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Leadership brilliance: superintendents of color revolutionizing and empowering educational excellence across America

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Leadership brilliance: superintendents of color revolutionizing and empowering educational excellence across America

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Content Leadership Brilliance: Superintendents of Color Revolutionizing and Empowering
Educational Excellence Across America
Zandra Jo Galván
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2025

© Copyright by Zandra Jo Galván
2025 All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Zandra Jo Galván certifies the approval of this dissertation.
David Cash
Maria Ott
Darline Robles, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2025

iv
Abstract
This dissertation examines the leadership practices of superintendents of color in U.S. school
districts, focusing on their impact on educational outcomes for students of color. Using
qualitative methods, including interviews and case studies, it explores the intersection of
leadership, race, and equity, guided by Bolman and Deal’s structural, human resources, political,
and symbolic frames to analyze effective organizational and school climate practices. This study
highlights effective leadership practices that enhance outcomes for historically marginalized
students while fostering inclusive, affirming school environments. Findings reveal that
superintendents of color with long tenures employ culturally responsive strategies, build strong
community ties, and drive systemic changes for sustained educational equity. While focusing on
superintendents of color, this research identifies best practices that apply to leaders of all races
and genders, offering insights for the broader educational community. This dissertation enriches
educational leadership literature by promoting equity and excellence, empowering leaders to
enact meaningful change regardless of their cultural identities.

v
Dedication
To my beloved parents: Mom, Helen Zamora, whose spirit and strength continue to guide me
even after her passing; and Dad, whose 92 years of tireless work and sacrifices have been my
foundation.
To my loving husband, Javier Galván, and our wonderful children, Zoe Jo, Zia Jo, and Zachary
Galván. Your love, support, and inspiration have been my driving force. This achievement is as
much yours as it is mine.

vi
Acknowledgments
This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my beloved mother, Helen Zamora, who
was my inspiration and guiding light. Her unwavering love and strength continue to inspire me,
even though she passed away during the writing of this dissertation. Mom, your spirit lives on in
every word I write, every goal I pursue, and in the very essence of my entire being.
To my father, a remarkable man of 92 years, whose tireless work ethic and sacrifices
have shaped the person I am today. Dad, you are the hardest-working man I know, and I am
forever grateful for your endless support, unconditional love, and the model human you still are
today.
To my incredible family and support system: my loving husband, Javier Galván, and our
beautiful children, Zoe Jo, Zia Jo, and Zachary Galván. You are my heart and my motivation. I
hope to inspire you to chase your dreams and lead with courage, tenacity, and compassion.
To my dissertation chair, Dr. Darline Robles, and committee members, Dr. Maria Mott
and Dr. David Cash. Your guidance, wisdom, and encouragement have been instrumental in this
journey. I am deeply grateful to my chair, Dr. Robles, for her incredible support and mentorship.
To the 12 superintendent role models and numerous inspirational leaders across the
nation who have made me a better leader, thank you! Your examples of integrity, dedication, and
vision have been a constant source of motivation. Understanding their leadership is critical to
future generations of leaders being effective, inclusive, and culturally responsive leaders.
Finally, to future generations of superintendents of color, I dedicate this work to you.
May you be inspired and empowered to lead with greatness, break barriers, and create positive
change in our educational systems. You have the power to shape the future. I believe in your
potential to lead with excellence and compassion, and our students will expect nothing less.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study...............................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................5
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................6
Research Questions..............................................................................................................8
Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................9
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions....................................................................10
Definitions..........................................................................................................................11
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................14
The Role of the Superintendent .........................................................................................15
The Changing Role of the Superintendent.........................................................................15
The Impact of a Strong Governance Team........................................................................24
The Superintendent As the Leader of Effective Organizational Practices ........................27
The Superintendent As the Leader of Positive School Climate and Culture for Student
Success...............................................................................................................................37
The Unique Role of the Superintendent of Color..............................................................43
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................49
The Conceptual Framework of Superintendents of Color.................................................50

viii
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................53
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................55
Research Design.................................................................................................................55
Participant Selection ..........................................................................................................56
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................58
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................59
Ethical Considerations.......................................................................................................59
Researcher’s Positionality..................................................................................................60
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions ..........................................................................60
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................61
Chapter Four: The Findings...........................................................................................................63
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................63
Participants.........................................................................................................................65
Research Questions............................................................................................................69
Interviews...........................................................................................................................69
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................70
General Findings................................................................................................................70
Findings for Research Question 1......................................................................................72
Findings for Research Question 2......................................................................................76
Themes From the Findings ................................................................................................81
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................94
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research...................................................95
Summary of Findings.........................................................................................................95
Conclusions Organized by Research Questions ................................................................96
Discussion..........................................................................................................................97

ix
Implications for Practice ....................................................................................................98
Recommendations for Future Research...........................................................................101
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................104
References....................................................................................................................................108
Introduction......................................................................................................................123
The Process......................................................................................................................124
Research Questions (With Transitions) ...........................................................................125
Closing .............................................................................................................................128
Appendix B: Invitation To Participate.........................................................................................129
Appendix C: Email Invitation......................................................................................................131
Appendix D: Information Sheet For IRB.....................................................................................133

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Participants 68
Table 2: Research Question 1 83
Table 3: Research Question 2 84
Table 4: Checklist for Monitoring Organizational Practices to Achieve Student Success 85
Table 5: Checklist for Monitoring and Implementing Practices for Positive School Climate
and Culture 88

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Image 1 52
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework Image 2 53

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Research has found that that historically underrepresented and marginalized communities
see increased academic outcomes when their school districts have a diverse superintendent and
leadership team who understand the need for positive school climates (Egalite et al., 2015).
Leadership is a critical component in ensuring positive academic outcomes for students in our
education system. With the increasing diversity of student populations, it is important to explore
the leadership practices of individuals who reflect the backgrounds and experiences of the
communities they serve. In particular, superintendents of color can play a significant role in
fostering success for children of color. The purpose of this study was to better understand how to
empower and sustain these leaders in school districts across America who can start strong, stay at
least 5 years, and use that staying power to benefit the communities they serve via sound
organizational practices and building positive school climate and culture.
When I use the phrase “Latino/Latina/Latinx” and/or “Black/African American,” I refer
to leaders who do not identify as White. In recent years, there has been an increased recognition
of the need for diversity in education leadership positions. Research has found that having a
diverse leadership team with an understanding of the impact of organizational practices and
positive school climate can lead to better outcomes for students from historically
underrepresented and marginalized communities (Egalite et al., 2015). Despite this, the
representation of people of color in education leadership positions remains low, particularly in
rural areas (Boser et al., 2019). This lack of representation has a significant impact on students of
color and their academic and social-emotional success when leaders cannot racially, culturally,
and historically connect with the children they serve. Superintendents of color lead differently.
They present a unique perspective with shared lived experiences and culturally rich histories that

2
match that of their students. This match can increase student success when coupled with strong
organizational skills and a deliberate focus on a positive school climate. As the National
Education Association (2021) pointed out, improving student achievement requires focusing on
improving the quality of leadership in our schools. Bolman and Deal’s (2017) four-frame
theoretical framework provides a comprehensive lens through which to analyze and understand
these precise leadership practices. By examining the structural, political, human resources, and
symbolic frames, this study explored how superintendents of color navigate and impact their
school districts.
This study sought to contribute to this goal by identifying effective leadership and
organizational practices of superintendents of color that can inform and inspire educational
leaders in diverse settings. Such practices often include frequent data analysis, instructional
feedback, and ongoing communication on progress monitoring efforts. School climate and
culture are key components of positive learning environments. Leaders need to prioritize creating
a sense of belonging for all students and can prove to support their tenure and connection with
the communities they serve when they focus on these areas (Fleig, 2019).
Successful superintendents’ staying power attracts attention due to today’s varied tenure
rates. While the national average tenure for all superintendents is approximately 5 to 6 years, the
average tenure in California is only 3 years (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Glass et al., 2000). The
combination of high turnover rates for both superintendents and principals can result in negative
outcomes, such as interruptions in program or reform implementation, decreased teacher morale,
and a culture that resists change (Fink & Brayman, 2006). Moreover, the current age of
superintendents remains stagnant, ranging from 56 to 60 years, whereas the age of principals is

3
decreasing, highlighting the need for experienced superintendents who can shape and support
less-experienced but potentially effective school leaders (Kowalski et al., 2011).
With growing demands, we need educational leaders who can demonstrate excellent
leadership skills and create positive school cultures that yield successful outcomes for students.
As such, this necessitates capacity-building efforts in leadership, which aim to enhance the
intellectual and professional competencies required for successful school and district leadership.
State and national affinity groups such as the California Association of Superintendents and
Administrators (CALSA), the National Association of Latino Administrators and
Superintendents (ALAS), California Association of Black/African American Superintendents
and Administrators (CAAASA), the California Association of Asian American and Pacific
Leaders in Education (CAAPLE), the California Association of Black School Educators
(CABSE), and the National Association of Black School Educators (NABSE) can develop the
superintendent pipeline and are indeed promising to the educational field in increasing the
successful tenure of superintendents of color. Current 2023 statistics prepared by the Zippia
Career Experts Research database indicate that there are over 7,292 school superintendents
currently employed in the United States, with 28.5% of all school superintendents being women
while 71.5% are men.
Additionally, the average school superintendent age is 47 years old. When analyzing
ethnic demographics, the most common ethnicity of school superintendents is White (65.3%),
followed by Hispanic or Latino (14.5%), Black or African American (11.1%) and Asian (4.4%).
As the focused population of this study, the collective percentage of Latino/a/x and
Black/African American Superintendents nationally is 25.6%. Furthermore, the national average
of women superintendents of color diminishes to about 3.3% of K–12 superintendents, as

4
Superville (2023) revealed. These statistics provide the rationale for seeking to increase national
representation.
Background of the Problem
This study investigated the effective leadership practices of superintendents of color in
school districts across the country, with a focus on their impact on children of color. Specifically,
the study examined how these leaders implemented practices that improved student success and
created positive school climate and culture systems by design. By studying successful examples
of leadership by superintendents of color, this research aimed to provide insight that could be
used to increase the number of superintendents of color and improve educational outcomes for
all students. I used Bolman and Deal’s (2013, 2017) four-frame theoretical framework, as it
offered a structure for this analysis.
The structural frame provides an understanding of how superintendents of color navigate
organizational rules, procedures, and alignment to improve academic outcomes (Bolman & Deal,
2017). The political frame sheds light on how these leaders manage organizational politics and
advocacy to promote equity and inclusion (Bolman & Deal, 2017). The human resources frame
highlights how superintendents build relationships, empowered staff, and addressed the human
needs to create a supportive environment (Bolman & Deal, 2017). Lastly, the symbolic frame
explored how superintendents of color used inspiration, culture-building, and storytelling to
foster a positive school climate (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Effective leadership can improve the successful outcomes for students of color. We must
ensure that school leadership teams are representative of the communities they serve and that
they are equipped with the knowledge and skills to tactfully face the challenges represented in
such communities (Boser et al., 2019). According to AASA, The School Superintendents

5
Association (2023), only about a quarter of superintendents were women and only 81% were
White as recently as 2023. According to K–12 Dive, the number of superintendents of color is
increasing much more slowly, with 8.6% of respondents identifying as superintendents of color
in 2020, compared to 6% in 2010 and 5% in 2000. Of the relatively small percentage who are
Black/African American, Latinx, or other minority groups, nearly 42% are women (Modan,
2020). This underrepresentation highlights the need to understand and amplify the voices of
superintendents of color who have demonstrated success in their leadership roles. As educational
researcher Gloria Ladson-Billings studies and reveals, we know that when leaders reflect on the
culturally diverse and rich communities they serve, there is a higher likelihood of having policies
and practices that are responsive to the needs of the communities they serve (Delgado, 2020).
Statement of the Problem
Despite the growing diversity of the student population, there is a persistent achievement
gap for children of color in school districts across America. However, some superintendents of
color have demonstrated effective leadership practices that increased the academic success of
students of color. This study aimed to explore these effective organizational practices and their
impact on students of color. Superintendents must be empowered to leverage their positions and
perspectives to advocate for racial equality within institutions and to challenge and transform
White-dominated norms and practices (Fulton et al., 2019, p. 256). Furthermore, research by
Roberson and Park (2004) underscored that greater racial diversity in leadership enhances
organizational decision-making, fosters innovation, creativity, and flexibility, and introduces
diverse problem-solving approaches that can positively impact an organization. This study
focused on superintendents of color who demonstrated a commitment to social justice and equity
for all students. Grogan and Andrews (2002) noted that superintendents have an incredible

6
potential to transform organizations. They are the educational leaders who have the most
significant impact on district academic performance and overall student learning outcomes.
Thus, this study explored the specific leadership and school climate practices that
superintendents of color use to create positive outcomes for students of color in both rural and
urban school districts.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this dissertation was to examine the effective leadership practices of
superintendents of color in school districts across the United States who have demonstrated
success in fostering successful outcomes for students of color in their communities. By exploring
their strategies and approaches, this study offered insights and recommendations for improving
educational outcomes for marginalized student populations and shared the practices of successful
superintendents of color nationwide that can be replicated by future superintendents of color. The
four frames from Bolman and Deal (2013, 2017) guided this exploration as follows:
• Structural frame: Examines how superintendents utilize organizational structures,
rules, and procedures to enhance academic performance (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Superintendents who implement data-driven decision-making processes to identify
and address achievement gaps can significantly improve student outcomes (Robinson,
2016).
• Political frame: Examines how superintendents navigate politics and power dynamics
to advocate for marginalized communities (Bolman & Deal, 2017). Superintendents
who engage with local and state policymakers to secure funding for underserved
schools exemplify this frame (Williams, 2018).

7
• Human resources frame: Investigates how these leaders foster relationships, empower
staff, and attend to the human needs within their districts (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Implementing mentorship programs for new teachers and school leaders to build a
supportive pipeline and enhance teacher retention is one such practice (Loftin, 2023).
• Symbolic frame: Explores how superintendents use symbols, culture, and stories to
inspire and build a strong, inclusive school culture (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Recognizing and celebrating student and staff achievements through public
ceremonies and awards boosts morale and a sense of community (Chakraborty et al.,
2024).
The research conducted by Carlomagno (2020) found that leadership is critically
significant in shaping school culture and creating conditions that support and promote student
learning. superintendents of color have experiences and perspectives that inform and transform
educational leadership practices to better position historically underserved students. Carlomagno
emphasized addressing race and culture in modern schools, highlighting the need for educators to
have the courage, knowledge, and skills to understand and respond to the changing racial and
cultural dynamics in U.S. schools. He advocated for the creation of culturally supportive and
affirming learning environments. According to Carlomagno, developing racial literacy and
cultural awareness among educators fostered more genuine relationships between teachers and
students. This led to increased trust and a stronger sense of psychological safety both in
classrooms and throughout schools. The author underscored that the current educational
landscape necessitates these factors (Carlomagno, 2020).
Superintendents of color have a deep understanding of the cultural nuances and historical
contexts that shape their communities, and they bring that awareness to their leadership roles

8
(Gonzalez et al., 2005). A positive school climate is essential to any school district’s success.
Effective superintendents of color understand the importance of creating a sense of belonging
and creating safe, inclusive learning environments that honor students’ identities and experiences
because they know firsthand how important this is to student success because they have
experienced it themselves. Their culturally responsive leadership practices often lead to higher
student engagement and lower disciplinary issues (Gay, 2018). Superintendents of color are
adept at building strong community partnerships to garner support and resources to enhance
student learning (Ishimaru, 2013). By employing culturally relevant curricula and pedagogical
strategies, these leaders ensure that students’ cultural identities are validated and integrated into
the educational experience, thereby fostering higher levels of academic engagement and
achievement (Gay, 2018). Moreover, superintendents of color effectively mobilize community
resources and partnerships to create a support network for students, facilitating a holistic
approach to education that extends beyond the classroom (Ishimaru, 2013). Additionally, their
leadership is characterized by collaborative governance, which empowers educators, staff, and
students to actively participate in decision-making processes, thus promoting a collective
commitment to educational equity and excellence (Gonzalez et al., 2005).
Research Questions
To gain insight into the successful leadership skills and the implementation of specific,
replicable strategies for superintendents of color in education, the following research questions
guided this study:
1. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with organizational structures and practices
that foster student success? (Structural and political frames)

9
1. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with school climate and culture practices
that foster student success? (Human resources and symbolic frames)
Significance of the Study
The significance of this dissertation study lies in identifying and examining the effective
leadership practices of superintendents of color in rural, suburban, and urban school districts who
have demonstrated and fostered success for children of color. By exploring these practices, this
study can provide insights into how educational leaders can improve outcomes for historically
marginalized students. This study contributed to the current literature on educational leadership,
particularly in the context of superintendents of color. The leadership of superintendents of color
in P–12 schools is an under-researched topic in education and adds significant research to the
literature on effective superintendents of color. By examining the practices of superintendents of
color, this study assisted in closing the gap in the literature and provided a better understanding
of how leaders of color can positively impact outcomes for students of color.
Furthermore, this study has practical implications for school districts across the country.
By identifying effective leadership practices of superintendents of color, this study provides
insight for educational leaders who aim to improve outcomes for children of color in their
districts. This study contributes to the ongoing efforts to promote equity in education. Equity
requires recognizing and eliminating disparities in outcomes as well as identifying and
addressing the systemic factors that contributed to those disparities (McDaniel et al., 2023). By
examining effective leadership practices of superintendents of color who have fostered positive
outcomes for students of color, this study provides results and recommendations on how to
address systemic factors that contribute to educational disparities. This study is significant as it

10
contributes to the literature on educational leadership, provides practical insights for educational
leaders, and promotes equity in education. By exploring effective leadership practices of
superintendents of color in rural and urban school districts across the country who have
demonstrated and fostered positive academic achievement for children of color, this study
provided a positive impact on the education system.
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions
Superintendents of color bring a unique perspective to the field, one that is often shaped
by personal experiences with race and equity. This perspective can be valuable when it comes to
leading schools and districts that serve children of color. Superintendents of color who can foster
positive school climate and culture can make a real difference for students. This study sought to
shed light on the practices that are most effective for superintendents of color in rural, suburban,
and urban school districts. As such, this study’s limitations were beyond my control but may
have affected its results. The following sections discuss the limitations, delimitations, and
assumptions.
The study was limited to school districts all over the country with over 2,000 students and
did not capture the experience of superintendents serving small school districts. The study
focused only on superintendents of color, thus excluding the experiences and perspectives of
non-superintendents of color. The study was limited by the availability of data and the
willingness of participants to share their experiences.
I delimited the study to superintendents of color who demonstrated and fostered positive
success for children of color in their communities. The study only focused on effective
leadership practices that impacted positive student outcomes and positive school climate and
culture. The study was limited to data collected from interviews with superintendents of color.

11
The study assumed that superintendents of color have experiences and perspectives that
influenced their leadership practices in a way that positively impacted children of color. The
study assumed that effective organizational structures and school climate and culture are linked
and that successful leadership practices can impact both. The study assumed that participants
were truthful and forthcoming in their responses.
Definitions
Effective leadership practices: Effective leadership practices refer to the strategies,
actions, and behaviors adopted by a superintendent to guide and steer their school district toward
achieving academic success and positive outcomes for students (Fullan, 2001).
Positive academic achievement: Positive academic achievement indicates students’
successful academic performance, which is evaluated through measures such as standardized test
scores, graduation rates, and other relevant metrics (Hattie, 2009).
Positive student success or outcomes: Positive student success or outcomes, as defined in
the context of educational outcomes, refers to the broader achievement of students beyond
standardized test scores. This encompasses a range of indicators, including academic
performance, graduation rates, college readiness, and other relevant metrics that contribute to a
student’s ability to thrive academically and socially. Positive student success highlights the
holistic development of students, including cognitive, emotional, and social competencies, which
are essential for long-term educational and life achievements (Hattie, 2009).
Rural school district: A rural school district refers to a school district that is situated in an
area with low population density and is typically located outside of urban areas (Howley, 2003).

