of this integration is the development of a well-trained ear through active
listening activities and the practice of solfege, which engages both auditory processing and the
motor act of singing or playing an instrument. This approach is exemplified by encouraging
students to 'play' melodies with their fingers while sight-reading, thereby adding a motor
dimension to the visual and auditory experience (Papp & Spiegel, 2016).
Additional techniques include rhythmic and melodic dictation, sight-singing, and the
study of polyphony, all of which necessitate the coordination of auditory perception with motor
responses, such as singing or transcribing musical notation (Papp & Spiegel, 2016). Movement
also plays an integral role, as demonstrated in music education approached like those developed
by Emile Jacques Dalcroze and Klara Kokas, where children dance/move to music, thereby
reinforcing the connection between auditory stimuli and motor actions (Papp & Spiegel, 2016).
Moreover, the development of polyphonic singing and ear training from an early age is
emphasized, as these practices enable children to adjust and balance their voices in relation to
others, further enhancing their auditory-motor coordination (Papp & Spiegel, 2016). Various
exercises and activities that engage students in multimodal learning experiences, such as
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recognizing timbres and musical characters, also integrate auditory discrimination with motor
engagement (Papp & Spiegel, 2016, p. 159).
Language Development
Language development flourishes during middle childhood. Between the ages of 6 to 7,
children experience rapid vocabulary growth and an increased understanding of complex
grammatical structures (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014). This period marks the transition from learning to
read to reading to learn, where children become more proficient in reading comprehension,
including musical notations and lyrics, and can engage in meaningful conversations, staying on
topic and taking turns appropriately (Ginsburg, 2007). Gromko (2004) and Kolers et al. (1985)
suggest that reading music and reading words share similarities, as both involve rule-governed
notational systems. Research indicates that the cognitive processes engaged in music reading
enhance neural processing related to both music and language, benefiting reading comprehension
(Strait et al., 2011; Strait & Kraus, 2011). Additionally, music notation reading has been linked to
improved visuospatial skills, essential for both music and text reading (Sluming et al., 2007; Lee
& Lei, 2012). Gómez-Domínguez et al. (2018) further found that musical perception abilities
positively influence early reading skills, including phonemic awareness and word recognition,
highlighting the transferable cognitive benefits of music training to language literacy.
Between the ages of 8 to 10 years, children begin to use more complex sentence
structures and advanced vocabulary. Their understanding of figurative language, such as
metaphors and similes, becomes more sophisticated (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014). This contributes to
a deeper appreciation of musical lyrics and the emotional content of music. For instance, a child
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who can grasp the metaphorical meaning in a song's lyrics is more likely to connect with and
interpret the music on a nuanced level. Narrative skills also improve, enabling children to tell
stories with clear structure and detail. Written communication abilities advance as well, with
children demonstrating greater proficiency in organizing thoughts coherently and using proper
grammar and punctuation (Vygotsky, 1978).
When children are around 10 to 12 years old, they are capable of understanding and using
abstract language forms, including sarcasm, idioms, and proverbs. They develop skills in
debating and persuasion, constructing logical arguments, and engaging in creative writing that
employs literary devices like foreshadowing and symbolism (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).
Additionally, their developing skills in debating and persuasion, constructing logical arguments,
and engaging in creative writing are analogous to the interpretive and analytical skills required in
advanced music study. As children grow in their understanding of vocabulary, grammar, and
abstract language, they are better equipped to comprehend and interpret both the technical and
expressive elements of music. These cognitive advancements enable children to engage more
deeply with music, whether through performance, composition, or analysis, ultimately enriching
their overall musical experience.
Music and language share neural pathways, and musical training has been shown to
enhance verbal skills, including reading and prosody (Anvari et al., 2002). This is particularly
evident in children with language delays (Overy, 2003). Therefore, it is essential to examine the
cognitive processes by which the brain acquires language, particularly in the context of a second
language—with the native language as the first and music as the second.
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The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in language acquisition suggests that there is a
specific timeframe during which individuals are most capable of acquiring a language with
native-like proficiency. This period typically spans from early childhood until the onset of
puberty, approximately between the ages of 10 to 14 years (Siahaan, 2022). Beyond this critical
period, the ability to achieve native-like fluency in a language is believed to diminish
significantly, largely due to the brain's decreasing plasticity—its ability to reorganize and adapt
—over time.
Research on the CPH has yielded several important insights. First, phonology, or the
sound system of a language, is particularly sensitive to age. Infants are born with the ability to
discriminate a wide range of phonetic sounds, but this ability narrows to the sounds of their
native language around 10 to 12 months of age, indicating a critical period for developing
phonetic perception (Werker & Tees, 1984; Kuhl et al., 2008).
Second, neurological studies have shown that brain plasticity declines with age, which
may explain the reduced capacity for language acquisition in adulthood (Park & Reuter-Lorenz,
2009; Villeda et al., 2014). This decline in the brain's ability to reorganize neural pathways is a
key factor in understanding the CPH.
Third, the acquisition of morphosyntax, or the grammatical structure of a language, also
appears to be constrained by a critical period. Although the exact endpoint of this period is
debated, many studies indicate a marked decrease in the ability to acquire morphosyntactic
structures with native proficiency after puberty (Johnson & Newport, 1989; DeKeyser, 2000).
However, it is crucial to recognize that the CPH does not apply uniformly to all
individuals. There is significant variability in language learning outcomes, influenced by factors
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such as motivation, exposure, and cognitive abilities (Birdsong, 1999). This variability highlights
the complex interplay between biological and environmental factors in language acquisition.
The CPH has been extensively studied in the context of second language acquisition.
While the hypothesis suggests that achieving native-like fluency in a second language becomes
increasingly difficult after the critical period, many individuals can still attain high levels of
proficiency (Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994). This suggests that while the critical period may affect
the ease and ultimate proficiency of language learning, it does not entirely preclude the
possibility of acquiring a language. Perhaps, for this reason, some scholars prefer the term
optimal in lieu of critical, i.e. Optimal Period Hypothesis (OPH). The OPH highlights that the
effectiveness of language acquisition is shaped by various factors, including learner motivation,
instructional quality, and exposure to the target language (Camerling & Tuasela, 2022; Bialystok
& Kroll, 2018). For example, older learners may benefit from enhanced cognitive strategies and
greater metalinguistic awareness, which support language learning differently compared to
younger learners (Nufus & Yuliani, 2020). While the CPH outlines biological constraints on
language acquisition, the OPH provides a more adaptable framework, accommodating the
diverse experiences and strategies of learners across age groups.
Moreover, research on bilingual individuals has provided valuable insights into the neural
mechanisms of language acquisition. These studies indicate that the brain structures and
processes involved in language are similar for both languages in bilinguals, although there may
be quantitative differences in brain activation patterns between monolinguals and late bilinguals
(Wartenburger et al., 2003).
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Exceptions to the CPH have been documented, with some late language learners
achieving near-native proficiency, challenging the strict interpretation of the hypothesis
(Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2000). These cases demonstrate the potential for language
acquisition throughout life, though with varying levels of success.
The hypothesis emphasizes the significance of early language exposure and
acknowledges the role of biological constraints in language learning, while also recognizing the
brain's remarkable capacity for adaptation and learning throughout life. This understanding
aligns with Zoltán Kodály's emphasis on the importance of beginning music education at an
early age, even before the age of 9. Kodály believed that the years between 3 and 7 are crucial
for educational development, asserting that what is not properly addressed during this period
cannot be easily corrected later. He famously stated that a child's music education begins 9
months before the birth of the mother, underscoring the importance of early exposure to music.
Kodály advocated for initiating music education in kindergarten, ensuring that children
are imbued with the fundamental elements of music, thereby establishing a solid foundation for
their future musical endeavors. His belief in the early commencement of musical training is
encapsulated in his pedagogical philosophy, which highlights the formative years as essential for
laying the groundwork for musical skills and appreciation (Kodály, 1941, as cited in Papp &
Spiegel, 2016). We will discuss Kodaly’s approach later on in the dissertation.
Multitasking, Multimodality, and Metacognition in Music Education
Multitasking, in the context of singing and movement, involves the simultaneous
coordination of vocal production and physical actions. Research suggests that the ability to
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multitask in this way is influenced by factors such as working memory, attention control, and
motor coordination, all of which develop significantly during childhood (Diamond, 2013). As
children mature and gain experience, their ability to multitask improves, driven by the
development of cognitive functions and executive skills (Estes, 1976).
The ability to manage multiple tasks simultaneously is closely linked to the development
of executive functions, which include working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory
control. According to Diamond (2013), these executive functions are crucial for effective multitasking and are significantly enhanced during middle childhood. For example, when children
sing and clap or march in time to the music, they are required to remember the lyrics, maintain
the melody, and coordinate their movements with the rhythm. This requires the integration of
auditory and motor processes, a skill that becomes more refined as children’s cognitive and
motor systems mature (Zelazo, 2015). Multitasking effectiveness is shaped by cognitive capacity
limitations, which dictate how much information can be processed simultaneously (Shiffrin,
1976). Key to this progression are executive functions, which enable children to retain relevant
information, switch between tasks, and suppress distractions (Estes, 1976). The development of
selective attention further supports multitasking by allowing children to focus on pertinent inputs
while ignoring irrelevant ones (Nuttin, 1975). Additionally, older children are more likely to
employ spontaneous rehearsal strategies, enhancing their ability to retain information and
manage multiple tasks efficiently (Medin & Cole, 1975).
Motor skills undergo significant refinement during middle childhood. Between the ages
of 6 and 7, children continue to develop fine motor skills, improving their hand-eye coordination,
which is crucial for tasks such as writing, drawing, and using tools (Ginsburg, 2007). Gross
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motor skills also improve, with noticeable gains in balance, coordination, and strength, enabling
participation in more complex physical activities like team sports (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).
Between the ages of 8 to 10, physical coordination and agility are further enhanced,
allowing children to engage in activities such as dance and more advanced sports (Ginsburg,
2007). Physical endurance increases, enabling them to participate in physical activities for
extended periods. Around 10 to 12 years of age, children may begin to specialize in particular
sports or activities, developing specific skills and showing significant physical growth, including
increases in strength and agility (Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).
In music education, the practice of combining singing with movement is not only
common but also beneficial for children's development. Activities like these are often used to
enhance musical understanding, improve coordination, and strengthen memory. For instance,
Kodály and Orff approaches to music education emphasize the integration of singing, movement,
and instruments, which helps children internalize musical concepts more effectively (Choksy,
1999).
Moreover, engaging in multitasking activities such as singing and moving simultaneously
can enhance children's ability to synchronize their actions with others in a group, promoting
social and cooperative skills. This aspect of music learning is particularly important in ensemble
settings, where children must listen to others while coordinating their own singing and
movements, fostering a sense of teamwork and collective rhythm (Hallam, 2010).
While multitasking abilities improve with age, the complexity of the tasks at hand can
affect children’s performance. Younger children may struggle with more complex multitasking
activities that require a higher level of coordination and attention. Educators need to consider the
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developmental stage of their students when designing activities that involve singing and
movement, gradually increasing the complexity as children’s abilities develop (Wolf, 2010).
Multimodality in music education refers to the pedagogical practice of utilizing multiple
modes of communication and learning to engage students and enhance their musical
understanding (Lewis, 2020). This approach encompasses verbal communication, such as spoken
and written language, and non-verbal forms, including gesture, sound, visual representation,
kinesthetic movement, and digital interaction. The theoretical foundation of multimodality posits
that learning is more effective when students access knowledge through diverse sensory and
symbolic channels. In music education, this approach is particularly salient, as musical
engagement inherently requires the coordination of multiple sensory modalities—auditory,
visual, and kinesthetic—along with complex cognitive processes. Zimmerman and Lahav (2012)
emphasize that learning music involves the complex interplay of multiple sensory inputs beyond
the motor skills required to play an instrument. While motor activation—such as engaging the
motor cortex to press piano keys—is necessary for performance, it is insufficient for achieving
musical mastery. Effective music learning depends on the integration of several sensory
modalities, including auditory (hearing), visual (seeing), and tactile (feeling), to develop a
nuanced understanding of essential musical elements such as pitch, timing, and timbre.
Zimmerman and Lahav (2012) further argue that incorporating multisensory feedback in musical
training promotes brain plasticity, offering particular benefits for individuals with neurological
impairments. Intensive music training induces both structural and functional changes in the
brain, illustrating the concept of experience-dependent plasticity. This process enables the brain
to adapt, improving its ability to process and integrate the sensory information required for
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musical performance. Drawing on these varied modes, multimodal teaching strategies support
more holistic musical learning, facilitating deeper comprehension and more meaningful student
engagement.
Metacognition, a different type of cognitive ability, refers to an individual's awareness
and understanding of their own cognitive processes, including the ability to monitor, regulate,
and direct these processes effectively (American Psychological Association, 2018).
Metacognition involves knowledge of how one learns best, the capacity to assess one's progress,
and the skill to adjust strategies to optimize learning outcomes (Flavell, 1979; Concina, 2019).
For instance, when a learner recognizes that they retain information more effectively through
writing or using specific study techniques, they are employing metacognitive skills. These
abilities are critical because they enable individuals to plan, execute, and evaluate their tasks,
thus enhancing overall learning efficiency (Schraw & Dennison, 1994; Concina, 2019). Research
indicates that expert musicians exhibit high levels of metacognitive competence, which enables
them to self-regulate their learning activities efficiently (Concina, 2019)
The development of metacognitive abilities in children occurs progressively. In early
childhood, children may begin with basic metacognitive awareness, such as recognizing that
repeating information can aid memory retention. As they grow older, particularly during middle
childhood, their metacognitive skills become more sophisticated. They begin to plan their
approaches to tasks, monitor their work more effectively, and reflect on which strategies yield
the best results (Schneider, 2008). By adolescence, students are typically capable of setting
personal learning goals, selecting appropriate strategies to achieve these goals, and evaluating the
effectiveness of these strategies in reaching their desired outcomes (Zimmerman, 1986).
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Teachers play a crucial role in this process by acting as "learning facilitators," supporting
students in organizing and leading their educational experiences to become autonomous learners
(Concina, 2019). This involves encouraging students to discuss their cognitive processes openly
and to focus on strategic aspects of their learning activities (Concina, 2019).
In the context of music learning, metacognitive abilities play a crucial role. As students
learn to play a musical instrument or master a piece of music, metacognitive skills enable them
to plan their practice sessions strategically. For example, a student might choose to focus on
particularly challenging sections of a piece or to slow down the tempo to improve accuracy.
Throughout their practice, they monitor their progress—assessing whether they are playing the
correct notes or maintaining the proper rhythm—and make necessary adjustments, such as
repeating a passage until it meets their standards (Veenman et al., 2006). Teachers can also
present different learning strategies and encourage students to adopt them for structuring
effective practice sessions (Concina, 2019).
Metacognition is also essential in the study of music theory and composition. When
students engage with new concepts in music theory, they can utilize metacognitive strategies to
evaluate their understanding, determining whether they need further review or assistance. In
composition, students use their metacognitive skills to reflect on whether their musical piece
effectively conveys the intended emotion or structure, and to make revisions as needed
(Pellegrino et al., 2001).
Metacognitive abilities are fundamental to music learning as they empower students to
become more autonomous and effective learners. Through the awareness and regulation of their
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cognitive processes, students can enhance their musical skills more efficiently and achieve a
deeper understanding of music.
Gender and Culture on Singing Development
Empirical studies have consistently shown that gender differences in singing abilities and
attitudes manifest across diverse cultural contexts (Leighton & Lamont, 2006; Welch et al.,
1997). Research suggests that girls often outperform boys in singing tasks (Mang, 2006; Stadler
Elmer, 2011; Welch, 2005), indicating that gender-specific socialization processes and cultural
expectations may play a significant role in these observed disparities. For instance, societal
perceptions often label singing as a feminine activity, which potentially detersboys from
engaging in singing (Hall, 2005).
