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The journey to leadership: examining the opportunities and challenges for Asian American women leaders in K-12 schools

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The journey to leadership: examining the opportunities and challenges for Asian American women leaders in K-12 schools

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Content THE JOURNEY TO LEADERSHIP: EXAMINING THE OPPORTUNITIES AND
CHALLENGES FOR ASIAN AMERICAN WOMEN LEADERS IN K‒12 SCHOOLS
by
Miram Choi
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2025
Copyright 2025 Miram Choi

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I thank God for giving me the strength and wisdom to be where I am
today. “Ask and it will be given to you; seek and you will find; knock and the door will be
opened to you. For everyone who asks receives; the one who seeks finds; and to the one who
knocks, the door will be opened” (New International Version Bible, 2004, Matthew 7:7-8).
I am deeply grateful for the support Dr. Kathy Stowe has given me. She was patient from
the start and did not give up on me when I experienced challenges. Her support and guidance
shaped and pushed my thoughts, allowing me to evaluate and enhance my work critically. Her
comments and suggestions broadened my perspective on my research to deliver a compelling
narrative.
I would like to express my immense gratitude to the participants in my study for allowing
me to deliver their narratives and elevate their voices. I am inspired by these incredible female
leaders, and their efforts will not go unnoticed. Their contributions made this study possible.
I am thankful to the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Malloy and Dr. Robles,
for their encouragement, constructive feedback, and valuable insights. Their analytical positions
provided thorough reviews, which were essential to completing my work.
I am especially indebted to my parents, Jim Choi and Esther Yoon, who have always
prayed, supported, and held high expectations for me to pursue my goals. My mother always
said, “Behind every successful person is a praying mother,” as she sacrificed so much so that I
could live the American dream. My father was always there when I needed him and has always
been my number one fan. 엄마 아빠 저 이제 최 박사예요! 항상 기도해주시고 잘 키워 주셔서
감사합니다.

iii
I would also like to acknowledge my cohort and all my professors from the Doctor of
Education program. I will always cherish the memories of late-night projects with my friends,
sharing words of encouragement, and laughing together.
I am fortunate to have Adam Warren as my mentor and friend. He first recognized and
encouraged me to pursue leadership roles. When I doubted my abilities, he believed in me and
provided me with opportunities to become a leader. Lastly, I am also grateful to my best friend,
Ye Bin, for being an amazing study buddy, keeping me sane, and making me laugh during my
most stressful times. You have always pushed me to strive harder to be the best version of
myself.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... vii
Abstract........................................................................................................................................viii
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study .................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions.................................................................... 4
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................... 5
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 6
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 7
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: Literature Review.......................................................................................................... 9
Historical Context ............................................................................................................... 9
Gender Roles in Educational Leadership.............................................................. 10
Background of Asian Americans in the United States.......................................... 10
The Role of Diversity in K‒12 Schools................................................................ 11
The Influences of Asian American Women School Leaders in the Immediate
Environment...................................................................................................................... 14
Asian Cultural Values........................................................................................... 14
Family Influences.................................................................................................. 17
Career Aspirations ................................................................................................ 19
The Influences of Asian American Women School Leaders in the Distal Environment . 20
Asian Stereotypes in Society ................................................................................ 20
The Influence of Mentorship ................................................................................ 23
Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................... 24
Summary........................................................................................................................... 27
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 29
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 29
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 30
Researcher Positionality.................................................................................................... 31
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 32
Interviews.............................................................................................................. 32
Participants............................................................................................................ 33
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................... 34
Data-Collection Procedures.................................................................................. 34
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 35

v
Credibility and Trustworthiness........................................................................................ 35
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 36
Chapter 4: Findings....................................................................................................................... 37
Participants........................................................................................................................ 38
Findings for RQ1 .............................................................................................................. 40
Theme 1: The Influences of Asian Cultural Values on Leadership.................................. 41
Asian American Women’s Dedication to Hard Work and Education .................. 42
The Impact of Family Values on Participants’ Professional Lives....................... 43
Summary............................................................................................................... 45
Theme 2: Leadership Mentality and Disposition.............................................................. 46
Bridging Between Career Aspirations and a Leadership Mindset........................ 46
Cultural Impact on Assertiveness ......................................................................... 48
Summary............................................................................................................... 50
Summary of RQ1 .............................................................................................................. 50
Findings for RQ2 .............................................................................................................. 51
Theme 1: The Influence of Mentorship ............................................................................ 52
Summary............................................................................................................... 54
Theme 2: The Lack of Representation of Asian American Women in Leadership.......... 55
Summary............................................................................................................... 56
Theme 3: The Impact of Societal Norms, Stereotypes, and Prejudice ............................. 56
Gender and Ethnic Barriers to Leadership............................................................ 57
Stereotypes and Prejudice ..................................................................................... 59
Summary............................................................................................................... 61
Summary of RQ2 .............................................................................................................. 61
Summary of Findings........................................................................................................ 62
Chapter 5: Discussions and Recommendations............................................................................ 63
Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................... 63
Immediate Environment Influences...................................................................... 64
Distal Environment Influences ............................................................................. 65
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 68
Recommendation 1: Culturally Responsive Mentorship Programs for Current
Teachers................................................................................................................ 68
Recommendation 2: Workshops to Develop Inclusive Leadership Practices ...... 69
Recommendation 3: Increase Awareness and Training to Mitigate Biases.......... 70
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 71
Recommendations for Future Research............................................................................ 72
Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 73
References..................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix A: Introductory Letter .................................................................................................. 81
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 83

vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Research Questions as Instrumentation .......................................................................... 30
Table 2. Participant Demographics............................................................................................... 39
Table 3. Interview Quotes Describing Participants’ Values in Leadership.................................. 40
Table 4. Findings on RQ1............................................................................................................. 41
Table 5. Findings on RQ2............................................................................................................. 52
Table 6. Interview Quotes of Participants Defining Mentorship.................................................. 52

vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework of Asian American Women School Leaders
in K‒12 Public Schools................................................................................................................. 26

viii
ABSTRACT
Asian American women school leaders remain underrepresented in K‒12 public schools, where
many Asian American students are served. While there is a need for diverse school leadership,
improving racial diversity for Asian American women in K‒12 leadership is a persisting issue.
This study sought to understand the influences that supported and hindered Asian American
women’s advancement in K‒12 leadership in their immediate and distal environments.
Additionally, this study explored how factors in the immediate environment, such as cultural
values, and the distal environment, such as Asian stereotypes and mentorship, can influence
Asian American women school leaders in their personal and professional lives. Bronfenbrenner’s
(1977) ecological model served as the theoretical underpinning for this research to understand
the challenges, barriers, and supports of Asian American women’s advancement in K‒12
leadership. I employed a qualitative methodology to examine the influences on the professional
advancement of Asian American women school principals in K‒12 public schools from the
greater Los Angeles area. Nine Asian American women school principals were interviewed
using semistructured questions for this study. Purposeful sampling occurred as the study
participants were deliberately identified based on their racial and gender identification within K‒
12 public school settings. All interviews were transcribed and analyzed into themes for each
research question. Findings revealed that influences such as personal and familial backgrounds,
including career aspirations and assertiveness, were prominently identified in their immediate
environment. Furthermore, the influence of mentorship, the underrepresentation of Asian
American women in school leadership roles, and the impact of societal norms played significant
parts in the participants’ distal environment. The study illuminated the underrepresentation of
Asian American women school principals by focusing on the resilience and strength these

ix
leaders demonstrated in the face of immediate and societal influences. This study aimed to
understand the influences that supported or hindered the professional advancement of Asian
American women school principals to promote a greater representation and diversity at the
leadership level.
Keywords: Asian American women principals, leadership, cultural values, professional
advancement, representation

1
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study
Classrooms in the United States are becoming more diverse than ever before, whereas
school leadership is lacking in diversity (Graham, 2018; Liang & Liou, 2018). Women of color
have limited opportunities to advance to leadership roles. Particularly, Asian American women
encounter unique challenges that further limit their professional advancement, resulting in the
underrepresentation of Asian American women school leaders. The representation of Asian
American women in educational leadership is impactful and can dismantle societal norms and
stereotypes, thereby changing the perception that women can also be leaders. Thus, greater
representation instills belief in and inspiration for Asian American teachers and students,
creating a pipeline to leadership.
According to a report from the U.S. Department of Education (2022), the percentage of
Asian American females in educational leadership roles is disproportionately low, compared to
their White colleagues. The 2020‒2021 statistic reports disclosed that 56% of female principals
in the United States were of the following race and ethnicity: 77.1% White, 10.4% Black, 9.3%
Hispanic, 1% Asian, and 2.2% other (Taie & Lewis, 2022). While these numbers are evidence of
the growing population of female leaders in K‒12 public schools, Asian American women
school leaders remain underrepresented in the workplace where many Asian American students
are served.
Diversifying school leadership benefits all students and schools, both academically and
culturally (Castro et al., 2018). Students of color benefit from frequent interactions with adult
role models who share similar backgrounds (Endo, 2015). According to researchers, diversity
benefits students’ positive emotional, social, and academic development (Graham, 2018;
Mikulyuk & Braddock, 2018; Parris et al., 2018). Moreover, diversity can improve the school

2
climate by fostering safer learning environments and academic engagement (Graham, 2018;
Parris et al., 2018). Teacher retention and job satisfaction are also impacted because diversity in
school leadership shifts the racial composition of a school’s teaching staff (Grissom et al., 2021).
As a result, numerous researchers have established the value of having a diverse school
leadership. However, the need to improve racial diversity for Asian American women in K‒12
leadership persists.
Many K‒12 school leadership roles, such as principal or assistant principal, require
teaching experience. Nonetheless, underrepresentation remains problematic due to a lack of
Asian American women in the K‒12 teaching force (Endo, 2015; Liang & Liou, 2018). Although
an increasing number of scholars are undertaking studies on women in leadership, the
experiences of Asian American school leaders remain underresearched and undertheorized
(Liang & Liou, 2018). Furthermore, the disproportionate percentage of Asian American women
school leaders compared to Asian students in the classroom negatively impacts classroom
dynamics. The absence of racial and gender diversity in school leaders and educators means that
K‒12 students of color are deprived of frequent interactions with adult role models familiar with
their communities, cultural norms, racial and gender prejudice (Endo, 2015).
Therefore, this study focused on understanding the influences of Asian American women
in K‒12 leadership, emphasizing the perceived practices that support or hinder Asian American
women’s professional advancement in their personal and professional contexts.
Background of the Problem
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2022) report, 5.4% of Asian students
were enrolled in the K‒12 public schools in the United States. Asians are the fastest-growing
population in the United States and are expected to surge more than any other minority group

3
(Wilf & Ridley-Kerr, 2012). While the rate of Asian students is expected to increase, no studies
have reported the same increase for Asian American school leaders. Taie and Lewis (2022), in a
study covering the 2020‒2021 period, reported that there were 2.4% Asian teachers and 1%
Asian principals in the United States. The low percentages of Asian teachers and principals
include both men and women; therefore, the percentages for Asian American women are less
than what Taie and Lewis (2022) reported.
According to the reviewed literature, many influences in the immediate and distal
environments of Asian American women impact their advancement in K‒12 school settings. The
influences include cultural values, family influences, cultural stereotypes, societal norms, and the
role of mentorship (Endo, 2015; Gipson et al., 2017; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Asian
cultural values, such as education and hard work, can drive Asian American women to strive for
academic excellence and success. In contrast, Asian cultural values, such as modesty, humility,
and harmony conflict with American values, such as self-promotion, self-assertion, and
willingness (Kawahara et al., 2013; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Perceptions of structural
biases in leadership ascribed to assertiveness and self-promotion pose challenges for Asian
American women. Thus, Asian cultural values can influence the professional advancement of
Asian American women both positively and negatively.
Additionally, the cultural stereotypes of model minority and perpetual foreigner impact
the advancement of Asian American women. The model minority stereotype generalizes that all
Asian Americans are highly motivated, well-educated, and have above-average family incomes
(Wilf & Ridley-Kerr, 2012). The perpetual foreigner stereotype assumes that Asian Americans
can never truly be Americans because of their ancestral ties (Harpalani, 2022). Cultural
stereotypes can create high expectations for Asian American women and empower them to

4
tackle challenges and reach their goals. In contrast, cultural stereotypes can also place pressure
and stress on Asian American women to constantly perform at a high level. Societal expectations
of achievement simultaneously stymie their progress in educational leadership by overlooking
the support they need (Endo, 2015).
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
In this study I sought to examine the factors that influence the professional advancement
of Asian American women leaders in K‒12 public schools. I illuminated strategies that support,
and obstacles that inhibit, Asian American women’s advancement in K‒12 leadership, further
developing the problem of fully comprehending the supports and impediments to their
advancement in educational leadership. Additionally, I explored how variables in the immediate
environment, such as cultural and family values, and distal environment, such as mentorship,
societal norms, and stereotypes, influence Asian American women school leaders in their
personal and professional lives. Cultural and family values, such as humility, filial piety, hard
work, and valuing education influence the perceptions of Asian women in their immediate
environment. Societal norms, stereotypes, and mentorship impact Asian American women in the
distal environment. The differences in how Asian and Western cultures construe leadership
conflict further perpetuate the advancement of Asian American women in K‒12 leadership roles
(Kawahara et al., 2013; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). The research questions that guided this
study are the following:
RQ1: What are the perceived influences in the immediate environment that support or
hinder the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12
schools?