12
School climate: School climate encompasses the general atmosphere and environment
within a school district, encompassing the attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs of students, staff, and
administration (Thapa et al., 2013).
School culture: School culture refers to the collective values, traditions, and customs that
shape the identity of a school district and influence the behaviors and attitudes of its members.
(Schein, 2010).
Sense of belonging: Sense of belonging signifies the emotional experience of feeling
welcomed, valued, and included within a school community (Goodenow, 1993).
Superintendents of color: Superintendents of color are school district superintendents
who identify as individuals from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds (Ladson-Billings,
2009).
Urban school district: An urban school district is a school district that is situated in a
densely populated city or metropolitan area (Milner, 2012).
Organization of the Study
This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provided an introduction and overview
of superintendents of color in education and educational leadership in general. It outlined the
background and rationale for the study, the significance of the study, the purpose of the study,
the research questions, and the definition of terms. Chapter 2 offers a review of the literature,
which discusses school and district leaders, provides a historical context of rural, suburban, and
urban superintendents of color in education, and describes successful actions and specific
barriers to their leadership’s success. Studies of the significant role of positive student outcomes
for children of color in their districts are studied along with their leadership efforts and
organizational structures that yielded positive student outcomes. Chapter 2 focuses on the

13
research of effective leadership practices of superintendents and how they implemented positive
school climate and culture to impact student academic achievement. Chapter 2 provides a
theoretical framework for the study.
Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology and the reasons for selecting a qualitative
approach. It also provides information about the sample and how I chose the location and
participants. The chapter provides information about the study’s instrumentation, the research
design and approach, the sampling and participants, and the framework for data collection and
analysis. Chapter 4 includes the findings of the research, answering the research questions and
related results to existing literature. It included themes and patterns in effective leadership
practices and themes and patterns identified in positive school climate and culture. Chapter 5
interpreted the results and made connections for practice. It connected all parts of the study and
addressed the implications of the study’s findings. Chapter 5 offers recommendations for future
research. The final section of this dissertation was the summary of the study which credited
contributions to the field, final thoughts, and recommendations.

14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Houston (2001) stated, “As education continues to be in the national spotlight, there are
few roles as complex or as pivotal as that of the public school superintendent” (p. 429). The role
of a superintendent is both demanding and rewarding and often filled with various challenges
(Houston, 2001). However, the depth and impact of their leadership and bravery cannot be
overstated, as these qualities affect a broad community, directly shaping and transforming
children’s lives (Houston, 2001). Superintendents need a versatile skillset that enables them to
navigate the external pressures and internal dynamics inherent in public education. I gained
valuable insights from examining the evolving nature of their roles and responsibilities through a
historical lens alongside the challenges of the 21st century. This perspective opened a window to
better understand the decision-making processes superintendents engaged in when addressing
issues within public education.
This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the effective
leadership practices of Superintendents in school districts across America. The review addresses
the research questions of this study, which focus on understanding the implementation of
effective leadership practices and positive school climate and culture that impacted positive
student outcomes. By examining the current knowledge base in this area, this literature review
provided insights into how Superintendents improved outcomes for historically marginalized
students. This chapter consists of five major sections: the role of the superintendent, the
superintendent as the leader of effective organizational practices for student success, the
superintendent as the leader of positive school climate and culture for student success, the role of
the superintendent of color, and culminated by highlighting Bolman and Deal’s (2013, 2017)

15
four leadership frames as the underpinning theoretical framework of this research. The chapter
begins with the role of the superintendent.
The Role of the Superintendent
The superintendent of schools is a key educational leader responsible for overseeing the
overall administration of a school district. Over recent decades, the role of the school
superintendent has undergone significant evolution, largely influenced by school reform
initiatives at both state and federal levels (Kowalski, 2005). Houston (2001) highlighted the
dynamic and ever-changing role of superintendents, emphasizing that this position is not merely
a job but a vocation requiring a distinctive combination of skills. The superintendent role is
multifaceted and involves social, economic and political dimensions (Houston, 2001). It requires
implementing and executing policies set by the school board, managing the district’s budget,
collaborating with school principals and staff, and ensuring the educational programs align with
state and federal standards (Houston, 2001). Superintendents aid in shaping the vision and goals
of the school district, fostering a positive learning environment, ensuring student outcomes are
met, and engaging with the community to address the needs of students and stakeholders. This
intersection of external and internal forces necessitates that superintendents be equipped with
advanced decision-making and problem-solving skills, enabling them to devise effective
solutions to challenges pertaining to student achievement (Kowalski, 2005). The following
section will summarize the changing role of the superintendent.
The Changing Role of the Superintendent
The evolution of the school district superintendent’s role in the United States has
undergone significant changes since its inception in the late 1830s. Initially established in cities
like Buffalo, New York, and Louisville, Kentucky, the position became a staple in most city

16
school districts by 1900 (Kowalski, 2005). Various factors drove this development, including the
growth of larger city school districts, the consolidation of rural districts, an expanding state
curriculum, and the implementation of compulsory attendance laws. The first superintendents
were identified as managers or headmasters and were selected from the best male teachers in the
districts (Swartz & Blair, 1992). Soon thereafter, school districts needed a word to describe this
new leadership position, so the title “superintendent” was developed to describe the position. The
word was derived from the Latin super (over) and intendere (direct attention; Swartz & Blair,
1992).
Initially, district superintendents primarily focused on implementing state curricula and
supervising teachers. However, as early as 1890, concerns emerged about their ability to manage
large city districts due to a lack of managerial knowledge and skills (Kowalski, 2005). Over time,
the role of the superintendent evolved to encompass a broader range of responsibilities and skills.
They were soon seen as democratic leaders, a concept traced back to the ideas of Plato and
Alexander Hamilton, where the superintendent balanced the interests of various stakeholders
while maintaining a statesman-like approach (Kowalski, 2005). Additionally, the role expanded
to include elements of an applied social scientist, influenced by societal and professional forces
(Drucker, 1999). In the Information Age, as characterized by Drucker (1999), the
superintendent’s role further transformed into that of a communicator, adept at accessing,
processing, and making decisions based on vast amounts of information (Kowalski, 2005). This
historical progression highlights the dynamic nature of the superintendent’s role in responding to
changing educational and societal needs.
Houston (2001) articulated the evolving nature of the superintendent’s role, emphasizing
that it is more than just a job; it’s a calling that demands a unique set of skills. Houston

17
highlights the complex and multifaceted demands of the job, which require superintendents to be
visionary leaders, excellent communicators, and strategic thinkers (Houston, 2001). The article
underscores the need for superintendents to have a diverse skillset to effectively navigate the
challenges of modern educational leadership that include the ability to foster community
relationships, manage financial and administrative responsibilities, and, importantly, guide
educational institutions through the nuances of the 21st century (Houston, 2001). Houston’s
analysis points to the significant impact superintendents can have on shaping the future of
education, emphasizing the role they play in the success and advancement of school districts and
children.
This shaping of the future of education does not come without controversy. Hart (2018)
explored the decision-making processes of school superintendents, focusing on whether they rely
on rational or intuitive approaches when facing professional dilemmas. The rational approach, as
Drucker (1999) argued and Kowalski (2013) further discussed, involved a systematic, step-bystep methodology. This process included defining the problem, generating alternatives, and
implementing a solution after considering all options, based on the assumption that decisionmakers have sufficient time and insight to evaluate different possibilities and predict outcomes
(Hart, 2018). Hart (2018) noted that the popularity of this type of rational approach is due to its
emphasis on minimizing subjectivity and political influence. On the other hand, the intuitive
approach is characterized by a quick, affectively charged, subconscious understanding of
complex situations, which is often based on lived experience and holistic associations (Akinci &
Sadler-Smith, 2012; Dane & Pratt, 2007; Myers, 2022).
Hart (2018) identified three primary themes affecting superintendents’ decision-making
processes as they relate to the role of the superintendent. The most significant factor was the

18
participants’ beliefs about what is best for children, with a strong sense of responsibility for
student well-being taking precedence over adult concerns (Hart, 2018). The second theme
revolved around anticipating community reactions, particularly through the perspective of the
board of education. Superintendents often considered how stakeholders, such as the city council,
would respond to their decisions, emphasizing maintaining community trust. Lastly, the study
highlighted the value of consulting trusted colleagues and advisors, including fellow
superintendents and district leaders, in influencing superintendents’ decisions. This consultative
approach emphasizes surrounding oneself with knowledgeable individuals and valuing their
input in the decision-making process (Hart, 2018).
Russell’s (2014) study on the leadership actions and structures that enhance
superintendent longevity and R. D. Olivarez’s (2013) research on preparing superintendents for
executive leadership provided insights into the evolving role of superintendents in America’s
public school systems. According to Russell (2014), the role of the superintendent has become
increasingly complex and publicly visible, with heightened accountability. This evolution is a
response to the growing demand placed on public school systems. Olivarez (2013) further
elaborated on the contemporary functions of superintendents, identifying 10 critical functions
that encompass a range of responsibilities from governance and curriculum to technology and
operational support. These 10 functions reflected the significant themes from the historical
development of the superintendent’s role, emphasizing the need for superintendents to manage
and support these diverse areas effectively. The 10 functions are business, governance,
curriculum, instruction, human resources, district and campus operations, accountability,
technology, communications, and facilities management (Olivarez, 2013). Russell’s research
(2014) also discussed the barriers to superintendent longevity, noting that the pressures of the

19
position often contribute to a sense of vulnerability among superintendents, impacting their
tenure. The study participants identified several key actions for superintendents to sustain their
roles: finding common ground, prioritizing personal well-being, practicing transparent
communication, involving stakeholders, consulting experts, focusing on students, demonstrating
perseverance and courage, setting clear procedures and roles, formulating strategic plans with set
goals, fostering team building and relationships, and maintaining visibility and accessibility in
the community (Russell, 2014).
Sinek (2020) emphasized existential flexibility for an organization’s leader to be strong
and achieve long-term success. This concept involves the organization’s ability to disrupt its
business strategy to better advance its cause. Essential to this process is adaptability within the
leadership and the organization, establishing a foundation of trust and the ability to manage
change effectively (DuFour et al., 2004; Fullan & Quinn, 2016). Open communication and the
invitation of ideas are essential to organizational success, as are individual and organizational
adaptability (Boylan & Turner, 2017). An environment that invites and values risk-taking and
experimentation supports this adaptability (Boylan & Turner, 2017). With a clear commitment to
the just cause and a superintendent leader willing to courageously uphold it, supported by a
trusting team, an organization can effectively respond to and initiate major strategic disruptions
to achieve its goals (Sinek, 2020).
The Impact of Strong Superintendent Relationships
Effective communication and collaboration with educational partners, staff, and higher
management are essential for a superintendent to navigate challenges, foster a positive working
environment, and ensure the successful execution of their responsibilities (Harssel & Casey,
2019). The superintendent’s ability to build strong, trusting relationships can ripple through an

20
organization, fostering productivity, innovation, and a culture of success (Harssel & Casey,
2019). In particular, superintendents of color who leverage their cultural competence to facilitate
more effective communication and collaboration across diverse groups enhance organizational
cohesion and responsiveness (Ishimaru, 2013). Their perspectives enable them to bridge cultural
gaps, fostering an inclusive environment where all voices are heard and valued (Gonzalez et al.,
2005). Furthermore, by prioritizing equity-driven initiatives and policies, these leaders can
address systemic barriers and create pathways for marginalized communities, contributing to a
more just and equitable educational landscape (Gay, 2018). This commitment to equity and
inclusion benefits students and strengthens the overall organizational culture, promoting
resilience and adaptability in the face of challenges (Ishimaru, 2013).
The role of the superintendent in educational leadership is multifaceted and vital, as
highlighted by a plethora of studies. Recent accountability increases have highlighted the
benefits of strong superintendent relationships in their implementation of transformational
leadership in education (Onorato, 2013). Analyzing three empirical studies (McCarley et al.,
2016; Onorato, 2013; Quin et al., 2015), two main themes regarding K–12 leadership emerged.
Superintendents who engage in culturally responsive leadership practices are better equipped to
address their student populations’ diverse needs, fostering a more inclusive and supportive
school environment (Gay, 2018; McCarley et al., 2016). Additionally, the ability to build strong
community partnerships enhances the resources and support available to schools, directly
impacting student success and well-being (Ishimaru, 2013; Onorato, 2013). Moreover, effective
communication and collaboration with stakeholders, including teachers and parents, are essential
for navigating the complexities of educational leadership and ensuring the successful
implementation of policies and initiatives (Gonzalez et al., 2005; Quin et al., 2015).

21
Transformational leadership, which motivates beyond basic follower expectations
(Northouse, 2016), was primarily observed in schools undergoing positive changes, driven by
strong leader relationships. Moreover, this leadership style facilitated interactions among school
leaders, staff, and students, enabling potential systemic cultural shifts in relationships that launch
into essential organizational moves (Northouse, 2016). Transformational leadership has been
linked to enhanced job satisfaction and organizational commitment among teachers, which
further contributes to a supportive educational environment (Quin et al., 2015). Furthermore, the
ability of superintendents to engage in transformational leadership practices has shown a
correlation between improved student academic outcomes and overall school performance (Gay,
2018; Ishimaru, 2013). Such leadership practices are essential in creating a vision and sense of
purpose within schools, thereby aligning the efforts of all stakeholders toward common
educational goals (Northouse, 2016). Transformational leaders in education emphasize
professional development and continuous improvement to adapt to changing educational
demands (McCarley et al., 2016).
Harssel and Casey (2019) examined the partnerships between suburban principals and
superintendents, emphasizing trusting relationships and collaboration. This collaboration leads to
effective school management and student success. Toom (2018) further underscores the
significance of school culture, leadership, and relationships, noting that these elements are
fundamental to the teaching and learning environment. This research highlights how leadership
styles and school culture directly impact the effectiveness of educational processes.
Flores and Kyere (2020) emphasized the role of equity-based school leadership,
particularly the need for family-school relationships. This perspective aligned with Lim’s (2019)
findings on positive school leadership, which focused on building capacity and strengthening

22
relationships within the school community. These studies collectively suggested that effective
leadership extends beyond the school to involve families and the broader community, creating a
more inclusive and supportive educational environment. By fostering strong partnerships with
families, school leaders better understand and address their students’ diverse needs, which
promotes equity and academic success (Flores & Kyere, 2020). Moreover, these inclusive
leadership practices lead to higher levels of trust and collaboration between the school and the
community, ultimately enhancing the overall effectiveness of the educational system (Lim,
2019). A superintendent in a diverse urban district shared an anecdote about how regular
community meetings and home visits helped bridge the gap between the school and the families,
leading to significant improvements in student attendance and parental involvement. This handson approach built trust and allowed the superintendent to tailor educational strategies that were
more responsive to the community’s cultural and social dynamics (Flores & Kyere, 2020).
Banwo et al. (2021) explored the concept of trust in the context of culturally responsive
and positive school leadership. Their findings illustrated the necessity for superintendents to
foster trust and cultural responsiveness within their schools by being present at school events,
inviting families to superintendent roundtables, and encouraging open, two-way communication.
Similarly, Khan (2018) investigated the relationships between principal leadership style, school
climate, and teacher stress, indicating that leadership approaches can significantly influence the
overall climate of the school and the well-being of its staff when staff feel supported and trusted
by their school leaders. Furthermore, the cultivation of trust through consistent and transparent
communication strategies is shown to enhance stakeholder engagement and foster a collaborative
school environment (Banwo et al., 2021). Research by Khalifa (2020) highlighted that culturally
responsive leadership practices, such as recognizing and validating diverse cultural perspectives,

23
contributed significantly to building a supportive and inclusive school climate. Additionally,
Banwo et al. (2021) emphasized that trust between school leaders and their staff can reduce
teacher burnout and increase job satisfaction, ultimately leading to better educational outcomes
for students. Such leadership approaches improve the school climate and increase student
achievement and overall school performance (Khan, 2018).
Finally, Jalapang and Raman (2020) delved into the effects of instructional leadership,
principal efficacy, teacher efficacy, and school climate on students’ academic achievements.
Their research underscored the impact of leadership at various levels, from the superintendent to
teachers, on student outcomes. This body of research collectively highlighted the role of
superintendents in shaping school culture, fostering effective partnerships, promoting equity,
building trust, and ultimately enhancing student achievement. The superintendent-board
relationships are vital to a school district’s success. Furthermore, effective superintendents often
employ data-driven decision-making processes to align educational strategies with student needs,
thereby improving overall academic performance (Jalapang & Raman, 2020). Additionally, their
strategic vision and ability to mobilize resources to address challenges and drive continuous
improvement within the district (Jalapang & Raman, 2020). By leveraging data analytics,
superintendents can identify trends and gaps in student performance, allowing for targeted
interventions that address specific needs (Khalifa et al., 2016). Mobilizing resources effectively
involves securing financial support and garnering community involvement and partnerships,
which can provide additional support and enrichment opportunities for students (Ishimaru,
2013). Moreover, the ability to allocate resources strategically ensures that all schools within a
district have the necessary tools and support to foster student success (Gay, 2018). In a case
study of an urban school district, the superintendent used data to identify a significant

24
achievement gap in mathematics. By reallocating resources and implementing targeted
professional development for math teachers, the district saw a 15% increase in math proficiency
scores over 2 years. This example illustrates how strategic resource mobilization and data-driven
decision-making can lead to substantial improvements in student outcomes (Jalapang & Raman,
2020). The superintendent’s role is multifaceted, requiring the strategic use of data to inform
decision-making and the cultivation of relationships at various levels, including with the
governance team, to effectively lead and manage the organization’s financial and educational
needs (Ishimaru, 2013; Jalapang & Raman, 2020; Khalifa et al., 2016).
The Impact of a Strong Governance Team
The role of superintendents and school board governance teams has significantly evolved
over time, reflecting the changing needs and complexities of educational leadership. Henrikson
(2019) outlined the historical development of these roles, noting that superintendents initially
served as state representatives but gradually transitioned to focus on individual districts’
characteristics and needs. Similarly, while the role of school board directors has changed, two
guiding principles have remained constant throughout history: maintaining control over schools
and ensuring that superintendents act as agents of the board rather than autonomous leaders
(Henrikson, 2019; Mowry, 1894). This historical context sheds light on the current challenges
and necessities in superintendent and school board relations. Russell (2014) identified several
barriers to superintendent longevity, such as the pressures of the position, leading to perceptions
of vulnerability, and high rates of mobility due to professional and personal goals. The minimal
qualifications for serving as a trustee and the lack of role clarity present significant challenges
for school boards. Furthermore, political influences can disproportionately impact district
decision-making and cause a trustee to deviate from their role (Russell, 2014). Given the need

25
for effective relationships and communication, a school district’s well-being requires successful
superintendent and school board interactions. Superintendent preparation programs have also
evolved, moving beyond basic operational management to include more complex areas such as
communication, collaboration, community building, and child advocacy (Russell, 2014).
The Center for Public Education (2019) reported that over 90,000 school board officials
lead school districts across the United States. These officials, who are democratically elected by
local communities, bear the significant responsibility of overseeing public education and
ensuring that the governance of these institutions with the highest degree of integrity and trust.
The California School Boards Association (CSBA, 2018) emphasizes that these board members,
elected by local communities, are responsible for governing public schools with the utmost trust.
They guide and supervise the superintendent (National School Boards Association, 2019). The
California School Boards Association (CSBA, 2018) further emphasized that these board
members are custodians of public trust and key actors in the governance structure of public
schools. Their roles extend beyond mere oversight; they are instrumental in setting educational
policies, strategic planning, and fiscal management, which collectively shape the educational
landscape.
School board members guide and supervise the superintendent, who is responsible for the
daily operational and educational management of the school district. In this relationship, the
superintendent acts as the executive officer of the board, implementing its policies and directives
(National School Boards Association, 2019). The collaborative dynamics between the school
board and the superintendent ensure the alignment of the district’s operational activities with its
strategic goals. Effective school board governance, characterized by strong, transparent, and

26
communicative relationships with the superintendent, can significantly enhance the quality of
education provided to students.
Toward that end, trust between the school board and the superintendent is key. This trust
facilitates open communication, enabling the superintendent to effectively share insights,
challenges, and recommendations with the board. Trust fosters a cooperative environment where
both parties can work toward common goals with a unified vision. The CSBA (2018) highlighted
that the trust vested in these board members by their communities underscores the nature of their
role in educational leadership and governance. Furthermore, trust ensures that decisions made are
in the best interest of students and the community, enhancing the overall effectiveness of the
school district’s operations. Trust-building measures, such as regular evaluations, clear
expectations, and mutual respect, are essential for maintaining a productive and positive
relationship between the superintendent and the school board. This evolution underscores the
increasing complexity of educational leadership, where superintendents must work in tandem
with school boards to balance district-specific needs with broader educational policies.
Furthermore, the collaborative relationship between superintendents and school boards is
essential for addressing contemporary educational challenges, such as equity, resource
allocation, and community engagement (Henrikson, 2019).
Kowalski (2013) highlighted effective communication as a key responsibility of modern
superintendents as an integral part of the governance team. The effectiveness of a superintendent
is often linked to their communication style, as suggested by research, including studies by
Richmond and McCroskey (2000) that associate perceptions of administrator effectiveness with
their communication approaches. Ascough (2010) emphasized the superintendent’s role as both a
proponent and exemplar of effective communication, shining a positive spotlight on their

