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Conductors and word choice: a theoretical handbook

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Conductors and word choice: a theoretical handbook

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Content CONDUCTORS AND WORD CHOICE: A THEORETICAL HANDBOOK
By Michael T. Dawson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
(CHORAL MUSIC)
December 2024
Copyright 2024 Michael T. Dawson

ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this document:
To the mentors whose inspiration has made this journey possible.
To my family for their never-ending support and belief.
To my students, thank you for joining me on this musical journey.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To the USC faculty, Nick Strimple, Jo-Michael Scheibe, Cristian Grases, Tram Sparks,
Larry Livingston, thank you for your inspirational guidance, patience, and support.
To Lynn Helding, for re-shaping my perspective on all aspects of the voice, learning
and motivation.
and
To my father, Michael Dawson, for your encouragement and support throughout my
career.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION……………..……………..……………..……………..……………..……………..……………..…………..ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………..……………..……………..……………..…………………..…………...…..………iii
LIST OF TABLES …………..………..…………………………….……..……………..……………..……………………vi
ABSTRACT……………..……………..……………..……………..………………..……………..……………..……….…vii
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……………………….1
INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem………..………..………..………..………..………………..………..…………...1
Purpose……………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………………………………..………2
Research Questions……..………..…………..………..…………..………..…………..………..……………..3
Method………..………..………..………..………..………..………..………..……….………..………..…………4
PART I - REVIEW OF THE STATE OF THE ART…………………………………………………………………6
CHAPTER 1 - HOW CONDUCTORS USE LANGUAGE………………………………………………..6
i. Role of the Conductor………………………………………………………...……………7
ii. Review of the Literature……………………………………………...………………..13
CHAPTER 2- MOTIVATION…..……………………………………………...……………………………...29
i. Self-Determination Theory…………………………...……………………………….32
ii. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation………………………………………………….33
iii. Sub Theories
1. Cognitive Evaluation Theory…………………………………………..…..36
2. Organismic Integration Theory…………………………………..……….37
3. Causality Orientations Theory…………………………………..………...40
4. Basic Needs Theory…………………………………..………………………..41
5. Goal Contents Theory…………………………………..……………………..42
CHAPTER 3 - HOW COMMANDS IMPACT LEARNING…………………………………..……….45
i. Motor Learning…….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….….…48
ii. Autonomy Supportive Teaching….….….….….….….….….….….….….…...53
CHAPTER 4 - PRONOUNS ….….….….….….….….….….….….….…….….….….….….….….….….….55
i. Introduction….….….….….….….….….….….….….………………………………..55

v
ii. Content and Function Words….….….….….….….….….….….….….……….57
iii. Research on Leadership Language….….….….….….….….….….….….…..63
PART II - SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH….….….….….….….….….………………………………..….…….….…67
PRACTICAL APPLICATION FOR CONDUCTORS….….….….………………………………..….…….………67
ii. Mastery versus Performance Goals……………..…………..…………..…………..……….70
iii. Practical Guide …..…………..…………..…………..…………..…………..…………..…………..74
i. Scenario 1 - Building Competence through Targeted Feedback……….74
ii. Scenario 2 - Enhancing Autonomy in Repertoire Selection……………...76
iii. Scenario 3 - Fostering Relatedness through Community Building……78
iv. Scenario 4 - Scenario 4: Balancing Autonomy and Guidance in
Rehearsal Techniques ………………………..…………………………………………81
v. Scenario 5 - Implementing a Mentorship Program for Skill
Development…………………..………………..………………..…………………………84
vi. Scenario 6- Solo Auditions and
Equity…….…..………………..………………..…………..………………..………………..87
vii. Using Autonomy Supportive Language, a “How to” guide………………..90
CONCLUSIONS…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….……….96
BIBLIOGRAPHY…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….…….……..99

vi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 Significant Sources Related to The Topic of Conductors and Word Choice……9
TABLE 2 Building Competence through Targeted Feedback…………………………………….69
TABLE 3 Enhancing Autonomy in Repertoire Selection……………………………………………71
TABLE 4 Fostering Relatedness through Community Building………………………………..73
TABLE 5 Balancing Autonomy and Guidance in Rehearsal Techniques …………………...76
TABLE 6 Implementing a Mentorship Program for Skill Development……………………..79
TABLE 7 Solo Auditions and Equity………………………………………………………………………..82
TABLE 8 Using Autonomy Supportive Language, a “How To” guide………………………….85
FIGURES
FIGURE 1 Figure highlighting the continuum of self-determination…………………………..39

vii
ABSTRACT
This dissertation explores language's pivotal role in choral rehearsals, synthesizing
interdisciplinary research from social psychology, motivational theory, and motor learning.
Conductors are musical leaders and educators whose verbal communication profoundly
impacts ensemble motivation, knowledge, and performance. The study identifies a gap in
traditional conducting pedagogy, which often neglects the nuanced effects of word choice
on singers' engagement and autonomy. Reviewing literature across diverse disciplines, this
work proposes a pedagogical framework emphasizing autonomy-supportive language to
foster motivation and collaborative rehearsal environments. Key theories, including SelfDetermination Theory and its sub-theories, provide a theoretical foundation to examine
how intentional language use can nurture autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Practical applications include strategies for integrating positive and autonomy-supportive
verbal feedback tailored to maximize singers' intrinsic motivation and group cohesion. This
research aims to enhance the efficacy of conducting pedagogy, equipping conductors with
tools beyond gesture and analysis to lead transformative musical experiences while
inspiring further empirical studies on the interplay of language and learning in the choral
context.

1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The conductor's profession is unique in the music-making world, as conductors are
the only musicians who do not themselves create sound when they perform. The attributes,
skills, and talents required for such a position extend well beyond the realm of music
performance. While they are performers, they are also leaders, teachers, and managers.
This role has evolved in recent years, with the conductor expected to excel in many ways
beyond music-making.
Research from the annual Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System carried
out by the U.S Department of Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics shows
that the number of students graduating with a degree in music in the U.S up until 2020
steadily increased with a slight decrease (0.19%) since the Covid-19 pandemic.1 Many of
these students will have taken classes in conducting methodology as part of the degree or
will indeed specialize in the art of conducting. The consistent increase in students pursuing
degrees in music has led to the development of many pedagogical books and educational
resources related to conducting. The resources contained in these educational materials
are limited to practical skills for conducting techniques, score analysis, and rehearsal
techniques, after thoroughly examining the most prominent publications on conducting,
common threads appeared across the resources. Many of the authors highlight the
1 Data USA, “Music, Conducting,” accessed April 18, 2020,
https://datausa.io/profile/cip/music?compare=conducting

2
important part communication plays in the role of a conductor. However, there is either
minimal reference (or, in most cases, no reference) to the impact the conductor's verbal
communication has on the ensemble, specifically, how the conductor's words affect the
ensemble. If we are to best equip the conductors of the future with the skills they need to
lead effective rehearsals and deliver captivating performances, it is essential that we reflect
on the impact that language can have on their ability to communicate effectively. In that
case, we need a more substantial focus on how we communicate verbally and non-verbally
using the latest research on the topic. While there are few studies on this topic within the
practice of conducting, there is a significant amount of research on this topic related to
other fields such as sports science, motivational psychology, and leadership. There is
considerable value to be found in research from these fields for the benefit of students and
practitioners of conducting. It is my belief that this research needs to become a central part
of conducting pedagogy to develop conductors that are fully equipped to impact the world
of music positively.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this project is to:
● Reconstruct the literature by capturing ideas from multiple disciplines to produce a
better understanding of the practice of conducting, with specific attention to the role
language plays in increasing motivation within the rehearsal setting.
● Craft potential practical advice that conductors can implement in their daily
activities.

3
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In 2009 I began a teaching career by delivering music workshops for large groups of
children. This took place while amid an undergraduate bachelor's degree in music. While I
lacked a concrete philosophical educational framework then, the gap was filled with
enthusiasm, care, and energy. After the first year, I wanted to find more efficient ways to
keep the group of children’s attention, so I reached out to the mother of a good friend, who
was a retired primary school teacher. Aside from teaching the basic curriculum, she
(Muireann) was an exceptional musician and managed to incorporate music into every
lesson from history, math, geography, and languages. I observed Muireann leading a
children’s choir and noticed that in every lesson, she had the children captivated with their
attention in the palm of her hand. Even more impressive was that she did so without ever
showing any frustration, talking down to the children, or raising her voice. I asked her how
she achieved it, and she explained that she only used positive affirmation when teaching.
This involved praising students who behaved optimally (such as sitting up straight, paying
attention, and singing out), which fed into her belief that all children want to be praised.
After a few sessions and many cups of tea, she shared her knowledge with me, broadening
my perspective, and I was able to successfully apply it. A few years later when I started
working at the National University of Ireland Maynooth, I used much of the same
philosophy in working with the university-aged students at the Maynooth University
Chamber Choir and was surprised that the same methodology was just as effective with
University aged students as it was with children.
Since then, I have been curious about why and how the approach was effective.
What was it about reframing the perspective positively that led to a noticeable increase in

4
engagement and motivation from the students? How far could it be explored, is this
common knowledge, and if not, would it be possible to create a framework to guide
conductors and educators?
In 2016 I started a DMA degree in Choral Music at the University of Southern
California and studied Vocology as an elective as part of the degree. This was taught by
Professor Lynn Helding, who has spent much of her career exploring the realm of motorlearning theory and cognitive science as it relates to teaching singers. During a class that
focused on learning, Professor Helding shared research highlighting the link between
emotion and learning, showing that there is no memory without emotion. This reminded
me of my time with Muireann Conway and her philosophy on positive experiences and
explained how and why her method was so effective. This dissertation aims to take these
ideas even further by collating and synthesizing research from a broad range of fields and
applying it to the art of conducting. This approach has led to a concentrated focus on the
following questions.
1. How can literature outside the field of music pedagogy inform our understanding of
the role that word-choice plays in the art of conducting?
2. In what way can this ancillary literature be applied to conducting practices?
METHOD
The methodology used in this dissertation consists of literature reconstruction through a
careful review of secondary literature that expands beyond the boundaries of music

5
scholarship. Throughout this process, literature has been categorized into chapters
according to whether it relates to:
● How Conductors Use Language
● Motivation
● How Commands Impact Learning
● Pronouns
For clarity, an attempt has been made for an even distribution of him/her/they pronouns
throughout the dissertation.

6
REVIEW OF THE STATE OF THE ART
CHAPTER 1 - HOW CONDUCTORS USE LANGUAGE
The conductor, as defined by Britannica, is a person who conducts an orchestra,
chorus, opera company, ballet, or another musical group in the performance and
interpretation of ensemble works. While the activity of conducting an ensemble goes back
as early as the fifteenth century when “performances by the Sistine Choir in the Vatican
were kept together by slapping a roll of paper (or in other cases, a lengthy pole, or baton)
to maintain an audible beat,”1 it was not until Beethoven's Eroica Symphony in the early
nineteenth century when music became more complex that the conductor's role as
timekeeper began to evolve into something more.2 This began with composer-conductors
such as Hector Berlioz and Felix Mendelssohn, described as “men of autocratic and creative
character who assumed full control over performance and brought to their work a singleminded creative viewpoint”3. The role later evolved in the first half of the twentieth century
with conductors such as Arturo Toscanini, who gained legendary status across the world
with his captivating control over musicians and quest for perfect interpretation. Often,
these conductors were idolized in an almost god-like fashion, and arguably, many of them
nearly believed that they were gods. A quote from the iconic Toscanini epitomizes this
perception: “God tells me how the music should sound, but you stand in the way”.4 Post
World War II led to a further evolution of the conductor as a leader with legendary figures
1 “Conductor, Music,” Britannica, accessed April 10, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/art/conductor-music. 2 Jameson Neil Marvin and Simon Carrington, Emotion in Choral Singing: Reading between the Notes (Chicago:
GIA Publications, Inc, 2019). 3 Marvin and Carrington, Emotion in Choral Singing, 67.
4 “Arturo Toscanini,” IMDB, accessed March 10, 2020, https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0869109/quotes/

7
such as Herbert von Karajan and Leonard Bernstein. If we compare anecdotal accounts of
the prominent conductors of the twenty-first century with those of the twentieth, it is clear
that there have been significant changes in their leadership approaches. Examine the Los
Angeles Philharmonic conductor and Venezuelan native Gustavo Dudamel, one of the most
prominent conductors of the twenty-first century. After being appointed conductor of the
LA Phil, he said “I think it's a very important collaboration between conductor and
orchestra - especially when the conductor is one more member of the orchestra in the way
that you are leading, but also respecting, feeling, and building the same way for all the
players to understand the music.”5 Dudamel's language clearly shows that he views his role
as a collaborator rather than a dictator. This contrasts quite dramatically with the earlier
quote from Toscanini, which highlights the autocratic nature of his approach. Before we
can take a deep dive into the pedagogical literature on how conductors communicate, first,
it is essential to explore how the role of the conductor has changed over the past century.
Role of the Conductor
For much of the twentieth century, conductors had a reputation for adopting a
conducting style known in politics as totalitarian leadership. This can be found in a 1967
text by American music writer Harold C. Schonberg when he wrote, “he is a leader of men…
He has but to stretch his hand and he is obeyed. He tolerates no opposition. His will, his
word, his very glance, are law”.6 Towards the end of the twentieth century, leadership
styles began to shift, paving the way for a more collaborative approach to music-making to
5 “Gustavo Dudamel,” IMDB, accessed April 10, 2020, http://www.imdb.com/name/nm2281593/bio
6 Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Conductors (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967), 16.

8
emerge. The model conductor became compassionate and more focused on facilitating and
collaborating rather than ordering and dictating.7 In an interview between JoAnn Falletta,
acclaimed by The New York Times as “one of the finest conductors in the U.S”, and Diane
Wittry conductor and pedagogue, Falletta shares that
Over the last twenty years, the conductor's role has changed dramatically. I think that our
job is actually harder now. In the past, the conductor was completely in charge. Anything the
maestro said or did was never questioned; decisions were arbitrary and sometimes made
without any attention to the needs and desires of the musicians. Now we deal in a more
collegial way with our orchestras, but at the same time have the final responsibility for the
results. We recognize that the work environment of the musicians with whom we work is
critically important.8
The players and singers likely led this shift in the ensembles. In a book entitled
Leadership Ensemble: Lessons in Collaborative Management from the World’s Only
Conductorless Orchestra (2001), authors Harvey Seifter and Peter Economy studied
the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, famous for not having a conductor. They found a
stark difference in job satisfaction in favor of the conductorless orchestra due to the
heightened level of autonomy and input encouraged in the conductorless orchestra.
Don Palma, a cellist in the orchestra, wrote:
7 S. Morrison and S. Demorest, “Once from the Top: Reframing the Role of the Conductor in Ensemble
Teaching,” in The Oxford Handbook of Music Education, vol. 1, ed. G. McPherson and G. Welch (New York, NY:
Oxford University Press, 2012).
8 Diane Wittry, Beyond the Baton: What Every Conductor Needs to Know (Oxford; New York: Oxford University
Press, 2011), 41.

9
I took one year off from the Orpheus at the very beginning and went to the Los Angeles
Philharmonic. I just hated it. I didn’t like to be told what to do all the time, being treated like
my only value was just to sit there and be a good soldier; Orpheus keeps me involved. I have
some measure of participation in the direction the music is going to take. I think that’s why a
lot of us have stayed involved for so long.9
Don Palma’s negative sentiment is not necessarily due to the presence of the conductor but
instead to the lack of autonomy felt by the players. To be a professional orchestral
musician, one must be highly skilled, talented, and experienced. Therefore, it is
understandable that motivation levels would decrease if the ability to express music is
diminished due to the presence of an overbearing conductor and a controlling
environment. The challenge for conductors in the twenty-first century lies in the breadth of
the skills required for the job. Being an excellent musician with a clear ability to
communicate through gestures is not enough anymore. Conductors and directors must
now be involved in all aspects of the ensemble, from fund-raising to marketing, while also
equipped with stellar organizational and people management skills. In an interview with
Diana Wittry, Leonard Slatkin states:
The world has changed and we are more conscious of our communication with others than
we were before. The conductor now exists in many roles: you are a psychologist, you are a
father-mother figure, you are a doctor, and you are also a spokesperson of the ensemble you
9 Harvey Seifter and Peter Economy, Leadership Ensemble: Lessons in Collaborative Management from the
World’s Only Conductorless Orchestra (New York: Times Books, 2001), 26.

10
lead. In the past it was fairly easy for a conductor to just come in, conduct and go home. They
were the maestro and the organization didn’t expect much more than that.10
There is arguably no question that the shift from autocratic leader to compassionate
facilitator has far more significant benefits for ensembles and organizations than the
controlling autocrat. If we look at the origin of the word “conduct,” we see that it comes
from the Latin conducare, meaning to lead and to care, etymologically implying that the
role requires both.11 The updated approach to conducting an ensemble requires
conductors to have all of the technical skills prized of the past, yet the ability to frame their
ensemble objectives differently and update their techniques to motivate and inspire the
players in front of them. In this dissertation, I will collate relevant theories in the fields of
social psychology, sports science, motor-learning theory, leadership, and motivation to
offer a pedagogical framework that could help conductors utilize language to foster greater
motivation in the choral setting.
The guide is designed to be a tool for conductors and will help them become aware
of the importance of language, signaling, and its positive and negative effects on the people
to whom it is applied. This guide is meant to be neither exhaustive nor comprehensive.
Rather, it provides a foundation and framework for choral conductors to incorporate,
adapt, and expand their knowledge. This guide will also offer a starting point for muchneeded future empirical research on the effects of language use in conducting settings.
10 Wittry, Beyond the Baton, 21.
11 Joan C. Conlon, ed., Wisdom, Wit, and Will: Women Choral Conductors on Their Art (Chicago: GIA
Publications, 2009), 158.