5
RQ2: What are the perceived influences in the distal environment that support or hinder
the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12 schools?
Importance of the Study
In this study I focused on providing a platform for Asian American women school leaders
to express their personal and professional experiences, seeking to achieve a profound
comprehension of their lived realities. The findings of this study may provide insights to
practitioners who would like to refine their practices by understanding the narratives of Asian
American women school leaders, operating in both their immediate and distal environments.
Furthermore, a greater representation of Asian American women in K‒12 leadership reflects the
school and the students. As Endo (2015) stated, students are more motivated and inclined to
learn from educators who look like them. Students of color may benefit from diversity in school
leadership because it provides role models for them to look up to by those who may share similar
experiences.
Moreover, increasing diversity in school leadership provides students with opportunities
to learn from educators of the same ethnicity and have positive experiences with their mental,
social, and academic achievements (Bartanen & Grissom, 2019; Graham, 2018). In addition,
studies have shown that Asian Americans who have a strong sense of ethnic identity, or their
sense of self as a member of an ethnic group, contribute to the development of a greater
understanding of connection and belonging to the social context (Kim & Choi, 2019). Thus,
greater diversity in school leadership can benefit Asian American students and strengthen their
ethnic identities, enabling them to have a sense of belonging and connection in American public
schools. Additionally, increasing the ratio of Asian American women school leaders will
significantly benefit Asian students because of similar cultural values and societal expectations

6
(Bartanen & Grissom, 2019; Grissom et al., 2021). A greater representation of Asian American
women in school leadership would provide increased support for Asian American students.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model served as the theoretical underpinning for this
research to understand the challenges, barriers, and supports of Asian American women’s
advancement in K‒12 leadership. Bronfenbrenner (1977) stated that understanding the dynamics
of human interrelationships necessitates looking at numerous systems of interaction, including
the environment beyond the current situation. While there are six ecological systems in
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model, the microsystem and mesosystem were the two
primary systems of interaction examined in this study. A microsystem is defined as the network
of relations between a developing person in an immediate surrounding, whereas the mesosystem
encompasses the interrelationships among significant settings that contain the developing person
at a specific period in their life (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Using this concept in the context of
Asian American women in educational leadership, I examined in this study the challenges and
successes within participants’ immediate environment, and further extended it to the connections
beyond their direct relationships within their microsystem.
The research methodology I applied in this research was a qualitative research design that
aligned with Asian American women’s perspectives. This study utilized a qualitative
methodology to fully understand how people perceived their experiences, how they shaped their
worlds, and what significance they attributed to experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data
were collected by interviewing Asian American women school leaders in K‒12 public schools.
Furthermore, semistructured interviews were conducted to highlight the practices of Asian

7
American women school leaders that have either supported or hindered their professional
advancement.
Definition of Terms
Asian: Someone who is of descent from one of the original peoples of the Far East,
Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, such as Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea,
Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (Hoeffel et al., 2012).
Asian American: “A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East,
Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India,
Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam” (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2004, p. 2).
Collectivism: An Asian cultural value that emphasizes considering one’s group before
oneself (Kim et al., 2001).
Filial Piety: An Asian cultural value involving profound respect and duty toward caring
for elderly parents or family members (Chin & Kameoka, 2019).
Mesosystem: The mesosystem encompasses the interrelationships among significant
settings that contain the developing person at a specific period in their life (Bronfenbrenner,
1977).
Microsystem: The network of relations between a developing person in an immediate
surrounding (Bronfenbrenner, 1977).
Model Minority: The perception that all Asians work hard, value education, and rise
rapidly in American society through self-resilience (William Peterson, 1966, as cited in Liang &
Peters-Hawkins, 2017).

8
Perpetual Foreigner: The term implies that all Asians are foreigners regardless of their
country of birth or citizenship (Harpalani, 2022).
Organization of the Study
The research for this dissertation is presented in five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an
overview of the study to establish the background context and the purpose of the study. Chapter
2 reviews the literature, focusing on the theoretical framework of Bronfenbrenner’s (1977)
ecological framework. Chapter 3 highlights the research methodology I used in this study. I
conducted a qualitative study to uncover the strategies that supported and hindered the
advancement of Asian American women in K‒12 leadership roles. Chapter 4 reports on the
findings of the study as participants responded to the research questions. Lastly, Chapter 5
provides a discussion of the findings, as well as the implications and recommendations for future
research.

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Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter provides an overview of the literature related to the influences in the
immediate and distal environment that impact the professional advancement of Asian American
women school leaders. The underrepresentation of Asian American women leaders in K‒12
schools has been a topic of exploration among researchers (Liou & Liang, 2021). Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to examine the influences that impact the professional advancement of
Asian American women leaders in K‒12 public schools.
This review of research begins by examining the historical context of the disproportionate
number of women in school leadership. Next, the focus shifts to the underrepresentation of Asian
American women school leaders and the importance of cultural diversity in K‒12 school
settings. Next, I explore the influences of Asian American women school leaders in their
immediate environment, emphasizing the cultural values, family influences, and career
aspirations that impact their career advancement. Furthermore, in this review I discuss the
influences of Asian American women school leaders in the distal environment by focusing on
areas such as Asian stereotypes in society and the influence of mentorship in the professional
setting. Lastly, I close with Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model, which served as the
theoretical framework guiding this research.
Historical Context
In this section I discuss the historical context behind the disproportionately low number
of women school leaders. The review explores themes such as gender roles in educational
leadership, Asian Americans’ backgrounds in the United States, and the role of diversity in K‒12
schools. Education has traditionally been a male-dominated profession (Liang et al., 2016).
Despite the fact that the field of education evolved to provide greater opportunities for women to

10
take leadership, Asian American school leaders remained significantly underrepresented in
comparison to their White colleagues (Endo, 2015; Liang & Liou, 2018; U.S. Department of
Education, 2022). In addition, I discuss the role of diversity in K‒12 schools to comprehend the
significance and influence of diversity in schools.
Gender Roles in Educational Leadership
Historically, women were discouraged from attaining leadership positions in education
due to a male-dominated society and gender norms that shaped leadership virtues. The field of
education, like many other professions, has been a male-dominated field for many centuries, and
prior to the early nineteenth century, men held all teaching positions in the United States (Liang
et al., 2016). Since then, women have entered the teaching profession and have been empowering
the teaching force (Liang et al., 2016). Simultaneously, two distinct educational professions,
teaching and administration, also emerged in the early nineteenth century (Liang et al., 2016).
However, in contrast to opening up doors to women, educational administration or leadership
was reinforced by gender norms, namely, associating heterosexual males with authority (Liang,
et al., 2016). Consequently, men and leadership have been extensively studied by researchers and
leadership attributes were correlated with masculine characteristics, such as assertiveness,
dominance, and extroversion (Gipson et al., 2017; Gündemir et al., 2019; Liang et al., 2016;
Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Background of Asian Americans in the United States
Diversity in K‒12 schools is critical for mitigating disparities among minority
populations in educational settings. While there are growing numbers of women in educational
leadership compared to past centuries, Asian American women school leaders remain vastly
underrepresented (Endo, 2015; Liang & Liou, 2018; U.S. Department of Education, 2022).

11
According to the U.S. Department of Education (2022), the percentage of Asian American
females in educational leadership roles is disproportionately low compared to their White
colleagues. The 2020‒2021 statistic reports disclosed that 56% of female principals in the United
States were of the following race and ethnicity: 77.1% White, 10.4% Black, 9.3% Hispanic, 1%
Asian, and 2.2% other (Taie & Lewis, 2022). The percentage of Asian American women school
leaders is significantly lower than any other race/ethnicity, causing disparities in the school and
classroom settings. This has been an area of concern since Asians are considerably the fastestgrowing population in the United States (Wilf & Ridley-Kerr, 2012).
The U.S. Department of Education (2022) also indicated that there were 5.4% Asian
students enrolled in K‒12 public schools in the United States. While studies continuously
promulgate the growing diversity in the classroom, especially with the rapidly increasing Asian
population, the disproportionate number of Asian American women in school leadership
negatively impacts classroom dynamics (Endo, 2015; Grissom et al., 2021; U.S. Department of
Education, 2022). Students of color benefit from frequent interactions with adult role models
familiar with their communities, cultural norms and values, and racial and gender prejudice
(Endo, 2015). Researchers have studied the benefits of ethnic diversity in K‒12 schools and
concluded that it is beneficial for students in the positive growth and development of their
emotional, social, and academic needs (Graham, 2018; Mikulyuk & Braddock, 2018; Parris et
al., 2018). Additionally, diversity elevates the school climate by creating safer learning
environments and academic engagement (Graham, 2018; Parris et al., 2018).
The Role of Diversity in K‒12 Schools
The absence of racial and gender diversity among school leaders is a disservice to
students of color. Researchers have discussed the advantages of diversifying school leadership

12
for its beneficial impact on students of color (Castro et al., 2018; Grissom et al., 2021). Diverse
school leaders are more likely to bring perspectives of cultural competence to students, families,
and the community (Castro et al., 2018; Grissom et al., 2021). Additionally, Parris et al. (2018)
have found that students of color experience higher levels of achievement and motivation and
feel safe at school with increased diversity. Although the value of having diversity in schools has
been widely researched, there continues to be a lack of literature on improving racial diversity in
K‒12 leadership, particularly among Asian American women (Graham, 2018; Liang & Liou,
2018; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Mikulyuk & Braddock, 2018; Parris et al., 2018).
Asian American women have been excluded from studies of minorities because
researchers believed that Asian Americans were not academically or socioeconomically
disadvantaged (Liang & Liou, 2018; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017). However, many Asian
American women school leaders have been facing similar challenges to other minority groups in
their professional settings. Researchers often overlook challenges, such as racism, sexism, and a
lack of role models due to Asian stereotypes and cultural values (Liang & Liou, 2018; Liang &
Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Liou & Liang, 2021; Wilf & Ridley-Kerr, 2010). Furthermore, Asian
American women face unique cultural barriers in society that are different from other minority
groups, expecting to achieve success without shaming their families and being bereft of selfpromotion (Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017). With the growing number of the Asian student
population in K‒12 schools who may face similar challenges and barriers, having a wider
representation of same-ethnic school leaders will have a significant impact on Asian students’
social identity, mental health, and academic achievement (Bartanen & Grissom, 2019; Graham,
2018).

13
Moreover, Bartanen and Grissom (2019) stated that increasing diversity in school
leadership has a trickle-down effect. This means that increased diversity in school leaders also
increases teacher diversity, allowing more opportunities for students to learn from same-ethnicity
teachers. It is vital to have diversity at all levels of the school organization, especially at the
leadership level, because of the frequent interactions leaders have with students and families and
the pipeline to leadership that it creates (Bartanen & Grissom, 2019). Students of color look up to
teachers and leaders of the same ethnicity as role models (Bartanen & Grissom, 2019). Thus, a
greater representation of Asian American women school leaders could serve as role models for
the growing population of Asian students. Students who have the same ethnicity as their role
models are more likely to share similar cultural values and have positive outcomes in developing
their social identities and academic achievements despite the challenges they may face (Bartanen
& Grissom, 2019; Graham, 2018; Parris et al., 2018).
Mentorship is a significant component of education because it offers students with the
support they need. Mentoring minority students, notably Black and Hispanic/Latino students, has
received more attention in recent years (Chin & Kameoka, 2019). In contrast, Asian American
students have often been overlooked due to the common misperception that all Asians are high
performers. Asian misperceptions or stereotypes, such as the model minority, are rooted in
systems and imply that such students may not need mentorship. Furthermore, when Asian
American students internalize these misconceptions, they can aggravate academic stress (Chin &
Kameoka, 2019). Unfortunately, a large portion of Asian Americans internalize the model
minority stereotype, which ultimately results in leaving their self-efficacy damaged and their
achievements unrecognized (Chin & Kameoka, 2019).

14
Furthermore, Chin and Kameoka (2019), for instance, have indicated that Asian
American students who used assimilation methods in their communication received mentorship
support from White mentors rather than from Asian mentors. Students’ assimilation methods
included communicating in conformity with Western norms. In contrast, Asian American
students with stronger ties to their ethnic identity and a traditional Asian interpersonal
communication style received mentoring support from Asian American mentors (Chin &
Kameoka, 2019). The researchers suggested that individuals who had mentors from different
ethnic and racial backgrounds encountered more challenges than individuals with similar ethnic
backgrounds (Chin & Kameoka, 2019). Asian American students can benefit from greater
leadership diversity since it will enable them to interact with individuals and seek mentors who
share their culture. A mentor who understands and has faced comparable difficulties can offer
greater depth of insight than a mentor who has not.
The Influences of Asian American Women School Leaders in the Immediate Environment
This section reviews the literature about the influences of the immediate environment on
Asian American women school leaders. Bronfenbrenner (1977) defined the immediate
environment, or microsystem, as the network of relations of a person in their immediate
surroundings, including family, friends, and colleagues. Thus, Asian cultural values, family
influences, and career aspirations are examined to understand how the experiences of Asian
American women school leaders advanced in their careers.
Asian Cultural Values
The rapid growth of the Asian American population has led to a flux in the literature
examining the cultural values of Asian Americans. East Asian culture, rooted in Confucianism,
emphasizes modesty, humility, and harmony, which fosters perseverance and dedication.