27
districts and underscoring the importance of informing our communities of our work.
Furthermore, Ascough pointed out the necessity for superintendents to guide school board
members in understanding their communication roles within the boundaries of policies and legal
frameworks.
Overall, the superintendent’s role, along with the school board’s governance, requires a
balance of traditional management skills and modern competencies that address the current
educational landscape’s demands to fully create the conditions for the academic and socialemotional success of students (CSBA, 2017). The ability to foster effective relationships, clear
communication, and a shared vision for the educational community is paramount for the success
of superintendents and school boards alike (Russell, 2014). We will now investigate how
superintendents demonstrate effective leadership through the organizational practices they create
for student success.
The Superintendent As the Leader of Effective Organizational Practices
For Student Success
Being the Superintendent as the leader of effective organizational practices that lead to
student success entails assuming a pivotal role in shaping the overall educational system. In this
position, one is responsible for orchestrating and implementing strategies that foster an
environment conducive to optimal learning outcomes. Fullan and Quinn (2016) noted that
district leaders must clearly articulate the focused direction of the district. Leaders demonstrate
their dedication to the district’s vision by consistently aligning decisions, programs, and
initiatives with the mission, vision, and core values of the district. Their superintendent role
extends beyond administrative duties to leading efforts that emphasize a laser-like focus on
student achievement, well-being, and overall social development. Fullan and Quinn (2016)

28
highlighted that when schools and districts have a clear and concentrated vision, it enables the
entire organization to unite and create transformative change.
Effective Organizational Leadership
To be an effective leader, the Superintendent must lead and create a cohesive vision for
the educational institution. Creating an environment where the non-negotiables and moral
imperative of the work were clear to all allows team members to take risks, be creative, and
innovate to find new ways to make the goals come to fruition (DuFour & Fullan, 2013). As such,
superintendents play a pivotal role in influencing school organization, school district
performance, and, most especially, positive student success. Leaders who genuinely engage their
team members in organizational leadership and decision-making processes, known as distributed
or shared leadership, foster a shared vision for the future (DeWitt, 2018; DuFour et al., 2004).
Furthermore, Dean (2007) highlighted that such leadership cultivates greater trust and synergy
within teams as the focus shifts from positions to relationships. Sinek (2020) added that these
closely united teams, connected by a common cause and mutual support, develop unbreakable
bonds, enabling them to overcome challenges that could overwhelm others.
In a comprehensive meta-analysis, Marzano and Waters (2009) examined the impact of
superintendent leadership on student outcomes. Analyzing 14 studies over 35 years involving
1,210 districts, they found a positive correlation between superintendent leadership and student
achievement. Complementing this, Hough (2014) conducted a quantitative survey to investigate
the relationship between superintendent accountability behaviors and student success. Hough
discovered that superintendents who were more realistic about their organizational accountability
behaviors achieved significantly higher gains in math and reading compared to those who
overestimated their accountability. These findings, which demonstrated strong effect sizes,

29
further reinforce the influence of superintendent leadership, as Marzano and Waters (2009)
identified.
By championing innovative and evidence-based practices, the superintendent ensures that
the school system is adaptive to evolving educational paradigms and equips students with the
skills and knowledge essential for their future success (Marzano & Waters, 2009). In essence, the
superintendent serves as a catalyst for positive change, driving the pursuit of excellence and
cultivating an educational culture that empowers students to thrive (Marzano & Waters, 2009).
The role of school superintendents in creating effective organizational structures and
strategies for positive student outcomes is multifaceted and has evolved significantly over time.
James-Kemp (2018) and Alsbury and Whitaker (2015) provide comprehensive insights into the
various dimensions of a superintendent’s responsibilities and approaches, with the contemporary
view of superintendents expanding significantly. Alsbury and Whitaker (2015) delved deeper
into the various strategies that superintendents can employ to enhance their leadership and the
performance of their schools. They emphasized leadership theory and the need for
superintendents to think adaptively about their organizations. This includes creating a learning
organization, coping with governing challenges, and understanding standards, assessment, and
data collection (Alsbury & Whitaker, 2015).
Moreover, superintendents must navigate the complexities of educational policy and
practice, ensuring that their strategies align with both state and federal mandates while being
responsive to local needs (James-Kemp, 2018). Effective superintendents are also adept at
fostering a collaborative culture within their districts, which is essential for promoting innovation
and continuous improvement in educational practices (Alsbury & Whitaker, 2015). This dynamic

30
approach enables superintendents to address emerging educational challenges proactively and to
drive sustainable improvements in student outcomes (James-Kemp, 2018).
In the current educational landscape, superintendents are increasingly seen as teachers of
teachers, shaping instructional leadership within their districts (James-Kemp, 2018). This
involves managing the logistical aspects of education and actively participating in and guiding
the educational process. The implementation of effective superintendent evaluation systems has
become essential in maintaining accountability and ensuring continuous improvement in
leadership quality and student outcomes (James-Kemp, 2018). Moreover, Alsbury and Whitaker
(2015) highlighted the significance of addressing issues of race and class, having difficult
conversations, and engaging the community in the educational process. These elements ensure
that the school system is inclusive, equitable, and responsive to its student population’s diverse
needs (Alsbury & Whitaker, 2015).
Waters and Marzano (2006) provided insightful findings on the impact of school district
leaders on student achievement. Waters and Marzano discovered a statistically significant
relationship between district leadership and student achievement, indicating that effective
leadership improves student outcomes. The study found a positive correlation of .24 between
these two variables, underscoring the role of superintendent leadership in fostering academic
success. A key aspect of successful superintendent leadership is the emphasis on creating goaloriented districts (Waters & Marzano, 2006). This involves several strategic actions:
• Collaborative goal setting: Effective superintendents engage a wide range of
stakeholders, including central office staff, building-level administrators, and board
members, in setting goals for the district. This inclusive approach ensures that the
goals are comprehensive and supported by all relevant parties.

31
• Non-negotiable goals for achievement and instruction: Superintendents establish nonnegotiable goals in critical areas such as student achievement and classroom
instruction. These goals are mandatory for all staff members and involve setting
specific achievement targets for schools and students, along with the consistent
application of research-based instructional strategies.
• Board alignment and support: In districts where student achievement is high, there is
a strong alignment between the local board of education and the non-negotiable goals
set for achievement and instruction. The board maintains these goals as the primary
focus and ensures that no other initiatives detract from them.
• Monitoring goals: Continual monitoring of progress toward achievement and
instructional goals is a practice of effective superintendents. This ensures that these
goals remain central to the district’s actions.
• Resource allocation: Effective superintendents also allocate necessary resources,
including time, money, personnel, and materials, to support the achievement and
instruction goals. This sometimes involves reducing or eliminating initiatives that do
not align with these goals.
Furthermore, the study reveals that superintendent tenure is positively correlated with
student success, suggesting that stability in district leadership can contribute to better student
outcomes (Waters & Marzano, 2006). Extended tenure allows superintendents to implement
long-term strategic plans and reforms, which are essential for sustainable improvements in
education (Fullan, 2001). Consistent leadership also fosters stronger relationships with staff,
students, and the community, creating a more cohesive and supportive educational environment
(Kowalski, 2013). Additionally, prolonged tenure enables superintendents to develop a deeper

32
understanding of their districts’ needs and challenges, thereby allowing for more tailored and
effective interventions (Waters & Marzano, 2006). Research indicates that superintendents who
remain in their positions for longer periods are better positioned to influence curriculum
development, resource allocation, and professional development, all of which enhance student
performance (Alsbury & Whitaker, 2015).
Effective Organizational Practices of School Leaders
School superintendents shape organizational structures and strategies to foster improved
student outcomes. Initiating and sustaining a successful district culture can take 2 to 5 years
before any sustainable change can begin to see results (Fixsen et al., 2009; Fullan &
Stiegelbauer, 1991). As such, there are many obstacles to address. These roadblocks include the
political pressures from labor partners, the internal politics associated with boards of education,
potential financial and economic constraints, and policies imposed by federal and state entities
that can lead to the turnover of superintendents before any long-term change can occur (Hill &
Jochim, 2018). Furthermore, superintendents must navigate educational reform within a
landscape that often resists change, requiring a nuanced understanding of both policy
implementation and stakeholder management (Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 1991). The ability to
sustain progress amid these challenges underscores the need for strategic planning skills and
adaptive leadership capabilities to achieve and maintain educational excellence (Fixsen et al.,
2009). A superintendent in a large urban district navigated these challenges by implementing a
strategic plan that focused on equity and inclusion. Despite initial resistance and political
pushback, consistent engagement with community stakeholders and a data-driven approach led
to significant improvements in student achievement and graduation rates over 5 years,
demonstrating the impact of sustained, strategic leadership (Hill & Jochim, 2018).

33
There has been extensive research on superintendent turnover. These studies concluded
that the average superintendent tenure was roughly 3 to 5 years (Council of the Great City
Schools, 2014). This instability at the highest level impedes positive, transformational change
that is needed to sustain positive organizational change efforts (Grissom & Andersen, 2012).
Sawyer (2010) and Bird et al. (2013) examined the role of superintendents in educational
leadership. Sawyer noted the expanded role of superintendents, historically shifting from
administrative duties to becoming pivotal in enhancing student achievement. The author pointed
out that a superintendent’s length of service enhances their effectiveness due to a deeper
understanding of district needs and the ability to develop more effective strategies (Sawyer,
2010). Bird et al. (2013) further emphasized that superintendents with longer tenures are better
positioned to build strong relationships with stakeholders, which is necessary for the successful
implementation of school improvement initiatives. Additionally, these long-serving
superintendents are more likely to establish and maintain a consistent vision for the district,
driving sustained academic progress and organizational stability (Bird et al., 2013; Sawyer,
2010).
Bird and colleagues (2013) emphasized the significance of authentic leadership in
superintendents, characterized by self-awareness, transparency, ethical behavior, and balanced
information processing. They argued that such leaders are more adept at implementing best
practices that result in school improvement. Both works underscore the evolving nature of
superintendent roles, highlighting experience and authenticity in driving effective leadership and
educational advancement. Authentic leaders are also more likely to inspire trust and commitment
among their staff, which is essential for creating a positive and collaborative school culture (Bird
et al., 2013). These leaders are better equipped to navigate the complexities of educational

34
environments, ensuring that all stakeholders align with the district’s vision and goals (Sawyer,
2010).
Furthermore, superintendents’ commitment to authentic leadership leads to significant
improvements in school performance. By fostering open communication and ethical practices,
they can build strong relationships with teachers, parents, and the community, resulting in
increased trust and cooperation. This approach improves student outcomes and creates a positive
and inclusive school environment, demonstrating the tangible benefits of authentic leadership
(Bird et al., 2013; Sawyer, 2010).
Boone (2001) and Decman et al. (2018) offer insights into the multifaceted role of
superintendents. Boone focused on the context of Virginia’s Standards of Learning, emphasizing
the superintendents’ pivotal role in accountability and transformational leadership. The author
highlighted their responsibilities in setting high standards, holding educators accountable for
student success, and leading changes that improve learning outcomes. Boone identified the
necessity for superintendents to develop and implement data-driven strategies to monitor and
assess educational progress effectively. Decman et al. complemented this perspective by
highlighting adaptive leadership skills in managing organizational change and fostering a culture
of continuous improvement within school districts. Superintendents must leverage data analytics
to identify achievement gaps, track progress over time, and make informed decisions that align
with district goals (Fullan, 2001). By fostering a collaborative environment where educators are
encouraged to engage in professional development and share best practices, superintendents can
drive sustained improvement and innovation in teaching and learning methodologies (Hargreaves
& Fink, 2006).

35
On the other hand, Decman and colleagues (2018) delved into the more practical aspects
of a superintendent’s role. They discuss the need for responsible fiscal management, engaging in
group processes, consensus-building, and involving stakeholders in decision-making.
Additionally, they stress the need for superintendents to recognize and adapt to emerging trends,
facilitating continuous improvement in school districts. Effective superintendents must prioritize
transparent budgeting practices, ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently and equitably to
support educational goals (Fullan, 2001). By actively involving school boards, teachers, parents,
and community members in the decision-making process, superintendents can foster a sense of
shared ownership and accountability (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006). Moreover, promoting a culture
of continuous improvement involves setting measurable goals, regularly reviewing progress, and
encouraging professional development to adapt to new educational challenges and opportunities
(DuFour & Eaker, 1998). To achieve these objectives, superintendents can leverage
organizational structures such as collaborative leadership teams, strategic planning committees,
and data analysis units. These structures facilitate coordinated efforts across the district, ensuring
that all initiatives align with the overarching educational strategy (Bolman & Deal, 2017).
Additionally, establishing clear communication channels and feedback loops within these
structures helps maintain transparency and responsiveness, further strengthening stakeholder
engagement and fostering an environment of continuous improvement (Schein, 2010). Both
studies underscore the complex and dynamic nature of superintendent responsibilities, from
transformational leadership to practical organizational management.
Effective superintendents are agents of change who combine authenticity,
transformational leadership, and a deep understanding of educational best practices and can
establish a strong organizational purpose (Fullan & Quinn, 2016; Kouzes & Posner, 2012). The

36
role of a superintendent is not absent of challenges, leading to a high turnover rate. Jutabha
(2017) found that in California, 45% of school superintendents left their positions within 3 to 5
years. Given these challenges, superintendents need to be both resilient and visionary to succeed.
Visionary superintendents keep their core values strong, constantly remind their educational
partners of the district’s ethical obligation to address students’ diverse needs, and navigate the
opinions and demands of parents, teachers, staff, the community, and the board of education
(Hill & Jochim, 2018). Superintendents must lead with student-centered determination and the
courage to establish an organizational framework that fosters collaboration toward a common
purpose (Fullan & Quinn, 2016; Kouzes & Posner, 2012).
By integrating authenticity into their leadership approach, superintendents can build trust
and credibility, necessary for effective governance and best practices. This authenticity, coupled
with a strong organizational purpose, ensures that all stakeholders align with the district’s
mission and vision, promoting a unified and coherent approach to educational excellence (Fullan
& Quinn, 2016; Kouzes & Posner, 2012). Authentic leadership enables superintendents to
address challenges transparently and ethically, fostering an environment where continuous
improvement is encouraged and systematically supported through established best practices and
collaborative efforts (Schein, 2010). During challenging times, superintendents must reinforce
the district’s sense of purpose by consistently communicating the shared vision and goals,
highlighting successes, and acknowledging the efforts of all stakeholders (Kotter & Cohen,
2012). They should also provide support and resources to help staff and students overcome
obstacles, demonstrating commitment to the district’s core values and mission. By maintaining a
focus on long-term objectives and celebrating incremental achievements, superintendents can

37
sustain morale and motivation, ensuring that the sense of purpose remains strong even in the face
of adversity (Fullan & Quinn, 2016; Kouzes & Posner, 2012).
Authenticity, empowerment, and transparency are key to forming positive school culture
with the trusting teams necessary for the district’s work (Milon & Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2021).
Ultimately, a strong collaborative culture is essential for the success of both the superintendent
and the district. Such a culture fosters open communication, mutual respect, and shared
responsibility among all stakeholders, creating a cohesive environment conducive to achieving
educational goals (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). A collaborative culture encourages innovation and
collective problem-solving, enabling the district to adapt to challenges and continuously improve
under the leadership of a superintendent who can foster positive school climate and culture
(Kouzes & Posner, 2012).
The Superintendent As the Leader of Positive School Climate and Culture for Student
Success
The role of the Superintendent as the leader of positive school climate and culture is
paramount in fostering an environment conducive to student success. As the institution’s positive
ambassador, the Superintendent shapes the culture and climate of the entire school community,
as the effectiveness of a school district is significantly influenced by their leadership (Deal &
Peterson, 1999). Key to the superintendent’s success is prioritizing people and being mindful of
the impact their behavior has on the district’s culture (McKee, 2017). The extent to which the
district’s culture serves as an asset, helping to align educational partners, attract skilled team
members, positively engage staff, and enhance academic and organizational performance,
correlates directly with the superintendent’s self-awareness and ability to lead by example (Deal
& Peterson, 1999; McKee, 2017). The superintendent’s consistency in leading by example plays

38
a central role in shaping the district’s positive culture and climate and, ultimately, its overall
success.
Effective Positive School Climate and Culture
A Superintendent dedicated to a positive school climate recognizes the
interconnectedness of a nurturing environment and academic achievement. Through strategic
initiatives, effective policies, and a focus on social-emotional learning, the Superintendent sets
the tone for a school culture that values academic success and prioritizes all students’ holistic
development and well-being (Segredo et al., 2021). Fullan and Quinn (2016) indicated that
superintendents who emphasize social-emotional learning frameworks can significantly reduce
behavioral issues and enhance students’ academic performance. Additionally, fostering a
supportive and inclusive environment ensures that all students feel valued and motivated, which
is necessary for long-term educational success (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). This can be achieved
by implementing programs that promote diversity and inclusion, providing professional
development for teachers on cultural competency, and creating platforms for student voice and
participation in school decisions (Fullan & Quinn, 2016; Kouzes & Posner, 2012). Establishing
clear leadership expectations, understanding how emotional intelligence is integrated,
emphasizing communication channels at all levels of the organization, and encouraging
collaborative problem-solving further contribute to a sense of belonging and collective
responsibility among students and staff to develop and maintain positive school climate and
culture (Fullan & Quinn, 2016). The following research review provides insights into the
dynamics between leadership, emotional intelligence, and school culture.
Segredo et al. (2021) and Lindebaum and Cartwright (2010) discussed the role of
leadership in shaping school culture, focusing on the need for both emotional intelligence and

39
transformational leadership skills. Segredo et al. highlighted leaders’ emotional intelligence,
noting that superintendents who are adept at understanding and managing both their own and
others’ emotions contribute significantly to a positive school culture. Such leaders foster
environments of empathy, understanding, and effective communication, which are essential for
enhancing student learning and outcomes (Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2010).
Lindebaum and Cartwright (2010) examined the impact of transformational leadership in
educational settings, describing these leaders as those who inspire, motivate, challenge norms,
and promote innovation. Motivating team members is an essential skill that sets the school
district culture in motion. Superintendents embodying this style improve school culture by
empowering teachers, encouraging collaboration, and creating an environment where all
members of the school community feel valued and inspired (Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2010).
This approach boosts morale and atmosphere and leads to improved student outcomes by
fostering greater engagement and motivation. Both studies underscore the importance of
leadership style, whether through emotional intelligence or transformational qualities, in
cultivating a conducive and productive school environment.
Segredo et al. (2021) and Lindebaum and Cartwright (2010) highlighted the role of
school superintendents in creating a positive school culture and climate. By leveraging emotional
intelligence, adopting transformational leadership styles, and demonstrating effective leadership
behaviors, superintendents can cultivate environments that are conducive to student success. This
involves creating a sense of community, fostering open communication, promoting innovation,
and meeting students’ emotional and educational needs. These actions enhance the immediate
school environment and have a lasting impact on student outcomes, preparing them for future
academic and personal success (Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2010; Segredo et al., 2021).

