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Latina elementary principals’ promising practices to disrupting disproportionate suspension of Latina and Latino students

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Latina elementary principals’ promising practices to disrupting disproportionate suspension of Latina and Latino students

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Content Latina Elementary Principals’ Promising Practices to Disrupting Disproportionate
Suspension of Latina and Latino Students
Andrea Román
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2025

© Copyright by Andrea Román 2025
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Andrea Román certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Ayanna Balogun, Committee Member Name
Maria Ott, Committee Member
Darline Robles, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
January 31, 2025

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify promising practices of Latina elementary school
principals whose school suspension data has shown promise in eliminating or decreasing the
suspension rate of Latino and Latina students. Identifying these promising practices is beneficial
to future and current Latina elementary principals and non-Latina leaders and educators
committed to reducing exclusionary practices for Latina and Latino students. The study
acknowledges the unique life and cultural experiences of Latina principals that affect how they
approach student behavior and disciplinary actions for Latina and Latino students. Furthermore,
the study addresses the important role principals have in creating and sustaining a positive school
culture, which correlates to student success at school and decreased exclusionary practices for
Latina and Latino students. The study provides recommendations based on the promising
practices of the Latina principals in this study.

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Dedication
To my wonderful husband, Albert, thank you for always standing by my side and encouraging
me when things got hard. Your words, “Just keep writing. You are almost done,” always gave
the gentle nudge to keep going. You were my biggest cheerleader, always cheering for me when
I completed a milestone in my dissertation, especially when I got news I was defending. You
were my inspiration to start my dissertation endeavor, as I saw how your doctorate allowed you
to open doors for Latinos coming right behind you. I hope to use my doctorate to open similar
doors for Latinas in education. I appreciate your patience and support through all of this and
never giving up on me. I love you dearly, my love.
To my two children, Albert Jr. and Ashley, I am so lucky to have such intelligent, kind-hearted,
and loving children. I am so proud of both of you for pursuing your own higher education
endeavors. Ashley, you are a trailblazer in your own way and a role model for other Latinas,
especially for being in a field where Latinas are not represented. I admire your strength,
confidence, and loving manner. Do not ever lose that. To my son, Albert, I have never met a
person so kind, self-less, and warm-hearted. I am proud of you for being a role model for all your
students, especially for your male Latino students, and for using your classroom as a safe space
for your students. Since having you at 16, you have been my inspiration to continue my
education and to provide you with a good life. I hope I have made both of you proud. Now, it is
your turn to set a path of success for those who will follow you.
To my in-laws, Elena and Javier, who allowed me the opportunity to continue my education and
have a great career. Gracias por cuidar a los niños cuando estaban chiquitos y darme la
oportunidad de estudiar. Gracias por su apoyo continuo. No hubiera logrado este éxito sin
ustedes. Los quiero mucho.

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To my parents, José and Teresa, and my sisters, Diana and Cynthia, espero que estén orgullosos
de lo que he logrado. Gracias por su apoyo. Los quiero mucho.

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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I give thanks to our Lord and Savior for giving me the strength to
complete my dissertation journey.
I am forever grateful to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Maria Ott and Dr.
Ayanna Balogun, for their support and their feedback. Dr. Ott, I am honored to have you on my
committee as you have set the path for Latina women in the field of education, especially in
ensuring they pursue their doctorate. To my dear friend and someone I consider a sister, Dr.
Balogun, for supporting me in this dissertation journey. Thank you for inspiring me to fight for
equity and social justice for marginalized students and communities. I always think back to when
we worked together and advocated for our students and families. We were unapologetic as we
made decisions that benefited our students, even when they were unpopular or disrupted the
status quo. My dissertation topic was inspired by our time together and our commitment to
ensuring that our students were not pushed out of school.
Lastly, to my amazing dissertation chair, Dr. Darline Robles. Thank you for never giving
up on me and always nudging me to write. Every time we got on a zoom call or a phone call, I
always left inspired to keep writing. Your commitment to equity and advancing gender equity in
educational leadership inspires me to set the path for future Latina seeking a higher education.
When I was not inspired to write or ready to give up, I remember the words you once told me,
“There are only 2% of Latinas who complete their dissertation,” reminding me that I had to
finish.
Dr. Robles, Dr. Ott, and Dr. Balogun, I am humbled to know that I had such strong,
equity-minded women on my committee. What a privilege! A big thank you to all of you.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures..................................................................................................................................1
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice ....................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................1
Importance of a Promising Practice Project.........................................................................2
Organizational Context and Mission ...................................................................................3
Organizational Performance Status......................................................................................4
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance ..............................................5
Description of Stakeholder Groups......................................................................................6
Stakeholder Group for the Study .........................................................................................6
Purpose of the Project and Questions ..................................................................................7
Conceptual and Methodological Framework.......................................................................8
Definitions............................................................................................................................8
Organization of the Project ..................................................................................................9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................11
Disproportionate discipline of students of color................................................................11
Implications of Exclusionary Discipline on Students........................................................16
Racial Bias and Stereotypes of Latina/Latino Students.....................................................18
Cultural Connections and Competence of School Principals on Discipline......................20
Alternatives to Exclusionary Discipline ............................................................................23
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................27
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences................................28

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Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................47
Assessment of Performance Influences.............................................................................49
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection..............................................................53
Instrumentation: Interview Protocol Design......................................................................54
Data Collection: Interviews ...............................................................................................55
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................55
Trustworthiness of Data.....................................................................................................56
Role of Investigator............................................................................................................58
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................59
Chapter Four: Results and Findings...............................................................................................60
Participating Stakeholders .................................................................................................60
Determination of Assets and Needs...................................................................................62
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes.....................................................................62
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes.....................................................................71
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences..........................................................78
Summary of Validated Influences .....................................................................................86
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluations........................................................................90
Organizational Context and Mission .................................................................................90
Organizational Performance Status....................................................................................91
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance ............................................91
Description of Stakeholder Groups....................................................................................92
Stakeholder Group for the Study .......................................................................................92
Purpose of the Project and Questions ................................................................................93
Recommendations for Practice to Address Influences: Strengths and Weaknesses of
the Approach......................................................................................................................94
Future Research .................................................................................................................97

x
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................98
References....................................................................................................................................100
Transition .........................................................................................................................120
Transition .........................................................................................................................121
Transition .........................................................................................................................122
Transition .........................................................................................................................123
Closing .............................................................................................................................123

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List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve
the Performance Goal 33
Table 2: Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve
the Performance Goal 40
Table 3: Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve
the Performance Goal 46
Table 4: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment 50
Table 5: Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment 51
Table 6: Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment 52
Table 7: Participating Stakeholders 61
Table 8: Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 86
Table 9: Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 87
Table 10: Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 88

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List of Figures
Figure 1: The Gap Analysis Process 48

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Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Although California is focusing efforts on making schools more equitable, as well as
eliminating the educational debt, Latino and Latina students continue to be disproportionately
suspended from school (Ladson-Billings, 2006). For this study, the terms “Latino” and
“Hispanic” are used interchangeably. The U.S. Census Bureau (2017) indicated that 25% of
public elementary school children are Hispanic. The Pew Research Center’s Hispanic Trend
Project (Passel et al., 2022) also found that Los Angeles County contains a Hispanic population
of 4.8 million. With a growing number of Hispanic students in the county’s schools, it is
essential to look at Latino/Latina suspension data.
Further, Finn and Servoss (2014) recommended exploring the role that teachers and
school site administrators play in reducing suspension, as they are with students on a daily basis
and can offer alternatives to suspensions. According to 2006 data, the California Department of
Education (2008) found that only 15.4% of California’s school educational leaders were Latina
or Latino. In addition, the 2017–2018 data from the National Center for Education Statistics
(n.d.) shows that 22.5% of California’s public school principals were Hispanic/Latino. The
comparison data shows the continued need for Latina administrators to serve in California public
schools whose majority student population is Latina/no. The representation of Latina
administrators is important as research has found that leaders who have a similar cultural
background as their Latina/no students tend to be more effective in improving the achievement
outcomes for these students (Crawford & Fuller, 2017).
Background of the Problem
Data shows that there is room for much improvement regarding Black and Latina/no
students’ suspensions. These students continue to be suspended at rates disproportionate to their

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representation in schools. According to the California Department of Education (2021a), the state
had 6,306,934 students enrolled in public and charter schools in the 2019–2020 academic year.
The state has three major student populations enrolled in school: African American (5%), Latinx
(54%), and White (22%). Although African American students make up only 5% of the student
population, in 2019–2020, they accounted for 15% of suspensions, and Latinx students
accounted for 56.7% of the total suspensions despite making up 54% of the student population,
which is still higher than White students’ suspension rates (California Department of Education,
2021b). It is worth noting that while Black and Latina/no students make up the majority of the
population in California schools, principals in California are primarily White, representing
66.1% of school principals. Hispanic principals represent 22.5% and Black/African American
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2018). In addition, according to 2017–2018 data from
the National Center for Education Statistics (2018), 25% of California principals were Hispanic,
while only 6.1% were Black or African American.
Importance of a Promising Practice Project
It is important to examine promising practices in the context of this problem of practice
for a variety of reasons. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (Taras et al., 2003),
the use of suspensions and expulsion on students can be harmful to their health, causing
depression and alienation and leading to involvement in crime. Losen and Martínez (2020) found
California to have districts with the highest suspensions of Latino/Latina students. In addition,
Losen and Martínez noted that students suspended are more likely to drop out of school or be
involved in the juvenile justice system. Further, a report by Losen and Whitaker and the
American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California (2018) found that for every 100 Latino
students, there was an average of 12 days of lost instruction. If students are not in school, then

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they are not learning. Without exploring the reasons behind the disproportionate rate of
suspension for students of color, they will continue to be pushed out of school and into the
school-to-prison pipeline (Heitzeg, 2009). While the data show a concerning trend, studies by
Murakami and Hernandez (2015) and Crawford and Fuller (2017) highlighted Latina principals’
contributions to eliminating the suspension of Latina/no students. This study looked at the
promising practices of Latina elementary school principals whose schools showed reductions in
the suspension rate of Latina/no students. Identifying these promising practices is beneficial to
future and current elementary principals.
Studying promising practices helps to identify strategies and training for principals
entering school administration or those currently in the position. Hernandez and Murakami
(2016) noted an imperative to create a pipeline of Latina/no school leaders as they can relate to
and are more attuned to the needs of students who might have similar backgrounds. Crawford
and Fuller (2017) added that leaders who have a similar cultural background as their Latin/no
students tend to be more effective in improving the achievement outcomes for these students.
This study was beneficial as there was limited peer-reviewed research on Latina/o school leaders
(Niño et.al., 2017), and most were found in dissertations (Méndez-Morse, 2004). In addition,
Méndez-Morse(2004) shares that “studying the unique characteristics of various minority female
educational leaders can contribute to expanding the understanding of leadership in general and
recognition of the importance of certain abilities” (p. 561)
Organizational Context and Mission
This study focused on Latina elementary administrators working in districts across
Southern California and within Los Angeles County. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics (2018), 9% of California principals who identified as Hispanic were

