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Examining the underemployment of persons with disabilities in the workplace

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Content UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 1
Examining the Underemployment of Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace
by
Alicia Antoinette Black
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2025
Copyright 2025 Alicia Antoinette Black

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 2
Acknowledgments
I am profoundly grateful to my dissertation committee, Dr. Patricia Tobey and Dr.
Debbie Jih, for their wisdom, guidance, and support throughout this process. Your feedback
pushed me to think critically and deeply, and your encouragement gave me the confidence to see
this work to completion. To my chair, Dr. Ruth Chung, your leadership, insight, and unwavering
belief in my abilities have been instrumental not only in shaping this dissertation but in shaping
me as a scholar. Thank you for challenging me to pursue excellence while providing the support
I needed to succeed.
To my research participants, I am truly indebted to you for your time, energy, and
openness. Your willingness to share your stories and experiences with vulnerability and honesty
has been humbling. Your voices are the heartbeat of this work, and I hope that the insights and
recommendations forged here will honor your contributions and pave the way for meaningful
change.
To my family, your love and encouragement have been my foundation throughout this
journey. Thank you for being my rock, for believing in me even in moments of doubt, and for
reminding me of the bigger picture when I needed it most. This accomplishment is as much
yours as it is mine.
Finally, I look forward to the future with optimism and determination. I am deeply
inspired by the opportunity to move this mission forward—creating spaces where individuals can
show up as their authentic selves and thrive in every sense of the word. This work is more than
an academic endeavor; it is a calling. I am excited to continue building on this foundation,
empowering others, and contributing to a world where everyone has the opportunity to shine.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 2
Table of Contents 3
List of Figures and Tables 5
Abstract 6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 7
Context and Background of the Problem 8
Legislation 8
Organizational Policies and Procedures 9
Role Modeling 10
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions 12
Importance of the Study 12
Overview of the Theoretical Framework 13
Definition of Terms 14
Organization of the Dissertation 16
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 17
History of the Disability Community in the Workplace 17
Late Modern Period (1900–1945) 17
Civil Rights Movement Era and the Aftermath (1950s–1990) 18
Contemporary Period (1990–Present) 19
Workplace Barriers and Facilitators to Sustain Employment 20
Lack of Learning and Growth Opportunities 20
Policy and Physical Barriers 22
Competitive Advantages With Disability Inclusion Initiatives 24
Workplace Infrastructures—Implementation of Universal Design for Learning 25
Using Inclusive Language 25
Accommodations in the Workplace 26
Persons With Disabilities Navigating the Workplace 30
DisCrit Perspective 31
Post-Pandemic Lens 33
Social Cognitive Theory 35
Self-Efficacy 36
Social Cognitive Theory and Underemployment of Persons With Disabilities 36
Conclusion 37
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 40
Research Design 41
Research Setting 41
Data Collection and Instrumentation Procedures 43
Interview 43
Preliminary Survey 45
Document Review of University Policies and Procedures 47
Credibility and Trustworthiness 49
Positionality of the Researcher 50
Ethics 52

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 4
Conclusion 53
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 54
Key Findings 55
Finding 1 57
Finding 2 60
Finding 3 61
Finding 4 63
Finding 5 65
Finding 6 66
Conclusion 68
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS 70
Discussion of Findings 71
Comfort and Trust in Disclosure 71
Self-Advocacy and Self-Efficacy 72
Support Systems as Reinforcers 73
Workplace Culture and Trust 73
Embedding Support for Accommodations 74
Addressing Stigma and Perceptions of Disabilities 75
Implications for Institutional Leaders and Policymakers 76
Recommendations for Practice 78
Recommendation 1 78
Recommendation 2 78
Recommendation 3 79
Limitations and Delimitations 81
Future Research 82
Conclusion 84
References 86
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 100
Appendix B: Preliminary Survey for Interview Process 104

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 5
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1: Underemployment From Persons With Disabilities in the Workplace 37
Table 1: Participant Demographic Overview 55

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 6
Abstract
Underemployment among persons with disabilities (PWDs) persists as a significant issue
in the United States, despite legislative measures like the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA), which aim to promote workplace inclusion. This study investigated the personal attitudes
and organizational factors that influence PWDs to disclose their accommodation needs in
professional settings. Grounded in social cognitive theory, the research employed qualitative
methods, which include interviews with higher education staff members with disabilities, to
uncover their lived experiences that shaped their ability to seek and secure workplace
accommodations. The findings emphasized the critical roles of trust, self-advocacy, and
organizational culture in fostering environments where disclosure is both safe and effective.
Systemic barriers, stigmas, and insufficient policies remain prevalent challenges, often leading to
inequities in access and opportunity. The study offered evidence-based recommendations for
addressing these gaps, advocating for enhanced policies, training, and cultural transformations to
achieve a truly inclusive workforce. By highlighting the intersection of personal agency and
systemic support, this research contributed to the broader discourse on disability rights and
workplace equity.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Underemployment among persons with disabilities (PWDs) has been a pressing issue
within the United States for many years. One in four adults report having a disability in the
United States (National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, 2024), yet the
corporate workplace is still not an accessible venue for all adults to thrive (Cavanagh et al.,
2021). Workplace accommodations are crucial for both employers and employees with
disabilities to corroborate equal opportunities for employment (Nevala et al., 2015). However,
many companies remain unaware or unwilling to make necessary accommodations, leaving
employees with disabilities more likely to be unemployed or lacking adequate resources and
opportunities to develop self-efficacy and professional growth (Sophia K., 2022).
Underemployment refers to a situation where individuals are working in jobs that are
below their skill level or experience, leading to lower wages and limited career advancement
opportunities (Braddock & Bachelder, 1994). This is a serious issue for PWDs, as they often face
barriers and discrimination in the workplace that prevent them from accessing meaningful and
fulfilling employment. Despite the passage of legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which aimed to promote equal opportunities
and protect against discrimination, PWDs continue to experience high rates of
underemployment. According to Wong et al. (2021), one of the main reasons for
underemployment among PWDs is a lack of access to basic education and training facilities at
work, which hinders their ability to adapt to changes in the job market, develop self-confidence,
and secure higher-level positions. Additionally, workplace accommodations for PWDs are often
not provided, making it difficult for them to perform their job tasks effectively. Furthermore,
employers’ lack of awareness and understanding of the capabilities and potential of PWDs

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 8
contribute to this underemployment. To address the underemployment of PWDs, it is crucial for
companies to prioritize promoting employment and inclusion of PWDs as part of their overall
social engagement, fostering environments that support the development of self-efficacy and
empowerment (Miethlich & Oldenburg, 2019).
Context and Background of the Problem
The undervaluation and underuse of PWDs within the workplace, due to the lack of or
knowledge of accommodations, has created an immeasurable deficit for the workforce (O’Reilly,
2007). According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2023), in 2022, the employment rate for
PWDs was 21.3%, while those without disabilities had an employment rate of 65.4%. The
prodigious workforce gaps between the two populations create an opportunity for the American
workforce to rethink how they should better leverage a populace of capable persons to fulfill
current and future vacant roles in the workplace. The lack of PWDs in the workforce can further
be seen from the societal perspective through our legislation, the organizational perspective via
policies, role modeling by mentors, allies, advocates, family, friends, or colleagues, and selfefficacy by seeking motivational behaviors through oneself.
Legislation
Disability legislation and workplace accommodations play a crucial role in ensuring
equal opportunities and accessibility for PWDs in the workplace (Anand & Sevak, 2017). These
legislations provide legal protections and require employers to make reasonable accommodations
to facilitate the employment of PWDs. Some of the key disability legislation that has aided in
workplace accommodations include the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Rehabilitation
Act of 1973. These laws prohibit discrimination against qualified PWDs and require employers
to provide reasonable accommodations, such as modifications to the work environment, job

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 9
restructuring, flexible schedules, assistive technology, and communication aids (Davis, 2005;
Duffy, 2023; Office of Disability Employment Policy [ODEP], n.d.). These accommodations
have enabled PWDs to perform their job duties effectively and have contributed to their
successful integration into the workforce (Gould et al., 2020; Nevala et al., 2015). Furthermore,
research has shown that workplace accommodations have been instrumental in addressing
employment barriers faced by PWDs (Gould et al., 2020; Nevala et al., 2015; Santuzzi et al.,
2022; Zhu et al., 2019). They have helped address challenges such as lack of accessible
transportation, inaccessible workplaces, and the need for personal care attendants. Additionally,
these studies have shown that workplace accommodations are often cost-effective and result in
increased productivity and retention of experienced workers. Moreover, the implementation of
workplace accommodations has led to positive outcomes for PWDs (Dong et al., 2016; Gould et
al., 2020). These outcomes include higher rates of employment, increased job satisfaction,
improved work performance, and greater opportunities for career advancement.
Organizational Policies and Procedures
Disability organizational policies and procedures play a crucial role in creating inclusive
workplaces that accommodate PWDs. These policies and procedures aim to remove barriers and
provide support to employees with disabilities, ensuring equal opportunities for them to thrive in
the workplace (Sampana, 2019). This can include measures such as reasonable accommodations,
flexible work arrangements, accessible facilities and technology, and inclusive hiring practices.
By implementing these policies and procedures, organizations can promote diversity and
inclusion by valuing and harnessing the unique skills and abilities of PWDs (Gould et al., 2020).
By incorporating disability inclusion into their overall diversity framework, organizations can
create a more equitable and supportive work environment. Additionally, organizations can

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 10
provide training and education on disability awareness and inclusion for all employees (Dong et
al., 2016; Suresh & Dyaram, 2020). This training can help increase awareness, reduce biases, and
foster a more inclusive and supportive workplace culture (Gould et al., 2020). By implementing
these disability organizational policies and procedures, organizations have a chance to create a
more inclusive and accessible work environment for PWDs.
Role Modeling
Role modeling plays a crucial role in aiding PWDs by providing them with examples of
successful individuals who have overcome challenges and achieved workplace accommodations.
This type of role modeling helps to counter negative stereotypes and stigma associated with
disabilities by showcasing the abilities and potential of PWDs (Sano, 2021). By seeing others
with disabilities thrive in the workplace, PWDs become inspired and motivated to pursue their
own career goals. Additionally, role modeling helps create a more inclusive and accommodating
workplace environment. When coworkers and employers witness the achievements and
successes of PWDs, it promotes a positive attitude and acceptance towards workplace
accommodations (Zhu et al., 2019). This can lead to increased awareness and understanding of
the need for accommodations, as well as a willingness to provide the necessary support and
resources (Padkapayeva et al., 2017). Research conducted by Chung-Conway and Glover (2018)
found that role modeling has a significant impact on the employment of people with disabilities
as it positively influences the attitudes and perceptions of employers, leading to increased hiring
opportunities for PWDs. Furthermore, role modeling can also help PWDs develop important
skills and strategies for navigating the workplace.
Statement of the Problem

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 11
People with disabilities face various challenges in the workplace, and workplace
accommodations play a crucial role in enabling them to obtain and retain jobs. Research has
shown that self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, positive affect, and disabling systemic barriers
significantly impact individuals’ intentions to request workplace accommodations (Anand &
Sevak, 2017; Dong et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2019). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in
their abilities to succeed and accomplish tasks in a specific domain (Dan et al., 2023).
Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy may perceive themselves as capable of overcoming
obstacles and achieving their career goals, leading to increased motivation, effort, and
perseverance in the face of challenges. Consequently, PWDs who have a higher sense of selfefficacy are more likely to engage in the accommodation request process and believe in their
ability to successfully navigate it and obtain the necessary accommodations (Dong et al., 2016).
Individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to actively seek out accommodations and
believe they have the ability to overcome challenges in the workplace. Additionally, individuals
with high self-efficacy are more likely to persist in their efforts to obtain accommodations and
advocate for their needs. Overall, self-efficacy plays a crucial role in the process of requesting
workplace accommodations for PWDs.
However, systemic barriers compound the challenges faced by PWDs. These barriers
include insufficient or poorly enforced policies, societal stigmas, and discriminatory practices
that prevent the full inclusion and participation of PWDs in the workforce. PWDs often find it
difficult to obtain work, promotions, and advancement opportunities due to these systemic
issues, which are closely linked to their identified disability (Cavanagh et al., 2021; Stuart,
2004). Although positive work self-efficacy attributes and traits have been found to enhance the
efficacy of PWDs in the workplace (Zhu et al., 2019), there remains a lack of processes and

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 12
policies that foster inclusive workplace cultures where such thriving can occur. The absence of
comprehensive and inclusive practices exacerbates the difficulties individuals face in requesting
accommodations, as they often encounter stigma, judgment, or fear of losing their employment.
To address these systemic barriers, it is essential to implement best practices that enable
PWDs to understand, feel comfortable with, and apply for workplace accommodations without
facing negative repercussions. Creating an inclusive culture involves not only recognizing and
addressing the systemic barriers that hinder the employment of PWDs but also actively
promoting self-efficacy and supportive policies that empower them to succeed in their
professional endeavors.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine the personal and organizational influencers that
enable a PWD to readily disclose their accommodation needs within the workplace. These
research questions guided the study:
1. What personal attitudes, perceptions, and/or variables influence the willingness of PWDs
to pursue and request accommodations in the workplace?
2. What organizational factors influence the willingness of PWDs to pursue and request
accommodations in the workplace?
Importance of the Study
Underemployment among PWDs is a significant issue that hinders their ability to secure
meaningful employment and limits their opportunities for career advancement.
Underemployment among PWDs is a result of structural and attitudinal barriers, such as a lack of
workplace accommodations, limited access to assistive technology, and biases held by
employers. Furthermore, research has shown that employers often lack awareness and

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 13
understanding of the accommodations needed for PWDs to succeed in the workplace (Gould et
al., 2021; Kalargyrou, 2014; Santuzzi et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2021). They may have concerns
about providing job accommodations and may not fully comprehend the potential of PWDs to
contribute to their organizations. These factors contribute to the underemployment of PWDs, as
they face difficulty in accessing and maintaining meaningful employment opportunities.
Self-efficacy plays a crucial role in overcoming these barriers. PWDs who possess high
self-efficacy are more likely to believe in their abilities to perform job tasks and advocate for
necessary accommodations (Zhu et al., 2019). This belief can drive their persistence and
resilience in seeking and maintaining employment despite facing systemic barriers. However,
when employers fail to recognize and support the self-efficacy of PWDs, it can lead to decreased
motivation and increased feelings of inadequacy among these individuals. Therefore, fostering
an environment that boosts self-efficacy is essential. Employers should provide training and
resources that empower PWDs, enhancing their confidence and ability to request and utilize
accommodations effectively (Marsay, 2014).
Systemic barriers further reinforce the underemployment of PWDs, as they limit their
access to legitimate employment opportunities. This underemployment is reflected in the
statistics, which show that PWDs are significantly less likely to obtain employment compared to
those without disabilities (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2023). Addressing these issues
requires a comprehensive approach that includes improving employer awareness, dismantling
structural barriers, and promoting self-efficacy among PWDs to enable them to achieve their full
potential in the workplace.
Overview of the Theoretical Framework

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 14
Social cognitive theory (SCT) is a psychological framework that focuses on how
individuals acquire and use information to guide their behavior (Bandura, 2017). SCT, developed
by Albert Bandura, posits that learning occurs in a social context and is influenced by the
interaction of behavioral, environmental, and cognitive factors. It emphasizes the importance of
observational learning, self-efficacy, and the reciprocal relationship between individuals and
their environments (Bandura, 1986). The theory suggests that people acquire new behaviors by
observing others and that their beliefs about their abilities, or self-efficacy, play a critical role in
how they approach goals and challenges (Bandura, 1997). In relation to the underemployment of
PWDs, SCT suggests that the lack of workplace accommodations plays a significant role
(Larson, 2008). According to SCT, individuals gain knowledge and build self-efficacy beliefs by
observing and modeling the behaviors of others (Dong et al., 2016). These beliefs then influence
their motivation and actions in the employment domain. In the context of the underemployment
of PWDs, SCT explains that if PWDs do not have access to workplace accommodations that
support their unique needs and abilities, their self-efficacy and confidence in their own
employability may be diminished. As a result, they may be less likely to seek jobs or adopt
behaviors essential for success. SCT explains how individuals learn and develop self-efficacy
through observation and modeling, highlighting the impact of workplace barriers on PWDs'
employment outcomes.
Definition of Terms
Accommodations refers to a workplace modification or adjustment that enables an
individual with a disability to fulfill their job responsibilities. This may involve specialized
equipment, alterations to the work environment, or changes to work schedules or duties (U.S.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (n.d.).