Cultural influences on singing development are complex and impact the musical
environment, the value placed on singing, and the social contexts in which singing occurs (Ilari
et al., 2013; Welch, 2005). Ilari and Habibi (2015) demonstrated that Latino children in the
United States outperformed their Brazilian peers on certain singing tasks, underscoring the
influence of cultural differences in musical education and exposure to singing models.
Additionally, children's preferences for popular music and their hesitance to sing publicly can be
shaped by cultural factors, including the musical preferences of their parents' generation, which
highlights the intergenerational transmission of musical tastes (Serbin & DeBono, 2010).
The interplay between gender and culture significantly shapes the singing development of
children in middle childhood, with implications for musical education and the encouragement of
singing abilities in diverse populations.
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Chapter Summary
Cognitive development during middle childhood, spanning ages 6 to 12, is a crucial
period marked by significant advancements in problem-solving, memory, attention, and
reasoning skills, which are foundational for complex intellectual tasks. This chapter explores
various cognitive processes, including attention, memory, language, and social cognition,
emphasizing their roles in music education. Attention and focus are essential for processing
information efficiently, with sustained and selective attention being particularly important in
musical contexts. Memory systems, including working and long-term memory, play distinct roles
in music learning, aiding in tasks such as sight-reading and skill retention. Language and
communication skills, including receptive and expressive language, are crucial for understanding
musical instructions and conveying interpretations. Social and emotional cognition, such as
Theory of Mind and empathy, enhances group dynamics and emotional expression in music.
The chapter also delves into higher-order thinking, learning processes, and executive
functions, highlighting their importance in music education. Higher-order thinking involves
abstract and logical reasoning, essential for understanding complex musical concepts. Learning
processes, including implicit and explicit learning, are vital for acquiring musical skills, with
cognitive strategies like chunking aiding in information retention. Executive functions,
encompassing planning, problem-solving, and cognitive flexibility, are crucial for goal-oriented
behavior and are significantly enhanced by music training. The chapter concludes by examining
the impact of gender and culture on singing development, emphasizing the need for inclusive
musical education. This comprehensive overview sets the stage for the next chapter, which will
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explore specific educational strategies and methodologies that leverage these cognitive insights
to enhance music learning.
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CHAPTER 4
Music Education, Musical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
In this chapter, we explore musical development and the impact of music education on
the cognitive development of children in middle childhood. We begin with a short discussion on
music education and children’s cognitive development. Next, we examine historical milestones
in the concept of musical development, followed by an overview of recent theoretical models
accepted in the field. Finally, we explore the parallels between music and early language
acquisition, highlighting their interconnected developmental pathways.
Music Education and Cognitive Development
The cognitive benefits of music are multifaceted. Exposure to music has been linked to
improvements in memory (Mammarella, Fairfield, & Cornoldi, 2007), attention (Schellenberg,
2005), and spatial reasoning (Rauscher, Shaw, & Ky, 1993). During middle childhood (i.e., the
period around ages 7-14) significant advancements in cognitive abilities are observed as children
transition from the preoperational to the concrete operational stage of cognitive development, as
described by Piaget (1972). Around the ages of 6 to 7, children begin to develop logical thinking,
although their reasoning remains largely concrete. They demonstrate an understanding of
conservation and categorization, which are hallmarks of this cognitive stage (Piaget, 1972).
The transition from the preoperational to the concrete operational stages of cognitive
development marks a significant shift in a child's thinking processes, as described in Jean
Piaget's theory of cognitive development. These stages are part of Piaget's broader framework,
which outlines how children's cognitive abilities evolve as they interact with their environment
and mature biologically. The stages of cognitive development, particularly the transition from the
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preoperational to the concrete operational stage, have significant implications for music learning
in children. The preoperational stage is characterized by the emergence of symbolic thinking,
where children begin to use words, images, and symbols to represent objects and experiences.
During this stage, children engage in pretend play and can mentally represent objects that are not
physically present. However, their thinking is still largely egocentric, meaning they have
difficulty seeing things from perspectives other than their own (Piaget, 1972). Children's thinking
is characterized by symbolic representation, which is foundational for music learning. At this
stage, children begin to develop an understanding of musical symbols and can engage in
imaginative play, which is closely related to creative musical expression. For example, young
children might use musical instruments in imaginative ways, such as pretending that a drum is a
thunderstorm or that a xylophone represents the sound of rain. This symbolic use of sound is
aligned with their broader cognitive development, where they are learning to represent objects
and ideas symbolically (Piaget, 1972).
Children in the preoperational stage exhibit centration, which is the tendency to focus on
one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others. For instance, when presented with two
identical glasses of water, if one glass is poured into a taller, narrower container, the child may
believe that the taller container holds more water because they focus on the height rather than the
width. This reflects a lack of understanding of conservation, a concept that becomes clearer in
the subsequent stage of cognitive development (Piaget, 1972). As their thinking is still largely
egocentric and intuitive, children at this stage may struggle with understanding abstract musical
concepts, such as musical notation or the theoretical aspects of rhythm and harmony. Instead,
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music education during the preoperational stage is most effective when it focuses on experiential
learning—using movement, simple instruments, and storytelling through music.
Between the ages of 8 to 10, children start to exhibit early forms of abstract thinking,
though it remains somewhat limited. Their working memory shows significant improvements,
which facilitates tasks such as mental arithmetic and following complex instructions (Ginsburg,
2007). By the time children are 10 to 12 years of age, they are capable of more sophisticated
abstract reasoning and begin to demonstrate metacognitive abilities, allowing them to reflect on
their own thinking processes and learning strategies (Vygotsky, 1978). Children become better at
setting goals, planning their approach to tasks, and monitoring their progress. They start to use
self-questioning techniques, such as asking themselves whether they understand the material or
whether they need to review it again (Kuhn, 1999). Children are also more capable of reflecting
on their learning experiences and making adjustments. For example, if they find a particular
strategy is not working, they might try a different one, demonstrating greater flexibility in their
thinking (Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Academic achievement during this period typically
includes significant progress in mathematics, reading, and science, as children apply learned
knowledge to new contexts and improve their ability to plan and organize tasks independently
(Shaffer & Kipp, 2014).
The cognitive theories of Piaget and Vygotsky provide a framework for understanding
how children's evolving thinking processes influence their ability to engage with and learn
music. These foundational perspectives set the stage for exploring historical milestones in
musical development, such as Moog’s research, which emphasizes the role of emotional and
cognitive growth in shaping musical behaviors.
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Historical Milestones in the Concept of Musical Development
According to Welch (2022), the study of children’s musical development has been shaped
by several foundational research contributions, each offering insights that continue to influence
music education and developmental psychology. Helmut Moog’s pioneering studies in the 1960s
and 1970s represent an early milestone in this field. Through a large-scale study involving 500
young children, Moog explored foundational aspects of musical behavior, providing a framework
that underscored the importance of children’s emotional engagement in music (as cited in Welch,
2022). His work set the stage for future investigations into early musical experiences and
developmental milestones.
Swanwick and Tillman’s (1986), The Sequence of Musical Development, is widely
regarded as another landmark in the field. This work proposed a spiral model of musical
development, suggesting that children’s musical behaviors evolve with age and experience,
rather than following a fixed path (as cited in Welch, 2022). This model has had a profound
impact on music education, emphasizing the importance of adaptable and responsive teaching
approaches that account for children’s individual developmental trajectories.
Further contributing to this understanding, June Tillman’s doctoral research provided
empirical support for the Swanwick-Tillman model, investigating children’s instrumental musicmaking in a primary school setting in South West London. Tillman’s findings highlighted the
roles of socio-economic background and cultural context in shaping children’s musical
experiences, thereby emphasizing that musical development cannot be understood in isolation
from the broader social environment (Tillman, 1987).
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The Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project (MMCP), initiated in the mid-1960s,
introduced a learner-centered spiral curriculum that emphasized discovery-based learning and
active participation. This approach challenged traditional methods of music education by
advocating for children as active participants in their own learning process, significantly
influencing music pedagogical practices (Moon & Humphreys, 2010). The MMCP underscored
the importance of learner agency, which has become a central principle in contemporary music
education.
In the realm of developmental psychology, D.J. Hargreaves and his colleagues
contributed significantly by investigating the impact of cultural context on children’s musical
development. Their research underscored the ways in which age, experience, and social
environment shape musical understanding, revealing that children’s musical behaviors are deeply
intertwined with the cultural practices they observe and participate in (Hargreaves, 1986).
The Sounds of Intent project has also made a substantial contribution by focusing on
children with complex needs, mapping their musical behaviors in three domains: reactive,
proactive, and interactive. This project highlights the diverse ways in which children engage with
music, providing educators with valuable insights into the unique musical trajectories of children
with profound and multiple learning difficulties (Ockelford & Welch, 2012).
Recent research trends have further expanded our understanding by emphasizing the
interconnectedness of musical development with emotional well-being and other developmental
domains. Current perspectives advocate for nurturing educational environments that celebrate
individual musical identities and prioritize emotional and social growth as integral to music
education (Welch, 2022).
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These foundational works collectively illustrate the evolution of research in children’s
musical development, underscoring the critical roles of context, individual differences, and the
complex interplay of cognitive, social, and emotional factors in shaping musical experiences.
This body of work continues to inform best practices in music education and supports a holistic
approach to nurturing musical growth in children.
Theoretical Models of Musical Development
Hargreaves and Lamont (2017) offered a detailed examination of various models and
approaches to musical development, each offering unique insights into the complex interplay of
cognitive, social, and cultural factors in music learning and understanding. This exploration is
essential for advancing theoretical developments that provide the foundations for future research
in the rapidly evolving field of music psychology, which intersects with cognitive science,
sociology, and education. Hargreaves and Lamont (2017) identified six general theoretical
approaches, further subdivided into ten distinct ones, including developmental stages, learning
and cognition, symbol systems, music theory, social factors, and neuroscientific methods.
Swanwick and Tillman’s ‘Spiral’ Model. Swanwick and Tillman’s ‘Spiral’ Model is a
well-known framework for understanding musical development in children, based on the
analysis of 745 musical compositions by British schoolchildren aged 3 to 9 years. The model was
developed by Swanwick and Tillman in 1986, with June Tillman analyzing compositions
produced in her music classes for her doctoral thesis. The compositions varied in complexity,
ranging from simple rhythm patterns to more complex instrumental improvisations.
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The model is organized into a spiral with four ascending loops, each representing a
different mode of engagement with music: mastery, imitation, imaginative play, and
metacognition. These modes are analogous to aspects of children's play, with mastery involving
sensory response and control of sound, imitation involving representation of the world through
music, and imaginative play involving creative musical contributions. The fourth loop,
metacognition, describes the child's awareness of their own musical thinking and experience.
Swanwick and Tillman’s model also incorporates three main organizing principles. The first
principle is the organization of the spiral into loops based on the child's basic mode of
engagement with music. The second principle involves aspects of musical experience salient at
each level, such as materials, expression, form, and value. The third principle is the shift from
personal, individual aspects of composition to those focusing on social sharing at each level.
The model identifies eight distinct developmental modes as the spiral ascends, reflecting
shifts in musical behavior. For example, at the mastery level, there is a shift from sensory to
manipulative musical behavior, while at the imitation level, the shift is from personal
expressiveness to the vernacular. At the imaginative play level, the shift is from speculative to
idiomatic composition, and at the metacognition level, the shift is from symbolic to systematic
expression. Swanwick and Tillman’s model is supported by Piaget’s (1972) theory of play and
has affinities with Bruner’s (1960, as cited in Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017) spiral curriculum,
suggesting that material is revisited at different levels of understanding. The model has been
applied to music listening and improvisation, providing a specialized account of musical
development.
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Hargreaves and Galton’s Phase Theory. Hargreaves and Galton's (1992, as cited in
Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017) phase theory of artistic development is a comprehensive model that
outlines five distinct age-related phases: sensori-motor, figural, schematic, rule systems, and
professional. This model is grounded in a detailed analysis of empirical literature across various
art forms, emphasizing cross-modal generalities rather than adhering to a specific theoretical
viewpoint. The use of the term "phases" instead of "stages" is intentional, as it avoids the
Piagetian connotations of logical-scientific thinking, which may not be entirely applicable to the
arts.
In the sensorimotor phase, which spans approximately from birth to two years, the focus
is on the development of physical skills and coordination. During this phase, musical activities
are largely pre-symbolic, meaning that abstract symbolism is not yet present. This phase is
characterized by activities such as rhythmic dancing and vocal play, which form the foundation
for more recognizable musical expressions.
The figural phase occurs approximately between the ages of 2 and 5 years. During this
phase, children begin to create "outline" songs, which are coalescences between spontaneous and
cultural songs. This phase is characterized by the use of a single dimension in musical
expression, focusing on global features such as pitch and contour. In this phase, children's artistic
expressions are often egocentric, meaning they are primarily concerned with their own
experiences and perceptions. The figural phase is marked by the ability to symbolically represent
objects, people, or situations that are not physically present, which is a significant developmental
milestone.
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The schematic phase follows the figural phase and typically occurs between the ages of 5
and 8 years. In this phase, children begin to produce "first draft" songs that incorporate more
than one dimension, such as melodic properties and conventions. Artistic works in the schematic
phase are judged primarily by their subject matter and degree of realism, rather than stylistic
considerations. This phase involves the assimilation of cultural music conventions, and children
start to develop a sense of style, although it is not yet fully integrated. The schematic phase
represents a shift towards a more structured understanding of artistic conventions, as children
begin to accurately use these conventions in their creations.
The rule systems phase, occurring between the ages of 8 and 15, marks a period where
individuals begin to accurately use artistic conventions. During this phase, works are produced
and perceived with adherence to adult conventions of style and idiom, reflecting a firm grasp of
these conventions. This phase is crucial for the development of aesthetic appreciation and the
ability to engage with art forms in a more structured manner.
The professional phase, which begins at age 15 and continues into adulthood, is
characterized by enactive and reflective strategies. In this phase, individuals transcend
conventional styles and display self-reflection in their work, often achieving a level of expertise
that allows them to innovate and create new styles or genres. This phase represents the
culmination of artistic development, where individuals can work independently of established
conventions.
Hargreaves and Galton's model is based on observed regularities in the research literature
and highlights the significant role of social and cultural influences on artistic development. It
provides a broad framework for understanding artistic development across different modalities,
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including music, and emphasizes the importance of both individual and cultural factors in
shaping artistic growth.
Serafine's Model of Music as Cognition. Serafine's (1987) Model of Music as
Cognition presents a radical perspective on musical understanding, emphasizing the cognitive
processes involved in musical activities such as composing, performing, and listening. Serafine
proposed that the critical interaction in musical communication occurs between a person and the
piece of music, rather than through interpersonal communication. This model diverges from
traditional music theory and many approaches in music psychology, such as psychometric testing
and behavioristic accounts of music learning, by focusing on the cognitive construction of music.
Serafine's theory posits that music itself is the result of cognitive processing, rather than
merely an organized set of physical sounds or an abstract concept. She identified two basic types
of general cognitive processes that cut across all musical styles and idioms: temporal processes,
which deal with relationships among musical events in time, and non-temporal processes, which
address more general, formal properties of music. Temporal processes include aspects like
succession and simultaneity, while non-temporal processes involve closure, transformation,
abstraction, and hierarchical levels.
In her research, Serafine developed a set of musical tasks to operationalize and assess
these cognitive processes, administering them to children aged 5 to 11, Suzuki-trained children,
and adults. Her findings indicated a gradual developmental acquisition of these processes across
childhood, with most processes being acquired by the age of 10 or 11. However, the
developmental implications of her research remain unclear, as her results suggest that children
and adults process music in qualitatively different ways.
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Serafine's model aligns more closely with a Piagetian-style stage model, as it suggests
that children and adults construct different representations of the same piece of music. This raises
fundamental questions about the essence or identity of a musical piece, as it implies that the
identity does not reside solely in the notes themselves. Despite providing evidence for agerelated changes in musical processing, Serafine's model does not propose a specifically
developmental theory.