11
In the past fifty years, many books have been published by prominent choral
educators and conductors that highlight essential skills that conductors are expected to
develop throughout their careers. The range of topics is vast, covering everything from
score analysis to period performance practice, voice pedagogy, leadership, and conducting
techniques. The range of pedagogical books available is also extensive; however, few draw
from an interdisciplinary scientific approach to support their claims. Often, they are
anecdotal reflections on a successful career.
As valuable as they are in offering suggestions and directions for the conducting
practice, they also provide more of a mentor-based analysis on the art of conducting, and
their widespread use as foundational texts is primarily due to the reputation and career
successes of their authors. This dissertation will provide an alternative framework for
understanding conducting practice, informed by multiple theoretical perspectives from
outside the typical realm of conducting pedagogy. The purpose of this dissertation is not to
review or assess the legitimacy of these texts. Instead, it is focused on examining one
specific topic across the literature: whether or not the popular pedagogical choral
conducting literature explores the effect conductors' verbal commands have on the
motivation levels of the choral ensemble.
While some older research suggests that students respond more musically to
conductors with better-conducting techniques 12 newer, more compelling research by
Morrison and Demorest suggests that the “link between great conducting technique and an
ensemble’s expressiveness and technical ability is tenuous.”13 Assuming the conductor is
12 V. J. Sidoti, The Effects of Expressive and Nonexpressive Conducting on the Performance Accuracy of Selected
Expression Markings by Individual High School Instrumentalists (Ohio: Ohio State University, 1990).
13 Morrison and Demorest, “Once from the Top.”

12
competent, (that is, they have the technical training, musical understanding, and people
skills to impart their musical ideas to their ensemble), the conductor’s relationship with the
musicians likely has a more significant effect on how they respond to their verbal and nonverbal commands than technical conducting ability alone. One of the most essential factors
in creating that relationship is how the conductor verbally interacts with the ensemble. Yet
despite this observation, there is not a significant amount of research on how conductors
speak to ensembles.

13
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose of this review is to discover to what extent communication has been
addressed within conducting pedagogy. Specifically, few prominent pedagogical sources
explore whether or not the words conductors use have any effects on the motivation of
their ensembles. The conductor's role is to prepare an ensemble to perform at their best.
The ensemble must learn or improve its skills to deliver a higher-level performance. In the
world of cognitive neuroscience, there are two primary types of knowledge and processes
in the human mind: declarative learning and procedural learning. Declarative learning is
associated with the acquisition of facts and knowledge that can be consciously recalled and
articulated. This includes things like historical dates, the meaning of words, and facts about
the world. Declarative memory is often subdivided into episodic memory (personal
experiences) and semantic memory (general knowledge).14 Procedural Learning involves
learning tasks that can be performed without conscious awareness or the need for
verbalization. This includes skills like riding a bicycle, typing on a keyboard, or playing a
musical instrument. Procedural learning is more about "how" to do things rather than
"what" things are.15
Lynn Helding in her book The Musician’s Mind: Teaching, Learning, and Performance
in the Age of Brain Science summarizes learning into three steps: attention, learning itself,
and long-term memory. Attention is the first step on the development journey; little
14 Eduardo Camia and Francisco Guell, “The Neuroanatomical, Neuropysiological and Psychological Basis of
Memory: Current Models and Their Origins,” Frontiers in Pharmacology 8 (2017).
15 Lynn Helding, The Musician’s Mind: Teaching, Learning, and Performance in the Age of Brain Science (New
York and London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2020), 72.

14
learning can occur without it.16 Given the typically short time frames in which conductors
can prepare ensembles, conductors must use their skills to create a motivating
environment that encourages attention to maximize learning.
As part of this review, the prime focus and framework of each text has been
catagorized the following subheadings: music analysis, conducting gesture, performance
practice, voice pedagogy, and finally, social-psychological considerations. While this review
is not exhaustive, it provides a sufficiently comprehensive analysis of the significant extant
patterns of approaches to study the relationships between conductors and ensembles. The
wide berth of important texts is sufficient for a comprehensive analysis of the state of the
art regarding word choice and conductors. The following table summarizes the primary
focus and key insights of each text as they relate to the impact of conductors' word choice
on the motivation of their ensembles.
TABLE 1
This table highlights significant sources related to the topic of conductors and word choice.
Author(s) Title Year Primary Focus Key Insights Type Journal/Pu
blisher
Jameson
Marvin
EMOTION IN
CHORAL MUSIC -
Reading Between
the Notes
2019
Voice
Pedagogy,
Conducting
Gesture
Emphasizes engaging
the ensemble to
increase motivation,
lacks discussion on
verbal communication
style.
Book GIA Music
Publishing
16 Grace W. Lindsay, “Attention in Psychology, Neuroscience, and Machine Learning,” Frontiers in
Computational Neuroscience 14 (April 16, 2020), https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2020.00029

15
Frank
Abrahms
and Paul D.
Head
(Editors)
The Oxford
Handbook of
Choral Pedagogy
2017
SocialPsychological
Considerations
Highlights the
conductor as a
facilitator and
introduces the
concept of reciprocal
teaching and
constructivism.
Book
Oxford
University
Press
Daniel
Abrahams
Choral
Conducting:
Philosophy and
Practice - 2nd
Edition
2018
SocialPsychological
Considerations
Discusses the negative
impact of
authoritarian
conductors and
emphasizes the
importance of agency
and reflective
practice.
Book Routledge
Colin
Durrant
Choral
Conducting:
Philosophy and
Practice - 2nd
Edition
2017
Voice
Pedagogy,
SocialPsychological
Considerations
Stresses effective
communication and
the importance of a
positive, safe learning
environment.
Book Routledge
Susan Avery
Adult Community
Choruses “A
Lifespan
Perspective”
2017
SocialPsychological
Considerations
Focuses on adult
learning theories and
lacks a discussion on
the conductor's word
choice.
Chapter/
Essay
Oxford
University
Press
Arreon
Harley
The Gang
Mentality of Choir
“How Choirs Have
The Capacity to
Change Lives”
2017
SocialPsychological
Considerations
Links choral ensemble
participation to
fulfilling Maslow's
hierarchy of needs,
briefly mentions
language's role.
Chapter/
Essay
Oxford
University
Press

16
Paul Rardin
Building Sound
and Skills in the
Men’s Chorus at
Colleges and
Universities in
the United States
2017
SocialPsychological
Considerations,
Voice Pedagogy
Advocates for a
dynamic, engaging,
and caring conductor,
suggest language style
could enhance
techniques.
Chapter/
Essay
Oxford
University
Press
Sharon J.
Paul
Art & Science in
the Choral
Rehearsal
2020
Cognative
neuroscience
and social
psychology,
motivation
Integrates insights
from cognitive
neuroscience and
social psychology to
enhance choral
rehearsal techniques
Book
Oxford
University
Press
Harold A.
Decker and
Colleen J.
Kirk
Choral Conducting
- Focus on
Communication
1995 Conducting
Gesture
Focuses on nonverbal communication
and acknowledges the
importance of verbal
communication
without detailed
exploration.
Book Waveland
Press
Ramona Wis The Conductor as
a Leader 2007
SocialPsychological
Considerations
Compares conducting
to leadership,
emphasizing
facilitation over
autocracy, does not
delve into word
choice.
Book GIA
Publications
In 2019, James Marvin, former choral pedagogue at Harvard University, published Emotion
in Choral Music - Reading Between the Notes,”17 which constitutes a comprehensive
17 Marvin and Carrington, Emotion in Choral Singing.

17
examination of the topics that Marvin deems most valuable to other conductors. The book
is separated into three parts and covers Historical Singing, Choral Literature, Score
Analysis, Score Preparation, Concepts on Listening, Voice Pedagogy (tuning choirs), and,
finally, the Conductor’s Process. Marvin outlines the conductor's process and states that the
process nourishes “communication, inspiration, and rejuvenation” and calls these
attributes the “life-blood of the profound interaction between humanity and music.”18
Marvin puts a strong emphasis throughout the book on finding ways of engaging the
ensemble, presumably as a way to increase motivation and get the best results from the
group. While the book is heavily focused on the technical side of conducting practice,
Marvin clearly understands the importance of motivating the singers; “Enthusiasm,
encouragement, patience, humor, and positive reinforcement will serve the conductor well
when singers are engaged in the rehearsal process.”19 The book encourages the conductor
to prepare their music and rehearsal plans and raises important questions to consider
when conducting ensembles of varying levels. Marvin centers his analysis on what the
conductor should communicate to the ensemble to stir enthusiasm and promote active
participation. However, he does not tackle how this communication should occur, leaving
the choice of verbal style to the conductor. This is partly due to the book's central focus on
the technical skills conductors need such as historical understanding, score analysis, and
many essential concepts related to voice pedagogy (tuning, vowels, and the importance of
listening) as an analytical framework, which leaves unaddressed the questions of language
choice and its direct impact on the motivation and emotional state of the ensemble.
18 Marvin and Carrington, Emotion in Choral Singing, 44.
19 Marvin, and Carrington, Emotion in Choral Singing, 112.

18
The Oxford Handbook of Choral Pedagogy, edited by Frank Abrahms and Paul D.
Head,20 is a collection of essays authored by prominent conductors and should be a staple
in most conductors’ collections. The book was published in 2017 and is a bountiful
resource covering a wide array of topics from many of the top pedagogues in the choral
world. Many authors share the contemporary perspective of the conductor as a facilitator
rather than a dictator mentioned numerous times by several authors. This is best
highlighted by contributing author Ramona Wis, who claims that “the conductor and
ensemble members act as musical collaborators in the process of making music, leading to
a deeper and more meaningful experience for all”.21
Frank Abrahams, in his article “Critical Pedagogy as Choral Pedagogy” in the Oxford
Handbook of Choral Music, also highlights this trend, consisting of an overemphasis on
gesture and “legacy teaching” across conducting pedagogy. Legacy teaching describes the
pattern of teaching that results in students using the same concepts and techniques that
their teachers used to teach them, sometimes ignoring new or outside information from
other educators. He highlights how novice conductors often “replicate and reproduce the
effect, warm-up exercises and rehearsal schema they remember from their time in the
choir with a conductor whom they particularly admired.” 22 Later in the same article, he
states, "sometimes those familiar with the novice conductor’s teacher will say that the
young conductor is a carbon copy of the teacher.” 23 In the same article, he mentions that
20 Abrahams, Frank, and Paul Head. The Oxford handbook of choral pedagogy. Oxford handbooks online. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2017. 21 Ramona M. Wis, The Conductor as Leader: Principles of Leadership Applied to Life on the Podium (Chicago:
GIA Publications, Inc, 2007) 14. 22 Frank Abrahams, “Critical Pedagogy as Choral Pedagogy,” in The Oxford Handbook of Choral Pedagogy, eds
Frank Abrahams and Paul Head (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2020), 13.
23 Frank Abrahams, “Critical Pedagogy as Choral Pedagogy,” 13.

19
not much has changed in conducting pedagogy over the past few decades: “[A] survey of
conducting textbooks confirms that little has changed in the ways that conductors learn
their craft.” 24 Frank Abrahams’25 solution to this problem is “reciprocal teaching” where
conductors and students are encouraged to create an environment that enables a
constructivist practice leading to increased agency among singers.
Constructivism as per Kirsty Williamson, is a learning theory grounded in the idea
that individuals actively construct their own understanding of the world, based on their
unique experiences and prior knowledge.26In the choral setting, constructivism emphasizes
a student-centered approach, where learners actively engage in the process of creating
meaning and understanding, rather than passively receiving information. This approach
encourages students to be active participants, using critical thinking and collaboration to
build their own knowledge.27
Abhrams outlines very specific exercises conductors can use with their ensembles
built around the pedagogical framework of constructivism. However, these examples lack
specific methodology regarding word choice and how that might feed positively into the
practice of constructivism. Frank Abrahams supports the concept of critical consciousness
and argues that “authoritarian conductors, albeit unintentionally, may inhibit a singer’s
ability to think critically.” 28 Frank Abrahams philosophy of reciprocal teaching encourages
24 Frank Abrahams, “Critical Pedagogy as Choral Pedagogy,”13. 25 For the purpose of this dissertation, his full name will be used as there are two prominent Abhrams within
the field of choral pedagogy. 26 “Constructivism,” ScienceDirect Topics, accessed January 24, 2024,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/constructivism
27 Jerome Bruner, The Culture of Education (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996),
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv136c601
28 Frank Abrahams, “Critical Pedagogy as Choral Pedagogy,” 17.

20
a sense of autonomy in the singers. As discussed in more depth in Chapter 2 “Motivation,”
this fosters an environment of enthusiastic, driven, and engaged singers. Abrahams
provides a framework of strategies and techniques to apply his reciprocal teaching method.
Interestingly, while Abrahms does not directly discuss why actions are given in a particular
language style, his strategies often introduce dialogue with questions rather than explicit
commands.
Paul D. Head, the editor of the Oxford Handbook to Choral Music and prominent
choral pedagogue in the U.S, also highlights in his article the importance of “creating an
environment that fosters student engagement.” 29 He explores the changing role of the
conductor and refers to the constructivist approach also explored in Frank Abrahams
writings. However, Head strongly believes in the positive power that students feel once
they take more responsibility for their own learning. He is also cautious about completely
handing over the educational reins to the singers in specific areas such as repertoire choice
and rehearsal structure. Interestingly, Head encourages his singers to write accounts about
their experiences with both the music and the rehearsals in order to foster stronger
communities, since each singer can read their peers' thoughts on a given work.
As a sense of community and mutual trust develops over the course of time, I have found
that members of the choir are willing not only to speak in a voice that reveals their personal
ideologies and perspectives but once realizing that their “voices have been heard,” they are
willing to take more risks in the reverse engineering process.30
29 Paul Head, “The Choral Experience: Turned Inside Out,” in Abrahams and Head, 52.
30 Head, “The Choral Experience: Turned Inside Out,” 60.

21
Head’s focus on empowering singers through thoughtful written reflection
encourages introspective analysis and helps foster an environment in which
students feel they are listened to. Nonetheless, Head does not discuss the specific
way the singers use language in their short essays or explore the role language has
played in reshaping the evolution of conducting from traditional paradigms to
contemporary ones.
The second of the Abrahms, Daniel Abrahms, proposes that conductors displaying
an attitude of superiority and dominance towards their ensemble are capable of inflicting
emotional, physical, and psychological damage, making it difficult to produce expressive,
beautiful music .
31 The constructivist approach, as per Eunice Boardman, Peter R. Webster,
and Jackie Wiggins, highlights the observation that in order for “learning to occur,
experiences must be meaningful, and relevant to the participants; if they cannot make
sense of the experience, learning cannot happen”.
32 Examining optimal ways conductors
can use language to reframe how they communicate potentially feeds into the
constructivist approach to teaching. He also highlights the importance of agency. Agency as
described by Blair (2009) is “the way people act and interact within socio-cultural
settings…and implies students moving from powerless to a sense of control and a hope for
the future, their own future”.
33 Daniel Abrahms describes the term “agency” as a mental
state in which students perceive themselves as participants rather than spectators. Daniel
Abhrams’ methodology of reflective practice, coupled with creating a constructivist
31 Daniel Abrahams, “Chapter 4” in Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice, ed. Colin Durant (New York
and Abingdon: Routledge, 2018), 7. 32 Daniel Abrahams, “Fostering Musical and Personal Agency: Considering the Conductor,” Abrahams and
Head, 111.
33 Abrahams and Head, 118.

22
environment for learning, is a powerful way of empowering students, thus motivating them
further. Despite this needed contribution, there is no reference to the impacts that word
choice might play in creating a collaborative, educational environment. The constructivist
approach could be enhanced by incorporating language into its methodology.
Dr. Colin Durrant, conductor of the University of London Chamber Choir, offers a
perspective from the UK. In his article titled “The Framing of Choirs and Their Conductors”
he explores the history of how international audiences perceive English choirs and the
pedagogical transformation of choral conducting in the UK over the past twenty years. 34
Like his American peers, he highlights the importance of developing a robust knowledge of
choral repertoire, voice pedagogy, and technical analysis skills. However, he states, "above
all, the efficient and effective communication of this knowledge through conducting and
rehearsing and an awareness of the ability level of singers are paramount attributes.”35 His
methodology also further emphasizes the importance of well-being in the choral setting:
“People learn more effectively in a positive, safe environment”.36 In Durrant’s book titled
Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice,37 he references two opposing styles of
rehearsing, one in which the conductor makes the singers feel secure and confident and the
other in which singers are “castigated for not knowing the notes, thus creating a feeling of
insecurity and negativity”.38 As he mentions in the same article, his educational philosophy
also aligns with that of Thurman and Welch39 in that it is paramount for effective
34 Colin Durrant, “The Framing of Choirs and Their Conductors,” in Abrahams and Head. 35 Durrant, “The Framing of Choirs and Their Conductors,” in Abrahams and Head, 213.
36 Durrant, “The Framing of Choirs and Their Conductors,” in Abrahams and Head, 233.
37 Durrant, Choral Conducting, 105. 38 Durrant, “The Framing of Choirs and Their Conductors,” in Abrahams and Head, 233.
39 Leon Thurman et al., Bodymind & Voice: Foundations of Voice Education (Collegeville, Minn.; Iowa City, Iowa;
Minneapolis, Minn.: VoiceCare Network; National Center for Voice & Speech; Voice Center of Fairview, 2000).