40
Kor (2010) emphasized leadership perceptions among teachers and principals in shaping
school climate. Superintendents who are perceived as effective leaders can foster a positive
environment by demonstrating key leadership characteristics. For example, they may focus on
building strong relationships with staff, exhibiting a clear vision for the school’s future, and
demonstrating a commitment to student success (Kor, 2010). Such leadership qualities enhance
staff morale and indirectly contribute to a positive learning environment. Furthermore,
transformational leaders are distinguished by their exceptional social skills, their highlydeveloped emotional intelligence, their ability to inspire a pursuit of exceptional visions, and
their passion for their work (McKee, 2014). These types of superintendent leaders excel in
articulating their organization’s vision in a manner that engages and engages people through
their humble positivity.
Humble leadership establishes authenticity and emphasizes the use of personal
relationships to cultivate an organizational culture conducive to sustained progress (Schein &
Schein, 2018). Humble leaders enhance group and team performance by fostering more personal,
cooperative, and trusting relationships between leaders and followers, helpers and clients, and
service providers and customers. This approach underscores the importance of humility in
leadership, particularly in building and nurturing effective, collaborative relationships (Schein &
Schein, 2018). Being a humble leader involves actively listening to others, acknowledging one’s
limitations, and valuing the contributions of every team member (Schein & Schein, 2018). Such
leaders are open to feedback and willing to learn from their mistakes, which enhances their
credibility and promotes a culture of continuous improvement (Collins, 2008). Additionally,
humble leaders prioritize the needs of their team and the organization over their own ego,
creating an environment where everyone feels respected and empowered to contribute to shared

41
goals (Kouzes & Posner, 2012). By demonstrating humility, leaders can build a more cohesive
and motivated team capable of achieving sustained organizational success (Schein & Schein,
2018).
Banwo et al. (2021) and Ismail et al. (2023) emphasized leadership in fostering a positive
and culturally responsive school environment. Banwo et al. underscored the role of trust in
creating an inclusive school culture. Superintendents can achieve this by encouraging diversity,
implementing culturally responsive practices, training teachers to be culturally aware, ensuring
curriculum relevance, and promoting equity in educational opportunities. Building trust involves
transparent communication, consistently following through on commitments, and actively
engaging with the school community to address concerns and celebrate successes (Banwo et al.,
2021). Furthermore, involving parents and community members in decision-making processes
can enhance trust and ensure that diverse perspectives are considered, leading to more effective
and inclusive educational policies (Ismail et al., 2023). Superintendents should create platforms
for regular parent-community-staff interactions, establish advisory councils that include parent
and student representatives, and provide opportunities for community members to contribute to
school improvement plans. This inclusive approach builds trust and empowers parents and
community members, making them active partners in the educational process (Banwo et al.,
2021; Ismail et al., 2023). These steps are vital in building a harmonious and effective learning
environment.
Ismail et al. (2023) discussed the strategies and challenges faced in cultivating a positive
school culture, offering insights that superintendents can apply. Superintendents should consider
professional development programs to enhance instructional leadership skills among principals
and teachers. Also, promoting open communication and collaboration among staff can help

42
address challenges efficiently, thereby nurturing a positive school culture. This research suggests
that leaders who value inclusivity, communication, and professional development shape a
positive, culturally responsive educational setting (Ismail et al., 2023). Superintendents can
significantly influence school culture and climate through their leadership style, commitment to
diversity and inclusivity, and strategies to enhance instructional leadership. By focusing on these
areas, they contribute to an environment that supports positive student outcomes (Banwo et al.,
2021; Ismail et al., 2023; Kor, 2010; McKee, 2014)
School Leaders’ Effective Positive School Climate and Culture Practices
School superintendents have the power to create a positive school culture and climate,
which in turn leads to favorable student outcomes. This multifaceted and vital aspect of
educational leadership will lead to effective school climate and culture practices. Clark (2019)
provided insights into this dynamic. First and foremost, the diversity in the mission statements,
pedagogies, philosophies, and purposes of schools highlights the challenge superintendents face
in shaping school culture (Clark, 2019). This diversity necessitates a tailored approach to each
school, respecting its specific needs and student demographics. Respecting and valuing the
cultural backgrounds of students and staff fosters an inclusive school environment.
Superintendents must implement culturally responsive practices that honor and integrate the
cultural identities of all school community members (Gay, 2018). This includes incorporating
multicultural education into the curriculum, celebrating diverse cultural traditions, and ensuring
that policies and practices do not marginalize any group. By promoting an environment of
respect and understanding, superintendents can enhance the sense of belonging and engagement
among students, leading to improved academic and social outcomes (Khalifa et al., 2016).

43
Superintendents, like all successful leaders, recognize that they cannot achieve their
district’s goals single-handedly. Effective superintendent leadership involves nurturing and
supporting team members, using coaching, inspiration, and empowerment to align them with the
organization’s purpose (Hess, 2014; McKee, 2014; Senn & Hart, 2006). These leaders skillfully
and respectfully use their influence to inspire and change people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions
toward the organization’s collective goals (McKee, 2014). Previous research on superintendents
(Lezotte, 2011; Waters & Marzano, 2006) often overlooks this aspect of leadership, focusing less
on the leader’s role as a nurturer who skillfully inspires their team’s sense of belonging, mindset,
and behavior. Superintendents who understand and work within these varied contexts know how
to foster a positive and effective school climate and culture (Hess, 2014; McKee, 2014; Senn &
Hart, 2006). When a superintendent has these positive school culture-building skills and is a
person of color, students see leaders who share their racial or ethnic background in positions of
authority, and this can positively impact their sense of belonging and self-esteem (Fulton et al.,
2019). We will now investigate the role of a superintendent of color.
The Unique Role of the Superintendent of Color
Superintendents of color can foster student success by serving as visible and relatable
role models for a diverse student body (Fulton et al., 2019). This is a unique and special role.
Representation matters, and when students see leaders who share their racial or ethnic
background in positions of authority, it can positively impact their sense of belonging and selfesteem (Fulton et al., 2019). Additionally, superintendents of color bring diverse perspectives
and experiences to educational leadership, enabling them to better understand and address the
specific needs and challenges students from diverse backgrounds face (Fulton et al., 2019). This
inclusivity in leadership contributes to the creation of more culturally responsive and equitable

44
educational environments, ultimately enhancing the educational experience and outcomes for all
students, regardless of their racial or ethnic background (Fulton et al., 2019).
Glass (2000) reported significant obstacles for Latinos/as/x and Black/African Americans
in achieving equitable representation in educational administrative and superintendent roles. A
notable 50% of superintendents of color reported experiencing discrimination in hiring and
promotion, hindering their progress in breaking through the glass ceiling (Glass, 2000). Fulton et
al. (2019) further explored the role of leaders of color within predominantly White organizations
in addressing racial inequality. These leaders often find White leaders’ handling of racial issues
to be superficial and poorly informed, with White perspectives and experiences dominating the
organizational culture (Fulton et al., 2019). This issue is critical, as racial inequality remains a
persistent challenge in U.S. society, exacerbated by the concentration of power among White
organizational elites and practices that perpetuate racial hierarchies (Fulton et al., 2019;
Wingfield & Alston, 2014).
Fulton et al. (2019) argued that individuals of color often develop a critical perspective
due to their experiences as racial minorities in a predominantly White society. This perspective
allows them to discern and critique aspects of organizational life related to race that others might
overlook (Fulton et al., 2019). When these individuals hold positions of influence in
predominantly White organizations, they have the opportunity to leverage their distinct
viewpoints to confront and transform organizational attitudes and practices that continue to
sustain racial inequality (Fulton et al., 2019). Addressing inequalities requires understanding
racial dynamics.

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The Demographic Data on Superintendents
The longevity of superintendents in their roles is a topic of interest, especially given the
varying lengths of their tenures. Research indicates that the turnover rates for female
superintendents are comparable to, or even exceed, those of principals, particularly in urban
settings where they can be as high as 71% (Béteille et al., 2012; Glass et al., 2000; Grissom &
Andersen, 2012; Rynkiewicz, 2018). While superintendents nationally tend to hold their
positions for about 5 to 6 years, in California, this average drops to just 3 years (Glass et al.,
2000; Glass & Franceschini, 2007). High turnover among both superintendents and principals
can lead to several challenges, such as disruptions in program implementation, lower teacher
morale, and resistance to change (Fink & Brayman, 2006). Additionally, the age range of
superintendents, which typically spans from 56 to 60 years, contrasts with the decreasing age of
principals, underscoring the importance of experienced superintendents in guiding newer yet
potentially effective school leaders (Kowalski et al., 2011).
In the face of these challenges, the need for stable, skilled educational leaders who can
foster positive school cultures and drive student success becomes evident. This need calls for
targeted efforts in leadership development to build the intellectual and professional capabilities
necessary for effective school and district leadership. Organizations like the CALSA, the ALAS,
the CAAASA, the CABSE, and the NABSE can be pivotal in enhancing the superintendent
pipeline.
Robicheau and Krull (2016) noted a significant disparity in representation: leaders of
color are markedly underrepresented in district superintendent and leadership roles compared to
the increasing number of students of color in schools. Understanding the reasons behind this
underrepresentation is essential for creating effective pathways to leadership for more leaders of

46
color (Robicheau & Krull, 2016). According to 2023 statistics from the Zippia Career Experts
Research database, there are over 7,292 school superintendents in the U.S., with women making
up 28.5% and men 71.5%. The average age of these superintendents is 47 years. In terms of
ethnicity, 65.3% are White, followed by 14.5% Hispanic or Latino, 11.1% Black or African
American, and 4.4% Asian. The combined percentage of Latino and Black/African American
Superintendents stands at 25.6%. However, the national percentage of female superintendents of
color is just about 3.3%, as reported by Superville (2023). These figures highlight the
underrepresentation of superintendents of color, reinforcing the need for increased national
representation in this field.
The Cultural Assets of Superintendents of Color
Superintendents of color have lived experiences that contribute to their leadership style
(Niño, 2018). According to Niño (2018), these leaders often incorporate cultural aspects into
their leadership. They prioritize understanding the diverse cultural backgrounds of their students
and staff, which enables them to create more inclusive and effective educational environments.
Niño (2018) highlighted that by acknowledging and embracing cultural differences, these
superintendents foster a sense of belonging and respect among students and staff, which can lead
to enhanced academic performance and social-emotional well-being. Additional research from
Waite and Wilkerson (2023) emphasized the same.
Waite and Wilkerson (2023) delved into the capacity of these leaders to navigate and
disrupt inequitable systems within education. They argued that superintendents of color are
uniquely positioned to identify and challenge systemic inequalities due to their personal
experiences and insights into the challenges marginalized communities face. These leaders

47
contribute to a fairer educational landscape and set a precedent for systemic change in the
broader society By actively working to dismantle barriers and advocate for equitable policies.
Khalifa (2020) emphasized culturally responsive leadership in schools. Superintendents
of color often excel in this area, demonstrating an understanding and responsiveness to their
students’ cultural needs. Doing so involves implementing curricula and teaching methods that
are relevant and respectful of students’ cultural backgrounds, thereby promoting higher
engagement and academic success. Khalifa’s work suggests that when school leaders
acknowledge and integrate cultural diversity into their leadership approach, they create more
welcoming and effective learning environments of positive school climate and culture.
Superintendents of color bring lived experiences to their leadership roles, greatly
influencing their approach to educational leadership. Niño (2018) emphasized the incorporation
of cultural aspects into leadership by these superintendents. They prioritize understanding the
diverse cultural backgrounds of students and staff, fostering inclusivity and effectiveness in
educational environments. This approach enhances academic performance and social-emotional
well-being by promoting belonging and respect. Waite and Wilkerson (2023), on the other hand,
focused on the ability of these leaders to challenge systemic inequalities in education. Their work
suggests that superintendents of color, through their personal experiences and understanding of
marginalized communities, are well-placed to identify and confront inequities. They advocate for
equitable policies and dismantling barriers, contributing to a fairer educational system and
setting a precedent for broader societal change. Khalifa (2020) also underscored the significance
of culturally responsive leadership. Superintendents of color excel in recognizing and responding
to their students’ cultural needs by implementing relevant curricula and teaching methods. This

48
approach leads to higher student engagement and academic success, creating welcoming and
effective learning environments that positively influence school climate and culture.
In summary, while all three perspectives highlight the contributions of superintendents of
color in fostering inclusive, equitable, and culturally responsive educational environments, they
differ in focus. Niño (2108) emphasized the inclusion of cultural aspects in leadership, Waite and
Wilkerson (2023) discussed the capacity to challenge systemic inequalities, and Khalifa focuses
on culturally responsive leadership practices. School superintendents of color possess unique
leadership styles and culturally responsive practices. Khalifa et al. (2016) provided a
comprehensive synthesis of literature, highlighting how these leaders approach understanding
and respecting the cultural backgrounds and identities of students, thereby creating an inclusive
and supportive school environment. Culturally responsive leadership is not only about
acknowledging diversity but actively incorporating cultural awareness into school policies and
practices to enhance student engagement and achievement (Khalifa et al., 2016).
Waite (2021) extended this discussion, emphasizing critical consciousness in school
leadership. Critical consciousness refers to the ability of leaders to recognize and challenge the
societal and institutional barriers that affect marginalized students. By developing this
consciousness, superintendents of color are better equipped to implement educational practices
and policies that not only acknowledge these barriers but actively work to dismantle them. This
approach contributes to creating a more equitable educational environment wherein students
from all backgrounds have the opportunity to succeed (Waite, 2021).
Furthermore, Murakami et al. (2012) provided specific examples of how expectations and
leadership styles impact student outcomes. The case studies presented in this work demonstrate
how superintendents of color can challenge low expectations and stereotypes that often hinder

49
the academic progress of Hispanic students. By setting high expectations and providing the
necessary support and resources, these leaders can significantly improve these students’
academic and personal outcomes. The study illustrates the transformative impact that culturally
responsive and critically conscious leadership can have in challenging and changing longstanding educational disparities (Murakami et al., 2012). School superintendents of color
uniquely contribute to positive student outcomes through culturally responsive leadership, the
development of critical consciousness, and challenging systemic barriers and stereotypes
(Khalifa et al., 2016). Their actions and approaches demonstrate a deep understanding of
students’ diverse needs and a commitment to creating an inclusive and equitable educational
environment (Khalifa et al., 2016).
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework in this dissertation focuses on learning from the leadership
skills of superintendents of color that provide a structured foundation for how they lead. It serves
to identify and organize the key concepts, theories, and variables that underpin the study,
creating a comprehensive lens through which the research question can be examined. This
research explored how superintendents of color apply Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four leadership
frames in their decision-making processes. Bolman and Deal (2013) categorize these frames as
structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. They describe a frame as a mental model or
set of assumptions guiding an individual’s interpretation of the world. Unlike a navigational
system, these frames offer a perspective to approach complex situations. Bolman and Deal
(2013, 2017) argued that mere possession of a frame does not guarantee effective decisionmaking; rather, it requires time, practice, and feedback to master using the appropriate frame in
different settings. The art of framing involves aligning mental schemas to specific situations. In

50
leadership, amid the voices and pressures of societal environments, both external and internal,
frames help leaders discern what matters and what can be overlooked. Bolman and Deal (2013,
2017) suggested that leaders proficient in multi-frame thinking can make clearer, more effective
decisions, aligning solutions more aptly with challenges.
This framework guides the analysis and interpretation of data, helping to understand the
complexities and dynamics involved in enhancing the representation of superintendents of color.
It also aids in illuminating the underlying factors, barriers, and enablers that influence
superintendent leadership positions. By offering a clear and coherent model, the framework
facilitates a deeper exploration of how structural, human resource, political, and symbolic factors
interact to shape the landscape of educational leadership for superintendents of color who bring
diverse perspectives. Bolman and Deal (2013) elaborated on the characteristics of each frame.
The structural frame involves leaders who identify and address organizational gaps, emphasizing
clear goals, attention to detail, and implementation. These leaders value data and analysis, and
they ascertain the importance of holding people accountable (Bolman & Deal, 2013). An
example of a superintendent working within the structural frame is seen in the recent
implementation of the LCFF, LCAP, and Common Core standards, where identifying and
allocating resources and clear objectives were key.
The Conceptual Framework of Superintendents of Color
The contemporary role of the American school superintendent is marked by significant
challenges, including a nationally recognized shortfall of suitably qualified individuals of color.
This shortfall underscores the need for superintendent stability in addressing both national and
global educational gaps (Glass, 2006). Despite demographic shifts in public schools toward a
majority-minority student population, the superintendency remains predominantly White and

51
male, with slow progress in increasing the number of superintendents of color (Glass, 2006).
Furthermore, there is a notable failure to close racial power gaps in educational leadership,
indicating an underrepresentation of people of color in superintendent roles (Dziorny &
d’Entremont, 2021).
Today’s superintendents need to cultivate critical self-awareness, particularly regarding
their values, beliefs, and dispositions toward serving diverse school populations (Khalifa et al.,
2016). This awareness aids in creating learning environments that support students marginalized
by race and class. Superintendents should be acutely conscious of inequity factors affecting
student potential and address their own biases about race and culture within the school system
(Khalifa et al., 2016). Nationally, Latinos/as/x and Black/African Americans are significantly
underrepresented in superintendent positions (Glass et al., 2000). Factors contributing to this
include a limited pool of minority candidates (Harris et al., 2004) and systemic barriers like
racism and sexism. People of color face additional challenges in accessing superintendent roles
and often find themselves appointed to troubled, low-performing districts (Simmons, 2005).
In the intricate environment of a public education institution, district superintendents of
color must consider numerous factors before deciding how to respond to any complex situation.
This research reviews the evolving landscape of the superintendency, acknowledging the
complexities and obstacles superintendents of color face (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Bolman and
Deal (2013, 2017) suggested that leaders should employ specific leadership frames or mindsets
to navigate such situations effectively. These frames help leaders develop practical and viable
solutions when confronted with challenging decisions (Bolman & Deal, 2013). This research
explored how school district superintendents of color apply Bolman and Deal’s four leadership
frames in their decision-making processes. Studies have demonstrated superintendents’ changing

52
roles and responsibilities, evolving through various educational reform periods into roles of (a)
an instructional leader, (b) a manager, (c) a democratic-political figure, (d) an applied social
scientist, and (e) an effective communicator (Björk et al., 2018; Kowalski, 2005). Each era’s
increasing accountability demands at federal, state, and local levels have expanded the
superintendent’s responsibilities. Research suggests that blending the qualities of a
transformational leader with Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership frames in decision-making is
key to addressing organizational challenges and shaping effective leadership in the 21st century.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Image 1
Note. From Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (5th ed.) by L. G.
Bolman & T. E.Deal, (2013). Jossey-Bass. Copyright 2013 by John Wiley & Sons.

53
Figure 2
Conceptual Framework Image 2
Note. From Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (5th ed.) by L. G.
Bolman & T. E.Deal, (2013). Jossey-Bass. Copyright 2013 by John Wiley & Sons.
Conclusion
This chapter provided a comprehensive review of the literature on the effective leadership
practices of Superintendents in rural, suburban, and urban school districts across America. The
review highlighted visionary leadership, data-driven decision-making, resource allocation,
positive school climate and culture, and the impact of these practices on positive student
academic achievement. By understanding these practices and their impact, educational leaders
can enhance their strategies to improve outcomes for historically marginalized students. The
study’s findings have practical implications for educational leaders across the country. By
identifying effective leadership practices of superintendents of color, this research can provide
insights for educational leaders who aim to improve academic outcomes for children of color in

54
their own districts. Chapter three outlines the research methodology employed in this study to
further explore these practices and their implementation by superintendents of color.