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 15
Lack of accommodations references the absence or insufficiency of adjustments,
modifications, or supports in the workplace that enable PWDs to perform their job duties
effectively. These accommodations can include physical modifications to the work environment,
provision of assistive technologies, flexible work schedules, or tailored job responsibilities (U.S.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (n.d.).
Person or people with Disabilities (PWD) encompass a person who has a physical or
mental impairment that significantly restricts one or more major life activities (U.S. Department
of Labor, n.d.-a).
Self-efficacy is the belief in one's own ability to succeed in specific situations or
accomplish a task. High self-efficacy influences how people think, feel, and act. Individuals with
strong self-efficacy are more likely to set challenging goals, persist in the face of difficulties, and
recover from setbacks. It is a critical component in determining how one approaches goals, tasks,
and challenges (Bandura, 1997).
Social cognitive theory: Behavioral factors suggest that people can learn new behaviors
by observing others. This involves attention to the behavior, retention of the observed behavior,
reproduction of the behavior, and motivation to imitate the behavior. It underscores the
importance of learning processes, highlighting that individuals can acquire new skills and
knowledge by watching others (Bandura, 1986).
Social cognitive theory: Environmental factors refer to the external influences that affect
an individual’s behavior. These include the physical and social surroundings, such as family,
friends, work settings, cultural norms, and societal expectations. These factors interact with
personal and behavioral factors, shaping and being shaped by an individual's actions and
experiences. (Bandura, 1986).

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 16
Social cognitive theory: Personal factors describe the internal characteristics and
attributes of an individual that influence their behavior. These include cognitive processes (such
as thoughts and beliefs), emotions, attitudes, expectations, self-efficacy, and biological factors.
These personal factors interact with environmental and behavioral factors, playing a crucial role
in shaping an individual's actions and experiences (Bandura, 1986).
Organization of the Dissertation
The introduction highlights the pervasive issue of underemployment among PWDs in the
United States, despite legislative efforts to promote inclusivity in the workplace. It emphasizes
the importance of workplace accommodations in enabling people with disabilities to thrive
professionally. The study aimed to explore the personal and organizational factors influencing
accommodation requests to address this issue and promote equal opportunities. Chapter two
provides a comprehensive overview of historical and legislative contexts, highlighting challenges
faced by PWDs and the importance of proactive measures for inclusivity. SCT is discussed as a
framework for understanding employment outcomes, emphasizing the need for further research
and better policies. Chapter three details the qualitative methodology adopted, focusing on higher
education staff members with disabilities as participants to gather insights into accommodation
needs and propose recommendations for fostering a more inclusive workplace environment.
Chapter four outlines six key findings of the study and examines them through the perspective of
the theoretical framework. Chapter five summarizes the findings, explores their implications, and
provides recommendations for future research.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
The chapter presents an overview of the factors contributing to underemployment among
persons with disabilities (PWDs), focusing on workplace barriers and facilitators necessary for
sustaining employment, as well as the competitive advantages associated with disability
inclusion initiatives. Proceeding through the chapter, I propose an examination of several other
efforts, including the accommodations infrastructure for PWDs in the workplace, which contains
a definition, statutes, legislation, reported obstacles, and sustained influence. Lastly, this chapter
discusses the conceptual framework of SCT.
History of the Disability Community in the Workplace
The history of the disability community in the workplace is fraught with discrimination,
social stigma, institutionalization, and fictitious triumphs. Being deemed unfit for employment
started during the Middle Ages, as people with disabilities were often seen as cursed or
possessed by evil (Longmore & Umansky, 2001). The plague of these notions stayed steadfast
even through the industrial revolution, which brought about significant changes in the workforce,
but unfortunately, this did not lead to increased opportunities for workers with disabilities. Many
employers viewed PWDs as incapable of performing work tasks and thus were unwilling to hire
them (Spataro, 2005).
Late Modern Period (1900–1945)
It was not until the early 1900s, when U.S. county fairs in the Midwest gave people with
disabilities a source of income and a feeling of community through the presentations of their
oddities (e.g., bearded women, the dog-faced boy, giants, dwarves), and displays of the
disfigured, disabled, or exaggerated bodies masqueraded under the guise of scientific
enlightenment (Longmore & Umansky, 2001). During World War II, there was a shift in the

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 18
perception of workers with disabilities (Braddock & Bachelder, 1994). American industry
recruited women and physically limited persons in large numbers to keep production going while
the able-bodied male population was fighting overseas. After the war, many of these workers,
including those with disabilities, lost their jobs to returning soldiers. Despite these challenges,
the disability working community made significant strides toward equal opportunities in the
workforce.
Civil Rights Movement Era and the Aftermath (1950s–1990)
Franklin Roosevelt, one of the first known presidents to have a disability, inspired
numerous people with disabilities and advocated for many legislations during his tenure to afford
fair employment and opportunities. One of the first was the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938,
which enacted employers the ability to pay lower wages to employees whose productivity was
limited due to their physical or mental disability (Neuhaus et al., 2014). In 1961, the American
National Standard Institute (ANSI) subsequently formed the foundation for architectural
accessibility codes. The Architectural Barriers Act, passed in 1968, required all federally owned
or leased buildings to be accessible to PWDs, while the Urban Mass Transit Act of 1970
mandated the installation of wheelchair lifts in all new mass transit vehicles.
Prior to the birth of the U.S. disability rights movement in the 1970s, PWDs were often
marginalized and placed in state-run institutions with poor living conditions and limited
opportunities for education and employment (Mintz et al., 2022). However, the disability rights
movement emerged as a powerful force for change. It was in the 1970s that disability rights
activists, inspired by the civil rights movement and the women's movement, began advocating
for equal rights and opportunities for PWDs. They fought against discrimination, lobbied for
legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 19
1990, and demanded inclusive education, accessible infrastructure, and employment
opportunities. With the passage of these key legislation, great strides have been made toward
ensuring equal rights and opportunities for PWDs (Hammel & Smith, 1993).
Contemporary Period (1990–Present)
Federal legislation has played a crucial role in protecting the rights of workers with
disabilities and promoting their inclusion in the workforce. For example, the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 prohibited employment discrimination against qualified PWDs by the federal
government and entities that receive federal funds (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, n.d.). This act was followed by Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act in
1990, which extended protection against discrimination to private sector employers who did not
receive federal funds (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.-a). Additionally, there have been efforts to
increase awareness and provide support for workers with disabilities. These include initiatives
such as awareness training, workplace accommodations, assistive technology, cooperative
education and training programs, recruitment strategies, opportunities for career development,
and enterprise development. One of the biggest challenges faced by workers with disabilities is
the high unemployment rate, which remains twice as high as that of workers without disabilities
(Gould et al., 2020). However, efforts to address this issue led to a growing recognition of the
value and potential hiring of workers with disabilities (Braddock & Bachelder, 1994).
The disability community has since become more unified, with groups representing
different disabilities coming together under the umbrella of the disability rights movement
(Kidney, 2000). These groups have worked tirelessly to challenge societal perceptions and
dismantle barriers that prevent PWDs from fully participating in society. One notable milestone
in the history of the disability community was the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 20
in 1990 (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.-a). This landmark legislation prohibited discrimination
against PWDs in various areas of life, including employment, public accommodations, and
transportation. The disability community has made significant progress in advocating for equal
rights and opportunities for PWDs (Gould et al., 2021). Through the diligent efforts of disability
rights activists, the disability community has achieved significant milestones in its journey
toward equality and inclusion. In addition to the legislative victories, the disability community
has also made strides in changing societal attitudes and perceptions toward disability.
Workplace Barriers and Facilitators to Sustain Employment
Inclusion is a sought-after dream amongst all working-class individuals, but amongst
those with disabilities, it is a means for stability and belonging (Cavanagh et al., 2021). Linda
Davis (2005) asserted in her research on disabilities in the workplace that corporations should
focus on adapting the environment rather than the individuals they hire. This new mentality will
not only enable better inclusion amongst all but will give this thriving workforce greater stability
and agility in the workplace (Nevala et al., 2015). There are many barriers that the disability
community encounters, but the ones that affect their sustainment of work include the lack of
proper learning and growth opportunities and policy and physical barriers within an organization.
Lack of Learning and Growth Opportunities
Within the work environment, individuals are constantly learning (Gantwerker & Lee,
2022). From the first week with onboarding to the continued aptitude to grow and move upward
with probable promotions and other growth opportunities, one continues to learn (Cavanagh et
al., 2021). However, PWDs are constantly excluded from many learning possibilities due to a
lack of proper accommodations (Nevala et al., 2015). Both the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and
the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 are laws that enable employers to give reasonable

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 21
accommodations to qualified persons with impairments that limit a major life activity, such as
learning (Latham & Latham, n.d.), but most employers do not fulfill or know how to
accommodate said adaptations (Nevala et al., 2015). Major types of learning disabilities include
sequencing, language, visual perceptual and visual motor, auditory, memory, gross motor, and
fine motor disorders (Latham & Latham, n.d.), and all persons with these learning disabilities are
more than capable of working, but their neurological impairments require some sort of
workplace accommodation (Roberson et al., 2021).
In today's rapidly changing world, the lack of learning and growth opportunities for
PWDs in the workplace can be a significant barrier to their overall career advancement and
personal development (Braddock & Bachelder, 1994). For instance, a person with a physical
disability may encounter barriers such as narrow doors, high shelves, and unamplified telephones
in the workplace, which limit their ability to access learning resources or participate in career
development programs (Harlan & Robert, 1998). Another example is employees with mental
disabilities or hidden conditions who face non-physical barriers, such as inflexible time
schedules or responsibilities with excessive pressure that make it difficult for them to engage in
learning and growth opportunities (Braddock & Bachelder, 1994). A person with a visual
impairment may struggle to access training materials that are not provided in accessible formats,
hindering their ability to learn and grow in their career. Employers may also hold misconceptions
that PWDs are less capable or productive, leading to a reluctance to provide them with learning
and growth opportunities or to consider them for promotions. These barriers ultimately
contribute to a lack of equal opportunities for PWDs to develop their skills, advance in their
careers, and reach their full potential.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 22
Another medium where PWDs are excluded in learning is within the meeting or
conference room—virtual or in person (Duffy, 2023). The lack of consideration regarding the
space of the room and the lack of thought to ensure all parties are included in the conversation
(e.g., providing an agenda ahead of the meeting) often lead to the disability workforce seeking
employment elsewhere or facing prolonged periods of unemployment (Davis, 2005). Other
examples that eliminate PWDs from the meeting conversation include not recording the meeting
(by notes or virtually recording; Duffy, 2023), not ensuring videos are captioned and audio
described, and not scheduling breaks for longer meetings (Ladner, 2015). Meetings are essential
in a productive workforce and environment (Nevala et al., 2015), and by altering very little, they
could aid in including more PWDs in the conversation (Duffy, 2023).
Policy and Physical Barriers
A more well-known exclusion to the disability workforce is the lack of or outdated
corporate policies and physical barriers in the workplace (Davis, 2005). Per the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2020), a physical barrier constitutes a structural obstacle
that blocks or prevents mobility or access. An example of a physical barrier that bans people
with disabilities from accessing public spaces or entering buildings might be a narrow doorway
(Sophia K., 2022). Another example includes the steps and curbs that prevent said persons from
using a sidewalk or entering a building (CDC, 2020).
PWDs face various physical barriers in the workplace that hinder their full participation
and equal opportunities. These barriers can include inaccessible infrastructure and facilities, such
as buildings without ramps or elevators, narrow doorways or aisles, and inaccessible restrooms
(ODEP, n.d.). Some other examples include lack of assistive technology or accommodations,
such as screen readers for individuals with visual impairments, adaptive keyboards for

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 23
individuals with mobility limitations, or assistive listening devices for individuals with hearing
impairments. Uncomfortable or inaccessible workstations, such as desks that are too high or low
for individuals using wheelchairs, or chairs without proper back support, pose a significant
challenge. Insufficient signage, or the absence of braille signage, poses a significant challenge
for individuals with visual impairments. There is a shortage of accessible parking spaces or a
lack of designated parking spots for individuals with mobility impairments. Individuals with
visual impairments or mobility limitations may be at risk due to poor lighting or uneven flooring.
Inaccessible transportation options or lack of accessible public transportation are also problems.
These physical barriers, along with attitudinal and social barriers, hinder PWDs from fully
participating and being allowed equal opportunities in the workplace.
Policy restrictions for PWDs are based on a company’s lack of enforcement or awareness
of laws and regulations that require specific programs and activities to be accessible (CDC,
2020). These corporate policies can look like declining reasonable accommodations to PWDs for
them to perform their essential functions of an applied-for or hired job (CDC, 2020). Policies
may also restrict the types of jobs accessible to individuals with mental or physical disabilities,
such as requiring them to lift 25 pounds, even when this prerequisite does not constitute a large
portion of the job responsibilities (Sophia K., 2022).
Many PWDs face significant barriers in their professional lives, particularly when it
comes to career advancement and development (Harlan & Robert, 1998). These barriers can be
attributed to several corporate policies that hinder the inclusion and progression of PWDs in the
workplace (Braddock & Bachelder, 1994). Policy barriers for PWDs in the workplace refer to the
various obstacles and limitations that prevent them from advancing in their careers and accessing

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 24
equal employment opportunities. Some key corporate policy barriers for PWDs in the workplace
include
● Lack of accommodations: Many workplaces do not have appropriate accommodations for
PWDs, such as accessible restrooms, workstations, or assistive technologies (Harlan &
Robert, 1998).
● Limited accessibility: Some workplaces may have physical barriers that make it difficult
for PWDs to access certain areas or perform essential job functions.
● Restrictive policies on flexible work arrangements: Some organizations may have
policies that limit or discourage flexible work arrangements, which can be crucial for
PWDs to effectively manage their work-life balance and accommodate their individual
needs.
● Inflexible attendance policies: Some workplaces may have strict attendance policies that
do not consider the unique circumstances and potential challenges faced by PWDs.
These policy barriers create significant challenges for PWDs in the workplace, hindering their
ability to fully participate and advance in their careers.
Competitive Advantages With Disability Inclusion Initiatives
Disability inclusion and the shift towards enveloping PWDs within a social model—
viewing disabilities as a form of human diversity rather than a deficit—will allow institutions to
readily address structural and attitudinal barriers, thus bridging the inclusion gap (Kalargyrou,
2014). For a successful inclusive program to be implemented within any organization, openmindedness and acceptance need to be at the forefront rather than consuming all parties solely on
those with disabilities (Kalargyrou, 2014). Raising awareness about the value placed on
disability inclusion and the residual meaningful commitment to the inclusion of people with