15
However, there is a conflict between East Asian and American values regarding leadership
abilities. American values such as self-promotion and self-assertion are all viewed as leadership
qualities (Kawahara et al., 2013; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Other researchers have studied
the shared cultural values among different East Asian ethnic groups and identified six cultural
value dimensions: collectivism, conformity to norms, emotional self-control, family recognition
through achievement, filial piety, and humility (Kim et al., 2001).
The six East Asian cultural value dimensions help to gain a deeper understanding of the
experiences of Asian American women school leaders. The first cultural value of collectivism
emphasizes considering one’s group before oneself (Kim et al., 2001). This could be applied in
various settings where groups could refer to an organization or a family. Asian American women
who value collectivism may feel a strong sense of belonging and support from their families and
communities. However, it can also constrain Asian American women to prioritize group goals
over their individual goals and desires. The second value, conformity to norms, refers to
conforming to the expectations of society and family. This value may pressure Asian American
women to conform to traditional expectations and gender roles, but it could also provide them
with a clear set of rules and guidelines for behavior. The third value, emotional self-control,
emphasizes having control over one’s emotions through inner resources (Kim et al., 2001).
While valuing emotional self-control can encourage Asian American women to develop
emotional intelligence and resilience, it could also suppress their ability to express their feelings
and emotions freely.
The fourth cultural value, family recognition through achievement, implies achieving
academically and occupationally so it does not bring shame to the family (Kim et al., 2001).
Although this value may motivate Asian American women to strive for academic, professional,

16
and personal success, it could also pressure them to prioritize their families’ reputation over their
own personal fulfillment. The fifth value, filial piety, signifies caring for one’s parents when they
cannot care for themselves. This value fosters a strong sense of respect and obligation to care for
aging parents and family members. However, it can create conflict between traditional
expectations and modern career aspirations. Lastly, the sixth value is humility, which is being
modest and humble rather than boastful (Kim et al., 2001). Humility can promote modesty and
servant leadership for Asian American women. In contrast, valuing humility could limit selfpromotion and opportunities for personal and professional advancement because they are less
vocalized.
Asian American women may face complexities with specific values, whereas other
values could support their motivation in their career advancement. Additionally, understanding
the orientation, interaction styles, and interpersonal values of Asian culture is also vital (Chin &
Kameoka, 2019). According to Chin and Kameoka (2019), Asian culture is distinguished from
American culture because it has a hierarchical collectivistic cultural orientation. Unlike the
American individualistic culture that emphasizes independence and self-interest, Asian cultures
prioritize fulfilling the group’s desires (Chin & Kameoka, 2019). Furthermore, the hierarchical
culture adds another layer to the collectivistic culture orientation, where roles are dictated within
a hierarchical structure in families, schools, work, and social settings (Chin & Kameoka, 2019).
Asian American women who have stronger ethnic ties and cultural values may have closer
relationships with their families. They may also face challenges within their identities as they
conflict with societal expectations while pursuing leadership positions. While values such as
nonassertiveness and collectivism are rewarded in East Asian cultures, they are frowned upon in

17
American society because they are considered unambitious and dependent (Chin & Kameoka,
2019; Kawahara et al., 2013).
Moreover, the influences of cultural values on personal attributes may pose challenges to
Asian American women school leaders, since modesty and humility are negatively perceived in
American culture when they are associated with leadership (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Liang &
Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Collectivism and humility can foster
desirable leadership characteristics such as community, teamwork, and servant leadership.
However, in American society leadership is associated with assertive and aggressive traits,
further limiting opportunities for Asian American women to advance in professional settings.
Another important consideration is that Asian cultural values are inherently gendered
because of preconfigured gender roles (Wong et al., 2012). Asian American women may have
stronger values towards humility and conformity to norms than the other dimensions because of
their culturally prescribed gender roles (Kim & Choi, 2019; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017;
Wong et al., 2012). In contrast, values such as emotional self-control, family recognition through
achievement, and filial piety may drive Asian American women’s motivation and determination
to advance in their careers even when faced with challenges and barriers in their professional
setting. Thus, the six Asian cultural value dimensions can create unique experiences that support
and challenge Asian American women as they advance in their careers.
Family Influences
Collectivism is highly valued in East Asian cultures, and family interests and aspirations
take precedence over individual interests and desires. Unlike Western cultures, where all family
members are regarded as equal in status and pursue their individual aspirations and interests,
Asian cultures value a hierarchical collectivist orientation that values the desires and interests of

18
the family unit (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Kawahara et al., 2013). As a result, family influences
have a significant impact on career choices and professional work qualities. Much of the younger
generation is conflicted by disparities between Asian and Western cultural and familial
standards, causing discontent due to a lack of personal freedom and choice (Chin & Kameoka,
2019).
Due to the hierarchical collectivistic culture, individuals are respected within families
based on their age and level of expertise. Respect for the elderly is paired with Asian cultural
values, such as filial piety and family recognition, which shape Asian Americans’ personalities,
behaviors, and career choices. Family influences have been shown to be analogous in work and
school contexts, where all professional partnerships are driven by hierarchical principles (Chin &
Kameoka, 2019). Rather than the inherent attributes of the authoritative role, the role itself is
respected by virtue. Families exert a significant influence on Asian Americans who have strong
ties to their ethnic identities. Since Asian families value collectivism, Asian American women
typically exhibit a collaborative and relationship-oriented leadership style.
Furthermore, traditional gender roles within families can have a significant impact on
Asian American women. Asian American women are expected to balance the expectations of
obedience and submissiveness with the desire for education and personal success. While Asian
American women are pressured to uphold traditional gender norms, including as nurturers and
caregivers, they are also expected to pursue education and career success to bring honor to their
families (Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Yon et al., 2021). Asian American women often face
difficulties asserting themselves and pursuing their personal goals due to family influences,
albeit collectivistic values develop stronger ties with the family, therefore bringing emotional

19
support and a sense of belonging that instills a strong mentality to face challenges in the
professional setting (Kim & Choi, 2019).
Career Aspirations
Career aspirations are developed and influenced by various factors, including selfefficacy, motivation, strong work ethics, and values in education, that drive people to pursue
professional growth. When individuals have a strong belief in their own abilities to perform well
and overcome obstacles, they are more likely to take on challenging tasks, persist in the face of
setbacks, and take advantage of opportunities for growth and development. According to Betz et
al. (1996), as cited by Kim and Choi (2019), career self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s
beliefs about their ability to complete tasks related to their careers. Individuals with high selfefficacy demonstrate career aspirations by setting higher career goals of attainment. When
layering self-efficacy with cultural values in Asian American women school leaders, literature
findings theorized that career aspirations are shaped by families and the larger community (Tu &
Okazaki, 2021). Researchers have claimed that Asian American women with stronger
collectivistic values are more likely to make career decisions based on family expectations (Lee
& Zhou, 2020; Tu & Okazaki, 2021). Wong et al. (2012) further discussed that Asian Americans
believe their achievements and successes are reflective of their families. Thus, there is a greater
desire to pursue higher career goals.
According to Tu and Okazaki (2021), the same ethnic role models have a significant
influence on young students in developing their identity and career goals. Kim and Choi (2019)
discussed the correlation between early learning experiences, personality traits, and self-efficacy.
Given the hierarchical collectivist orientation of Asian culture, Asian American women who
identify with traditional Asian cultural norms are less likely to take the initiative to explore their

20
own career options. However, with encouragement from their families and community members,
they may show commitment and motivation to seek career aspirations and growth.
The Influences of Asian American Women School Leaders in the Distal Environment
This section reviews the literature on the influences of Asian American women school
leaders in the distal environment. Bronfenbrenner (1977) defined the distal environment, or
mesosystem, as encompassing interrelationships among significant settings. Thus, stereotypes
and the influence of mentorship are examined to understand the experiences of Asian American
women school leaders.
Asian Stereotypes in Society
Stereotypes generally devalue a person’s individuality and significantly contribute to
discrimination, both of which result in unpleasant feelings (Hwang, 2021). The two well-known
societal expectations for Asian Americans are the ‘model minority’ and the ‘perpetual foreigner’
stereotype. The model minority and perpetual foreigner stereotypes impact Asian American
women since they generalize all Asian as having similar experiences in their personal and
professional growth. Thus, it is important to recognize and understand how these stereotypes
influence Asian American women school leaders in their professional advancement.
The Model Minority. The model minority stereotype, as defined by Wilf and Ridley
(2012), generalizes all Asian Americans as having similar aptitudes for being highly motivated,
educated, and having above-average family incomes. Although the stereotype has been perceived
positively, it creates an over-generalized experience for all Asian Americans. Each individual has
unique life experiences, even if they are from the same racial or ethnic group. Liang and PetersHawkins (2017), for instance, discussed the diverse experiences of Asian American women in
their childhood, where some of the women identified more strongly with American identities and

21
values than with Asian identities due to their upbringing. Despite each individual’s unique life
experiences, the model minority stereotype groups all Asian Americans into a single perception,
undermining their identities and self-efficacy in coping with barriers to their career advancement
(Kim & Choi, 2019).
Although the model minority perception is perceived as a positive stereotype, it has led to
a phenomenon called the stereotype promise (Chin & Kameoka, 2019). As defined by Lee and
Zhou (2015), the stereotype promise is the pressure of living up to stereotypical expectations
(Chin & Kameoka, 2019). The stereotype promise provided Asian Americans with rigorous
educational opportunities and held them to higher standards than other racial groups (Lee &
Zhou, 2020). Fortunately, many Asian Americans have lived up to stereotype expectations and
achieved success in self-motivation to pursue higher education. However, the stereotype promise
did not have the same impact on all Asian Americans (Lee & Zhou, 2020). Specifically, the
stereotype masks the challenges that many Asian American women face and has damaging
effects on their self-efficacy and social skills (Harpalani, 2022; Hwang, 2021; Sy et al., 2017).
Furthermore, Asian Americans are depicted as competent workers who are intelligent,
tenacious, and determined, but are not seen as visionary leaders (Gündemir et al., 2019; Lee &
Zhou, 2020; Yu, 2020). The model minority stereotype is problematic because it overlooks
differences between Asian groups and conflates Asian Americans with varying privileges and
vulnerabilities (Harpalani, 2022; Hwang, 2021; Yu, 2020). Additionally, the model minority
stereotype prevents Asian American women from accessing resources and support because it
presumes that all Asian Americans are emotionally, socially, and financially stable (Chin &
Kameoka, 2019; Kawahara et al., 2013; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017). Consequently, Liang

22
and Peters-Hawkins (2017) stated that minority studies do not include Asian Americans as an
area of study due to the perceived model minority stereotype associated with them.
The Perpetual Foreigner. Another stereotype concerning Asian Americans is that they
are viewed as perpetual foreigners, assuming that they will never indeed be Americans because
of their connections to their ancestral countries (Harpalani, 2022). During everyday interactions,
Asian Americans are frequently subjected to the perpetual foreigner stereotype. Furthermore,
Asian Americans born and raised in the United States and recent Asian immigrants are
prevalently grouped together (Harpalani, 2022). As a result, the perpetual foreigner stereotype
exacerbates internal conflicts because they are criticized for choosing an identity (Hwang, 2021).
Consequently, stereotypes impede the advancement of Asian American women in the
professional setting and also obscure the resources and attention necessary for enhancing the
representation of Asian American women in the workplace (Lee & Zhou, 2020; Sy et al., 2017).
The model minority and perpetual foreigner stereotype have been used to rationalize the
advancement of Asian American women to leadership roles. The two stereotypes imply that
Asian Americans are foreigners with ties deeply grounded to their ancestral country and that
Asian American women excel academically but lack social and leadership skills (Harpalani,
2022; Sy et al., 2017).
Furthermore, Asian American women are influenced by another layer of cultural values.
Women in Asian cultures are perceived to be modest and introverted; therefore, it is unusual for
Asian women to seek advancement in their careers unless it is given to them (Kawahara et al.,
2013; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Historically, leadership in any professional setting has
been correlated with traits that fit White dominant male culture (Liang & Liou, 2018). The
advancement of Asian American women into school leadership is still an emerging and evolving

23
process. Thus, it is imperative that researchers and practitioners seek to learn and understand the
experiences of the current Asian American women school leaders (Liang et al., 2018). By
understanding these experiences, researchers and practitioners can develop effective strategies
and programs to support and promote the advancement of Asian American women in school
leadership, which can ultimately benefit students, schools, and communities.
The Influence of Mentorship
Mentorship can play an important role in helping individuals develop their careers, build
their skills and knowledge, and navigate the complex and dynamic professional setting.
Mentorship is a relationship between two people where a ‘mentor’ with more experience
provides guidance and support to a junior individual or ‘mentee’ in any certain field (Ivey &
Dupré, 2022). Mentors generally have greater experience, knowledge, and a commitment to
helping their mentees achieve success. The two standard functions of mentorship are careerrelated support and psychosocial support (Ivey & Dupré, 2022). Mentors can provide careerrelated support to mentees by giving advice on job performance, offering feedback on areas for
improvement, and helping build a professional network (Ivey & Dupré, 2022; Na & Kawahara,
2022).
In addition to providing career-related support, mentors can also play a crucial role in
providing psychosocial support. This can include offering encouragement, advice, and a listening
ear during times of stress or difficulty. Mentors can help mentees manage their emotions, cope
with challenges, and build resilience, which can all have a positive impact on their overall wellbeing and success (Ivey & Dupré, 2022; Rathmell et al., 2019).
Mentors also play an essential role in advancing aspiring and current Asian American
women school leaders. The mentors’ responsibilities range from providing guidance and advice

24
to enhancing professional identity, professional competency, and reducing job stress (Kawahara
et al., 2013; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017). Furthermore, mentorship is critical to the success
of female leaders because it improves overall skill performance in areas such as assertiveness,
public speaking, and interpersonal fluency, all of which are seen as antithetical to Asian cultural
values (Kawahara et al., 2013; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017). Chin and Kameoka (2019)
indicated that the positive outcomes associated with mentorship notwithstanding, Asian
American women’s lack of access to mentorship creates challenges in their professional settings.
In reference to the literature on students of color benefitting from same-ethnicity role
models, finding same-ethnicity mentors for Asian American women school leaders is likewise
critical in supporting their leadership as they navigate through imposed cultural values and
societal expectations (Bartanen & Grissom, 2019; Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Graham, 2018; Parris
et al., 2018; Sy et al., 2017). The role of mentors provides access and unique perspectives for
Asian American women, but when mentors share similar experiences with the mentee, the
experience is further elevated (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Sy et al., 2017). Mentors who share the
same or similar cultural values as the mentees can offer encouragement and support, allowing
Asian American women to be influential school leaders without compromising their racial
identity. Furthermore, mentors can become advocates as they empower, intervene, and validate
when difficulties arise (Kawahara et al., 2013). The influence of mentorship on Asian American
women school leaders can help promote a more supportive and inclusive workplace culture, as
well as help mentees to feel more empowered, respected, and valued in their roles.
Conceptual Framework
I used Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological framework in this study to show the
interconnectedness of complex relations between Asian American women school leaders and

25
their surrounding environment. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological framework consists of five
ecological systems: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem,
in which each system is nested within the next. The framework was constructed to better
understand human development by exploring the interactions and influences in the
environmental systems. The two primary systems of interaction that were applied in this study
are the microsystem, or immediate environment, and the mesosystem, or distal environment.
Bronfenbrenner (1977) described the microsystem as the network of relationships
between a developing person and their immediate surroundings. The mesosystem is the
interrelationships among significant settings that contain the developing person at a specific
point in their life. Using this approach in the context of Asian American women in educational
leadership, the barriers and successes were analyzed within their immediate surroundings and the
interactions that extend beyond their direct relationships within their microsystem.
A critical element of the research design process is the conceptual framework, a system
of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that underpin and guide the research
(Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework facilitates understanding of the key concepts and
associated interactions (Maxwell, 2013).
The conceptual framework (see Figure 1) is based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological
framework, applied to the microsystem and mesosystem of Asian American women school
leaders. This cohort constitutes the framework’s central element and is embedded in both microand mesosystems. The rectangles in this model represent the essential concepts discussed in this
study that both support and hinder Asian American women school leaders’ professional
advancement. The arrow represents Asian American women school leaders’ professional
advancement throughout their childhood experiences to their professional development.