55
Chapter Three: Methodology
This study sought to understand and analyze the leadership skills, strategies, and practices
that have contributed to narrowing the educational debt and promoting academic success for
marginalized students of color (Ladson-Billings, G., 2006). This chapter outlines the
methodological approach employed to address the research questions and objectives of this
study. The purpose was to explore effective leadership practices and positive school climate and
culture practices implemented by superintendents of color in rural, suburban, and urban school
districts across the United States, with a focus on their impact on positive student success. This
study sought to understand and analyze the leadership skills, strategies, and practices that
contributed to narrowing the educational debt and promoting success for marginalized students
of color (Ladson-Billings, 2006). The qualitative methodological approach of narrative research
allowed for an in-depth understanding of the experiences and perspectives of the superintendents
of color.
Research Design
To gain insights into effective leadership practices and positive school climate and
culture practices, this study adopted a qualitative methodological approach. Specifically,
narrative research was employed to capture the lived experiences and perspectives of
superintendents of color who implemented practices that led to positive student success. This
approach was well-suited for exploring the complexity and nuances of leadership practices
within educational contexts. To gain insight into the successful leadership skills and the
implementation of specific, replicable strategies for superintendents of color in education, the
following research questions guided this study:

56
1. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with organizational structures and practices
that foster student success? (Structural and political frames)
2. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with school climate and culture practices
that foster student success? (Human resources and symbolic frames)
Participant Selection
The sample for this study consisted of 12 district superintendents who identify as
Latino/a/x and/or Black/African American and have served in their positions for at least 5 years.
The selection criteria included diversity in terms of gender, geographical location (both within
California and outside, including states such as Texas, Florida, New York, and Arizona, among
others), and district characteristics (rural, suburban, and urban). By including superintendents
from different backgrounds and contexts, the study aimed to capture a broad range of leadership
experiences and practices. The superintendents I invited to participate have earned national
recognition and awards as leaders of their innovative organizations.
I selected the superintendents through a multi-step process that prioritized confidentiality
while ensuring their qualifications aligned with the study’s objectives. Publicly available data on
district performance, including state assessment results, graduation rates, and equity-focused
achievements, was systematically reviewed to identify superintendents whose leadership had
demonstrably improved student success for their districts. I emphasized performance metrics that
reflected sustained progress over time rather than isolated achievements. This approach ensured
that the selection was grounded in verifiable evidence, allowing the study to highlight leaders

57
with a proven track record of promoting equity and excellence across diverse student
populations.
In addition to success in fostering student success, I rigorously evaluated positive school
climate and culture through secondary sources such as media coverage, district communications,
and published reports. Indicators included reductions in suspension and expulsion rates,
increases in attendance and graduation rates, and enhancements to student and staff engagement.
I carefully cross-referenced these factors with community feedback and recognitions, such as
awards for creating inclusive environments or implementing equity-driven reforms. To further
verify these findings, I conducted a confidential pre-screening process by consulting regional and
national educational organizations that recognize exemplary superintendents. These
organizations, which included professional associations, policy think tanks, and education
advocacy groups, provided non-identifiable recommendations that corroborated the publicly
available data. This external validation process strengthened the integrity of the selection criteria
and safeguarded the confidentiality of districts and participants by excluding sensitive or
identifiable information.
Recruitment letters were sent via email to six male and six female superintendents,
carefully crafted to explain the purpose of the study, emphasize confidentiality, and request their
voluntary participation. The invitations included assurances that all identifying details, such as
participant names and district affiliations, would remain confidential throughout the study. I
asked participants to provide informed consent before proceeding, and pseudonyms were
assigned to protect their identities in all records and publications.
To ensure geographic and contextual representation, I selected three to four participants
from rural, suburban, and urban districts. The selection process also accounted for district size,

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with all districts serving a minimum of 2,000 students. I chose this criterion to focus on
superintendents who had experience managing larger educational systems, which often involve
diverse student populations and significant equity challenges. I gave priority to those who
demonstrated sustained success over at least 5 years, reflecting their ability to implement longterm systemic changes. These participants were also nationally recognized through awards,
honors, or other acknowledgments of their leadership excellence, further validating their
contributions to education. The selection process was rigorously documented, with all prescreening materials, communications, and recruitment letters securely stored in accordance with
institutional review board (IRB) protocols to protect the confidentiality and integrity of the study.
Data Collection
The primary data source for this study was virtual face-to-face structured interviews
conducted via Zoom. The 90-minute interviews served as the research instrument and were
designed to elicit in-depth responses regarding their leadership practices, implementation
strategies, and the impact on positive student success. The interview questions were developed
based on my own experiences as a superintendent, as well as input from the existing literature on
effective leadership practices. The interviews were audio-recorded with the participant’s consent,
and I took detailed field notes during and after each interview to capture additional contextual
information. The interviews explored various dimensions of leadership, including the
superintendents’ journeys, mindset, authenticity, and the characteristics they believe contributed
to their success. In addition to academic and climate-related questions, I also asked participants
about the challenges they faced and the specific actions they took to overcome those challenges.
This line of inquiry delved into both external and internal obstacles, such as resistance to equitydriven reforms, budgetary constraints, or the pressures of navigating systemic bias in education.

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Participants shared detailed narratives of pivotal moments in their leadership, describing how
they employed strategic planning, collaboration, and innovative problem-solving to address these
issues. These insights underscored the need for resilience, adaptability, and emotional
intelligence in their leadership journeys, offering a nuanced understanding of how personal and
professional growth intertwine to drive their success. I included the interview protocol
(Appendix A), as well as the recruitment letter (Appendix B) and/or email invitation (Appendix
C), and the consent form (Appendix D) for participants.
Data Analysis
I transcribed the interview recordings verbatim and analyzed them by research question. I
used thematic analysis, a widely used qualitative analysis technique, to search for themes that
emerged. The thematic analysis involved identifying patterns and themes within the data,
allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the leadership practices and school climate and
culture practices implemented by the superintendents. The analysis process began with
familiarization, where I read and re-read the transcripts to immerse myself in the data. I reported
the data organized by research questions to share overall trends and implications for the future
success of superintendents. Next, I generated initial codes, identifying meaningful segments of
data related to the research questions. I organized these codes into potential themes, which were
refined and reviewed for coherence and consistency. Finally, the themes were further developed
and presented in a narrative format to tell the story of district leadership practices that
contributed to positive student success.
Ethical Considerations
I took ethical considerations into account throughout the research. Informed consent was
obtained from all participants, ensuring they understood the purpose and scope of the study and

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the use of their responses. I fully followed the IRB protocol (Appendix D). I used pseudonyms to
maintain confidentiality and protect the identities of the participants. I stored the data securely
and accessed them only for analysis and reporting.
Researcher’s Positionality
This research was important to me as I am a Latina superintendent in California who has
led a rural school district for the last 8 years. My personal experiences and positionality might
have influenced this study as it connected to any similar experiences of the participants. This
shared background allowed me to build rapport with the participants while maintaining an
awareness of potential biases. I actively employed reflexivity throughout the research to ensure
my interpretations remained grounded in the participants’ narratives. Reflexivity involved
continuously examining my assumptions, preconceptions, and how my own experiences as a
superintendent informed my understanding of the data. By engaging in regular journaling and
peer interview debriefing, I sought to maintain transparency and accountability in my role as a
researcher, recognizing that my identity and positionality both enriched the research and required
careful navigation to avoid undue influence on findings. Reflexivity, as described here, ensured
that I remained transparent, self-aware, and committed to accurately representing the
participants’ experiences while mitigating the risk of undue influence from my perspective.
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions
Superintendents of color bring a perspective often shaped by personal experiences with
race and equity. This perspective is valuable in leading schools and districts that serve children
of color. Superintendents of color who foster positive school climate and culture can make a real
difference in the lives of these students. This study had the potential to shed light on the practices
that are most effective for superintendents of color in rural, suburban, and urban school districts.

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As such, this study’s limitations were beyond my control but may have affected its results. The
following sections discuss this study’s limitations, delimitations, and assumptions.
The study was limited to school districts with over 2,000 students enrolled all over the
country and did not capture the experience of small school district superintendents. The study
focused only on superintendents of color, thus excluding the experiences and perspectives of
non-superintendents of Color. The study was limited by the availability of data and the
willingness of participants to share their experiences.
The study was limited to superintendents of color who demonstrated and fostered student
success for children of color in their communities. The study only focused on effective
leadership practices that impacted positive student success and positive school climate and
culture. The study was limited to data collected from interviews.
The study assumed that superintendents of color have unique experiences and
perspectives that influence their leadership practices in a way that positively impacts children of
color. The study assumed that student success and school climate/culture are linked and that
effective leadership practices can impact both. The study assumed that participants were truthful
and forthcoming in their responses.
Conclusion
This chapter outlined the methodology I employed to investigate effective leadership
practices and positive school climate and culture practices implemented by superintendents of
color. The use of qualitative methods, specifically narrative research, provided rich insights into
the experiences and perspectives of successful superintendents. By conducting structured
interviews with research questions and employing thematic analysis, this study aimed to

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contribute to the existing knowledge base on leadership practices that impact student academic
achievement, with a specific focus on underrepresented communities.

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Chapter Four: The Findings
Per Participant 7, assigned the pseudonym Dr. Dolores Huerta,
I believe that superintendents of color bring unique perspectives and lived experiences
that are crucial for effectively leading schools with diverse student populations. My
identity helps me connect deeply with our students and families, fostering a community
that respects and embraces diversity. This connection is vital for building trust and
ensuring that the educational policies and practices are culturally responsive and tailored
to meet the needs of all students.
The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to understand how Latino/a/x and
Black/African American superintendents navigate their roles using Bolman and Deal’s (2013,
2017) four-frame conceptual framework. Bolman and Deal argued that leaders must understand
the political, symbolic, human resource, and structural frames to effectively lead organizations.
This study aimed to explore the experiences and strategies these superintendents of color employ
to foster effective leadership, positive school climates, and student success in their educational
settings. The focus was on discerning how these leaders utilize the Structural, human resources,
political, and symbolic frames (Bolman & Deal, YEAR) to enhance their leadership approaches
and contribute to the educational outcomes within their districts. This research provided insights
into the perspectives and approaches of Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents,
highlighting how their backgrounds and experiences influence their leadership in diverse
educational environments.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework underpinning this dissertation is grounded in the examination
of leadership practices and provides a systematic foundation for understanding approaches to

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leadership. This framework identified and organized the central concepts, theoretical
perspectives, and variables essential to the study, thereby constructing a robust analytical lens
through which to answer the research questions. This study investigated how superintendents of
color utilized Bolman and Deal’s (2013) four leadership frames in decision-making: structural,
human resource, political, and symbolic. Bolman and Deal defined these frames as cognitive
schemas or mental models that shape how individuals interpret and respond to complex realities.
These frameworks are indispensable for navigating multifaceted challenges, as they offer
interpretive tools rather than prescriptive solutions. The structural frame emphasizes rational
systems, roles, and policies; the human resource frame focuses on relationships, needs, and
organizational harmony. The political frame addresses power dynamics, negotiation, and conflict
resolution, and the symbolic frame considers meaning, culture, and inspiration within
organizational contexts.
Importantly, Bolman and Deal (2013) argued that the mere acquisition of these frames
does not ensure effective leadership. Proficiency in applying them requires iterative practice,
critical reflection, and constructive feedback. The process of framing entails aligning mental
models to the demands of specific situations, enabling leaders to discern priorities amid the
competing demands of external and internal environments. Leaders adept in multi-frame thinking
are better equipped to analyze complex problems and craft nuanced, context-sensitive solutions,
enhancing decision-making effectiveness and organizational outcomes. This conceptual
framework guided the analytical dimensions of this research and provided a structured
methodology for interpreting the data. It illuminates the nuanced interplay of factors—structural,
human, political, and symbolic—that shape the leadership experiences of superintendents of

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color. Moreover, it elucidates the barriers and facilitators influencing their ascension and
effectiveness within educational leadership roles.
By leveraging this framework, the study explored how superintendents of color, through
their distinct cultural and experiential lenses, navigate the challenges of leadership while
contributing innovative perspectives to the field. It examined how these leaders integrate diverse
frameworks into their practices, fostering equitable and transformative educational
environments. This comprehensive model thus enabled a deeper understanding of the systemic
and individual dynamics that define and influence leadership within the broader landscape of
educational administration, particularly as it pertains to enhancing diversity and representation at
the superintendent level.
This chapter presents the study’s findings, answering the research questions, and includes
themes and patterns in effective leadership practices and school climate and culture. The
interview question protocol directly correlated to the four frames and will be summarized by
frame and then by emerging themes later in this chapter. Each frame has two emerging themes
connected to the summary of findings. When sharing the thematic findings, I will share direct
quotes from the participants that emphasize the key findings of this research. The first three
chapters of this study set out to share the study introduction, the problem of practice, and a
description of the planned methodology used when collecting and analyzing the research data.
This chapter presents the findings illuminated and analyzed through structured interviews with
12 superintendents of color.
Participants
As part of this study, I invited 12 superintendents of color to participate in a 90-minute
structured interview that consisted of 29 detailed questions (Appendix A). The selection process

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incorporated a rigorous evaluation of their contributions to both student success in academics
and school climate. Publicly available data on district performance—such as improvements in
state assessment results, district formative assessments, graduation rates, and reductions in
achievement gaps—was meticulously reviewed. I chose participants based on their ability to
sustain measurable academic progress over 5 or more years, as evidenced by consistent annual
growth in performance metrics ranging from 10% to 20%. These metrics demonstrated the
superintendents’ strategic focus on equity and the advancement of marginalized student
populations.
Equally central to the selection process was an assessment of their contributions to
positive school climate and culture. Indicators such as declines in disciplinary actions (e.g.,
suspension and expulsion rates), increased student and staff engagement, and improved
attendance rates were central factors in the evaluation. Secondary sources, including district
reports, media features, and awards for equity-driven leadership, provided further evidence of
their achievements. To ensure the validity of these findings, recommendations were sought from
national and regional organizations recognizing exemplary leadership in promoting both
academic and cultural equity. These organizations offered non-identifiable validation of the
candidates’ contributions, ensuring alignment with the study’s focus on fostering student success
and inclusive educational environments.
Those invited to participate were either Latino/a/x or Black/African American and
leading a district in the United States. They each received an individual email invitation to
participate in this study. Each of the 12 selected has been a superintendent for 5 years or more
and had successful academic progress test scores on state assessments and/or district formative
assessments in their districts for several years. The average increase in each of their districts

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ranged from 10% to 20% each year. They have led academic progress increases in various
academic areas for a minimum of 5 years.
The 12 interviewees were also recognized for establishing thriving school climates. These
environments were marked by an emphasis on equity, inclusivity, and collaborative leadership
practices. The participants were leaders in their districts and thought leaders at the state and
national levels, frequently contributing to educational discourse through keynote addresses,
conference panels, and authorship in professional publications. Their selection was intended to
highlight a balanced representation of achievement across both academic and cultural
dimensions of student success.
The 12 interviewees have similar professional experiences and have earned either state or
national superintendent of the year awards. Each is often asked to deliver keynote addresses at
national conferences and to represent their viewpoints on national panels. At the time of this
study, each led or had led state and/or esteemed national organizations and frequently led
national equity initiatives. Six of them are Latino/a/x, and six are African American. Six are
female, and six are male. Asking participants to self-identify their racial and/or ethnic
background was intended to mitigate the risk of erroneous assumptions in relation to their racial
or ethnic background. This was also added to guard against the risk of boxing participants into
one racial or ethnic group and allowing for the possibility of the intersection of more than one
race or ethnicity per participant.
I conducted all interviews via Zoom between February 2024 and April 2024. To protect
the participants from harm and to maintain their confidentiality, I assigned them pseudonyms and
de-identified all participant data. I used the self-identified racial and/or ethnic demographic
information that participants indicated on their study invitation response and consent form to

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select a racially and ethnically diverse sample of superintendents to participate in the interviews.
The sample of participants was thoughtfully and purposefully selected to include both Latino/a/x
and Black/African American participants. Table 1 provides a summary of the interviewees, a
breakdown of the self-identified race and ethnicity of participants, their gender, years of
experience, and geographic location at the time of interviews. The data has been shared in these
tables with the use of pseudonyms as a means of de-identifying individual participants. These
pseudonyms help protect the identities while keeping the context of this study intact.
Table 1
Participants
Pseudonym Race/ethnicity Gender
Years of
experience as
superintendent State
Dr. Ruby Bridges Black/African
American Female 7 Louisiana
Dr. Juan Pablo Duarte Latino/a/x Male 8 New York
Dr. Cesar Chavez Latino/a/x Male 13 Oregon
Dr. Harriet Tubman Black/African
American Female 5 Ohio
Dr. Michelle Obama Black/African
American Female 11 Texas
Dr. Julia de Burgos Latino/a/x Female 8 Connecticut
Dr. W.E.B. Dubois Black/African
American Male 14 New York
Dr. Frida Kahlo Latino/a/x Female 14 Texas
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Black/African
American Male 7 Alabama
Dr. Vicente Hernandez Latino/a/x Male 10 New York
Dr. Dolores Huerta Latino/a/x Female 13 Arizona
Dr. Malcolm X Black/African
American Male 9 Maryland

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This chapter will present findings that emerged from the interview data analysis. To
protect the confidentiality and anonymity of participants, a code in the form of a number has
been included in Table 1 and an assigned pseudonym has been used to refer to each participant.
Research Questions
Findings related to the following research questions will be shared. To gain insight into
the successful leadership skills and the implementation of specific, replicable strategies for
superintendents of color in education, the following research questions guided this study:
1. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with organizational structures and practices
that foster student success? (Structural and political frames)
2. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with school climate and culture practices
that foster student success? (Human resources and symbolic frames)
Interviews
After each interview, I transcribed all interviews for accuracy with the voice-recorded
transcript using the Otter.ai meeting note transcription application. As such, typed transcripts
were optionally shared with participants to ensure that I had accurately captured the perceptions
and narratives of participants and to reduce the risk of erroneous capture or misinterpretation. I
reviewed all transcripts to identify emerging themes, both those consistent with the conceptual
framework in Chapter 1 (Figures 1 and 2) and other emerging themes. This study’s research
questions shaped the conceptual framework (Bolman & Deal, 2013), the literature reviewed, and
my experiential knowledge and assumptions. I highlighted themes emerging through a review of

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the study transcripts and captured them in a data spreadsheet. A careful analysis of the concepts
synthesized in the data spreadsheet illuminated the key findings shared in this chapter.
Conceptual Framework
This study involved 12 interviews of people of color who, at the time of this study, were
employed or had been recently employed as superintendents in the United States. The conceptual
framework discussed in Chapter Two was the basis for the two research questions.
General Findings
In the realm of educational leadership, superintendents of color embody a force for
transformative change, bringing indispensable insights and experiences to their roles that
challenge and reshape traditional paradigms. Based on the comments expressed by the
participants during their interviews, their backgrounds enable them to connect deeply with
diverse student populations, fostering environments that are inclusive and empowering. As
leaders, they do more than administer; they inspire, advocate, and forge pathways for equity that
others may overlook or avoid. The interviewees’ narratives highlight the multifaceted impact of
their leadership, illustrating how their presence at the helm of schools is both a beacon of hope
and a powerful catalyst for systemic change.
The interviews underscored the significance, uniqueness, and special aspects of their
roles within their communities and educational environments. These leaders consistently
highlighted the intrinsic value brought by their personal experiences and cultural backgrounds,
contributing to their districts and to the broader discourse on diversity in leadership. A prevailing
theme in the interviews is the perspective that superintendents of color bring to their roles,
enabling them to empathize deeply with students and communities of color. Dr. Julia de Burgos,
for instance, noted, “Being a superintendent of color allows me to bring a unique lens to the

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table, one that is shaped by personal experiences that many of our students and families can
directly relate to.” This empathy extends beyond administrative duties, influencing policies and
programs that directly address marginalized populations’ challenges and needs.
The importance of representation was another theme. Superintendents like Dr. W.E.B.
Dubois expressed the impactful nature of their positions as role models: “It’s about showing our
kids that they too can achieve and lead, regardless of the color of their skin or the challenges they
face.” The symbolic power of their positions helps inspire future generations to aspire to
leadership roles, promoting a more inclusive future. Moreover, the superintendents discussed
their role in fostering cultural competency within their districts, advocating for curricula and
school cultures that reflect the diverse backgrounds of their students. Dr. Frida Kahlo
highlighted, “We push for curricula that not only include but celebrate the histories and
contributions of all communities, which is crucial for an inclusive educational experience.”
Superintendents also shared the challenges they face, from heightened scrutiny to the
complex dynamics of advocating for equity within historically rigid structures. Dr. Malcolm X
articulated, “Being a superintendent of color isn’t without its challenges. There’s often magnified
scrutiny on our decisions and leadership styles, but it also provides a platform to enact
meaningful change.” Across the interviews, a common trend was the emphasis on equity and
inclusion as non-negotiable elements of their leadership. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. emphasized
this when he shared,
As a superintendent of color, the role I play goes beyond administrative responsibilities;
it’s about leading with a sense of duty to my community and to the students who look
like me. It’s about breaking barriers and setting a precedent for inclusivity and equity in
education.