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 25
disabilities in the workforce are the answers our society needs to incorporate and implement
inclusion in the workplace (Gould et al., 2021).
Workplace Infrastructures—Implementation of Universal Design for Learning
Workplace infrastructure significantly contributes to the promotion of disability inclusion
(Indeed Editorial Team, 2024). Corporations can be more accessible by ensuring most opt-in
accommodations become opt-out and learning opportunities (e.g., meetings, presentations, etc.)
become more asynchronous (Duffy, 2023). Opting out allows for technological meetings to be
more inclusive to PWDs by enabling closed captioning, turning on accessibility features,
centering your face, keeping your video on while speaking, and scheduling breaks for meetings
longer than 45 minutes. These practices help ensure technology functions as a supportive
resource rather than a distraction. Asynchronous learning can also help with both disability
inclusion and ensures learning for all abilities is accessible (Indeed Editorial Team, 2024). Some
forms of asynchronous inclusion include providing an agenda and materials (e.g., slides, graphs,
etc.) prior to or at the start of a meeting and recording a meeting or training session (Duffy,
2023). These inclusionary methods allows for the processing of information, cognition, and
brainstorming to happen more readily for all abilities, especially those with disabilities. These
opt-out and asynchronous corporate normalizations create more inclusive and productive
meetings that will increase everyone’s comfort levels and abilities to participate wholeheartedly.
Using Inclusive Language
Stigmatizing labels is a past behavior that does not allow PWDs to be comfortable in
their own skin (Chechik, 2019). An inclusive approach to enabling belonging in the workplace is
for there to be language that encompasses less derogatory and more person-first or identity-first
labeling. Person-first references consider bringing forth the person rather than their disability to

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 26
the forefront (Indeed Editorial Team, 2024). A person that “requires an accommodation,” “uses a
wheelchair,” or “who has a disability” is more inclusive than making their disability their
identity, such as “disabled person,” “special needs,” or “wheelchair bound.” Identity-first
inclusive linguistics allows the user to see the disability as a key part of their identity (Chechik,
2019). Using terms such as “deaf” or “autistic” versus “crippled” or “handicapped” allows for
the person with their specified disability to live their truth aloud and proud. Utilizing these
inclusive terms and verbiage not only allows for more inclusion within the workplace and society
but also gives the disability demographic the power over naming their abilities.
Accommodations in the Workplace
Accommodations can range from modifications in job structure or environment to the
provision of necessary equipment or devices (Oire, 2013). These accommodations enable PWDs
to fully participate and succeed in their chosen careers, breaking down barriers and ensuring
equal opportunities for all employees (Wong et al., 2021). However, despite the importance of
workplace accommodations, employers often struggle to effectively meet the needs of employees
with disabilities (Oire, 2013). In a study conducted with U.S. employers, researchers found that
there is a lack of clear criteria and guidelines for determining how to respond to reasonable
accommodation requests from employees with disabilities. This lack of clarity can hinder
employers’ ability to maximize the employability of PWDs (Cleveland et al., 1997).
Furthermore, several factors influence workplace reactions to accommodations. These factors
include the specific type of accommodation requested, the impact on job efficiency and
retention, and the perceived cost-effectiveness of implementing the accommodation (Dong et al.,
2019). Employers commonly use existing workplace resources, such as co-worker assistance or
flexible scheduling, as accommodations for employees with disabilities (Wong et al., 2021).

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 27
Additionally, modifying job responsibilities or providing assistive technologies are also
commonly reported accommodation strategies (Dong et al., 2019). The provision of workplace
accommodations varies across different sectors, with some industries having a higher frequency
of accommodations than others (Wong et al., 2021). Overall, it is crucial for employers to
understand the importance of workplace accommodations and to have clear guidelines in place
for responding to accommodation requests from employees with disabilities (Dong et al., 2019).
In doing so, employers can foster an inclusive work environment and ensure that all employees
have equal opportunities for success.
Employment Barriers That Workplace Accommodations Could Address
One-third of nonworking PWDs face employment barriers that workplace
accommodations could address. Issues like inaccessible workplaces and lack of transportation
contribute to these barriers. The data also reveals a positive correlation between receiving
workplace accommodations (e.g., transportation assistance, flexible schedules, personal care
attendants) and current employment status. This implies that providing such accommodations
may effectively support employment for people with disabilities. Additionally, those in poor
health or with physical disabilities are more likely to be underrepresented in receiving workplace
accommodations, highlighting potential candidates for expanding accommodation availability
(Anand & Sevak, 2017).
Employers cite key direct benefits of workplace accommodations such as retaining
qualified employees, increasing productivity, and avoiding the cost of training new staff. Indirect
benefits include improved coworker interactions, heightened company morale, and overall
increased productivity. Commonly implemented accommodations involve purchasing equipment

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 28
and adjusting work schedules. Most respondents estimate direct benefits of accommodations at
over $1000 (Solovieva et al., 2011).
Statues and Legislation
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) forbids discrimination against PWDs in
various domains, encompassing employment, transportation, public accommodations,
communications, and access to state and local government programs and services (U.S.
Department of Labor, n.d.-a). Within the ADA is Title I, which safeguards the rights of both
employees and job seekers in the context of employment (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.-b).
Title I is important within the ADA as it identifies three areas requiring reasonable
accommodations:
1. Adaptations to the job application process, ensuring consideration of qualified
applicants with disabilities.
2. Adjustments to the physical work environment or job performance methods,
facilitating PWDs in fulfilling essential job functions.
3. Modifications to provide equal access to employment benefits and privileges, such
as cafeteria, lounge, auditorium, and transportation access, for employees with
disabilities.
Within this last area requiring reasonable accommodations, there is an additive: the sole legal
constraint on an employer's duty to offer reasonable accommodation is that the adjustments
should not result in “undue hardship” for the employer (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.-b).
Though the ADA offers a lot of coverage and context for how to handle accommodations
within the workplace, there are other federal and state resources that give additional aid in
handling accommodation questions and applications. On the federal side, the U.S. Department of

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 29
Labor’s Office of Disability Employment Policy (ODEP) does not enforce the ADA but provides
publications and technical assistance on the law's fundamental requirements. This includes the
obligation of covered employers to offer reasonable accommodations to qualified job applicants
and employees with disabilities (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.-a). For the side of U.S. states,
the California Fair Employment and Housing Act mandates employes with five or more
employees to provide reasonable accommodation for PWDs during both the job application
process and the performance of essential job functions, unless doing so would impose an undue
hardship. Reasonable accommodation encompasses various measures, such as altering job duties,
granting medical care leave, adjusting work schedules, relocating work areas, and providing
mechanical or electrical aids (California Department of Human Resources, n.d.).
Workplace accommodations for PWDs are crucial for ensuring equal opportunities.
However, employers often lack clear guidelines for responding to accommodation requests,
hindering effective support. Common accommodations include flexible scheduling and assistive
technologies, but provision varies by industry. Accommodations address employment barriers
such as inaccessible workplaces and lack of transportation, promoting employment for people
with disabilities. The ADA prohibits discrimination and mandates reasonable accommodations,
with federal and state resources offering guidance on implementation and compliance.
Achieving true inclusion in the workplace requires a concerted effort to address the
multifaceted barriers faced by PWDs. By shifting the focus from individual limitations to
adapting the environment, as advocated by Linda Davis, organizations can create a more
inclusive and agile workforce. However, significant challenges persist, including the lack of
learning and growth opportunities, as well as policy and physical barriers within organizations.
To overcome these obstacles, proactive measures such as providing reasonable accommodations,

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 30
implementing inclusive policies, and fostering a culture of acceptance and belonging are
essential. Moreover, embracing inclusive language and leveraging technology to make
workplaces more accessible can further enhance inclusion efforts. By adhering to statutes like the
Americans with Disabilities Act and tapping into available resources, employers can ensure that
PWDs have equal opportunities for success in the workplace, ultimately benefiting both
employees and organizations alike.
Persons With Disabilities Navigating the Workplace
Navigating the workplace can be a complex and challenging task for PWDs. They often
face unique barriers and obstacles that can hinder their career advancement and limit their access
to opportunities for professional growth (Jones, 1997; Kulkarni & Lengnick-Hall, 2014). One
major issue that PWDs encounter is a lack of understanding and awareness from their co-workers
(Marsay, 2014; Sundar et al., 2018). In a study conducted by Branham and Kane (2015), it was
found that co-workers of blind employees were unable to accurately identify the difficulties and
challenges faced by their visually impaired colleagues in the workplace. This lack of awareness
can lead to a misunderstanding of priorities, resulting in accessibility issues and a failure to
provide necessary accommodations. Additionally, there are environmental barriers within the
workplace that can impede the navigation of PWDs (Kulkarni & Lengnick-Hall, 2014; Sundar et
al., 2018). These barriers can include physical obstacles such as narrow doorways or inaccessible
workstations, as well as non-physical barriers like inflexible schedules or a lack of
communication accommodations. Furthermore, limited access to assistive technology can also
pose challenges for PWDs in the workplace (Kulkarni & Lengnick-Hall, 2014; Marsay, 2014;
Sundar et al., 2018). Without proper access to assistive technology, PWDs may struggle to
perform their job duties effectively and communicate with their colleagues. These barriers and

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 31
challenges ultimately contribute to a glass ceiling effect for PWDs in the workplace. Due to these
barriers and challenges, PWDs often face limited opportunities for career advancement and
professional development (Jones, 1997). To address these issues, it is crucial for employers to
take proactive steps in creating a more inclusive and accessible work environment (Braddock &
Bachelder, 1994; Jones, 1997). This includes providing reasonable accommodations as required
by the employment section of the ADA (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.-a). Reasonable
accommodations may include modifications to the job structure or environment, such as making
physical spaces more accessible, providing assistive technology, or implementing flexible work
schedules. Additionally, employers should prioritize awareness and education among all
employees to foster a better understanding of the challenges faced by PWDs (Marsay, 2014). By
promoting inclusivity and creating an environment that supports the needs of PWDs, employers
can break down barriers and create equal opportunities for career advancement.
DisCrit Perspective
DisCrit, or disability studies and critical race theory, is an interdisciplinary framework
that examines the intersection of disability and race, emphasizing how these identities intersect to
affect individuals’ experiences and opportunities (Annamma et al., 2013). This framework is
crucial in understanding the accommodations process because it highlights how systemic biases
and structural inequalities compound the challenges faced by people with disabilities,
particularly those from marginalized racial backgrounds. DisCrit advocates for an intersectional
approach, recognizing that individuals cannot be understood through a single lens of either
disability or race alone but must be seen in the context of their overlapping identities.
In the accommodations process, DisCrit helps reveal how racial and disability biases
influence access to and the quality of accommodations provided (Annamma et al., 2018). For

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 32
instance, people of color with disabilities may face additional barriers in requesting and receiving
accommodations due to implicit biases and stereotypes held by employers and educators. These
biases can lead to assumptions about their capabilities, resulting in inadequate or inappropriate
accommodations. DisCrit encourages a critical examination of these systemic issues, urging
institutions to adopt more inclusive and equitable practices that acknowledge and address the
unique needs of individuals at the intersection of multiple marginalized identities (Annamma et
al., 2013; Annamma et al., 2018).
Moreover, DisCrit emphasizes the importance of cultural competence and sensitivity in
the accommodations process (Annamma et al., 2018). It advocates for understanding and
respecting the diverse cultural backgrounds and experiences of PWDs. This perspective is vital
in ensuring that accommodations are not only accessible but also culturally relevant and
responsive. By incorporating DisCrit principles, organizations can better address the diverse
needs of their employees and students, fostering an environment where all individuals can thrive.
Additionally, DisCrit highlights the need for advocacy and activism in promoting
equitable accommodations (Annamma et al., 2013; Annamma et al., 2018). It encourages
individuals and organizations to challenge discriminatory practices and policies that perpetuate
inequities. This involves not only providing necessary accommodations but also creating
systemic changes that remove barriers and promote inclusivity. DisCrit's focus on social justice
aligns with broader efforts to advance disability rights and racial equality, emphasizing the
interconnectedness of these struggles.
In summary, the intersectionality of DisCrit and the accommodations process underscores
the need for a holistic and inclusive approach that considers the complex identities of PWDs
(Annamma et al., 2013; Annamma et al., 2018). By addressing the combined impact of racial and

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 33
disability biases, promoting cultural competence, and advocating for systemic change, DisCrit
offers a framework for creating more equitable and effective accommodations. This
intersectional approach is essential in ensuring that all individuals have the support and
opportunities they need to succeed.
Post-Pandemic Lens
The post-pandemic landscape has continued to reveal and amplify the disparities faced by
people with disabilities. Although some aspects of society have returned to normal, many PWDs
find that the challenges they encountered during the pandemic persist (Murphy & Thomas, 2024;
Ne’eman & Maestas, 2023; Travis, 2024). One significant impact is the ongoing issue of
healthcare access. Telehealth, which expanded during the pandemic, remains a vital service for
many, offering more convenient access to medical consultations. However, disparities in digital
literacy and technology access mean that not all people with disabilities can benefit equally from
these services. Moreover, the backlog of routine medical care and surgeries postponed during the
pandemic continues to affect their health outcomes.
The shift toward remote work and digital inclusion has had mixed effects (Murphy &
Thomas, 2024; Ne’eman & Maestas, 2023). On one hand, remote work has opened new
opportunities for people with disabilities, offering flexibility and reducing the need for
potentially challenging commutes. However, employers’ varying degrees of commitment to
maintaining accessible remote work environments pose challenges (Murphy & Thomas, 2024).
Many workplaces are now adopting hybrid models, which may not fully accommodate the needs
of employees with disabilities, particularly if they revert to less inclusive practices.
Economic recovery has been uneven, and people with disabilities often remain at a
disadvantage. Employment rates for PWDs are still lower compared to their non-disabled

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 34
counterparts (Murphy & Thomas, 2024; Ne’eman & Maestas, 2023; U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2023). The economic fallout from the pandemic has left many in precarious financial
situations, and finding stable employment remains a critical issue. In addition, those who were
previously employed in sectors that have not fully recovered or have undergone significant
changes may find it particularly challenging to re-enter the workforce or find new job
opportunities (Ne’eman & Maestas, 2023).
Social isolation, which was a significant issue during the pandemic, continues to affect
people with disabilities (Jesus et al., 2021). Although many in-person activities have resumed,
the lingering effects of prolonged isolation have impacted mental health and community
engagement. Efforts to rebuild social connections and support networks are essential but may be
hindered by the ongoing fear of health risks and the need for continued vigilance against
COVID-19 variants.
In summary, the post-pandemic impact on people with disabilities is multifaceted,
involving healthcare access, employment challenges, and social isolation. Addressing these
issues requires sustained efforts to promote digital inclusion, ensure accessible work
environments, support economic stability, and rebuild social support systems. Policymakers,
employers, and communities must learn from the pandemic's lessons to create a more inclusive
and equitable society for people with disabilities.
Much of the research highlighting PWDs in the workplace focuses on the organizational
perspective versus the individual success factors to aid in career advancement. Among various
studies, it is postulated that more research is needed on the strategies and mechanisms people
with disabilities use for job searching, requesting accommodations, and navigating workplace
challenges (Sundar et al., 2018). This includes understanding how evaluations impact career