Gordon's Music Learning Theory. Gordon's Music Learning Theory (2003) is a
comprehensive framework developed by Edwin Gordon, focusing on the processes of music
learning and the assessment of musical aptitude. A central concept in Gordon's theory is
"audiation," which he describes as the process of hearing and comprehending music in the mind,
even when no physical sound is present. Gordon likens audiation to thought in language,
emphasizing its foundational role in music learning.
Gordon constructed a detailed account of music learning sequences, which are divided
into three interrelated sequences dealing with skills, tonal content, and rhythm content. His work
on psychometric tests, such as the Musical Aptitude Profile, has been influential in measuring
musical aptitude and achievement. Despite the significance of his contributions to musical
aptitude testing, there is some debate about the empirical support for his music learning theory.
Critics have pointed out that much of the supporting research was conducted by Gordon's own
students and colleagues, raising questions about the theory's broader applicability.
Gordon's theory has been critiqued for its ethnocentric focus on Western classical music
and its emphasis on music literacy and pedagogy over activities like improvising and composing.
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Additionally, his use of psychological terminology, such as "acculturation" and "assimilation,"
has been described as idiosyncratic, differing from their traditional meanings in psychology.
In young children, Gordon proposed three types of preparatory audiation: acculturation,
imitation, and assimilation, which prepare them for more formal music instruction. He outlined
eight types and six stages of audiation, with the stages following a developmental sequence.
Gordon emphasized that these stages interact in a complex circular sequence of mental activity,
preparing individuals for audiation required in other stages.
Symbol Systems. The symbol systems approach to musical development is primarily
derived from the work of the Harvard Project Zero group, which was founded by philosopher
Nelson Goodman in 1967 to enhance education in the arts. This approach is deeply influenced by
Jerome Bruner's developmental model, which contrasts with Piagetian models by proposing
three modes of understanding: enactive, iconic, and symbolic. Enactive representations are
action-based and relate to the sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, iconic representations
involve close mappings like pictures, and symbolic representations are abstract, such as words.
Howard Gardner, a key figure in Project Zero, emphasized the child's acquisition and use
of symbols, which are organized into systems that can be denotational or expressive.
Denotational systems, like numerical notation, have precise referential meanings, while
expressive systems, such as abstract art, do not have precise references. Gardner argued that
understanding adult competencies in specific symbol systems and studying the developmental
changes leading to these competencies are crucial tasks for developmental psychology.
Gardner's account of aesthetic development includes a presymbolic period of
sensorimotor development, followed by a period of symbol use from ages 2 to 7. During this
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time, children begin to link arbitrary elements of symbol systems to specific artistic activities,
achieving a sense of competence and integration within these systems by age 7. This
developmental sequence involves waves of symbolization, starting with enactive representation
in infancy and progressing to digital mapping by age 4, where children gain precision in
activities like counting and singing.
The symbol systems approach also highlights the interaction between enculturation and
musical training, suggesting that these factors are integral to musical development. This
perspective is supported by Bamberger's work, which distinguishes between intuitive and formal
types of musical knowledge. Intuitive knowledge is a natural response to music, while formal
knowledge forms the basis of traditional music education. Bamberger's research on children's
graphic representations of music illustrates the symbol system approach, showing how children
use figural and metric modes to represent rhythmic sequences.
Overall, the symbol systems approach provides a framework for understanding how
children develop artistic competencies through the acquisition and use of symbols, emphasizing
the role of cognitive processes and cultural influences in this development.
Music Theory in Musical Development
Hargreaves and Lamont (2017) provides a detailed exploration of music theory as a
framework for understanding musical development. This approach is exemplified by Ockelford’s
(2013, as cited in Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017) 'Sounds of Intent' (SoI) model, which is
grounded in music theory and offers a structured perspective on how musical understanding
evolves. It emphasizes the natural emergence of musical structures and provides a
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comprehensive framework for analyzing musical engagement across different developmental
stages.
Ockelford’s 'Sounds of Intent' Model. Ockelford’s model is based on zygonic theory,
which posits that musical structures arise naturally through repetition and variation. The SoI
model outlines six levels of musical development, each representing a different stage of musical
understanding and engagement. At the lowest level, 'Confusion and chaos,' there is no awareness
of sound, while the highest level, 'Mature artistic expression,' involves a sophisticated
understanding of the emotional and narrative aspects of music. The model is divided into three
domains of musical engagement: Reactive, Proactive, and Interactive. Reactive engagement
involves listening and responding to sounds, Proactive engagement includes creating or
controlling sounds, and Interactive engagement involves making music with others. This
tripartite structure allows for a comprehensive analysis of how individuals interact with music at
different developmental stages.
Ockelford and Voyajolu (2017, as cited in Welch, 2022) conducted empirical research to
support the SoI model, observing musical interactions among children in an inclusive setting.
Their study involved videotaping 125 episodes of musical engagement, which were then
analyzed to identify components of the SoI framework. This research demonstrated the model's
applicability to both neurotypical children and those with special needs, highlighting its
ecological validity.
The SoI model's unique basis in music theory distinguishes it from other models of
musical development, which often rely on broader cognitive or social frameworks. By focusing
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on the substance of music itself, the model provides a robust framework for understanding how
musical skills and understanding develop over time.
Social Approaches to Musical Development
Social approaches to musical development emphasize the influence of social and cultural
environments on individual musical growth. These approaches are rooted in various theoretical
frameworks, including sociocultural theory, cultural psychology, and social cognitive theory,
each offering unique insights into how social interactions and cultural contexts shape musical
development.
The sociocultural approach originates primarily from the work of Lev Vygotsky (1966, as
cited in Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017), who proposed that social interaction is fundamental to
cognitive development. Vygotsky argued that children learn and internalize cultural tools, such as
language and concepts, through interactions with others, which then become part of their own
thinking. This approach highlights the role of parents, peers, and teachers in providing the social
environment that influences individual development. Vygotsky's idea that "we become ourselves
through others" (p. 44) underscores the importance of social interactions in the development of
higher mental functions.
Cultural psychology extends the sociocultural approach by emphasizing the formative
influence of cultural environments on thinking and behavior (Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017). It
focuses on cross-cultural comparisons and the significance of local cultural traditions in shaping
individual experiences. This approach is closely related to sociology and anthropology,
particularly ethnomusicology, which studies the global diversity of musical practices and their
impact on individual and group behavior.
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Social cognitive approaches, influenced by Albert Bandura's (1969 , 1977, as cited in
Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017) work, focus on the role of self-perception and self-regulation in
musical development. Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of cognitive
functions in social learning, including the concept of identification with powerful others. This
approach considers how individuals' self-perceptions shape their motivation and development in
music.
Ecological and transactional approaches, inspired by Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological
systems theory (1979, as cited in Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017), examine the relationships
between individuals and their environments. These approaches consider how different levels of
social influence, from immediate family settings to broader societal contexts, interact to shape
musical development. Bronfenbrenner's model includes microsystems, mesosystems,
exosystems, and macrosystems, each representing different levels of social influence.
In summary, social approaches to musical development provide a comprehensive
framework for understanding how social interactions and cultural contexts influence individual
musical growth. These approaches highlight the importance of social and cultural factors in
shaping musical development, offering valuable insights for educators and researchers in the
field.
Music and Early Language Acquisition
The intricate link between music and early language acquisition has attracted significant
academic attention. Brandt et al. (2012) argued that infants use a range of musical elements—
such as timbre, pitch, dynamic stress, and rhythm—to learn speech, which challenges the
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traditional view of language acquisition as primarily social. This perspective emphasizes that
musical features in speech, like pitch and rhythm, help infants break down speech into words
even before understanding meaning. Such findings suggest a shared foundation for music and
language, which infants perceive early on.
The study also highlighted infant-directed communication’s role in capturing attention,
noting that music is well-suited for this expressive, engaging interaction, though similar effects
can be achieved with infant-directed sign language (non-auditory). Ultimately, Brandt et al.
(2012) proposed that music is integral to language acquisition, serving as a fundamental
component rather than merely an adjunct.
Defining music is complex due to its cultural and temporal variability. Brandt et al.
(2012) critiqued traditional definitions focused on form and emotion, suggesting that these are
ideologically influenced constructs. Instead, they propose defining music as "creative play with
sound," (p. 12) a concept inclusive of diverse musical expressions like Icelandic folk songs and
Balinese gamelan. This definition emphasizes imagination and acoustic properties (e.g.,
envelope, frequency, spectrum) over referential meaning, allowing experiences like harp playing
or wind sounds to be considered musical if they involve cognitive engagement with sound
attributes. This inclusive approach highlights music’s role in early language acquisition by
valuing the creative interaction with sound.
The "music of speech" explores how language can be perceived musically depending on
listener focus. Language typically conveys meaning through symbols, but sound itself can be
perceived as music. Schön et al. (2004) demonstrated music’s role in pitch processing, a notion
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supported by Brandt et al. (2012), who stressed how infants rely on a wide array of musical cues
in speech, creating a rich context for language learning.
Examples from different cultures—such as the Ewe’s talking drums in West Africa and
Cambodia’s rhythmic chanting—blur boundaries between speech and music (Brandt et al., 2012).
Additionally, composers have transformed speech’s acoustic features into musical forms, as seen
in scat singing, which underscores the voice’s musicality. This fluid boundary between language
and music demonstrates that speech’s acoustic elements (pitch, rhythm, timbre) can serve
musical purposes.
Music’s role in early language acquisition underscores infants’ sensitivity to rhythmic and
melodic elements instrumental in language learning. Brandt et al. (2012) suggested that music
holds a privileged status in infants’ brains, facilitating both musical and linguistic development.
Infants’ attention to rhythm and melody helps them parse phonemic and prosodic patterns in
language, a skill evident from birth as they show preference for their native language’s melody
and their mother’s voice. Furthermore, musical elements of speech—such as low-frequency
vowel sounds and rhythm—are familiar to infants from birth, as these are among the sounds they
encounter in utero. This familiarity may also explain newborns’ responsiveness to language cues,
underscoring the role of music in early linguistic development (Brandt et al., 2012).
The refinement of sound perception, or perceptual narrowing, is a critical part of
cognitive and musical development. As infants grow, they become more attuned to the linguistic
and musical sounds of their culture. Initially, infants can discern phonemic contrasts from any
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language, but over time, they develop a preference for their native language’s sounds. This shift
also occurs in musical perception, where infants begin to favor culturally familiar musical scales.
By 12 months, infants show better detection of mistuned notes in their native musical
scale, indicating parallel refinement in language and music. This perceptual specialization
reflects the brain’s adaptive interplay between biological predispositions and cultural experience,
shaping both musical and linguistic development (Brandt et al., 2012).
Brandt et al. (2012) explored shared learning mechanisms, highlighting immersion and
statistical learning in language and music acquisition. Infants’ early exposure to sound features,
like low-frequency vowels and rhythm, builds auditory processing skills and facilitates statistical
learning, whereby they implicitly understand patterns in their environment.
This learning is particularly effective with structured, repetitive musical patterns. Brandt and
colleagues noted that infant-directed speech and singing, with their exaggerated pitch and
rhythm, capture attention and enhance statistical learning of linguistic patterns. Such
mechanisms emphasize music and language as intertwined aspects of cognitive development.
Brandt et al. (2012) highlight how auditory processing deficits in musical hearing relate
to language disorders like dyslexia and Specific Language Impairment (SLI). These conditions
often involve challenges with rapid temporal processing and sound discrimination—skills
necessary for both language and music processing. The authors further suggested that language
impairments reflect broader auditory processing issues, as children with SLI often struggle with
sound duration sensitivity from infancy. Such deficits may extend to musical syntax, indicating
that language and music share underlying neural mechanisms. Viewing language disorders as
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complex auditory processing challenges may lead to more effective, music-inclusive
interventions.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the focus is on the interplay between music education and cognitive
development in middle childhood, highlighting how music can enhance cognitive abilities such
as memory, attention, and spatial reasoning. The chapter discusses Piaget's theory of cognitive
development, particularly the transition from the preoperational to the concrete operational stage,
and its implications for music learning. During the preoperational stage, children engage in
symbolic thinking and imaginative play, which are foundational for music learning. As children
progress to the concrete operational stage, they begin to exhibit early forms of abstract thinking
and metacognitive abilities, enhancing their capacity for music education.
The chapter also reviews historical milestones in musical development, highlighting
contributions from researchers like Helmut Moog, Swanwick and Tillman, and the
Manhattanville Music Curriculum Project. These works emphasize the importance of emotional
engagement, adaptable teaching approaches, and the influence of socio-economic and cultural
contexts on musical development. Theoretical models such as Swanwick and Tillman's Spiral
Model and Hargreaves and Galton's Phase Theory provide frameworks for understanding
musical development, focusing on cognitive, social, and cultural factors. The thesis further
explores the interconnectedness of music and early language acquisition, suggesting that musical
elements like pitch and rhythm play a crucial role in language learning. Brandt et al. (2012)
argue that music is integral to language acquisition, as infants use musical cues to learn speech.
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Chapter 5
Social and Emotional Learning
The Singapore Ministry of Education’s Framework for Social Emotional Learning
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) encompasses a broad spectrum of values and
competencies essential for personal and social development. At its core, SEL refers to the
cultivation of soft skills that are fundamental to a child's well-being and overall effectiveness in
both academic and social settings (CASEL, 2022). Research consistently highlights the positive
correlation between strong social-emotional competencies and improved school performance.
However, given the extensive nature of SEL, it is essential to narrow the focus. In this context,
the Singapore Ministry of Education’s (MOE) defined framework for SEL serves as a precise
guide, aligning similarly with the established CASEL model (CASEL, 2020).
The CASEL Model (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning) is a
leading framework for Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) and has been instrumental in
advancing SEL within educational settings worldwide. Since its founding in 1994, CASEL has
provided a structured model that identifies and develops the core competencies necessary for
students’ personal, social, and academic success (CASEL, 2020). This framework emphasizes
the integration of SEL skills not only within the classroom but across the entire school
environment and within family and community contexts. The five core competencies defined in
the CASEL model are Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills,
and Responsible Decision-Making.
The MOE (Ministry of Education, 2022), identifies five interconnected key
competencies: self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, relationship management, and
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responsible decision-making. In other words, awareness of self and others, relationship with self
and others, and making responsible decisions with these heightened awareness. These
competencies provide a structured and targeted approach to SEL, ensuring that students develop
the skills necessary to navigate both present and future challenges. Furthermore, SEL in
Singapore is built upon four guiding principles: the central role of values in shaping behavior, the
importance of social-emotional competencies in preparing students for real-world challenges, the
influence of educators as role models, and the ultimate goal of fostering good character and
citizenship. Emotional intelligence is crucial for children's achievements, suggesting that
narratives that teach emotional awareness can positively influence their development (Acoci et
al., 2022)
The first competency, Self-Awareness, involves students recognizing and understanding
their emotions, strengths, limitations, and values. This competency encourages students to reflect
on their own identities and experiences, helping them develop emotional literacy, selfconfidence, and an accurate self-concept. By promoting an understanding of how one’s actions
affect others, self-awareness fosters empathy and provides a foundation for personal growth and
social sensitivity. Next, Self-Management encompasses managing emotions, thoughts, and
behaviors in a positive and constructive manner. Students learn essential skills such as impulse
control, stress management, and perseverance, which are crucial for setting and achieving goals.
This competency also cultivates resilience, helping students navigate challenges both in and
outside of school.