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Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. further discussed the importance of being a superintendent of
color, highlighting the perspectives and responsibilities of the role. He stated, “Superintendents
of color bring essential insights into the challenges faced by students of color, enabling them to
implement targeted strategies that address these challenges effectively.” All interviewees
emphasized that their identity helps them connect with their communities and advocate for
policies that support educational equity. They also unanimously addressed the additional scrutiny
superintendents of color often face, underlining the need for resilience and a solid commitment
to educational justice. As evidenced by the quotes above, the insights of all 12 interviewees
underscore the role superintendents of color play in transforming educational systems better to
serve all students.
The superintendents discussed their proactive measures to ensure that equity is embedded
in every layer of their district’s operations, from staffing to student discipline policies. This
aligns with their vision to transform educational systems to be more reflective and supportive of
every student’s needs. Superintendents of color shape educational policies and practices and
mold societal perspectives on race and leadership. Their roles transcend administrative duties,
impacting educational equity, cultural understanding, and community empowerment. Through
their leadership, they craft an academic landscape that is richer in diversity and more attuned to
the nuances of cultural competency. We will now discuss how each research question relates to
the conceptual framework and thematic trends that emerged from the research.
Findings for Research Question 1
The two frames from Bolman and Deal (2013, 2017) that directly correlate to Research
Question 1 on the organizational structures that lead to student success are the structural and
political frames. The structural frame focuses on the architecture of an organization. It

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emphasizes how organizations are structured to align their goals and processes. This frame
highlights roles, responsibilities, and formal relationships, with leaders focusing on aligning the
organization’s structure with its strategy and ensuring that policies and procedures facilitate
effective and efficient operations. The political frame views organizations as jungles of
competing interests, where various individuals and groups vie for power and scarce resources. It
recognizes the inherent conflicts in organizations, the pursuit of divergent agendas, and the use
of power to achieve goals. Leaders operating within this frame are akin to politicians or
advocates, skilled in negotiation, managing conflicts, and building coalitions to foster
organizational and stakeholder alignment.
Structural Frame
The interview questions directly related to the research question (Appendix A). The
interviewees shared several strong positions with regard to the structural frame. The structural
frame provides a comprehensive lens through which the leadership styles of various
superintendents of color can be analyzed, particularly in how they approach systemic changes
within their districts. This frame highlights the emphasis on strategic planning, resource
allocation, and the establishment of efficient organizational structures that support sustainable
educational improvements and equitable outcomes. With regard to strategic planning and
policymaking, the superintendents of color recognize the need for structured decision-making in
fostering educational equity. Dr. Rosa Parks underscored this approach, noting, “My role
involves a proactive stance in strategic planning and policymaking to ensure sustainable
improvements across our schools.”
With regard to system efficiencies and resource allocation, Dr. Michelle Obama detailed
her efforts to enhance system efficiencies, stating, “I focus on strategic planning and careful

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analysis of our resources to ensure that our organizational structures support operational
effectiveness and sustainability by allocating resources to the most neediest first.” Data-driven
decision-making also emerged as an essential thread within the structural frame. The use of data
to guide decisions is key, as Dr. Harriet Tubman highlighted. She stated, “Implementing
systemic changes requires a focus on data-driven decision-making, which guides our resource
allocation and helps prioritize educational equity. Without this process, an organization cannot
purposefully yield positive results.” Dr. W.E.B. Dubois also emphasized,
I used to use data points, standardized assessment data, local assessment data. … I’m
evolving now to look much more at street data and the stories and the experiences and the
successes of the young people I serve. … They never showed up positively in our
assessment data, … yet they now thrive and are being gainfully employed, and some
becoming wealthy and being entrepreneurial.
All interviewees emphasized using data to inform their organizational direction.
When addressing their schools’ specific needs, the interviewees also focused on tailoring
resources to meet the specific needs of students of color. Dr. Dolores Huerta emphasized,
“Strategic planning and structured decision-making are essential as we allocate resources
carefully to ensure that all students, particularly students of color, have equitable opportunities.”
These quotes illustrate a trend among superintendents of color toward a strategic, thoughtful
approach in their leadership, aiming to build systems that address immediate educational needs
and lay a foundation for long-term equity and excellence.
Political Frame
For the political frame, the interviewees emphasized several key findings. The political
frame encompasses how they navigate the interplay of educational policy, advocacy, and

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community engagement to promote equity and inclusion within their districts. These leaders
wield their influence to shape policies and address systemic inequities, demonstrating a proactive
commitment to fostering fair and supportive educational environments. Advocacy and policy
influence are key responsibilities. Dr. Rosa Parks exemplified the political progress required to
advocate for change, stating, “I focus on aligning resources with student needs and am proactive
in tackling policies that might disadvantage our students of color. It’s crucial to dismantle
harmful policies and champion new ones that foster fairness and opportunity.” Her strategic
approach to advocacy highlights the superintendents’ role in policy reform. Dr. W.E.B. Dubois
articulated his proactive stance in addressing educational policies to ensure equity. He stated,
“We actively re-evaluate and adjust policies to dismantle systemic barriers, ensuring our school
environment supports all students, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds.” His
approach highlights continuous policy evaluation and reform to meet the community’s evolving
needs.
Community engagement and policymaking also emerged as a direct connection to the
political frame. Dr. Michelle Obama discussed her deep involvement in the policymaking
processes to ensure educational equity. “Working with local governments and community
members helps shape policies that support equitable outcomes, essential for students from
underrepresented backgrounds,” she explained. This engagement is vital for developing policies
that are both effective and reflective of the community’s needs. Legislative advocacy is evident
in leading through the political frame lens. Dr Harriett Tubman’s commitment to influencing
legislation demonstrates the role of superintendents of color in the broader political landscape.
“My involvement with state and local policymakers focuses on the impact of legislative changes

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on students of color, advocating for policies that enhance educational equity,” she noted,
showcasing her active engagement in political advocacy.
Policy Development and Community Partnerships
All interviewees lead policy development and community partnerships. Dr. Dolores
Huerta actively engages with policymakers and leverages community partnerships to enhance
educational equity and access. “Tackling educational challenges involves advocating for our
district’s needs, utilizing community support to bring resources and opportunities to our
schools,” she mentioned, emphasizing collaborative efforts in policy advocacy. Dr. Malcolm X
discussed his involvement in the political landscape, focusing on the significance of his
interactions with policymakers. “I shape policies through direct dialogues with policymakers,
ensuring that our educational legislation supports equitable practices. This involvement is crucial
for advocating for our district’s needs, leveraging political tools to benefit our educational
community,” he explained. This quote underscores the necessity of superintendent engagement
in policymaking processes to advocate for systemic changes that support educational equity.
These quotes underline a common trend among superintendents of color: their strategic and
persistent efforts to navigate and influence the political dimensions of educational leadership. By
engaging with policymaking processes, advocating for equitable policies, and leveraging
community partnerships, they work tirelessly to ensure that their districts provide supportive,
inclusive, and equitable learning environments.
Findings for Research Question 2
The two frames from Bolman and Deal that directly correlate to Research Question 2 on
the school culture and climate structures that lead to student success are the human resources and
symbolic frames. The human resource frame centers on the organization’s people, considering

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their needs, skills, and influences. This perspective views organizations as extended families
underpinned by human needs such as empowerment, motivation, and job satisfaction. Leaders in
this frame are seen as catalysts or servants who nurture, empower, and respond to their
employees’ needs, aiming to maximize human capital for both individual fulfillment and
organizational success. The symbolic frame explores the symbolic elements of organizations,
such as rituals, ceremonies, stories, and symbols that represent the organizational culture. This
frame suggests that what is most important is not necessarily what happens but what it means.
Leaders in this context act as storytellers or priests, crafting a culture that gives purpose and
meaning to the work and aligns the organization’s values with those of its members. Through
examining the data gathered through structured 90-minute interviews, several key themes
emerged by frame.
The Human Resources Frame
The human resources frame within the context of educational leadership emphasizes
empowerment, professional development, and the creation of supportive and inclusive
environments. This frame particularly highlights how the interviewees facilitate environments
that cater to the diverse needs of the student body and reflect this diversity in their staff
composition, enhancing cultural competency and relational dynamics within the school system.
Empowerment and professional development drive human resources. Dr. Rosa Parks illustrated
this commitment through her focus on creating supportive environments for educators, which in
turn enhances student learning outcomes. She noted, “We aim to position all team members
where they can succeed, emphasizing collaborative decision-making and professional growth to
create a supportive atmosphere for our principals and teachers.” Dr. W.E.B. Dubois further
emphasized student empowerment through voice. He shared,

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We’re conducting focus groups with young people and affinity groups with adults. We’re
just asking that question: What’s contributing to or standing in the way of you feeling a
sense of belonging? What’s contributing to or standing in the way of you getting an
equitable experience here in our school? ... The answers and the results from the surveys
are leading us to do work afterwards, including those same people we asked. The young
people we say are going to be leading or being a big part of everything we do.
Recruitment and retention of diverse staff was a universal response from all interviewees.
Dr. Michelle Obama underscores the importance of reflecting the diversity of the student body in
the school staff. She states, “By ensuring our staff mirrors the diversity of our students, we
enhance the relational dynamics and cultural competency within our schools, fostering a truly
inclusive educational environment.” Cultural competency and inclusion underscores the
leadership of our superintendents of color. Dr. W.E.B. Dubois speaks to the significance of
professional development tailored to meet the needs of a diverse student population. “Our focus
on cultural competency and sensitivity training for our staff is critical in empowering them to
better support our diverse students,” he explained, highlighting understanding students’
backgrounds to effectively address their educational needs. Inclusive leadership and community
building empower all people. Dr. Malcolm X discussed the importance of inclusivity and
empowerment in his leadership approach. “Creating a culture where all staff feel they have a
voice is crucial for fostering a sense of ownership and engagement among employees,” he
remarked, further noting that “our recruitment practices are aimed at increasing staff diversity,
which is essential for the success of our students.” Dr. W.E.B Dubois shared his passion for
serving youth when he stated,

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Having the opportunity and privilege to serve young people … I’m a teacher at heart …
because of my love and the joy that I find when I serve young people. So, that’s the best
part about the job now: the opportunity to serve in a real way and [a] real in an authentic
way.
These quotes demonstrate a strong alignment with the human resources frame, focusing
on creating an empowering, inclusive, and supportive work environment. Their leadership
practices are about managing schools and nurturing human capital within to foster a community
that supports diverse educational needs. This approach builds a school culture that values equity,
diversity, and professional growth.
The Symbolic Frame
The symbolic frame in educational leadership emphasizes cultural responsiveness,
symbolism, and the creation of a positive school culture that reflects and celebrates the diversity
of the school community. Superintendents in this frame use their roles to inspire, motivate, and
affirm the cultural identities of students and staff, actively fostering an environment where
diversity is deeply integrated into the educational process. Celebrating cultural diversity was an
underlying thread in all interviews. Dr. Rosa Parks discussed the significance of integrating and
celebrating cultural diversity within the school setting. She stated, “We focus on understanding
and integrating the cultural dynamics that our students and staff bring to our community,
celebrating this diversity as a core strength of our educational environment.” Dr. Frida Kahlo
emphasized cultural competency within her district, mainly focusing on the implementation of
programs that resonate with the diverse backgrounds of her students, such as mariachi classes
and dual language learning. She stated, “We are committed to fostering a school culture that not

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only respects but embraces different cultural backgrounds, making our schools a beacon of
diversity and inclusion.”
Additionally, visible leadership and inspiration are characteristic of all 12 interviewees.
Dr. Michelle Obama emphasized the power of visible leadership and the impact of being a
relatable figure for the community. She explained, “My role goes beyond administrative duties;
it’s about being a source of inspiration, fostering a school culture that celebrates diversity and
instills a sense of pride and belonging among all members.” Dr. Juan Pablo Duarte discussed
how his leadership extends into community engagement and advocacy for cultural inclusivity.
He highlights, “My role involves actively engaging with our community to ensure our
curriculum and school activities reflect the rich diversity of our student population. We work to
make every family feel part of our school community, which is crucial for building trust and
engagement.”
Culturally responsive curriculum is a priority of our superintendents of color. Dr. Dolores
Huerta underlines the importance of cultural competencies in the curriculum, ensuring that all
students see their backgrounds respected and valued. She noted, “It’s crucial that our educational
activities and curriculum not only include but celebrate the varied cultural backgrounds of our
students, making them feel seen and valued.” Furthermore, all interviewees shared the
importance of serving students in poverty, empathy and learning of their perspectives. Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr. shared all interviewees’ sentiments:
In terms of serving students of color, particularly students from poverty, that’s something
all of our staff needs to be aware of simply because all of our kids, in one way, shape, or
form, are impacted by that. The White students that we have in our district many of them
are poor, too. So, from a cultural standpoint, everyone must understand and be aware of

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the struggles that other families may have that they don’t. So, it’s important to have these
conversations. We know that the whole notion of what education has looked like
basically comes from a middle-class economic framework. And we have to train
ourselves to understand that other people from other backgrounds don’t necessarily move
the same way. We have to respect that and understand that is what our kids bring to the
table.
The interviewees lead by example as role models and can inspire community
engagement. Specifically, Dr. Cesar Chavez talked about the symbolic power of representation
and his role. He mentioned, “As a leader, my story and presence are powerful. It’s important that
students see someone who looks like them in a position of power, which fosters a sense of
possibility and aspiration within our diverse student body.” Dr. Vicente Hernandez spoke on the
symbolic importance of his role, focusing on how he uses his position to enhance cultural
representation and celebrate diverse cultural backgrounds within the school system. He noted,
“As a leader, it’s my responsibility to ensure that our educational policies and practices celebrate
diversity, fostering a positive school culture where every student feels seen and valued.” These
interviewees demonstrate a commitment to leveraging their roles for symbolic impact, focusing
on cultural competency, inclusive practices, and the promotion of a positive, culturally rich
school environment. Their leadership styles are characterized by an emphasis on visibility,
inspiration, and the celebration of cultural diversity, which are central to fostering inclusive
educational settings where every student has the opportunity to thrive.
Themes From the Findings
Several key themes emerged pertaining to each of the structural, human resources,
political, and symbolic frames, as identified in the interviews. Tables 2 and 3 outline the four

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frames and the themes that emerged. The two themes from the structural frame were strategic
resource allocation that focuses on the equitable distribution of resources based on student needs
to ensure all students have access to necessary support and the systematization of practices that
focus on implementing and refining systems to support efficient and effective educational
operations and crisis management such as focused data-driven decision-making. Utilizing
quantitative data to inform policies, track progress, and identify areas for improvement ensures
evidence-based decisions.
The two themes from the human resources frame that emerged were inclusive and
collaborative leadership that focuses on promoting an inclusive work environment where all staff
members are encouraged to participate in decision-making and contribute diverse perspectives.
This inclusive leadership promotes the empowerment of staff and enhances staff effectiveness
and satisfaction through ongoing professional development and skill-building, particularly in
areas such as cultural competency and leadership. The second theme for this frame was the
recruitment and retention of diverse staff. Ensuring the workforce reflects the diversity of the
student body to enhance the educational experience and provide relatable role models for
students is the focus of all 12 interviewees.
The two themes from the political frame that emerged included advocacy for equity and
inclusion by actively advocating for policies that promote educational equity and address
marginalized and underrepresented students’ needs. The second theme in this frame is
stakeholder engagement and collaboration by building and maintaining strong relationships with
a broad range of stakeholders to support educational initiatives and reforms. These relationships
help in navigating the political challenges and consensus-building in skillfully managing the

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political dynamics of education leadership and working to build consensus among various
interest groups.
The two themes from the symbolic frame that emerged focused on cultural competency
and inclusion strategies by maintaining visibility and role modeling when serving as a visible
leader and role model, especially for students from similar backgrounds, to inspire and motivate.
The second theme that emerged was the celebration of achievements and successes by
organizing events and recognitions to celebrate the accomplishments of students and staff,
boosting morale and strengthening community ties. These themes provide a comprehensive
overview of the strategies and focus that these superintendents employ across different aspects of
their leadership roles, contributing to their effectiveness in managing and transforming
educational environments.
Table 2
Research Question 1
Structural frame Political frame
Strategic resource allocation: focusing on
equitable distribution of resources based on
student needs to ensure all students have
access to necessary support.
Advocacy for equity and inclusion through
navigating political challenges: actively
advocating for policies that promote
educational equity and address the needs of
marginalized and underrepresented
students.
Systematization of practices: implementing
and refining systems to support efficient
and effective educational operations and
crisis management, grounded in data-driven
decision-making.
Stakeholder engagement and collaboration:
building and maintaining strong
relationships with a broad range of
stakeholders to support educational
initiatives and reforms, such as navigating
political challenges.

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Table 3
Research Question 2
Human resource frame Symbolic frame
Inclusive and collaborative leadership:
promoting an inclusive work environment
where all staff members are encouraged to
participate in decision-making and
contribute diverse perspectives, including
professional development.
Cultural competency and inclusion: serving as
a visible leader and role model, especially
for students from similar backgrounds, to
inspire and motivate. This includes
modeling the value of cultural competency
and inclusion in community.
Recruitment and retention of diverse staff:
ensuring the workforce reflects the diversity
of the student body to enhance the
educational experience and provide
relatable role models for students.
Celebration of achievements and successes:
organizing events and recognitions to
celebrate the accomplishments of students
and staff, boosting morale, and
strengthening community ties (add cultural
competency).
Drawing on the comprehensive research findings and themes derived from Bolman and
Deal’s (2013, 2017) four-frame conceptual framework, I synthesized key trends into two
actionable tables that serve as practical tools for educational leaders. These tables directly
address the study’s research questions, presenting evidence-based strategies and actionable
practices designed to enhance both organizational effectiveness and school culture. They are
grounded in the narratives and successful practices the 12 interviewees shared.
For Research Question 1, Table 4 provides a detailed and structured checklist for
superintendents to evaluate and optimize their organizational practices. This table integrates
themes from the structural and political frames (Bolman & Deal, 2013, 2017), emphasizing the
need for strategic resource allocation, data-driven decision-making, and systemic equity-focused
reforms. For example, implementing consistent curriculum frameworks, fostering innovative
programs, and aligning financial resources with district equity goals highlight actionable

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strategies that emerged from the data. These strategies are particularly significant as they address
systemic barriers and ensure allocating resources where they are needed most. The checklist
serves as a diagnostic tool for assessing current organizational effectiveness and as a guide for
implementing best practices that these leaders’ successes have empirically validated. The
findings related to organizational practices revealed consistent themes of equity-focused
planning, resource allocation, and systemic reform. To translate these insights into actionable
tools, Table 4 provides a checklist that synthesizes the structural and political frames, offering
superintendents a structured approach to aligning their practices with the priorities identified
through this study.
Table 4
Checklist for Monitoring Organizational Practices to Achieve Student Success
Category Actionable practice Reflective questions
Hundred-day plan
assessment and
strategic
planning
Conduct a 100-day assessment to
identify district strengths,
weaknesses, and immediate
priorities.
Develop a Year 1 strategic plan
with measurable goals integrated
into a 3-year roadmap with
ongoing monitoring and
refinement.
Engage the school community,
including staff, parents, and
community leaders, to ensure
shared ownership of the strategic
direction.
What immediate priorities emerged
during the 100-day assessment,
and how will they be addressed?
Are the strategic goals aligned with
the district’s equity and student
success vision?
How will monitoring processes
over Years 1, 2, and 3 adapt to
evolving district needs?
Goal setting and
stakeholder
engagement
Establish district-wide SMART
goals aligned with equity and
student success.
How is the school community
engaged in defining and revising
district goals?

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Category Actionable practice Reflective questions
Actively involve diverse
stakeholders, including students,
in defining and evaluating goals.
Ensure regular two-way
communication with the school
community to build trust and
alignment.
Are the goals consistently reviewed
for alignment with district
priorities?
How are diverse school community
voices, including students,
reflected in decision-making?
Systematization
of practices
Develop consistent curriculum and
assessment frameworks across
schools, incorporating equityfocused adjustments to meet
diverse needs.
Implement innovative programs and
career/college readiness
initiatives, aligned to district
goals.
Foster partnerships with community
organizations to provide
wraparound services and
opportunities that enhance
student success.
Are curriculum and assessment
frameworks standardized and
effectively meeting student
needs?
How are innovative programs
addressing gaps in equity or
access and future-ready
alignment?
Are community partnerships
delivering measurable benefits to
students and staff?
Data-driven
decisionmaking
Use PLC protocols to analyze data
frequently and implement
responsive strategies based on
trends.
Align local data systems to state
accountability frameworks
Track comprehensive metrics,
including test scores, attendance,
graduation rates, English learner
progress, chronic absenteeism,
and social-emotional well-being,
etc.
Regularly review the school
community feedback and refine
interventions to close equity gaps.
How often are PLC meetings
producing actionable strategies
for academic and SEL
improvements?
Are state and local metrics
effectively aligned to guide
district priorities?
How is data used to address
disparities and close equity gaps?
Academic and
socialemotional
support
tracking
Integrate academic and SEL
support systems into district
practices, monitoring
effectiveness through measurable
outcomes.
What metrics show the
effectiveness of academic and
SEL interventions?
How are students and families
involved in evaluating SEL and
academic support?