23
conductors to adopt “human compatible” behaviors as opposed to “human-antagonistic”
behaviors.40 Nonetheless, throughout his work, the impact of word choice on exhibiting
“human-compatible” behaviors does not play a central role in the analysis.
An article by Susan Avery titled Adult Community Choruses “A Lifespan
Perspective”41 explores several important facets related to community chorus type musicmaking, including the health benefits associated with singing, the broad scope of goals by
different organizations, and most importantly to my dissertation, characteristics of adult
learning.42 In this article, Avery outlines various theories related to adult learning by the
prominent behavioral psychologists, Dr. Thomas Baumgartner and Dr. Nicky Knowles.
While their theories offer many invaluable insights, they focus on specific ways to frame
lessons with adults, like encouraging self-direction, sharing with adults the reason why
they are learning a specific thing, and putting more weight on intrinsic versus extrinsic
motivating factors.43 While Avery’s article offers a comprehensive examination of the
breadth of factors that influence adult learning, from the psychological to the physiological,
there is no mention of how conductors’ word choice may influence the singer's ability to
engage with different concepts.
40 Durrant, “The Framing of Choirs and Their Conductors,” in Abrahams and Head, 233.
41 Susan Avery, “Adult Community Choruses: A Lifespan Perspective,” The Oxford handbook of choral
pedagogy. Oxford handbooks online. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017 in Abrahams and Head,
42 Susan Avery, “Adult Community Choruses: A Lifespan Perspective,” in Abrahams and Head, 319. 43 Avery, “Adult Community Choruses,” in Abrahams and Head, 352.

24
In Arreon Harley’s article titled The Gang Mentality of Choir “How Choirs Have The
Capacity to Change Lives,”44 he highlights Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs45
and links it to the impact the choral ensemble can have on fulfilling these needs.46 Without
engaging in a deeper discussion of the validity of Maslow’s theory, which is not central to
the scope of this analysis, it is worth mentioning that the concept of how language can help
frame situations within a rehearsal setting is only tangentially mentioned in Harley’s
article.
Conductor Paul Rardin from Temple University provides an excellent overview of
techniques to teach Men’s Choruses in his article Building Sound and Skills in the Men’s
Chorus at Colleges and Universities in the United States. In this article, Paul offers research
on the reasons boys tend to drop out of music at a young age and offers solutions to the
problem. Rardin touches on many of the typically important concepts for conducting
choirs, from techniques to show healthy vocal technique and creating a healthy ensemble
sound to the psychological elements of conducting which involve the conductor's role in
creating a community. Rardin is in favor of the dynamic, engaging, caring conductor and
repeatedly highlights these values as important with statements like “rehearse with
enough pace to keep the singer engaged” and “Many non-musical attributes…...can fuel
musical excellence through that one component that members of all choirs desperately
44Arreon, 'The Gang Mentality of Choirs: How Choirs Have the Capacity to Change Lives', in Frank Abrahams,
and Paul D. Head (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Choral Pedagogy, Oxford Handbooks (2017; online
edn, Oxford Academic, 6 Mar. 2017), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199373369.013.25, accessed 3
March. 2021.
45 Robert J. Taormina and Jennifer H. Gao, “Maslow and the Motivation Hierarchy: Measuring Satisfaction of
the Needs,” The American Journal of Psychology 126, 2 (2013): 155-177,
https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.126.2.0155
46 Harley, “The Gang Mentality of Choirs” in Abrahams and Head, 458.

25
seek: Belonging”.47 Rardin’s techniques and well delivered, specific examples are a fantastic
resource for conductors. However, the techniques he highlights could be further amplified
by a heightened focus on the conductor's language style to communicate with the
ensemble.
Choral Conducting - Focus on Communication by Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk
is a popular book across U.S. choral departments.48 The book provides a comprehensive
guide to the art of conducting, taking the reader through various topics from conducting
gestures, score analysis, voice pedagogy, ear training, and repertoire selection. While the
book focuses on communication, it primarily focuses on non-verbal communication
through conducting gestures. “Two guiding principles for teachers of conducting are these:
Doing is more important than talking excessively about what should be done, and
classroom interaction should reinforce learning gained from reading and practice
assignments.” 49 This is not to say that the authors do not recognize the importance of
verbal communication, as they reference it as one of the essential tools of the conductor.50
However, despite acknowledging this early on in the book, and despite it covering almost
every aspect of conducting, it does not guide optimal ways for conductors to communicate
verbally with their musicians.
As many of the questions in this dissertation relate to conducting, many also relate
to leadership. Conductor Ramona Wis highlights this comparison in her book The
47 Rardin, Paul, “Building Sound and Skills in the Men’s Chorus at Colleges and Universities in the United
States,” in Abrahams and Head, 472.
48 Harold A. Decker and Colleen J. Kirk, Choral Conducting: Focus on Communication (Long Grove: Waveland
Press, Inc., 1988). 49 Decker and Kirk, 187.
50 Decker and Kirk, 2.

26
Conductor as a Leader, which examines the role of the conductor as a leader.51 Once again,
the theory of the leader as a facilitator, as opposed to an autocrat, is central to the book's
argument. This is clearly outlined in chapter one when Wis states that “True leadership
recognizes authority as an opportunity to lead, not as a license to rule others”.52 While we
will explore some of the concepts in this book later in this dissertation, the book does not
reference word choice as something leaders or conductors should consider.
This comprehensive examination of pedagogical books and articles related to the art
of conducting has illuminated the dynamic shift in how conductors lead ensembles in the
late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, with a greater emphasis on facilitating the
process in an open, inviting, non-threatening way; nevertheless, it has also revealed that
many of the top authors have not considered the idea of examining word choice as a tool
for improving conductors' efficiency and efficacy.
Considering that the length of time many ensembles spend rehearsing seems to be
diminishing (perhaps due to the increased cost of paying professional musicians and
reduced funding) it is therefore more important than ever that conductors find ways of
communicating more efficiently. And any communication should be done from the
perspective of increasing the feeling of autonomy among the ensemble members. This
involves conductors’ awareness of the psychological effect that words have on how the
members view themselves within the context of the ensemble and how they view their
conductor.
51 Wis, The Conductor as Leader.
52 Wis, The Conductor as Leader, 9.

27
Feedback
The role of the conductor is, at its heart, that of an educator. Ideally, both roles
embody people who strive to explore more captivating ways to get the information in their
own minds to germinate in the minds of others. The most common way this is done is
through verbal feedback. In the field of motor-learning theory, feedback is divided into two
major categories: feedback that is felt by performers themselves (inherent feedback) and
feedback that is given by an external source, typically a coach (called augmented feedback).
Author Lynn Helding states that augmented feedback is considered by most motor learning
researchers to be “the single most important variable (except, of course, the practice itself)
for motor learning”53. Given the important role that conductors have in guiding singers
through the complex motor skill of phonation, it is striking that the importance of
augmented feedback is not highlighted in many of the most seminal pedagogical books. For
this reason, this dissertation seeks to capitalize on this gap in the literature on conducting
and provide a pedagogical framework for conductors to understand the nuances of
augmented feedback, particularly verbal augmented feedback, and the subcategories
accompanying it in the chapter titled “How Commands Effect Motor Learning.” It is
important to note that an important category of augmented feedback is nonverbal. This
includes facial expressions, hand gestures, and body language; however this dissertation
concerns only verbal augmented feedback.
53 Lynn Helding, “The Mindful Voice: Teaching Voice with the Brain in Mind,” in Journal of Singing 70, 3
(January/February 2014): 349-54. See also Richard A. Schmidt and Timothy D. Lee, Motor Control and
Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008), 258.

28
However, before we get to that chapter, we must first examine the general effect
that words have on human perceptions and behaviors, then narrow in on the main point of
this dissertation, which is to look at how words given by a conductor affect singers during a
rehearsal.
The specific effect we will be considering can be boiled down to the motivating
effect; that is, how the environment and words a conductor uses can have a positive or
negative effect on the motivation levels of the singers during the rehearsal process.

29
CHAPTER 2 - MOTIVATION
Perhaps more important, in the real world, motivation is highly valued
because of its consequences: Motivation produces. It is therefore of
preeminent concern to those in roles such as manager, teacher, religious
leader, coach, health care provider, and parent that involve mobilizing
others to act.1
Motivation plays a critical role in nearly every aspect of human life, from daily routines to
long-term goals. For example, we rely on motivation to get out of bed, prepare breakfast,
and commute to work. Entire industries, such as advertising and self-help, have emerged to
study and exploit motivation by leveraging psychological techniques to influence behavior,
Billion-dollar companies spend unimaginable amounts of money to understand it better
and reap the financial rewards from harder-working, better-motivated employees. If a drug
could be created to hack the motivating drivers for humans, it could be one of the most
lucrative supplements ever created. Throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries,
there has been an abundance of research regarding motivation. Some studies, such as those
of Russian physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov on classical conditioning are so well-known
that they have made their way into pop culture, appearing in popular shows like The
Simpsons and Family Guy. However, the twenty-first century has seen tremendous shifts in
our understanding of motivation and how we conduct human experiments regarding it.
1 Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation,
Social Development, and Well-Being,” American Psychologist (2000), 11.

30
This chapter will provide the framework for understanding the latest theories
related to motivation. Closely connected to motivation is volition, which is the willpower or
decision-making process that leads to action. Volition comes into play after the initial
motivation has been established; volition drives the commitment and control mechanisms
that help an individual to stay focused on their goal, manage distractions, and persist in the
face of challenges or when motivation wanes. Essentially, volition deals with translating
intention into action and maintaining that action until the goal is achieved.2
Essential to this dissertation is a deeper understanding of the motivating factors
that influence our drive, which in turn can build a useful theoretical framework in order to
understand how word choice may affect these drivers, positively or negatively. For a wider
perspective, we will begin with a brief overview of the motivational studies field, followed
by a detailed summary of the important theories within this field that directly apply to how
word choice, in the context of a choral rehearsal, might affect motivation and learning.
Until recently, motivation was studied across many disciplines using varied and
sometimes contradictory approaches. This resulted in different words being applied to
similar concepts across fields.3 The topic of motivation has been vigorously studied,
resulting in countless theories that need to be understood and explained.4 Divergent
approaches regarding the study of motivation in different fields from social psychology,
cognitive neuroscience, and educational psychology have led to the development of
compartmentalized and discipline-specific motivation studies. Each discipline has different
2 Helding, The Musician’s Mind. 33. 3 P. Karen Murphy and Patricia A. Alexander, “A Motivated Exploration of Motivation Terminology,”
Contemporary Educational Psychology 25 1 (January 2000): 3-53, https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1019
4 Dale H. Schunk et al., Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications (Harlow: Pearson, 2014).

31
definitions and theories and, until recently, has had little dialogue with other fields which
address motivation as an object of analysis. Recently, a new field has emerged using science
to answer questions whilst also aiming at standardizing theories and terms. This new field
is called motivational science. This new interdisciplinary approach to studying motivation
across different settings attempts to explain how decisional power is embedded in
personal, group, or organizational motivational states. One of the proponents of
motivational science is Professor Kou Murayama, who in 2018 wrote an article for the
American Psychological Association Journal where he voiced his concern regarding the
challenges that the study of motivation has had over the past few decades, pointing to some
avenues for advancement introduced by exciting new interdisciplinary approaches. In his
article, he states “Despite its obvious importance, empirical research on motivation has
been segregated in different areas for long years, making it difficult to establish an
integrative view on motivation.”5 He elaborates further by highlighting the variance of
motivational theories from educational psychology, social psychology, organizational
psychology, and cognitive/affective neuroscience and how many of these areas work in
silos with few interdisciplinary approaches. However, he optimistically shares this view on
a new era that is multidisciplinary and multi-method focused. This new area, called
motivational science, is the area from which much of the motivational theoretical
framework in this dissertation will be drawn.
This new, interdisciplinary approach offers fascinating perspectives on the field of
motivation, which have not been widely applied directly to the art of conducting within the
5 Murayama, Kou, “The Science of Motivation,” Psychological Science Agenda, (June, 2018), American
Psychological Association https://www.scribd.com/document/715329109/The-science-of-motivation,
accessed March, 2024.

32
rehearsal context. The next section will examine and unpack the relevant theories that
provide the theoretical framework for how word choice might affect motivation levels in a
rehearsal.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a comprehensive framework for understanding
motivation, which can explain why singers in a rehearsal setting may respond differently to
various verbal cues or feedback. By examining how these stimuli align with basic
psychological needs such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness, SDT helps clarify why
certain words or phrases can enhance motivation and engagement in group settings. The
theory is built on the belief that three innate universal psychological needs motivate people
to grow and change. Psychologists Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci believe that these
basic psychological needs motivate self-initiated behavior and positively impact individual
psychological health and well-being.6 These needs are said to be the universal need for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
7 Autonomy is a state in which people feel they have
control over their actions, goals, and behaviors. The feeling that they can take direct action
resulting in change is integral to helping people feel self-determined. Competence is related
to the innate need for people to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills. When
people feel that they can successfully learn a new skill and gain mastery of tasks, they are
more likely to take action to help them achieve their goals. Relatedness (sometimes referred
6 Edward L. Deci and Richard Ryan, “Human Autonomy: The Basis for True Self-Esteem,” in Efficacy, Agency
and Self-Esteem, ed. M. H. Kernis (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1995). 7 Ryan and Deci. 68.

33
to as connection) is the innate urge for people to feel a sense of belonging to each other or
that the shared task that they are doing is important.
For example, music is prescribed to a group of singers to learn for the next
rehearsal. At that rehearsal, the singers perform one person per part, and it becomes clear
that one singer has not learned the material needed to perform the task successfully. If that
person has high self-determination, they will admit to their lack of work, believe they can
do something to fix the issue, and take action to correct the mistake. On the other hand, if
that singer had low levels of self-determination, they might deflect the blame, avoiding
admitting fault or making excuses. This person will likely not feel motivated to correct the
problem. They may feel that the situation is out of their control and that nothing they do
will make any difference. The ideal environment for singers and conductors is where all
singers feel a strong sense of self-determination. To achieve this, singers must have high
levels of intrinsic motivation, which is directly related to the singers' experience in the
environment.8
Intrinsic Motivation
Central to SDT is the concept of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is a state in which
a person engages in activities for the inherent rewards of the behavior itself. The person
does not receive any external rewards for the activity; instead, they perform it simply
because they find it enjoyable or interesting. For example, a person watches a movie
8 Rubén Trigueros et al., “The Influence of the Social Context on Motivation towards the Practice of Physical
Activity and the Intention to Be Physically Active,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health 16, 21 (November 2019): 4212, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214212

34
because they enjoy movies and are interested in the story rather than watching it because
they have a report or essay to write to pass a class. Early versions of the theory are
attributed to Robert W. White's 1959 paper titled “Motivation Reconsidered: the Concept of
Competence,” 9 published in Psychological Review. White’s theory of effectance motivation
was at odds with other behavior and motivation theories during that time. One was operant
conditioning, theorized by psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner (colloquially known as
the carrot and the stick approach). This theory grew out of the now-controversial theory of
classical conditioning by psychologist John B. Watson during the early twentieth century.
Classical conditioning is the concept that behaviors can be learned through repeated
association between a neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring response. It suggests that,
with the right conditioning, individuals can be trained to exhibit specific behaviors,
regardless of their background. This theory, developed by Ivan Pavlov, originally
demonstrated how a neutral stimulus, like a bell, could trigger a conditioned response, such
as salivation, in dogs after being repeatedly paired with food.10 It uses rewards and
punishments to increase or decrease the likelihood that a specific behavior will recur.
Rewards can include money or other prizes, praise, or fame. Throughout the twentieth
century, there have been many cases in which people have used this theory and inflicted
abuse as a result.11 However, classical conditioning was a fundamental aspect of
behaviorism, the dominant school of psychology through most of the twentieth century;
9 R. W. White, “Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence,” Psychological Review 66 (September
1959): 297-333, https://doi.org/10.1037/h0040934
10 Chris Janiszewski and Luk Warlop, “The Influence of Classical Conditioning Procedures on Subsequent
Attention to the Conditioned Brand,” Journal of Consumer Research 20, 2 (1993): 171-189.
11 Philip G. Ney, “Uses and Abuses of Operant Conditioning,” Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 20
(1975): 14.

35
even though behaviorism has largely been replaced by cognitive science, the latest research
still acknowledges classical conditioning’s important role in understanding an essential
aspect of motivation called extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation is a drive to behave a certain way as a result of external
rewards.12 For example, a person working at a large accounting firm might be offered
significant financial incentives to reach specific goals. They might receive praise and fame
from peers or authority figures due to achieving those targets. This is known as extrinsic
motivation. In contrast, this sits on the other side of the SDT continuum, intrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation describes the driving forces behind human desire as
coming from within. The theory was first published in the book "Self-Determination and
Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior" by authors Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci.
Since then, it has been adopted and applied to books on leadership, parenting, teaching,
and almost any field that involves examining the behavior of people.13 To fully understand
SDT, we need to look deeper at its sub-theories.
SDT is comprised of five mini-theories that help create a deeper understanding of
the broader meta-theory: cognitive evaluation theory, organismic integration theory,
causality orientations theory, basic needs theory, and goal contents theory. These theories
form an essential part of SDT and, indeed, the theoretical framework of this dissertation.
Each theory is summarized below.
12 Deci and Ryan, “Human Autonomy.” 13 Deci and Ryan, “Human Autonomy.”