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 35
outcomes, exploring barriers in career management and development, and examining the effects
of disability on career advancement (Jones, 1997; Kulkarni & Lengnick-Hall, 2014). Factors to
consider include stereotypes, stigma, token status, outgroup membership, organizational
dynamics, multiple stigmas, and strategies to overcome these barriers. As a society, it is
important to recognize the value and potential of PWDs in the workforce by prioritizing
inclusivity and accessibility in the workplace, providing reasonable accommodations, and
fostering awareness and understanding among all employees.
Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura’s SCT is centered around the observational behaviors one emulates in
correlation to their environmental surroundings (Pritchard, 2022). Learning from one’s social
environment allows for people to obtain skills, attitudes, beliefs, strategies, and knowledge to
model behaviors that are deemed appropriate and useful for all life’s situations (Schunk & Usher,
2019). Within the SCT, there are three tenets that perpetuate the various behaviors that each
person learns throughout their upbringing and into adulthood, which include personal,
behavioral, and social/environmental factors (Schunk & Usher, 2019). Personal interactions
encompass the knowledge obtained and the motivation associated with these concepts (Pritchard,
2022). Behaviors consist of the modeled actions in either a positive or negative notion (Pritchard,
2022). Lastly, social/environmental influencers include systems, policies, and cultures that deem
behavioral appropriateness within any social setting (Pritchard, 2022; Schunk & Usher, 2019).
Within these tenets are two other proponents that are utilized to display varying degrees of how
the three principles are combined to showcase additional intellectual social capacities, which
include self-regulation and self-efficacy. Self-regulation is how an individual manages and can
comprehend their behaviors, reactions to their feelings, and the happenings surrounding themself

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 36
(Schunk & Usher, 2019). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s beliefs about their ability to
perform certain behaviors to achieve specific goals.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations, is closely linked
to help-seeking behavior (Bandura, 1977; Umubyeyi et al., 2016). Individuals with high selfefficacy are more likely to recognize when they need assistance and feel confident in their ability
to seek and obtain help effectively. They perceive challenges as surmountable and are proactive
in addressing them by reaching out to appropriate resources. Conversely, individuals with low
self-efficacy may doubt their capacity to successfully seek help, leading to reluctance or
avoidance in asking for assistance, which can exacerbate their difficulties.
This relationship is particularly important in educational and workplace settings, where
help-seeking behavior can significantly impact performance and outcomes (Umubyeyi et al.,
2016). For instance, students or employees with high self-efficacy are more likely to approach
instructors or supervisors when they encounter problems, thereby enhancing their learning and
productivity. Encouraging and fostering self-efficacy can therefore play a critical role in
promoting a supportive environment where individuals feel empowered to seek help when
needed.
Social Cognitive Theory and Underemployment of Persons With Disabilities
SCT is a fitting lens to see this problem of practice as it will expose some environmental
behaviors in the workplace for guiding a realistic implementation and retention strategy for the
rampant underemployment amongst PWDs due to unaccommodating workplace conditions (see
Figure 1). Proponents of being disabled and being in the workplace include personal and
environmental factors that arise from stigmas around people with disabilities (Schunk & Usher,

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 37
2019; Stuart, 2004). There is not one single activity that conveys a sense of self more than work,
as it influences where and how one lives, how one progresses with social support and contact,
and ultimately confers one’s title and social identity (Stuart, 2004). Yet, self-efficacy and the
workplace environment holistically continue to be barriers for people with disabilities to thrive
due to the stigma and embarrassment of having to “opt in” to any accommodation (Stuart, 2004;
Zhu et al., 2019). Per Colella and Bruyère (2011), many people with disabilities continue to be
psychologically and physically excluded within the workplace and therefore, not fully able to
integrate with the abled. Due to this social exclusion, there are fewer opportunities for PWDs to
observe and seek out role models in the workplace and truly understand effective job selfefficacy (Zhu et al., 2019).
Figure 1
Underemployment From Persons with Disabilities in the Workplace
Conclusion

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 38
The literature review provides an introduction and history of the disability community,
along with a discussion of the laws that have been enacted to address employment discrimination
and promote workplace inclusion for PWDs, such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The literature review highlights the various challenges
faced by PWDs in the workplace, including discrimination, lack of accessibility, and limited
opportunities for advancement. It also identifies the potential benefits of promoting inclusivity
and diversity, such as increased innovation and productivity. The review of legislation pertaining
to PWDs in the workplace reveals a progression of laws that aim to protect and promote the
rights of PWDs in employment. The legislation provides legal protections against discrimination
and has set requirements for reasonable accommodations to be made for employees with
disabilities. Furthermore, research recognizes that PWDs face complex challenges in the
workplace, including lack of awareness from co-workers, environmental and technological
barriers, and limited opportunities for career advancement, highlighting the need for inclusive
practices, reasonable accommodations, and greater understanding of the unique strategies they
use to navigate these obstacles and succeed professionally. The review of SCT as a theoretical
framework for understanding the experiences of PWDs in the workplace highlights the
importance of individual beliefs, self-efficacy, and social factors in shaping their employment
outcomes. SCT posits that individuals’ beliefs about their abilities and the support they receive
from others, as well as the cultural norms and expectations within organizations, can
significantly impact the inclusion and integration of PWDs in the workplace (Spataro, 2005).
Overall, the literature emphasizes that legislation alone is not enough to combat the
barriers faced by PWDs in the workplace and highlights the underutilization and welfare of
PWDs in organizations despite laws and practices prohibiting discrimination. Based on the

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 39
review of literature, further research and development of better policies and practices to support
the meaningful inclusion of PWDs in the workplace are necessary, particularly in relation to
systemic accommodation practices. It is clear that there is a pressing need for organizations to
create more inclusive and accommodating environments to ensure equal opportunities for all
employees, regardless of their abilities, and for PWDs to fortify a strength inside themselves to
seek the accommodations needed to fulfill and thrive in their roles. The following chapter details
the methodology used for this study.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This chapter outlines the qualitative approach employed in the study, including the
instrumentation and data collection procedures that align with its qualitative nature. The study
aimed to explore factors that encourage persons with disabilities (PWDs) to disclose their
accommodation needs in the workplace, both on a personal and organizational level. Being able
to find explanations for this phenomenon will respectively empower staff with disabilities to
seek the justice and empowerment they so readily deserve to live authentically as themselves in
their places of business. By bridging the underemployment gap for employees with disabilities
and seeking to understand the aforementioned influences, this problem of practice can lead to
recommendations that foster a more inclusive work environment, enabling the disability
community to work more comprehensively. This qualitative research study was driven by the
following research questions:
1. What personal attitudes, perceptions, and/or variables influence the willingness of
PWDs to pursue and request accommodations in the workplace?
2. What organizational factors influence the willingness of PWDs to pursue and request
accommodations in the workplace?
This chapter showcases a systematic approach to conducting a study examining the
personal and organizational influences that enable a PWD to readily disclose their
accommodation needs within their workplace. The chapter encompasses the principles,
techniques, and procedures employed to gather, analyze, and interpret data to address the
aforementioned research questions.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 41
Research Design
This study qualitatively approached the research to understand more about the personal
and organizational lived experiences of the disability workforce seeking accommodations.
Qualitative research seeks to comprehend how individuals interpret their experiences, construct
their realities, and assign meaning to events in their lives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
proposed methods to capture the lived experiences of the disability workforce included
individual interviews (utilization of open-ended questions to extract comprehensive insights into
an individual’s thoughts, beliefs, knowledge, reasoning, motivations, and feelings about a
specific topic) and a thorough document/artifact review of all current disability staff policies and
procedures (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Conducting standardized open-ended individual
interviews (asking questions in a specific order and reading them as written) ensured credibility
and dependability for the research and from the researcher. Additionally, examining and
analyzing the organization’s official documents (written, photographed, or recorded materials)
helped identify any systemic issues contributing to unaccommodating workplace conditions
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
Research Setting
The study targeted higher education staff members with disabilities. This demographic
provided their lived experiences with how personal and organizational factors impeded or
elevated their ability to seek workplace accommodations. I sampled from a four-year university
on the West Coast of the United States of America with over 18,000 students (undergraduate and
graduate) and more than 16,000 staff. The university’s staff play a crucial role in its mission to
shape a brighter future, thereby making significant contributions that enhance the university’s
capacity to effect positive global change. Among various staff resource groups fostering a sense

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 42
of belonging and inclusivity, the university has an employee resource group for staff members
with disabilities. We started recruitment efforts within this resource group to gather background,
context, and referral information to best address and recommend solutions to the institutional
workplace conditions higher education staff members face when seeking accommodations. Over
500 staff members at the university identify as having a disability, and the resource group
directly accesses about 75% of this demographic.
I used two sampling procedures to formulate an effective sample size for proper
saturation among participants. I applied purposive sampling to gather insights from individuals
with relevant expertise or experience in the phenomenon under investigation, as the disability
staff demographic provided substantial feedback on their experiences with their accommodation
processes (Gill, 2020; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I also used convenience sampling to gather
sensitive data from this demographic, which other sources, like human resources, might
otherwise deny. The resource group’s listserv directly connected the researcher to a majority of
the study population, making this recruiting strategy ideal (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). To
ensure data saturation—the point at which no new themes emerge from the data—Guest et al.
(2006) suggest that a sample size of 12 interviews is often sufficient for thematic analysis.
However, given the study's emphasis on multiple perspectives within an institutional setting, a
target of 15 interviews aligns with recommendations from Malterud et al. (2016), who emphasize
the importance of information power in determining sample size. Larger samples are necessary
when participants' experiences are diverse or the research questions are broad (Saunders et al.,
2018).
To further narrow down appropriate participants within the resource group, I distributed a
short survey to staff who have attempted or completed an accommodations request in the past or

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 43
at present to obtain a maximum of 15 qualitative interviews. The survey included a snowball
sampling request to seek recommendations for additional participants willing to contribute to the
study (Gill, 2020; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Snowball sampling is particularly useful in research
with marginalized groups, as it facilitates access to hard-to-reach participants who may otherwise
be hesitant to participate (Naderifar et al., 2017).
Data Collection and Instrumentation Procedures
I employed a multi-faceted approach to gather comprehensive insights about employees
with disabilities’ personal and organizational reasoning for using workplace accommodations by
involving preliminary surveys, semi-structured interviews, and document reviews. The
preliminary survey determined eligibility and gathered baseline data on accommodation requests
among active university staff classified as having a disability. Semi-structured interviews,
following a standardized protocol, explored personal and organizational factors, with each
interview recorded and lasting no more than 60 minutes. Document reviews analyzed university
policies and resources related to accommodations, which included procedures, funding, and
confidentiality. Data from these sources were triangulated to capture diverse perspectives and
ensure holistic understanding. Thematic analysis identified recurring patterns, with the document
review providing contextual insights. Synthesized data formed a comprehensive picture,
highlighting key factors influencing accommodation requests and informing future policies and
practices.
Interview
I conducted semi-structured, open-ended individual interviews to ensure credibility and
dependability for both the research and to uphold researcher reliability (Johnson & Christensen,
2015). The questions were predetermined in both wording and order, and interviewees were

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 44
asked identical open-ended questions in the same sequence (Patton, 2002). Respondents
provided consistent answers to the standardized questions, enhancing response comparability and
ensuring comprehensive data collection on the interview topics. This method allows evaluation
users to assess and review the instrumentation and aids in the organization and analysis of the
gathered data (Patton, 2002).
The interview protocol (see Appendix A) started with a research preamble that provided
participants with additional information about the researcher’s purpose for the data, covered their
consent, and gave permission for the participant to stop recording and ask questions throughout
the interview. The interview consisted of 15 questions posed to each participant to explore
personal and environmental behaviors in the workplace, guiding a realistic implementation and
retention strategy for addressing the underemployment of PWDs due to unaccommodating
workplace conditions, viewed through the lens of SCT. The interview protocol was structured in
five sections. Section one consists of one closed-ended question to recall data from the
preliminary survey about their history of applying for accommodations. This strategy allowed
the interviewer to guide the conversation based on whether the participant had previously filed
for accommodations in their past or current workplace. The other 14 questions were open-ended
(four personal and 10 organizational/environmental), which explored their experience and
behavior, opinions and values, feelings, and knowledge (Patton, 2002), with eight probes built
into the interview protocol to address the two research questions seeking personal or
organizational factors that influence the willingness of PWDs to pursue and request
accommodations.
I conducted the standardized interviews in a preferred venue chosen by the participant
(Zoom, their office, home, or a neutral on-campus location), with each interview taking no

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 45
longer than 60 minutes. To ensure reliable data was captured throughout all interviews, I
recorded the interviews using a phone application and took notes as a backup to the recording.
The notes served as a venue to jot down any quotes or noteworthy phrases and to probe further
for clarity on any specified topic (Patton, 2002).
Preliminary Survey
A preliminary or eligibility survey determines whether individuals meet specific criteria
to participate in a research study or program (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). Researchers or
program administrators use it to identify eligible participants based on predefined criteria such as
age, gender, medical history, or other relevant factors. The survey includes questions designed to
assess whether potential participants meet the eligibility requirements for the study or program.
The preliminary survey (see Appendix B) for identifying eligible employees for interviews
included the following criteria:
Criterion 1
Being an active staff member at the sampling university. This criterion referred to
individuals currently employed by the university in a staff capacity and actively engaged in their
roles. It ensured that only current staff members participated in the research study, providing
relevant insights and perspectives from those with direct experience working within the
university environment.
Criterion 2
Being classified as a person with a disability at the sampling university. This criterion
seeks PWDs as participants based on their disability status. This criterion allows researchers to
explore various aspects related to disabilities, such as their impact on health outcomes, access to
healthcare services, social inclusion, or experiences with interventions or treatments. Including

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 46
disability as a criterion enables researchers to examine disparities, needs, and opportunities
unique to this population and develop targeted interventions or policies to address them. As
Krahn et al. (2015) noted, disability serves as an important criterion in research to understand the
health, social, and economic implications for individuals living with disabilities. Focusing on this
criterion allows researchers to generate evidence to inform efforts aimed at improving the lives
of people with disabilities and promoting equity and inclusion in society. Shakespeare (2013)
emphasizes the importance of including disability as a criterion in research to challenge
stereotypes and misconceptions, promote disability rights, and advance disability studies as an
academic discipline. By centering disability in research, scholars contribute to a nuanced
understanding of disability-related issues and advocate for policies and practices that uphold the
rights and dignity of people with disabilities.
Recruitment
In collaboration with the leadership of the disability employee resource group, I received
permission to utilize this group as the primary recruiting venue. This group includes staff who
identify as having a disability, as well as allies, allowing me to find the appropriate number of
eligible participants. The group leaders distributed my eligibility survey via the group's
confidential listserv on my behalf. The confidentiality of the listserv ensures that only the leaders
know the members and can contact them directly, safeguarding the anonymity of potential
participants. This confidentiality measure enhanced the safety, credibility, and ethical integrity of
my research. Participants who completed the eligibility survey, regardless of their eligibility
status, had the chance to win one of three $25 Amazon gift cards, with the winners being
selected randomly after the survey closed. Gift cards were emailed within one week of the
survey's closure. Furthermore, recipients of the survey invitation were reminded that their