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Category Actionable practice Reflective questions
Use data to evaluate interventions
and adjust strategies for students
in need of additional support.
Incorporate student and family
input to ensure programs are
responsive and impactful.
Are identified gaps addressed
quickly and equitably?
Equity-focused
budgeting
Allocate funds with a focus on
closing opportunity gaps for
underserved populations.
Ensure transparency and alignment
of budget decisions with district
equity priorities.
Annually evaluate the impact of
expenditures on student success
and adjust based on data trends.
How are budget decisions aligned
with district goals to close
opportunity gaps?
Are high-need areas receiving
sufficient resources?
What evidence demonstrates the
impact of equity-focused
budgeting decisions?
Professional
development
alignment
Provide training on curriculum
focus areas, data literacy, cultural
competency, and SEL strategies
aligned to district equity
initiatives.
Ensure professional development
opportunities are accessible to all
staff and evaluated for impact on
practices and outcomes.
Promote ongoing learning and
reflection to support sustained
growth in staff competencies.
Are professional development
sessions effectively addressing
district equity and student success
goals?
How is the impact of training on
staff practices and student
outcomes evaluated?
Are training opportunities inclusive
and accessible to all staff?
Policy evaluation
And reform
Regularly review district policies
for alignment with equity,
inclusivity, and anti-racism
principles.
Engage the diverse school
community in policy revisions
and ensure alignment with local
and state frameworks.
Address potential biases in policies,
ensuring they promote equitable
practices and outcomes.
Are current policies actively
supporting equity, inclusion, and
anti-racism?
How are diverse perspectives
included in the policy review
process?
Are local and state accountability
metrics consistently guiding
policy revisions?

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For Research Question 2, Table 5 shifts focus to the human-centered and cultural
dimensions of leadership by presenting a checklist that addresses school culture and climate.
Aligned with the human resource and symbolic frames (Bolman & Deal, 2013, 2017), this table
captures strategies that interviewees use to foster inclusive, empathetic, and culturally responsive
environments. For instance, actionable practices include embedding cultural competency into
curricula, empowering student voice, celebrating diversity through symbolic gestures, and
addressing social-emotional well-being through targeted support programs. These practices are
designed to create school environments where students, staff, and families feel valued and
engaged. The inclusion of anti-racism initiatives, conflict resolution programs, and community
engagement strategies further highlights the depth of these leaders’ efforts to promote equity and
belonging across all dimensions of the school experience.
Table 5
Checklist for Monitoring and Implementing Practices for Positive School Climate and Culture
Category Actionable practice Reflective questions
Inclusive
leadership
Empower staff through
collaborative decision-making.
Ensure all voices, including
marginalized groups, are heard.
Model transparency and inclusivity
in leadership decisions.
Are leadership meetings structured
to allow input from diverse
voices?
How do leaders ensure
marginalized groups are
empowered in decision-making?
What specific steps are taken to
demonstrate transparency and
inclusivity?
Recruitment and
retention of
diverse staff
Recruit staff reflective of the
student body’s diversity.
Provide ongoing cultural
competency training for staff.
Establish retention strategies that
address barriers faced by diverse
staff members.
Does staff diversity align with the
demographics of the district?
What systems are in place to
retain diverse staff?
How is cultural competency
training evaluated for impact?

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Category Actionable practice Reflective questions
Cultural
competency
and inclusion
Embed cultural competency in
curriculum and daily practices.
Foster empathy through student and
staff engagement programs.
Ensure all school activities reflect
and respect the district’s diverse
cultural identities.
Are curricula and activities
inclusive and reflective of the
student population?
How is the effectiveness of cultural
competency programs measured?
What strategies are used to ensure
empathy is integrated into school
practices?
Student
empowerment
and voice
Establish student focus groups and
forums to gather feedback.
Implement programs and policies
based on student input.
Create opportunities for students to
lead initiatives that impact school
culture.
How are students involved in
school policy discussions?
What evidence shows that student
input has led to meaningful
change?
Are students provided leadership
opportunities to influence school
culture?
Celebration of
achievements
Organize events to celebrate
cultural diversity and student
accomplishments.
Recognize staff and student
contributions publicly.
Ensure celebrations are inclusive
and representative of the
community.
Are achievements and diversity
visibly celebrated across all
schools?
How do celebrations foster a sense
of belonging for students and
staff?
Are recognition efforts reflective of
the community’s values and
diversity?
Social-emotional
well-being
Implement programs to address
mental health and well-being for
students and staff.
Regularly assess climate and wellbeing surveys.
Offer targeted interventions for atrisk populations.
How are mental health resources
promoted and utilized within the
district?
Are climate surveys analyzed and
acted upon regularly?
What systems are in place to
identify and support at-risk
students and staff?
Bullying, antiracism, and
conflict
prevention
Implement clear anti-bullying and
anti-racism policies.
Train staff and students in conflict
resolution, restorative practices,
and anti-racist behaviors.
Regularly monitor and address
incidents of bullying, harassment,
and racial discrimination.
How effective are current antibullying and anti-racism policies
in addressing harmful behaviors?
Are conflict resolution and
restorative practices equitably
applied across the district?
How are incidents of bullying,
harassment, or racial
discrimination tracked, reported,
and resolved?

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Category Actionable practice Reflective questions
Parent and
community
engagement
Build meaningful partnerships with
families.
Ensure parents and guardians have
a voice in school decisions.
Host forums and events to
strengthen school–community
relationships.
How are parents and community
members involved in school
climate discussions?
Are parent forums inclusive and
representative of the
community’s diversity?
How are family partnerships
leveraged to enhance school
climate?
Celebration of
diversity
Organize multicultural events and
activities to foster respect for
differences.
Highlight stories of diverse role
models.
Incorporate diverse perspectives
into school policies and practices.
Are multicultural celebrations part
of the district’s annual calendar?
How are diverse cultural
contributions recognized and
integrated into school culture?
How does the district ensure
diversity is celebrated
authentically?
What distinguishes both of these checklists is their grounding in the lived experiences of
the nation’s most effective superintendents of color. These leaders have demonstrated a capacity
to navigate complex challenges, often within historically marginalized communities, and their
insights provide a foundation for these tools. By focusing on actionable, replicable strategies,
these checklists transcend theoretical applications, offering practical frameworks that
superintendents and school leaders can adopt and adapt to their specific contexts. Moreover, the
checklists provide a mechanism for continuous improvement and accountability. For instance,
Table 4 incorporates structured reflection points, such as monitoring the effectiveness of
professional learning communities (PLCs) in driving academic outcomes and ensuring policies
align with anti-racist principles. Similarly, Table 5 emphasizes regular climate surveys, parent
and community engagement forums, and the celebration of cultural milestones to assess and

91
enhance school culture. Together, these reflective components ensure that the implementation of
these practices is dynamic, evolving based on feedback and outcomes.
These tools also emphasize the interconnectedness of organizational practices and school
culture. By addressing both structural systems and human-centered approaches, the checklists
provide a holistic framework for fostering educational environments where all students can
thrive. Superintendents who utilize these tools are better positioned to identify gaps, implement
targeted interventions, and build systems that promote sustained excellence and equity.
Ultimately, Table 4 and Table 5 are more than simple summaries of research findings; they
represent a roadmap for systemic transformation. These tools empower educational leaders to
leverage the insights of trailblazing superintendents of color, enabling them to lead with vision,
equity, and impact. By integrating these frameworks into their practice, superintendents can
drive measurable improvements in student outcomes, enhance staff and community engagement,
and cultivate school cultures that reflect the values of inclusivity and justice. Building on
fostering inclusive and culturally responsive environments, the findings related to school climate
and culture align closely with Bolman and Deal’s (2013, 2017) human resource and symbolic
frames. Table 5 translates these findings into a practical checklist designed to help
superintendents evaluate and enhance the cultural and emotional well-being of their schools.
In addition to the information shared in Tables 4 and 5, the qualitative data that emerged
from interviews with 12 superintendents of color further informed several key themes, with two
per frame. The themes explored in this study, derived from Bolman and Deal’s four-frame
conceptual framework, include strategic resource allocation, systematization of practices,
inclusive and collaborative leadership, recruitment and retention of diverse staff, advocacy for
equity and inclusion through navigating political challenges, stakeholder engagement and

92
collaboration, cultural competency and inclusion with visibility and role modeling, and
celebration of achievements and successes. These themes reflect the importance of leading and
of leading as a superintendent of color. All 12 interviewees emphasized that ethnic and racial
identity shape their leadership styles and drive their commitment to fostering equity and
inclusion. They bring their perspectives to address diverse student populations’ needs. Their
roles transcend traditional administrative duties, positioning them as advocates for systemic
change, cultural competence, and community engagement.
All 12 interviewees discussed how their personal experiences with racial and cultural
dynamics inform their empathetic approach toward students and staff from similar backgrounds.
This empathy fuels their advocacy for policies and practices that promote educational equity. For
instance, Dr. Julia de Burgos highlighted being both a leader and a representative of her
community, stating, “Being a superintendent of color isn’t just about managing schools; it’s
about understanding the lived experiences of our students and using that understanding to push
for changes that make our education system more inclusive and just.” Their ethnic and racial
backgrounds equip superintendents of color with intrinsic cultural competencies that enhance
their ability to implement curricula and programs reflecting the diversity of their student
populations. This competency is vital for creating an educational environment where all students
feel seen and valued. Dr. Juan Pablo Duarte discussed how his identity informs his leadership,
emphasizing, “My role as a superintendent of color involves leveraging my cultural
understanding to ensure our school policies and teaching methods are not only effective but also
culturally responsive and sensitive to the needs of all our students.”
The interviewees noted that superintendents of color serve as powerful role models,
demonstrating to students of color that leadership positions are attainable and that their cultural

93
and racial identities are assets rather than barriers. Dr. W.E.B. Dubois articulated the impact of
visibility, mentioning,
As a superintendent who reflects the racial makeup of many of our students, I embody the
possibility that our young people can aspire to any height. My presence in this role helps
to dismantle stereotypes and uplift our students’ ambitions.
These perspectives reveal a shared understanding among superintendents of color that their
leadership is fundamentally intertwined with their personal identities. Their strategic and
empathetic approaches to education leadership challenge the status quo and pave the way for a
more equitable and representative educational system. Through their efforts, they ensure that
diversity is celebrated as a strength, shaping policies and practices that respond to and reflect the
complexities of their communities.
Students of color must see superintendents who reflect their racial and ethnic
backgrounds serving as role models in leadership positions. This visibility inspires and
empowers these students by demonstrating that high-level positions are attainable for them. It
also aids in breaking down racial stereotypes and fostering a sense of belonging and possibility
within educational environments. Similarly, it is equally important for White students to
experience leadership diversity. Seeing superintendents of color in authority positions helps to
normalize diversity in leadership roles and promotes a broader, more inclusive understanding of
leadership capabilities across different races and cultures. This exposure is essential in educating
all students about diversity, equity, and inclusion, preparing them to operate effectively and
empathetically in an increasingly diverse society.

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Conclusion
Chapter 4 of the dissertation provided a detailed analysis of how Latino/a/x and
Black/African American superintendents navigate their roles within the frameworks provided by
Bolman and Deal, showcasing how their racial and ethnic identities significantly enhance their
leadership styles and strategies. This chapter encapsulated their experiences and underlined the
impact their leadership has had on fostering effective leadership, promoting positive school
climates, and boosting student success across diverse educational settings. Through structured
interviews, the study delved into the perspectives these leaders bring to their roles, emphasizing
how their personal experiences with racial and cultural dynamics deeply informed and drove
their commitment to educational equity and inclusivity. Their approach transcended traditional
administrative duties, positioning them as catalysts for systemic change, cultural competence,
and community engagement. This enriched the educational experience and modeled
transformative leadership that will guide future educators and administrators. These factors will
be discussed further in Chapter 5 with conclusions, discussions, and suggestions for future
research.

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Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research
Participant 3, assigned the pseudonym Dr. Cesar Chavez, stated,
It is our responsibility to champion diversity. I feel a moral obligation to ensure that
leadership within school systems reflects the diversity of the student population. This
involves not only advocating for people of color in leadership positions but also ensuring
that school boards and other stakeholders understand the importance of diversity and
representation. Our students deserve champions that know their pain and suffering.
Chapter Five integrated the insights and findings gathered from interviews with 12
superintendents of color, examining the interplay between their ethnic and racial identities and
their leadership styles, guided by Bolman and Deal’s (2013, 2017) framework. It distilled
conclusions drawn from the research questions, elaborated on the broader implications of these
findings, and outlined comprehensive future research directions. This chapter sought to deepen
the discourse on diversity in educational leadership, proposing a multifaceted research agenda
that underscored the contributions of superintendents of color. As both a researcher and a seated
superintendent, this study has deepened my understanding of the transformative potential of
leadership rooted in authenticity, cultural competence, and a steadfast commitment to equity. It
has also highlighted the systemic barriers that must be addressed to ensure leaders of color are
supported, retained, and empowered to enact meaningful change.
Summary of Findings
The study revealed that the interviewees apply their cultural insights and experiences to
foster effective leadership, positive school climates, and enhanced student success. They
employed strategies that aligned with the structural, human resources, political, and symbolic
frames, demonstrating a nuanced approach to navigating the complexities of educational

96
leadership in diverse settings. As a superintendent and researcher, I was struck by the
interconnectedness of the themes that emerged. These leaders exemplified a remarkable ability to
balance the demands of systemic reform with the human-centered work of building relationships
and fostering trust. Their success is a testament to the power of intentional, equity-driven
leadership that prioritizes both structural efficiency and cultural inclusivity. The findings also
reaffirmed centering the lived experiences of leaders of color, whose narratives offer insights
into the work required to create transformative educational environments.
Conclusions Organized by Research Questions
To gain insight into the successful leadership skills and the implementation of specific,
replicable strategiesforsuperintendents of color in education, the following two research questions
guided this study:
1. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with organizational structures and
practices that foster student success? (structural and political frames)
2. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with school climate and culture practices
that foster student success? (human resources and symbolic frames)
Research Question 1: Organizational Structures and Practices
The interviewees described their approaches to developing equitable organizational
structures, with an emphasis on resource allocation, systemic reform, and strategic planning. Dr.
Ruby Bridges articulated this vision, stating, “We are not just about maintaining the status quo;
we are here to transform it, to ensure that every decision and policy reflects our commitment to
equity and excellence for every student.” Their leadership underscored the need to align

97
resources with each school’s needs, fostering innovative programs, and embedding equity into
decision-making. This finding underscores the need to approach resource allocation as both a
logistical task and an ethical imperative. As a seated superintendent, I have been inspired to
adopt more rigorous data-informed practices to identify and address disparities, ensuring that
resources are directed to the students and schools that need them most. The participants’
commitment to systemic reform has also reinforced my belief in long-term strategic planning,
which balances immediate needs with sustainable, equity-focused goals.
Research Question 2: School Climate and Culture
Participants emphasized fostering inclusive, culturally responsive school climates. Dr.
Martin Luther King Jr. captured this vision, stating, “Our schools should be havens of learning
and understanding, where every student feels valued, their cultural background celebrated, and
their potential nurtured.” The interviewees highlighted strategies such as embedding cultural
competency into curricula, amplifying student voice, and celebrating diversity as a strength. This
finding resonates deeply with my own experiences as a leader. It has reaffirmed the need for
environments where all students feel recognized, valued, and supported academically,
emotionally, and socially. The participants’ narratives have challenged me to think more
critically about how my district can expand opportunities for student empowerment and integrate
cultural competency into all facets of our operations. Their leadership has reminded me that
fostering an inclusive school culture is not a peripheral task but an indispensable component of
student success.
Discussion
The findings highlight the role of superintendents of color in advocating for policies and
practices that benefit marginalized student populations. The interviewees’ leadership addressed

98
systemic inequities and promoted a positive and inclusive school culture. Dr. Cesar Chavez
shared, “It’s about pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in education, of insisting that our
systems do better by our students of color.”
Implications for Practice
The implications for practice are based on the analysis of the qualitative interviews with
Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents using Bolman and Deal’s (2013, 2017)
four-frame theoretical, several implications for practice were drawn to enhance leadership
effectiveness and improved school climates. There are two recommendations based on each
frame. For the structural frame, there should be enhanced targeted training and development for
superintendents of color that focuses on effective organizational management skills, including
strategic planning and alignment of resources with school goals. This training will enable
participants to navigate and optimize structural aspects of school administration. Additionally,
there should be the implementation of clear policies and procedures. Schools should establish
clear, transparent, and equitable policies that govern everything from daily operations to conflict
resolution. This clarity can help in managing expectations and fostering a stable environment.
For the political frame, strong advocacy networks are key. Superintendents must actively
build and maintain networks that can support advocacy efforts at local, state, and national levels.
These networks can influence policy changes that affect school funding, curriculum standards,
and equity initiatives. Furthermore, there must be enhanced political acumen. Training programs
for superintendents must include elements that enhance leaders’ understanding of the political
landscape, including negotiation and coalition-building skills.
For the human resources frame, a focus on relationship building is pivotal. Schools
should prioritize initiatives that foster strong relationships among staff, students, and the

99
community. This can involve team-building activities, mentorship programs, and community
engagement efforts that empower all stakeholders. Equally important is the promotion of
inclusive leadership. Superintendents should encourage practices that recognize and value
diversity within the school workforce, enhancing cultural competency and inclusivity. This is
especially significant in improving the representation and involvement of minority groups in
educational leadership. This also applies to the superintendent in developing solid relationships
with their board of trustees as a governance team.
The symbolic frame focuses on cultivating a strong school culture. Superintendents
should focus on building a cohesive school culture that resonates with shared values, traditions,
and educational goals. Celebrating successes, recognizing individual and group contributions,
and creating symbolic rituals can strengthen this culture. Additionally, Superintendents must
inspire through vision and storytelling. Leaders should be adept at using stories and visions to
inspire and motivate staff and students. This involves crafting narratives that align with the
school’s mission and the community’s aspirations. These practices suggest that a holistic
approach to leadership, one that integrates structural, political, human resource, and symbolic
dimensions, can significantly enhance the effectiveness of superintendents, particularly those
from Latino/a/x and Black/African American backgrounds, in creating positive school climates
and promoting student success. Additionally, White superintendents who become culturally
responsive and proficient will be ready to view communities of color as partners in education
filled with assets and not deficits.
This study’s findings offer implications for leadership practice, both for myself as a
superintendent and for the broader educational community. The participants’ experiences
illuminated diversifying leadership, creating pathways for leaders of color, and ensuring their

100
success and retention once they assume these roles. This research has highlighted the impact that
leaders of color can have on their schools and on the broader systems and communities they
serve.
Increasing Latino/a/x and Black/African American leaders’ representation in education
requires establishing deliberate pathways to cabinet-level and superintendent roles. This
necessitates comprehensive leadership development programs, mentorship initiatives, and
policies that prioritize equity in hiring practices. The participants’ experiences underscored the
need for proactive succession planning and the cultivation of diverse talent pipelines that prepare
aspiring leaders for the complexities of district-level leadership. As a seated superintendent, I
view this as both a professional responsibility and a moral commitment—to ensure that the next
generation of leaders reflects the rich diversity of our student populations.
Retention is equally important. The participants’ narratives revealed the pressures and
scrutiny they face, as well as the resilience required to navigate them. Retaining leaders of color
entails establishing robust support systems and cultivating inclusive environments where they
can thrive. Peer networks, PLCs, and opportunities for sustained professional growth are
indispensable. This finding has deepened my resolve to advocate for systems that elevate leaders
of color and sustain them in these demanding roles.
Retention is about more than longevity. It is about equipping these leaders to lead
courageously and authentically with the vision to challenge inequities and transform educational
systems. The broader educational community must embrace the findings of this study as a
directive to action. The participants demonstrated that diversity in leadership is not merely
aspirational; it is strategic and necessary. Their leadership exemplifies equity, cultural
competence, and inclusivity, offering a model for how educational systems can better serve all

101
students. By championing leaders of color and fostering inclusive school climates, the
educational community can create a future where every child feels represented, valued, and
equipped to succeed.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study lays a foundation for advancing the understanding of effective leadership in
diverse educational contexts. Further research is necessary to explore the complexities and
opportunities inherent in this field. The following recommendations aim to deepen scholarly
inquiry and practical applications while addressing the broader systemic challenges facing
leaders of color in education. By building on these findings, future studies can provide critical
insights into leadership practices, systemic transformation, and the enduring impact of diversity
in educational leadership. The following topics provide recommendations for future research,
beginning with longitudinal studies to explore the lasting impact of diversified leadership
practices and strategies.
Future research should prioritize longitudinal studies to examine the sustained impact of
leadership by Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents on student outcomes,
school climates, and systemic transformation. Such studies could assess the evolution of
leadership strategies over time and their influence on enduring success. Long-term investigations
would illuminate how the practices identified in this research, such as equity-focused resource
allocation and inclusive school culture initiatives, contribute to sustainable improvements. Dr.
Harriet Tubman emphasized this necessity, stating, “Understanding the enduring effects of our
initiatives helps to refine and strengthen our approaches to leadership and educational equity.”
These studies would validate effective practices and identify areas requiring adaptation to meet
evolving educational needs.