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Hispanic and female. The Los Angeles County Office of Education’s (LACOE, n.d.) mission is
“improving the lives of students and our educational community through service, leadership, and
advocacy” (para.1). This organization serves approximately 2 million diverse students (LACOE,
n.d.). It has a K–2 enrollment of 1.3 million students. The student demographics for Los Angeles
County Office of Education are such that 65.9% are Hispanic/Latino, 13% are White, 7.8% are
Asian, 6.9% are African American, 0.2% are American Indian/Alaska Native, and 0.3% Native
are Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
Organizational Performance Status
The Los Angeles County Office of Education is the nation’s largest regional educational
agency (LACOE, n.d.). Its mission focuses on “improving the lives of students and our
educational community through service, leadership, and advocacy” (LACOE, n.d.). While the
mission of LACOE is to improve the lives of students, the California Department of Education
(2022) found otherwise. In 2022, the department gave LACOE a very high status in the
suspension indicator when the goal is to reach a low suspension rate (California Department of
Education, 2022). It is worth noting that in 2022, seven student groups in Los Angeles County
were in the very high status: African American, English learners, foster youth, Hispanic,
homeless, socioeconomically disadvantaged, and students with disabilities (California
Department of Education, 2022). Los Angeles County has begun to address the inequities and the
disadvantages facing Black students in Los Angeles County by working with the Center for the
Transformation of Schools to highlight the inequities in the use of punitive discipline measures,
the underperformance on standardized tests, and chronic absenteeism (Noguera et al., 2019).
While it is important that Los Angeles County address the educational inequities for Black
students, limited research addresses inequities for Latina/no students.

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Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance
The state education department’s data “allow parents and educators to see whether there
is a suspension problem at a school or across a district and whether certain student groups are
suspended more than others” (California Department of Education, 2024, p. 2). For the 2020–
2021 term, suspension data were not available due to the state suspending data collection and
reporting of local indicators due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This study used suspension data
from the 2021–2022 and the 2022–2023 terms for informational purposes. The 2022 suspension
data are categorized by status level (very high, high, medium, low, and very low) due to an
interruption of data in 2020–2021 and not having 2 years of comparison data. In the 2019–2020
academic term, the performance levels are ranked from highest to lowest as follows: blue, green,
yellow, orange, and red. Performance levels are determined by comparing the current status to
the previous year’s data to determine the change in progress.
This study looked at promising practices of Latina elementary school principals within
Los Angeles County. According to the California Department of Education (2022), in 2019–
2020, the suspension performance status for Los Angeles County was red, which is the lowest
performance status. The suspension rate increased by 2.6% from the 2018–2019 to the 2019–
2020 school year, leading to the red performance level. In Los Angeles County, English learners,
Hispanic/Latino, foster youth, socioeconomically disadvantaged, and White students were
identified as red in the 2019–2020 term. Specifically, the suspension rate for Hispanic/Latino
students in Los Angeles County increased 2.9% from the 2018-2019 to the 2019–2020 school
year.
California requires that all school districts write a local control and accountability plan
(LCAP; California Department of Education, n.d.). The goal of LCAP is to inform educational

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partners, such as parents and community members, of the goals of the district, actions to meet
those goals, and expenditure costs needed to meet the goals. The California Department of
Education (n.d.) requires districts to include goals that address the eight state priorities, which
include suspensions.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
A stakeholder group is a group of individuals who directly contribute to and benefit from
achieving an organization’s performance goal. Four stakeholder groups contribute to the pursuit
of reducing suspension rates among Latina and Latino students. The first consists of the students
who are affected by administrators’ discipline decisions. These students are directly affected by
principals’ decisions and districts’ goals. The second group consists of the teachers who work
directly with and are in constant contact with students in the classroom. Teachers have a direct
academic and emotional influence on students (Welch & Payne, 2010). The third is the parents
of the students affected by discipline decisions. Research has found that families aid in reducing
the likelihood of suspension for their children (Bartz et al., 2017; Ferrell, 2009). Sheldon and
Epstein (2002) found that schools and families could improve student behavior and school
discipline by working together. Finally, school administrators are responsible for administering
discipline decisions. Research has found that principals are the key drivers to creating a positive
school culture (Habegger, 2007). The school principal sets the tone, culture, behavior
expectations, and support for teachers (Prokopchuk, 2016).
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, I selected only one stakeholder group. This study focused on Latina elementary
principals in Southern California in the jurisdiction of the LACOE. The interviewees were

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women who identify as Latinas and who have served at least 2 years at the same school. This
research included principals identified as showing progress in eliminating or decreasing the
suspension rates of Latina/no students. They provided insight into the factors they believe
influence how they approach disciplinary actions for Latina/no students and into how we can
support Latina principals in reducing these suspensions. I found possible participants by
narrowing down Latina elementary administrators in Southern California school districts. The
state’s department of education’s data helped identify which elementary schools are decreasing
suspension data for Latina/no students, and which of those schools were led by Latina principals.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study the promising practices of Latina elementary
school principals whose school suspension data has shown a decrease in or elimination of
suspensions for Latino and Latina students. The analysis focused on the assets in the areas of
knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). While a
complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, Latina elementary
principals were the stakeholders of focus in this analysis.
As such, the research following questions guided this promising practice study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of Latina
elementary school administrators in relation to reducing the suspension rates of
Latina/no students?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources influence the successful implementation of promising
practices for Latina/no elementary school administrators with a goal of reducing
suspension rates for Latina/no students?

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Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’s (2008) systematic gap analysis, a method used to understand
organizational goal achievements, was adapted to this study and implemented as the conceptual
framework. The gap analysis framework looks at knowledge, motivation, and organization as
influences that cause a gap between goals and current performance (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda,
2011). The gap analysis moves beyond assumptions to possible barriers to achieving
organizational performance goals to identify specific key influences contributing to those
barriers (Rueda, 2011). I assessed these influences using semi-constructed interviews, a literature
review, and content analysis. I present recommendations for research-based solutions that I
evaluated comprehensively as promising practices for organizations facing similar problems.
Definitions
Cultural competence refers to “the ability of a person to effectively interact, work, and
develop meaningful relationships with people of various cultural backgrounds. Cultural
background can include the beliefs, customs, and behaviors of people from various groups”
(Durden et al., 2016)
Exclusionary practices are harsh disciplinary policies that can trigger the school-to-prison
pipeline (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2019)
Hispanic or Latino refers to a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, South or Central
American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race (Hussar et al., 2020; National
Center for Education Statistics, 2002)
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) refer to an evidence-based
framework for improving and supporting students’ behavioral, academic, social, emotional, and
mental health through a tiered system of support (Center on PBIS, n.d.; Horner & Sugai, 2015)

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School-to-prison pipeline is a nationwide system of local, state, and federal education and
public safety policies that push students out of school and into the juvenile and criminal justice
system (American Civil Liberties Union [ACLU], n.d.-a, n.d.-b)
Zero-tolerance: a disciplinary approach in which specific severe and punitive
consequences, such as expulsion or suspension from school, on behalf of school officials for
predetermined behaviors deemed unacceptable, and to which no alternative to suspension or
expulsion is acceptable (ACLU, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; Hanson, 2005; Kafka, 2011)
Organization of the Project
Five chapters were used to organize this study. Chapter One provides key concepts and
terminology commonly found in discussing the disproportionate suspension of Latina/no
students. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders, as well as introducing the initial
concepts of gap analysis. Chapter Two provides a review of literature on the scope of the study.
Topics in Chapter Two addressed an in-depth review of the literature on (a) the history of the
disproportionate discipline of students of color; (b) the influence of cultural connections and
competence of school principals with Latina/no students and its impact on discipline; (c) the
impact of alternatives to discipline and its implications on Latina/no suspension rates; and (d) the
influence of racial bias on school discipline, specifically on Latina/no students. Chapter Two also
included Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework, a problem-solving
approach that provides organizations with a method to reach their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011). Chapter Three detailed the assumed assets for this study as well as the
methodology when it comes to the selection of participants, data collection and analysis. In
Chapter Four, the data and research findings were assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provided
recommendations for practice based on data and literature, along with recommendations for

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current and future Latina/no principals and all principals and for schools or districts desiring to
eliminate the suspension of Latina/no students.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two provided the background and information about Latina elementary school
principals and factors that might contribute to their decision to suspend Latina/no students. The
first part of this chapter addressed an in-depth review of the literature on the history of the
disproportionate discipline of students of color; the influence of cultural connections and
competence of school principals with Latina/no students and its impact on discipline; the impact
of alternatives to discipline its implications on Latina/no suspension rates; and the influence of
racial bias on school discipline, specifically on Latina/no students. Following the review of the
literature, the second part of Chapter Two introduced the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes,
2008). The gap analysis framework addressed the possible knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences that possibly affect Latina elementary principals’ decisions to suspend
Latina/no students.
Disproportionate discipline of students of color
Historical Context and Development of Discipline Policies
Maintaining a secure learning environment for all students is no doubt a primary concern
in schools. Historically, researchers and policymakers have placed much attention on school
discipline and on equitably handling student disciplinary outcomes in K–12 schools (American
Psychological Association [APA], n.d.; Triplett et al., 2014; Welsh & Little, 2018). To maintain
safe environments and address student discipline in public schools, zero-tolerance policies ensure
schools remain safe for all students and teachers (American Psychological Zero Tolerance Task
Force, 2008). Zero-tolerance discipline policies continue in practice today as an attempt to
develop obedient students and address unfavorable student behavior in school.