26
Figure 1
The Conceptual Framework of Asian American Women School Leaders in K‒12 Public Schools
The literature identified three main concepts in the microsystem: cultural values, family
influences, and career aspirations, which directly impact and influence shaping the individual
with their educational achievement and career development. The mesosystem, or distal
environment, follows the individual’s immediate environment. The two significant concepts that
influence the individual in the distal environment, as revealed in the literature, are Asian
stereotypes and the influence of mentorship. The concepts within the microsystem, or immediate
environment, have a direct influence on the individual. In contrast, the concepts in the
mesosystem, or distal environment, can be impacted by concepts in the individual’s immediate
environment.

27
Summary
In this literature review I explored the historical context of the disproportionate number
of women in school leadership. Asian American female school leaders must be represented to
increase cultural diversity in K‒12 schools given that diverse school leaders are more likely to
convey cultural competence perspectives to students, families, and the community (Castro et al.,
2018; Grissom et al., 2021). Furthermore, Parris et al. (2018) discovered that increased diversity
increases students’ achievement and motivation, as well as their sense of safety at school.
However, there is still a scarcity of literature on how to improve racial diversity in K‒12
leadership, particularly among Asian American women (Graham, 2018; Liang & Liou, 2018;
Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Mikulyuk & Braddock, 2018; Parris et al., 2018).
The literature also emphasized how Asian cultural values and career aspirations influence
Asian American women school leaders in their immediate environment. Researchers such as
Kim et al. (2001) have reported six Asian cultural value dimensions that were shared among
Asian racial groups: collectivism, conformity to norms, emotional self-control, family
recognition through achievement, filial piety, and humility. Researchers have claimed that when
Asian American women school leaders’ career aspirations were paired with cultural values, those
with stronger collectivistic values were more likely to make career decisions based on family
expectations (Lee & Zhou, 2020; Tu & Okazaki, 2021).
In this review I also discussed the influences of Asian American women school leaders in
the distal environment by centering on two key concepts: Asian stereotypes in society and the
influence of mentorship in the professional setting. Asian Americans have been regarded as a
model minority in society due to their strong motivation, gains in educational degrees, and
above-average family incomes (Wilf & Ridley-Kerr, 2012). The perpetual foreigner is another

28
stereotype concerning Asian Americans, proposing that due to ties to their ancestral countries,
Asian Americans will never truly be Americans (Harpalani, 2022). Lastly, I discussed the
literature concerning how mentors are critical in assisting current and aspiring Asian American
women school leaders’ career advancement.

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Chapter 3: Methodology
Asian American women school leaders are underrepresented in the workplace, where
many Asian American students are served. Although Asian Americans are the fastest-growing
minority group in the United States, schools lack Asian American educators and leaders (Endo,
2015; U.S. Department of Education, 2022; Wilf & Ridley-Kerr, 2012). As a result, there is an
increasing demand for Asian American women to serve as school leaders in K‒12 organizations.
In this study I examined the influences that either support or hinder the professional
advancement of Asian American women leaders in K‒12 schools. Furthermore, this research
offered insight into fully interpreting the supports, challenges, and impediments to the
advancement of Asian American women in school leadership. This chapter begins with a review
of the research methodology, the purpose of the study, and the research questions guiding the
study. Next is the discussion of the researcher’s positionality, data-collection processes, and the
research participants. The chapter concludes by presenting ethics, credibility and trustworthiness
issues, data-analysis procedures, and the study’ limitations and delimitations.
Research Questions
This study aimed to explore the influences that impact the professional advancement of
Asian American women leaders in K‒12 public schools. The qualitative research questions that
guided this study are:
RQ1: What are the perceived influences in the immediate environment that support or
hinder the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12
schools?
RQ2: What are the perceived influences in the distal environment that support or hinder
the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12 schools?

30
Overview of Design
A qualitative case study was chosen as an appropriate research design for examining the
strategies that support, or the obstacles that hinder, the advancement of Asian American women
in K‒12 leadership. To understand the issue holistically, qualitative studies typically entail data
collection in the form of interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Furthermore, qualitative studies emphasize process, comprehension, and meaning, with
the researcher as the primary data-collection and analysis instrument (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Rather than deductively testing hypotheses or theories, most qualitative studies take an inductive
approach that seeks to understand and make sense of real-world situations, focusing on human
experiences as they occur in social life (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Semistructured interviews were conducted in this study for an in-depth investigation into
the strategies that influence or hinder the professional advancement of Asian American women
school leaders in K‒12 schools. Interviews allow individuals to share their perspectives and
disclose critical aspects of how they construct their worlds, interpret their experiences, and give
meaning to them (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Table 1 details the research questions and the
instrumentation used to collect data in participant responses.
Table 1
Research Questions as Instrumentation
Research Questions Interviews
RQ1: What are the perceived influences in the immediate environment that support or hinder
the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12 schools?
X
RQ2: What are the perceived influences in the distal environment that support or hinder the
professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12 schools?
X

31
Researcher Positionality
As an Asian American woman studying and working in education for the past 14 years, I
have encountered many Asian American women who grapple with self-doubt and question their
position in American society. I also share a similar experience as an Asian American who went
through searching for cultural identity and a professional position in American society.
I call New Zealand, South Korea, and America my home, although I spent the majority of
my life in the United States. In school, I was always viewed via the Asian stereotype notion of
being smart or a ‘model minority.’ Although the stereotype is not racially degrading, I still felt
the inferiority of being a minority among the approximately 97% White student population. The
racial stereotype of a model minority felt like an expectation I had to live up to in order to be
accepted in American society. Throughout my K‒12 education in New Zealand and the United
States, I had never encountered a teacher or a school leader who was an Asian American woman.
At the university level, I chose to pursue a teaching career in K‒5 education, a field dominated
by White women. Due to my limited exposure to Asian American women leaders up until that
point, I had many self-doubts about becoming an Asian American woman educator. My first
interaction with an Asian American woman educator was in college; she was the only Asian
American professor at the University of Oregon’s School of Education. I can still remember her
presence as a university education professor, which surprised me when I first met her as my
professor. I was immediately drawn to her and became interested in how I, too, could advance
my career as an educator one day.
As an Asian American woman educator, I share similar experiences and encounters with
participants, which may influence the research process. Although sustaining neutrality is
challenging, it must be present at all stages of the research process (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).

32
When conducting interviews and analyzing data, I eliminated any biases or assumptions that may
arise due to my background. However, it is also essential that I am familiar with the history,
participants, and topic. As a result, researchers should examine their own biases, assumptions,
and perspectives throughout the research process because familiarity with the research setting
can impact the research process (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Furthermore, it is vital for the
researcher to recognize and monitor their subjectivity in the context of the research (Lochmiller
& Lester, 2017). In order to maintain objectivity, I asked for clarification and restated the
participants’ responses to obtain a clear understanding of the data being collected.
Data Sources
In this this qualitative study I investigated the influences that impact the professional
advancement of Asian American women leaders in K‒12 public schools. This research study
shed light on the strategies that support and hinder Asian American women’s advancement in K‒
12 leadership. I used semistructured interviews to conduct an in-depth investigation into the
influences that impact the professional advancement of Asian American women school leaders in
K‒12 schools.
Interviews
Semistructured interviews were conducted with Asian American women principals in K‒
12 public school settings. Semistructured interviews enabled me to collect in-depth and openended information from participants, stimulating individuals to share openly about their
perspectives and experiences concerning their professional advancement. Unlike structured
interviews that use a strict set of questions, semistructured interviews allow for more flexibility
by following a general guide (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, semistructured interviews
enable the researcher to ask follow-up questions or probe for more information based on the

33
participants’ responses. The researcher can, furthermore, respond to the interview situation in a
wide range of ways to explore the new ideas and emerging themes that participants express
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
I developed the interview questions (see Appendix B) to address the research questions. I
purposefully designed the questions to encourage participants to share their narratives about how
they came to hold leadership positions, ultimately revealing their successes and challenges
experienced along the way. All protocols were piloted with two external researchers prior to
conducting interviews to ensure that the questions were clear, unbiased, and elicited responses
that addressed the research questions.
Participants
This study included interviews with nine Asian American women site administrators in
K‒12 school settings in the greater Los Angeles area. Purposeful sampling took place as the
study participants were deliberately identified based on their racial and gender identification
within K‒12 public school settings. According to Maxwell (2013), purposeful sampling is a
strategy in which specific individuals, settings, and activities are intentionally identified to
provide information that is particularly relevant to the research questions. Thus, Asian American
women school principals were selected to participate in this study. Asian American women
principals were recruited through personal networks, professional networks, and referrals.
All study participants received an introductory letter (see Appendix A), where I informed
them of my role as the researcher, the purpose of the study, the role of the participants, the
interview process, and other data-collection methods.

34
Instrumentation
I conducted semistructured interviews with Asian American women school leaders, as
this approach enabled me to focus on the particular phenomena being studied (Maxwell, 2013).
The interviews included open-ended questions designed to facilitate an in-depth inquiry and
exploration of issues pertaining to the influences of Asian American women school leaders in
their professional advancement in the public school system. The interview questions encouraged
individuals to share their perspectives and experiences concerning their professional
advancement. I developed an interview protocol (see Appendix B) that consisted of various
interview questions while leaving room for follow-up or probing questions to further the
dialogue between myself and each participant. Each interview question was identified with a
code (RQ1, RQ2) indicating the research question it aimed to answer.
Data-Collection Procedures
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), there are three basic methods for recording
data during an interview: audio recording, taking notes during the interview, and writing down as
much as you can remember after the interview. For this study, nine interviews were audiorecorded with the participants’ prior consent, and the participants’ responses were autotranscribed using Zoom, an online video conferencing platform, and reviewed after each
interview for accuracy. In qualitative studies, interviews are the primary source of data; as a
result, it is paramount to preserve a significant portion of the information being shared (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Each interview lasted approximately 45‒90 minutes and took place through
Zoom.

35
Data Analysis
I conducted an analysis of the data derived from the interviews to answer the research
questions. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), semistructured interviews consist of openended questions developed before the interview process, leaving flexibility for the researcher to
improvise at appropriate times during the interview. Once each interview concluded, the audio
recording and the auto-transcribed interview responses from the online video conferencing
platform were reviewed for accuracy and prepared for the next stage. Following a review of all
interview responses, the data went through a coding process in which I classified the interview
transcripts into broader themes and issues using the NVivo coding program (Maxwell, 2013).
The objective of coding is to deconstruct and rearrange the data into categories, enabling
comparisons within the same category, which supports the development of theoretical concepts
(Maxwell, 2013). A thorough analysis of the transcripts occurred, identifying common influences
that appeared across multiple interviews. I documented the influences mentioned by five or more
participants and formed them into themes based on the research questions. Lastly, once I
identified and defined the themes, the qualitative narrative reflected the data to deliver the
findings and results.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Since I functioned as the key instrument for gathering data in my capacity as the principal
researcher, my positionality and biases influenced different facets of the study. Therefore, it was
critical that I maintained neutrality throughout the research process in order to increase the
credibility and trustworthiness of the findings. Understanding how my biases could affect the
data was as important as reflecting on my biases, assumptions, and perspectives throughout the
research process (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Maxwell, 2013). Another strategy I used to

36
increase credibility and trustworthiness was collecting rich data through audio recordings and
transcriptions. The audio recordings and transcriptions aided in retrieving detailed and varied
data, providing a solid foundation for reaching conclusions (Maxwell, 2013).
Ethics
I ensured the protection of participants and their confidentiality throughout the study, and
followed ethical conduct measures, as stated in the American Educational Research
Association’s ethical principles (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). The University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board reviewed the research proposal and granted approval for
the study prior to the start of the research. All participants were recruited voluntarily and were
presented with an introductory letter (see Appendix A) outlining my role as the researcher, the
purpose of the study, the participants’ roles, the interview process, and other data-collection
methods. The letter also included confidentiality measures highlighting how the study protected
participants’ identities and how data will be collected, securely stored, and discarded once the
study is completed. Confidentiality was reinforced through secure record keeping and the use of
pseudonyms for people, places, and organizations. Furthermore, all participants had the
opportunity to clarify and restate their statements. Lastly, all records were securely discarded
once the dissertation study was completed.

37
Chapter 4: Findings
This qualitative study aimed to explore the influences in the immediate and distal
environments that impact the professional advancement of Asian American women leaders in K‒
12 public schools. The primary objective of this research was to create a platform for Asian
American women school leaders to share their personal and professional journeys and gain an
understanding of their unique life experiences. Interviews were the primary source of qualitative
data, collected to examine this problem of practice. Specifically, I conducted semistructured
interviews to investigate the influences that have either supported or hindered the professional
advancement of Asian American women principals, so they could openly share their perspectives
and experiences. The term ‘support’ refers to any influences that have assisted Asian American
women principals in advancing in their careers and attaining their current positions as school
principals. In contrast, the term ‘hinder’ refers to any influences that presented challenges or
barriers for Asian American women principals in advancing their careers and reaching their
current positions as school principals. It is hoped that the findings of this study would illuminate
the narratives of current Asian American women principals for researchers and practitioners who
wish to develop effective strategies and programs to support and promote a greater
representation of Asian American women school leaders.
This chapter reported on the study’s findings, guided by the following research questions:
RQ1: What are the perceived influences in the immediate environment that support or
hinder the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12
schools?
RQ2: What are the perceived influences in the distal environment that support or hinder
the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12 schools?

38
The findings of the research questions are presented in the following sections of this
chapter, organized according to themes that emerged during the data-analysis process, and were
categorized by each research question. I described each theme in its subsection, as well as
included direct quotations as evidence, to ensure research credibility.
Participants
The unit of analysis for this research were nine Asian American women school principals
in K‒12 public schools, working in the greater Los Angeles area. Purposeful sampling took place
as all participants identified as Asian American women and are current principals of public
elementary, middle, and high schools, expanding over two school districts. Five participants
identify as Korean American, two as Chinese American, one as Japanese American, and one as
Vietnamese American. Four principals are second-generation immigrants, meaning they were
born in the United States; three principals are one-half-generation immigrants who immigrated to
the United States at a very young age; one principal is a first-generation immigrant; and one
principal is a fourth-generation immigrant in the United States. The school district and sites have
been given pseudonyms for anonymity. Six principals work for Maplewood School District, and
three work for Sunshine School District. Five principals work at elementary schools (grades
UTK-5), one works at a middle school (Grades 6‒8), two work at high schools (Grades 9‒12),
and one works at a K‒12 span school. The demographic data that is pertinent to the study
participants is shown in Table 2. Each participant has also been assigned a pseudonym to protect
their identity, which was used throughout the chapter.