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 47
participation was voluntary, did not affect their status at the university, and all collected
information was to be discarded after participants were selected for interviews.
In summary, an eligibility survey is a critical component of the recruitment process for
research studies or programs. It ensures that participants meet the predetermined criteria
necessary for inclusion, enhancing the validity and reliability of the study's findings and ensuring
that resources are allocated to individuals who can contribute meaningfully to the research
objectives or program goals.
Document Review of University Policies and Procedures
A document review systematically examines and analyzes existing documents, such as
reports, articles, policies, and other written materials, to gather relevant information for research
purposes (Booth et al., 2016). This method allows researchers to synthesize existing knowledge,
identify gaps in the literature, and gain insights into specific topics or phenomena (Gough, 2007).
Through document review, researchers can access a wide range of sources and explore multiple
perspectives, enhancing the depth and breadth of their research findings (Bowen, 2009).
University Access Website
The university’s official disability and access website acknowledges its compliance with
federal and state civil rights laws, including the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and
Sections 503 and 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, to ensure equal access for PWDs. The website
also offers disability-related access information and resources to faculty, staff, students, and
visitors, which are discussed below:
Accommodations. Employees can access the university’s specific policy on how to
request accommodations at the local level through their human resource manager or supervisor.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 48
The website also provides additional information on evaluating workplace accommodation
needs.
Campus Accessibility. This section offers resources to help navigate the campus. It
includes links to information on transportation, construction projects, parking, the University’s
access guide, and campus and parking maps.
Disability Related Resources. Additional links provide information about specific
accessibility needs, including mobility, access, and transportation; adaptive recreation, adaptive
technology; resources for the blind and visually impaired and the deaf and hard of hearing; event
planning; mental health; and repetitive strain injury resources.
University Accommodations Policy and Procedures
The university’s policy on requesting workplace accommodations defines its
commitment to offering equal employment opportunities to all qualified individuals, including
those with disabilities. It adheres to state and federal laws, such as the California Fair
Employment and Housing Act (CFEHA), the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA),
and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504). The policy ensures equitable
access for employees with disabilities and provides reasonable accommodations and auxiliary
aids to facilitate their ability to perform essential job functions and engage in university
programs and activities.
Implementation and Responsibility. Employees must initiate requests and engage in the
interactive process for disability-related workplace accommodations, directing non-faculty
requests to their supervisor or human resources manager. Supervisors receive and refer requests,
engage in accommodation discussions, and inform human resources. Human resources managers
evaluate requests, determine documentation needs, and assess accommodation appropriateness.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 49
The ADA/Section 504 compliance officer offers guidance on ADA compliance and campus
accessibility.
Process. Employees initiate requests and provide necessary information. Discussions
between supervisors, HR, and employees follow. Documentation requirements are determined,
and accommodations are evaluated based on need, effectiveness, and impact. Notifications of
determinations are provided within 15 days.
Funding. Departments cover initial costs, with shared responsibility for additional
expenses.
Disagreements. Employees may contact the ADA/Section 504 compliance officer for
dispute resolution.
Confidentiality. Employee disability information is confidential and shared only as
necessary for accommodation facilitation.
Overall, the two main university resources that house the applicable information, policies,
and procedures duplicate the federal and state disability sites. Both university sites copy the
verbiage from federal and state policies (ADA) to minimally comply with applicable laws but do
not offer additional help or feedback on navigating accommodation nuances within the
university, leaving the interpretation up to the employee.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
I maximized credibility and trustworthiness within the study by integrating member
checks, engaging in adequate data collection from participants, and instigating a peer review
process by the dissertation committee (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Member checking allowed
participants to validate and/or provide additional insights into the analyzed data. Committing to
data collection until the point of saturation ensured I fully understood the phenomenon. The peer

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 50
review process, particularly with input from the subject matter experts, assessed the quality,
validity, and relevance of the work before publication. These strategies mitigated potential bias,
enhanced credibility and validity, and maintained the integrity of the academic research.
Positionality of the Researcher
My interest in examining underemployment among PWDs arose from my career in
human resources. Observing the detrimental effects of unaccommodating workplace conditions
on PWDs, alongside the lack of supportive policies and guidance, fueled my determination to
address these issues. Working within the learning and development sector of human resources,
where we continually develop content based on organizational needs, allows me to leverage my
expertise to help this sector of our community thrive and enjoy their work environment.
My commitment to this issue stems from a deep-seated belief in social justice and equity.
I hold that everyone who wants to work should have equal access to employment opportunities
without struggling for accommodations. This conviction is rooted in my own experiences and
observations within corporate environments. Unfortunately, many corporate settings maintain
outdated policies and physical barriers that hinder accommodation requests (Davis, 2005). With
25% of the U.S. population having some form of disability (National Center on Birth Defects
and Developmental Disabilities, 2024), it is imperative for corporations to adopt inclusive
policies as standard practice.
My personal experiences have significantly shaped my positionality on this issue.
Witnessing the challenges faced by numerous co-workers with disabilities, as well as my own
brother’s difficulties in securing and maintaining employment due to visible and non-visible
impairments, has provided me with a unique and empathetic perspective. These firsthand
experiences have illuminated the glaring inequities faced by the disability community and have

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 51
driven my passion to promote inclusion and address systemic oppression. I have seen how these
barriers hinder professional growth and affect the overall well-being and dignity of PWDs.
The pandemic further underscored these challenges, revealing additional layers of
inequity. PWDs encounter significant barriers in accessing learning opportunities and
participating in remote meetings. Technological platforms and remote work setups often lack the
necessary infrastructure to accommodate impairments related to vision, hearing, or touch. The
pandemic’s impact highlight the urgent need for corporations to proactively seek ways to fully
integrate their workforce, ensuring that no one is left behind and that everyone can thrive
equitably. My observations during this period have reinforced my resolve to advocate for more
inclusive practices and policies.
While I am deeply passionate about this subject and demographic, I am also acutely
aware of the importance of reflexivity in my research. I recognized the necessity of setting aside
my preconceived assumptions about potential solutions, such as training programs or mass
marketing tactics. Instead, I allowed the voices and experiences of the people and the research to
guide me toward appropriate resolutions. As an advocate for the disability community, my goal
is to champion their cause by ensuring their voices and needs are heard and met to foster
equitable workplace accommodations.
To achieve this, I employed ethical sensitivity to contextualize my research findings,
framing and interpreting behaviors within the context of the lived experiences of the research
participants (Glesne, 2011). This approach required a deep commitment to understanding the
nuanced and often invisible barriers faced by PWDs. By leaving my biases behind, I remained
open to challenging assumptions and ensuring rigorous thinking (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016)
throughout the research process. This included the design, data collection, thematic analysis, peer

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 52
review, and response assembly stages. Ensuring rigor and impartiality in my research was crucial
to producing valid and actionable insights that will drive meaningful change in corporate policies
and practices.
In conclusion, my positionality as a researcher is shaped by my professional background
in human resources, personal experiences with disability, and a steadfast commitment to social
justice and equity. I approached this research with a genuine desire to understand and address the
systemic barriers faced by PWDs in the workplace. Through rigorous and ethical research
practices, I aim to contribute to a more inclusive and equitable work environment for all.
Ethics
The research aimed to determine what personal and organizational factors impact the
willingness of PWDs to pursue and request accommodations. It supported achieving equitable
outcomes by identifying how to best create accommodating workplace conditions for the
disability community and PWDs and by developing a methodology that can help all workplaces
cultivate an inclusive culture. This research will primarily benefit PWDs in the workforce, but
ultimately, everyone in the workforce will profit. According to the university’s employee
resource group, no individuals were harmed in conducting the research study. I designed the data
collection process to provide practical implications for changing current staff policies and
procedures to improve workplace conditions for the disability workforce.
Prior to and during their individual interviews, I notified participants about the informed
consent process and their voluntary participation, as well as permission to record. I upheld
confidentiality by redacting names from notes and transcripts, assigning each interviewee a
pseudonym, and referring to that pseudonym in all transcriptions. Finally, I disseminated the

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 53
study results through the employee resource group via their website and newsletter, and
hopefully, the University will update their disability access policies and procedures accordingly.
Conclusion
This qualitative research study explored the factors influencing PWDs in disclosing their
accommodation needs in the workplace, both on personal and organizational levels. Through
structured interviews and document reviews, the study uncovered the nuanced experiences and
perspectives of staff members with disabilities at a university on the West Coast of the United
States of America. Utilizing qualitative research methods, including purposive and convenience
sampling, the study captured diverse insights from the target population. By employing a
systematic approach and adhering to ethical guidelines, the research shed light on the challenges
faced by employees with disabilities in accessing workplace accommodations and proposed
recommendations for fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 54
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Chapter Four provides a detailed presentation of the research findings, offering insights
into the data collected and how it addresses the study's purpose and research questions. This
chapter outlines the results of the analysis, interpreting how the data aligns with the overarching
objectives of understanding the phenomenon under investigation. The study aimed to explore the
personal and organizational influences that enable a person with disabilities (PWD) to readily
disclose their accommodation needs within the workplace. The research questions that guided
this study were:
1. What personal attitudes, perceptions, and/or variables influence the willingness of
PWDs to pursue and request accommodations in the workplace?
2. What organizational factors influence the willingness of PWDs to pursue and request
accommodations in the workplace?
In this chapter, readers can expect to see a thorough data analysis, including qualitative themes,
and how these findings contribute to answering the research questions. The chapter sets the stage
for a deeper understanding of the key findings and patterns that emerge from the research.
This qualitative study involved interviews with 15 university staff members, whose
tenures ranged from under a year to over nine years. I used pseudonyms to protect the identities
of the participants and ensure confidentiality. Table 1 details participants' roles, time at the
university, disclosure of workplace accommodations, and disability types. The length of
participants’ tenure at the university was vital to determine whether their time within the
organization influenced their self-efficacy in requesting accommodations or disclosing a
disability. Additionally, understanding the visibility of participants’ disabilities provided insights
into their willingness to express their needs in the workplace.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 55
Table 1
Participant Demographic Overview
Participant Role at
University
Length at
University
Previously
Requested
Workplace
Accommodations?
(Y/N)
Visible or
Invisible
Disability
1 Rhonda Staff -
Counselor
3-5 years Yes Visible
2 Roman Faculty -
Instructor
3-5 years Yes Invisible
3 Raegan Staff -
Director
6-8 years No Invisible
4 Jack Staff -
Analyst
1-2 years Yes Invisible
5 Joseph Staff -
Coordinator
3-5 years No Invisible
6 Candice Staff -
Administrator
More than 9
years
Yes Visible
7 Laura Faculty -
Director
More than 9
years
Yes Invisible
8 Daniel Staff –
Manager
1-2 years No Invisible
9 James Staff –
Manager
Less than 1
year
Yes Invisible
10 Cynthia Staff –
Coordinator
3-5 years Yes Invisible
11 Susie Staff –
Manager
6-8 years Yes Invisible
12 Ivy Staff –
Director
3-5 years No Invisible
13 Carlie Staff –
Coordinator
1-2 years Yes Invisible
14 Regina Staff –
Manager
3-5 years Yes Invisible &
Visible
15 Sara Staff -
Director
More than 9
years
Yes Visible
Key Findings
Overall, after analyzing the data, I determined that PWDs require trust and comfort in
workplace relationships to feel secure in disclosing their disabilities and requesting

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 56
accommodations. Self-advocacy builds confidence but is often hindered by stigma and
organizational barriers. Personal and community support systems are vital in empowering
PWDs, while an inclusive workplace culture fosters trust and encourages accommodations.
Effective support must be embedded in organizational policies. However, lingering stigma and
misconceptions about disabilities continue to inhibit disclosure, leading to inequity within the
workplace.
The study yielded six key findings: 1) Comfort and trust levels are needed by PWDs to
disclose their disability and seek accommodations within the workplace; 2) Self-advocacy and
disclosure build up one’s self-efficacy and enable PWDs to thrive and maneuver more readily
within the workplace; 3) Personal support systems within and outside the workplace are a key
factor in a PWD finding the courage to seek the proper accommodations needed to prosper in
their role; 4) The workplace culture and environment are fundamental in leveraging the peoplepart of organizations that enable PWDs to trust more readily in their surrounding systems; 5) The
support for accommodations needs to be embedded within the fabric of an organization for
PWDs and institutions to be genuinely inclusive; and 6) Stigma and perceptions of disabilities in
the workplace continue to control society and PWDs, which often lead to non-disclosure and
inequity within organizations.
In the first theme, participants highlighted the complexities of workplace relationships,
where open communication fosters trust and support for PWDs. However, fear of judgment and
strategic self-presentation often hinder full disclosure of their needs. The second theme presents
participants manifesting that while self-advocacy and disclosure are essential for PWDs to
navigate the workplace, stigma, unclear processes, and misconceptions often hinder them. Yet,
those who actively self-advocate gain empowerment and agency in managing their needs. The

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 57
third theme emphasizes that personal support systems empower PWDs to seek accommodations,
foster confidence, and drive long-term workplace equity. In the fourth theme, participants
emphasized that an inclusive workplace culture and supportive leadership build trust and
empower PWDs to seek accommodations openly. The fifth theme emphasizes that true
inclusivity requires timely, empathetic accommodation processes backed by institutional support
and comprehensive training to create a safe environment for PWDs to disclose their needs. The
final theme focuses on the fear participants have in disclosing their disabilities due to
discrimination, workplace stigma, and lack of trust in organizational support systems.
Finding 1
Comfort and trust levels are needed by PWDs to disclose their disability and seek
accommodations within the workplace.
The varied interpersonal dynamics and complexities of workplace relationships can both
enable and hinder open communication for PWDs. As one participant, Carlie, described,
informal accommodation requests with a supervisor and teammates often involve “explaining...
this is like some information about ways that I work that might be different from other people.
And this is how those things might show up. And these are some things you could do to support
me.” This open dialogue fosters a sense of trust and understanding, which can be crucial for
PWDs to feel comfortable disclosing their needs.
However, the struggle to balance authenticity and strategic self-presentation is everpresent. As James shared, “I'm always on guard. And I think at work you have to be strategic in
what you share and whatnot, so I don’t think I’m going to ever be my authentic self.” This
sentiment reflects the hesitation and lack of trust that some PWDs experience, as they may fear
judgment or negative consequences from disclosing their disability.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 58
The financial component of disclosure also plays a role in decision-making. As Cynthia
noted, “Being in a more comfortable financial position has, I guess, kind of [makes me] feel like
I have more to fall back on. And it’s less of a risk, I guess, I would say, disclosing, because the
financial component is not as make or break as it was for me previously.” This highlights how
financial stability can reduce the perceived risks associated with disclosure.
Interpersonal trust dynamics further complicate disclosure decisions. Regina explained:
In some ways I feel pretty comfortable around most of my colleagues. I can feel relaxed
and have casual conversations with many of them and that’s nice. There are some people
that I don’t feel that way about and it’s interesting [that] there’s some people that I like
that I still don’t feel I can be totally honest with about, for example, mental health things.
And then there’s other people that I don’t trust as much in the first place and [those are
people] who have a tendency to kind of take advantage of people a little bit and so it’s
hard to feel relaxed around those people especially if they’re a more senior person and
they have a lot of control over the environment.
Joseph’s experience further illustrates this challenge, as he recounted instances where he
questioned whether his supervisor’s feedback was influenced by perceptions of his disability,
stating,
Are they saying this because I'm disabled? For example, there had been times where [my
supervisor] made a comment that [didn’t] land super well with me that was supposed to
be feedback that was either positive or just constructive. And like when I’ve internalized
a little bit I think to myself, “Oh, maybe he like doesn’t think I can do this, or like don’t
have the capabilities to do this part of my role.”