Social Awareness is the ability to empathize with others, especially those from diverse
backgrounds and cultures. Social awareness encourages students to recognize and appreciate
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social norms and the unique resources offered by families, schools, and communities. By
fostering respect for diversity and cultural competency, social awareness enables students to
engage positively with others, promoting inclusivity within the school environment. The fourth
competency, Relationship Skills, is centered on developing the ability to establish and maintain
supportive relationships. Effective communication, cooperation, conflict resolution, and
negotiation are essential components, and these skills are crucial for teamwork and for forming
healthy, supportive connections with peers and adults alike. Finally, Responsible DecisionMaking promotes thoughtful and ethical choices. This competency encourages students to
evaluate various situations, consider the consequences of their actions, and align their decisions
with ethical and community standards. By nurturing responsible decision-making, students learn
to make choices that are safe, respectful, and conducive to personal and community well-being.
Both MOE’s SEL (Ministry of Education, 2022) and CASEL’s framework (CASEL,
2020) recommends a multi-tiered approach to integrating SEL within schools. At the Classroom
Level, SEL is embedded into daily classroom routines and lesson plans, creating a consistent
environment where SEL skills are reinforced. At the school-wide level, SEL principles are
integrated into school policies and practices to create a supportive school culture. Family and
community partnerships are encouraged to extend SEL practices beyond the school setting,
fostering a network of support for students’ social and emotional growth.
The Benefits of SEL
The efficacy of the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL) framework is well-documented, with a robust body of empirical research underscoring
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its effectiveness in fostering multiple dimensions of student development. Studies demonstrate
that school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs, frequently structured around
the CASEL framework, significantly enhance students’ social-emotional competencies, attitudes,
behaviors, and academic performance (CASEL, 2023). A meta-analysis involving 213 studies
and over 270,000 students, for instance, revealed that participants in SEL programs showed
considerable improvements in social-emotional skills and academic outcomes, with an 11-
percentile-point increase in academic performance relative to control groups (Durlak et al.,
2011). Additional studies further support these findings, highlighting SEL’s role in promoting
prosocial behavior and decreasing conduct issues (Skład et al., 2012; Belfield et al., 2015).
Beyond immediate academic gains, SEL programs have been associated with long-term
positive effects, including enhanced mental health and a reduction in engagement in risky
behaviors. Research suggests that students with well-developed social-emotional skills are more
likely to cultivate positive relationships and demonstrate improved mental health, which are
essential for long-term success (Sgaramella et al., 2022). Moreover, SEL initiatives are linked to
increased civic engagement and greater personal satisfaction, signifying that their benefits extend
beyond academics to encompass essential life skills and contributions to society (CASEL, 2023).
Longitudinal research further corroborates CASEL’s effectiveness, validating the
interrelatedness and foundational importance of its core competencies—self-awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making—in
establishing a nurturing and engaging learning environment (Wigelsworth et al., 2023; Schoon,
2021). The accumulating research on SEL underscores its relevance in shaping educational
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policy and practice, as demonstrated by the increasing focus on assessing social-emotional skills
and developing SEL standards across various educational levels (Osher et al., 2016).
The Cultivation of Self-Awareness
As noted, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) is an integral framework for fostering the
holistic development of students, emphasizing the cultivation of critical competencies such as
self-awareness and awareness of others. These competencies are foundational to building
emotional intelligence, fostering positive relationships, and promoting well-being. The Ministry
of Education’s (MOE) SEL framework highlight ‘awareness’ as a key competency, recognizing
its role in enhancing students' overall personal and social effectiveness.
Self-awareness involves the ability to accurately recognize one’s emotions, thoughts, and
values and understand how they influence behavior. It also includes an understanding of one’s
strengths and limitations, leading to a well-grounded sense of confidence and purpose. Research
underscores the significant impact of self-awareness on various aspects of personal and
professional life. For instance, when individuals see themselves clearly, they are more confident
and creative (Silvia & O’Brien, 2004). This clarity of self-perception enables them to make more
sound decisions, build stronger relationships, and communicate more effectively (Ridley et al.,
1992; Fletcher & Bailey, 2003; Sutton et al., 2015).
Moreover, self-awareness contributes to ethical behavior, as individuals who are more
attuned to their values and actions are less likely to engage in dishonest practices such as lying,
cheating, or stealing (Silvia & O’Brien, 2004). In professional settings, self-aware individuals are
often better workers, who are more likely to earn promotions, and to become effective leaders
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(Church, 1997; Bass & Yammarino, 1991). Leaders with high self-awareness are typically
associated with more satisfied employees and more profitable organizations (Okra & Edwin,
2015).
Tasha Eurich’s article, "What Self-Awareness Really Is (and How to Cultivate It)" (2018),
further delves into the complexities of self-awareness, particularly in the context of leadership
and personal development. Eurich’s research, involving nearly 5,000 participants, distinguishes
between two main types of self-awareness: internal and external. Internal self-awareness pertains
to understanding one’s own values, passions, and aspirations, as well as recognizing how one’s
behavior impacts others. External self-awareness, on the other hand, involves understanding how
others perceive us. Both forms of self-awareness are crucial for effective leadership and personal
well-being.
Eurich’s study reveals that true self-awareness is relatively rare, with only 10-15% of
participants meeting the criteria for high self-awareness. Interestingly, experience and power can
sometimes diminish self-awareness, as they may lead to overconfidence and a false sense of selfknowledge. However, leaders who actively seek critical feedback can counteract this tendency
and improve their self-awareness.
A key insight from Eurich’s research is the importance of how introspection is conducted.
Asking "why" questions, which may seem introspective, can often lead to negative rumination
and incorrect self-assessments. Instead, asking "what" questions tends to be more productive, as
these questions are more objective, future-focused, and action-oriented. Leaders who focus on
"what" rather than "why" can achieve greater self-knowledge and success.
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This understanding of self-awareness aligns with the broader goals of SEL, which aims to
equip students with the skills necessary to navigate their social environments and make
informed, ethical decisions. The MOE’s emphasis on awareness of self and others encourages
students not only to understand their own emotions and thoughts but also to consider the
perspectives and feelings of others, fostering empathy and social harmony.
In conclusion, self-awareness is a cornerstone of Social and Emotional Learning, offering
profound benefits that extend beyond the classroom. By fostering self-awareness in students,
educators can help them become more confident, ethical, and effective individuals, capable of
building strong relationships and making sound decisions. As Eurich’s research highlights, the
journey to self-awareness is ongoing, requiring a commitment to honest feedback, objective
introspection, and continuous growth.
Drama as a Tool in Expanding Self-Awareness
Engaging with dramatic narratives provides a valuable avenue for deepening emotional
understanding through the portrayal of complex scenarios, character development, and
expressive techniques. Whether delivered through theater, film, or television, dramas immerse
viewers in a spectrum of emotional experiences, fostering empathy and enhancing emotional
awareness. By positioning the audience within the perspectives of characters navigating
relationships, conflicts, and inner struggles, these narratives offer insight into how emotions are
triggered, expressed, and managed in diverse contexts. Similarly, choral music often incorporates
dramatic narratives or expressive texts, which can evoke similar emotional engagement. For
example, Benjamin Britten’s (1913–1976) Friday Afternoons demonstrates how storytelling in
choral music can draw listeners into vivid emotional and narrative experiences. The text and
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vocal delivery in choral repertoire serve as a powerful tool for portraying complex emotions,
allowing singers and listeners alike to experience a range of emotional states. Just as in drama,
choral music can position the audience within the emotional world of the piece, broadening
emotional awareness and cultivating empathy. This engagement encourages a deeper connection
to the music and allows for critical analysis, fostering both emotional and moral imagination
(Shapiro & Cho, 2011; Arawi, 2010).
Dramatic narratives are particularly effective in conveying emotions through expressive
techniques, with music—especially singing in musical theater—playing a significant role in
enhancing emotional resonance. Li (2023) highlights how musical theater employs specific vocal
techniques to express emotions integral to the plot, creating a deeper connection between the
audience and the characters. This connection is further supported by research demonstrating the
therapeutic benefits of drama, particularly in enhancing emotional expression and social skills
among individuals with autism (Godfrey & Haythorne, 2013). These therapeutic applications
underscore the broader relevance of expressive techniques in drama, extending beyond
entertainment into educational and therapeutic domains.
Engaging with drama also sharpens the ability to recognize non-verbal emotional cues by
observing characters’ facial expressions, body language, and vocal intonations. Research shows
that dynamic body language effectively communicates emotional states, while vocal intonations,
such as pitch and tone, significantly influence how emotions are perceived (Goktepe, 2018;
Hong et al., 2017). This interplay between verbal and non-verbal cues is crucial for interpreting
the full emotional context of interactions, with studies indicating that individuals adept at
recognizing these cues tend to exhibit stronger interpersonal relationships and communication
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skills (Stinson, 2015). Moreover, dramas often delve into characters’ internal conflicts,
illustrating emotional complexity and encouraging self-reflection in viewers, thereby fostering a
deeper understanding of their own emotional processes. The phenomenon of emotional
contagion, wherein viewers mirror the emotions of characters, further reinforces this connection
and promotes both empathy and introspection (Pelowski et al., 2020).
Engaging with dramatic narratives offers more than entertainment; it provides an
educational experience that enhances emotional intelligence. Through the portrayal of complex
emotions, the use of expressive techniques, and the nuanced interaction of verbal and non-verbal
cues, dramas serve as an effective medium for developing a deeper understanding of emotions,
cultivating empathy, and encouraging critical reflection on one’s own emotional responses. These
insights can also inform choral repertoire selection, ensuring that chosen pieces are both
emotionally engaging and pedagogically effective. Just as in drama, where the depth of
emotional content and narrative structure are key, selecting choral music that offers varied
emotional experiences and opportunities for expression is essential. Repertoire featuring rich
harmonic progressions, dynamic contrasts, and meaningful texts allows students to explore and
express a wide range of emotions.
Selecting music with clear narrative or thematic elements can help young singers connect
more deeply with the material. For instance, repertoire that tells a story or represents an
emotional journey enables singers to embody different emotions and characters within the piece,
akin to how actors engage with roles in a play. Additionally, choosing works with dynamic
emotional shifts or contrasting sections helps students learn how to convey mood changes
through vocal expression, drawing parallels with the techniques used in drama. By incorporating
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principles derived from dramatic engagement, choral repertoire selection can become a means of
not only fostering vocal development but also enhancing emotional intelligence and expressive
depth among young singers, and boosting awareness.
Choral Music as a Medium for Social-Emotional Learning (SEL)
The domain of Social Emotional Learning (SEL) encompasses the processes through
which individuals acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to
understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, demonstrate empathy, establish
and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions (CASEL, 2023). Music, as a
practice that is found across cultures, plays a crucial role in cultivating these competencies.
Choral music, with its inherently collaborative nature and emphasis on teamwork, serves
as a powerful medium for promoting SEL among students. Howell (2002) suggested that
participation in a chorus can positively influence social-emotional learning by offering students
opportunities to enhance self-confidence, self-awareness, and interpersonal skills within a
supportive environment. The collaborative effort required in choral singing fosters a sense of
community and mutual respect, both of which are fundamental components of SEL.
Additionally, singing in a group necessitates that students remain attuned to their own emotions
and those of others, as they must be aware of how their individual performance contributes to the
collective sound. This heightened emotional awareness and empathy are critical SEL skills that
can be applied in various aspects of students' lives. A longitudinal study indicated that choir
singing positively influenced mood and stress levels. The authors highlighted the importance of
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social interactions within choral settings as a contributing factor to these benefits (Linnemann et
al., 2017).
Choral music also offers opportunities for the development of self-management skills.
The discipline needed to learn and perform music—such as controlling breath, posture, vocal
timbre, volume relative to others, and focus—can lead to improved self-regulation and stress
management beyond the rehearsal setting. For example, research indicates that mastering breath
control can enhance physiological self-regulation, which is crucial for managing stress and
anxiety (Saarikallio, 2010)
Moreover, the performance aspect of choral music can significantly enhance students'
self-confidence and sense of accomplishment. Participants in choral groups often report
increased self-esteem and confidence, which can contribute to long-term mental health
improvements (Shakespeare & Whieldon, 2017). The experience of overcoming performance
anxiety and successfully presenting a piece of music to an audience strengthens students'
resilience and their ability to set and achieve personal goals—another critical competency within
SEL.
Fostering Empathy through Emotional Resonance
The emotional resonance (i.e., the ability of a person, story, artwork, or experience to
evoke strong emotions and create a lasting connection with others) facilitated through musicmaking can significantly contribute to the development of empathy and an understanding of
others' emotions, which are central components of Social and Emotional Learning (SEL). Music
has a well-documented capacity to evoke and modulate emotions (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008).
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Emotional responses to music can vary greatly among individuals, shaped by personal
associations and cultural backgrounds (Thompson et al., 2004). By providing a non-verbal
medium for exploring and expressing a wide range of emotions, music enhances emotional
awareness and regulation (Thompson et al., 2004).
The therapeutic applications of music, particularly in managing mood disorders, have a
clear connection to choral music. Singing in a choir fosters a collective experience that can
alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety, much like music therapy does in individual
settings. Music has been shown to alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety (Gold, Frank, &
Boggs, 2013). The neural engagement elicited by music also promotes the release of
neurotransmitters associated with positive social interactions, such as oxytocin, which facilitates
bonding and trust (Koelsch, 2014). This neurological impact underpins many of the social and
emotional benefits associated with music, placing individuals in a state of predisposition that
encourages social interaction and the acquisition of social skills. As the above studies suggest,
the communal nature of choral singing provides emotional relief and reduces isolation, which
can be helpful for individuals struggling with mood disorders. Moreover, the neural engagement
elicited by music, including the release of neurotransmitters such as oxytocin, plays a key role in
promoting positive social interactions (Koelsch, 2014). In a choral setting, this might result in a
strong sense of trust and bonding among choir members, creating a supportive social
environment. Such neurological impact not only enhances the social and emotional benefits of
choral participation but also encourages individuals to engage in meaningful social interactions,
fostering both personal connections and the acquisition of social skills. Consequently, choral
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music may turn into a powerful tool not only for artistic expression but also for improving
mental well-being and social cohesion.
Promoting Perspective-Taking, Emotional Awareness, and Identity Development through
Choral Repertoire Selection
The selection of choral repertoire plays a significant role in shaping not only the musical
skills of choristers but also their social and emotional development. Drawing from the insights
provided by Frydenberg et al. (2020), choral directors can purposefully select repertoire that
aligns with themes promoting perspective-taking, emotional awareness, and a sense of
community responsibility. These elements are crucial in cultivating well-rounded individuals
who can empathize with others, understand their own emotions, and extend their care beyond
their immediate social circles.
According to Frydenberg et al. (2020), encouraging perspective-taking is a powerful
pedagogical strategy that allows children and adolescents to appreciate the different feelings and
viewpoints of others. In the choral setting, this can be achieved through repertoire that contains
rich narratives or stories requiring singers to engage in role-playing or character analysis. For
instance, selecting pieces that tell stories of characters from diverse backgrounds or those that
explore historical and cultural events allows singers to step into someone else’s shoes, fostering a
deeper understanding of varied human experiences. Such repertoire challenges choristers to
move beyond their personal viewpoints and to consider the emotions and motivations of others,
thus aligning with the objectives of SEL.
Teaching emotional awareness, as emphasized by Frydenberg et al. (2020), involves
helping children and adolescents recognize and label their own emotions as well as the emotions
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of others. In choral rehearsals, this can be reinforced through careful repertoire selection where
the text and musical content evoke specific emotions. Pieces with expressive text or those that
are rich in emotional nuance—whether joy, sorrow, tension, or tranquility—provide opportunities
for singers to explore and articulate these emotions. By guiding discussions on how the music
reflects the emotions within the text, choral directors help choristers become more attuned to
both their internal emotional landscape and the expressive potential of music.
For example, works that explore themes of loss, resilience, or hope provide a platform for
emotional exploration. Directors can facilitate exercises where singers express how the music
makes them feel or identify the emotional journey conveyed through the dynamics, phrasing, and
harmonic shifts. Such practices not only enhance musical interpretation but also contribute to the
singers' ability to recognize and manage their own emotions in a supportive environment.