39
Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant Racial/Ethnic/
Cultural Identity
Immigrant
Generation
Years as
Principal
School District
(SD)
School Site
Level
Emily Japanese
American
4 7 Sunshine SD Elementary
School
Sarah Vietnamese
American
1 7 Maplewood SD Elementary
School
Olivia Chinese
American
2 4 Maplewood SD High
School
Ava Korean
American
1.5 3 Maplewood SD Elementary
School
Zoe Korean
American
1.5 2 Sunshine SD Elementary
School
Lucy Korean
American
1.5 2 Maplewood SD Elementary
School
Sophia Korean
American
2 8 Sunshine SD Middle School
Grace Chinese
American
2 1 Maplewood SD High School
Mia Korean
American
2 1 Maplewood SD K‒12 Span
School
In addition to the demographics, as shown in Table 2, participants were asked: “How do
your values influence your leadership?” Table 3 presents a synopsis of the values that influenced
each participant’s identity and the leadership style they demonstrated.

40
Table 3
Interview Quotes Describing Participants’ Values in Leadership
Participant Interview Quotes
Emily I always believe that everyone needs to be kind and the world would be a better place if
everyone’s kind.… So I think I lead by example regarding being kind to others.
Sarah I very much treat the workplace as a place where it’s our extended family. It’s the same thing
that my parents told me, “You have to study hard, then you can play hard.”
Olivia I just lived with the idea that you have to achieve because this is our culture. So, I think those
values really hold true to my leadership style, and everything that I do is to create
opportunities for students to be successful.
Ava I want to instill similar values in my students at my school in terms of taking school seriously,
valuing their education, and aspiring to be successful in school now and in the future … I
think that’s like an Asian part of me.
Zoe I’m a very hard-working educator … The values that I was brought up in with my family are
something that I reflect, that I get to also show in my own leadership.
Lucy Because I value integrity and being respectful, I expect the same. I have very high expectations
of people that once you are committed to something, then I expect the best effort out of you.
Sophia I’m not looking to bring attention to myself. I still, to this day, work as hard as I possibly can to
do what’s best for whatever my task is.… And that comes from my background of being
Asian.
Grace I’m not a top-down leader kind of person. I believe in input … I believe in servant leadership. I
don’t ask anybody to do something I wouldn’t do myself.
Mia The idea of service and servanthood, and servant leadership is the core. And I think service
means you have a lot of care and concern for the community, and you work with and work for
them.
Findings for RQ1
The first research question examined the influences on Asian American women
principals at the individual and microsystem levels. The identified themes for RQ1 are: (1) The
Influences of Asian Cultural Values on Leadership, and (2) Leadership Mentality and
Disposition. Table 4 includes the overarching themes and subthemes for RQ1.

41
Table 4
Findings on RQ1
Themes Subthemes
The Influences of Asian Cultural Values on
Leadership
Asian American Women’s Dedication to Hard Work and
Education
The Impact of Family Values in their Professional Lives
Leadership Mentality and Disposition Bridging Career Aspirations with Leadership Mindset
Cultural Impact on Assertiveness
Theme 1: The Influences of Asian Cultural Values on Leadership
Analysis of the data obtained from interviews indicated that Asian cultural values
influenced the professional advancement of Asian American women school leaders. This theme
emerged consistently across eight interviews, emphasizing the importance of cultural values in
shaping the career trajectories of these leaders. The dedication to hard work, education, and
family values were recurring themes among the eight interviews, as participants shared their
cultural influences on leadership. Mia said “Our experiences are so varied, but there is a
commitment to hard work and core values of ethics and family and honoring and respecting. …I
understand how some of those values have helped me succeed in America.” Similarly, Zoe
described her experience as follows:
I grew up with Korean parents who immigrated here, who wanted to provide a better
opportunity for the family. They worked really hard and that’s kind of what I learned
from my own parents … The values that I was brought up in, with my family, are
something that I reflect, that I get to also show in my own leadership.
Sarah also mentioned that “being family-oriented, work ethic, working hard, making
sure that you complete school, go to college, have a career” are Asian cultural values that have
impacted her leadership. Within the overarching theme, the following subthemes emerged within
their immediate environment: Asian American women’s dedication to hard work, and education
and family values’ impact on their professional lives.

42
Asian American Women’s Dedication to Hard Work and Education
The data suggested that Asian American women who were influenced by their cultural
values of having strong work ethics instilled a dedication and commitment to their education and
career, which led to opportunities that became pivotal in their professional advancement.
Eight out of nine participants credited their success to their desire to work hard and often
go above and beyond their responsibilities. This dedication was recognized as a fundamental
aspect of their career advancement. Having a strong work ethic and valuing education were
cultural values that were ingrained throughout the upbringing of Asian American women and
continued throughout their professional lives. It is also important to note that the eight
participants who mentioned strong work ethics and valuing education are first or secondgeneration immigrants. Zoe said, “Making sure that you’re always giving your best effort into
whatever you do” was an integral part of her character as an immigrant and added, “Those
cultural values that I was brought up in definitely had a positive influence on my career path.”
Similarly, Mia shared how her cultural values of committing to hard work positively influenced
her career advancement. She expressed:
There are always good and bad expressions of that in terms of the level of responsibility
and performance that needs to come with that. But I understand how some of those values
have helped me succeed in America, right? Help me succeed in a somewhat merit-driven
system.
Sophia also shared how her Asian cultural values impacted her leadership:
I, still to this day, work as hard as I possibly can to do what’s best for whatever my task
is. And running a school means that my kids are getting the best of not only me but the
people that work with me at the school site. And I’ll do everything I can to make sure that
that happens. But that’s always been the case for me, and that comes from my
background of being Asian.
Participants discussed the influences of Asian cultural values in their professional lives
and how dedication to hard work impacted their leadership and supported their professional

43
growth. Furthermore, six out of nine participants described their enduring commitment to
education as another Asian cultural value that was a significant driver of their upward trajectory.
Ava shared that getting a formal education was emphasized in her Asian culture and described
how it has influenced her leadership. She said, “I want to instill similar values in my students at
my school in terms of taking school seriously, valuing their education, aspiring to be successful
in school now and in the future.”
Grace described how valuing education had a positive impact on her career by saying,
“Making sure that you get a formal education in Chinese culture is very important, so I think that
definitely helped.” She further added how her Asian cultural values shaped her leadership by
saying, “I want our students to have access to a free public education that enables them to
achieve their dreams, and sustain their families, and just be free to like, do what makes them
happy.” Olivia also shared that she was raised with the notion of doing well in school and said,
“You must excel in school so you must learn English quickly. You get ‘A’s and you’re going to
college. That was just always the expectation.”
Sarah also reinforced the values in education. She said she grew up hearing, “You
complete school, go to college, and have a career.” Participants persevered and were recognized
for their hard work in their professional settings. Thus, Asian cultural values of hard work and
valuing education were identified as significant contributors that influenced participants’
leadership and career achievements.
The Impact of Family Values on Participants’ Professional Lives
The data revealed that family values, such as having close relationships around family
and filial piety, provided participants with emotional support and instilled a sense of loyalty and
respect for their supervisors. Eight out of nine participants discussed the importance of family in

44
defining who they are and how they interpreted their place in the world. Zoe said, “I value just
the very close[-knit] family that I have with my parents.” Grace also asserted, “I love our
dedication to family. Family is really important to me.” She also added that she learned
invaluable lessons from her family members who were a great influence to advance academically
and professionally.
Other participants, such as Emily and Sarah, mentioned how their respective families
provided them with emotional support and motivation during challenging times throughout their
professional careers. Emily said, “I was supported by my husband,” as she continued to explain
how he helped her when she felt discouraged. Similarly, Sarah also mentioned that “My
husband’s a huge motivator as well. We are 100% committed to each other’s career path.”
Likewise, Ava also shared her primary motivation for her driven success. She said, “My parents
immigrated solely for my sister’s and my education [and being invested] in our future.”
Furthermore, family was another channel through which Grace could find her identity and place
in the world. She articulated this sentiment by stating:
I think the commitment to the family is a really important part, and I know every culture
has its way of looking at family. But I think that’s a big part of just how I view myself,
and just being honoring of my parents, and being representative in the world of my
family.
Participants said that having close relationships around family offered a strong support system
and it inspired them to stay motivated and continue on their career path.
Additionally, filial piety, or having respect for one’s elders, was another value that
interviewees had emphasized. Although filial piety is primarily a manifestation of respect for
one’s parents, seven out of nine participants mentioned how those values positively influenced
their career advancement as well. Olivia said “We grew up in like a very Buddhist Confucian
culture, so we were about filial piety and really honoring your ancestors … that’s something that

45
I definitely bring with me.” Lucy also discussed how filial piety influenced her career by saying,
“I think it’s really being able to be loyal to your superior or to your family, or to whoever is
within your circle of family and friends. You always have that loyalty and that you’re fully
engaged with them.” Furthermore, Zoe related filial piety with being kind and considerate to
others. She described how she applied filial piety to her surroundings by stating, “I was brought
up to be respectful and considerate. I am more aware of being inclusive of other people’s needs.
You are making sure that you are always tending to other people’s needs as well.” She explained
how these values have supported her professional growth by lending to her relationships with her
supervisors. Emily also shared similar experiences and mentioned that she valued “respect for
parents and adults.” Family values considerably impacted the participants, with many
emphasizing their close-knit family relationships and the relevance of filial piety in their
personal and professional lives.
Summary
The first theme emphasized the influences of Asian cultural values on leadership.
Participants shared how commitment to hard work and values in education shaped their
professional lives and opened up opportunities to advance in their careers. Participants also
discussed cultural expectations of receiving a formal education and how that contributed to their
career achievement and leadership. Specific quotes and examples from different participants
reflected their views and insights on the importance of hard work and education.
Furthermore, the impact of family values was a prevalent subtheme among the
participants, with several highlighting the influence of close family relationships and filial piety.
The participants identified their families as providers of emotional support during various stages
in their professional lives. Additionally, filial piety was extended as an attitude to the

46
participants’ careers, instilling kindness, respect, and commitment to their superiors, resulting in
beneficial relationships and professional advancements.
Theme 2: Leadership Mentality and Disposition
The second theme of leadership mentality and disposition became evident in the data
findings. This recurrent theme surfaced consistently across seven of the nine interviews, leading
to two subthemes of career aspirations and a lack of assertiveness. The aspirations to advance in
their careers emerged from their motivation and desire to give back to the community.
Additionally, participants shared how the Asian cultural norm of nonassertiveness impacted their
leadership and professionalism while also noting they observed similar traits in Asian American
female teachers. Ava commented, “We don’t voice our opinions that much. We’re quiet and we
do our work. We’re dedicated.” Mia had similar observations of current Asian American women
teachers by saying, “They are very quiet and don’t raise concerns. They don’t fight for things,
but they do their work quietly. They do not feel that their voices should be added to the
conversation.” Emily also said, “I don’t see their personality as very strong” as she described the
Asian American women teachers she observed. Participants mentioned the challenges of
nonassertiveness in their leadership. Therefore, the lack of assertiveness emerged as the second
subtheme within their immediate environment.
Bridging Between Career Aspirations and a Leadership Mindset
Seven of the nine participants stated they had professional goals of maturing into higher
professional positions when they initially began teaching, and prepared themselves by attaining
administrative credentials while still fulfilling active teaching duties. Additionally, they
expressed ambition to advance their careers to continue learning and had a strong desire to give
back to the community they grew up in. Participants also revealed common experiences of a

47
drive for knowledge, and an aspiration of being prepared for potential futures as they described
their journey to becoming principals. Ava shared her aspirations of becoming an administrator
already when she was in the classroom as a teacher. She described her journey:
Oh, I had done the administrative credential as a teacher, around year five of teaching. …
So, I think from the get-go, I knew I wasn’t going to be one of those teachers who taught
for like 30 years. I just did my credential thinking it would kind of open up doors for the
future.
Similarly, Zoe also shared that she wanted to advance in her career by saying, “I think I
knew that I wanted to do something more than just being a classroom teacher.” Other
participants, such as Lucy, Sophia, and Mia mentioned that they had worked on their
administrative credentials already as teachers, fueled by career aspirations of becoming school
leaders. Furthermore, participants engaged in learning through professional development and
continued formal education at universities in preparation for future opportunities. Sophia stated,
“I’ve learned a lot and I felt that I had learned everything I could learn to be to take that next
step.” Thus, participants who had career aspirations in administration took the necessary steps to
fully prepare themselves for the next phase in their careers. Other participants, including Grace,
Lucy, and Olivia, expressed similar career ambitions, such as wanting to serve the community.
Grace emphasized that her career ambitions derived from her love for learning and desire to give
back to the community. She shared:
I love learning. I’m a lifelong learner, I believe in constant learning. I wanted to become
an administrator because I really wanted to make a difference in people’s lives that cast a
wider net of the people that I could touch. As a teacher, I’m able to affect 125 kids a year.
But as the principal, I’m able to affect the lives of 435 children and 50 staff members on
a daily basis.
Lucy also shared that her greatest motivation for her career advancement was to give
back to the community. She said, “I value giving back to the community. This was one of the
ways that I felt that I could actually give back, by servicing the students and the parents the way

48
that I was supported when I was a kid.” Olivia shared similar sentiments by saying, “I wanted to
continue to impact education positively in the Maplewood School District community, and I felt
[that] as I continue to move up in leadership roles, a principal was obviously in that trajectory.”
Olivia explained that she grew up in the Maplewood School District, so she wanted to contribute
and give back to the school community. A review of the data suggested that the participants’
career aspirations played a significant part in supporting them to advance professionally. The
driving force behind career aspirations was their strong desire to give back to the community and
pursue lifelong learning.
Cultural Impact on Assertiveness
Seven out of nine participants commented that their lack of assertiveness was a challenge
they experienced in their professional lives. Grace explained how in her upbringing, Asian
cultural norms instilled an expectation of women to be nonassertive. Grace explained:
This is a cultural thing. I have a really hard time with conflict because I think, as a
Chinese person, we were taught to just agree. Agree with your parents, agree with your
elders, agree with everything. And if you’re not happy, go cry to yourself somewhere
else. Don’t tell me about it. So, growing up, if I didn’t agree with something, I would just
never tell anybody.
The expectation of obedience and conformity that Grace grew up with has caused challenges in
her professional advancement and work life today.
Similarly, Olivia shared her story of how her parents had similar expectations and how it
impacted her leadership. She shared:
It was just like the expectation that you had to do all these things at home but then also
not speak back and obey your parents, like that authoritative role. And I feel like it’s kind
of affecting my leadership abilities, in a sense, because if something is not right then I
should be able to question authority. I need to be able to.
Olivia continued to talk about the importance of overcoming this challenge in the professional
setting, saying, “If we don’t speak out or we’re not vocal, then we’re not going to advance

49
because people have to know you’re there. Instead, you’re just doing your job and doing what
you do best, but not voicing it.”
Lucy shared similar sentiments on the importance of being assertive despite her
upbringing in being nonassertive. She stated, “We tend to keep everything to ourselves and not
really promote ourselves. You don’t really talk about what you have accomplished a lot with
others.” Sarah also commented that she was more introverted in large groups of people and did
not make herself known because of her Asian cultural upbringing.
While several participants mentioned the influence of their cultural upbringing in
professional settings regarding assertiveness, evidence of assertiveness in various forms was
identified and validated in their leadership styles. Mia shared that her colleagues often spoke of
her as a supportive leader by saying, “People always bring up, like, you’ve been here, you’ve
seen us, you’ve always supported us.” Mia explained that leadership is a commitment to service
and caring for the community and spoke of servant leadership. She said, “Power is not something
you could yield over people if you really want transformation and change.” Similarly, Zoe
shared, “Being a leader is being a servant and someone who’s always willing and always ready
to serve others and always looking at the needs of others first.”
Participants also recalled similar experiences with their Asian cultural upbringing.
Lacking assertiveness was perceived as posing challenges to Asian American women in their
professional lives. However, while leadership is often associated with aggressiveness and
assertiveness, participants also shared that servant leadership and advocating for students,
families, and the community is a form of assertiveness and an integral asset.