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 59
Regina’s additional comments highlight the hesitation to disclose: “I don’t really trust
[my manager’s] judgment on this matter... I don’t like the idea of someone knowing something...
and then can let it slip on accident.” These examples illustrate the intricate balance between trust
and discomfort that PWDs navigate when considering workplace disclosure and accommodation
requests.
These findings underscore the complex navigation of workplace relationships for PWDs,
where the need for comfort, trust, and open communication must be weighed against the
potential risks of disclosure and the ever-present concern of being judged or misunderstood. The
ability of PWDs to be their authentic selves in the workplace is deeply intertwined with
intersectional identities, including race, gender, and socioeconomic status. The process of
disclosure and seeking accommodations is not only a matter of personal comfort but also shaped
by how individuals perceive their own disabilities and how they believe others will perceive
them. As Rhonda explained, “I try to be my authentic self, but I honestly don't think I can be
fully… It has a lot to do with their own view of their disability… and how willing are they to talk
about it or why?” This highlights the internal negotiation many PWDs undergo in deciding
whether to disclose their disability, influenced by both self-perception and external societal
biases.
For some, the ability to be authentic is shaped by resilience and adaptability. Candice
emphasized the importance of maintaining a positive attitude despite workplace challenges,
stating, “Yes, I am my authentic self, because I don't sweat the small stuff and I just keep going
with a positive attitude.” Her perspective reflects an approach where resilience becomes a
strategy for managing workplace obstacles, particularly when accommodations or desired roles
are not readily accessible.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 60
Susie’s experience further underscores the role of visibility and representation in shaping
authenticity for PWDs who also belong to other marginalized groups. She shared, “Yes, I have to
be my authentic self as I need to stay visible to students and other minority women so they see a
person like them in their position.” This highlights the added responsibility some individuals feel
to serve as role models within their workplaces, ensuring that others from underrepresented
backgrounds see themselves reflected in positions of influence.
These insights illustrate how disability, race, and gender intersect to shape the workplace
experiences of PWDs. The ability to be one’s true self is often negotiated through personal views
of disability, societal attitudes, and a need to balance authenticity with strategic self-presentation.
Finding 2
Self-advocacy and disclosure build up one’s self-efficacy and enable PWDs to thrive
and maneuver more readily within the workplace.
Self-advocacy and disclosure are crucial for PWDs to navigate the workplace, yet these
processes can be fraught with challenges. Many PWDs face uncertainty about their needs and
fear approaching human resources (HR) due to stigma. As Carlie shared, “You don’t just go to
HR to ask for these things…it’s just not clear.” This lack of clarity and reluctance highlights a
significant gap in organizational resources for guiding employees through accommodation
requests.
PWDs also encounter internal and external barriers to disclosure. As Cynthia expressed,
“I felt like people would view me as the problem…I feel more comfortable making requests once
I’ve been able to demonstrate that I’m very good at what I do.” Many feel pressure to prove their
competence before disclosing their needs, reinforcing the social stigma associated with

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 61
disability. Daniel echoed this sentiment, stating, “I felt very hesitant to ask for accommodations
because I don’t fit the typical poster child image of what someone with a disability looks like.”
Misconceptions about disability can further impede disclosure. Regina noted the
difficulty of explaining mental health conditions: “For mental health conditions, there’s even
more doubt… it can be hard to quantify the impacts in a practical way.” Additionally,
misconceptions about who is qualified to make decisions about accommodations can create
barriers, as Regina pointed out, “HR is not qualified for that.”
Despite these obstacles, many PWDs have found empowerment in self-advocacy. Laura
emphasized the importance of taking initiative: “Being able to feel confident in who you are...
can extend to being able to ask for accommodations when you need it.” Ivy similarly expressed a
proactive approach, saying, “I don’t sit around waiting for somebody to help [me].” This sense of
personal responsibility was echoed by many participants, who shared how they had reset their
ambitions and found ways to thrive within their existing roles despite limited support from their
organizations.
The research indicates that self-advocacy and effective disclosure can build an
individual’s self-efficacy and enable them to thrive and navigate the workplace more readily (S.
Jain et al., 2020; Nelson & Kleiner, 2001). Creating a supportive environment that empowers
individuals to disclose their needs is crucial, as is the employer meeting the employee halfway.
While seeking accommodations could be more cohesive and clearer, PWDs who actively selfadvocate finds greater empowerment and agency in managing their workplace needs.
Finding 3

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 62
Personal support systems within and outside the workplace are a key factor in a
PWD finding the courage to seek the proper accommodations needed to prosper in their
role.
Personal support systems, both inside and outside the workplace, are vital in empowering
PWDs to seek accommodations and thrive in their roles. A strong community can help
individuals feel less isolated and more confident in advocating for their needs. As Daniel noted,
“If you have a really good support system, that’s great! If you don’t, then it’s just another factor
that’s blocking you from accommodations.” These communal supports not only help individuals
advocate for themselves but also influence long-term change, ensuring that future generations
have more equitable opportunities.
Workplace communities and peer groups are essential for fostering a sense of belonging
and reducing stigma. Raegan shared how her involvement with the Disability Staff Forum was
pivotal in making her feel supported: “It’s so nice having work friends…who just support you
and see you as a person first.” Similarly, James spoke of the value of personal accountability: “I
have accountability buddies to challenge me when I am apprehensive…probably the reason why
I advocate for myself now.”
Family and peer support also carry complexities. While loved ones can build confidence,
they may inadvertently reflect societal stigma. Joseph explained, “I think I have a lot of people in
my life who are really encouraging…but stigma exists in these circles too.” This duality
illustrates how even supportive environments can present challenges when societal perceptions
of disability are internalized.
Creating an inclusive workplace that caters to diverse needs is also crucial in encouraging
PWDs to disclose their accommodation requirements. Jack emphasized the need to move beyond

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 63
accommodations to accessible environments for all: “We need to get away from
accommodations to creating environments that are accessible to everybody.” Inclusivity and
equity in organizational practices promote a culture where PWDs feel comfortable expressing
their needs, ultimately fostering empowerment and reducing barriers to success.
The findings from this study suggest the role of personal support systems in influencing
change to ensure that future generations have better experiences in disclosing their
accommodation needs and, thus, more equitable opportunities. This emphasizes the need for a
holistic, community-driven approach to addressing the challenges faced by PWDs in the
workplace, where support from various stakeholders, including colleagues, family, and
community organizations, plays a key role in fostering an environment of empowerment and
inclusion.
Finding 4
The workplace culture and environment are fundamental in leveraging the peoplepart of organizations that enable PWDs to trust more readily in their surrounding systems.
The culture and environment of a workplace are key to fostering trust and comfort for
PWDs. Peer relationships within organizations create a sense of belonging, validation, and
collective understanding. Inclusivity and equity are foundational systems that are necessary for
PWDs to have systemic backing. These interactions help PWDs feel supported, allowing them to
share their needs more openly.
As one participant, Carlie, highlighted,
I feel if it weren’t for things like my boss tak[ing] accommodations and accessibility very
seriously for people who come to our events and stuff we organize, I feel like if he wasn’t

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 64
making that environment, I don’t know how much I would be sharing or requesting
things. It’s not like a structural piece, you know, it’s a person piece.
Carlie’s statement emphasizes the critical role that leaders and managers play in creating an
inclusive culture where PWDs feel empowered to voice their needs and access accommodations.
Moreover, the lack of understanding and misconceptions surrounding disability can
hinder inclusivity efforts. As Cynthia noted,
There’s a lot of misconceptions and lack of understanding of not just what it’s like to live
with an actual disability but how PWDs in general feel about certain things. I’ve seen in
organizations, for example, who had the requirement of using person-first language in all
of their materials, even though I think I can safely say a majority of PWDs prefer
disability-first language. There are some instances like that where you can tell that
organizations are trying and want to be seen as progressive, at least, whether or not they
actually feel and believe in the values of being accessible and inclusive.
This statement highlights the importance of moving beyond superficial efforts and genuinely
embracing the perspectives and preferences of PWDs.
Fundamentally, as Jack emphasized,
We need to make spaces safe and accessible to everybody. We need to think about that
when we’re designing curriculum, designing schools, [and when] design[ing] workplaces.
I think the ideal workplace, you shouldn’t have to [ask] for accommodations because they
should just already be there.
Jack’s statement underscores the need for a proactive and systemic approach to creating
inclusive environments, where accessibility and accommodations are seamlessly integrated into
the workplace design and culture. As Roman insightfully noted,

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We just need to have people recognize that all of us are going through something, and
that provides a diverse background that’s going to innovate, [and]...bringing that to the
table is going to make us better across all fields—science, medicine, humanities, and
more.
Supportive leadership plays a pivotal role in setting the cultural tone of an organization.
Leaders who foster mutual respect, trust, and proactive communication encourage PWDs to
disclose their needs. Carlie emphasized this, when she said, “I wouldn’t have had that
conversation if I didn’t feel like my boss was really supportive.” Similarly, Sara described how
her manager’s receptiveness made a significant difference: “I was really lucky that my manager
wanted to assist and suggested things that I had thought of but didn’t want to ask about.”
Fostering an inclusive workplace culture is crucial for empowering PWDs to trust and
engage with the systems around them. Key elements like peer relationships, inclusivity, and
equity create an environment that supports and empowers PWDs. When a workplace prioritizes
these values—along with respect and support from peers and leadership—it enhances PWDs’
confidence in seeking accommodations and sets the foundation for their success.
Finding 5
The support for accommodations needs to be embedded within the fabric of an
organization for PWDs and institutions to be genuinely inclusive.
Participants highlighted that a genuine commitment to inclusivity requires organizational
infrastructure that supports timely and empathetic accommodation processes. An institutional
commitment is crucial, as it ensures the necessary infrastructures and resources to support PWDs
adequately. As Regina shared, “The university is big enough...they have the resources to hire
someone focused on this...it shouldn’t take more than a month [for accommodation requests].”

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However, participants often felt frustrated by slow, bureaucratic processes. Daniel noted,
“There's a lot of red tape...you have to convince people you’re disabled enough.”
Moreover, empathy and understanding must be central to how accommodations are
handled. Several participants, like Daniel, expressed frustration with policies that lack “a culture
of actual care.” Others emphasized the importance of organizational education and awareness of
various disabilities. Carlie explained, “Different abilities are seen differently, and people don’t
understand those assumptions.” Comprehensive training for staff and managers was viewed as
crucial in creating an environment where PWDs feel safe to disclose their needs. As Cynthia
suggested, “Training managers...is an opportunity for organizations to reflect the same values of
inclusion.”
Furthermore, participants pointed to the need for visibility and shared experiences to
demystify seeking accommodations. Joseph emphasized, “Seeing people talk about their
experiences...helps others realize ‘I can do that too.’” However, barriers like inadequate
technology and unsupportive attitudes from management were frequently mentioned, with James
recalling how “managers...had a really negative adverse attitude” toward accommodation
requests.
Ultimately, the findings stress the need for streamlined processes, empathetic leadership,
and comprehensive training to support PWDs effectively, with accommodations embedded into
the culture rather than treated as bureaucratic afterthoughts.
Finding 6
Stigma and perceptions of disabilities in the workplace continue to control society
and PWDs, which often lead to non-disclosure and inequity within organizations.

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Participants expressed a deep-seated fear of disclosing their disabilities, stemming from
concerns about potential negative repercussions, rejection, or misunderstanding. As one
participant, Carlie, stated, “There’s that fear that people will use it against you or treat you
differently or maybe not understand.” Several participants, like Regina, recounted negative past
experiences that made them reluctant to disclose mental health conditions, fearing discrimination
and altered treatment from supervisors. This sentiment reflects the lack of trust in the current
system, where individuals feel compelled to hide their disabilities to avoid potential
discrimination or unfair treatment.
Misconceptions about non-visible disabilities further fuel bias. Carlie noted, “Just
because my brain thinks differently doesn’t mean it’s wrong,” while Daniel highlighted that
“society sees disabilities...as purely physical.” This narrow view contributes to a lack of
understanding, making it harder for PWDs with non-visible disabilities to be recognized and
supported.
The cultural norms within organizations also play a significant role in perpetuating these
stigmas, focusing on protecting the organization over individuals’ needs. Carlie described HR’s
role as “explaining resources” but “always stopping at protecting the organization.” This lack of
institutional commitment to supporting PWDs fosters environments where many feel pressured
to conform to societal expectations rather than seeking the accommodations they need. As
Roman pointed out, “When it’s someone with a disability, it always seems like the onus is on
them to figure out how to change schedules and make it happen and to provide their own
accommodations themselves.” This observation underscores the need for a major cultural shift,
where disabilities are not viewed as limitations but as strengths that bring value to the workplace.

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Similarly, another participant, Raegan, expressed her concerns about the role of human
resources in supporting employees with disabilities. She stated, “HR is not there for you—for the
employee. HR is there for the organization—for the company. But I almost feel like we need a
doctor who can keep stuff confidential and only divulge what needs to be divulged or tell you
what paperwork needs to be brought forth or presented or whatever.” This highlights the
perceived conflict of interest between the organization’s needs and the employee’s well-being,
underscoring the need for more independent and confidential support systems.
The research also highlighted the need for a more streamlined and inclusive
accommodation process. As Carlie noted, “It would be better if those types of systems were set
up differently where it didn’t require people who needed an accommodation to do all this work
to figure it out.” This suggests that the onus should not be on the employee to navigate the
complexities of the accommodation process, but rather on the organization to proactively provide
a more accessible and supportive environment.
Ultimately, participants called for a shift in workplace culture—one that values the
strengths and contributions of PWDs, recognizes non-visible disabilities, and shares
responsibility for ensuring equity through supportive, confidential, and non-judgmental
processes. As Roman reflected, “We need to stop looking at this as though someone is unable to
do something...and see the strength that it actually brings for someone to continue to work and be
a productive member of society by having a disability.” This shift in perspective is critical for
fostering environments where PWDs feel empowered to bring their authentic selves to work
without fear of judgment or exclusion.
Conclusion

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Chapter Four presents an in-depth analysis of the research findings, addressing the
study’s purpose and research questions on the personal and organizational factors influencing
disability disclosure and accommodation requests in the workplace. Through interviews with 15
university staff members, the data highlights the critical role of trust, self-advocacy, and
supportive environments in enabling PWDs to disclose their needs. Key findings emphasize the
importance of personal support systems, inclusive workplace cultures, and streamlined,
empathetic accommodation processes in fostering equity. However, lingering stigma and
misconceptions about disabilities remain significant barriers, often leading to non-disclosure and
inequity within organizations.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
This study investigated the factors that motivate persons with disabilities (PWDs) to
disclose their accommodation needs within the workplace, as well as effective approaches for
exploring these concepts through both personal and organizational lenses. To deepen the
understanding of this topic, the following research questions guided the study:
1. What personal attitudes, perceptions, and/or variables influence the willingness of PWDs
to pursue and request accommodations in the workplace?
2. What organizational factors influence the willingness of PWDs to pursue and request
accommodations in the workplace?
Data for this study were gathered through semi-structured, open-ended interviews with 15
staff members employed in higher education at a university on the West Coast of the United
States of America. Participants varied in tenure, role, type of disability, and formalization of
accommodations, providing a diverse sample and range of perspectives. Purposeful sampling
was used to select these 15 participants from 44 responses to an eligibility survey. Interviews,
which lasted between 29 and 72 minutes, focused on employees’ experiences with workplace
accommodations, highlighting what participants found effective or ineffective in current policies
and procedures. To ensure confidentiality, pseudonyms were assigned to all participants. The
recorded interviews were transcribed, and the transcriptions were coded using the Delve
qualitative coding tool and Microsoft Excel.
This chapter seeks to address the research questions and interpret findings through the
lens of Bandura’s SCT as the guiding conceptual framework. Additionally, it presents the study’s
implications, recommendations for practice, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

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Discussion of Findings
This study’s findings highlight the complex realities faced by PWDs in navigating
workplace disclosure, self-advocacy, support systems, cultural dynamics, institutional
inclusivity, and stigma. SCT serves as a theoretical framework to understand how individual
agency, environmental factors, and interpersonal dynamics intersect to shape PWDs’ behaviors,
particularly in the context of self-efficacy and social reinforcement (Bandura, 1986). SCT posits
that people learn behaviors by observing and interacting with their environment, forming beliefs
about their capabilities, and adjusting behavior based on personal and social reinforcement
(Bandura, 2001). Applying this framework allows for a nuanced exploration of how PWDs
develop the confidence to disclose their needs, seek accommodations, and adapt to workplace
settings.
Comfort and Trust in Disclosure
PWDs’ comfort and trust levels significantly influence their willingness to disclose
disabilities and seek accommodations in workplace environments. The findings indicate that
open and supportive interpersonal relationships enable PWDs to share their needs more readily,
aligning with SCT’s emphasis on reciprocal interactions between individual beliefs and social
environments (Bandura, 1986; Prince, 2017). For instance, one participant, Carlie, emphasized
how informal discussions with a supportive supervisor about specific work needs fostered an
open dialogue, increasing her comfort in requesting accommodations: “This is some information
about ways that I work that might be different from other people…and these are some things you
could do to support me.” Such interactions reinforce the SCT notion that interpersonal trust is
integral to developing self-efficacy and disclosing needs (Saal et al., 2014).