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Zero tolerance is a disciplinary approach in which specific severe and punitive
consequences, such as expulsion or suspension from school, on behalf of school officials for
predetermined behaviors deemed unacceptable, and to which no alternative to suspension or
expulsion is acceptable (ACLU, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; Hanson, 2005; Kafka, 2011). Zero-tolerance as a
discipline policy is not a recent idea and continues to be a focus of attention. Historically, zero
tolerance began during the Progressive Era, as the United States focused on making America a
safer and better place to live (Library of Congress, n.d.). Public schools were attempting to
define the purpose of education. During the Progressive Era, education’s purpose was to teach
obedience, prepare students for democratic participation, and develop social and emotional skills
that support self-discipline (Kafka, 2011). The progressive era was a time to improve Americans’
lives, but this was not the case for all Americans.
The 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision of Brown vs. Board of Education brought
attention to equality and the civil rights of people in education, specifically for African
Americans (Triplett et al., 2014). This court decision was instrumental to the desegregation of
public schools and in maintaining equity. Regardless, school zero-tolerance practices continue to
suspend and expel students of color from schools (Hanson, 2005). As African American students
integrated into White schools, schools and parents of White students felt a need to keep African
American students in line, as they did not consider them disciplined enough (Black, 2016).
White school teachers and administrators felt unprepared to have African American students in
integrated schools and classrooms. Without training, they brought their biases against African
Americans to school, affecting how they discipline students (Black, 2016). Ladson-Billings
(2006) added that despite the decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, schools are not
equally funded, and Black and Latina/no students continue to attend segregated schools. Ladson-

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Billings (2006) referred to these schools as “apartheid schools,” mostly in the states of New
York, Michigan, Illinois, and California (p. 9). Although Brown v. Board of Education made
equity and civil rights a federal policy in education, zero tolerance and inequity in student
discipline persist.
Exclusionary Discipline Practices are Harmful to Students of Color
During President Reagan’s administration, the United States was dealing with a drug
epidemic, which led him to proclaim a war on drugs (Mallett, 2016). To fight the war on drugs
and the surging gang violence, Congress passed the Drug-Free Schools and Community Act of
1989 (H.R. 3614, 1989). This legislation led to zero-tolerance school practices for possessing
guns or drugs. While the intent was to maintain safe communities and schools, poor communities
witnessed disproportionate suspension and expulsion rates for students of color (American
Psychological Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Mallett, 2016). This legislation led to the
criminalization of students in schools due to school policies that criminalized minor infractions
of school rules handled by police rather than schools (ACLU, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; Kafka, 2011).
Exclusionary practices continue to have harmful effects on students of color.
School discipline data show that Latino and African American students are more likely to
be suspended or expelled due to zero-tolerance exclusionary practices. According to the ACLU
(2016), arrests for Latina/no students are 1.4 times more likely than those of White students. In
addition, the ACLU of Northern California (2012) found that the suspension and expulsion of
Latina/no students exceeded the national average, often for minor offenses. Skiba et al. (2011)
also found that African American students have almost four times the odds, and Hispanic
students twice the odds, of being suspended or expelled for a minor infraction at the elementary
school level. In addition, the ACLU (2016) states that Black and Latino boys with disabilities

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were 3% of students in U.S. schools but were 12% of school arrests. Gregory and Fergus (2017)
stated,
Latino, American Indian, and black youth, particularly black males in special education -
are significantly more likely than other students to be referred to school administrators
for discipline problems. They are also more likely to be punished by out-of-school
suspension, expulsion, or a referral to law enforcement. (p.119)
A further examination of the role of race in contributing to the disproportionate disciplinary
actions of students of color follows.
The Implications of Race in Disciplinary Actions
Zero-tolerance policies have no significant impact on decreasing suspension rates for
students of color. Research has found that zero-tolerance measures do not increase school safety
or improve student behavior (Losen & Gillespie, 2012; Skiba & Peterson, 2000). Gregory and
Fergus (2017) found that Black students when compared to their White peers were more likely to
receive discipline referrals for similar behavior and disciplinary infractions. According to Welsh
and Little (2018), “race is one of the most significant predictors of out-of-school suspensions
regardless of behavior and race is a significant predictor of receiving exclusionary discipline
after accounting for socioeconomic status” (p. 757). Likewise, Skiba et al. (2011) found that
regardless of the type of infraction, race/ethnicity makes a significant contribution to the type of
consequence chosen for a given infraction, playing a notable role in predicting suspensions and
expulsions for Black and Latina/no students. Welsh and Little (2018) suggested that adults
assigning disciplinary consequences to students of color might foster implicit or explicit racial
biases, contributing to the disproportionate suspension and expulsion rates for these groups of
students. Carter et al. (2017) pointed out the risk of this so-called unconscious decision-making,

15
as it allows, “old patterns [to] continue to be reinforced through the ongoing processes of implicit
bias, microaggressions, and colorblindness” (p. 207). Whether the disproportionality in discipline
is intentional, bias against groups, overt or implicit, may increase disproportionality in school
discipline (Nance, 2016; Welch & Payne, 2010). Suspending or expelling students of color for
behaviors deemed inappropriate can perpetuate negative attitudes regarding these students’
inability to follow school norms (Townsend, 2000). This is significant as the race of students can
lead to inequitable disciplinary actions supported by implicit or explicit biases.
The Gap in Research of Latina Administrators’ Impact on Discipline
There is limited research literature on Latina principals’ impact on discipline for
Latina/no students (Méndez-Morse et al., 2015; Welsh & Little, 2018), which can be due to the
limited representation of Latina administrators in schools. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics (2018), 25% of California principals were Hispanic in the 2017–2018 term.
If cultural discontinuity (Ogbu, 1982) maintains that students do well when their culture aligns
with the dominant culture of the school, then Latina school administrators can provide cultural
continuity for Latina/no students. This hypothesis is supported by Crawford and Fuller (2017),
who stated that principals who have a similar cultural background as their Latina/no students
tend to be more effective in improving the achievement outcomes for these students.
Furthermore, Méndez-Morse et al. (2018), in a study of Latina educational leaders,
acknowledged the limited research on Latina leaders, stating there is a need for a closer analysis
of Latina leaders, as they “have unique characteristics and life experiences that can impact their
leadership practices” (p. 177). In fact, M. A. Martínez et al. (2016) mentioned that there is
limited research on the representation of women and people of color in educational leadership
and the contributions they bring to educational leadership. If there is limited research on Latinas

16
in leadership, this can help explain the limited research on Latina principals and how they
approach discipline. The need to explore the role of Latina administrators in discipline is evident
in the limited research on this topic (Méndez-Morse et al., 2015).
Implications of Exclusionary Discipline on Students
This section will look at the implications of exclusionary discipline on students. The
implications included in this section of the literature review include loss of learning for
Latina/Latino students and the pathway to the school-to-prison pathway due to these
exclusionary discipline decisions.
The literature review points to the need to address learning loss and the pathway to the
school-to-prison pipeline when considering exclusionary discipline for students. Learning loss
can increase the likelihood of Latina/no students dropping of school, showing academic learning
gaps, and considered for grade retention. Latina and Latino students are also more likely to
become involved in the juvenile justice system and have more contact with law enforcement.
Thus, exclusionary practices have negative implications on students.
Loss of Learning for Latina/Latino Students
Exclusionary discipline practices can be harmful to the academic achievement of Black
and Latina/no students. If students are not in school, they are not in the classroom learning. Since
students of color are suspended at greater rates than their White peers (ACLU Northern
California, 2012, 2016; Gregory & Fergus, 2017; Skiba et al., 2011), they miss more academic
instruction. According to Jacobson (2020), the total minutes from out-of-school suspensions can
add up to more than a year’s worth of lost instruction. Skiba et al. (2014) added that office data
referrals accounted for 15 to 45 minutes of loss time for students, administrators, and teachers.
Losen and Martínez (2020) further added that two of the 20 districts with high suspension rates

17
for Latinx students are in California, and their rates for Blacks and other students of color are
higher than those of White students. These reports highlight the need to address inequitable
suspension rates and to further analyze practices in California schools that educationally
disenfranchise students and lead to increased learning loss for Black and Latina/no students.
In another example of how suspensions harm students of color, Sullivan et al. (2010)
examined school discipline policies in Texas and found that “punishments in the form of out-ofschool suspension and expulsion for students of color often result in grade retention, dropping
out of school, academic failure and recidivism” (p. 79). Morris and Perry (2016) also found that
exclusionary discipline practices could lead to inequalities in academic achievement. Based on
the research and the suspension data in California, the disproportionate suspension rate for Black
and Latina/no students, if not disrupted, will continue to exclude students from learning,
widening the achievement gap. For students to learn and teachers to educate, Black and
Latina/no students must be in school learning.
Pathway to the School-to-Prison Pipeline
While learning loss can have a major impact on the future of students, exclusionary
discipline practices can also lead students on the path to the school-to-prison pipeline. The
school-to-prison pipeline is the funneling of students into the juvenile justice system as they are
pushed out of school due to suspensions and expulsions (ACLU, 2016; American Psychological
Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008; Fowler, 2011; Nance, 2016; Wald & Losen, 2003), connecting
schools directly to the juvenile justice system (Hirschfield, 2018). Furthermore, students who are
suspended are two times more likely to be in contact with law enforcement (Hirschfield, 2018).
Research has found that the greatest predictor of future involvement in the juvenile justice
system is the number of discipline referrals given at school, with students who receive one or

18
two disciplinary referrals are 23.4% more likely to be referred to the juvenile justice system
(Fowler, 2011). Schools have taken on similar strategies when punishing adults, such as
exclusion and ostracism (Noguera, 2003), with students of color, students with disabilities, gay,
lesbian, transgender, and other vulnerable groups of students being funneled at greater rates
through the school-to-prison pipeline (Fix School Discipline, 2021).
Racial Bias and Stereotypes of Latina/Latino Students
This section will look at the implications of racial bias and stereotypes of Latina/Latino
students. The implications addressed in this literature review include schools as historically
oppressive and racialized systems and the normalization of urban education as exclusion.
The literature review addresses the need to look at schools as historically oppressive and
racialized systems. It also highlights the need to look at the normalization of urban education as
exclusion. Historically, schools were focused on oppressing students of color, sorting students,
and centering whiteness as superior. In addition, urban schools continue to be segregated and
have been constructed to dehumanize students of color who attend urban schools. The deficit
social construction of urban schools has led to disproportionate discipline practices for students
of color. Thus, racial bias and stereotypes of Latina and Latino students have negative
implications.
Schools are Historically Oppressive and Racialized Systems
The social construction of race and the ideology of whiteness as superior, dominant,
privileged, and normal (Du Bois, 1999; Solórzano et al., 2000; Tuck & Gaztambide-Fernández,
2013) has been historically infused into our educational system oppressing Black and Latina/no
students. Historically, the system of racial superiority has affected the education of Native
Americans and now Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Asians (Spring, 2016). Du Bois