102
Comparative studies can further refine our understanding of how leadership styles and
outcomes vary across racial and ethnic backgrounds. Exploring these dynamics would offer key
insights into the contributions and challenges superintendents of color face. Dr. Juan Pablo
Duarte highlighted this, stating, “By examining different leadership models, we can better
understand the unique contributions of diverse leaders in varying contexts.” Expanding these
comparisons to include superintendents from other racial and ethnic backgrounds, as well as
conducting international studies, could provide a richer understanding of how cultural nuances
influence leadership effectiveness. Investigating leadership frameworks in international contexts
with diverse demographic compositions and educational challenges could also yield new
strategies for addressing global educational inequities.
An in-depth exploration of Bolman and Deal’s four frames offers another promising
research trajectory. Studies could focus on how superintendents utilize specific frames to
navigate challenges in different contexts, such as urban versus rural districts or underperforming
versus high-performing schools. Additionally, future research could examine how the interplay
between these frames enhances leadership effectiveness. For instance, how does integrating
structural resource allocation with symbolic celebrations of diversity create cohesive and
inclusive educational environments? Understanding these intersections could lead to a more
nuanced application of the theoretical framework and inform leadership training programs.
Research into the barriers that inhibit the career progression of Latino/a/x and
Black/African American superintendents is essential for fostering a more equitable leadership
pipeline. Systemic inequities in hiring practices, the role of school boards in leadership selection,
and the structural challenges leaders of color face deserve closer examination. Dr. Malcolm X
remarked, “Identifying and dismantling these barriers is crucial for fostering a more diverse

103
leadership landscape.” Investigating how these barriers manifest at various levels of leadership
could lead to actionable strategies for creating more inclusive pathways to the superintendency.
Mentoring and professional development programs tailored to the needs of leaders of
color are central to their success. Future studies could evaluate the effectiveness of existing
programs and explore best practices for supporting Latino/a/x and Black/African American
superintendents throughout their careers. Research should also consider how mentorship fosters
resilience and prepares leaders to navigate the heightened scrutiny superintendents of color often
face. Exploring how peer support networks, such as PLCs, sustain leaders of color in their roles
could provide insights into retention strategies and career longevity.
Analyzing the impact of specific policies championed by superintendents of color is
another important avenue for research. Understanding which policies effectively address
systemic inequities and foster equity-focused outcomes could guide future policy development.
Dr. Frida Kahlo stressed this point, stating, “We need to know which policies are truly making a
difference in leveling the playing field for all our students.” Additionally, future research should
explore how superintendents integrate technology into their leadership practices. The increasing
reliance on digital tools in education necessitates a deeper understanding of their role in
promoting equity and efficiency, particularly within the structural and symbolic frames of
leadership.
The relationship between superintendents and school boards is an area for further study.
Future research should examine strategies to improve hiring practices that prioritize diversity in
leadership and support the success of superintendents of color. Investigating how school boards
can be educated to value racial and ethnic diversity in their decision-making processes is
essential for fostering a more inclusive leadership landscape. Moreover, the concept of

104
empathetic leadership warrants deeper exploration. Understanding how superintendents of color
leverage empathy to engage families, empower students, and drive impactful change could
inform strategies for cultivating more compassionate and effective leadership practices.
Future research must also focus on creating and sustaining pathways to the cabinet-level
and superintendency for Latino/a/x and Black/African American educators. There is a need to
examine how districts and professional organizations can nurture leadership talent, provide
opportunities for advancement, and address systemic biases. Retention strategies are equally
important, as the role of a superintendent of color demands boldness, resilience, and a
commitment to equity. Research into the factors that support the retention and success of leaders
of color, such as ongoing mentorship, professional development, and community support, could
significantly enhance their effectiveness and longevity in these roles.
These recommendations underscore the importance of continued inquiry into the
leadership of Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents. By addressing the
systemic challenges and leveraging the insights from this study, future research can advance the
field of educational leadership and contribute to the development of equitable, inclusive, and
effective school systems. The voices and experiences of superintendents of color provide
guidance for shaping policies and practices that reflect the rich diversity of our communities.
Through sustained scholarship and action, the educational leadership landscape can evolve to
meet all students’ needs, ensuring that equity, inclusion, and excellence remain at the forefront of
our collective mission.
Conclusion
All 12 superintendents identified equity as a core belief and carried their sentiment as
participant Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr stated,

105
Equity is going to be at the core of our leadership. If we determine that every school
needs something then fine. But if it’s determined that one school needs something and
someone else needs something different then we can have that conversation to figure out
what works for that particular school. It’s important that we have those types of
conversations and have a real understanding of what equity means.
This study’s findings illuminate the indispensable role of Latino/a/x and Black/African American
superintendents in educational leadership. Their presence at the helm of school systems is not
just beneficial but necessary for creating equitable and inclusive educational environments.
Representation matters profoundly, both for students of color who see themselves reflected in
these leadership roles and for White students who benefit from experiencing and understanding
the richness and depth of diversity in leadership. This exposure fosters a comprehensive
educational environment where diversity, equity, and inclusion are not abstract ideals but integral
to the fabric of the system.
Superintendents of color bring a perspective that challenges entrenched norms and
reimagines leadership through a lens of equity and justice. Their work paves the way for
transformative educational policies and practices that prioritize the needs of all students. By
focusing on systemic barriers, they advocate for marginalized communities and advance
initiatives that dismantle inequities.
The leadership of Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents transcends the
immediate outcomes of improved student performance and school climate; it also serves to
reshape broader societal perceptions of leadership and diversity. These leaders model pathways
of possibility, inspiring students from all backgrounds to envision themselves as agents of

106
change in positions of influence. Their leadership embodies a commitment to a future where
leadership is defined by its inclusivity, equity, and responsiveness to the communities it serves.
As this research underscores, nurturing and supporting diverse leadership is essential for
ensuring that educational systems reflect and celebrate the multiplicity of experiences and
identities in our communities. Dr. Dolores Huerta eloquently captured this sentiment, stating:
“Our leadership is about envisioning a future where every student has the opportunity to succeed,
irrespective of their background.” The insights gleaned from this research emphasize the need for
continued advocacy, support, and scholarly inquiry to enhance the representation and success of
diverse leaders in education. By investing in and empowering such leadership, the educational
landscape in America can evolve to truly mirror and meet its students’ diverse needs, ensuring
that all learners have the opportunity to thrive.
This study, guided by the two central research questions, examined how Latino/a/x and
Black/African American superintendents navigated their leadership roles within the structural,
political, human resources, and symbolic frames to foster student success. Specifically, the
findings revealed the importance of organizational practices, including strategic resource
allocation, systematization of processes, and equity-focused decision-making. These practices
directly align with Research Question 1, which explored how the participants described their
experiences with organizational structures that promote student success.
Equally significant are the insights related to Research Question 2, which investigated
how to foster positive school climates and cultures. This research highlights their strategies for
promoting inclusivity, cultural competency, and collaborative leadership, all of which are
essential for creating environments where all students feel valued and empowered to succeed. By
linking these findings back to the study’s guiding questions, this conclusion underscores how

107
superintendents of color leverage their identities and experiences to drive systemic change and
foster equitable outcomes for all students.
Ultimately, this research affirms that the leadership of Latino/a/x and Black/African
American superintendents advances educational outcomes and reshapes the paradigms of
leadership itself. Their ability to integrate their lived experiences with strategic and symbolic
leadership practices presents a model of transformative leadership that challenges traditional
paradigms and redefines success in education. The interviewees’ work serves as a blueprint for
fostering equitable educational environments, systemic innovation, and cultural responsiveness.
Their leadership is a testament to the power of diversity and inclusion as drivers of excellence
and justice within education. The study’s findings demand that educational institutions,
policymakers, and researchers commit to creating and sustaining pathways for diverse leaders.
By championing equity and empowering leaders from marginalized backgrounds, we can build
an educational future where diversity is not merely represented but celebrated as a cornerstone of
progress and innovation, thus ensuring that the future of education in America is as diverse as the
student populations it serves.

108
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Leadership Brilliance: Superintendents of Color Revolutionizing and Empowering Educational
Excellence Across America
By Zandra Jo Galván
Introduction
Hello, and thank you for accepting my invitation to be interviewed today! The purpose of
this research study is to better understand how we can create and sustain superintendents of color
in school districts across America that can start strong, make a significant impact, and have
staying power. When I use the phrase “Latino/Latina/Latinx” and/or “Black/African American,”
I refer to leaders who do not identify as White.
My Research Topic
The research topic that motivates this study is identifying organizational practices of
school leadership and positive school climate and culture practices that lead to positive student
achievement outcomes.
My Research Title is
Leadership Brilliance: Superintendents of Color Revolutionizing and Empowering
Educational Excellence Across America
The Two Overarching Research Questions
1. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with exemplary organizational practices
that foster successful student achievement outcomes?

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2. How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents in school districts
across America describe their experiences with positive school climate and culture
practices that foster successful student achievement outcomes?
The answers to these two research questions will be transferred into interview questions and will
help me understand what practices leaders like you use to lead their organizations. These
questions will provide a comprehensive understanding of the leadership practices and
experiences of Latino/a/x and Black/African American superintendents, especially concerning
fostering successful outcomes for students of color.
The Process
As indicated in the study information sheet you were provided before our meeting, you
have been selected to participate in this study because of your experience as a Superintendent
who has worked in a district that is nationally recognized and has led exemplary practices in your
school district that has yielded student success. As indicated on your Signed Consent Form, your
identity will remain confidential, and all identifiers will be removed from this study.
You are not under any obligation to answer all of these questions and can stop the
interview or withdraw from the study at any time. I am so thankful for your time and am very
much looking forward to learning more about you as a leader, hearing about your experience and
practices, and using your interview to identify powerful research trends that are shared by other
successful superintendents of color, like yourself. So, thank you!
At this time, I would like to ask your permission to record the audio content of this
interview to accurately capture your responses. We will now begin the interview process. Do you
have any questions before we get started? Ok, I will now begin.

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Research Questions (With Transitions)
The role of the superintendent: The superintendent, years of experience, size of districts.
Transition: I want to begin by getting to know about your professional experience.
1. How long have you been a superintendent, and in which districts have you served as
superintendent?
2. What is/was the size of each school district you led, the states, and if rural, urban, or
suburban?
3. What is your ethnicity and how do you identify, including your racial identity and
countries of origin?
4. How does your racial and cultural identity play a role in how you lead as
superintendent?
5. What is your favorite part/s about being a superintendent?
The superintendent as the leader of effective organizational practices for student success:
questions on organizational practices. Transition: Thank you for your responses. Now, I would
like to ask you some questions about your experience in leading effective organizational
practices.
6. Leadership style: What leadership styles do you use as a Latino/a/x and/or
Black/African American superintendent, and how do these styles impact student
achievement in your district/s?
7. Decision-making processes: How do you describe your decision-making processes,
particularly concerning initiatives aimed at improving outcomes for students of color?
8. Resource allocation: In what ways do you allocate resources to ensure equitable
opportunities for students of color?

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9. Community engagement: How do Latino/a/x and Black/African American
superintendents, like yourself, engage with the communities they serve, particularly
communities of color?
10. Policy development: What role do you play in the development and implementation
of educational policies that affect students of color?
11. Professional development: How do you approach professional development for
teachers and staff in the context of serving students of color?
12. Equity and inclusion strategies: What strategies do you employ to promote equity and
inclusion within your school district/s?
13. Overcoming Barriers: How do you identify and overcome barriers to the success of
students of color?
14. Collaboration with educational partners: How do you, as the superintendent,
collaborate with other educational partners (e.g., parents, local government,
community agencies, businesses, etc.) to improve outcomes for students of color?
15. Success metrics: What metrics or indicators do you use to measure success in your
efforts to support students of color?
The superintendent as the leader of positive school climate and culture for student
success: Questions on school climate and culture. Transition: I appreciate your willingness to
share. Now, I would like to ask some questions about positive school climate and culture
practices that you’ve bled in your school district/s.
16. Cultural competency: How do you, as a Latino/a/x and Black/African American
superintendent, foster cultural competency among staff and students in your district?

127
17. Safe and inclusive environments: What practices do you implement to ensure safe and
inclusive environments for students of color?
18. Student-teacher relationships: How do you influence and improve student-teacher
relationships, particularly for students of color?
19. Addressing bias and discrimination: What approaches do you lead to address and
mitigate bias and discrimination within schools?
20. Community and family involvement: How do you involve families and the broader
community in creating a positive school climate for students of color?
21. Student empowerment: What initiatives do you undertake to empower students of
color academically and socially within the school setting?
22. Curriculum relevance: How do you ensure that the curriculum is relevant and
resonates with the experiences of students of color?
23. Mental health support: What systems have you put in place to support the mental
health and well-being of students of color?
24. Celebrating diversity: How do you celebrate and integrate the diverse cultural
backgrounds of students into the school culture?
25. Handling conflicts: What methods do you use to handle conflicts and challenges that
specifically impact students of color?
The unique role of the superintendent of color: Questions on leadership. Transition:
Thank you again so much for your willingness to share. Now, I would like to ask some final
questions about leading as a superintendent of color.
26. What do superintendents of color bring to leadership that is unique and special?
27. How has your lived experience and cultural background impacted your leadership?

128
28. What advice do you have for the next generation of superintendents of color?
29. What do you believe is YOUR secret sauce that you bring to the superintendency?
Closing
We’ve reached the end of your interview. Thank you so much! Your time and feedback
are greatly appreciated. At this time, is there anything that you would like to add? Please know
that your responses will provide insight into this national work and help with initiatives to not
only support leaders but students and staff as well. Should you think of anything that you would
like to add, please do not hesitate to email, text, or call. I can assure you that any further
comments provided will be subject to the same confidentiality of this interview.

129
Appendix B: Invitation To Participate
Dear [Participant’s Name/Prospective Participant],
Subject: Invitation to Participate in a Research Study
I am Zandra Jo Galván, a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California
(USC), currently working on my dissertation under the supervision of Dr. Darline Robles. I am
writing to invite you to participate in a research study titled “Leadership Brilliance:
Superintendents of Color Revolutionizing and Empowering Educational Excellence Across
America.” This study has been approved by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Study Purpose: The purpose of this research study is to better understand how we can
create and sustain superintendents of color in school districts across America that can start
strong, make a significant impact, and have staying power. When I use the phrase
“Latino/Latina/Latinx” and/or “Black/African American,” I am referring to leaders who do not
identify as White. The research topic that motivates this study is identifying organizational
practices of school leadership and school climate and culture practices that lead to student
outcomes. Your participation will contribute insights into this field of study.
Participant criteria: Participants will be selected based on being Latino/a and/or
Black/African American. Participants must have at least 5 years of experience as a
superintendent in the United States with national recognition. You are being invited because you
meet this criterion.
Study procedure: If you agree to participate, participants will be asked to participate in an
interview via Zoom outside of their work hours. The interview will last for approximately one
and a half hours. The interview will be recorded utilizing the built-in recording feature in Zoom.
Participants who do not wish to be recorded can choose not to participate in the study.

130
Confidentiality: Your participation in this study will remain confidential. No personal
identifiers will be used in any reports or publications from this study, and all data will be stored
securely.
Benefits and Risks: There are no potential risks associated with participation in the study.
Please note that participation is voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time without any
penalty.
Compensation: There will be no compensation for participation.
If you are interested in participating, please contact me at zgalvan@usc.edu or 831-596-
9052. I will be happy to provide further details and answer any queries you may have.
Thank you for considering this invitation. Your participation is highly valuable and will
significantly contribute to the success of this research.
Sincerely, Zandra Jo Galván
Superintendent and USC Doctoral Student
Rossier School of Education

131
Appendix C: Email Invitation
Good day,
I hope this communication finds you doing well! I am currently seeking approximately
12 Latino/a/x and/or Black/African American superintendents to participate in a qualitative study
for my dissertation: Leadership Brilliance: Superintendents of Color Revolutionizing and
Empowering Educational Excellence Across America.
Purpose: The purpose of this research study is to better understand how we can create and
sustain superintendents of color in school districts across America that can start strong, make a
significant impact, and have staying power. When I use the phrase “Latino/Latina/Latinx” and/or
“Black/African American,” I am referring to leaders who do not identify as White. The research
topic that motivates this study is identifying organizational practices of organizational leadership
and school climate and culture practices that lead to student success.
Participant involvement: Participants will be asked to participate in an interview via
Zoom outside of their work hours. The interview will last for approximately 60 to 90 minutes.
The interview will be recorded utilizing the built-in recording feature in Zoom. Participants who
do not wish to be recorded can choose not to participate in the study. If you decide to take part,
you will be asked to consent to being recorded.
Confidentiality: The members of the research team and the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. Information will be kept
confidential as all identifiable components will be removed, and data will be secured in a
confidential Google Drive. Data will be kept until the successful defense of the dissertation. You
will have a right to request access to the Zoom recording when it becomes available. Only the

132
principal investigator (me) and the IRB will have access to recordings or transcripts. Recordings
will be deleted once transcribed.
Investigator contact information: If you have any questions about this study, please
contact the principal investigator, Zandra Jo Galván, at 000-000-0000 or zgalvan@usc.edu. Your
participation would be greatly appreciated. If you meet the stated criteria, please feel free to
reach out with any questions. Should you choose to participate, please include your availability
to schedule a time for a 90-minute interview. The interview process will begin as soon as
possible.
Thank you so much!
Zandra Jo Galván,
Principal Investigator

133
Appendix D: Information Sheet For IRB
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education Waite Phillips Hall, 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089
University of Southern California Information Sheet
My name is Zandra Jo Galván, and I am a student at the University of Southern
California. I am also the superintendent of the Greenfield Union School District in Monterey
County, California.
I am conducting a research study to better understand how we can create and sustain
superintendents of color in school districts across America that can start strong, make a
significant impact, and have staying power.
The name of this research study is Leadership Brilliance: Superintendents of Color
Revolutionizing and Empowering Educational Excellence Across America.
I am seeking your participation in this study.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns at any
point before or during the study. You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the
following criteria:
• A person with 5 or more years of consecutive experience as a superintendent in
American schools.
• You are Latino/Latina/Latinx and/or Black/African American.
• You are over 18 years old.
If you decide to participate in this study, you will be asked to do the following activities:
a 1:1, 90-minute interview on a Zoom virtual platform.

134
I will publish the results in my dissertation. Participants will not be identified in the
results. I will take reasonable measures to protect the security of all your personal information.
All data will be de-identified prior to any publication or presentations. I may share your data, deidentified with other researchers in the future.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact the principal investigator,
Zandra Jo Galván, at 000-000-0000 or zgalvan@usc.edu. You may also contact the faculty
advisor, Darline Robles, Ph.D., at drobles@usc.edu
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation examines the leadership practices of superintendents of color in U.S. school districts, focusing on their impact on educational outcomes for students of color. Using qualitative methods, including interviews and case studies, it explores the intersection of leadership, race, and equity, guided by Bolman and Deal’s structural, human resources, political, and symbolic frames to analyze effective organizational and school climate practices. This study highlights effective leadership practices that enhance outcomes for historically marginalized students while fostering inclusive, affirming school environments. Findings reveal that superintendents of color with long tenures employ culturally responsive strategies, build strong community ties, and drive systemic changes for sustained educational equity. While focusing on superintendents of color, this research identifies best practices that apply to leaders of all races and genders, offering insights for the broader educational community. This dissertation enriches educational leadership literature by promoting equity and excellence, empowering leaders to enact meaningful change regardless of their cultural identities.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Galvan, Zandra Jo (author)

Core Title Leadership brilliance: superintendents of color revolutionizing and empowering educational excellence across America

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 01/27/2025

Defense Date 01/25/2025

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Bolman and Deal's leadership frames,case studies in education,community engagement in schools,culturally responsive leadership,educational excellence and equity,Educational Leadership,educational outcomes,educational policy and leadership.,equity in education,equity-driven leadership,inclusive school environments,leadership and race,leadership practices,marginalized students,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational change,qualitative educational research,school district leadership,students of color,superintendents of color,systemic educational equity

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Advisor Robles, Darline (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email zgalvan@usc.edu,zjgalvan21@gmail.com

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