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However, discomfort and hesitancy to disclose were also prevalent among participants.
James expressed concern over the authenticity of his workplace self, noting, “I'm always on
guard. And I think at work you have to be strategic in what you share.” This cautious selfpresentation illustrates how SCT’s concept of observational learning, where individuals model
their behavior based on perceived social norms (Bandura, 2001), can inhibit openness if PWDs
anticipate judgment. Joseph’s reflections further underscore this tension, as he questioned
whether his supervisor’s feedback was colored by perceptions of his disability, illustrating how
environmental factors can erode self-efficacy when trust is lacking (Romualdez et al., 2021).
Self-Advocacy and Self-Efficacy
Self-advocacy and disclosure were shown to be pivotal for building self-efficacy among
PWDs, as these processes enable them to navigate workplace settings with greater confidence
and agency. According to SCT, self-efficacy is cultivated through personal experiences of
mastery and observed successes (Bandura, 1986). The findings indicate that PWDs who engage
in self-advocacy feel more empowered, as this behavior reinforces their perceived abilities to
influence workplace dynamics positively. Laura highlighted the importance of self-initiative,
explaining, “Being able to feel confident in who you are...can extend to being able to ask for
accommodations when you need it.” Similarly, Ivy noted her proactive approach in advocating
for herself, illustrating how SCT’s concept of self-efficacy contributes to resilience in managing
one’s needs (S. Jain et al., 2020).
Conversely, participants also reported feeling hesitant to disclose due to social stigma and
uncertainty about organizational processes, which underscores SCT’s recognition of
environmental barriers as significant determinants of behavior (Bandura, 2001). Carlie expressed
reluctance to approach HR for accommodations, stating, “You don’t just go to HR to ask for

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these things…it’s just not clear.” This ambiguity within organizational structures can impede
self-efficacy, as PWDs may lack clear pathways for self-advocacy, underscoring the need for
transparent processes that reinforce individuals’ confidence in accessing support (Prince, 2017).
Support Systems as Reinforcers
Both internal and external support systems play a critical role in bolstering PWDs’ selfefficacy and willingness to seek accommodations. SCT suggests that social reinforcement can
serve as a powerful motivator, with support networks functioning as sources of validation and
resilience (Bandura, 2001). Participants described how support from peers, family, and
community resources facilitated a sense of belonging, which in turn encouraged them to
advocate for their needs. For example, Daniel highlighted the significance of his support system,
remarking, “If you have a really good support system, that’s great! If you don’t, then it’s just
another factor that’s blocking you from accommodations.”
Workplace support groups also reinforced PWDs’ sense of agency, as seen in Raegan’s
involvement with an employee resource group (Disability Staff Forum), which provided her with
peer validation and reduced her apprehension around self-advocacy. She shared, “It’s so nice
having work friends…who just support you and see you as a person first.” This alignment with
SCT’s focus on social reinforcement highlights the importance of inclusive communities in
fostering self-efficacy and reducing isolation (Bromley et al., 2020).
Workplace Culture and Trust
The workplace culture and environment are crucial in shaping PWDs’ comfort with
disclosure and trust in organizational support systems. SCT emphasizes that environments that
offer consistent support and validation foster a sense of control and confidence among
individuals (Bandura, 1986). Carlie’s positive experience with her supervisor’s commitment to

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accessibility highlights how supportive leadership and peer relationships can make a difference
in whether PWDs feel comfortable requesting accommodations. Such supportive interactions are
consistent with SCT’s concept of environmental enablers, which enhance self-efficacy by
providing individuals with consistent positive reinforcement (Collier, 2016).
However, participants reported that superficial or misaligned organizational inclusivity
efforts could create mistrust, undermining the overall culture of support. Cynthia, for example,
recounted an organizational mandate to use “person-first language” despite preferences for
disability-first language, illustrating a disconnection between organizational intentions and
PWDs’ actual needs (Suresh & Dyaram, 2020). This divergence points to SCT’s notion of
incompatible environmental cues that may inhibit positive behavioral outcomes if they do not
align with individuals' values and preferences (Bandura, 2001).
Embedding Support for Accommodations
Institutional infrastructure that supports accommodations must be embedded within the
organization to ensure that PWDs can fully access and utilize these resources. According to SCT,
institutional support systems provide necessary reinforcements that enable individuals to exercise
agency within complex environments (Bandura, 1986). Participants stressed the importance of a
streamlined, empathetic approach to accommodation requests, as Regina articulated: “The
university is big enough...they have the resources to hire someone focused on this...it shouldn’t
take more than a month [for accommodation requests].” Slow or bureaucratic processes, as
described by participants, can detract from self-efficacy by adding layers of difficulty to
obtaining necessary accommodations, ultimately discouraging disclosure (Nelson & Kleiner,
2001).

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Furthermore, participants emphasized that genuine commitment to inclusivity is vital for
ensuring equitable access to accommodations. Comprehensive organizational training on diverse
disabilities and empathy-based leadership, as suggested by Cynthia, could facilitate more
responsive and inclusive environments, further supporting SCT’s emphasis on reinforcing
environments that foster self-efficacy (Peterson, 2008).
Addressing Stigma and Perceptions of Disabilities
Persistent stigma and misconceptions surrounding disabilities, especially non-visible
ones, continue to affect PWDs’ experiences in the workplace. SCT recognizes the impact of
societal perceptions and norms on individual behavior, noting that people may internalize
societal biases, resulting in behaviors that align with these negative expectations (Bandura,
2001). Participants frequently expressed concerns about stigma, describing how fears of
judgment and misconceptions about disabilities influenced their decision to withhold disclosure.
Carlie shared, “There’s that fear that people will use it against you or treat you differently.” This
reluctance to disclose is consistent with SCT’s concept of behavior that is shaped by anticipated
outcomes, where individuals modify actions based on perceived social repercussions (Bandura,
1986).
Furthermore, cultural norms within organizations that prioritize protecting the
organization over individuals’ needs perpetuate this stigma. Raegan noted her perception of HR
as primarily serving organizational interests rather than employees’, suggesting a misalignment
in support for PWDs. This perceived conflict emphasizes the need for structural and cultural
change within organizations to foster inclusive environments that view disabilities as strengths,
ultimately enabling PWDs to thrive without fear of discrimination (Bandura, 1986).

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These findings underscore the interconnectedness of individual, social, and
environmental factors in shaping PWDs’ workplace experiences. SCT provides a robust
framework for understanding these dynamics, emphasizing that self-efficacy, social
reinforcement, and organizational environment are critical in empowering PWDs to disclose,
advocate for, and obtain accommodations (Bandura, 2001). By fostering environments that value
inclusivity and reduce stigma, organizations can support PWDs’ agency and contribute to a more
equitable workplace culture.
Implications for Institutional Leaders and Policymakers
Institutional leaders and policymakers play a crucial role in shaping inclusive and
equitable workplaces that empower PWDs to thrive. Ensuring that PWDs feel comfortable and
supported in their work environments is not only a matter of legal compliance but is essential for
fostering innovation, retaining diverse talent, and enhancing organizational effectiveness. The
importance of comfort and trust within the workplace is central to enabling PWDs to disclose
their disabilities without fear of stigma, request necessary accommodations, and ultimately
perform to their fullest potential.
When PWDs experience a workplace culture that prioritizes accessibility and support,
they are more likely to engage in self-advocacy and proactive disclosure, processes that are
fundamental to their sense of agency and self-efficacy. SCT underscores the importance of selfefficacy, whereby individuals are more motivated to achieve and overcome challenges when they
perceive they are supported and capable (Bandura, 1986). For PWDs, this sense of self-efficacy
can be bolstered by visible and proactive accommodation policies, which signal a commitment to
accessibility and reduce the emotional burden associated with seeking accommodations. Such
policies and support systems create a foundation where PWDs can focus on their roles rather

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 77
than on navigating a sometimes adversarial or indifferent environment, leading to improved job
satisfaction, productivity, and overall well-being.
Policymakers and organizational leaders who prioritize inclusion through structured
support mechanisms can also influence workplace culture at large. By implementing
comprehensive disability awareness programs, training for managers, and clear accommodation
procedures, leaders cultivate an environment of respect and understanding that extends beyond
individual accommodations. An inclusive workplace climate contributes to dismantling
stereotypes and normalizing disabilities as aspects of human diversity that bring unique
perspectives and strengths. As research demonstrates, employees who feel secure and validated
are more likely to contribute creatively, collaborate effectively, and stay committed to their
organization, leading to lower turnover rates and a stronger organizational reputation
(Kwiatkowska-Ciotucha et al., 2022; N. Jain et al., 2020).
For institutional leaders, embracing these values goes beyond a compliance-driven
approach. Instead, it embodies a commitment to holistic diversity that attracts and retains top
talent, reflecting well in community and organizational standards. Policymakers should embed
these values in policies to ensure that PWDs have equal opportunities to participate meaningfully
in the workforce, ultimately driving broader societal change toward inclusivity and equity.
Recommendations for Practice
Recommendation 1
Simplify and streamline the accommodations process to foster an inclusive and equitable
workplace.
Complicated and inaccessible accommodation procedures can act as significant barriers,
preventing PWDs from accessing the support they need to perform their jobs effectively.

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Simplifying these processes ensures that necessary adjustments are made promptly, reducing
stress and enhancing productivity for disabled employees. According to a study by Chan et al.
(2010), streamlined accommodation processes lead to better job satisfaction and higher retention
rates among employees with disabilities. When organizations make accommodations more
accessible, they not only comply with legal requirements but also create a more supportive and
engaging work environment.
Moreover, an easier accommodation process can help combat the stigmatization and
biases that often accompany disability in the workplace (Stuart, 2004). When accommodations
are difficult to obtain, negative perceptions and assumptions about the capabilities of PWDs can
be reinforced. Simplifying the process can mitigate these issues by normalizing accommodations
as a routine part of workplace practice. Nevala et al. (2015) emphasized that inclusive practices,
such as making accommodations readily accessible, can significantly improve the overall
organizational culture and contribute to a more diverse and innovative workforce. By prioritizing
and simplifying accommodations, companies demonstrate a commitment to inclusivity and the
well-being of all their employees, fostering a culture of respect and equality.
Recommendation 2
Update diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging (DEIB) trainings to integrate a
disability lens.
Disability is an integral aspect of diversity, encompassing a wide range of physical,
mental, and sensory conditions that affect millions of individuals globally (Jones, 1997). When
organizations include disability training as part of their broader DEIB programs, they ensure that
employees gain a comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by their colleagues with

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 79
disabilities. This knowledge promotes empathy, reduces biases, and encourages supportive
behaviors, contributing to a more harmonious and productive workplace (Schur et al., 2009).
Moreover, disability training helps dismantle the systemic barriers that PWDs often
encounter in professional settings. These barriers include not only physical obstacles but also
attitudinal and procedural challenges that can impede career advancement and job satisfaction.
By educating employees about these issues, organizations can develop and implement policies
and practices that proactively address and eliminate such barriers. A study by Colella and
Bruyère (2011) highlighted that organizations with robust disability training programs are more
likely to succeed in creating equitable opportunities for all employees, thereby enhancing overall
organizational performance and reputation.
Incorporating disability training within DEIB initiatives also aligns with legal and ethical
responsibilities. Legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates that employers
provide reasonable accommodations and prevent discrimination based on disability (U.S.
Department of Labor, n.d.-a). Training employees about these legal requirements and best
practices ensures compliance and reduces the risk of legal disputes. Furthermore, it signals a
commitment to ethical standards and corporate social responsibility. When employees see that
their organization values and supports diversity in all its forms, including disability, it boosts
morale and loyalty, leading to higher retention rates and a more positive organizational culture
(Hernandez et al., 2008).
Recommendation 3
Develop and deploy personal development series for staff with disabilities.
Implementing professional development training exclusively for employees with
disabilities is essential for promoting their career advancement and ensuring equitable

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opportunities in the workplace. Tailored training programs can address specific challenges and
barriers that employees with disabilities may face, such as navigating workplace
accommodations, managing biases, and developing effective communication strategies.
According to Lindsay et al. (2018), targeted professional development can significantly enhance
the skills and confidence of employees with disabilities, enabling them to perform their roles
more effectively and pursue higher-level positions within the organization.
Furthermore, exclusive professional development training fosters a sense of community
and belonging among employees with disabilities. By participating in programs designed
specifically for their needs, these employees can share experiences, exchange advice, and build
supportive networks. This sense of camaraderie can mitigate feelings of isolation and
marginalization, which are common among PWDs in the workplace (Santuzzi et al., 2014). Such
programs can also empower employees with disabilities to advocate for themselves and others,
creating a more inclusive and supportive organizational culture.
Investing in professional development for employees with disabilities also benefits the
organization as a whole. A workforce that is diverse and well-trained contributes a range of
perspectives and innovative solutions, thereby enhancing organizational performance and
competitiveness. As noted by Schur et al. (2014), companies that prioritize the development of
all employees, including those with disabilities, are better positioned to leverage the full potential
of their workforce. Additionally, demonstrating a commitment to the professional growth of
employees with disabilities can enhance the organization's reputation, attract top talent, and
improve employee retention. In today's competitive market, fostering an inclusive environment
that supports the career advancement of all employees is not only a moral imperative but also a
strategic advantage.