19
(1999) shared that when Whiteness is seen as superior, it has an impact on the future of dark
bodies. Furthermore, Spring (2016) explained that the ways of knowing along with how nonWhites have been educated have been centered on “cultural genocide, deculturalization,
assimilation, and hybridity” (p. 5).
The social construction of Whiteness as superior is threaded in our systems of knowing
that it impacts students of color. Considering this, Tinson (2017) states that systematic racial
oppression is located in education. Noguera (2003) noted that historically, schools have three
functions: (a) to sort students based on academic abilities, (b) to socialize students to be civil and
normal in society, and (c) to maintain order and control. Noguera (2003) added that through
these three functions, students learn whether they are in the “educational pipeline” (p. 344),
which Du Bois (1999) calls a caste education. Noguera (2003) further added that without order
and control, schools could not sort or socialize students. Carter et al. (2017) stated that the same
race inequality and systems of oppression brought the displacement of Indigenous people and
slavery to the United States and persist in schools and society today. The literature notes that the
schools Latina/no students attend are still systematically oppressive due to the socially
constructed and historically rooted belief that Whiteness is the dominant and superior culture.
The Normalization of Urban Education as Exclusion
The normalization of urban education as a means to exclude and marginalize students of
color directly harms their academic performance and perpetuates disproportionate disciplinary
practice (Massey et al., 2014; L. D. Patton, 2016; Picower, 2009; Utt & Tochluk, 2020).
Systemic racial oppression rooted in the history of the U.S. education system has led to a
majority of poor students attending urban schools characterized as failing, under-resourced,
inequitable, poorly funded, and located in poor and dilapidated buildings, with ineffective and

20
burnt-out teachers and administrators dealing with bureaucracy (Noguera, 2003; Noguera &
Syeed, 2020). Additionally, urban schools have been harmed by White flight, leaving them
segregated despite Brown v. Board of Education making segregation unlawful (Farley et al.,
1980; Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995). Consequently, leaving poor students, Black, and Latina/no
students attending “apartheid schools” (Ladson-Billings, 2006, p. 9). Ladson-Billings and Tate
(1995) agreed that great inequities “exist between the school experiences of White middle-class
students and those of poor African American and Latino students” (p. 11). Urban schools
characterized as hopeless and unfixable institutions, leading to the mistreatment of students of
color who attend them.
The deficit construction of urban schools has contributed to how teachers discipline
students (Picower, 2009). For example, Picower (2009) examined the role that White teachers,
who comprise “90% of the [K–12] teaching force” (p. 197), play in maintaining racial
hierarchies of power and oppression, as they have had historically limited interactions with
students of color. Nguyen et al. (2019) found that teachers have a significant influence on the
discipline outcomes of students as the point of disciplinary action begins in the classroom,
calling for further research on teachers’ role in the discipline process. Skiba et al. (2002)
confirmed this hypothesis and found that in the district where they carried out their research,
discipline referrals typically originated in the classroom and heavily influenced by teacher
recommendations rather than administrative decisions alone. However, it is important to note
that only administrators have the authority to prescribe consequences.
According to Dumas and Ross (2016), the field of education has “countless examples of
the dehumanization of Black bodies, from the long legacy of federal, state, and district policies
and practices designed to deprive Black communities and children of educational resources, to

21
the absence of culturally relevant and sustaining pedagogies, and to the maladministration of
school discipline policies.” (p. 418). Consequently, these policies and practices harm urban
schools that educate Black and Latina/no students by maintaining disproportionalities in school
discipline, testing, and tracking (Dumas & Ross, 2016). At the same time, there are opportunities
for educators to reverse oppressive practices. Utt and Tochluk (2020) suggested that anti-racist
support by White teachers could help address the achievement gap and the connection to the
school-to-prison pipeline by creating positive learning environments that are culturally relevant
for students of color. Culturally responsive school administrators have an important role in
disrupting the school-to-prison pipeline and reducing disproportionate disciplinary practices.
Cultural Connections and Competence of School Principals on Discipline
This section of the literature review will address the cultural connections and competence
of school principals on discipline and its implications for students. This section will look at
critical race theory and Latina principals as culturally proficient leaders.
The literature shows that critical race theory helps to explain educational and discipline
inequities and the importance of cultural proficient leaders. Critical race theory helps to explain
why inequities in discipline continue to be prevalent in our school system despite efforts to
disrupt inequitable discipline practices. The literature also addresses how cultural proficiency can
influence disparities in disciplinary practices employed by school leaders. Thus, cultural
connections and competence are important topics to explore in the literature.
Critical Race Theory
Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) noted that great inequities “exist between the school
experiences of White middle-class students and those of poor African American and Latino
students” (p. 11). To frame this problem of practice, critical race theory provides a lens to view

22
these rooted and systemic problems in education. The theory explains that educational and
discipline inequities, continue for students of color despite policies and federal statutes intended
to provide equality and maintained through capitalism and racism (Love, 2019). It challenges
colorblindness, meritocracy, and neutrality as well as working to abolish racism (Ladson-Billings
& Tate, 1995; Love, 2019). The other component of critical race theory is that it advocates for
centering the voices and experiences of marginalized groups of people (Ladson-Billings & Tate,
1995). Framing inequities in school discipline through the critical race theory lens can lead to
connecting the reasons schools reproduce the restructuring of inequalities and demotivation of
students of color through unjust disciplinary decisions (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 1995).
Therefore, for urban schools to thrive, they require a culturally proficient leader who commits to
practices that yield equity and that are effective in cross-cultural situations, as the majority of the
students they serve are non-White and culturally diverse (Terrell et al., 2018).
Latina Principals as Culturally Proficient Leaders
The need for culturally proficient Latina/no leaders is a crisis as schools are becoming
more diverse and serving more Latina/no students (Murakami et al., 2018; Nieto, 2007).
Although Latinas/nos have common cultural values and traditions, there are differences in how
they are grouped and characterized. The National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES)
defined Latina/no as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or
other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race. With the racial discipline gap in schools,
Latina principals have leadership and personal characteristics that may contribute to reducing the
suspension and expulsion rates of Latina/no students.
Latina/no administrators’ life experiences and cultural proficiency can be assets when
leading in culturally diverse schools and can help reduce disproportionate suspension rates for

23
Latina/o students. Latina/no leaders bring what Bordas (2015) calls cultural centered leadership.
According to Bordas (2015), this leadership is about “treating people like familia (family), being
generous, having respect for everyone regardless of status or position, always keeping one’s
word, and being of service are pillars of Latino leadership” (p. 57). Likewise, Meza’s (2021)
study found that qualities held by Latina administrators helped them lead with a “social justice
lens, cared about their school communities, were reflective and self-aware, and worked as a
member of their team” (p. 217). Terrell et al. (2018) added that to drive organizational change,
specifically in schools serving marginalized populations, a successful school leader understands
cultural proficiency and their own self-identity. Terrell et al. (2018) described cultural
proficiency as a “philosophical framework to shift the paradigm from tolerating diversity to
transformative commitment to equity” (p. 28). Latina/no administrators have experiences
considered funds of knowledge, which they use to advance equity and social justice (Santamaría
et al., 2014). As administrators lead schools, these connections and experiences are seen as
assets.
Latina/no leaders have funds of knowledge and cultural wealth that help them lead in
school. Funds of knowledge recognize that students’ cultural experiences and home experiences
are assets rather than viewing them as deficits (González et al., 2005). The characteristics these
administrators hold can contribute to disparities in school exclusionary practices (Welsh & Little,
2018). Latina leaders showed leadership practices that were considered by their communities as
cultural wealth (Méndez-Morse et al., 2015) but more particularly with aspirational capital,
which Yosso (2005) defined as looking beyond hardships and circumstances and persevering
toward a better future. Latina/no leaders have experiences and characteristics that can contribute
to leading in ethnically and culturally diverse schools, which can contribute to reducing the

24
suspension and expulsion rates of Latina/no students. For example, Pellegrino (2020) found that
culturally responsive practices reduced disparities in suspensions among students of color and
White students. Although Pellegrino’s (2020) study focused on classroom teachers, they found
that a promising practice these teachers utilized to reduce disciplinary referrals was cultural
responsiveness and that administrators fostered these practices. As Terrell et al. (2018) found,
school administrators who are culturally proficient and aware, along with fostering those
practices in their schools, are successful.
Alternatives to Exclusionary Discipline
This section of the literature review will address alternative to exclusionary practices and
the implications for students. The alternatives to exclusionary practices included in the literature
review are policies to disrupt exclusionary discipline, positive interventions and supports,
restorative practices, and social emotional learning.
The following literature points to the impact of policies intended to disrupt inequitable
discipline for marginalized students and alternatives to exclusionary, zero-tolerance practices. In
recent years, the federal and state have passed policies intended to address the disproportionate
exclusionary discipline practices for marginalized groups of students. The literature shows the
policies currently in place and their intent to address these inequities. Further, the literature
highlights the impact of alternatives to suspension such as Positive Behavior Intervention and
Supports, Social Emotional Learning, and Restorative Practices on disproportionate exclusionary
practices.
Policies to Disrupt Exclusionary Discipline
With the disproportionate number of African American and Latina/no students suspended
from school due to zero-tolerance practices, there have been attempts, both at the federal and

25
state levels, to disrupt exclusionary practices. At the federal level, the Every Student Succeeds
Act (ESSA) passed in 2015 giving states the opportunity to approach school accountability and
continuous improvement in new ways with the goal of creating inclusive and equitable learning
environments. The ESSA also addresses the need for building a positive school climate by
adding a measure of accountability for states and requiring improvement systems of support
(Kostyo et al., 2018). In California, the districts use an online system to share data on
suspensions and academic achievement. In a review of ESSA, Gregory and Fergus (2017) stated
that ESSA requires that “school districts develop plans for reducing exclusionary discipline
while requiring state education agencies to develop plans for supporting school districts in
reducing their use of exclusionary discipline” (p. 120). ESSA provides states guidance and sets
federal standards for reducing disproportionate exclusionary practices in schools that harm
students.
California has recognized that there is a need to reduce the number of students being
suspended and pushed out of school by passing initiatives and laws. For example, Assembly Bill
(AB) 1729 (2012) requires schools to use other means of correction to discipline as opposed to
using in-school and out-of-school suspensions and expulsions to rectify behavior. In addition, it
requires schools to implement a multi-tiered system of support for behavior while also providing
schools with examples of other means of correction, such as implementing PBIS and restorative
practices (Fix School Discipline, 2021; Townsend, 2020). Along with AB 1729, California’s
Governor signed Senate Bill 419 into law, banning suspension for students in grades K–5 for
willful defiance or disruptions, which has been noted as the leading cause of suspensions for
African American and Latina/no students (Losen et al., 2015; Senate Bill 419, 2020). Willful
defiance is defined as minor disruptive behaviors (Wang, 2022). While that law passed 20 years