36
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
Cognitive Evaluation Theory examines the social and environmental factors that affect
intrinsic motivation.14 As a sub-theory of SDT, it is built upon the same guiding principle:
humans have a fundamental need for competence and autonomy. It argues “first, that
social-contextual events (e.g., feedback, communications, rewards) conduce toward
feelings of competence during action can enhance intrinsic motivation for that action.” 15
Results from experiments show that optimal challenges (i.e., challenges that are within a
reasonable amount of difficulty), autonomy-supportive feedback, and avoidance of
demeaning evaluations positively influence intrinsic motivation. These findings are based
on early studies from 1975 which showed that positive performance feedback promoted
intrinsic motivation, while negative performance feedback diminished it.16 A more recent
meta-analysis further confirmed this hypothesis by highlighting that when a reward is
offered based on the performance of a task, it negatively impacts intrinsic motivation.17
This is important because intrinsic motivation has the greatest potential for volition.
In summary, CET is primarily concerned with the effects of social context on intrinsic
motivation.18
14 Ryan and Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation.”
15 Ryan and Deci, “Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation.”
16 Edward L. Deci, Intrinsic Motivation (New York and London: Plenum Press), doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-
4446-9
17 Richard M. Ryan and Richard Koestner, “A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of
Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation,” Psychological Bulletin 125 (6): 42.
18 Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, Self-Determination Theory: Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation,
Development, and Wellness, (New York and London: The Guilford Press, 2017),
https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806

37
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
OIT asks the question: why do people engage in uninteresting activities? It is primarily
concerned with activities antithetical to those involved in CET, which are typically
performed for extrinsic reasons, such as rewards, financial gain or status.19 Much of the
discourse regarding intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has viewed both areas as contrary to
one another, with many experiments showing that rewards (extrinsic motivators) are
generally used in nonautonomous environments and can inhibit intrinsic motivation.20
However, the performance of uninteresting activities is an essential part of life. For
instance, consider doing laundry. It's a routine task performed not out of interest but
necessity. Another we can Jane who decides to learn Spanish as an example. Her
motivations for doing so evolve, reflecting the continuum of extrinsic motivation described
by the Organismic Integration Theory.
1) External Regulation (least autonomous): Initially, Jane's employer offers a bonus to
employees who can communicate effectively with Spanish-speaking clients. Jane's
primary motivation to learn Spanish is to receive this bonus, an example of external
regulation because her motivation comes from an external reward.
2) Introjected Regulation: is a type of extrinsic motivation where individuals engage in
activities to avoid guilt, anxiety, or to gain approval from others, rather than from
genuine interest or enjoyment. In this form of motivation as Jane starts learning, she
feels proud when she masters new phrases and embarrassed when she cannot
19 Richard M. Ryan et al., “All Goals Are Not Created Equal: An Organismic Perspective on the Nature of Goals
and Their Regulation,” in The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior, eds Peter M.
Gollwitzer and John A. Bargh (New York and London: The Guilford Press, 1996), 7-26.
20 Ryan and Koestner, “A Meta-Analytic Review.”

38
remember words she has studied. Her motivation begins to include avoiding
feelings of shame and seeking feelings of pride, which reflects introjected regulation.
Her motivation has started to internalize but is still driven by her internal pressures
and contingencies rather than true personal value.
3) Identified Regulation: is a form of extrinsic motivation where individuals engage in
activities because they have consciously identified the value or importance of the
activity, even if they do not inherently enjoy it. In this case, the person recognizes
the activity as personally important and aligns it with their goals or values. For
example, Over time Jane recognizes the personal value and usefulness of learning
Spanish. She understands how it enhances her job performance and enables her to
connect with more clients. Her motivation to continue learning is now based on the
personal importance of being able to communicate in Spanish, reflecting identified
regulation.
4) Integrated Regulation (most autonomous of extrinsic motivations): Eventually, Jane
integrates learning Spanish into her identity and values. She enjoys learning and the
opportunities it creates for cultural exchange and personal growth. She sees it as
part of her identity and wants to continue improving her language skills. This stage
is integrated regulation, where extrinsic motivation fully assimilates with her other
values and needs. However, the motivation is still extrinsic because the outcomes
remain instrumental to achieving other goals.
5) Intrinsic Motivation (not extrinsic, but the ultimate goal of internalization): Jane
might reach a point where she learns and practices Spanish simply for the joy and

39
satisfaction it brings her, not for any external reward or internalized value. This
stage represents intrinsic motivation, where the activity itself is rewarding.
This scenario illustrates how motivation for an activity can shift from being externally
driven to being integrated into one's sense of self and values, showcasing the essence of
Organismic Integration Theory within Self-Determination Theory. OIT examines how
extrinsically motivated activities can become internalized into a person's sense of self. In
other words, the more a person engages with a specific activity and its values, the more
likely they are to integrate into that sense of self, making the behavior more selfdetermined. This is viewed on a continuum with non-self-determined behavior on the left
and self-determined behavior on the right. See Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1

40
Figure highlighting the continuum of self-determination, starting at non-determined
behavior on the left and self-determined behavior on the right.
Causality Orientations Theory (COT)
COT examines differences in motivation as they pertain to the individual.21 COT proposes
that each person interprets the cause of their behavior for themselves, based on whether or
not the causes are “emanating from the self, emanating from others, or emanating from
external events.” 22 These are called causality orientations, and are typically divided into
autonomy, control, and impersonal orientation categories. Autonomy is the state in which
the person feels as though the motivation is caused and originated from the self; control is
the state in which motivation comes from an outside source (extrinsic); impersonal
orientation is the state in which individuals interpret their actions as beyond their
intentional control.23 Of note is the second of these, control orientation, where individuals
focus on external factors such as rewards, punishments, or deadlines. In social settings,
they perceive these external influences as forces requiring compliance or resistance,
leading them to experience their actions as driven by outside pressures rather than their
own internal motivations.24
21 Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, “The General Causality Orientations Scale: Self-Determination in
Personality,” Journal of Research in Personality 19, 2 (June 1985): 109-134, https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-
6566(85)90023-6
22 Martin S .Hagger and Kyra Hamilton, “General Causality Orientations in Self-Determination Theory: MetaAnalysis and Test of a Process Model,” European Journal of Personality 35, 5 (September 2021): 710-735,
https://doi.org/10.1177/0890207020962330
23 Ryan and Deci, Self-Determination Theory. 24 Hagger and Hamilton, “General Causality Orientations in Self-Determination Theory.”

41
Basic Needs Theory (BNT)
BNT links the three psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
essential for promoting intrinsic motivation, and forms a fundamental part of SDT. As
mentioned earlier, autonomy is the psychological need to experience a behavior that
emanates from oneself.25 When individuals feel as though they have a perceived choice
over their actions, they feel psychological freedom and that their engagement is emanating
from an internal locus.26 Competence is the need to feel successful in tasks and actions.
Interestingly, anyone who has worked with children will be very aware of the importance
of competence, as children often reject hobbies or activities that they are not immediately
good at. According to Deci, competence is the internal desire to seek out and master
environmental challenges.27
Relatedness is the desire to be connected emotionally with others in caring,
supportive relationships. Students’ relatedness needs are satisfied to the degree they relate
to others in a reciprocal, caring, and authentic way.28 BNT highlights why some students
show different levels of active engagement in educational activities and at different times
show passive or antagonistic involvement. Fundamentally, if the three psychological needs
are satisfied (“needs satisfactions”), students are more likely to participate in learning
25 Ryan and Deci, “The General Causality Orientations Scale: Self-Determination in Personality,”
26 Johnmarshall Reeve, Glen Nix, and Diane Hamm, “Testing Models of the Experience of Self-Determination in
Intrinsic Motivation and the Conundrum of Choice,” Journal of Educational Psychology 95, 2 (2003): 375-392,
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.375
27 Edward L. Deci, Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior (New York and London,
Plenum Press, 1975).
28 Richard M. Ryan, “Agency and Organization: Intrinsic Motivation, Autonomy and the Self in Psychological
Development,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Developmental Perspectives on Motivation, vol. 40, ed. J.
E. Jacobs (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 1-56.

42
activities actively. In contrast, neglect will result in passive or antagonistic behavior
towards learning activities.
Goal Contents Theory (GCT)
GCT is concerned with the goals individuals are striving to achieve. For example, what is a
singer's goal for attending rehearsal each week? What is the goal while practicing? As with
the previous theories, GCT grew out of looking at the content of specific goals (intrinsic or
extrinsic), how it impacts needs satisfaction, and its effect on motivation and well-being.29
It shows that striving for goals (such as better interpersonal relationships and personal
growth positively) feeds basic needs satisfaction, while the pursuit of extrinsic goals (such
as money and greater popularity) negatively impacts basic needs satisfaction and
undermines well-being and learning.30 Therefore, psychological well-being and
psychological need satisfaction do not depend on whether the goals are achieved; instead,
they depend on the content of the goals, and at that, whether goals are propelled by
intrinsic or extrinsic motivation.
Why is this Important?
Each of the five sub-theories of SDT acts as a structural pillar of the overarching
theory. Each sub-theory can be applied to aspects of the rehearsal setting. For this
29 Maarten Vansteenkiste, Willy Lens, and Edward L. Deci, “Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Goal Contents in SelfDetermination Theory: Another Look at the Quality of Academic Motivation,” Educational Psychologist,41, 1
(2006), 19-31, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326985ep4101_4
30 Maarten Vansteenkiste et al., “Does Extrinsic Goal Framing Enhance Extrinsic Goal-Oriented Individuals’
Learning and Performance? An Experimental Test of the Match Perspective versus Self-Determination
Theory,” Journal of Educational Psychology 100, 2 (May 2008): 387-397, https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-
0663.100.2.387

43
dissertation, we are concerned with how to maximize singer engagement to create a more
efficient learning environment by examining the effect that the conductor’s words have on
the participants. As CET is concerned with social settings, the choral rehearsal is a prime
example. The nature of the choral rehearsal (which results in feedback via verbal
communication, goal setting, and rewards, both intrinsic and extrinsic) means CET might
have a lot to offer in terms of understanding ways to increase intrinsic motivation in the
rehearsal setting.
Organismic Integration Theory, which focuses on extrinsic motivators and the
continuum in which extrinsic rewards can grow and become part of the self via intrinsic
motivation, is also very applicable to the choral setting. As the group is made up of
individuals, the reasons why people engage in the activity are no doubt diverse. For
example, at the university level, there may be credit rewards for attending the rehearsal
(extrinsic rewards), there may be social status to be gained by excelling within that
environment, or perhaps the extrinsic motivator of wanting to sing better to impress peers
moves along the OIT continuum from an externally regulated motivator to an internally
regulated motivator as the person begins to do it for their own enjoyment. In other words,
the choir member has morphed extrinsic motivation into intrinsic motivation.
With its focus on the individual, Causality Orientation Theory can help conductors
understand their words' impact on the individual's causality orientation. For example, the
conductor must understand the negative or positive impact of extrinsic rewards,
punishments, and deadlines on the individual's causality orientation. It highlights the
importance of the experience for the individual to feel autonomy and control over their

44
environment. Later in this dissertation, we will examine these conditions and how word
choice can impact this environment.
Given its important place within SDT, the Basic Needs Theory is also one of the most
guiding theories for understanding how word choice might affect motivation in the
rehearsal context. Autonomy (a sub-theory of SDT) is important to understanding its
impact on intrinsic motivation. However, two other sub-theories of SDT competence and
relatedness, are also very important for success in understanding the rehearsal setting.
The group setting poses a challenge as there are oftentimes different levels of musicianship
ability, vocal ability, and engagement. “Competence” highlights the importance of desirable
difficulties31 and choosing music and rehearsal techniques to facilitate a feeling of
competence across the entire group. Relatedness and the desire for people to feel
connected, build authentic relationships, and feel as though they are in a caring
environment are things that can be greatly supported or greatly diminished by the
conductor. Later, we will discuss the direct impacts of controlling language on this theory.
Finally, Goal Content Theory can help conductors understand how to frame the
goals for the ensemble throughout a specific rehearsal period. By crafting goals that focus
on personal growth that positively impact the needs and satisfaction of singers, conductors
can create an environment conducive to fostering intrinsic motivation towards learning in
the rehearsal setting. How conductors frame goal setting can benefit this practice, through
careful word choice and phrasing.
31 Robert A. Bjork and Elizabeth L. Bjork, “Desirable Difficulties in Theory and Practice,” Journal of Applied
Research in Memory and Cognition 9, 4 (December 2020): 475-479,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.09.003

45
CHAPTER 3 - HOW COMMANDS IMPACT LEARNING
This Chapter will address the process of moving from a neutral to a motivational state and
the later implications this has on declarative and procedural learning. Music teachers have
known for a long time that when music assigned to students that is significantly more
difficult than their current ability allows, practicing can become unenjoyable leading
students to lose confidence and feelings of competency. Therefore, it is better to program
repertoire using the concept of Desirable difficulties. This refers to learning tasks that are
challenging enough to promote deeper processing and better retention of information, but
not so difficult that they become discouraging or overwhelming. These tasks strike a
balance between effort and attainability, forcing learners to engage actively with the
material, which strengthens their understanding and long-term recall. The idea is that by
introducing obstacles that make the learning process more effortful, such as spaced
repetition, varied practice, or testing rather than passive review, learners are more likely to
retain the information and skills in the long run. In the context of music education, for
example, assigning a piece that is slightly above a student's current skill level can create a
"desirable difficulty." The student has to work harder, but this effort leads to better
mastery and more robust learning compared to tasks that are too easy or too hard.1,2 As we
have previously explored, social relatedness (how the skill benefits the students’ ability to
interact with people) and a feeling of autonomy are also factors that can optimize
1 Suzete Chiviacowsky and Gabriele Wulf, “Feedback After Good Trials Enhances Learning,” Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 78, 2 (2007): 8.
2Bjork and Bjork, “Desirable Difficulties in Theory and Practice.”

46
performance and learning.3 This chapter will look specifically at how language influences
learning and will draw heavily on the foundational work of Deci and Ryan regarding SDT.
This chapter will first examine how theories of motivation are applied to language and will
follow with a deeper dive into learning fundamentals. Much of the research used in this
chapter will draw from non-music-related fields such as sports science, cognitive
psychology, and language. This is because much of the funding acquired to perform studies
on optimizing commands and language has been in the fields where financial benefit can be
gained by optimizing performance.4 However, luckily for musicians, the brain does not care
whether you are learning to bat a cricket or play a piano concerto; both are seen as
procedural learning or motor learning. A prominent researcher in the field of motor
learning, Gabriele Wulf, has stated that “There is no reason to think that most of the
findings from ML research cannot be effectively applied to music training.”5
In a paper regarding autonomy titled, Impacts of Autonomy-Supportive Versus
Controlling Instructional Language on Motor Learning, the authors state that “motor
learning researchers are also increasingly realizing that the benefits of self-controlled, or
learner controlled practice may be motivational in nature as well, in that they may satisfy
the basic psychological need for autonomy.”6 As discussed earlier in Chapter 2, autonomy is
3Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, “The ‘What’ and ‘Why’ of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the SelfDetermination of Behavior,” Psychological Inquiry 11, 4 (2000): 227-268,
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01.
4 Donna M. Desrochers, “Academic Spending Versus Athletic Spending: Who Wins?” American Institutes for
Research (Washington DC, 2013). 5 Ernst-Joachim Hossner and Nicole Wenderoth, “Gabriele Wulf on Attentional Focus and Motor Learning,” EJournal Bewegung und Training, 1 (2007), 64.
6 Andrew Hooyman, Gabriele Wulf, and Rebecca Lewthwaite, “Impacts of Autonomy-Supportive versus
Controlling Instructional Language on Motor Learning,” Human Movement Science 36 (August 2014):
1901998, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2014.04.005

47
related to people's basic need to control, choose, or actively participate in determining
their own actions and behavior.7
The previous chapter on motivation provided a broad understanding of how
intrinsic motivation is affected by social, personal, cultural, and external factors. In this
chapter, we will see that when examining the role that language and word choice play in
creating autonomy-supportive environments, one challenge is a lack of unified
terminology. In the study referenced above, the authors used “autonomy-supportive
language” and “controlling” language to define the phrases used to provide instruction. In
other studies, language is not referred to specifically; instead, the implication is that the
appropriate language will be used. For example, in Bullseye: Effects of Autonomy Support
and Enhanced Expectancies on Dart Throwing, the authors state that “participants in the
Autonomy Supportive group AS / Enhanced Expectancies EE group were informed that
they could choose the color of the dart flights,” showing that autonomy-supportive
language was used but not revealing if the exact wording was prescribed. 8 In the third
study, “Autonomy-Supportive Teaching: What It Is, How to Do It,” by Johnmarshall Reeve,
the language style is referred to as “tone.”9 For this dissertation, word choice will be
referred to as language style.
7 Lauren A. Leotti and Mauricio R. Delgado, “The Inherent Reward of Choice,” Psychological Science 22, 10
(October 2011): 1310-318, https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417005
8Julian Alexander Wehlmann and Gabriele Wulf, “Bullseye: Effects of Autonomy Support and Enhanced
Expectancies on Dart Throwing,” International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 16, 2 (April 2021): 317-
323, https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954120967788
9 Johnmarshall Reeve, “Autonomy-Supportive Teaching: What It Is, How to Do It,” in Building Autonomous
Learners: Perspectives from Research and Practice Using Self-Determination Theory, eds Woon Chia Liu, John C.
K. Wang, and Richard M. Ryan (New York: Springer, 2016), 129-115, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-
630-0_7.