A key aspect of SEL is helping children and adolescents recognize that empathy and care
extend beyond their immediate social circles and include the broader community and
environment. Frydenberg et al. (2020) emphasized how educators should encourage students to
develop a sense of social responsibility that encompasses not only their peers and family but also
the wider community. Choral repertoire that addresses themes of social justice, environmental
stewardship, and global citizenship can effectively convey this message.
For instance, selecting repertoire that speaks to themes of unity, collective action, and
humanitarian concern encourages singers to consider their role within the larger world. Pieces
that advocate for peace, justice, and environmental conservation, or that bring awareness to
global issues, can inspire a sense of shared responsibility among choristers. Through such
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repertoire, singers learn that their voices can contribute to causes beyond their immediate
environment, promoting a broader, more inclusive understanding of care and empathy.
The selection of choral repertoire can serve as a powerful tool in fostering identity
development among singers. In the context of SEL, identity formation is central to selfawareness, which involves understanding one’s own emotions, values, cultural heritage, and
sense of purpose. By intentionally choosing repertoire that reflects and explores themes related to
personal, social, and cultural identity, choral directors can create a meaningful space for singers
to engage in self-discovery and build a confident, integrated sense of self.
One of the most effective ways to promote identity in the choral context is by selecting
repertoire that celebrates diverse cultural traditions and stories (Shaw, 2015). National songs and
folk music, in particular, are rich resources for this purpose. These pieces carry deep cultural
significance, connecting singers to their heritage and allowing them to express pride in their
cultural identities. When choristers engage with national songs or traditional folk music from
their own cultures, they experience a sense of belonging and validation. Additionally, performing
folk music and national songs from diverse cultures within a choir introduces singers to the
musical languages, values, and stories of communities beyond their own, fostering cross-cultural
understanding and respect. This inclusive approach not only enriches the musical experience but
also cultivates a sense of shared identity across diverse communities.
Beyond cultural representation, choral repertoire can be selected to reflect themes of
personal growth, resilience, and self-discovery, which are crucial to personal identity formation
(Durrant, 2005). Pieces that address universal experiences, such as overcoming challenges,
searching for belonging, or expressing hope, allow singers to connect personally with the music.
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Through reflective discussions, creative expression, and personal interpretation, choristers can
explore how these themes relate to their own lives. This process encourages singers to articulate
their values, beliefs, and aspirations, contributing to a more nuanced and confident sense of
identity.
The sense of belonging to a community is another significant aspect of social identity
(Durrant, 2005). Choirs naturally create a collective identity, and repertoire can be strategically
chosen to strengthen this group cohesion. Pieces that emphasize unity, solidarity, or collective
purpose help foster a shared identity within the choir, where individuals feel a sense of
connection and mutual support. Furthermore, performing repertoire that addresses social issues,
such as justice, equality, or community care, empowers singers to see themselves as active
contributors to societal change. This reinforces the idea that identity is not only about who they
are as individuals but also how they relate to and impact the world around them.
To maximize the impact of repertoire in promoting identity, it is essential that choral
directors engage singers in reflective activities that connect the musical material to their personal
and social identities. Discussions about the text’s meaning, opportunities for singers to share their
interpretations, and exercises that link the music to real-life experiences are key strategies. While
children in middle childhood begin to grasp concepts such as relationships, cause and effect, and
categorization, they often struggle with abstract thinking that requires reasoning beyond
immediate or tangible experiences (Piaget, 1972). Consequently, discussing a text’s meaning and
linking music to real-life experiences are effective strategies, provided these activities are
grounded in concrete examples or relatable scenarios. Such approaches not only align with their
cognitive developmental stage but also nurture emotional intelligence by helping children
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identify and articulate their emotions. Additionally, they foster essential social skills through
collaborative activities that emphasize sharing and listening. By making music relevant to their
lives, educators can enhance engagement, deepen understanding, and create a more meaningful
and impactful learning experience. National songs and folk music can serve as starting points for
these discussions, allowing singers to explore the cultural and historical contexts behind the
music. Additionally, allowing students to participate in the repertoire selection process, where
they suggest pieces that resonate with their identities, fosters a sense of ownership and agency in
their identity exploration.
Selecting repertoire that promotes identity development is not merely a pedagogical
decision; it is a commitment to fostering well-rounded individuals who are attuned to both their
own identities and their place in the world. By deliberately including music that represents
diverse cultural backgrounds—such as national songs and folk music—addresses personal
themes, and encourages social cohesion, choral directors play a pivotal role in guiding singers on
their path toward self-discovery and authentic self-expression. In doing so, choir members not
only develop as musicians but also grow into confident, empathetic individuals with a deeper
understanding of who they are.
Incorporating social-emotional learning (SEL) principles into repertoire selection
enhances the musical experience while cultivating socially and emotionally competent
individuals. By focusing on perspective-taking, emotional awareness, and extending empathy
beyond their immediate environment, choral directors can create a learning space where music
serves as a catalyst for personal growth and deeper learning. This approach aligns with the
broader objectives of comprehensive music education—nurturing musicians who are not only
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technically proficient but also reflective, empathetic, and socially responsible members of
society.
Chapter Summary
The chapter delves into the framework and benefits of Social and Emotional Learning
(SEL) as outlined by the Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE) and the CASEL model,
emphasizing the cultivation of soft skills essential for personal and social development. The
MOE framework identifies five core competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making, which are crucial for navigating
present and future challenges. Self-awareness involves recognizing one's emotions, strengths,
and values, fostering empathy and personal growth. Self-management focuses on managing
emotions and behaviors constructively, promoting resilience and goal achievement. Social
awareness encourages empathy and appreciation for diversity, promoting inclusivity within the
school environment. Relationship skills involve effective communication and conflict resolution,
essential for teamwork and supportive relationships. Responsible decision-making promotes
ethical choices and alignment with community standards.
Research supports the effectiveness of SEL programs, showing improvements in socialemotional skills, academic performance, and long-term mental health. SEL is linked to increased
civic engagement and personal satisfaction, extending benefits beyond academics. The CASEL
framework's core competencies are foundational for creating nurturing learning environments.
The chapter also highlights the role of choral music in promoting SEL, emphasizing its
collaborative nature and ability to foster self-confidence, self-awareness, and interpersonal skills.
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Choral repertoire selection can enhance identity development by reflecting personal, social, and
cultural themes, promoting a sense of shared identity and social cohesion. By incorporating SEL
principles into repertoire selection, educators can nurture musicians who are reflective,
empathetic, and socially responsible.
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CHAPTER 6
Music Learning Theories and Curriculum
In this chapter, the music education philosophies and instructional strategies of two
renowned music educators, Zoltán Kodály and Edwin Gordon, will be examined. These
philosophies were selected for their complementary strengths, which make them particularly
compelling. Zoltán Kodály’s approach emphasizes musical literacy (particularly rhythm and
pitch), sequential learning, and vocal-based pedagogy rooted in cultural heritage, providing a
strong foundation for early musical development. In contrast, Edwin Gordon’s Music Learning
Theory focuses on audiation, creativity, and improvisation, fostering cognitive engagement and
creative expression. Together, these philosophies offer a balanced and developmental approach to
music education. The chapter will explore how learning is scaffolded for key musical elements
such as pitch, rhythm, and form, drawing lessons from both the Kodály Method and Gordon’s
philosophy. Emphasis will be placed on best teaching practices and the sequential design used to
scaffold children’s musical learning, ensuring both technical proficiency and expressive growth.
Zoltán Kodály (1882 - 1967)
Zoltán Kodály, a pivotal figure in music education, asserted that music education should
be natural and intuitive, mirroring the way children learn their native language. He emphasized
how students should achieve musical literacy, meaning they should be able to read and write
music with the same ease and fluency with which they handle their spoken and written language.
Kodály was notably critical of rote learning methods that treated students like parrots, who
merely repeat what they hear without comprehension. He famously remarked, "I was always
amazed how an intelligent adult was willing without the slightest protest to let himself be treated
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like a parrot. A choir which has even half an idea of reading will in a given period of time learn
ten times as many works and its perspectives will become ten times as broad as one which
repeats like a parrot by ear" (Houlahan & Tacka, 2008, p. 24).
Kodály's approach to music education involved the use of folk materials, which were
analyzed from both musicological and pedagogical perspectives. This approach led to the
creation of a music curriculum that introduced students to common intervals, rhythms, meters,
and forms prevalent in Hungarian music. In contrast to the traditional subject-logic and
conservation approach, which typically began teaching rhythm with whole notes and then
progressively divided them, Kodály's method started with patterns familiar to children from their
singing games and chants, such as quarter and eighth notes. This approach aligns with children's
natural experiences and understanding of music, making the learning process more intuitive and
engaging (Houlahan & Tacka, 2008).
Moreover, Kodály's approach underscores the significance of music literacy as a
fundamental aspect of musicianship. He believed that an understanding of musical notation and
the ability to decode and encode musical sound patterns are essential components of being a
musician. Kodály also advocated for teaching music literacy in a contextual and integrated
manner, as part of a broader process of musical problem-solving through active music-making
(Houlahan & Tacka, 2008).
The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) for language acquisition aligns with Zoltán
Kodály's emphasis on the importance of beginning music education at an early age, even before
the age of 9. Kodály believed that the years between 3 and 7 are crucial for educational
development, asserting that what is not properly addressed during this period cannot be easily
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corrected later. He famously stated that a child's music education begins 9 months before the
birth of the mother, underscoring the importance of early exposure to music.
Kodály advocated for initiating music education in kindergarten, ensuring that children
are imbued with the fundamental elements of music, thereby establishing a solid foundation for
their future musical endeavors. His belief in the early commencement of musical training is
encapsulated in his pedagogical philosophy, which highlights the formative years as essential for
laying the groundwork for musical skills and appreciation (Kodály, 1941, as cited in Papp &
Spiegel, 2016).
Edwin Gordon (1927 - 2015)
Supporting the view that music learning is akin to language acquisition is the work of
music educator and theorist Edwin E. Gordon. Gordon’s Music Learning Theory aligns the
acquisition of music with language learning, emphasizing the crucial role of audiation (which is
termed as ‘inner hearing’ with Kodály’s work) and informal guidance in the development of a
child's musical understanding. He advocates for a pedagogical approach that is more linguistic
than logical (law of conservation) in early childhood music education, ensuring that children
establish a solid foundation in music before being introduced to formal notation and theory.
In his seminal work Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children, Gordon
posited that the process of learning music is more analogous to acquiring a language (Gordon,
2003). He argued that children learn music through a combination of structured and unstructured
guidance at home, much like they develop language comprehension. This guidance is vital for
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children to progress sequentially in their music learning, in a manner similar to language
acquisition.
Gordon’s theory places significant emphasis on the concept of audiation, which he
defines as the mental process of understanding and interpreting music (Gordon, 2003). He
likened audiation to the role of thought in language, suggesting that both are fundamental for
effective communication (Gordon, 2003). His approach to music education is based on the belief
that children should first develop a listening and performing vocabulary of tonal and rhythm
patterns before being introduced to music notation. This approach mirrors the way children learn
to read and write only after they have acquired spoken language (Gordon, 2003), and is based on
the premise that music learning is a developmental process analogous to language acquisition
(Gordon, 2003). Central to Gordon’s philosophy is the idea that early informal guidance plays a
vital role in cultivating foundational musical skills. Similar to the way children acquire language,
exposure to and imitation of music in the early years help children intuitively "decode" musical
structures before formal instruction begins (Gordon, 2003), parallel to Brandt et al. (2012)
observations. This early, informal engagement, lays the groundwork for later formal music
learning by enabling children to develop listening and performing vocabularies in music.
When selecting choral repertoire for children aged 7-12, it is crucial to consider the
developmental suitability of the music. Gordon advocated for an individualized approach to
music education, emphasizing that each child’s progress should be assessed based on their unique
abilities rather than through comparison with their peers (Gordon, 2003). This perspective
suggests that repertoire should align with the children’s current levels of musical aptitude and
achievement, ensuring that the music is both challenging and accessible (Gordon, 2003). In a
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group rehearsal setting, selecting repertoire with varying levels of complexity across voice parts
can support differentiated learning effectively. By incorporating voice parts with varying levels
of difficulty, teachers can organize children into groups based on their current skill levels,
allowing each group to work on material that is developmentally appropriate and challenging.
This approach to music teaching and learning not only provides a manageable learning curve for
each child but also fosters a supportive rehearsal environment where students can progress at
their own pace while still contributing to the ensemble's overall performance.
Gordon further highlighted the importance of offering a diverse repertoire that
incorporates various tonalities, keyalities (i.e., the different tonalities or key centers that form the
basis for understanding and performing music), meters, and tempi to broaden children’s musical
experiences (Gordon, 2003). A balance between repetition and variety is key to reinforcing
musical concepts while maintaining engagement and interest in the learning process (Gordon,
2003). Additionally, providing opportunities for silence within the learning environment is
essential. These moments of quiet allow for audiation—the mental process of hearing and
understanding music when it is not physically present—which is critical for internalizing musical
patterns and developing a deeper understanding of musical structure (Gordon, 2003).
Moreover, Gordon stressed the importance of involving parents in the music education
process by clearly communicating the educational rationale behind classroom activities (Gordon,
2003). Educators should explain to parents how repetitive exercises and structured exposure to
tonal and rhythmic patterns contribute to the development of their children’s musical listening
skills. Encouraging parents to reinforce these experiences at home, whether by playing music or
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engaging in musical activities introduced in the classroom, can significantly support the child’s
overall musical development (Gordon, 2003).
Gordon’s approach emphasized the need for a holistic and developmentally appropriate
music education that reflects both the natural processes of language acquisition and the specific
needs of each child. Through careful repertoire selection, intentional use of repetition and
silence, and active engagement with parents, educators can create a supportive and effective
learning environment that nurtures the musical growth of children aged 7-12. Furthermore,
Gordon criticized the prevalent practice in formal music instruction of teaching music notation
reading before children have developed a deep understanding of music through audiation
(Gordon, 2003). He contended that this method is akin to memorizing the alphabet without
comprehending the meaning of words, which contradicts the natural process of language
acquisition (Gordon, 2003).
Learning Rhythms
The Kodály and Gordon methods provide valuable insights into rhythm instruction for
young children, emphasizing the importance of aligning pedagogy with their developmental
stages. Both approaches advocate teaching rhythm through patterns, movement, and experiential
learning rather than abstract concepts that may exceed young children’s cognitive abilities.
Rhythm, a fundamental aspect of musical understanding and expression, must be taught
in ways that align with children’s cognitive development. According to Piaget’s preoperational
stage (under age 7), children have a limited grasp of abstract concepts, such as conservation,
which impacts their ability to understand fractions—an essential component of traditional
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rhythm notation. Therefore, rhythm should be introduced as a language rooted in patterns and
expression, aligning with Kodály’s and Gordon’s principles, which prioritize concrete,
experiential learning over abstract reasoning at this stage.
Learning Rhythm in the Preoperational Stage
In the preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7), children’s cognitive abilities are primarily
concrete and egocentric, relying heavily on visual and perceptual cues. Logical thinking skills,
such as understanding conservation and reversibility, are not yet fully developed. When applied
to rhythm instruction, this means young children may struggle with proportional relationships,
such as fractions represented by half notes or quarter notes. Teaching rhythm through fractions at
this stage can be counterproductive. Instead, rhythm should be approached as a language,
emphasizing patterns, repetition, and movement that align with natural cognitive development, as
advocated by Kodály and Gordon.
Both the Kodály Method and Gordon’s Music Learning Theory emphasize that a critical
foundation for rhythm learning lies in the internalization of a steady beat. This consistent pulse is
vital, as rhythm gains coherence only when contrasted against it. Without a strong sense of
steady beat, rhythmic patterns become disjointed and lack structure. Therefore, activities that
focus on beat consistency—such as movement-based exercises or simple, repetitive patterns—
are essential prerequisites before introducing more complex rhythms.