26
ago and Senate Bill (SB) in 2020, with the intention of solving the inequitable practices that have
led to high suspension rates for Black and Latina/no students, the data still shows there is room
for much improvement.
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports
When AB 1729 became law, Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) was
recommended as an evidence-based framework for schools looking to reduce student suspension
rates while promoting a positive school climate (AB 1729, 2012; California Department of
Education, 2021b; Fix School Discipline, 2021). According to the Center on PBIS (n.d.), PBIS is
a framework in which evidence-based practices are implemented to “support students’ academic,
social, emotional, and behavioral success, engage with families to create locally-meaningful and
culturally-relevant outcomes, and use data to make informed decisions that improve the way
things work for everyone” (para. 1). School-wide PBIS is a multi-tiered system of support
framework designed to prevent problem behavior from occurring and effectively intervening
when it does (Horner & Sugai, 2009, 2015). Research has found that PBIS reduces the number of
office referrals and supports overall school culture, attendance, and academic achievement
(Fowler, 2011). Furthermore, teachers, administrators, and school staff can better respond to the
needs of students through a multi-tiered intervention system when they have training in PBIS
(Fowler, 2011). When schools fail to implement adequate behavior supports, such as PBIS, it can
lead students to the path toward the school-to-prison pipeline (Wald & Losen, 2003). Hence,
PBIS is a promising practice that can contribute to the reduction of student suspensions.
Restorative Practices
Along with PBIS, restorative practices is a promising practice. In lieu of suspension for
Latina/no and African American students restorative practices is an (California Department of

27
Education, 2021b; Gomez et al., 2021; Hirschfield, 2018). Restorative practices improve school
climate and culture through prevention, building powerful communities, and caring social
relationships while providing opportunities to restore relationships when harm occurs
(International Institute for Restorative Practices, n.d.; Kline, 2016). McCluskey et al. (2008)
acknowledged that schools are complex social structures and that power struggles between
teachers and students exist, which can lead to conflict and punitive responses. McCluskey et al.
(2008) further added that restorative practices can provide opportunities to move away from a
culture of shaming and punishment. Another study conducted in a mid-size urban school district
found that implementing restorative practices along with consistent staff professional
development and principal coaching and leadership reduced suspensions for elementary school
students (Augustine et al., 2018), showing that restorative practices are a promising practice.
Social-Emotional Learning
Schools are currently implementing social-emotional learning (SEL) to build a positive
school climate and support students’ emotional needs, as well as to reduce punishments that
remove students from school (Gregory & Fergus, 2017). Assembly Bill 1729 has identified the
teaching of prosocial behaviors as another means of correction (California Legislative
Information, 2012). Per the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning
(CASEL, n.d.), SEL is
the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and achieve personal
and collective goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain supportive
relationships, and make responsible and caring decisions. (para.1)

28
Social-emotional learning is shown to have long-term success in and out of school
(Mahoney et al., 2018). A study involving middle school students aged 10 to 13 (Roeser et al.,
2000) found that SEL provided quality social opportunities for adolescents and adults to develop
caring and respectful relationships, along with building adolescent self-identity and behavior
development. Along with developing positive relationships, SEL has other positive outcomes,
such as students feeling motivated at school, following school rules, having a sense of wellbeing, and avoiding perceived negative social groups (Roeser et al., 2000). While many schools
are embracing SEL as a means of curtailing the number of students disciplined, suspended, or
expelled, some districts are still seeing a disproportionate number of students disciplined.
Gregory and Fergus (2017) found that “educators’ own social and emotional competencies
strongly influence students’ motivation to learn and the school climate” (p. 117). They suggested
that SEL should focus on equity and address student and adult SEL competencies. Regarded as
an alternative to reducing exclusionary discipline practices, social-emotional learning is showing
promise in reducing punishments that keep students out of school (Gregory & Fergus, 2017).
Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework is a problem-solving
approach that provides organizations with a method to reach their goals. The gap analysis
framework allows organizations to identify the causes of performance gaps that impede an
organization from meeting its goals and desired outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008). This
framework affects an organization as it removes assumptions or guesswork in identifying the
causes that impede organizations from meeting their performance goals. These assumptions, if
taken as facts, can lead to further performance problems for the organization (Rueda, 2011). The

29
gap analysis framework looks at knowledge, motivation, and organization as influences that
cause a gap between goals and current performance (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
This study adapted Clark and Estes’s (2008) framework to evaluate and identify the
performance goal of reducing exclusionary disciplinary practices for Latina/no students. This
section examines assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on Latina
administrators as they determine whether to suspend or expel Latina/no students.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge is what one knows or learns, such as facts, concepts, and processes (Clark &
Estes, 2008). There are four categories to the knowledge domain, which are factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). The analysis identifies gaps in
knowledge or skills that limit people’s ability to figure out how to problem-solve an issue (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Latina elementary administrators must have knowledge of equitable discipline
processes and metacognitive reflective practices. As school leaders, they must see the connection
between performance goals and their skills to affect the disproportionate suspension rates of
Latina/no students in their organizations (Northouse, 2019).
Knowledge and Skills
According to Clark and Estes (2008), knowledge and skills need further development
under two conditions: when people do not know how to accomplish a goal and when specific
skills or knowledge is required to problem-solve a challenge. Latina administrators and the
organizations they work for must consider these conditions if performance goals are not met.
Rueda (2011) further explained that a person’s knowledge requires various levels of
cognitive processing, referring to Bloom’s taxonomy. N. E. Adams (2015) explained that
Bloom’s taxonomy has six categories ordered by lower to higher processing skills depending on

30
the level of cognitive processing required. These levels move from abstract to concrete along
Bloom’s taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002). Conducting a gap analysis allows organizations and
stakeholders to analyze whether there are any gaps in knowledge, motivation, and in the
organization before jumping to a solution. This section addresses the knowledge types that
contribute to performance gaps.
Declarative Factual Knowledge Influence: Administrators Must Know Terms Such As “Other
Means of Correction,” “School-to-Prison Pipeline,” “Zero-Tolerance,” and “Alternatives to
Suspensions”
Declarative factual knowledge refers to the knowledge of basic facts, terminology,
details, and elements in a specific discipline to solve a problem (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Factual knowledge is necessary for stakeholders, as they must be familiar with specific
terminology and facts to understand and function within the organization. Latina elementary
school administrators must be familiar with terms such as “other means of correction,”
“alternatives to suspension” and “equitable discipline practices” to function in an organization
whose goal is to reduce suspension rates of Latina/no students in its schools.
To support an organizational goal of reducing suspension rates, administrators must be
familiar with specific terminology around discipline. Such terminology includes “other means of
suspension” (CA Assembly Bill 1729, 2012), “school-to-prison pipeline” (ACLU, 2016; Fowler,
2011; Nance, 2016; Wald & Losen, 2003), “zero tolerance” (ACLU, n.d.-a, n.d.-b; Hanson,
2005; Kafka, 2011), and “alternatives to suspensions.” Knowing these terms is key in
collaborating on, speaking to, and handling discipline in schools to reduce suspension rates.

31
Procedural Knowledge Influences
Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something to accomplish a performance
goal (Rueda, 2011). Knowledge of methods of inquiry, very specific or finite skills, algorithms,
techniques, and particular methodologies are accompanied by procedural knowledge (N. E.
Adams, 2015; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Rueda, 2011). To meet the goals of reducing
suspension rates, principals need to know the steps to handle student discipline and provide
support to students.
Procedural Influence: Administrators Know the Steps to Handle Discipline
Equitably Based on Current Policies Such As AB1729, SB419, and ESSA, Requiring
Offering Students Supports and Documenting Alternatives to Suspensions. Knowing current
policies regarding student discipline is necessary to reduce and work toward the elimination of
disproportionate suspension rates. Northouse (2019) stated that knowledge “is related to the
application and implementation of problem-solving skills,” which directly influences a leader’s
ability to solve problems. When administrators are familiar with disciplinary policies such as
California Assembly Bill 1729, Senate Bill 419, and ESSA, they understand the procedures for
handling discipline. Familiar with legal policies around discipline, these bureaucratic
considerations can influence how school principals proceed and administer consequences in
school (DeMatthews et al., 2017).
Procedural Influence: Administrators Need to Know the Steps to Gather, Analyze,
Evaluate, and Share Discipline Data to Identify and Eliminate the Disproportionate
Number of Suspensions for Latino/Latina Students. In an aim to reduce suspensions for
Latina/no students, it is necessary to know the steps to gather, analyze, evaluate, and share
discipline data to best understand the extent of the problem (McIntosh et al., 2021). Rueda

32
(2011) defined “analyze” as “breaking something into parts and determining how they relate to
one another” (p. 29). N. E. Adams (2015) added that beyond recalling facts, the next step in
Bloom’s taxonomy is comprehension, which “[begins] to incorporate knowledge into their
existing cognitive schemas” (para. 4). As principals use their knowledge in analyzing discipline
data, McIntosh et al. (2021) say it can lead to creating an evaluation plan intended to reach
discipline equity, which is beyond just having factual knowledge. According to Northhouse
(2019), with continued use of procedural knowledge, it will become a “crystallized cognitive
ability” (p. 53). As a result, with time and practice, principals’ ability to better comprehend
complex information enhances.
Metacognitive Knowledge
According to the APA (n.d.), metacognition is defined as having an awareness of our
cognitive processes. Metacognitive knowledge is essentially thinking about one’s thinking in a
purposeful way, such as knowing when and why to do something (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001;
Rueda, 2011.) Part of metacognition is the ability to engage in self-reflection, which allows for
the transference of new knowledge and to adapt as needed to meet goals (Mayer, 2011; Schunk,
2020). When one engages in self-reflection, it generates internal feedback, which identifies any
gaps in one’s performance (Rueda, 2011). As principals engage with students during disciplinary
situations, it is important to know their thinking or metacognitive processing as they decide
whether to use exclusionary practices as a disciplinary consequence. Understanding their internal
feedback will help identify any gaps in achieving the goal of reducing suspension rates for
Latina/no students.
Metacognitive Influence: Administrators Reflect on Disciplinary Actions Taken and
Whether the Action/Consequence Are Appropriate for the Behavior. School administrators

33
are “key disciplinary decision-makers, advocates, and intermediaries for social justice”
(DeMatthews et al., 2017, p. 519), and for this reason, knowing how they think and process
student discipline is important. Self-reflection is necessary when handling disciplinary situations
and working toward disrupting exclusionary practices. DeMatthews et al. (2017) found that
administrators constantly reflect on their disciplinary actions and if they had the resources or
alternative options for students, rather than opting for exclusionary practices. As principals
reflect on their decisions, they can use the information to help them as they solve future
problems (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
Metacognitive Influence: Administrators Reflect Whether Cultural Competence
Impacts Their Disciplinary Actions Toward Latino/Latina Students. Black and Latino
administrators can serve as role models and connect with Black and Latino students. Mojica
(2017) referred to these administrators as cultural connectors. Noguera (2003) further asserted
that educators did not enter the educational profession to sort or marginalize students but to
empower and provide opportunities for those disadvantaged by racism and poverty. As principals
encounter situations where they must follow up on disciplinary actions, they might reflect on
whether a cultural connection to their students and their commitment to providing support may
influence their disciplinary actions. Self-reflection can occur before, during, and after
administrators process and administer student disciplinary situations (McAlpine & Weston,
2000). This relates to work by Schön (1983), who highlighted the value of reflection in helping
professionals learn about and improve their practices.
Table 1 shows the assumed knowledge influences and the related literature.