50
Summary
Leadership mentality and disposition emerged as the second theme that influenced Asian
American women principals in their immediate environment. Career aspirations were evident in
the participants’ journey to leadership. Participants highlighted a common desire to seek
leadership positions and a desire to have a positive impact on their communities. Additionally,
participants sought to pursue careers beyond the classroom early in their careers. The desire to
advance evolved from personal growth, greater impact on the community, and love for learning,
in which the first step was to obtain their administrative credentials. The interviews revealed that
career aspirations positively influenced participants to seek opportunities for professional
advancement.
Furthermore, many participants shared the commonality of their upbringing to be
obedient and remain silent. Participants, such as Emily and Mia, emphasized their concerns
about noticing similar patterns of nonassertiveness in current Asian American women teachers
who are in the pipeline to principalship. Furthermore, participants also reflected and expressed a
strong urge to change so that Asian American women are more vocal and advocate for
themselves for career development.
Summary of RQ1
Research Question 1 revealed several key findings that influenced Asian American
women principals’ professional advancement in their immediate environment. Two themes
emerged: The influences of Asian cultural values on leadership, and leadership mentality and
disposition. Theme 1 had two subthemes: (1) Asian American women’s dedication to hard work
and education, and (2) the impact of family values in their professional lives. Asian American
women’s dedication to hard work and education was identified based on the participants’ shared

51
experiences of cultural values emphasizing an ethic of hard work and the value of education. The
second subtheme, rooted in relationships based on family and filial piety, instilled respect for
participants’ supervisors and provided an invaluable support system during challenging times.
The second theme of leadership mentality and disposition revealed two subthemes: (1)
bridging between career aspirations and a leadership mindset, and (2) a lack of assertiveness.
Asian American women principals emphasized a shared aspiration for leadership roles driven by
a desire to make a positive impact in their communities. Their pursuit of advancement stemmed
from personal growth, a commitment to community impact, and a passion for learning. The
second subtheme emerged from shared experiences with their Asian cultural upbringing for
women to be obedient and nonassertive. A lack of assertiveness was also observed by
participants in current Asian American women teachers. Lastly, the participants mentioned the
impact of being non-assertive with their leadership. Advocating for themselves and voicing their
opinions are challenges they experience in their professional lives.
Findings for RQ2
The findings for RQ2 focused on the influences at the mesosystem levels for Asian
American women principals. The identified themes for RQ2 are: (1) the influence of mentorship,
(2) the lack of representation of Asian American women in leadership, and (3) the impact of
societal norms, stereotypes, and prejudice. Table 5 presents the overarching themes and
subthemes for RQ2.

52
Table 5
Findings on RQ2
Themes Subthemes
The Influence of Mentorship (No subtheme emerged)
The Lack of Representation of Asian American Women
in Leadership
(No subtheme emerged)
The Impact of Societal Norms, Stereotypes, and
Prejudice
Gender and Ethnic Barriers to Leadership
Stereotypes and Prejudice
Theme 1: The Influence of Mentorship
The data analysis from interviews revealed that mentorship carried the most significant
influence in support of the career growth of Asian American women principals. This prevalent
theme surfaced consistently throughout all nine interviews, highlighting the pivotal role of
mentorship in shaping the career trajectories of Asian American women school leaders.
Participants highly appreciated their mentorship experiences, as they received valuable guidance
in navigating challenging situations. The encouragement to pursue roles in administration
frequently emerged from participants’ mentors or past leaders who identified and nurtured their
potential. Table 6 summarizes how each participant defined mentorship.
Table 6
Interview Quotes of Participants Defining Mentorship
Participants Interview Quotes
Emily Giving advice, someone that I could call or reach out to asking how you would handle
a situation.
Sarah Someone who’s going to give you good sound advice that’s not evaluating you.
Olivia It really was a lot of pushing from my mentors or my previous administration. They
told me I should go into administration, and [that] they see potential in me.
Ava Someone who guides you and gives you advice. Someone who spends time with you,
invests in learning your journey and sharing their wisdom.
Zoe I think a mentor is someone who really sees the best in you, and kind of helps you to
bring that out.

53
Participants Interview Quotes
Lucy I’ve shadowed them before. I’ve learned from their leadership and worked with them
before, so I know what to pick up and adopt for myself.
Sophia A mentor is somebody that you’re able to ask for honest feedback, whether it’s critical
or positive feedback.
Grace It was also like breaking it down and modeling the strategies that we wanted to see.
She pushed me to learn operations, budgeting, and all the things that a principal
would need to know how to do.
Mia I’ve always learned from them. She’s always encouraging me … They also put in a
good word.
All nine participants emphasized the importance of mentorship because mentors played a
significant role in their professional lives by encouraging them to seek leadership positions.
Grace shared, “I became a principal mainly because I had a really great mentor. I felt like my
principal really prepared me to do this job.” Grace and Zoe had similar mentorship experiences
because they were both mentored by Asian American women. They also recognized their
mentors as the influence that encouraged them to become principals. Zoe described her unique
experience:
I would say the person that actually influenced me the most to be in the place that I am
right now, is my former principal that I had as a teacher. When I was a teacher at the
school [where] I taught, my principal was an Asian American female, and she actually
had a great influence on me as another Asian female educator. I was very fortunate to
actually have had both female and Asian American leaders, who just kind of looked after
me and really pushed me. I’m very, very grateful for that.
Furthermore, the participants shared how their mentors or previous supervisors pushed
them to pursue leadership roles and advance in their careers. Although Olivia had no Asian
American women mentors, she stated that her male mentors provided similar support. Olivia
spoke of a time when her supervisor pushed her to go into administration, “It really was a lot of
pushing from my mentors or my previous administration. They told me I should go into
administration, and they see potential in me.” Emily, Lucy, Sarah, and Mia also had no Asian
American women mentors. However, their mentors provided encouragement and various

54
opportunities. Lucy shared that she was given the opportunity to shadow her mentor. She
recounted that experience and said, “I’ve shadowed them before. I’ve learned from their
leadership and worked with them before, so I know what to pick up and adopt for myself.” Sarah
mentioned that her mentor supported her along the way as she advanced to her current position.
She also noted that it was her mentors who saw that she was capable of doing more and
becoming a leader. Additionally, participants described a mentor as someone who provides
guidance and feedback. Sophia spoke about how a mentor can provide honest feedback, saying
“It’s not always going to be positive because in order for you to grow, you have to know what
those areas of weakness are. You have to build upon that.”
Other participants, such as Olivia and Zoe, were encouraged by their mentors to step
outside of their comfort zone and take risks. This gave them the confidence to take on a new role.
Zoe recalled the time when she was encouraged and said:
Her encouragement really had a lot to do with pushing [me] to be out of my comfort zone
and then maybe trying something new. She’s the one who just kind of reminded me that I
have these great qualities and I will make a great leader. She’s the one who saw those
things.
Participants received a range of support, including guidance on areas for development and
encouragement for pursuing leadership roles.
Summary
All nine participants emphasized the importance of mentorship and how it heavily
influenced their professional advancement. Although not all participants had Asian American
female mentors, they unanimously highlighted the significant benefits and support they received
from their mentors. Mentorship had a significant impact on the professional lives of these Asian
American women because of the guidance, feedback, and opportunities for growth it provided.

55
Additionally, according to their interviews, mentors supported the participants on every step of
the way in their journey to become school leaders.
Theme 2: The Lack of Representation of Asian American Women in Leadership
The analysis of data obtained from the interviews indicated that the lack of representation
of Asian American women in leadership impacted the professional lives of Asian American
women school leaders. While not universally expressed by all participants, shedding light on the
underrepresentation of Asian American women in leadership is crucial due to its broader
implications, particularly its impact on factors such as mentorship and society. Ava said,
“There’s not too many Asian women in leadership roles, even within education.” Mia also
acknowledged “the underrepresentation of Asian American female principals.” Furthermore,
Olivia spoke about how the “underrepresentation of Asian women in fields of leadership” is a
pressing issue that Asian American women face in the workplace today.
Five out of nine participants expressed the underrepresentation of Asian American
women leaders. It is important to highlight this theme because of its significance and the direct
impact it had on Asian American women principals. Olivia shared that the lack of Asian
American education leaders contributed to the microaggressions she experienced in her
leadership because she did not feel seen. Additionally, due to underrepresentation, Asian
Americans are often left out of conversations and research. Olivia further mentioned that “I don’t
know if it’s that big of an issue, because there are so few Asian American women that you
almost can’t bring light to it.” Mia also shared the scarcity of research about Asian Americans
and urged that there need to be more conversations to better understand their perspectives. She
said, “There’s not a lot of research on us; [this is] probably why you’re doing research.” Ava
mentioned that the lack of representation impacted her professional growth. She said, “I didn’t

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really have any Asian American woman mentoring me or receiving that kind of support.” Grace
shared that she got excited when she met another Asian American woman leader because she
resonated with and understood their perspective. She continued to talk about how role modeling
is essential, and how she never had a role model that led her up to this path. She explained:
We don’t have enough role models to talk us through the social capital that is required to
do this. But yeah, I think that’s a big part of it, [] lacking that representation at the highest
levels to really mentor us.
Participants ultimately shared the need for more Asian American women leaders to be
represented in higher leadership positions.
Summary
Participants expressed their concerns regarding the underrepresentation of Asian
American women leaders. They shared that the lack of Asian American women leaders in
leadership positions meant a lack of mentorship for participants with similar perspectives.
Additionally, participants identified the lack of representation as a pressing issue because they
did not feel being seen or were often overlooked. Although only five out of nine participants
spoke about this theme, underrepresentation has impacted the professional growth of Asian
American women principals.
Theme 3: The Impact of Societal Norms, Stereotypes, and Prejudice
An examination of the data collection revealed that societal norms, stereotypes, and
prejudice impacted the professional lives of Asian American women principals. This theme
emerged consistently in six interviews, emphasizing the significance of how a patriarchal
society, model minority stereotypes, and gender norms shape the professional advancement of
these leaders. Grace said, “The bamboo ceiling is definitely real. We’re working against a
patriarchal system. And being Asian American, we’re good but not good enough.” Emily

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reinforced this idea by saying, “It’s still male-oriented the higher you go up.” Additionally,
Sophia pointed out stereotypes in the professional setting and commented, “I think that across
the board, we still deal with stereotypes that exist.” Within the overarching theme, the following
subthemes emerged within their surrounding environment: gender and ethnic barriers to
leadership, and stereotypes and prejudice.
Gender and Ethnic Barriers to Leadership
Six out of the nine participants highlighted gender and ethnic barriers to leadership, such
as living in a patriarchal society, as a challenge to their leadership. Sarah shared a personal
interaction with a White male teacher who constantly intimidated her. She said: “I encountered
this White male older gentleman who saw an opportunity to really try to dominate. I think
because he dominated the other females there, it didn’t matter whether I was the principal or not.
It got really scary.” Zoe discussed the societal issue and said, “I do see that it’s more of a
challenge to move up after you reach a certain point.” She continued to explain that society is
patriarchal, especially in higher positions. She stated:
I do have several colleagues who are Asian American principals here in my school
district. Some of them are male, and some are female, so there’s a handful of Asian
Americans working as principals here. But do I see the same ratio as we move up to the
cabinet level? No, we don’t. I still see a very White male-dominated cabinet.
Similarly, Lucy supported Zoe’s comment by pointing out that men typically advance faster than
women. In addition, she mentioned the intersectionality of being a woman and an Asian
American. She described:
So, being a woman, that’s being a minority already, and I know that in the education
field, we’re not the minority. However, if you go up to higher positions, you’re still a
minority. Males tend to be promoted more quickly than women. And also, being an Asian
on top of that, there are certain viewpoints that other people see you with.