Just as children learn language through imitation, repetition, and contextual
understanding, they develop a sense of rhythm through exposure to clear, consistent rhythmic
patterns. For example, children under 7 can articulate words like "alligator" (tiri-tiri) or
"beautiful" (triplet), which demonstrate rhythmic values when presented appropriately. The
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challenge lies not in performing rhythmic values but in processing too many varied patterns.
Young children can grasp rhythms that are repetitive and predictable but struggle with constantly
changing, abstract sequences due to their limited pattern recognition skills.
To make rhythm instruction effective, educators should design activities using clear,
repetitive rhythmic motifs within recognizable musical forms, such as AABA or ABAB
structures. These forms help children identify contrasts, repetitions, and variations, allowing
them to internalize rhythms more easily. Repeated motifs provide a framework for understanding
rhythm as a language, fostering cognitive accessibility and engagement.
Incorporating eurhythmic actions into songs should be standard practice for young
children. These movements enhance kinesthetic learning, enabling children to internalize rhythm
and musical structure effectively. Despite the absence of prescribed movements in much
children’s choral music, conductors should be encouraged—rather than criticized—for adapting
scores to include such actions. These modifications prioritize holistic musical and developmental
growth, fostering coordination, musicality, and enjoyment through active engagement.
` Repetition, a cornerstone of language development, plays an equally significant role in
rhythm learning. Introducing rhythm through simple, repetitive phrases such as "ta" (quarter
note) and "ti-ti" (eighth notes) allows children to learn patterns by rote before progressing to
more complex sequences. By emphasizing rhythmic language rooted in repetition and pattern
recognition, educators can establish a strong rhythmic foundation without overwhelming
children with abstract concepts beyond their developmental stage.
Transitioning to a Conservational Understanding of Rhythm
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As children move closer to the age of 7 and transition into the concrete operational stage,
their ability to comprehend fractions and proportional relationships begins to develop. At this
point, rhythmic instruction can gradually shift toward a more logical framework, introducing the
concepts of note values, subdivisions, and time signatures. However, the foundation laid through
earlier experiences of rhythm as language ensures that these abstract concepts are built on a
solid, intuitive understanding of rhythm as a felt, embodied experience — a rich cognitive
schema of audio, visual and kinesthetic experiences.
By the time children reach this stage, they will have internalized rhythmic patterns and a
sense of steady beat, allowing them to more easily digest the logical dimensions of rhythm. The
shift from rhythm as language to rhythm as a logical construct can then be made more smoothly,
as it builds on previously acquired skills. By selecting repertoire with clear, repetitive rhythmic
motifs that contribute to recognizable forms like AABA, educators can provide young learners
with the structure needed to internalize rhythmic concepts effectively. As children progress
developmentally, this foundation serves as a bridge to more complex and abstract concepts in
rhythm, ensuring that their musical growth is both natural and well-supported (Zimmerman,
1986).
Developing Interval Recognition in Children
When teaching children about musical intervals, it is crucial to consider both their vocal
range and cognitive developmental stage. The approach of introducing intervals like thirds before
seconds is deeply rooted in the Kodály Method, which emphasizes using simple, accessible
musical elements that align with children's natural learning processes. The Kodály method
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(Choksy, 1999) introduces solfège with the interval "so-mi," which forms a minor third. This
interval is particularly effective for children because it is easy for them to recognize and sing.
The wider spatial distance between the notes in a third provides a clearer aural distinction,
making it easier for young learners to identify and reproduce. Once children become comfortable
identifying and singing a third, it becomes easier for them to differentiate and evaluate other
intervals, such as seconds and fourths/fifths—one being narrower and the others wider in relation
to the reference note.
The Kodály method strategically starts with the so-mi interval because it provides a
stable and accessible foundation upon which more complex intervallic relationships can be built.
Given that children's vocal ranges generally center around G4, which lies between the typical
range for younger children (approximately D#4 to B4 for 7-year-olds) and older children (around
D4 to D5 for 10-year-olds), starting pitches like A4 and F#4 are strategically sound choices.
Working within this mid-range ensures that melodies remain comfortably within children’s vocal
limits, avoiding extremes that can be more challenging to produce consistently. This approach
supports both vocal health and accurate pitch production.
As children progress, the next step in tonal development involves introducing the interval
of a second with the note la, followed by re, and eventually do to complete the do-pentatonic
scale. The do-pentatonic scale is characterized by minor third and major second steps, which are
accessible and manageable for young learners. The introduction of la adds the interval of a fourth
(mi to la), re introduces the interval of a fifth (re to la), and do introduces the interval of a sixth
(do to la). This gradual and logical progression supports children’s cognitive development in
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interval recognition by ensuring that new intervals are introduced in a sequence that builds upon
previously established concepts.
These pedagogical principles can be directly applied when selecting choral repertoire.
Music should ideally begin within the comfortable middle range of children’s voices and
gradually expand as their vocal abilities develop. While choral repertoire need not strictly adhere
to specific sequence to introduce intervals, it is advisable to avoid extremes—either overly wide
or overly narrow intervals—especially in the early stages. Intervals such as thirds, seconds,
fourths, and fifths, which are foundational in pentatonic scales, are particularly suitable starting
points. Moreover, the choral classroom serves as an immersive environment where children
naturally acquire musical vocabulary, where learning is spiral. Consequently, the repertoire
toneset (i.e., the specific group of pitches, often derived from a scale, that forms the melodic or
harmonic foundation of a piece or section of music) does not need to be limited to only one
interval at the outset like in the Kodály music classroom curriculum where some songs are
chosen specifically to isolate two pitches; rather, it should expose children aged 7 to a broad
range of intervals, parallel to immersing a child in a conversational rich environment for
language acquisition. However, the difficulty of recognising through hearing and singing of each
interval can serve as a guideline for sequencing songs, offering a scaffolded learning experience
that builds on children’s existing skills. By structuring repertoire in this way, educators can
support both vocal development and a deepening understanding of musical intervals in a manner
that is developmentally appropriate and engaging.
It is crucial for music directors to carefully track the musical elements that children are
exposed to in order to ensure that they are systematically and logically introduced to a variety of
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intervals throughout their time in the choir. This approach allows children to experience a
comprehensive and balanced musical education. By intentionally sequencing the intervals and
other musical concepts they encounter, directors can ensure that students develop a well-rounded
understanding of pitch relationships. Such systematic exposure is particularly important because
it reinforces auditory skills, helps scaffold and strengthens inner hearing, and promotes musical
literacy through implicit learning.
Monitoring the intervals introduced in repertoire and exercises allows choir directors to
ensure a structured progression from simpler intervals, such as seconds and thirds, to more
complex ones, like fourths, fifths, and beyond. This deliberate sequencing not only aligns with
the natural progression of children’s vocal and cognitive development but also facilitates skill
acquisition in a logical and manageable manner. Directors should also track the combinations of
intervals, beginning with simple pairs and gradually introducing sets of three or more, thereby
enabling students to develop the ability to recognize and perform increasingly intricate interval
patterns.
This gradual and sequential approach builds confidence as students systematically master
each new challenge, reinforcing their aural skills and strengthening their musical foundation. The
process mirrors the scaffolding approach found in language learning, where learners build from
basic units to more complex structures. By the end of their term in the choir, students should
have encountered and practiced a diverse array of intervals and interval combinations, preparing
them to engage with more advanced repertoire and fostering a deeper understanding of musical
structure.
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Ultimately, this methodical exposure to a variety of intervals provides students with the
essential tools to navigate complex harmonic and melodic material. It also cultivates their ability
to internalize and audiate music, which is crucial for sight-singing and overall musical literacy.
In this way, choir directors play a pivotal role in guiding students through a comprehensive
musical journey that balances technical development with creative expression. Systematically
tracking the musical elements that children engage with enables choir directors to ensure that
every interval is introduced in a deliberate and pedagogically sound manner. This thoughtful
progression supports both vocal development and musical growth, providing a solid foundation
for continued learning. According to Gordon (2003), before children can fully engage in formal
music instruction, they need to be immersed in experiences that allow them to develop audiation
skills—the ability to internally hear and understand music. This begins with exposure to and
recognition of basic tonal patterns. Initially, children should focus on tonal patterns with two
pitches before progressing to more complex patterns containing three or four pitches. These tonal
patterns are central to a child's ability to recognize, imitate, and internalize musical structures,
which is a key aspect of their broader musical development (Gordon, 2003).
Gordon emphasizes a sequential approach to building musical understanding. The process
involves learning to audiate and imitate tonal and rhythm patterns, which serve as the building
blocks for more complex musical concepts. In Gordon’s framework, these patterns are
comparable to the role that words and syntax play in language development—small units that
combine to form larger, meaningful structures (Gordon, 2003). Although Gordon does not
explicitly use the term "melodic motif,” his concept of tonal patterns closely aligns with the idea
of melodic motifs. Melodic motifs, which are small, recognizable melodic fragments, function
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similarly to tonal patterns in that they form the foundation for larger musical compositions and
ideas. Gordon’s theory suggests that by mastering these fundamental patterns, children can
develop the necessary skills for more advanced musical learning.
The following section will examine the sequencing of musical elements for young
children as outlined in the Australian Kodály Certificate Curriculum. Given the Kodály method's
proven effectiveness in supporting children's cognitive, musical, and developmental growth—as
discussed earlier—exploring this curriculum provides valuable insights into its structured, childcentered approach. By carefully sequencing musical elements, the Kodály method aligns with
children’s natural progression in learning, making it a pedagogically sound framework for
fostering musical literacy and broader developmental skills.
The Australian Kodály Certificate Curriculum
The Australian Kodály Certificate Curriculum (Kodály Australia, 2019) will now be
examined to further understand how musical elements—such as pitch, rhythm, and form—are
systematically and sequentially structured to scaffold children’s learning effectively. Developed
by the Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia, Inc., it is a comprehensive program
designed to train music educators in the Kodály method. The curriculum, which has been
updated to version 1.4, is acknowledged for its development by the Education Committee and
various contributors. It is structured for pre-service, current classroom, and studio music
teachers, offering accredited courses that combine musicianship, pedagogy, and ensemble
education to provide a holistic approach to music teaching.
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This dissertation aims to analyze the sequencing of musical elements outlined in the
curriculum, providing a foundational reference for developing a framework to guide choral
repertoire selection for children’s choirs. The curriculum offers a structured, developmentally
appropriate approach to music education from birth to secondary school, with clear pathways for
learning each musical component. The scope and sequence of these components are presented in
the following sections.
Pitch. In the Early Childhood Level 1 (birth to 3 years), children are exposed to pitch
through aural-vocal activities and repertoire suited to their age, focusing on responding to
various musical elements such as timbre, tempo, dynamics, and pitch (KMEIA Inc., 2019). As
children progress to Early Childhood Level 2 (3 to 5 years), they continue to explore pitch
through play-based tasks and repertoire that supports emerging music literacy, including preliteracy skills such as linking sounds to symbols and extending concentration spans (KMEIA
Inc., 2019).
The Early Childhood Level 3/Primary Level 1 (5 to 8 years/Foundation to Year 2) focuses
on developing the singing voice with repertoire appropriate for the children's tessitura,
introducing melodic elements like high/low comparatives and specific melodic elements (so, mi,
la, do - introduced in that sequence), and utilizing stick notation, staff notation, transposition, and
the movable doh system (KMEIA Inc., 2019).
Primary and Secondary Levels expand on melodic concepts to include the do-pentachord
and introduce part work, such as simple canons and ostinati, which aids in developing the ability
to sing in parts. For Upper Primary and Secondary Levels, the curriculum introduces more
complex canons, harmony (major and minor triads, seventh chords), and part singing. It also
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expands musical skills to include abstract pentatonic tri-chords and tetra-chords, relative
pentatonic scales, and extended pentatony (KMEIA Inc., 2019).
Throughout the curriculum, there is a concerted effort to develop children's understanding
of pitch and vocal abilities in a manner that is both sequential and developmentally appropriate,
using a diverse range of musical activities, repertoire, and pedagogical strategies for each age
group.
Rhythm. The rhythmic sequence starts with aural-vocal activities, movement, and the
introduction of basic rhythmic elements like tempo and dynamics in the Early Childhood Level 1
(birth to 3 years old). As children progress to the Early Childhood Level 2 (ages 3 to 5), they
engage in play-based tasks that introduce beat competency and lay the groundwork for emerging
music literacy. By Early Childhood Level 3 / Primary Level 1 (ages 5 to 8), children begin
exploring more complex rhythmic concepts, such as stick notation, staff notation, and simple
accompaniment, establishing a solid rhythmic foundation.
As students advance to Primary Level 2 (Years 3 and 4), the curriculum expands into
compound time, metre, and advanced rhythms, building upon previously learned concepts. In
Primary Level 3 (Years 5 and 6), rhythmic elements such as anacrusis, ties, and uneven patterns
are introduced, ensuring that students develop the skills needed to interpret more sophisticated
rhythmic structures. The Secondary Levels then focus on advanced rhythmic patterns, complex
structures, and the study of Art Music, emphasizing a comprehensive and developmental
approach to rhythmic education throughout the entire curriculum.
Form. The curriculum begins by introducing simple musical forms in the early stages
and gradually progresses to more complex structures as children advance through the levels. At
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Early Childhood Level 1 (birth to 3 years old), children are introduced to basic forms such as
compound forms through songs and rhymes. In Early Childhood Level 2 (ages 3 to 5), children
engage with slightly more complex forms, like Question and Answer structures. By Early
Childhood Level 3 / Primary Level 1 (ages 5 to 8), children explore binary and ternary forms
through game songs, rounds, and canons. The curriculum continues to build on these foundations
in Primary Level 2 (Years 3 and 4) and Primary Level 3 (Years 5 and 6), introducing advanced
forms such as theme and variation, motif development, and phrasing. At the Secondary Levels,
students begin to analyze Art Music and explore more intricate rhythmic and structural elements,
allowing for a deeper understanding of musical form.
Beyond form, the curriculum also addresses other critical musical elements in a
sequential manner. Concepts such as timbre, tempo, dynamics, and pitch are introduced early on
and are expanded as children develop. Rhythm is systematically taught from the beginning,
starting with beat competency and gradually advancing to more complex patterns. Expressive
devices, as well as opportunities for creativity through improvisation and composition, are
integrated at appropriate developmental stages, ensuring a balanced and comprehensive musical
education. The integration of technology is also addressed as students progress, aligning with
their growing musical and cognitive abilities.
The curriculum’s assessment strategies and teaching methods are designed to ensure that
students develop a robust understanding of these concepts. Written and practical assignments,
research projects, and group discussions are coupled with effective teaching strategies that
include age-appropriate repertoire, movement-based activities, and well-structured lesson
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planning. This approach allows children to progressively build on their musical knowledge and
skills, fostering a well-rounded and deeply rooted music education.
Chapter Summary
A structured, sequential approach to music education that aligns with children's
developmental stages provides a clear framework for fostering comprehensive musical growth. A
key element of effective music teaching is a child-centered pedagogy, which uses familiar,
engaging materials such as folk songs, games, and rhymes. These culturally and cognitively
relevant connections enhance engagement and learning outcomes, ensuring that music learning is
joyous, organic, and rooted in the child’s environment.
A multi-sensory approach, integrating singing, movement, listening, and visual learning,
supports not only musical development but also cognitive, social, and motor growth.
Foundational skills such as singing and inner hearing should be prioritized before introducing
more complex concepts, ensuring that children build an intuitive understanding of music. Visual,
auditory, and tactile reinforcement, through tools like hand signs or solfège, encourages
independent musicianship and aids in the development of musical skills.
Effective repertoire selection is also crucial for nurturing musical growth. Music that is
age-appropriate and culturally relevant helps children connect to the material, fostering a sense
of ownership and making the learning process more meaningful. Folk songs, particularly those
from students’ cultural backgrounds, are valuable for teaching rhythmic patterns, melodic
contours, and expressive singing.