34
Table 1
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed knowledge influences Research literature
Declarative factual (terms, facts, concepts):
Administrators must know terms such as
“other means of correction,” “equitable
discipline practices,” “zero-tolerance,” and
“alternatives to suspensions.”
Rueda, 2011
Krathwohl, 2002
Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001
Kafka, 2011
ACLU, n.d.
Hanson, 2005
Procedural: Administrators know the steps to
handle discipline equitably based on
current policies such as AB1729, SB419,
and ESSA requiring offering students
support and documenting alternatives to
suspensions.
Northouse, 2019
Krathwohl, 2002
Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001
Rueda, 2011
DeMatthews et al., 2017
Procedural: Administrators need to know the
steps to gather, analyze, evaluate, and share
discipline data to identify and eliminate the
disproportionate number of suspensions for
Latino/Latina students.
McIntosh et al., 2021
Rueda, 2011
Northouse, 2019
N. E. Adams, 2015
Metacognitive: Administrators reflect on
disciplinary actions taken and whether the
action/consequence are appropriate for the
behavior.
McAlpine & Weston, 2002
DeMatthews et al., 2017
Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001
Metacognitive: Administrators reflect
whether cultural competence impacts their
disciplinary actions toward Latino/Latina
students.
Mojica, L. (2017)
Schön, 1983
Noguera, 2003
Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001
Motivation
Motivation is an internal process that leads a person to initiate, pursue, and sustain goaloriented actions (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). Kumar et al. (2018)

35
also stated that “motivation is a construct that helps to explain why individuals choose to
approach or avoid a task, and once engaged, whether they put in effort and persist or simply
quit” (p. 78). Motivation is what propels a person to act a certain way or a desire to work toward
meeting a desired basic need (Pardee, 1990). There are four components of motivation: it is
personal, it initiates behavior, it fosters persistence, and it is goal-oriented (Mayer, 2011).
External influences can influence motivation as well. Motivation is inherently cultural, meaning
that social interactions, also referred to as sociocultural influences, affect motivation (Pajares,
2007; Rueda, 2011). Sociocultural influences affect a person’s motivational beliefs, processes,
and outcomes in attaining goals (Rueda, 2011; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020). Motivation plays a
significant role in reaching organizational performance goals.
General Theory
According to Clark and Estes (2008), a reason for performance gaps in an organization is
motivation, which energizes the system. While we need knowledge and skills to know how to
approach a problem, organizations need motivation to put effort into initiating problem-solving
steps (Clark & Estes, 2008). There are three motivational factors: active choice, persistence, and
mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Active choice refers to intentionally choosing
to pursue or not to pursue a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Persistence is the ability to continue to
focus on a goal despite distractions (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Mental effort refers to
the cognitive resources and stamina to generate new learning and knowledge (Rueda, 2011).
Active choice, persistence, and mental effort are necessary to motivate and result in achieving
performance goals. For Latina principals, motivation is important as it energizes them to pursue
their goal of reducing suspension rates for Latina/no students.

36
Stakeholder/Topic-Specific Factors
Latina principals must have knowledge and skills in managing and processing equitable
discipline practices, but motivation is what leads them to choose to work toward their goal,
persist despite distractions, and excerpt mental effort when the task is not easy or new knowledge
is required. This section will explore, if any, the value, self-efficacy, and attributions that are part
of Latina principals’ beliefs as they work toward reducing suspension rates for Latina/no
students.
Value
Value has a significant role in motivation. Schunk and Usher (2019) defined value as an
“individuals’ perceptions of the importance and utility of learning and acting in given ways”
(p. 19). Clark and Estes (2008) stated that people value what they believe will help them be
effective in accomplishing a task or goal. Value refers to the importance we put on achieving a
task or goal (Rueda, 2011). It is important to note that “task values are subjective, meaning that
the same task can be valued quite differently by different individuals and tasks with equivalent
levels of difficulty can be valued quite differently by any one person” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020,
p. 4). The value Latina principals place on student discipline approaches can be different, as
Latina principals are not a monolithic group. Each value placed by each principal must be
viewed individually.
Value Influence: Administrators See the Value of Decreasing the Disproportionate
Suspension Rates for Latino/Latina Students. A primary motivational goal is the value we
place on performance goals. To reduce the disproportionate suspension rates for Latina/no
students, Latina principals must place a high value on this goal. Clark and Estes (2008) say that
the goal is to make the connection between the work commitment, the values of the

37
administrators, and the work goals. This connection is essential because Latina principals must
have a deep value in reducing suspension for Latina/no students. The value they place helps them
put forth mental effort, as doing equitable work is deeply personal (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011).
Schunk and DiBenedetto (2020) shared that people’s actions reflect their values; therefore, if
principals’ value reducing the suspension rates for Latina/no students, then their actions will
demonstrate those values.
Value Influence: Latina Administrators See Value in Their Ethnic and Cultural
Identity That Influences Their Discipline Practices. There is limited research on cultural
values and motivation (Osarumwense, 2009). Most social cognitive research relevant to
motivation has been conducted with individuals in Western societies (Pajares, 2007) and within
White culture. For this reason, it is important to explore the values of Latina principals to best
understand their cognitive process as they handle discipline matters for Latina/no students.
Osarumwense (2009) added that individuals differ in their motivational drive and that “an
individual’s motivation varies from situation to situation, from culture to culture” (p. 142). In
agreement, Rueda (2011) states that motivation is “inherently cultural” (p. 39), and beliefs and
values vary among people.
The value placed by Latina principals on culture and ethnic identity is a a motivational
variable. In a study of Latina administrators, M. A. Martínez et al. (2016) found that these
administrators value their cultural and linguistic attributes, adding that their leadership styles are
“informed by their cultural values and beliefs: family, community, respect, service, humility,
care, compassion, and social justice guide how they work with students, staff, and communities”
(p. 13). If these leaders see their culture as valuable and as a guide to their equity work with
students, it will be important to determine their culture’s influence as they address disciplinary

38
actions for Latina/no students. Equally important, Clark and Estes (2008) stated, “It is wrong to
assume that because a person grew up in a certain culture that they will necessarily possess the
values associated with their origin culture” (p. 85). This substantiates the need to explore the
influence culture has on disciplinary actions for Latina/no students.
Self-Efficacy Influence: Administrators Have the Confidence in Their Skills to Reduce or
Eliminate the Disproportionate Suspensions for Latino/Latina Students.
Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ judgments and perceptions about whether they are
capable of doing well and accomplishing a task (Bandura, 1997; Rueda, 2011). Bandura’s social
cognitive theory states that self-efficacy is the process in which people set goals and will sustain
motivation through evaluating their progress towards those goals (Schunk & Usher, 2019).
Research has found that when an individual has high self-efficacy, they have greater beliefs
about their competence and higher expectancies for success, which will motivate them to work
harder at a task and persist (C. M. Adams & Forsyth, 2013; Rueda, 2011). Furthermore, Clark
(2003) found that people’s belief in their skills to succeed at their task “is perhaps the most
important factor in our commitment to work tasks and the quality and quantity of mental effort
people invest in their work” (p. 6). Principals who are confident in their ability and have positive
expectations for success are more likely to meet their goal of reducing suspension rates.
Clark (2003) stated that motivation is the mental effort that pushes us to use our
knowledge and skills to persist and try something new to solve a problem. In addition, Bandura
(1978) stated that self-efficacy determines “how much effort people will expend and how long
they will persist in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. The stronger the perceived
self-efficacy, the more active the efforts” (p. 194). Latina principals need high self-efficacy if
they are to persist and exert mental effort to reduce suspension rates for Latina/no students. The

39
work to disrupt exclusionary practices in schools began with the Progressive Era (Kafka, 2011;
Library of Congress, n.d.), followed by the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954
(Triplett et al., 2014), and now continues with zero-tolerance policies (ACLU, n.d.-a, n.d.-b;
Hanson, 2005; Kafka, 2011).
Rueda (2011) noted that self-efficacy is also context-specific, which means that Latina
principals may have different beliefs about their skills and knowledge of how to reduce
suspension rates. For example, Latina principals may have high self-efficacy in understanding
how to process equitable and fair disciplinary actions but have low self-efficacy in gathering
student discipline data to inform goal progress toward lowering suspensions. Schunk and Usher
(2019) stated that sustaining individuals who hold a strong sense of self-efficacy “for succeeding
and believe that their actions will result in positive outcomes are motivated to continue working
even when progress occurs slowly” (p. 19). Self-efficacy is essential as Latina principals work
toward their goal of lowering the suspension rate of Latina/no students, especially when progress
is not immediately evident.
Attribution
Studies indicate that attributions have an impact on outcomes and motivation (APA,
2015; Graham et al., 2015; Schunk, 2020). The attribution theory states that people look for
information that will help explain specific behavior outcomes (Schunk, 2020). Rueda (2011)
added that attributions are the beliefs that a person has regarding their success and failures.
Likewise, Schunk and DiBenedetto (2020) described attributions as an individual’s perceived
causes and reason for their outcomes. Rueda (2011) stated that attribution theorists consider
attributions along three dimensions: stability, locus, and control. This means that attributions are
malleable and not fixed personality traits.

40
For individuals, attributions play a key role in achievement and performance motivation
(Graham et al., 2015). The APA (2015) added that individuals could see attributions as fixed or
malleable. This is important because if individuals see their achievement outcomes as fixed, they
are less likely to be motivated to expand any further effort to succeed (Rueda, 2011; Schunk,
2020). The study conducted by Graham et al. (2015), found that “attribution retraining” could
improve the “self-responsibility for achievement” (p. 218). Knowing the significant role of
attributions in contributing to performance outcomes may aid in reducing the suspension and
expulsion rates of Latina/no students. Since attributions focuses on personal effort, it is important
to see how attributions can be different or similar among the participants.
Table 2 shows the assumed motivation influences and the related literature.