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Furthermore, Lucy mentioned that Asian American women will reach a wall at one point that
limits their career advancement. She said, “You are going to reach a point where you feel like
you just can’t move up anymore.” Grace commented about an uncomfortable situation she
encountered that was indicative of a patriarchal mentality. She said:
I am never the perceived leader in any room. If I walk into a room, no one thinks to
themselves, ‘Gee, that is a principal.’ I know this sounds bad, but a lot of people will still
look for the man, especially the White man, to ask if he’s the principal. I’m like, ‘No, I’m
the principal,’ and it’s challenging. We’re working against a patriarchal system of [a]
patriarchal society.
Grace explained that she frequently has discussions about society and educational leaders in the
system with her Asian American women colleagues. She also mentioned how the ‘bamboo
ceiling,’ akin to the ‘glass ceiling’ concept, is an impediment. She said, “Asian Americans aren’t
advancing the way that we’re supposed to be because of, like, the bamboo ceiling.” Mia also
shared her views on the patriarchal society and the influence it has on the mind. She stated:
I’m saying that women can lead. But then I’m having a hard time even facing my own
leadership. I think that shows me how powerful the patriarchal system is in the
subconscious. Even though I’ve seen examples of women leading, and I know women
can, I know they’re very capable. But they’re not always given those opportunities.
Mia also shared other encounters and interactions she had about a patriarchal mentality and how
it was ingrained in people’s minds. She shared a time when she worked with an Asian American
woman principal and a White male assistant principal, and people treated him differently. Mia
shared, “Every time someone would come visit the school, they would see us all walking
together and every time, they would go up to him to ask if he’s the principal. Every single time.”
She also mentioned how many people gave him credit for the work that she did. She said, “80%
of the stuff he did, I prepped that, and he just delivered it. But everyone thought he did it and I
would just hold my tongue.” Mia and other participants recounted similar experiences of how
societal norms influenced their professional environment.

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Stereotypes and Prejudice
The data revealed significant insights about the workplace experiences of Asian
American women, emphasizing the adverse effects of stereotypes and systemic prejudice on their
professional growth and leadership. Six out of nine participants reported that stereotypes of
model minority and Asian American women being docile still existed in the workplace.
Participants also mentioned that prejudice impacted their leadership and their professional
growth. Sarah mentioned that she had experienced disrespect from other colleagues because she
is an Asian American woman. She stated, “As a leader who’s female Asian, for a lot of people,
we fit into that stereotype where perhaps we’re docile. We’re smart but quiet.” This perception
not only undermined her authority but also resulted in intimidation from male colleagues. She
elaborated that asserting herself could lead to misinterpretation and continued to say:
It’s difficult because as soon as you are firm, then people attribute you to being mean or
aggressive. But then, as a woman who leads, if you smile too much or you look a certain
way, then you don’t know what you’re talking about.
Similarly, Olivia and Zoe both expressed their frustration with receiving
microaggressions and the difficulties of talking to their male colleagues at times because they did
not understand their perspectives. Zoe shared examples of how she experienced
microaggressions when talking with students’ parents:
I deal with a lot of families and parents from various backgrounds. I don’t know how to
say it nicely, but if it involves child discipline, I do feel that sometimes they try to take
advantage of the fact that their principal is a female Asian American. If I was a White
male principal, then the outcome, the level of conversation, or the level of respect would
have been very different.
Sophia remarked on the importance of understanding individual identities, explaining
“We think we know who people are without really examining and taking the time to know who
people are.” Sophia also shared accounts of how she experienced microaggressions and prejudice

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in the early stages of her career. Grace had strong feelings about how women were being
portrayed in society, especially in leadership roles, stating:
It’s hard to be a woman leader specifically because, for lack of a better word, like, if we
are too strong, we’re perceived as bitchy, and then no one wants to work with a bitch. If
we’re too nice, then we’re ineffective. You constantly have to ride that balance between
being extremely competent and very good at your job.
She further described that the model minority stereotype works against Asian Americans and can
hinder the leadership potential of Asian Americans. As she explained, “Especially in a society
that is patriarchal, the model minority myth works against us sometimes. Like, we’re very good
at something, but we’re not necessarily good at leading.”
Many participants shared strong views on how Asian American women leaders were
perceived in society. Mia presented a nuanced view on Asian American leadership during a
gathering with peers. She expressed:
One time, we got together, and a lot of us were Asian. I thought, that’s really impressive,
and it felt really good. But then there are other feelings about that because, I think,
nobody celebrates us. If we were all Black, somebody would say something really great
or put it somewhere. But no, it’s like our leadership is more acknowledged because it’s
just silently accepted and not pushed back on. But never really celebrated.
Additionally, Mia critiqued the oversimplified view of Asian Americans and described that there
was a collective consciousness of Asian American experiences. She continued to say, “They
lump us all together because like, come on. Asian Americans? You’re talking about people from
like, they don’t even speak the same language.” These insights reveal the complex interplay
between stereotypes, identity, and the professional experiences, highlighting the need for a more
nuanced understanding of Asian American women in leadership roles, free from the limitations
of the model minority myth.

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Summary
Theme 3 discussed the findings on how societal norms, stereotypes, and prejudice impact
the professional advancement of Asian American women principals. Subthemes such as gender
and ethnic barriers to leadership and stereotypes and prejudice emerged from the participants’
responses. Several participants shared that stakeholders did not perceive them as the principal but
instead looked for the White male colleague allegedly holding that position. Other participants
shared that Asian Americans were not recognized nor celebrated for their success because it was
assumed or expected. Moreover, a few participants shared the challenges of balancing being a
woman leader in a patriarchal system. Overall, the participants highlighted the inequities
prevalent in societal systems and emphasized the need for change.
Summary of RQ2
Three key findings emerged from RQ2, influencing Asian American women principals’
professional advancement in their distal environment. The influence of mentorship emerged as
the first theme. Participants emphasized the impact of mentorship on their professional growth
because it provided guidance, support, and opportunities for advancement on their journey to
becoming school leaders. The second theme, concerning a lack of representation of Asian
American women in leadership, emerged as a result of participants’ concerns about the lack of
support for Asian American women and their representation in leadership positions. The third
theme highlighted the impact of societal norms, stereotypes, and prejudices in the professional
lives of Asian American women principals. The subthemes that emerged from their narratives
included gender and ethnic barriers to leadership, and stereotypes and prejudice. The findings
identified systemic inequities and the importance of change in promoting inclusivity and
addressing disparities to support Asian American women school leaders.

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Summary of Findings
This chapter examined the study’s findings by each research question. Five themes, two
in connection to RQ1 and three in connection to RQ2 emerged during the interview analysis.
Findings from RQ1 highlighted the influence of Asian cultural values on leadership and
leadership mentality and disposition in the professional lives of Asian American women school
principals in their immediate environment. Findings from RQ2 identified the influence of
mentorship and its support of Asian American women principals in their leadership in their distal
environment. Additionally, the lack of representation of Asian American women in leadership
and the impact of societal norms, stereotypes, and prejudice were identified as significant
influences in their distal environment. Chapter 5 presents a detailed discussion of these findings
and their alignment with the literature review. Recommendations for practice based on these
findings follow.

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Chapter 5: Discussions and Recommendations
This study aimed to explore the influences that impact the professional advancement of
Asian American women leaders in K‒12 public schools. The study addressed the following
research questions:
RQ1: What are the perceived influences in the immediate environment that support or
hinder the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12
schools?
RQ2: What are the perceived influences in the distal environment that support or hinder
the professional advancement of Asian American women principals in K‒12 schools?
The findings were grounded in Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model using
qualitative methodology. This chapter includes a discussion of the findings and provides
recommendations for practice, concluding with limitations and delimitations, and
recommendations for future research.
Discussion of Findings
The results of this study indicated that the professional advancement of Asian American
women serving as school principals in K‒12 schools is shaped by a multitude of influences
within both their immediate and distal environments. Influences such as personal and familial
backgrounds, including career aspirations and assertiveness, were prominently identified in
participants’ immediate environment. Additionally, the influence of mentorship, the
underrepresentation of Asian American women in leadership, and the impact of societal norms
played significant roles in participants’ professional advancement in the distal environment.

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Immediate Environment Influences
This study demonstrated that personal and familial foundations significantly contributed
to the professional advancement of Asian American women principals. The findings aligned with
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model theory, highlighting the significance of the
microsystem, where close family relationships in the immediate environment can influence the
career trajectory. Strong work ethics and valuing education instill commitment, motivation, and
perseverance to overcome challenges despite the pressure to perform and meet expectations from
families. Kim et al. (2001) suggested that Asian cultural values can motivate Asian American
women, inspiring them to strive for academic, professional, and personal success. Asian values,
such as collectivism, empower Asian American women to pursue higher positions because Asian
American women believe their achievements are reflective of their families. Researchers have
found that family-centered Asian cultural values are the leading influences that drive Asian
American women’s motivation and determination to advance in their careers (Kim & Choi,
2019; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Wong et al., 2012).
The support from family-centered relationships was also essential for the professional
advancement of Asian American women school principals interviewed in this study. Close
family relationships foster a robust support system that contributes to the mental stability of
Asian American women. Participants recognized the difficulties their parents had faced as
immigrants, resulting in close relationships through compassion and support. Asian American
women with stronger collectivistic values experienced a sense of belonging and support from
their families and communities, forming a solid support system.
Cultural values, such as filial piety and humility, were also identified as family-centered
values that supported the professional advancement of Asian American women school principals.

65
As explained by Chin and Kameoka (2019), filial piety involves a profound respect and duty
toward caring for elderly parents or other family members. Asian American women espousing
filial piety also develop a deep sense of respect and loyalty to their supervisors, fostering positive
relationships that support their professional advancement. Additionally, Asian American women
may exhibit stronger values related to humility and conformity to norms, given their culturally
prescribed gender roles, which influence them to be kind and considerate in their interactions
with others (Kim & Choi, 2019; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Wong et al., 2012). The study
data revealed that family recognition through achievement and filial piety drive Asian American
women’s motivation and determination to advance in their careers, even when faced with
challenges and barriers in the professional setting. Family-centered values are pivotal in shaping
personalities, behaviors, and the career progression of Asian American women principals. Thus,
influences in the immediate environment play an essential role in supporting the professional
advancement of Asian American women.
Distal Environment Influences
The data from the study highlighted that influences in the distal environment, such as
mentorship, the lack of representation in leadership roles, and societal norms, had both positive
and negative impacts on the professional growth of Asian American women. The finding aligned
with Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model theory of the mesosystem, where
interrelationships among significant settings can influence the career trajectory.
Mentorship is essential in the professional setting and contributes substantially to the
professional growth of Asian American women principals (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Ivey &
Dupré, 2022; Kawahara et al., 2013; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Na & Kawahara, 2022;
Rathmell et al., 2019). Mentors provide Asian American women with career-related support by

66
advising on job performance and helping build a professional network, as well as proffering
psychosocial support by helping mentees manage their emotions and cope with challenges.
Mentorship is essential in developing Asian American women leaders because it improves
overall skill performance in areas such as assertiveness, public speaking, and interpersonal
fluency, all of which are seen as antithetical to Asian cultural values (Kawahara et al., 2013;
Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017).
Although current research indicated the positive outcomes associated with mentorship,
finding same-ethnicity mentors for Asian American women school leaders is mutually critical in
supporting their leadership as they navigate through exogenous cultural values and societal
expectations (Bartanen & Grissom, 2019; Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Graham, 2018; Parris et al.,
2018; Sy et al., 2017). The data suggested that there is a lack of same-ethnicity mentors for Asian
American women due to the underrepresentation of Asian American women school leaders.
According to research and data findings, the mentorship experience is further elevated when
mentors of the same ethnicity as their mentees provide the support (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Sy
et al., 2017). Having same-ethnicity mentors can provide access and unique perspectives for
Asian American women because they share similar cultural values and experiences with the
mentee, allowing them to be influential school leaders while maintaining their racial identity.
Despite the benefits of same-ethnicity mentorship, there is a dearth of Asian American women
serving as school leaders who can mentor aspiring Asian American women.
The data findings shed light on the impact of the underrepresentation of Asian American
women in school leadership. The lack of Asian American women in school leadership has
contributed to adverse societal norms, stereotypes, and feelings of being unacknowledged in the
professional setting. Asian women are often viewed as modest and introverted, making it unusual

67
for them to seek advancement and further perceive Asian American women as lacking in
leadership qualities, such as assertiveness (Kawahara et al., 2013; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis,
2010). Despite these perceptions, every participant in this study exhibited assertiveness in
various areas, particularly through their advocacy engagement and decision-making abilities as a
school leader. These actions are essential qualities of effective leadership, as they demonstrate
the participants’ confidence in articulating their ideas and standing up for their beliefs and values
while demonstrating their capacity to evaluate and make informed choices (Chin & Kameoka,
2019; Kawahara et al., 2013; Liou & Liang, 2021; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Moreover, the model minority stereotype often depicts Asian Americans as highly
competent but implies that Asian American women are adept followers rather than leaders
(Gündemir et al., 2019; Lee & Zhou, 2020; Yu, 2020). Assertive and self-promoting behaviors
are often recognized in American leadership, while cultural values, such as humility and
conformity, can overshadow these qualities, resulting in Asian American women going unseen in
the professional setting (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Gipson et al., 2017; Gündemir et al., 2019;
Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017; Liang et al., 2016; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Nevertheless, participants who demonstrated humility said they identified with servant
leadership and embodied traits of leaders who prioritize serving and supporting others. This
approach fosters a positive culture and climate within their professional setting, where all voices
are valued, encouraging collaboration and inclusivity among diverse groups.
Increasing representation for Asian American women leaders can be achieved by
dismantling societal norms and stereotypes, as well as understanding the relationship between
cultural values and leadership skills. It is imperative to recognize the intricate relationship
between cultural values and effective leadership skills, as these factors significantly influence the

68
professional trajectories of Asian American women. The study’s findings revealed an intricate
interplay of contextual influences, including mentorship, societal challenges, cultural values, and
familial expectations, that impact the professional lives of Asian American women school
leaders. While Asian cultural values and familial support are essential components of motivation
and dedication, underrepresentation and common stereotyping impede their opportunities for
professional advancement. It is essential for society to reflect on these values and strive for a
more inclusive, diverse, and sustainable approach to leadership.
Recommendations for Practice
The findings from this study have implications for practitioners and educators wanting to
advance in their careers. Recommendations for practice are targeted toward educators,
administrators, and district leaders. Three recommendations are identified and grounded in key
findings from this research.
Recommendation 1: Culturally Responsive Mentorship Programs for Current Teachers
All nine participants revealed mentorship as the most significant influence that supported
their career growth. Two out of nine participants described their unique experience of having
Asian American women mentors as teachers. Mentorship is integral to the success of female
leaders because it enhances overall skill performance in areas such as assertiveness, public
speaking, and interpersonal fluency, all of which are perceived as counters to Asian cultural
values (Kawahara et al., 2013; Liang & Peters-Hawkins, 2017). The recommendation is for
districts to implement a district-wide mentorship program to connect Asian American female
teachers with experienced mentors to build their leadership capacity. A survey can be conducted
to identify teachers’ and principals’ strengths and development areas to match the mentor and
mentee successfully. The district should offer training for mentors on culturally responsive