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A progression from aural to visual learning can further guide repertoire selection.
Teaching songs by ear allows children to focus on vocal technique and musicality before
introducing notation. Once students internalize these elements, written music can be gradually
introduced, reinforcing what they have learned through active engagement.
Incorporating movement-based activities, such as clapping, body percussion, or simple
choreography, reinforces rhythmic understanding and coordination while keeping rehearsals
dynamic and engaging. This multimodal approach helps make abstract musical concepts more
tangible and enhances children’s connection to the music.
Selecting high-quality, pedagogically sound repertoire that balances accessibility with
increasing complexity ensures that students are consistently challenged. As they progress,
introducing new elements such as syncopation, modulations, or harmonies, while matching their
developmental readiness, allows students to build confidence and grow musically. Repertoire
should offer the right level of challenge, motivating students while supporting steady progression
in their musical abilities.
In conclusion, effective music teaching involves a child-centered, sequential approach
that fosters gradual skill development, cultural relevance, and multi-sensory engagement. By
thoughtfully selecting repertoire that progresses from simple to complex, incorporating
movement and other sensory modalities, and ensuring a balanced challenge, educators can create
a rich and rewarding learning experience that supports both musical and personal growth.
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CHAPTER 7
Repertoire Selection
In this chapter, we delve into the intricate process of repertoire selection and
programming for community children's choirs, drawing insights from various studies and
frameworks. We begin by exploring the findings of Hedden and Allen (2018), who utilized a
mixed-methods approach to investigate the literature selection practices of conductors in North
America, highlighting the importance of engaging melodies, quality text, and singable keys. The
chapter further examines David L. Brunner's (1992) comprehensive list of considerations for
repertoire selection, emphasizing the need to align choices with the ensemble's strengths and
limitations, and the philosophy and goals of the choral program. Additionally, we discuss Bjella's
(2017) three-phase approach to concert programming, which focuses on coherence and
performance dynamics. The chapter also addresses the integration of multicultural music into
choral repertoire, as advocated by Goetze (2017), promoting authenticity and empathy through
cultural informants. Finally, we introduce the MACRO framework for choral repertoire selection
in Singapore, which emphasizes musical value, appropriateness to development, cultural
understanding, respect for sensitivities, and fostering students' ownership and choice. Through
these discussions, the chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors
influencing repertoire selection and programming for children's choirs.
Best Practices in Repertoire Selection and Programming for Community Children's Choirs
Several studies have focused on repertoire selection for choirs. Hedden and Allen (2018)
investigated literature selection practices of conductors of community children's choirs in North
America, utilizing a mixed-methods approach. The methodology involved integrating qualitative
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insights from interviews with quantitative survey data to provide a complementary analysis,
noting similarities and differences across the data sets. The research incorporated interviews with
six experienced choir directors and a survey that achieved a 51% response rate from conductors
across 31 U.S. states and four Canadian provinces.
The study identified several key criteria in repertoire selection, with conductors placing
significant emphasis on musical elements such as engaging melodies, quality text, and singable
keys. The text was particularly highlighted for its educational content and expressive potential. In
addition, factors like melodic structure, song length, accompaniment, form, and keys were also
considered essential. Personal preferences of conductors played a substantial role, focusing on
flexibility, diversity in language and cultural content, and a balance of beauty and complexity in
the music. Conductors tended to choose repertoire they personally appreciated and believed their
choir would enjoy, aiming to provide a diverse and enriching musical experience.
The research also examined how conductors locate literature, revealing a reliance on
various resources, including personal collections, recommendations, online tools, and direct
communication with publishers. Conductors further emphasized the importance of personally
evaluating scores and performances rather than relying solely on publisher information. While
the findings of this study are not generalizable, they offer valuable insights into the repertoire
selection process for community children's choirs, which may be relevant for other choral
educators. The researchers acknowledged potential biases and limitations, particularly the
sample’s lack of representation across all choral contexts.
Selecting choral repertoire requires careful consideration to align with educational
objectives and the singers' abilities. David L. Brunner (1992) provided a comprehensive list of
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considerations for this process. Brunner stressed the importance of understanding the ensemble’s
strengths and limitations by assessing factors such as the size and composition of the choir,
balance of voice parts, singers’ age and experience, and their skills in sight-reading and vocal
range. By identifying these attributes, directors can select repertoire that is both challenging and
accessible, promoting growth and success.
Brunner (1992) further emphasized the need to align repertoire choices with the
philosophy and goals of the choral program. Repertoire should facilitate musical learning and
help singers acquire specific skills and understanding. Each piece should serve a purpose within
the overall program, either introducing, reinforcing, or reviewing key musical concepts.
In evaluating musical elements, Brunner highlighted the importance of melody, form,
expression, harmony, and accompaniment. Melodies should be suitable for the voice, with an
appropriate range and tessitura, while the form should exhibit logical structure. Harmonies
should support vocal clarity, and accompaniments should enhance rather than overshadow the
vocal lines. Brunner also underscored the significance of selecting text that is literary and ageappropriate, conveying meaning relevant to the singers’ emotional development. A diverse
repertoire that spans various musical styles, periods, and languages enriches the choir’s
experience and broadens their musical horizons.
Practical considerations, such as available rehearsal time, technical demands, and
whether the piece offers sufficient challenge for growth, are also crucial. The goal is to select
music that enhances the singers' musical experiences and contributes to their artistic and creative
development.
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Brunner’s approach is intentionally broad and applicable across a range of choral
ensembles, from children’s choirs to adult groups. This adaptability allows for repertoire
selection that aligns with the unique attributes of each choir, including the age, experience, and
vocal maturity of its members. By adhering to these principles, directors can curate a repertoire
that fits the current capabilities of the ensemble while encouraging greater musical proficiency
and artistic expression. Brunner’s considerations overlook specific developmental needs of
children aged 7-12. It does not explicitly address the cognitive, emotional, and vocal growth
unique to this age group, potentially leading to repertoire choices that do not fully support their
developmental trajectory. It is essential to incorporate developmental considerations when
selecting music for this age range, ensuring that the repertoire fosters both musical and personal
growth.
In The Art of Successful Programming: Study, Selection, and Synthesis. Bjella (2017)
examines the complexities of effective concert programming. Bjella argued that many programs
fail to engage audiences due to a lack of coherence and insufficient attention to performance
dynamics. Bjella outlined a three-phase approach—study, selection, and synthesis—for crafting
well-rounded concert programs.
During the study phase, Bjella emphasizes the importance of having clear objectives and
understanding the potential impact on both the ensemble and the audience. He advocates for
starting the planning process early and using diverse resources, including online repositories like
Choral Public Domain Library (CPDL), ChoralWiki, and International Music Score Library
Project (IMSLP). In the selection phase, Bjella encourages a thorough evaluation of each piece to
ensure alignment with the ensemble’s abilities and the concert’s goals. Key relationships, tempo,
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and text considerations are critical for creating a cohesive program. He also highlights the
importance of balancing risk-taking with accessibility to keep the repertoire engaging. In the
synthesis phase, there is a need for a balance between unpredictability and consistency in
repertoire selection to create a transcendent experience. Bjella recommends revisiting the
program multiple times to refine its flow and involving the ensemble and colleagues to enhance
creativity and input.
Goetze (2017) critically examined the integration of multicultural music into choral
repertoire, challenging the ethnocentric tendencies often found in traditional choral practices.
She advocated for a model centered on social justice and cultural respect, developed through her
leadership of the Indiana University International Vocal Ensemble. Goetze’s approach involved
learning music directly from cultural informants (also known as culture bearers) to promote
authenticity and empathy, while adapting vocal timbres and movements to reflect the music’s
cultural context.
Goetze’s approach offers valuable insights for choral directors interested in diversifying
their repertoire. For younger singers, the model centred on social justice and cultural respect
could be introduced through age-appropriate activities, such as listening to music from different
cultures, learning simple songs or rhythms, and discussing the cultural significance of the music.
Such interactive approaches can help children aged 7-12 develop empathy and respect for
diverse traditions while broadening their musical understanding.
While the approached of Bjella (2017), Goetze (2017), and Brunner (1992) provide good
perspective and considerations for repertoire selection and programming, choral directors
working with children aged 7-12 should still be mindful of age-specific considerations to ensure
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the repertoire aligns with the developmental needs of this group. By selecting music that is
accessible, engaging, and culturally diverse, directors can create meaningful choral experiences
that foster both musical and personal growth for young singers.
Arranging Educational and Engaging Music for Children’s Choirs
Arranging music for children’s choirs requires meticulous attention to various musical
elements to ensure compositions are both educationally valuable and musically engaging. Goetze
(1989) emphasized how music for young choirs should be “singable,” with a clear formal
structure and repeated phrases, sections, or refrains. Such repetition is pedagogically effective, as
it helps children internalize the music more easily by familiarizing them with recurring musical
patterns. Goetze also stressed the importance of consistent themes and motives throughout the
piece, which help maintain the musical narrative and sustain the children’s interest.
Kemp (as cited in Farrior, 1993), offered practical guidance on the vocal range and
tessitura appropriate for children aged 7-12. She recommended a range from D4 to D5, with a
tessitura between G4 and C5, to encourage healthy head voice singing. This range is comfortable
for most young singers and aligns with their natural vocal development. Additionally, Kemp
advises selecting appropriate vowels for higher notes to ensure vocal health and clarity of sound.
Telfer (1993) underscored the significance of text in choral music, advocating for highquality texts with carefully crafted rhythms and soundscapes that enhance both the musical and
expressive elements of a piece. She suggested that the vocabulary and length of the text be ageappropriate, while the subject matter should be engaging and resonate with children, allowing
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them to explore new ideas and emotions. Telfer (1993) also noted that repeated patterns in the
text can aid in maintaining young choirs’ focus and connection to the music.
Regarding melody, Telfer (1993) advised that it should reflect the general mood or theme
of the text, striking a balance between repetition and variety. Repetition fosters familiarity and
connection, while variety sustains interest and provides opportunities for artistic expression.
While conjunct steps are easier for young voices, strategic leaps can add drama and excitement,
capitalizing on the natural agility of children’s voices.
When composing for multiple parts, each vocal line should be melodically engaging and
musically coherent. The piano accompaniment should complement the lighter timbre of
children’s voices, offering clear cues without overpowering the singers. Harlow (1995)
recommended that arrangers become familiar with the specific choir for which they are writing,
analyzing successful pieces for difficulty, range, and style. Vocal technique should be a primary
focus, ensuring that each voice part is appropriately challenged and has moments to shine.
In the case of multicultural repertoire, it is essential to consult tradition bearers and
immerse oneself in the cultural and musical context of the piece. This includes studying authentic
instruments, avoiding biased or stereotypical representations, and listening attentively to native
performers to capture the nuances that distinguish the music.
Frameworks for Choral Repertoire Selection
The MACRO Framework for Choral Repertoire Selection in Singapore
In October 2024, while this thesis was in progress, Singapore's Ministry of Education
(MOE), through its Arts Education Branch, issued an internal guide for school staff and
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instructors on selecting vocal and choral repertoire. The introduction of this guide highlights the
importance of establishing shared goals and ensuring a uniform approach to repertoire selection
in choral education. Its purpose is to offer a structured framework that promotes both technical
and artistic growth, while also supporting students' holistic development. The framework,
represented by the acronym MACRO, emphasizes five key principles: Musical Value,
Appropriateness to development and maturity, Cultural understanding through music, Respect
for sensitivities, and fostering students’ Ownership, voice, and choice (agency).
Musical Value
The principle of musical value emphasizes that repertoire should provide students with
opportunities to experience a broad range of musical expressions. Through selected works,
students are expected to develop essential vocal techniques while engaging with fundamental
musical elements and concepts, such as texture, timbre, form, and harmony. This ensures that the
repertoire not only serves as a vehicle for performance but also as a pedagogical tool for deeper
musical learning.
Appropriateness to Development and Maturity
The second principle highlights the importance of choosing repertoire that aligns with the
singers' vocal abilities, such as their technical skills and vocal range, to ensure healthy vocal
development. In addition to technical appropriateness, the emotional themes and literary content
of the repertoire must correspond to the cognitive and emotional maturity of the students,
fostering meaningful engagement with the material.
Cultural Understanding Through Music
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The MACRO framework also emphasizes the value of cultural understanding through
music. It advocates for the inclusion of diverse repertoire that exposes students to various
musical styles and traditions. By incorporating music from different parts of the world and in
different languages, educators can broaden students’ musical experiences and cultivate cultural
awareness. This variety enriches the choral curriculum and fosters an appreciation for both
musical and cultural diversity.
Respect for Sensitivities
Respecting sensitivities is essential to ensure that repertoire selection reflects the
religious, cultural, and political diversity of the student population. Teachers are encouraged to
choose repertoire that is culturally inclusive, enabling all students to participate comfortably. In
cases where songs feature non-English lyrics, educators are advised to provide translations to
ensure that students understand the content they are singing. When potential sensitivities arise,
teachers are encouraged to communicate the educational purpose of the repertoire with students
and parents, consulting with school leaders if necessary.
Students’ Ownership, Voice, and Choice (Agency)
The final principle promotes student ownership, voice, and choice—also referred to as
student agency—by encouraging teachers to involve students in the repertoire selection process.
Offering students choices or allowing older students to suggest repertoire based on specific
criteria fosters a sense of ownership and intrinsic motivation. This participatory approach
supports student engagement and personal investment in learning, ultimately leading to a more
meaningful and fulfilling choral experience.
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
The introduction of the MACRO framework reflects a growing awareness within
Singapore’s choral education community of the need for structured guidance in repertoire
selection. It reinforces the idea that repertoire selection should go beyond programming for
individual concerts and instead be part of a long-term developmental strategy. The principles
outlined in the MACRO guide provide a foundation for repertoire selection that nurtures the
evolving technical, cognitive, and emotional needs of students. Ultimately, the framework
emphasizes the role of thoughtful repertoire selection in fostering not only musical excellence
but also the holistic growth of young singers.
The Proposed Framework for the Selection of Choral Repertoire
Based on a comprehensive review of literature, the Ministry of Education (MOE)
framework for Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), in conjunction with the MACRO
framework for repertoire selection, three foundational themes have emerged as critical to
effective choral music instruction for children: Align, Expand, and Connect. The author-created
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Figure 1: The framework for selecting choral repertoire - Align, Expand, and Connect (AEC)
CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
Align, Expand, and Connect framework (see figure 1) provides a comprehensive, actionoriented, growth-focused, and spiraling approach to repertoire selection, addressing five key
dimensions of student development—musicianship, cognitive ability, vocal development, socialemotional skills, and cultural awareness, being mindful of the relation to self and others.
This framework operates on both macro and micro levels, offering guidance for broad
curriculum design as well as specific instructional objectives. By employing this approach,
repertoire choices are aligned with students' current abilities, while also fostering their
progressive skill development and establishing meaningful connections within the ensemble and
with the broader cultural context.
The Aspects: Align, Expand, and Connect (AEC)
The Align aspect focuses on selecting repertoire that corresponds to the current skill level
and developmental needs of the choir. By assessing students' musicianship, vocal ability,
cognitive aspect, social-emotional state, and cultural backgrounds, this aspect ensures that the
repertoire is appropriate and accessible for the group. Choosing repertoire that offers a
differentiate level of difficulty with each voice part, allows a closer alignment for individuals in a
group setting.
Once repertoire is aligned with students' current abilities and needs, the Expand aspect
involves introducing some repertoire that stretches their technical, cognitive, and emotional
capacities. This aspect of the framework emphasizes growth, pushing students, who are ready,
beyond their comfort zones in a progressive, supportive, and scaffolded manner.