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Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations and delimitations are critical in shaping the scope and direction of any
research project, helping to define the study's boundaries. Limitations refer to the potential
weaknesses or constraints that may influence the interpretation of findings, while delimitations
are the specific choices made by the researcher to narrow the focus of the study (Nenty, 2009).
Addressing limitations allows researchers to be transparent about aspects of the study that may
affect its validity or reliability, thus helping readers interpret the findings more accurately and
assess their applicability. For example, the reliance on self-reported data introduces the
possibility of subjectivity, as participants may unintentionally shape their responses to align with
personal biases or to present themselves in a favorable light. This reliance could influence the
authenticity of the data collected and analyzed.
Finally, the persistent stigma surrounding disability in the workplace is another factor
that could have impacted the study. Some participants may have hesitated to fully disclose their
experiences due to fear of discrimination or judgment, particularly those with non-visible
disabilities. This reluctance to disclose could have resulted in less detailed or incomplete data,
further influencing the study’s conclusions and interpretations. Additionally, an intersectional
perspective highlights that participants' experiences with disability are not uniform but are
shaped by overlapping identities such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and age. These
intersecting factors may have influenced their willingness to participate, their access to
accommodations, and their overall workplace experiences, thereby affecting the
comprehensiveness of the findings.
Delimitations, on the other hand, refer to the boundaries set by the researcher to narrow
the study’s scope and focus (Nenty, 2009). Defining clear delimitations ensures that the research

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remains focused and manageable, preventing the study from becoming overly broad or
unstructured. This study was specifically designed to explore the experiences of university staff
with disabilities in seeking workplace accommodations to thrive and achieve their professional
goals. To maintain a clear focus, the researcher chose to direct interview questions exclusively
towards employees with disabilities rather than include perspectives from management or other
staff members. Additionally, the study’s sampling population, though it expanded to other
listservs, was primarily limited to the university's employee resource group listserv for staff with
disabilities, which further refined the scope of the research.
Moreover, the selection of the conceptual framework also played a role in delimiting the
study. SCT was employed to examine how environmental factors, both organizational and
personal, along with behaviors and self-efficacy, impact the well-being of employees with
disabilities as they navigate accommodations in the workplace. This theoretical approach helped
focus the analysis on the interplay between these elements, providing a structured lens through
which to understand the experiences of the participants.
In summary, both limitations and delimitations are essential components of research
design. Limitations help identify potential weaknesses or constraints that may affect how the
study is interpreted, while delimitations establish specific boundaries that guide the research
process. Together, they contribute to defining the study’s scope and focus, ensuring that the
research remains coherent and relevant to the research questions being addressed.
Future Research
This study has highlighted significant insights into the workplace experiences of PWDs
and identified specific factors influencing their comfort, trust, and access to accommodations.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 83
However, several limitations and delimitations warrant further exploration to enhance
understanding and address the persistent issue of underemployment among PWDs.
A primary recommendation for future research is to expand the sample size. This study’s
sample size, while sufficient for preliminary insights, limits generalizability across different
demographic groups and industries. A larger, more diverse sample would allow for greater
statistical power, enhancing the robustness and applicability of findings across broader
populations of PWDs. Increasing the sample size could also reveal nuanced trends related to
gender, race, disability type, and other intersectional identities, providing deeper insights into
how these factors interact to influence workplace experiences.
Additionally, expanding the research to include diverse organizational settings could
yield valuable insights into the environmental factors that support or hinder the inclusion of
PWDs. This study was limited to a specific type of organizational setting. However, exploring
various industries, such as healthcare, technology, education, and manufacturing, would capture
differences in workplace culture, policies, and practices related to disability accommodations.
Research across sectors could identify industry-specific challenges and solutions, highlighting
best practices for creating more inclusive work environments.
Furthermore, future studies could explore longitudinal approaches to assess the impact of
workplace accommodations and inclusive practices over time. Examining how PWDs’
employment outcomes evolve in response to workplace culture and support systems would offer
valuable information for policy adjustments aimed at reducing underemployment rates. This
approach would also allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the long-term impacts of
accommodations on job satisfaction, retention, and career advancement among PWDs.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 84
Lastly, it would be beneficial to investigate organizational perspectives and decisionmaking processes regarding disability accommodations. Understanding the challenges and
motivations that employers face in creating inclusive environments can inform the development
of policies that better align organizational goals with the needs of PWDs. Studies in this area
could focus on management training, awareness programs, and other interventions that support a
culture of inclusivity from the top down.
In summary, expanding sample sizes, exploring various organizational settings, adopting
longitudinal designs, and examining employer perspectives are crucial steps toward a deeper
understanding of PWDs’ workplace experiences. These directions for future research are
essential to formulating strategies and policies that address the underemployment of PWDs and
promote equitable, thriving work environments across all sectors.
Conclusion
This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the complex challenges that
PWDs face within workplace environments, particularly in relation to self-advocacy, disclosure,
and support systems. By using SCT as a guiding framework, the study has illuminated the
interplay of individual agency, environmental influences, and social dynamics that shape PWDs’
behaviors and experiences. Findings indicate that factors such as comfort in disclosing
disabilities, trust in organizational support, and access to inclusive accommodations are crucial
for fostering self-efficacy among PWDs. The support systems, both internal and external, that
promote interpersonal trust and mutual respect are critical in empowering PWDs to advocate for
their needs and participate fully in the workplace. However, ongoing stigma and procedural
challenges persist as significant barriers, underscoring the need for more transparent and
responsive organizational structures. Overall, this research contributes to a broader

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 85
understanding of inclusivity and advocates for organizational policies that facilitate accessibility,
thus enabling PWDs to thrive and achieve professional fulfillment within equitable work
environments.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 86
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Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Research Questions:
RQ1. What personal attitudes, perceptions and/or variables influence the willingness of
PWDs to pursue and request accommodations in the workplace?
RQ2. What organizational factors influence the willingness of PWDs to pursue and
request accommodations in the workplace?
Respondent Type: Higher Education Staff with Disabilities
Introduction to the Interview:
Thank you once again for being willing to participate in the interview aspect of my study. My
study seeks to understand how staff members with disabilities, who are in higher education, deal
with the various influencers in their lives to readily disclose their accommodation needs in the
workplace. The aim of this research is to document the possible influencers a staff member with
disabilities seeks when needing or wanting to put forth accommodations, and overall, how we
can make our institution more inclusive of all abilities to thrive in their workplaces. Our
interview today will last approximately one hour during which I will be asking you about your
relationship with accommodations personally and then from the prospective of how you see
accommodations from the point of view of organizations and society at-large.
[review aspects of consent form]
Prior to today you completed a consent form indicating that I have your permission (or not) to
audio record our conversation.
Are you still okay with me recording (or not) our conversation today? ___Yes ___No
If yes: Thank you! Please let me know if at any point you want me to turn off the recorder or
keep something you said off the record.
If no: Thank you for letting me know. I will only take notes of our conversation.
Before we begin the interview, do you have any questions? [Discuss questions]
If any questions (or other questions) arise at any point during our interview today or otherwise,
you can feel free to ask them at any time. I would be more than happy to answer your questions.
Let’s get started. First, I am going to ask questions about your perspective of accommodations
from your organization’s and society’s point of view and then we will shift to your personal
perspectives about how accommodations have played a role in your worklife.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 101
Interview Questions Potential Probes
RQ
Addressed
Key Concept
Addressed
1. Per the survey you answered, you
stated that you have/have not
applied for accommodations before,
correct? Your answer, was that for
an accommodations application for
here at “Private California
University”?
If yes. Walk me through
the process for obtaining
your accommodation(s).
If no, can you discuss
what affected your
willingness to request an
accommodation?
RQ1 Personal - SCT
If you can recall, let’s go back to when you were applying for your role and onboarding once your
started here at “Private California University.”
2. When you applied for your role,
did you experience any barriers
during the recruitment process?
If yes, what were they? RQ1&2
Personal - SCT
Social/Environmental
– SCT
3. When you joined, did you
experience any barriers during your
onboarding process? If yes, what were they? RQ1&2
Personal - SCT
Social/Environmental
- SCT
4. Do you feel your
division/department provides you
with all the workplace adjustments
and accommodations you need to do
your job effectively?
If yes or no, please tell
me more about that
experience/need?
RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
Now that we have some context about your role at “Private California University” and how you have
been able to navigate when you were new, let’s shift in talking about society and how persons with
disabilities are seen through different lenses.
5. How do you think societal
perceptions of disability impact your
willingness to seek
accommodations, if at all? RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
6. How do you navigate advocating
for your needs and the potential
stigmas or challenges associated
with requesting accommodations?
What factors contribute to or detract
from your self-efficacy (belief to
succeed) in these situations?
(For example, do you ever not want
to seek out or apply for an
accommodation for the fear that
someone will judge you, but you
know it will help you in the long
run?) RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
7. Have you shared your disability
with your organization?
If yes, who have you
shared this information
with? And why did you
decide to share the
information?
If no, what is holding you
back from letting your RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 102
Interview Questions Potential Probes
RQ
Addressed
Key Concept
Addressed
organization know about
your disability?
8. What role does support from
friends, family, or colleagues play in
your decision to seek
accommodations, if any? RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
Thank you for sharing your perspective about some of the environmental factors that contribute to your
and society’s viewpoint on persons with disabilities and their needs for accommodations. Let’s talk
now about factors within your organization and department that contribute to helping or hindering with
accommodations.
9. What role(s) should organizations
have in facilitating (assisting with)
accommodations for persons with
disabilities? RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
10. How do you perceive the
accessibility of your specific
department where you work?
How does this influence
your willingness to
request accommodations? RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
11. Can you describe any
organizational policies or
procedures that either support or
hinder your willingness to request
accommodations? Let’s start with
hinder and then you can give me
examples of policies or procedures
that support yours or others to
request accommodations. RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
12. How do you assess the
responsiveness of institutions or
organizations regarding
accommodation requests?
How does this impact
your willingness to make
such requests? RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
13. How do you think attitudes
towards disability overall influence
the availability and successful
implementation of accommodations
within your organization?
RQ2
Social/Environmental
- SCT
We are almost done. But before we finish up with our last couple of questions, I wanted to get your
perspective about some of your personal feelings towards your workplace.
14. Do you feel that having your
disability has impacted your ability
to get promoted or advance within
the company?
If so, why do you think
this is? Specify some
specific situations or
instances that showcased
this.
If not, why do you think
this is? Can you specify
how your trajectory
within the company has
RQ1 Personal - SCT

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 103
Interview Questions Potential Probes
RQ
Addressed
Key Concept
Addressed
excelled based on your
abilities?
15. Based on everything you have
spoken about today, do you think
you can bring your true and
authentic self to work? If not, why?
RQ1 Personal - SCT
Conclusion to the Interview:
Before we conclude this interview, is there something about your experience on campus or
within your specific workplace that you think influences how you seek accommodations that we
have not yet had a chance to discuss?
Thank you once again for taking the time to talk with me today and aid in my research in
hopefully finding some answers on how this institution and other organizations in the future can
better the accommodations process for all staff.
There are two things I wanted to mention before we fully conclude: 1) Once I analyze all of the
data from the interviews, if you are willing, I would love for you to read through my synopsis to
ensure I captured your thoughts through the projected themes that will be produced within my
dissertation. I will contact you through email, and again, if you want to provide any feedback,
please do, but if that is not something you wish to do, please know you do not have to. And 2) I
created this resource guide for you to take with you/that I put in the chat in case you want to talk
to someone in addition to our conversation today. I know a lot of feelings and possible trauma
might have come up today and I want to ensure you have the proper care to take care of yourself
first and foremost.
Thank you again, and please reach out if you have any additional questions.

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 104
Appendix B
Preliminary Survey for Interview Process
Welcome to the Workplace Accommodations survey. Your participation in this survey is greatly
valued and will contribute to important research in Workplace Accommodations. Before you
proceed to answer the survey questions, we would like to provide you with some essential
information about the survey and its purpose:
1. Purpose: The purpose of this survey is to gather information on the personal and
organizational influencers that enable a person with disabilities to readily disclose their
accommodation needs within the workplace.
3. Confidentiality: Your responses will be kept strictly confidential and will only be used
for research purposes. No personal identifiable information will be disclosed in any
reports or publications resulting from this research.
4. Voluntary Participation: Participation in this survey is entirely voluntary. You may
choose not to answer any question or withdraw from the survey at any time without
penalty.
5. Duration: The survey should take approximately five minutes to complete, depending on
your responses.
5. Data Protection: All data collected in this survey will be stored securely and in compliance
with relevant data protection regulations.
By proceeding to the survey questions, you acknowledge that you have read and understood the
information provided in this preamble and consent to participate in the survey. If you have any
questions or concerns about the survey, please do not hesitate to contact Alicia Black at
aablack@usc.edu / 916.300.4005.

Thank you for your participation.
Alicia Black (she/her)
Doctoral Student, Organizational Change and Leadership
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
Phone - 916.300.4005
Email - aablack@usc.edu

UNDEREMPLOYMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 105
Question
Response options
(if close-ended)
1. What is your current role within the University? Staff (Nonacademic)
Faculty (includes
Academic Staff)
Student
(Undergraduate or
Graduate)
Postdoc
Other (please
specify)
2. How long have you worked at the University? Less than a year
1-2 years
3-5 years
6-8 years
More than 9 years
3. Do you identify as an employee with a disability? (ADA Description
of a person with a disability: The ADA defines a person with a disability
as a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially
limits one or more major life activity. This includes people who have a
record of such an impairment, even if they do not currently have a
disability. It also includes individuals who do not have a disability but
are regarded as having a disability.)
Yes
No
If no > End Survey: Your responses have been recorded and indicate
you are not eligible to further your participation in the research study.
Thank you for participating. If you know of any staff members with
disabilities who would be willing to participate, please send them the
following link – (LINK) to fill out the research survey.
If yes > Continue with survey questions
4. Have you previously requested any workplace accommodations due
to your disability?
Yes
No
5. Would you be willing to be interviewed about your experiences
involved in seeking accommodations at this or a previous workplace?
Yes
No
No > Your responses have been recorded and we thank you for
participating in the survey. If you know of any staff members with
disabilities who would be willing to participate, please send them the
following link – (LINK) to fill out the research survey.)
6. Please provide your contact information so we can follow up to
discuss the next steps of the interview portion of the research study:
Name:
Email:
Personal Data
Insert
Your responses have been recorded and we thank you for your
participation in the survey. We will be in contact soon about next steps.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Underemployment among persons with disabilities (PWDs) persists as a significant issue in the United States, despite legislative measures like the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which aim to promote workplace inclusion. This study investigated the personal attitudes and organizational factors that influence PWDs to disclose their accommodation needs in professional settings. Grounded in social cognitive theory, the research employed qualitative methods, which include interviews with higher education staff members with disabilities, to uncover their lived experiences that shaped their ability to seek and secure workplace accommodations. The findings emphasized the critical roles of trust, self-advocacy, and organizational culture in fostering environments where disclosure is both safe and effective. Systemic barriers, stigmas, and insufficient policies remain prevalent challenges, often leading to inequities in access and opportunity. The study offered evidence-based recommendations for addressing these gaps, advocating for enhanced policies, training, and cultural transformations to achieve a truly inclusive workforce. By highlighting the intersection of personal agency and systemic support, this research contributed to the broader discourse on disability rights and workplace equity.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Black, Alicia Antoinette (author)

Core Title Examining the underemployment of persons with disabilities in the workplace

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 02/24/2025

Defense Date 01/30/2025

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA),disability inclusion,DisCrit perspective,diversity and inclusion,employment barriers,equity in employment,higher education staff,legislation and disability rights,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational policies,post-pandemic employment,reasonable accommodations,role modeling,self-efficacy,social cognitive theory,stigma and perceptions,systemic barriers,underemployment,workplace accommodations,workplace discrimination

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Chung, Ruth (committee chair), Jih, Debbie (committee member), Tobey, Patricia (committee member)

Creator Email aablack@usc.edu,aliciaablack915@gmail.com

Unique identifier UC11399HPNB

Identifier etd-BlackAlici-13828.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-BlackAlici-13828

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Black, Alicia Antoinette

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20250227-usctheses-batch-1242 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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