69
mentorship practices and encourage peer support groups where mentees can share experiences,
challenges, and strategies for career development.
Finding same-ethnicity mentors for Asian American women school leaders is critical in
supporting their leadership as they navigate through cultural values and societal expectations
(Bartanen & Grissom, 2019; Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Graham, 2018; Parris et al., 2018; Sy et
al., 2017). Mentors who share similar cultural values with their mentees can provide optimal
support and encouragement since they are aware of any challenges they may encounter. Thus,
districts can create mentorship programs to support Asian American women teachers in the
pipeline for principalship by connecting them with Asian American women leaders. Several
participants mentioned that the motivation to seek leadership positions for Asian American
women educators came from mentors who recognized and nurtured their potential. Mentors can
become advocates as they empower, intervene, and validate when difficulties arise (Kawahara et
al., 2013). The support network for Asian American women can be further strengthened by
developing mentorship programs focusing on mentors and mentees of the same ethnicity.
Recommendation 2: Workshops to Develop Inclusive Leadership Practices
Seven of the nine participants indicated that a lack of assertiveness was a challenge they
experienced in their professional lives. According to Kim et al. (2001) and Wong et al. (2012),
Asian American women often struggle with self-promotion and assertiveness due to cultural
values emphasizing humility and conformity. Several participants shared that they often
struggled with self-promotion, having been raised to be humble and avoid boasting about their
achievements. Understanding the experiences of current Asian American women school leaders
is imperative for researchers and practitioners to develop practical approaches and programs that
will increase representation and support their career growth. The recommendation is that districts

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and educational organizations provide incentivized professional development or workshop
opportunities for leaders, such as assistant principals and principals, to cultivate inclusive
leadership skills. Workshops can include topics such as cultural humility, recognizing cultural
wealth, or leadership types developed for practical applications such as scenario-based activities
or role-play. Incentivizing workshops can increase leader participation and encourage them to
provide honest feedback to identify areas for growth.
Workshops that promote cultural humility and acknowledge cultural wealth can empower
Asian American women to have a voice and confidently pursue leadership roles, recognizing that
various leadership styles are valued. Professional development and workshops centered around
cultural wealth can help shift the narrative from a patriarchal model of leadership to an inclusive
leadership model that celebrates leaders from diverse backgrounds and their non-American
culturally influenced leadership styles. Establishing systems to uplift the cultural wealth of all
leaders can be achieved by developing strong mentorship and training grounded in cultural
humility. This approach has the potential to increase the representation of Asian American
women in leadership roles, ultimately benefiting the entire educational community by promoting
diversity and inclusion.
Recommendation 3: Increase Awareness and Training to Mitigate Biases
Six of the nine participants emphasized the significance of how a patriarchal society,
model minority stereotype, and gender norms shaped their professional advancement. Several
participants mentioned unpleasant encounters with how others would assume they were never a
school leader. According to researchers, Asian Americans are depicted as competent workers
who are intelligent, tenacious, and determined but not as visionary leaders (Gündemir et al.,
2019; Lee & Zhou, 2020; Yu, 2020). The recommendation is that schools and districts

71
implement all staff training to increase cultural awareness and training to mitigate biases of
people of color. Bias awareness training should occur regularly for all staff, including real-world
examples, case studies, and research on the biases that people of color face in the workplace. The
district can also develop a system where employees can report bias-related incidents
anonymously, with a transparent process for investigation and resolution.
As several researchers have stated, cultural competence is a critical component in
supporting the professional growth and advancement of minority educators (Chin & Kameoka,
2019; Kim et al., 2001). Training should focus on the unique challenges that Asian American
women face, such as by mitigating biases and ethnic stereotypes. Stereotypes such as the model
minority mask the challenges that many Asian American women face and have damaging effects
on their self-efficacy and social skills (Harpalani, 2022; Hwang, 2021; Sy et al., 2017).
Increasing cultural awareness can reduce unconscious biases and prejudice that hinder the
professional advancement of Asian American women. Cultivating an inclusive environment can
lead to greater diversity in schools, creating a supportive space that values and appreciates the
unique experiences of Asian American women.
Limitations and Delimitations
This research was subject to several limitations beyond my control as the researcher. The
first limitation is that the small sample size prevented broad generalization, despite efforts to
recruit a larger sample size. Due to the nature of the study, recruiting Asian American women
school principals was a challenge, as many school districts in the greater Los Angeles area did
not have Asian American women school principals. Thus, the participants were from only two
school districts. The second limitation is the truthfulness of the participants. Although it was
expected that all participants responded to the interview with honesty, there was no guarantee

72
that their responses were entirely truthful. Due to their voluntary participation, it is possible that
participants only shared information that was comfortable to them. The third limitation is the
researcher’s bias, which may have influenced data collection and analysis (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017; Maxwell, 2013). However, every effort was made to maintain objectivity.
The delimitations of the study constitute the conditions that were within my control as the
researcher. All participants recruited for this study are Asian American women principals,
currently employed in K‒12 public schools in the greater Loas Angeles area. The nomenclature
of ‘Asian American,’ as defined in Chapter 1, was considered during the recruitment stage.
However, neither citizenship nor the length of time participants resided in the United States was
mentioned as part of the definition. Given the delimitations, the findings were limited and may
not be pertinent in other contexts.
Recommendations for Future Research
In this study I illustrated the influences that either supported or hindered the professional
advancement of nine Asian American women school leaders in the greater Los Angeles area.
The study contributed to the understanding and analysis of how influences in the immediate and
distal environments have impacted the professional advancement of Asian American women
school leaders. While a thorough examination was conducted in this study, further questions
beyond the scope of the research questions have emerged. This section outlines three
recommendations for future studies that result from the findings.
The first recommendation is to study Asian American women’s approach to perseverance
and relentlessness in their professional advancement. Asian American women in this study spent,
on average, 10‒15 years preparing to become principals despite the various challenges and
barriers they faced in their distal environment. Examining the perseverance and relentlessness of

73
Asian American women can provide deeper insight into how Asian American women cope with
challenges and how those skills develop them as leaders.
The next recommendation is to examine how Asian leaders mentor Asian women leaders.
Mentorship is the most influential theme that emerged from participants, yet only two
participants mentioned they received support from same-ethnicity mentors. Researchers have
also stated that having a mentor of the same ethnicity enhances the level and depth of mentorship
support because of shared experiences (Chin & Kameoka, 2019; Sy et al., 2017). Further studies
should explore the number of Asian school leaders who mentor Asian women and the differences
in mentorship experience with mentors of different ethnicities.
A final recommendation is to conduct a similar study with former and current Asian
American women superintendents. The research findings from Asian American women
superintendents may shed light on different factors influencing their professional development,
given their extensive years of experience. The study could provide insight into the long-term
impacts of mentorship, representation, and systemic barriers at a higher level in an organization.
Additionally, the study on Asian American women superintendents could identify how the
professional paths of Asian American women are emerging and changing and provide
information about how early career experiences lay the groundwork for later success and
leadership development.
Conclusions
Examining the underrepresentation of Asian American women school principals has
revealed a profound understanding of the resilience and strength these leaders demonstrate in the
face of immediate and societal influences. Despite their underrepresentation, Asian American
women school leaders play a pivotal role in educational leadership. As schools, districts, and

74
practitioners strive to create more equitable environments, it is crucial to recognize and address
the unique challenges that Asian American women encounter. The Asian population is the
fastest-growing compared to other minority groups in the United States, yet the lack of Asian
American women in educational leadership remains a persistent issue (Wilf & Ridley-Kerr,
2012). However, the potential benefits of diversity in school leadership are significant and
promising. It can provide role models for students of color who may share similar experiences,
strengthen ethnic identities, and foster a sense of belonging and connection in American public
schools.
This qualitative analysis of nine Asian American women principals in K‒12 public
schools aimed to examine the influences that impact the professional advancement of Asian
American women leaders. The findings suggested that personal and familial foundations
significantly contributed to the professional advancement of Asian American women principals.
Familial values such as strong work ethics and valuing education were critical motivators for
Asian American women’s career advancement. Close familial relationships provided a solid
support system that provided mental stability throughout challenging circumstances, encouraging
tenacity and dedication to succeed.
In addition, mentorship positively influenced the professional growth of Asian American
women principals. Mentorship developed Asian American leaders to be more assertive and cope
with societal challenges. The mentee’s experience is greatly enhanced when they find mentors
who share their ethnicity, as they receive tailored guidance from a mentor who shares their
cultural values. However, the lack of same-ethnicity mentors for Asian American women school
leaders due to their underrepresentation is a persistent challenge. Furthermore, Asian American
women have faced challenges in their career advancement due to societal norms and stereotypes

75
that have impeded their professional development, by being frequently overlooked in
professional settings or perceived as competent followers rather than leaders in their own right.
Addressing these challenges calls for a multifaceted approach that includes increasing
cultural awareness and sensitivity, developing assertiveness and self-advocacy skills, and
providing robust mentorship opportunities to support Asian American women’s growth in
educational leadership. Understanding the influences that supported or hindered the professional
advancement of Asian American women school leaders will help increase diversity at the
leadership level and is central to shaping the educational setting to increase the representation of
Asian American women.

76
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81
APPENDIX A: INTRODUCTORY LETTER
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take
about 45‒60 minutes, does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet, and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a doctoral student at USC and am conducting a study on the
influences that have supported and hindered the professional advancement of Asian American
women school leaders in K‒12 public schools. I am particularly interested in how the influences
from the immediate and distal environment have impacted the professional advancement of
Asian American women school leaders, such as principals or assistant principals. I am talking to
multiple school leaders currently employed at K‒12 public schools who identify themselves as
Asian American women to learn more about this.
I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. This means
that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not be making any judgments on how you
are performing as a school leader. Instead, my goal is to understand your perspective and listen
to your narrative.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet I provided to you previously, this interview is
confidential. What that means is that your name will not be shared with anyone other than myself
as the researcher. I will not share them with other teachers, staff, or the district. The data for this
study will be compiled into a report, and while I plan on using some of what you say as direct
quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your

82
confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data I gather from you. I am happy
to provide you with a copy of the answers you provide if you are interested.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password-protected
computer and all data will be destroyed once the study is complete.
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? I have brought two
voice recorders with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The
recording is solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with
anyone. May I have your permission to record our conversation?

83
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
I. Introduction
I’d like to start the interview by asking some background questions about you.
1. How do you racially, ethnically, or culturally choose to identify yourself? (background)
2. How long have you been a principal? (background)
3. Please tell me why you became a school principal? (background)
II. Heart of the Interview
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about how your culture and family has influenced you.
1. What do you value most about your Asian culture? (RQ1)
2. What cultural values have you adopted throughout your life? (RQ1)
3. How have you balanced your cultural identity and your career goals? (RQ1)
4. Please tell me about your family values. (RQ1)
5. What influences does your family have on your choice to be a principal? (RQ1)
I’d like to ask you some questions about influences that impacted your career advancement.
1. Please tell me how your career has evolved over the years. (RQ1 & RQ2)
2. Can you discuss any initiatives or programs that have been helpful in advancing your
career? (RQ1 & RQ2)
3. Please share your experiences as an Asian American principal in career advancement.
(RQ1 & RQ2)
4. In your experience, have you faced any unique encounters as an Asian American woman
in the workplace? (RQ2)
5. What was it like for you when there were challenges, if any, in your role as a school
leader? (RQ2)

84
6. Tell me about your experiences with a mentor, if any. (RQ2)
Lastly, I’d like to ask you some questions about your thoughts on societal expectations towards
Asian American women.
7. What are your thoughts on the reasons for the low representation of Asian American
women principals? (RQ2)
8. What do you recommend educational organizations take up to increase Asian American
women in leadership positions? (RQ2)
9. What do you see as the most pressing issues facing Asian American women in the
workplace today? (RQ2) How might they be addressed?
10. What advice would you give to schools or school leaders that can encourage the
professional advancement of Asian American women? (RQ1 & RQ2)
III. Closing Question
What other insight would you like to share about our conversation today about your
professional advancement that I might not have covered, if any?
IV. Closing Comments
Thank you so much for sharing your experiences with me today! I appreciate your time
and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is beneficial for my study. If I find
myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you, and if so, is email ok? Again, thank you for
participating in my study.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Asian American women school leaders remain underrepresented in K‒12 public schools, where many Asian American students are served. While there is a need for diverse school leadership, improving racial diversity for Asian American women in K‒12 leadership is a persisting issue. This study sought to understand the influences that supported and hindered Asian American women’s advancement in K‒12 leadership in their immediate and distal environments. Additionally, this study explored how factors in the immediate environment, such as cultural values, and the distal environment, such as Asian stereotypes and mentorship, can influence Asian American women school leaders in their personal and professional lives. Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological model served as the theoretical underpinning for this research to understand the challenges, barriers, and supports of Asian American women’s advancement in K‒12 leadership. I employed a qualitative methodology to examine the influences on the professional advancement of Asian American women school principals in K‒12 public schools from the greater Los Angeles area. Nine Asian American women school principals were interviewed using semistructured questions for this study. Purposeful sampling occurred as the study participants were deliberately identified based on their racial and gender identification within K‒12 public school settings. All interviews were transcribed and analyzed into themes for each research question. Findings revealed that influences such as personal and familial backgrounds, including career aspirations and assertiveness, were prominently identified in their immediate environment. Furthermore, the influence of mentorship, the underrepresentation of Asian American women in school leadership roles, and the impact of societal norms played significant parts in the participants’ distal environment. The study illuminated the underrepresentation of Asian American women school principals by focusing on the resilience and strength these leaders demonstrated in the face of immediate and societal influences. This study aimed to understand the influences that supported or hindered the professional advancement of Asian American women school principals to promote a greater representation and diversity at the leadership level.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Choi, Miram (author)

Core Title The journey to leadership: examining the opportunities and challenges for Asian American women leaders in K-12 schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 01/16/2025

Defense Date 10/24/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Asian American women principals,cultural values,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional advancement,representation

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