48
Motor Learning
In a 2014 study titled “Impacts of Autonomy-Supportive Versus Controlling
Instructional Language on Motor Learning”, the authors Andrew Hooyman, Gabriele Wulf
and Rebecca Lewthwaite examined the influence of autonomy-supportive, controlling, and
neutral instructional language on motor skill learning. The study was designed to provide
different levels of choice offered to the participants and measure these choices’ effects on
their learning and retention. The motor skill that was investigated in the study was the
action of cricket bowling. Participants watched a video demonstrating bowling action with
different voice-over instructions during the study. Each participant was provided with the
same technical information; however, the language that was used offered the participants
various levels of choice; each language style is below and can be understood based on the
opening line.
● Autonomy-supportive Language (ASL): “Here is your opportunity to learn a cricket
pitch. Please wait to begin your throws until the instruction has ended.”
● Controlling Language (CL): “Your job today will be to learn a cricket pitch and
perform it well. You may not begin throwing until you are told to do so”.
● Neutral Language (NL): “Today you will be practicing a cricket pitch. Begin
throwing once instruction has ended and the court is set.”
The results showed that learning was enhanced when instructions were autonomysupportive by using language to encourage the student to make their own decisions. In
contrast, the participants who experienced the commands with controlling language scored
lower across the board. The authors stated that the controlling language group had less

49
emotional engagement in the task.10 This was likely due to increased levels of the stress
hormone cortisol, which is proven to be released as a result of controlling language.11, 12
Why is this important? Research has indeed shown that a lack of emotional engagement
results in shallower learning at the neurological level.13
This experiment in autonomy-supportive language highlights that positive learning
outcomes are influenced by autonomy and choice and that autonomy may promote future
engagement with the task. Although the experiment was done on motor skills related to
cricket bowling, the findings of this study can be used to argue that the language style a
conductor uses in the context of a choral rehearsal may have large implications on how that
motor skill is learned.
In the “Bullseye Study,” researchers Julian Alexander Wehlmann and Gabriele Wulf
examined the influence of two factors: 1) autonomy support and 2) enhanced expectancies
on motor learning, using the action of dart throwing.14 One group was given small choices
(autonomy support) and told it was easy to succeed in the task (enhanced expectancies).
According to the study, participants in the autonomy-supportive group were told they
could choose the color of the dart flights and the color of the bullseye, while the control
group was told that the experimenter would occasionally change the dart flight and
10Hooyman, Wulf and Lewthwaite, “Impacts of Autonomy-Supportive versus Controlling Instructional
Language,” 197.
11 Johnmarshall Reeve and Ching-Mei Tseng, “Cortisol Reactivity to a Teacher’s Motivating Style: The Biology
of Being Controlled versus Supporting Autonomy,” Motivation and Emotion 35, 1 (2011): 63-74,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-011-9204-2
12 Sally S. Dickerson and Margaret E. Kemeny, “Acute Stressors and Cortisol Responses: A Theoretical
Integration and Synthesis of Laboratory Research,” Psychological Bulletin 130, 3 (2004): 355-391,
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355
13 Christina Hinton, Koji Miyamoto, and Bruno Della-Chiesa, “Brain Research, Learning and Emotions:
Implications for Education Research, Policy and Practice,” European Journal of Education 43, 1 (2008): 87-
103.
14 Wehlmann and Wulf, “Bullseye.” 317-323.

50
bullseye colors.15 The experiment result showed that the autonomy-supportive group
participants scored higher on the task than those in the control group. By providing
choices, the participants likely felt more autonomy, even if the choices seemed limited.
Interestingly, these results showing that autonomy of choice results in better
performance is featured in other studies, and has revealed similar results; the opportunity
to have a choice, even if unrelated to the task, can have a positive impact on learning.16 One
meta-analysis found that even when instructions were irrelevant to the task, such as
choosing the colors of the darts, participants performed better than those who had been
given no choice.17 Another study also showed that providing participants with choice can
result in a measurable increase in the success of the motor task.18 The study was not
concerned with the specific words used to instruct the participants, nor was controlling
language featured as part of the study's procedure; instead, it was concerned with
providing choices to create an autonomy-supportive environment. Therefore, since we can
conclude that choice is crucial in creating an environment promoting deeper learning and
greater performance, might we ask: is there a way conductors can use choice within the
choral rehearsal to help create an autonomy-supportive environment?
So far, we have considered studies that focused on the field of motor learning and
how autonomy-supportive environments and language can positively impact the desired
15 Wehlmann and Wulf, “Bullseye.” 317-323. 16Rebecca Lewthwaite et al., “Choose to Move: The Motivational Impact of Autonomy Support on Motor
Learning,” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 22, 5 (October 2015): 1383-1388,
https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0814-7
17Erika A. Patall, Harris Cooper, and Jorgianne Civey Robinson, “The Effects of Choice on Intrinsic Motivation
and Related Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Research Findings,” Psychological Bulletin 134, 2 (2008): 270-300,
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270
18Anielle Lemos et al., “Autonomy Support Enhances Performance Expectancies, Positive Affect, and Motor
Learning,” Psychology of Sport and Exercise 31 (2017): 28-34,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.03.009

51
results of motor tasks. In this chapter, we will explore the latest research on motor learning
related to musicians, followed by research on the effect commands have on motor learning.
Motor learning, as described in Lynn Helding’s The Musicians Mind, is a process that is
inferred rather than directly observed that leads to permanent changes in habits as a result
of practice.19 As discussed in Chapter 1, one of the essential roles a conductor must embody
is that of an educator. However, the setting of an educator in this context is focused on the
group dynamic instead of individual students. This is in contrast to the typical instrumental
or voice teacher who works with students individually. The teacher listens, comments, and
guides the students towards better technique and musical understanding during these
lessons. The advantage in this typical scenario is that the teacher only needs to tailor their
language to suit one person's needs. Conductors, on the other hand, and specifically choral
conductors, are required to listen to an ensemble of singers and guide them accordingly as
a group. Often, what is an ideal way of describing something for one person does not work
well for another. The conductor must also monitor the engagement levels of a large group
of people and manage their delivery in the most optimally motivating way. Therefore, the
challenge is finding effective forms of communication that result in a positive outcome for
all.
For this section, a positive outcome will be defined as an outcome that results in
permanent changes in the singer's performance of the activity. How conductors interact
with a choir, and specifically the guidance they give, is called augmented feedback. If done
19 Schmidt and Lee, Motor Control and Learning.

52
with the right intention, it is well documented that augmented feedback can have positive
impacts on motor performance.20
As discussed in Chapter 1, one of the fundamental roles of a conductor is that of an
educator. Reeve’s article Autonomy-Supportive Teaching: What It Is, How to Do It provides
a practical framework for teachers to apply self-determination theory. In the article, Reeve
takes a multi-angled approach to facilitating intrinsic motivation and highlights six
engagement-fostering motivational resources that all students possess.21 These are
autonomy, competence, relatedness, curiosity, interest, and intrinsic goals. Language style,
particularly the importance of autonomy-supportive language, is an important part of
autonomy-supportive teaching, because “all teachers face the instructional challenge to
motivate their students to engage in and benefit from the learning activities they
provide”.22 He states that teaching style can be deduced by the language style used. For
example, prescriptive commands such as “Do this: do that or else” and commands that
impose pressure “Quickly! Its urgent!” highlight a teaching style orientated towards
controlling. On the other hand, flexible language such as “Feel free to stand and engage
your body” that is accompanied by support shows a leaning towards autonomy-supportive
teaching.23 Interestingly, the positive impact of taking an autonomy-supportive approach to
teaching is not only felt by the students; teachers who develop an autonomy-supportive
20 Michael Wälchli et al., “Maximizing Performance: Augmented Feedback, Focus of Attention, and/or
Reward?,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 48, 4 (April 2016): 714-719,
https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000818
21 Reeve, “Autonomy-Supportive Teaching.” 22 Reeve, “Autonomy-Supportive Teaching,”
23 Reeve, “Autonomy-Supportive Teaching,”

53
approach to teaching show greater levels of needs satisfaction, efficacy, well-being, and
motivation.24
The conductor's perspective in relation to the ensemble plays a large part in
developing an autonomy-supportive language style. Once again, choice, as highlighted in
Reeve’s article, has proven itself in several studies to positively impact intrinsic motivation
and self-efficacy.25 In contrast, language that is negative or pressuring has been equally
shown to affect motivation and the integration of new motor skills negatively. Therefore,
another tool to encourage autonomy-supportive environments is informational, nonpressuring language. According to Reeve, non-pressuring is “avoiding messages that
communicate pressure (i.e., the absences of “shoulds,” “musts,” “have to’s,” and “got to’s”).”
The informational language perspective helps keep the lens of responsibility on the student
without negatively affecting their emotions.
Autonomy Supportive Teaching; Why is it Important?
Conductors practice within a context that involves working with groups of people.
While much communication happens nonverbally, conductors must verbalize a concept or
idea. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the content of what the conductor must draw their
attention to is widely researched and tangible in hundreds of conducting pedagogy books.
However, how that content is shared with the ensemble directly impacts the singers'
motivation, engagement, and learning. The studies presented in this chapter have focused
24 Sung Hyeon Cheon et al., “The Teacher Benefits from Giving Autonomy Support During Physical Education
Instruction,” Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 36 (August 1, 2014): 331-346,
https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2013-0231.
25 Reeve, “Autonomy-Supportive Teaching.”

54
on the importance of language style, and specific word choice, in the rehearsal setting.
While Chapter 2 provided the foundational theories of what drives us, chapter 3
illuminated the many pitfalls that conductors and educators can encounter when language
style is not considered. It has also provided a frame for developing a language style that sits
on the autonomy-supportive end of the language continuum which should be considered
when communicating in an educational context. This frame has choice, freedom,
thoughtfulness, and support at its center and, if considered during communication while
teaching, can help educators adopt an autonomy-supportive language style.

55
CHAPTER 4 - PRONOUNS
Recently, pronouns, specifically gender pronouns, have become more important in
daily life. There have been significant movements across the Western world, particularly
within university settings, where people have begun to examine their pronouns and take
note of other people's pronouns. On Zoom calls and email signatures, people highlight their
particular preference for the pronoun with which they wish to be identified. In the choral
world, there has been a movement to remove using gender pronouns when referring to
different sections of the choir and instead address them by their section, e.g., sopranos and
tenors. This is easily applied to choirs as they have contained male sopranos, male altos,
and female tenors for hundreds of years. However, this is only one aspect of pronouns'
impact on recent societal norms. As mentioned in Chapter 1, humans are incredibly
complex social creatures who use language and speech to share thoughts, feelings, and
emotions. This chapter will explore a different side of pronouns, one which offers insightful
insights into how we see ourselves and others within social groups. How do we manage our
emotions, and how can conductors as leaders within social groups use this information to
inform their word choice when communicating with large groups?
In his book entitled The Secret Life of Pronouns, social psychologist James W.
Pennebaker (recognized by the American Psychological Association as one of the top
researchers on trauma, disclosure, and health)1 explains how and why he uses software to
analyze millions of emails, letters, and poems to discover extraordinary new information
1 James W. Pennebaker, The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us (Bloomsbury Press: New
York, London, New Delhi, Sydney, 2011).

56
about how our language can reflect our emotional state. Our emotional state is how we feel
and view ourselves in relation to people, groups, or situations.
Pennebaker organizes all words into two categories: content words and function
words. Content words incorporate an object or an action, contain information, and have
meaning. These include nouns, regular action verbs, and most modifiers, like adjectives and
adverbs. In the following example, all the words that are in bold are content words:
David has lived in Ireland for ten years.
Pennebaker’s other category, function words, give language its style, shape, and
connection, and are used to organize content words. Function words include pronouns,
prepositions, articles, conjunctions, and auxiliary verbs. In this sentence for example
The greatest time to write a dissertation is in the morning
Without content words, function words are meaningless. For example, the same
sentence without function words would read
Greatest time write dissertation morning
Without function words, the sentence lacks cohesion and becomes difficult to
understand. In his book, Pennebaker states that function words hold valuable information
about people's emotional state;.2 however, they often go unnoticed. As highlighted by the
example of function words above, function words are the words that hold sentences
2 James W. Pennebaker, The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us.

57
together, but are less evocative in their meaning than content words. According to WeberFox and Neville, they are also the hardest to master when learning a new language.3
The average native-English speaker has roughly 100,000 words at their disposal.
Within that arsenal, function words account for, on average, only 500 words.
4 Nonetheless,
despite making up a small percentage of our vocabulary, they are used at very high rates.
For the average person, they represent 55% of the words used daily. They are typically
short and hard to detect in everyday speech due to their size, and have little meaning
beyond defining the relationship between two words. Function words are not stressed in
English, while content words are. In the following example, the content words are bold:
Mary has lived in Ireland for ten years.
Try to read that sentence again but instead, stress the function words. In doing so, it
becomes clear why they often go undetected in everyday speech. Pennebaker's research on
how function and content words contain important information about our emotional state
offers important insights into how conductors can use language to create autonomysupportive environments.
Content and Function Words
The distinction between content and function words becomes even more
pronounced at the neurological level with research revealing that these two categories
3 Christine Weber-Fox and Helen J. Neville, “Sensitive Periods Differentiate Processing of Open- and ClosedClass Words: An ERP Study of Bilinguals,” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 6 (December
2001): 1338-1353.
4 Tony C. Smith and H. Witten, Language Inference from Function Words, Computer Science Working Papers
93/3 (Hamilton, New Zealand: Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, 1993), 25.

58
engage distinct areas of the brain. Content words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs are more deeply processed in regions associated with semantic and lexical
meaning, particularly in the left temporal cortex. In contrast, function words such as
conjunctions, prepositions, and articles activate areas responsible for grammatical
structure, like the left frontal cortex. This division isn't just a linguistic technicality; it
reflects the brain’s specialized approach to language processing, emphasizing the
complexity and sophistication of how we comprehend and produce speech. The brain
treats content words as core building blocks of meaning, while function words serve as
scaffolding, guiding us through the structure of sentences. This neurological specialization
highlights the importance of both types of words in shaping coherent, meaningful
communication. In 1861, French physician Paul Broca discovered that patients with
damage to the left frontal lobe of the brain exhibited impairments related to speech.
Specifically, these patients struggled to use words like ‘an’, ‘the’, ‘is’ what Pennebaker calls
function words. (It also caused them to become socially awkward and frustrated.) Since
then, this region, called Broca’s Area, has been associated with the movements of speech
and thus is also called the motor speech area.5 Damage to this region can result in Broca’s
aphasia or expressive aphasia which is a type of language disorder caused by damage to the
Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe of the brain, typically on the left hemisphere. This
condition affects a person's ability to produce speech. Individuals with Broca's aphasia
often have difficulty forming complete sentences, speaking in short, broken phrases, and
finding the right words, though their comprehension of language may remain relatively
5 Science Direct, “Broca’s Area,” accessed April 17, 2021,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/brocas-area

59
intact. For example, someone with Broca's aphasia might be able to understand what
others are saying but struggle to articulate their own thoughts. They may speak in
telegraphic speech, such as saying "want food" instead of "I want to eat food." Writing and
grammatical structuring of sentences may also be impaired. However, they are usually
aware of their communication difficulties, which can be frustrating.6 The location of Broca’s
Area in the brain is also responsible for personality and social behavior, so it is not
surprising that function words have a profound impact on our everyday lives.
Content words, on the other hand, are primarily processed in Wernicke’s area of the
brain.7 This area was discovered in 1874 by German neurologist Carl Wernicke who found
that damage to the left side of brain (specifically named Brodmann area 22) resulted in
patients being unable to use nouns and regular verbs, while they could still freely use
function words. Unlike Broca’s area which is responsible for speech movements,
Wernicke’s area of the brain is essential for understanding the meaning of language.8
Damage to this region can result in Wernicke's aphasia, a condition in which a person has
difficulty understanding speech but can generate nonsensical sentences constructed of
mostly function words.
Breakthroughs in understanding both the Broca and Wernicke regions of the brain
provided the foundation for Pennebaker’s research on pronouns. Since language influences
our emotions and shapes our personalities and social behavior, it’s important for
conductors to carefully consider their language use if they aim to inspire better
6 Corey Whelan, “Your Guide to Broca’s Aphasia and Its Treatment,” Healthline, May 23, 2023, 24
2https://www.healthline.com/health/brocas-aphasia
7 Corey Whelan, “Your Guide to Broca’s Aphasia and Its Treatment,” Healthline, May 23, 2023, 29
https://www.healthline.com/health/brocas-aphasia
8 Brittanica, “Wernicke Area,” accessed April 17, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/Wernicke-area

60
engagement in rehearsals and therefore higher quality performances from their ensembles.
The role of the conductor is to motivate, inspire, and teach.
In the early 1980s, in research studies that he conducted Pennebaker found that
people who reported having a traumatic experience and kept it a secret had far more
health problems than people who talked openly about their trauma.9 After this discovery,
he decided to conduct a study which involved trauma patients writing about their
experiences in a daily diary. As part of the study, Pennebaker and his team designed a
computer program to analyze the words people were using while writing about their
traumas. Initially, they believed they would see a change in word content from negative
words to positive words. With no clear results, they then reprogrammed the experiment to
measure all types of words. This time, they found that there was a direct correlation
between people recovering and a change in the types of function words, especially
pronouns, that they used, such as I, me, we, she, and they. What they learned was that
function words, despite being smaller and less noticeable, highlighted far more about
people's emotional states than anyone had ever considered before. The more people
changed their pronoun use, from first-person singular pronouns (I, my, me) to using plural
pronouns (you, we, she, they) throughout each writing exercise, the better their health
became. This experiment showed that the types of words they used directly reflected their
psychological state. The link between the Wernicke’s rain region where function words are
processed and how easily they can be missed when surrounded by other words led
9 Pennebaker, James W. and Robin C. O’Heeron, “Confiding in Others and Illness Rate among Spouses of
Suicide and Accidental-Death Victims,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93, 4 (1984): 473-476.
https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.93.4.473

61
Pennebaker to state that function words reveal peoples’ emotional states, meaning that
they reflect peoples’ perspectives at a given time.
Pennebaker then took this research further in a later experiment. His team analyzed
email exchanges between students and professors. After examining millions of email
exchanges using computer software, they found that they could determine social hierarchy
by studying the way people use pronouns in conversation. “Of all the types of function
words, the single dimension that separates the high-status from the low-status speakers is
pronouns”.10 Based on the results, Pennebaker’s team hypothesized that people who use
more singular pronouns (such as I and me) in emails or conversations are generally
positioned lower in the social hierarchy between the two people. This can seem
counterintuitive but Pennebaker’s hypothesis is based on the idea that people who are
lower in social hierarchy may focus more on themselves because they feel less secure or
confident in the interaction. They might use more singular pronouns ("I" or "me") because
they are more self-conscious, trying to explain, justify, or clarify their own position. On the
other hand, those higher in the hierarchy may feel less need to reference themselves,
allowing them to focus more on others or the broader context. This could reflect a sense of
authority, confidence, or control over the conversation, where they feel less of a need to
assert their own presence.
Additionally, people with higher status might use "we" more often to emphasize group
identity or collective action, whereas "I" is more common among those emphasizing their
roles or perspectives.
10 Pennebaker, James W, The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us. New York, Bloomsbury
Press, 2011, 173-177.