In the Connect aspect, repertoire is selected to help students establish both intradimensional and inter-dimensional connections—within themselves, with others, and with the
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CHORAL REPERTOIRE SELECTION FRAMEWORK
broader community. This aspect underscores the relational and communal power of music,
fostering a sense of connection and shared experience through musical engagement.
The Five Dimensions
Vocal Development. According to the findings presented in Chapter Two's literature
review, several key considerations should guide vocal development in children. For children
under the age of 8, their typical singing range is expected to fall between D4 and B4. As children
grow and their vocal fold ligaments develop, particularly between the ages of 9 and 12, this
range can gradually expand to B3 to F5. However, it is important to note that vocal abilities are
not strictly correlated with age, and some children may demonstrate a wider range at a younger
age.
The timbral differences between the voices of prepubescent boys and girls are largely
learned rather than innate. Boys often imitate older males, consciously or unconsciously, to lower
their fundamental frequency. However, it is advisable to assign boys to lower vocal parts, as
research indicates they tend to exhibit less pitch accuracy at higher frequencies compared to girls
of the same age.
Repertoire selection plays a crucial role in supporting vocal development. It should
prioritize pieces that foster sustained pitch production and articulation while incorporating a wide
range of dynamics and articulations, such as contrasts between loud and soft singing, and
staccato and legato. These elements aid in developing vocal control and versatility, laying a
strong foundation for further vocal growth. To ensure structured and progressive development of
vocal skills, it is essential to systematically track the vocal techniques each cohort of students
works on. This tracking allows educators to build on previous accomplishments and tailor
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repertoire choices to meet the specific developmental needs of each group, ensuring consistent
and well-rounded vocal training over time.
Aligning repertoire with vocal abilities means selecting pieces that fit the natural vocal
range, stamina, and technical capacity of the singers. For instance, younger voices should not be
overburdened with demanding tessituras or dynamics that could lead to vocal strain. Instead,
repertoire with moderate vocal demands should be chosen to promote healthy vocal technique
development. Carefully selected repertoire can help expand students’ vocal range, enhance breath
control, and explore various vocal timbres and articulations. It also allows students to develop
their ability to sing in diverse styles, such as classical versus gospel. By progressively increasing
the technical difficulty of the repertoire, students are guided toward healthy vocal growth without
feeling overwhelmed. This gradual challenge enables them to build a strong vocal foundation
while simultaneously exploring the expressive potential of their voices. Additionally, the
Connect aspect of vocal training can involve repertoire that allows students to explore different
vocal techniques or timbres through collaborations with instrumentalists or other vocal
ensembles. These experiences help students understand how their voices fit into broader musical
contexts and how they can adapt their vocal technique in response to varying musical
environments.
Cognition. Chapters 3 and 4 reviewed the cognitive and musical development of
children, emphasizing the importance of selecting repertoire that aligns with their cognitive
abilities. For instance, repertoire should consider students’ working memory capacity, which is
essential for processing and retaining musical notes and rhythms during performances. Pieces
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with easily memorizable and comprehensible text, repetitive rhythmic motifs, and simple forms
or structures can enhance children’s learning and performance experiences.
At the same time, repertoire should be sufficiently challenging to promote the
development of both hot and cool executive functions, such as planning, organization, and
problem-solving, which are crucial for setting practice goals and managing performance
preparation. Incorporating eurhythmics, which integrates vocalization with body percussion,
creates opportunities for task-switching that promote the development of cognitive flexibility and
inhibitory control.
Repertoire must also be aligned developmentally. For younger singers, simpler, repetitive
structures or folk songs are ideal. In contrast, older students are better equipped to handle more
abstract musical forms and lyrical content that stimulate critical thinking and interpretative skills.
Within the Expand aspect, students are encouraged to engage with more complex musical
concepts and develop the mental stamina required for extended works. In the Connect aspect,
repertoire that encourages intellectual engagement with interdisciplinary themes can broaden
students’ understanding. For instance, music intersecting with history, literature, or science helps
students explore connections between music and other domains of knowledge. This integrative
approach fosters a holistic perspective, enabling students to see music as part of a larger
intellectual and cultural landscape.
SEL and Cultural Awareness. Chapter 5 emphasized the importance of selecting
musical repertoire that fosters self-awareness and promotes empathy. Repertoire with dramatic or
expressive texts provides students with opportunities for self-expression while encouraging the
cultivation of empathy. By integrating the social and emotional dimensions of music into the
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repertoire selection process, educators can enhance interpretive depth, promote ensemble unity,
and nurture teamwork. Music that emotionally connects students to the piece and to their peers
develops their interpretive skills and strengthens a sense of collective achievement.
Culturally-sensitive repertoire selection is equally critical. Thoughtful choices that honor
diverse musical traditions enrich students' understanding of their own and others' cultural
heritage. Engaging with music tied to students' cultural backgrounds, such as works associated
with festivals like Chinese New Year or Deepavali, reinforces their identities and creates
meaningful connections to their cultural roots. Performing folk songs and choral arrangements
rooted in various cultural traditions deepens students’ appreciation of cultural diversity while
fostering broader community engagement.
In Singapore, the annual composition of national songs for the nation’s independence
celebrations offers a unique opportunity to reinforce collective identity. These accessible and
unifying pieces promote national pride and a sense of belonging, integrating cultural and national
elements into the curriculum. Such repertoire empowers students by reflecting their shared
identity, fostering unity within choirs, and enriching the educational experience.
The Align aspect ensures that repertoire resonates with students' cultural backgrounds and
personal experiences. Music that reflects their identity allows students to see themselves
represented, providing a platform for self-expression and fostering a sense of belonging. Familiar
cultural elements within the repertoire establish a foundation for exploring and connecting with
other cultures as students progress.
The Expand aspect broadens emotional and cultural engagement by introducing
repertoire that challenges students to connect with deeper emotions and diverse perspectives.
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Music addressing themes such as loss, hope, or justice encourages empathy and self-awareness,
helping students navigate their own emotional experiences while fostering an understanding of
others. Repertoire from unfamiliar cultural traditions or historical contexts cultivates cultural
competence and open-mindedness, enabling students to respect and appreciate diverse musical
practices.
The Connect aspect highlights music's role as a bridge between cultures and
communities. Repertoire addressing universal themes—such as peace, unity, or justice—
demonstrates music's power to foster understanding and dialogue. By performing music from
various cultural traditions, students engage with different narratives and histories, developing
empathy and building relationships across cultural boundaries. Collaborative and communityfocused repertoire further enhances communication skills and emotional resilience, strengthening
connections among choir members and within the broader community.
Musicianship. Musicianship comprises two fundamental components: musical
knowledge and motor cognition as they relate to music. As discussed in Chapter 6, which
reviewed music learning theories and curriculum, effective development of musicianship relies
on the sequential structuring of musical knowledge and the skills necessary to apply it. This
progression begins with foundational building blocks and advances gradually to more complex
concepts and techniques.
In terms of the Align aspect, repertoire should align with students’ current level of
musical understanding, encompassing their familiarity with rhythm, pitch, harmony, and form.
For example, younger or less experienced choirs may begin with simple melodies or two-part
harmonies, while more advanced groups might work on pieces with complex textures,
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modulations, or intricate rhythms. The goal is to promote fluency in existing skill sets, enhancing
accuracy and ease of execution.
In the Expand aspect, repertoire is selected to reinforce established skills while
introducing new technical and interpretive challenges. This dual focus supports students' overall
musicianship development without overwhelming them, ensuring a balance between challenge
and the likelihood of a successful performance. Incorporating elements such as complex
rhythmic patterns, extended pitch ranges, dissonant harmonies, or unconventional time
signatures can broaden students’ technical proficiency. Additionally, exposure to varied musical
styles—such as Renaissance polyphony or contemporary compositions—enriches students'
understanding and appreciation of diverse musical traditions. Repertoire should primarily align
with students' current abilities but include one or two unfamiliar elements to encourage gradual
progression and exploration of new areas.
Such pieces challenge students to navigate complex entries and harmonic textures,
prompting critical questions like, “When do I come in?” or “Where do I get my pitch from?”
Additionally, students learn to assess their role within the ensemble by asking, “Who do I tune
to?” These challenges foster abstract thinking about musical relationships, enhancing cognitive
and analytical skills while refining overall musicianship.
In the Connect aspect, repertoire emphasizes collaboration and ensemble cohesion.
Selecting music that requires greater interaction—such as complex choral works with intricate
interlocking parts—reinforces the importance of listening and responding to others. Through
shared music-making, students not only develop their individual musicianship but also cultivate
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the ability to work collaboratively, strengthening their skills as cohesive and responsive members
of the ensemble.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the focus is on best practices for repertoire selection and programming for
community children's choirs, emphasizing the importance of engaging melodies, quality text, and
singable keys as identified by Hedden and Allen (2018). The chapter highlights David L.
Brunner's (1992) comprehensive considerations for aligning repertoire with the ensemble's
strengths and limitations, ensuring it facilitates musical learning and skill acquisition. Bjella's
(2017) three-phase approach to concert programming—study, selection, and synthesis—stresses
the need for coherence and performance dynamics. Goetze (2017) advocates for integrating
multicultural music into choral repertoire, promoting authenticity and empathy through cultural
informants. The MACRO framework introduced by Singapore's Ministry of Education
emphasizes five principles: Musical Value, Appropriateness to development and maturity,
Cultural understanding, Respect for sensitivities, and fostering students' Ownership, voice, and
choice. The Align, Expand, and Connect (AEC) framework provides a comprehensive approach
to repertoire selection, addressing musicianship, cognitive ability, vocal development, socialemotional skills, and cultural awareness.
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CHAPTER 8
Conclusion
The objective of this dissertation was to investigate the selection of repertoire for
children's choirs, focusing on members aged 7 to 12, which corresponds to primary school levels
1 to 6 in Singapore. Through an extensive literature review, the study explored multiple
interconnected themes: vocal development and pedagogy, cognitive development during middle
childhood, the impact of music education on musical and cognitive growth, social and emotional
learning (SEL), and established music learning theories, including the Kodály and Gordon
approaches.
The research uncovered several critical insights into children’s development.
Physiological vocal development was shown to have a significant relationship with repertoire
selection, underscoring the importance of choosing pieces that support healthy vocal growth
during childhood. Cognitive development during middle childhood emerged as a pivotal
consideration, with findings indicating that music training significantly enhances working
memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, the study demonstrated how
musical training during this developmental stage promotes verbal skills and brain plasticity.
Social and emotional aspects were explored through the CASEL model, revealing how choral
participation fosters self-awareness, social skills, and emotional intelligence.
Beyond contributing to the existing body of literature on vocal pedagogy, cognitive
development, and music education, this dissertation introduces the Align, Expand, and Connect
(AEC) framework for choral repertoire selection. This framework serves as a practical tool for
educators, providing a structured approach to repertoire selection that addresses both technical
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and holistic developmental needs. The AEC framework ensures that repertoire aligns with
students' current abilities while encouraging progressive skill development and fostering cultural
awareness. By integrating insights from pedagogical theories, developmental psychology, and
contemporary educational practices, the framework equips choral directors with a systematic
method for selecting repertoire that supports musical excellence and promotes the
comprehensive growth of young singers.
The choral repertoire selection framework proposed here carries significant implications
for both music education and broader societal contexts. This framework informs directors,
novice and experienced alike, in making repertoire choices that align with the developmental,
cognitive, and emotional needs of their singers, thus fostering both individual growth and
collective achievement. The framework elevates artistic standards by encouraging the
exploration of diverse musical traditions and styles, ensuring choirs consistently perform
repertoire of high artistic and pedagogical value. It provides an action-based focus that guides
choral directors in their decision-making process, helping experienced directors refine their
choices and offering a structured approach for newcomers to learn how to thoughtfully select
repertoire. This focus covers potential oversights and equips directors with strategies to align
their selections with the choir's artistic and educational objectives.
Moreover, the framework plays a crucial role in cultural preservation by recommending
and encouraging the inclusion of works that reflect diverse cultures, traditions, and historical
periods. This approach not only supports cultural representation and highlights underrepresented
voices but also sustains folk songs and traditional styles for future generations, fostering mutual
respect and connection through music.
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By aligning repertoire selection with developmental needs, the framework nurtures
lifelong musicianship. It provides a pathway for gradual growth, ensuring singers progress from
foundational to advanced skills over time. From children’s choirs to community ensembles, it
creates opportunities for sustained engagement in choral singing, fostering a deep appreciation
for the art form through rewarding and meaningful experiences.
The framework also integrates social and emotional learning (SEL), recognizing the
inherent role of choral singing in fostering empathy, self-awareness, and collaboration. By
incorporating music that emphasizes emotional expression, teamwork, and connection to the text,
it enhances choir unity, builds mutual respect, and supports singers in processing complex
emotions.
Inclusivity and accessibility are central to the framework. It prioritizes repertoire that
accommodates diverse abilities, backgrounds, and languages, ensuring all singers feel
represented and valued. By challenging traditional norms and embracing equity, it creates
opportunities for diverse populations to participate in choral singing, breaking down barriers
related to language, culture, or technical proficiency.
Beyond its impact on singers, the framework shapes audience engagement and education.
Thoughtful programming informed by the framework helps audiences appreciate the cultural,
historical, and artistic significance of the music performed. It builds informed listeners who
value the contributions of choral music to society. Moreover, by incorporating contemporary and
experimental works, the framework ensures the sustainability of the choral art form, supporting
living composers and adapting to modern contexts.
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Finally, the framework highlights the ethical and pedagogical responsibilities of choral
directors as gatekeepers of repertoire. It underscores the importance of selecting music that is
culturally sensitive, developmentally appropriate, and pedagogically meaningful. By using this
framework, directors can ensure that their programming challenges and inspires singers while
respecting and celebrating diverse cultural perspectives.
In summary, the framework transforms repertoire selection into a strategic and impactful
process that fosters artistic excellence, cultural preservation, inclusivity, and education. By
positioning choral music as a tool for personal growth, societal connection, and cultural
exchange, it ensures the art form's continued relevance and vitality.
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This dissertation presents a comprehensive framework for selecting and sequencing choral repertoire tailored to the developmental stages of children aged 7 to 12, focusing on their cognitive, physiological, and social needs. The study synthesizes existing literature across multiple disciplines, including music education, choral pedagogy, developmental psychology, vocal development, and cognitive sciences, to create a structured approach that integrates child development theory with choral pedagogy. The framework, summarized by the acronym AEC, emphasizes three aspects (Align, Expand, and Connect) and five key dimensions (Cognition, Musicianship, Vocal Development, Social Emotional Skills, Cultural Awareness). By addressing the disconnect between repertoire selection and the developmental capabilities of young singers, this research aims to empower choral directors with informed decisions that enhance musical skill development and foster cognitive, physiological, and social growth.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Tham, Wen Loong
(author)
Core Title
A framework for choral repertoire selection for Singapore children's (age 7 to 12 years) choirs for musicianship, vocal and social-emotional development
School
Thornton School of Music
Degree
Doctor of Musical Arts
Degree Program
Choral Music
Degree Conferral Date
2024-12
Publication Date
01/10/2025
Defense Date
12/18/2024
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
AEC model/framework,Child development,Choral Music,cognition,cultural awareness,middle childhood,music education,musicianship,OAI-PMH Harvest,pedagogical sequencing,repertoire selection,social-emotional skills,vocal development,vocal pedagogy
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theses
(aat)
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English
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Grases, Cristian (
committee chair
), Ilari, Beatriz (
committee member
), Sparks, Tram (
committee member
)
Creator Email
nictham@gmail.com,wtham@usc.edu
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UC11399F8N8
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etd-ThamWenLoo-13734.pdf (filename)
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etd-ThamWenLoo-13734
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theses (aat)
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Tham, Wen Loong
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Tags
AEC model/framework
cognition
cultural awareness
middle childhood
music education
musicianship
pedagogical sequencing
repertoire selection
social-emotional skills
vocal development
vocal pedagogy