41
Table 2
Summary of Assumed Motivation Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the Performance
Goal
Assumed motivation influences Research literature
Value
Administrators see the value of decreasing the
disproportionate suspension rates for
Latino/Latina students.
Clark & Estes, 2008
Mayer, 2011
Rueda, 2011
Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020
Latina administrators see value in their ethnic
and cultural identity that influences their
discipline practices.
Osarumwense, 2009
Pajares, 2007
Martínez et al., 2016
Rueda, 2011
Clark & Estes, 2008
Self-efficacy
Administrators have high beliefs in their
skills and knowledge to reduce or eliminate
the disproportionate suspensions for
Latino/Latina students.
C. M. Adams & Forsyth, 2013
Bandura, 1997
Clark, 2003
Rueda, 2011
Schunk & Usher, 2019
Attribution theory
Administrators attribute the reduction of
suspensions to their beliefs, values, and
behaviors to explain the outcomes of
reducing suspensions.
Schunk, 2020
Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020
Rueda, 2011
Graham et al., 2015
APA, 2015
Organization
Although motivation, knowledge, and skills are essential to achieving goals, barriers such
as inadequate material resources and processes in an organization can hinder performance gaps
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Along with that, there must be a connection and alignment between the

42
larger goals of the organization and the members of its organization to reach its performance
goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). In addressing organizational gaps, Rueda (2011) suggested that
organizations consider culture, structure, policies, and practices in determining organizational
gaps. The culture settings and cultural models of an organization are also essential elements in
attempts to improve organizational performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). Because identifying
performance gaps aids in reaching performance goals, identifying barriers to reducing Latina/no
students’ suspension rates requires understanding the cultures, structures, policies, and processes
in which administrators work.
Resources
To reach organizational goals, organizations need tangible supplies and equipment (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Resources can include time, support, and supplies. According to Clark and Estes
(2008), the resources of the organization must align with their performance goals in mind. Rueda
(2011) also supported this by stating that organizations should shift resources “to match the
priorities and goals” (p. 64) and provide adequate resources to accomplish goals. Latina
administrators working in their organizations might or might not have adequate resources to
meet their goals of reducing the suspension rates for their Latina/no students.
Resource Influence: The Organization Provides Training to Administrators on
Practices That Support Equitable Disciplinary Practices That Reduce Suspension Rates.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that inadequate resources are a barrier for organizations. A
resource that Latina administrators can benefit from is training or professional development
opportunities. Reed et al. (2020) found that professional development programs focused on
school discipline reform are an essential component of any comprehensive approach to
improving educational equity.

43
Polices and Procedure Influence: The Administrators Work in Districts That Have Policies
Intended to Reduce Suspensions and Expulsions
Rueda (2011) stated that even if motivation is high in an organization if policies and
procedures do not align with organizational goals, then it could impede the performance of these
organizations. Additionally, Clark and Estes (2008) claim that when organizational processes are
inadequate or misaligned with goals, the results can lead to chaos and inefficiency, thus not
meeting the performance goals for the organization. Clark and Estes (2008) also distinguish
procedures and processes by stating that procedures tell people how to do something, while
processes tell individual units how to “combine their separate work procedures into a smooth
functioning unit” (p. 104). To work effectively and meet organizational performance goals both
processes and procedures, must align with the organization. The organization in which Latina
administrators work must have policies and procedures that align with the organizational goal of
reducing the suspension rates for Latina/no students. Without this alignment, there will be
barriers to achieving their performance goals.
Written disciplinary policies and codes of conduct centered on suspension and expulsion
are in many school districts (Fenning & Jenkins, 2018). The policies on how to handle
disciplinary actions can determine whether Latina/no students are disciplined equitably. As an
example, in their study on exclusionary discipline practices, Welsh and Little (2018) suggested
that “it is important to examine how other policies and/or programs within schools contribute to
how the alternative approaches are understood and how their implementation redresses racial
disparities in school discipline” (p. 785). School districts must have clear disciplinary policies
and procedures that align with equitable discipline practices if they are to reduce suspension
rates. A district’s culture can shape its policies and procedures (Rueda, 2011). Since

44
administrators work in different organizations with unique cultures, there is a need to study the
influence of policies and procedures on approaches to disciplinary actions.
Cultural Setting Influence: The District Has a Culture That Values and Promotes Diversity in
Its Leadership
According to Clark and Estes (2008), culture describes the values, goals, beliefs,
emotions, and processes developed over time in an organization. Culture can influence
motivation in the workplace and guide the goals selected and the processes and procedures that
will help achieve the organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational cultures should
not be considered monolithic or static but rather as something that is created and re-created as
individuals interact on a daily basis (Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings are part of an organization’s
culture and described as complex social constructs (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda,
2011). Social theorists state that cultural settings can be classrooms, meeting places,
playgrounds, teacher lunchrooms, and cafeterias, which can affect behavior (Rueda, 2011).
The culture of a school district can affect the value they place on diversifying their school
leadership. The values of an organization matter as they affect the structure and the values that
they hold (Rueda, 2011). Studying Latinas as they balance being administrators with traditional
Latina female roles, R. Martínez et al. (2020) found that there was limited mentorship and a lack
of a well-developed pipeline for those interested in administration. Their study highlights
districts valuing diversity, promoting diversity, and creating a pipeline for Latina administrators.
Brooks (2013) stated that there is a need for educators who are culturally informed and can
advocate for Latina/no students’ rights. Magdaleno (2006) said that due to “years of lower
expectations and the continued presence of a career glass ceiling, Latinx educational leaders
frequently find it difficult to ascend to, and sustain positions at subsequent levels of school

45
administration” (pp. 12–13). Rodriguez (2018) also stated that politics between the district
central office and school administrators could hinder decisions to enter or remain in
administration. If there is a connection between Latina administrators and their impact on school
performance and reducing school discipline for Latina/no students, then districts must value
diversity in their school administration.
Cultural Model Influence: Administrators Are in Organizations That Have a Culture Which
Values Trust in Utilizing Innovative Ideas to Reduce Suspensions
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) defined cultural models as “shared mental schema or
normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work” (p. 47). This shared mental
schema manifests as rules that govern social interaction and the actions of the group that
contribute to the cultural setting. Cultural models are so familiar that they are often invisible and
unnoticed by those who hold them and are automatic (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda,
2011). Similarly, Rueda (2011) added that to better understand education performance gaps,
cultural models and settings should be considered so that “it is easier to understand why people
in that context think and behave and respond in the ways that they do” (p. 69). Cultural models
are important because they influence people’s behaviors (Rueda, 2011). Therefore,
understanding the cultural models in which Latina administrators navigate daily, can influence
their behavior as they consider disciplinary actions for Latina/no students. This may or may not
contribute to performance gaps in their organizations around reducing the suspension rates of
Latina/no students.
Mukuria (2002) studied school administrators who reduced suspension rates at their
schools and stated that they used district policies as a guide for suspension but modified them to
meet their schools’ needs. Mukuria suggested that the district central office should empower

46
school administrators and allow them discretion in the disciplinary decision-making process.
This requires trust between the school administrators and the district office. Chhuon et al. (2008)
found that the structural design of school districts does not easily facilitate schools and central
office social exchange and interactions, which can hinder trust building. Furthermore, Chhuon et
al. (2008) added, “flexibility, increased interaction between school leaders and the central office,
and the recognition of emotional aspects of change are also key elements in the trust-building
process” (p. 231). Latina administrators have the trust of their organizations to make decisions
about school discipline that meet their schools’ needs. Schein (2010) advised school leaders not
to deviate too far from the organization’s culture as it can lead to cultural conflicts.
Table 3 shows the assumed motivation influences and the related literature.

47
Table 3
Summary of Assumed Organization Influences on Stakeholder’s Ability to Achieve the
Performance Goal
Assumed organization influences Research literature
Resources (time, finances, people): The
organization provides training to
administrators on practices that support
equitable disciplinary practices that reduce
suspension rates.
Clark & Estes, 2008
Reed et al., 2020
Rueda, 2011
Policies, processes, and procedures: The
administrators work in districts that have
policies intended to reduce suspensions and
expulsions.
Rueda, 2011
Welsh and Little, 2018
Fenning & Jenkins, 2018
Cultural settings: The district has a culture
that values and promotes diversity in its
leadership.
R. Martínez et al., 2020
Magdaleno, 2006
Rueda, 2011
Brooks, 2013
Murakami et al., 2016
Rodriguez, 2018
Cultural models: Administrators are in an
organizational culture that values trust in
innovative ideas to reduce suspensions.
Mukuria, 2002
Chhuon et al., 2008
Schien, 2010
Rueda, 2011
The knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) influences revealed by the
literature were used as the basis of inquiry in Chapter Three to determine the extent to which
Latina elementary administrators’ influences must be addressed to meet the organizational goal
of reducing the suspension rates of Latina/no students.

48
Chapter Three: Methodology
This study examined the root causes impacting the performance goal of school
administrators working toward reducing exclusionary disciplinary practices that lead to
disproportionate suspension rates for Latina/no students. Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis
focused on the root causes of the problem by assessing the gaps in KMO factors. The gap
analysis began by listing the assumed root causes and then systematically examining each. The
stakeholders were Latina elementary school principals from urban school districts in Southern
California. Two questions guided this study:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of Latina
elementary school administrators in relation to reducing the suspension rates of
Latina/no students?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources influence the successful implementation of promising
practices for Latina/no elementary school administrators with a goal of reducing
suspension rates for Latina/no students?
The gap analysis framework is a problem-solving approach that focuses on identifying
gaps in KMO processes that can keep an organization from reaching its performance goals
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). When organizations identify the gaps in KMO processes,
they can provide the necessary “performance solutions available to close the gaps” (Clark &
Estes, 2008, p. 42). The gap analysis began by identifying the performance goals of the
organization and comparing them to the current achievement of those goals (Clark & Estes,
2008; Rueda, 2011). This was followed by taking steps to identify the gaps and then identifying
how KMO gaps affected the performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Once the

49
gaps and root causes were identified, Rueda (2011) stated that the next step is to develop
solutions targeted to the causes, which leads to answering the question, “What can we do to fix
it?” (p. 80). The final step in the gap analysis was to implement and evaluate the outcomes of the
solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008). Rueda (2011) mentioned that the final step answers the
question, “Did it work?” The aim is to determine whether it solved the performance gaps that it
was intended to solve (p. 87). The gap analysis framework assists organizations in identifying the
factors that impede them from achieving their goals and creating targeted specific solutions. I
utilized the gap analysis framework as this study’s conceptual framework. Figure 1 depicts the
process followed in the gap analysis.
Figure 1
The Gap Analysis Process

50
Assessment of Performance Influences
Using Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework, Chapter Two focused on
identifying the assumed influences in KMO factors that impacted the performance goals of
Latina elementary principals in reducing exclusionary disciplinary practices for Latina/no
students. This section assesses the assumed KMO influences on Latina administrators as they
determine whether to suspend or expel Latina/no students (Tables 4, 5, and 6). This study was a
promising practice study, which, through interviews, assessed the impact the identified assumed
influences had on how the participants approached disciplinary actions toward Latina/no
students.