62
The study was then repeated, focusing on how professors at universities spoke to
deans or heads of departments. Here, they found that professors used more singular
pronouns than deans or heads of departments, who were typically perceived as socially
higher. This further supported Pennebaker’s hypothesis that when people communicate
with others who occupy a higher social standing, their pronoun use changes to reflect the
social hierarchy. This is fascinating, as it shows that social dynamics are reflected
subconsciously in the words we use. It raises the question: Would social perceptions be
affected if a person were to change the pronouns they used consciously. Specifically, does
using more singular "I" pronouns in a group setting make that person appear lower in
social status. Pennebaker’s research raises this question for conductors: does using the
singular pronouns “I” and “me” in the rehearsal setting impact the motivation levels of the
choir?
As discussed in Chapter 1, the role of the conductor is multi-faceted. Arguably the
most important attributes of a conductor are their leadership skills as it allows them fulfill
their artistic vision. Typically, within the realm of leadership, some hierarchical level must
exist. Hierarchies can empower leaders to motivate others and achieve their goals. For over
one hundred years, conductors have had a reputation for being totalitarian in their
management styles; however, the latest research on the leadership styles of conductors
shows a significant change in approach; for example, some famous performing ensembles
like the Orpheus Orchestra, Cantus Vocal Ensemble, and the King’s Singers use a
democratic, horizontal management style; that is, the locus of decision making is shared

63
equally across the members.11 Unfortunately, it is often not economically viable for the
majority of performing groups to work this way due to time and financial constraints
therefore a hierarchy of authority allows organizations to be more efficient. Nevertheless,
by understanding some of the benefits of a democratic management style and language's
role in shaping social hierarchy, conductors can better influence and positively influence
and shape social dynamics.
Research on Leadership Language
Over the past hundred years, thousands of books on leadership and management
have been written by notable people from various disciplines. However, there have been
very few scientific studies related to how leaders communicate.12 On this very topic,
Pennebaker states that “Surprisingly few studies have examined the language of leaders.
Even fewer have studied the words of people in everyday life in order to predict what kinds
of leaders they might be in the future.13
There are several reasons why few people have examined the words of great
leaders, the most significant being that powerful leaders work behind closed doors, and it
can be difficult to access them. Suppose we use American presidents as an example. In that
case, it is easy to access their public speeches but almost impossible to get recordings made
of their everyday interactions with staff and friends. This has made it almost impossible to
11 Seifter and Economy, Leadership Ensemble.
12 Reinout E. de Vries, Angelique Bakker-Pieper, and Wyneke Oostenveld,“Leadership = Communication? The
Relations of Leaders’ Communication Styles with Leadership Styles, Knowledge Sharing and Leadership
Outcomes,” Journal of Business and Psychology 25, 3 (October 2009): 367-380.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-009-9140-2
13Pennebaker, The Secret Life of Pronouns, 190.

64
conduct any significant experiments to study their leadership style. However, one U.S
president afforded the world an opportunity to explore his everyday interactions. On
February 16, 1971, U.S President Richard Nixon, with the help of Chief of Staff Harry
Robbins (H.R.) Haldemann, installed a taping system in two rooms of the White House—the
Oval Office and the Cabinet Room.14 Three months later, they added microphones to
Nixon's private office known as the Old Executive Office, and a year after that, added
microphones to the presidential lodge at Camp David. Recordings from these locations
were eventually made public, leading to the Watergate scandal and, ultimately, Nixon’s
demise.
Using his software designed for previous experiments, Pennebaker analyzed the text
of all the publicly available transcriptions of the recordings. It contained interactions
between three of his staff members, John Dean, John Ehrlichman, and H. R. Haldemann.
Pennebaker examined the social dynamic between the four men by analyzing each of the
individual's pronoun use. The results were fascinating and supported Pennebaker's
previous studies on pronoun use and social hierarchy. It turned out that Nixon used the
singular pronoun “I” far less than his aides did, and used more plural "we" words. As
mentioned earlier, Pennebaker theorized that the person who uses the most “I'' singular
pronouns in interactions with others tends to be at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
Therefore, it is unsurprising that, seen through the lens of Pennebaker’s theories, Nixon
was at the top of the social hierarchy among the four men.
14 “The Nixon White House Tapes,” https://www.nixonlibrary.gov/white-house-tapes

65
After further studying the data, Pennebaker hypothesized that Nixon distanced
himself hierarchically from Dean and Ehrlichman, but not Haldemann. The data showed
that Nixon’s pronoun use was similar to Haldemann’s, showing that they likely perceived
each other as equals. This was later supported when Pennebaker contacted John Dean, the
last living member of the group, to check his findings. He found that Haldemann and Nixon
had known each other since the 1950s, and according to Dean, they appeared to have an
equal partnership.15 Therefore, the hierarchical context of Nixon as president was
superseded by their previous dynamic. It is well documented that Haldemann was one of
Nixon's closest aides. A recording from April 30th, 1973, emphasizes this relationship
further with Nixon telling Haldemann, “I love you like a brother.”16
A study by Ethan Burris from the Red McCombs School of Business at the University
of Texas showed that people instinctively change their language based on the role they are
given within a group. In Burris’ study, forty student business majors were grouped
together in teams of four. Each group was set up like a mini-management consultancy firm
and given the task of providing advice to a fictitious company. As part of the experiment,
the researchers primed the teams (essentially by lying to them), saying that the
researchers had pre-selected the leaders of each group based on their experience and
knowledge, when in fact, they were selected at random. The researchers then audiorecorded the team’s interactions, transcribed them, and ran them through a language
analyzer software. They found that the people who were given the leadership role used
fewer singular "I" pronouns and more "we" and ‘you’ words. This finding supports the
15 Pennebaker, The Secret Life of Pronouns. 188. 16 “American Radio Works, “Richard M. Nixon, ‘Naked to His Enemies’, The President Calling,” accessed April
17, 2022, http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/prestapes/g3.html

66
theory that people change their language based on the role they play within a social
hierarchy. That is, if most people are put into a leadership role, they will likely start to talk
like a leader. This study shows that there is a direct link between social hierarchy and
language and is supported by Pennebaker's findings on pronoun use by students versus
professors, as well as Nixon’s pronoun use in comparison to his aides.
Pennebaker emphasizes the importance of this study saying that, “Almost every
other study that has been conducted with leadership and language was based on people
who were already leaders or who already had high status”.17 Therefore it reveals two ideas:
1) that pronoun use, and social dynamics are inextricably linked and 2) there is malleability
regarding how people view themselves in the context of others. Pronouns are like
spotlights that show how we view our relationships with others. The disparity between the
language of leaders and the language of followers is significant for conductors due to their
role in guiding ensembles. Pennebaker’s research shows that we are probably programmed
to perceive particular language styles as authoritative or supportive. This information can
be beneficial to conductors concerned with optimizing their environment for greater
performance.
How might a conductor's language style affect their perceived authority within a
social group? Might an increase in conductors’ awareness of their language style (i.e., their
word choice) result in changes in how their ensembles perceive them?
17Pennebaker, The Secret Life of Pronouns, 190.

67
SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH
CHAPTER 5 - PRACTICAL APPLICATION FOR CONDUCTORS
The previous chapters provide the theoretical framework for the ideas and theories
explored below. This new approach considers the multi-faceted role of the twenty-first
century conductor and draws on the fields of social psychology, sports science, motor
learning, and educational psychology in its development. At this stage, it is important to
reiterate that the author of this dissertation is not a psychologist, a neuroscientist, nor a
specialist in motor learning. They are a conductor, educator, and performer who is
fascinated by scientific endeavors and believes that the practice of conducting can be
enlightened by the research referenced in this dissertation. The previous chapters provide
the theoretical framework for the ideas and theories explored below. This new approach
considers the multi-faceted role of the twenty-first-century conductor and draws on the
fields of social psychology, sports science, motor learning, and educational psychology in its
development. It is important to acknowledge that much of the research in social
psychology, including Pennebaker's work, represents theoretical constructs rather than
established facts. Nevertheless, these theories offer valuable insights and are highly
relevant to the practice of conducting, contributing to a more informed and
multidimensional understanding of the discipline. Based upon the research for this
dissertation, there is no doubt that conductors may better their rehearsal technique by
understanding the concepts below.
Conductors, surgeons, dentists, and army officers are among the professions in
which leaders work alongside their colleagues in real time. For example, in a choir

68
rehearsal, the conductor provides verbal and non-verbal instructions throughout the entire
rehearsal, and singers respond in real-time. There is often not much time for dialogue
between the conductor and the singers, so the singers spend most of the rehearsal time
reacting to the conductor’s gestures and commands. It is not uncommon to hear phrases
like, “I need more volume from the violins”; “You are not giving me the dynamics I asked
for”; “I need more sound from the altos!” Reflecting on the theory by Pennebaker that the
pronouns we use reflect our emotional state and how we view ourselves in relation to the
people around us, we can infer a few things from those phrases without witnessing the
entire rehearsal.
In the verbal examples above, the conductor is using the "I" singular pronoun. This
may imply that the conductor does not perceive the process as a collaborative task. Instead,
the use of the "I" singular pronoun feeds a social dynamic that implies an autocracy. One
could also argue that the conductor’s framing of the command around the pronoun "I"
implies that the violin player is playing for the conductor. While "I" might be perceived as
subtle, it reflects an emotional state that is void of togetherness, community, and ensemble.
In Pennebaker’s research he states that people higher in the social hierarchy tend to use
more "we" plural pronouns. In the examples above, the conductor uses the singular
pronoun “I,” which may suggest that they view the process not as a collaborative task, but
as something more self-centered. This choice of language feeds into a social dynamic that
can feel autocratic, as if the conductor is asserting their control over the ensemble.
However, this behavior may not stem solely from a desire for authority. Autocratic
tendencies often arise from a need to protect or reinforce one’s sense of position, especially
in environments where leadership is publicly scrutinized or challenged. Beneath the

69
surface, the conductor’s insistence on using “I” may reveal a deeper emotional state, one
where insecurity plays a significant role.1 When individuals feel uncertain about their
authority or expertise, they may compensate by asserting control in ways that distance
themselves from others. This distancing is subtly reinforced through language choices that
emphasize singularity over community. Pennebaker’s research supports this idea, showing
that those higher in social hierarchies’ people who feel secure in their roles, tend to use
more inclusive language, like the plural pronoun “we,” because they don’t feel the need to
constantly reaffirm their position. Thus, the use of the singular “I” in this case may not only
signal a lack of collaboration, but also reflect an underlying sense of insecurity. The
conductor, perhaps unconsciously, may feel that their authority is fragile and that they
must assert their position more forcefully through their language. Instead of coming from
confidence, this autocratic behavior could be a protective mechanism, designed to shield
the conductor from feelings of vulnerability. As stated earlier in this paper, research shows
that the less autonomy a person feels during a learning experience, the less motivated and
positive they will feel about the process. The latest research suggests that the most
excellent motivator for people within the orchestral/conductor scenario is that they feel as
though they have freedom of choice within their playing.
The previous verbal example of conductors who use singular "I" pronouns is more
likely to reflect the past's totalitarian, larger-than-life conductors. As Steven J. Morrison and
Steven M. Demorest state in their article “Once from the top: reframing the role of the
conductor in ensemble teaching,” the “traditional autocratic model of the conductor
1 J. W. Pennebaker and C. K. Chung, “Expressive Writing and Its Links to Mental and Physical Health” in The Oxford
Handbook of Health Psychology, ed. H. S. Friedman (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011).

70
appears to be in direct opposition to contemporary educational thought”.2 The more
modern approach to conducting/leading an ensemble requires conductors to have all of the
previous technical skills of the past, yet frame their ensemble objectives differently and
update their techniques to motivate and inspire the players in front of them. For example, a
comparison of a modern approach to the previous scenario with the violin player may look
like this: Instead of singular "I" pronouns, the modern conductor might use plural pronouns
like, “We need more from the violin,” and “We could do with more contrasting dynamics.”
In these examples, the conductor has changed their word choice, reframing why the player
should increase their playing volume. The plural "we" pronoun in this example shows that
the conductor perceives the action as part of a collaborative effort. Since people are more
motivated when they feel higher levels of autonomy, then conductors will want to know the
many ways they can encourage the feeling of autonomy in the rehearsal environment.
Mastery versus Performance Goals
A 2011 study by Murayama and Elliot explored the question of motivation and memory.
The experiment looked at how the subjects' memories reacted to two different
methodological approaches. One approach was labeled the “performance approach” while
the other was labeled the “mastery approach.”3 In the performance approach, participants
were told that their goal was to demonstrate their ability relative to the other participants
in a memorization task, while the mastery group was told that the purpose was to develop
2 Morrison and Demorest, “Once from the Top: Reframing the Role of the Conductor in Ensemble Teaching”
828.
3 Kou Murayama and Andrew Elliot, “Achievement Motivation and Memory: Achievement Goals Differentially
Influence Immediate and Delayed Remember-Know Recognition Memory,” Personality & Social Psychology
Bulletin 37 (June 2, 2011): 1339-1348, https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211410575

71
their cognitive ability through the memorization task. The results showed that the
performance-based participants showed better memory performance immediately after
the test while the mastery participants showed better memory performance a week later.
This result showed that performance goals help immediate performance while mastery
goals facilitate long-term learning. Long-term learning refers to the process of acquiring
knowledge or skills that are retained over an extended period, enabling individuals to
recall and apply what they've learned well after the initial instruction or practice. Unlike
short-term learning, which often leads to quick but temporary gains, long-term learning
emphasizes deep understanding and memory retention that lasts beyond the immediate
moment. This type of learning occurs when the brain consolidates information, transferring
it from short-term to long-term memory
Performance-approach goals (relative to mastery-approach goals) enhanced correct remember
responding [sic] on an immediate recognition test, whereas mastery-approach goals (relative to
performance-approach goals) showed greater correct remember responding [sic] on a delayed recognition
test.4
The same authors used longitudinal survey over five years, data on over 3,000
children from German schools to further examine whether mastery facilitation encourages
long-term learning.5 This study was focused on math learning and found that students who
follow the performance-based approach (which in this case was to “get good grades”)
4 Murayama and Elliot, “Achievement Motivation and Memory.”
5 K. Murayama, R. Pekrun, S. Lichtenfeld, and R. vom Hofe, “Predicting Long-Term Growth in Students'
Mathematics Achievement: The Unique Contributions of Motivation and Cognitive Strategies,” Child
Development 84, 4 (2013): 1475-1490, https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12036

72
versus the students who followed the mastery approach, which emphasized “because I am
interested in the subject,” showed similar results to the previous study, which showed that
while the performance-based approach only works for short-term learning, the masterybased motivation approach supports long-term learning.
The topic of motivation fuels an industry that spans across all demographics from
self-help books, diet and nutrition and big business. Motivation on its own is a notoriously
difficult thing to measure. However, despite this challenge, psychologists, sociologists and
organizations are determined to find more effective ways to encourage, understand and
fuel motivation. This section adopts a "Direct Instruction" or "Structured Learning"
approach. This approach is commonly used in professions and fields where mastery of
foundational knowledge, technical skills, or precise procedures is critical. This approach
ensures that learners can systematically acquire, apply, and practice the skills or
knowledge needed in these areas. Some of the professions that often use this method
include medicine and healthcare, engineering and technical professions, and education. For
the purpose of this dissertation we will view scenarios from the perspective of the
conductor in the rehearsal setting. Using the theories explored in this dissertation, we will
diagnose and suggest solutions for optimizing motivation in the rehearsal setting. These
examples will help illustrate how different types of communication can impact the
motivation and engagement of choir members.
The purpose of this next section is to distill the theoretical concepts stated earlier
into a practical guide for conductors to use. The first section will consider how selfdetermination theory might offer new perspectives for conductors in order to increase
singers’ motivation in the rehearsal setting. The second section investigates examples of

73
autonomy-supportive language versus controlling language. In the context of SDT, which
emphasizes autonomy, competence, and relatedness as critical to motivation and personal
development, we can understand how these components might affect singers in a choral
rehearsal. Below are several scenarios that incorporate SDT into a choral setting. These
scenarios encourage conductors to apply self-determination theory in practical, creative
ways to solve common problems in choral rehearsals, thereby improving motivation,
engagement, and performance.

74
PRACTICAL GUIDE
Each scenario contains a learning objective, common problems that appear in the choral
rehearsal, and a recommended solution that has been developed with self-determination theory
(SDT) at its core.
TABLE 2
Scenario 1 - Building Competence through Targeted Feedback
Section Details
Learning
Objective
Explore how feedback techniques grounded in Self-Determination Theory
(SDT) can boost singers' sense of competence and motivation during
rehearsals.
Problem
During rehearsals, some singers seem discouraged by feedback focusing on
what they need to improve rather than what they are doing well. This has
led to a drop in confidence and engagement, negatively impacting their
posture, breathing, and overall vocal performance.
Recommended
Solution
Implement a feedback approach based on SDT principles: Competence (help
singers feel skilled and confident), Autonomy (give them some control over
their progress), and Relatedness (create a supportive, connected
atmosphere).
1. Initial
Assessment and
Goal Setting
- Assess Individual Strengths and Challenges: Observe each singer's
strengths and areas for improvement to offer personalized feedback. This
can be done during auditions or rehearsals.
- Collaborative Goal Setting: Let singers help set personal goals alongside
group goals for a sense of ownership.
2. Positive
Reinforcement
Strategies
- Highlight Specific Successes: Offer specific praise (e.g., "Your breath
support really shone in that phrase.").
- Frequent Acknowledgment of Improvement: Recognize progress regularly
in both group and individual settings.
- Group Reinforcement: Celebrate group achievements.

75
3. Constructive
Criticism with
Growth-Oriented
Language
- Strength-Based Sandwich: Start with something positive, then
constructive criticism, and end on a positive note.
- Focus on Actionable Changes: Provide clear, specific suggestions verbally
and in written follow-ups for smaller ensembles
- Non-Judgmental Tone: Use an encouraging and solution-oriented tone.
4. Body
Language and
Tone of
Feedback
- Support Through Body Language: Use open, positive body language to
show attentiveness and encouragement.
- Example: Upright posture, direct eye contact, relaxed expressions, gentle
gestures.
- Vocal Encouragement: Maintain an encouraging and motivational tone,
even when addressing improvements.
5. Fostering a
Culture of SelfAssessment and
Peer Feedback
- Encourage Self-Reflection: Ask singers to reflect on strengths and areas for
improvement using rehearsal recordings.
- Peer Feedback: Allow singers to share their thoughts on each other’s
performances in a supportive environment.
6. Frequent
Check-ins and
Progress
Tracking
- Regular Progress Reviews: Hold brief check-ins with singers or sections to
review progress and adjust goals as needed.
7. Addressing
Non-Verbal
Feedback and
Posture
- Incorporate Posture into Warm-ups: Add exercises to reinforce posture
and breathing habits.
- Recognize Non-Verbal Feedback: Pay attention to singers’ body language
and adjust feedback accordingly.
8. Building
Group Cohesion
and
Encouragement
- Celebrate Group Successes: Publicly recognize the group's progress to
foster shared accomplishment.
- Promote a Growth Mindset: Remind singers that challenges are
opportunities for improvement.
This table Reflects Basic Needs Theory, a sub-theory in Chapter 2 on Motivation,
emphasizing the importance of competence for motivation

76
TABLE 3
Scenario 2 - Enhancing Autonomy in Repertoire Selection
Section Details
Learning
Objective
Understand how involving choir members can increase their sense of
autonomy, boost motivation, and improve engagement through repertoire
selection.
Problem
The choir director has noticed that some members are less enthusiastic and
committed, leading to poor attendance and lackluster performances. The
director believes this may be partly due to the repertoire being chosen
without any input from the choir members.
Recommended
Solution
Introduce a process that involves choir members in repertoire selection to
increase engagement and motivation.
1. Initial
Discussion and
Educational
Framing
- Explain the Goals and Process: Discuss why balancing educational goals with
choir input is important, emphasizing vocal development and musical variety.
- Educational Criteria Overview: Share criteria like vocal range, difficulty, and
how pieces contribute to individual and group growth.
2. Gathering
Input from
Choir Members
- Survey Preferences: Use a survey to gather choir members’ preferences on
genres, styles, and specific pieces.
- Suggestion Box: Provide a physical or digital suggestion box for members to
submit ideas.
3.
Collaborative
Repertoire
Exploration
- Small Group Discussions: Break members into groups to discuss potential
pieces based on surveys and practical constraints.
- Educational Context Sessions: Present the cultural or historical significance
of suggested pieces to help members make informed decisions.
4. Balancing
Preferences
with
Educational
and Practical
Constraints
- Curate a Shortlist: Create a list that balances styles and genres while
challenging the choir’s abilities.
- Criteria-Based Evaluation: Consider factors like vocal difficulty, rehearsal
time, resources, and audience appeal for each piece.
5. Member
Input on Final
Selection
Present the shortlist to the choir and ask for feedback using a voting system
or rank-order method to finalize the selection.
6. Final
Repertoire
Decision and
Transparency
- Director’s Final Curated List: Combine choir preferences with educational
and technical objectives in the final list.
- Explanation of Choices: Explain why each piece was chosen and how it aligns
with choir interests and goals.

77
7. PostPerformance
Reflection and
Future Input
- Reflective Discussion: After performing, discuss the repertoire experience
with the choir and gather feedback on their growth and enjoyment.
- Ongoing Suggestion System: Maintain a year-round suggestion system for
continuous input.
Benefits of an
SDT-Informed
Process
- Increased Autonomy: Gives choir members more control, boosting
motivation.
- Enhanced Commitment: Members are more engaged when performing
music they enjoy or helped select.
- Balanced Musical Growth: Combines personal preferences with educational
goals to develop skills while enjoying the music.
- Fostering Community: Strengthens group connections.
This guide aligns with the Causality Orientations Theory concept of fostering autonomy by
supporting intrinsic motivation.

78
TABLE 4
Scenario 3: Fostering Relatedness through Community Building
Category Activity Goal
Learning
Objective
Investigate how enhancing relatedness among
choir members can improve motivation,
commitment, and performance.
Problem The choir struggles with a sense of community,
which affects cohesion and overall performance.
Recommended
Solution
Explore community-building initiatives to foster
personal connections, a supportive environment,
and a shared sense of purpose.
1. Icebreaker
and TeamBuilding
Activities
Personal
Introductions
and Fun Facts
Each choir member introduces themselves with
their name, voice part, and a fun fact about
themselves.
Encourage personal
connections and break the
ice, especially for new
members.
Partner or
Section
Introductions
Pair choir members to interview and introduce
each other to the group.
Build one-on-one
connections that strengthen
group dynamics.
Ice-breaker
Game (Human
Knot)
Members form a physical circle, join hands, and
work together to untangle themselves.
Promote teamwork,
communication, and break
social barriers.
2. Choir Member
Spotlights
Weekly/Monthl
y Member
Spotlight
Highlight one or two members weekly or
monthly during rehearsals or through
newsletters.
Recognize contributions,
foster a sense of belonging,
and value members.
Mini
Performances/S
howcase
Allow choir members to perform short solos,
duets, or small group pieces.
Give members a chance to
shine and connect through
shared musical tastes.
3. Group Social
Events
Post-Rehearsal
Socials
Organize informal gatherings after rehearsals
(e.g., coffee, pizza).
Facilitate social
interactions and deepen

79
personal connections.
Choir Retreat or
Day Outing
Plan a retreat or day trip with musical and
recreational activities.
Build camaraderie and
create lasting memories as
a group.
Holiday or
Special Event
Parties
Host parties around holidays or after
performances (e.g., potlucks, secret gift
exchanges).
Celebrate milestones and
successes, fostering team
identity.
4. Mentorship
and Buddy
Systems
Mentorship
Pairing for New
Members
Pair new members with experienced mentors for
guidance and support.
Integrate new members
and build community
responsibility.
Section Buddy
System
Assign buddies within voice sections to support
each other in learning and motivation.
Foster mutual support and
accountability, enhancing
group cohesion.
5. Collaborative
Musical Projects
Group
Composition or
Arrangement
Project
Sections or small groups collaborate on
arranging a simple piece of music.
Foster creativity,
teamwork, and
accomplishment through
shared projects.
Themed
Performances
or MemberDriven Concerts
Organize themed concerts where members help
select repertoire or suggest songs.
Build relatedness through
creative involvement and
celebrate member
contributions.
6. Shared
Purpose and
Group Reflection
Choir Vision
and Mission
Workshop
Hold a workshop to collaboratively create or
revise the choir’s vision and mission.
Develop a shared sense of
purpose, enhancing
commitment and
motivation.
Reflective
Circles and
Encouragement
After rehearsals or performances, share positive
experiences and achievements in a group circle.
Build trust and a
supportive atmosphere
through positive
reinforcement.

80
7. Recognition
and Celebration
of Milestones
Achievement
Celebrations
Recognize milestones (e.g., member
anniversaries, performance successes).
Show appreciation and
foster a sense of pride and
belonging.
Chorus Leader
or Section
Leader
Recognition
Periodically highlight the efforts of chorus or
section leaders.
Reinforce leadership and
motivate community
contributions.
This guide draws from the Relatedness component of Self Determination Theory, which
emphasizes the importance of emotional connections for active engagement by groups and
individuals..

81
TABLE 5
Scenario 4: Balancing Autonomy and Guidance in Rehearsal Techniques
Category Activity Goal
Learning Objective
Demonstrate how a balance between
autonomy and structured guidance can lead to
a more motivated and cohesive choir.
Problem
The choir director's highly structured rehearsal
approach leaves little room for singers to
explore their musical ideas or contribute to the
interpretative process, stifling creativity and
engagement.
Recommended
Solution
Create a rehearsal strategy that allows for
greater singer input and autonomy while
ensuring rehearsals remain focused and
productive.
1. Establish a
Collaborative
Rehearsal
Framework
Introductory
Session on
Collaboration
Explain the importance of balancing structure
and creativity, emphasizing the value of
everyone’s input.
Create a collective
interpretation of the
music and foster an
environment where
singers feel their input
is valued.
Guidelines for
Contributions
Set clear guidelines on when and how singers
can offer ideas (e.g., designated times for
feedback).
Ensure input is
incorporated without
disrupting the
rehearsal flow. This can
be done using a Google
Form at the end of
rehearsal.
2. Solicit Input on
Musical
Interpretation

82
Interpretation
Discussion Sessions
Open the floor during rehearsals for singers to
share ideas about musical interpretation (e.g.,
dynamics, phrasing).
Allow singers to
contribute to artistic
decisions, fostering
ownership of the
performance.
Leader-Led vs.
Singer-Led Sections
Alternate between director-led guidance and
singer-led exploration of interpretive
decisions.
Balance structured
rehearsal and creative
autonomy based on the
choir’s needs.
3. Incorporate Singer
Preferences and
Vocal Strengths
Singing Sections in
Small Groups
Allow small groups to work on passages
independently and present their ideas to the
choir.
Promote autonomy and
experiment with
different approaches
while ensuring
cohesive
interpretation.
Highlight Individual
Vocal Contributions
Give singers freedom to interpret solos or
small ensemble parts, with feedback from the
choir and conductor.
Encourage creativity
and showcase
individual strengths.
4. Collaborative
Problem-Solving for
Musical Challenges
Group ProblemSolving for Difficult
Passages
Engage singers in solving musical challenges
collaboratively (e.g., rhythm, phrasing).
Foster investment in
progress by involving
singers in decisionmaking while keeping
rehearsals on track.
Peer Feedback
Sessions
Pair singers to give constructive feedback on
intonation, blend, or expression.
Empower singers to
help each other
improve and build a
collaborative
atmosphere.
5. Scheduled
Reflection and
Adjustment Time

83
End-of-Rehearsal
Reflections
Allocate time for choir members to reflect on
rehearsal effectiveness and offer suggestions.
Continuously adapt the
balance between
autonomy and
guidance based on
choir input.
Feedback Forms or
Online Surveys
Use surveys to gather anonymous feedback on
rehearsal structure, interpretive decisions, and
engagement.
Incorporate feedback
to evolve the rehearsal
process and meet
singers’ needs.
6. Celebrating
Creative
Contributions
Showcase Rehearsal
Highlights
Recognize singers’ contributions during
rehearsals, highlighting impactful suggestions.
Reinforce the value of
creative input and
motivate singers
through
acknowledgment.
Program Notes with
Singer Contributions
Include program notes that mention singers’
contributions to musical interpretation.
Celebrate the
collaborative process
and increase
investment in the
performance.
This practical guide reflects the Goal Contents Theory, highlighting the interplay of intrinsic
and extrinsic goals to enhance motivation.

84
TABLE 6
Scenario 5: Implementing a Mentorship Program for Skill Development
Category Activity Goal
Learning
Objective
Implement a mentorship program to
support newer or less experienced choir
members, fostering their competence
and belonging.
Promote a supportive, skillbuilding environment to enhance
motivation, cohesion, and
confidence within the choir.
Problem
Newer members feel overwhelmed by
the repertoire and unsure about their
place, worsened by perceived cliques
among experienced members.
Address motivation and cohesion
by creating a program to bridge the
gap between experienced and
newer members.
Recommended
Solution
Create a supervised mentorship
program pairing experienced members
with newer ones to build competence,
belonging, and motivation.
1. Program
Structure and
Goals
Program
Overview
Define program goals, duration, and
pairing system (e.g., pairing by voice
part, experience, and interests).
Develop a structured mentorship
system promoting competence,
relatedness, and motivation for
both mentors and mentees.
Mentorship
Goals
- Skill Development: Improve technical
skills and confidence.
- Belonging: Build connections and
community.
- Leadership: Help mentors develop
teaching and leadership skills.
- Motivation: Foster investment in choir
success.
2. Mentor and
Mentee
Selection
Process
Mentor
Selection
Choose experienced members with
strong vocal skills, musicality, and
Ensure mentors can guide mentees
effectively while maintaining a

85
interpersonal abilities. positive and supportive
atmosphere.
Mentee
Participation
Allow self-nomination to ensure
readiness for mentorship and match
mentees with compatible mentors.
Create partnerships that address
individual needs and encourage
mentee engagement.
Pairing
Process
Pair mentors and mentees by voice part,
experience level, or shared musical
interests using a survey to guide
matches.
Promote personalized feedback and
support while fostering
collaboration.
3. Mentorship
Activities and
Sessions
Weekly or
Biweekly
Meetings
Mentors and mentees meet to focus on
repertoire learning, sight-reading, and
musical interpretation.
Build competence and confidence
in musical skills through
personalized guidance.
Rehearsal
Support
Mentors provide real-time support
during rehearsals, offering
encouragement and quick feedback.
Help mentees feel more
comfortable and confident in the
rehearsal environment.
Skill-Building
Workshops
Organize small-group workshops on
sight-reading, vocal technique, and
performance tips.
Provide mentees with targeted
opportunities for growth in a
supportive setting.
Peer Feedback
Exchange
Mentors and mentees exchange
constructive feedback after rehearsals
or performances with conductor
supervision.
Foster open communication and
mutual learning while reinforcing
competence and relatedness.
4. Mentor
Training and
Ongoing
Support
Mentor
Training
Workshop
Train mentors on effective feedback,
active listening, and goal-setting
techniques.
Equip mentors with tools to
support mentees effectively and
positively.
Ongoing
Mentor
Support
Hold regular check-ins with mentors to
address challenges and share best
practices.
Ensure mentors feel supported in
their roles and continue to develop
as leaders.
5. Program
Evaluation and
Reflection

86
Progress
Checkpoints
Periodically assess mentee progress
through surveys or one-on-one checkins.
Continuously monitor and improve
the program’s effectiveness in
enhancing competence and
relatedness.
End-of-Season
Reflection
Reflect on the program’s outcomes and
celebrate progress in a dedicated
session.
Reinforce the value of mentorship
and its contribution to choir
cohesion and success.
6. Recognition
and Celebration
Mentor and
Mentee
Recognition
Publicly acknowledge participants
during rehearsals or performances.
Celebrate their efforts, reinforcing
their sense of competence and
relatedness.
Group
Reflection and
Celebration
Event
Organize a social gathering to mark
shared accomplishments and
strengthen relationships.
Enhance the sense of belonging and
camaraderie within the choir,
celebrating the success of the
mentorship program.
This guide is created around the Basic Needs Theory, particularly relatedness and
competence which are critical components for motivation.

87
TABLE 7
Scenario 6: Solo Auditions and Equity
Category Activity Goal
Learning
Objective
Design a transparent and fair audition
process for solo parts to foster
individual motivation and maintain a
supportive group dynamic.
Enhance equity, motivation, and
community within the choir while
promoting individual aspirations
and talents.
Problem
Feelings of favoritism and inequity in
the soloist selection process are
impacting the choir’s sense of
community and individual motivation.
Address these issues through a
structured, fair, and transparent
audition process.
Solution
Create a clear, supportive, and unbiased
audition process with opportunities for
feedback, growth, and collaboration.
1. Establish Clear
Criteria and
Guidelines
Objective
Audition Criteria
Define clear musical criteria (e.g.,
technical proficiency, expression, stage
presence) and behavioral criteria (e.g.,
attendance, commitment).
Ensure evaluations are objective
and align with the choir’s goals,
focusing on skill, dedication, and
contribution to the group
dynamic.
Audition Process
Overview
Share details on audition dates, process
for selecting pieces, availability of
scores, and panel composition.
Promote transparency and trust
by ensuring all members
understand the audition process
and expectations.
2. Solicit Input
and Respect
Aspirations
Self-Nomination
for Auditions
Allow members to voluntarily express
interest in auditioning.
Foster autonomy and ensure
members feel empowered to
pursue opportunities aligned with
their goals.
Pre-Audition
Survey
Conduct a survey to understand
members’ solo interests, preferred
pieces, and personal goals.
Align the audition process with
members’ aspirations and provide
a sense of ownership.
3. Create a Fair

88
and Supportive
Audition Process
Blind Auditions
Implement partially blind auditions
(e.g., using a screen during initial
rounds).
Reduce bias and perceived
favoritism, focusing solely on
vocal performance.
Panel of
Evaluators
Include a diverse panel (e.g., director,
section leaders, peer representatives, or
external judges if possible).
Ensure impartiality and a variety
of perspectives during the
evaluation process.
Constructive
Feedback for
Participants
Provide individualized feedback to all
auditionees, highlighting strengths and
areas for growth.
Build competence and ensure all
participants feel valued,
regardless of the outcome.
4. Transparent
Decision-Making
and
Communication
Clear
Explanation of
Selection
Share how decisions were made,
emphasizing objective measures and
alignment with criteria.
Maintain trust and demonstrate
fairness in the selection process.
Celebrate All
Participants
Hold a post-audition celebration to
acknowledge the effort and bravery of
all participants.
Promote relatedness and
maintain group cohesion by
recognizing everyone’s
contributions.
5. Provide
Opportunities for
Growth and
Development
Small Solo
Opportunities
Offer smaller solos, featured parts, or
duets to those not selected for lead
solos.
Encourage continued growth and
engagement by providing
additional performance
opportunities.
Peer Support
and Mentorship
Pair experienced soloists with less
experienced members for guidance and
feedback.
Foster a supportive environment
and promote individual growth
and community building.
6. Post-Audition
Reflection and
Adjustment
Post-Audition
Survey
Collect feedback on the process through
a survey, asking about fairness, clarity,
and potential improvements.
Continuously improve the
audition process based on
member input, ensuring

89
alignment with the choir’s needs.
Adjust Future
Processes
Use feedback to refine criteria, format,
or opportunities for member input.
Ensure the audition process
evolves to remain fair, engaging,
and effective.
7. Fostering
Long-Term
Cohesion and
Motivation
Group
Performance
Reflection
Reflect on solo and group performances
to discuss how they complemented each
other.
Reinforce the importance of
individual contributions to the
overall success of the choir.
Celebrate Group
and Individual
Achievements
Regularly recognize soloists and
ensemble members for their
contributions.
Foster a sense of shared purpose
and relatedness, emphasizing the
value of every choir member’s
role.
This guide reflects the emphasis on fairness and competence to mitigate extrinsic
motivators in Self Determination Theory.

90
Using Autonomy Supportive Language, a “How To” guide
TABLE 8
SCENARIO
AUTONOMY-SUPPORTIVE
LANGUAGE
NEUTRAL
LANGUAGE
CONTROLLING
LANGUAGE
MANIFESTATION OF
AUTONOMY SUPPORTIVE
LANGUAGE: PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATION
Introducing
a New Piece
"I'd love to hear your thoughts
on how we can bring this piece to
life. What emotions do you think
we should convey?"
"We're starting a
new piece today.
Let's get through
it."
"This is how we're
going to perform
the piece. I expect
everyone to follow
exactly."
Hold a group discussion or
workshop where members can
share their ideas and feelings
about the piece, ensuring
everyone’s input is considered.
Correcting
Mistakes
"I noticed a challenge in measure
32. What ideas do we have to
work through this section more
smoothly?"
"There are
mistakes in
measure 32. Let's
try it again."
"Measure 32 is
wrong. You need to
fix it now."
Hold a focused practice session
on measure 32. Ask each member
to suggest one strategy or
exercise to improve the section,
and then test these ideas
together..
Choosing
Soloists
"We are seeking soloists for our
upcoming performance. Please
review the list of available solo
parts and choose one that
interests you. Submit your choice
along with a brief statement on
why this piece resonates with
you by the end of the week. If
you’re unsure, we can discuss it
during office hours."
"We need to
select soloists for
our next piece.
Auditions will be
next week."
"I've decided who
will sing the solos.
The rest of you
don't need to worry
about it."
Set up a sign-up sheet where
members can indicate their
interest in specific solos. Provide
a brief description of each piece
and allow a week for members to
express their interest.
Discussing
Interpretatio
n
"Let's work on the tempo and
dynamics for this section. I’ll
start by playing it at a slower
tempo to see how it feels. After
that, we’ll try it at a faster tempo
and with different dynamic
levels. Each of you will have a
chance to suggest and vote on
the tempo and dynamics you
prefer. We’ll make a decision
based on what works best for
everyone."
"We need to
decide on the
tempo and
dynamics. Any
suggestions?"
"The tempo and
dynamics will be
exactly as I say.
There's no room for
discussion."
Experiment with choir using
different tempos and dynamics
for a specific section. Use a voting
system where each member can
vote on their preferred option
after trying out each variation.

91
Addressing
Attendance
I understand that schedules can
be challenging. If you know in
advance that you will miss a
rehearsal, please send a
notification at least 24 hours
before the rehearsal starts. For
planned absences, fill out the
absence form available on our
website. If you miss a rehearsal
without prior notice, you’ll need
to catch up on missed material
.Regular attendance is crucial for
our progress, so please ensure
you manage your schedule to
attend as consistently as
possible."
"If you're going to
miss rehearsal,
please send a
message ahead of
time."
"You must attend
every rehearsal. No
excuses."
Implement an online calendar
where members can indicate
their attendance or absences in
advance.
Soliciting
Feedback
"Please provide specific feedback
on today's rehearsal by
answering these questions: What
aspects of the rehearsal
1) What did you find most
effective or helpful/not effective
or helpful?
2) What specific areas or
activities could be improved for
future rehearsals? Is there a
section of one of the works?
Diction/Language? Vowel
optimization within a section?
Rhythmic clarity
3) Submit your responses
through the feedback form by the
end of the day so we can address
any issues and enhance our next
session."
"Any feedback on
today's
rehearsal?"
"No need to provide
feedback. Just do as
instructed."
Set up a feedback form or hold a
debrief meeting towards the end
of rehearsals in which members
can anonymously or openly share
their thoughts and suggestions.

92
This feed back session can take
place via email, or by leaving
sheets on each persons music
stand to fill out at the end of
rehearsal
Encouraging
Practice SEE BELOW
Setting Goals
"What goals would you like to set
for the choir this season? Let's
brainstorm together and make a
plan."
"We need to set
some goals for the
season."
"Here are the goals
for the season. We
will meet them."
To foster continuous growth and
improvement within the choir,
each member must set three
goals at the start of every
semester. These goals will focus
on key individual and group
performance areas to ensure
balanced development. The goals
should cover the following
categories:
1. Musical Skill:
○ This goal should focus on
technical proficiency, such as
accuracy with notes and rhythms.
Singers should identify one
specific aspect of their musical
skill they wish to improve (e.g.,
mastering difficult intervals,
perfecting rhythm in complex
passages, or increasing range or
breath control).
○ Example Goal: "I will
improve my accuracy in singing
the syncopated rhythms in the
second movement of the choral
piece by practicing those
measures for 10 minutes every
rehearsal."
2. Musical Expression:

93
○ This goal will focus on
expression, including adherence
to the composer’s dynamic
directions, phrasing, and
emotional interpretation. Singers
should choose one piece or
passage where they aim to bring
out more expressive elements in
their performance.
○ Example Goal: "I will
focus on achieving the
crescendos and decrescendos in
the third section of the piece as
marked, and work on conveying
the emotional tone of the lyrics
through my delivery."
3. Group Cohesion and
Esprit de Corps:
○ This goal should address
group cohesion, aiming to
contribute to the overall unity
and teamwork of the choir. This
can involve fostering a sense of
camaraderie, supporting fellow
choir members, or contributing
positively to the choir’s spirit.
○ Example Goal: "I will
make an effort to improve group
cohesion by actively engaging
with my section mates during
rehearsals, offering help when
someone is struggling with their
part, and fostering a positive,
encouraging atmosphere in our
section."
Goal-Setting Process:
● These goals will be
discussed and submitted during
the first few rehearsals, allowing
members to think critically about
their individual and group
contributions.
● Section leaders will be

94
available to help members refine
their goals and suggest practice
strategies.
● Midway through the
semester, each member will have
a check-in to review their
progress with a section leader or
the conductor.
Improving
Technique
"Let's explore different vocal
techniques that can enhance our
sound. Anyone interested in
researching and sharing with the
group?"
"We need to work
on our technique.
I'll show you
some exercises."
"You must use the
techniques I teach
you. No deviations."
Recommend books and resources
on vocal technique to encourage
members to research and present
different techniques. Create a
collaborative learning
environment where they can
share their findings.
Exploring
Repertoire
"What genres or pieces are you
interested in exploring? Submit
your top three genre or piece
suggestions by Friday. We’ll vote
on them for our next season."
"We're choosing
new repertoire.
Suggestions are
welcome."
"I've chosen the
repertoire. There's
no need for
suggestions."
Conduct a short online survey or
discussion to gather input on
repertoire preferences, and build
a diverse program that reflects
the members' interests.
Fostering
Teamwork
"How can we support each other
better in rehearsals? Let's create
a supportive environment
together."
"It's important to
support each
other during
rehearsals."
"You need to
support your
sections more. Not
enough teamwork."
Implement team-building
activities such as a "Choir
Bonding Retreat" to enhance
collaboration and mutual support
during rehearsals.
● Objective: Strengthen
the personal relationships among
choir members outside of a
rehearsal setting.
● Activity: Organize a halfday or full-day retreat that
includes both musical and nonmusical activities. These might
include outdoor activities (e.g., a
team scavenger hunt, group
games), collaborative workshops
(e.g., creating a choir mission
statement), or simply a shared
meal. The day should conclude
with a low-pressure, fun
rehearsal or a performance for
one another.
● Benefit: By spending
time together in a relaxed

95
environment, choir members
build trust and form friendships,
which contribute to a stronger
sense of community during
rehearsals and performances.
Enhancing
Performance
"What can we do to make our
performance more memorable?
Let's think about staging,
dynamics, and connection with
the audience."
"We should think
about how to
improve our
performance."
"Do exactly as I say
for the
performance. No
changes."
Organize brainstorming sessions
or workshops to explore creative
ideas for performances, allowing
members to contribute their own
suggestions. Examples include
audio and video recording the
choir's performances and
allocating time to watch back as a
group and reflect on the
performance.
Reflecting on
Progress
“Please list three achievements
we’ve made this semester and
identify two areas where we can
improve. Submit your reflections
by the end of the week, and we’ll
discuss them in our next
meeting."
"It's time to
reflect on this
semester's
progress."
"You haven't
progressed as I
expected. You need
to work harder."
Hold a reflection meeting where
members can agree on three
areas of their progress and
achievements, and set three goals
for personal and group growth.
Engaging
with the
Community
“Please share your ideas for how
we can engage more with our
community through our music.
Think about how we can offer
meaningful experiences,
collaborate with local
organizations, or create
opportunities for community
involvement. Submit your ideas
by next Tuesday, and we’ll work
together to choose and
implement the most exciting
ones.”
"We should find
ways to engage
with the
community."
"I've planned some
community
engagements. Just
follow”
Create a sub-committee or
brainstorming session to develop
community engagement ideas.
This group can take ideas from
the larger group and create a plan
for implementation.

96
CONCLUSION
We have explored the evolving role of the conductor, from historical autocratic figures to
today's collaborative leaders who seek to prioritize communication, empathy, and
musicians' autonomy. This shift is not merely a change in conducting style but represents a
deeper understanding of the psychology of motivation and the importance of fostering a
positive, supportive environment for musical ensembles. By examining the transformation
from dictatorial maestros to conductors who view themselves as part of the orchestra, we
see a reflection of broader societal shifts towards valuing collaboration, empathy, and
individual contribution within a collective context.
This dissertation sets the stage for further empirical research into the impact of
conductors' language on ensemble motivation, urging a departure from purely gestural or
musical-analysis approaches toward conductor education. It proposes an interdisciplinary
framework that integrates insights from social psychology and sports science research, as
well as leadership and motivation theories to enrich the pedagogical toolkit of conductors.
In doing so, it acknowledges the complexity of the conductor's role in the twenty-first
century, in which technical skill must be complemented by profound interpersonal and
communication abilities.
The examination of conductors' verbal and non-verbal communication as a
significant factor in motivating ensembles opens new avenues for research and practice. It
challenges conductors to reflect on their language and interaction styles, encouraging a
shift towards more autonomy-supportive communication that can enhance musicians'
motivation, satisfaction, and performance quality. This dissertation contributes to a

97
growing body of literature that recognizes the power of language in shaping the dynamics
of musical ensembles, offering a foundation for future studies to build upon. Ultimately, this
work reaffirms the conductor's role as not only a musical guide but as a caretaker of the
ensemble's spirit, underscoring the etymological roots of "conduct" in leading and caring.
As the field continues to evolve, this dissertation serves as a crucial reminder of the
enduring impact of compassionate, collaborative leadership in the art of conducting.
It highlights an argument for the integration of behavioral science into choral
conducting pedagogy. It poses the theory that by embracing a more nuanced understanding
of motivation and its underpinnings, conductors can unlock unprecedented levels of
engagement, satisfaction, and achievement within their ensembles. This holistic approach
will not only enrich the musical journey for all involved but will also reinforce the idea that
at the heart of every successful choir is a conductor who is as adept in the art of motivation
as they are in the nuances of music itself.
The dissertation also highlights how the use of autonomy-supportive language
versus controlling language can dramatically influence students' motivational states and
their subsequent learning outcomes. It underscores the profound impact that a conductor's
choice of words can have on fostering an environment conducive to both declarative and
procedural learning, where students feel empowered, competent, and connected. The
exploration of various studies across different disciplines, including sports science and
cognitive psychology, illuminates the universal principles of motor learning and how they
apply to music training. These principles suggest that providing learners with choices and
control over their learning process significantly enhances engagement, retention, and
performance. This dissertation argues that the same principles hold true in the choral

98
rehearsal setting, in which autonomy-supportive language not only facilitates better
musical outcomes but also contributes to a more positive and enriching educational
experience for all involved.
In conclusion, this dissertation serves as a compelling call to action for conductors
and music educators to re-evaluate their instructional approaches and adopt language
styles that promote autonomy, competence, and relatedness. By doing so, they can
transform the rehearsal space into a dynamic learning environment in which students are
not only motivated to achieve musical excellence but are also inspired to take ownership of
their learning journey. This shift towards a more autonomy-supportive teaching
methodology not only aligns with contemporary educational theories but also heralds a
new era in music education, in which the power of language is harnessed to unlock the full
potential of every learner.

99
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract This dissertation explores language's pivotal role in choral rehearsals, synthesizing interdisciplinary research from social psychology, motivational theory, and motor learning. Conductors are musical leaders and educators whose verbal communication profoundly impacts ensemble motivation, knowledge, and performance. The study identifies a gap in traditional conducting pedagogy, which often neglects the nuanced effects of word choice on singers' engagement and autonomy. Reviewing literature across diverse disciplines, this work proposes a pedagogical framework emphasizing autonomy-supportive language to foster motivation and collaborative rehearsal environments. Key theories, including Self-Determination Theory and its sub-theories, provide a theoretical foundation to examine how intentional language use can nurture autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Practical applications include strategies for integrating positive and autonomy-supportive verbal feedback tailored to maximize singers' intrinsic motivation and group cohesion. This research aims to enhance the efficacy of conducting pedagogy, equipping conductors with tools beyond gesture and analysis to lead transformative musical experiences while inspiring further empirical studies on the interplay of language and learning in the choral context.

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Creator Dawson, Michael Thomas (author)

Core Title Conductors and word choice: a theoretical handbook

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Choral Music

Degree Conferral Date 2024-12

Publication Date 01/22/2025

Defense Date 12/14/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag autonomy-supportive language,choral conducting,choral pedagogy,collaborative conducting,conductor-choir interaction,conductors and leadership,emotional engagement in music,intrinsic motivation,language and learning,leadership in music ensembles.,motivation in music,motor learning in music education,OAI-PMH Harvest,rehearsal techniques,self-determination theory (SDT),verbal communication in rehearsals

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