51
Table 4
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed knowledge influences Interview item
Declarative factual (terms, facts, concepts)
Administrators must know terms such as
“other means of correction,” “equitable
discipline practices,” “zero-tolerance,” and
“alternatives to suspensions.”
You might be familiar with the term “other
means of correction”? What does that mean
to you?
Probing: Are there other terms that you are
familiar with or use?
What are some alternatives to suspension that
you employ?
What is your understanding of zerotolerance?
Tell me what you know about restorative
practices.
Procedural
Administrators know the steps to handle
discipline equitably based on current
policies such as AB1729, SB419, and
ESSA requiring offering students support
and documenting alternatives to
suspensions.
Can you describe some steps you take when
handling discipline issues?
Administrators need to know the steps to
gather, analyze, evaluate, and share
discipline data to identify and eliminate the
disproportionate number of suspensions for
Latino/Latina students.
What discipline data is available to you as an
administrator?
Probe: Can you explain how that data is used
to inform your goals for reducing the
suspension rates for students?
Metacognitive
Administrators reflect on disciplinary actions
taken and whether the action/consequence
are appropriate for the behavior.
Can you recall the last time you decided on a
restorative approach to discipline versus an
exclusionary approach for a Latino or
Latina student?
Probe: Can you tell me what led to that
decision?
Administrators reflect whether cultural
competence impacts their disciplinary
actions toward Latino/Latina students.
Can you tell me a time being Latina
influenced or incentivized you to approach
discipline differently?
Probe: Can you share a story?

52
Table 5
Summary of Motivation Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed motivation influences Interview items
Value
Administrators see the value of decreasing the
disproportionate suspension rates for
Latino/Latina students.
Think about your school goals. What value do
you place in reducing the suspension rates
for Latina/no students? Please explain.
Latina administrators see value in their ethnic
and cultural identity that influences their
discipline practices.
Do you think that your cultural and ethnic
identity brings value in reducing
suspensions for students?
Probe: Why do you say so?
Self-efficacy
Administrators have high beliefs in their
skills and knowledge to reduce or eliminate
the disproportionate suspensions for
Latino/Latina students.
What types of professional development or
training have you received around
discipline or alternatives to discipline?
Probe: Can you share what types of PD or
training you have received? How does this
professional development/training impact
how you approach discipline?
Attribution theory
Administrators can attribute specific
behaviors to explain the outcomes in
reducing suspensions.
Do you believe that your effort in reducing
suspension has paid off?
Probe: Does that matter to you? Why?

53
Table 6
Summary of Organization Influences and Method of Assessment
Assumed organization influences Interview items
Resources
The organization provides training to
administrators on practices that support
equitable disciplinary practices that reduce
suspension rates.
Can you name some examples of resources
that the district provides to reduce
suspensions?
Policies, processes, and procedures
The administrators work in districts that have
policies intended to reduce suspensions and
expulsions.
Can you recall or refer to policies that help
reduce suspension/ expulsion rates?
Cultural models
Administrators are in an organizational
culture that values trust in innovative ideas
to reduce suspensions.
Tell me about the culture of your
organization.
Probe: Does this organizational culture
support your efforts in reducing suspension
rates in your school? Why or why not?
What are some innovative ideas that you tried
to reduce the suspension rates of your
students?
Probe: Do those ideas align with the
organizational culture? Please explain.
Does district office leadership support your
ideas? How do you know?
Cultural settings
The district has a culture that values and
promotes diversity in its leadership.
What would you say are the beliefs and
values of your district when it comes to
diversity in its leadership?
Probe: What might be evidence of that?
Does the district provide acknowledgment or
rewards for efforts or success in reducing
suspensions?
Probe: Can you share some examples?

54
Participating Stakeholders and Sample Selection
The focused stakeholder group for this paper was Latina elementary school
administrators. The focus group included 10 Southern California elementary school principals
who self-identified as Latinas. They participants had at least 2 years at their elementary schools.
Sampling
The sampling criteria used for this study required participants to identify as Latinas and
work as elementary school principals in LACOE’s jurisdiction. This study required a small
sample of the larger population of Latina elementary school principals in California. As this was
a small sample, I had to identify its characteristics (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). This study
focused on promising practices, so the participants had to show progress in eliminating or
decreasing Latina/no students’ suspension. To connect this decrease in suspensions, the
participants had at least 2 years at their current school sites. Qualitative methods provided insight
into the promising practices in which they engaged.
Recruitment
For this study, Latina elementary school administrators were the specific group recruited.
A consideration for recruiting participants for this research was whether the principal has been at
their schools long enough and identified as the principal implementing the promising practices.
For this reason, a minimum of 2 years at the school was a criterion for this sampling. I recruited
participants by email and followed up with a phone call. The participants self-identified as
Latinas, which was required for this study. I recruited interviewees from Southern California
school districts whose suspension data helped identify which schools were decreasing
suspensions for Latina/no students. Listservs from organizations like the California Association
of Latino Superintendents and Administrators and the Association of California School

55
Administrators were used to identify Latina elementary school principals. The other process used
to identify principals was referrals from the participants.
Instrumentation: Interview Protocol Design
This qualitative study sought to know more about the participants’ intentions and
perspectives (Agee, 2009). For this reason, I used interviews. Specifically, I created a semistructured interview protocol utilizing Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework. The
interview questions align with the guiding questions for this study. I coded the questions using
KMO influences (Clark & Estes, 2008).
I carefully designed the interview protocol to ensure the participants and I could connect,
allowing me to gather as much information from them as possible. Lochmiller and Lester (2017)
stated that this protocol allows for more flexibility and allows the researcher to obtain in-depth
information and a thinking process. By conducting interviews, the process felt more like a
conversation. Lochmiller and Lester (2017) added that semi-structured interviews assume that
not all participants understand the questions in the same way, which addresses the equity element
of the research.
This study focused on the influences impacting the decisions Latina elementary school
principals take when handling discipline for Latina/no students. The interview protocol captured
their perspectives (Agee, 2009). M. Q. Patton (2002), who stated interview protocols allow
researchers to “capture feelings, thoughts, and intentions and enter a person’s perspective”,
supports this (p. 341). Furthermore, Maxwell (2013) shared that qualitative research allows the
researcher to understand “the contexts within which the participants act, and the influences that
this context has on their actions” (p. 30). For this study, understanding the influences and thought

56
processes of Latina elementary school principals while handling disciplinary actions for
Latina/no students was best captured through the interviews.
Data Collection: Interviews
Following approval from the University of Southern California Institutional Review
Board (IRB), I recruited participants who met the study criteria by sending information about the
study to their work email. A phone call followed if there was no response to add a more personal
connection. The email contained information about me, the study and how it would be
conducted. Once the participants agreed to be interviewed, I scheduled a time and date that best
met the participants’ schedules. The interviews took approximately 60 minutes to 90 minutes but
varied depending on the participant’s engagement and in-depth responses. M. Q. Patton (2002)
agreed, “the quality of the information obtained during an interview is largely dependent on the
interviewer” (p. 341). Once I selected the participants, I invited them to be interviewed via a
video conference (e.g., Zoom) that allowed me to record the interview. All recordings and data
transcriptions were deleted upon completion of the study.
Data Analysis
This qualitative study required an interactive data analysis approach (Maxwell, 2013).
This approach allowed me to return to the data, gather new questions, and make new connections
as I analyzed. The purpose of qualitative data analysis was to bring meaning and order to the data
that was collected (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Although this was a qualitative study, the data
analysis took on a systematic approach and brought validity to the study (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017).
According to Maxwell (2013), a small sample provides researchers with a better
understanding of “how events, actions, and meanings are shaped by the unique circumstances in

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which these occur” (p. 30). I organized the data based on Clark and Estes’s (2008) KMO
influences. The data analysis provided insight into the thoughts and feelings of the participants,
specifically as it relates to what influences their decisions to suspend or not to suspend Latina/no
students.
There are many approaches to analyzing qualitative data (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017;
Maxwell, 2013). Data analysis for this study was guided by Maxwell’s (2013) strategies for
qualitative data analysis. Maxwell (2013) explained that the data analysis begins immediately
after the interviews. As part of the analysis for this study, audio transcripts, zoom recordings, and
notes were closely analyzed and organized according to KMO influences (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This connects to Maxwell’s (2013) strategy of forming coding categories to help develop
tentative ideas and relationships among the data. Maxwell (2013) stated that there is no single
way of doing qualitative data analysis, but rather, what is important is to “fit the data you have,
to answer your research questions, and to address any potentially serious validity threats to your
conclusions” (p. 105). I assigned numbers to the participants to maintain their anonymity. Rubin
and Rubin (2012) stated that honoring this promise is essential. It is important to consider that
participants working in the same field might recognize other participants, so Rubin and Rubin
(2012) suggested taking other steps to maintain confidentiality, such as not including responses
that might identify a specific participant.
Trustworthiness of Data
To maintain the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, I focused on my
positionality and biases. To ensure the research was credible, I reflected on my own biases and
worldviews that could impede how I interpreted data and findings. This is referred to as
reflexibility or the researcher’s position (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As a researcher, I had to be

58
transparent about my positionality and biases to maintain research credibility. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) stated that conducting research “through [the] careful attention to a study’s
conceptualization” (p. 238) would ensure the work is credible. This is critical as I identify as a
first-generation Latina who served as a principal in a predominantly Black and Latino school,
and the participants identify as Latinas and are principals serving Latina/no students. I carefully
planned the process for conducting this research to ensure trust and credibility. By keeping
credibility at the forefront of this study, I set aside my own biases and maintained an objective
perspective (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
As the researcher, I used work by Lichtman (2013) and Tracy and Hinrichs (2017) as my
guide throughout to ensure that this study and its results were credible. Lichtman (2013) and
Tracy and Hinrichs (2017) provided a guide and personal criteria for conducting good qualitative
research. Lichtman (2013) states that a good qualitative researcher must clearly show the role
they are taking in the research and the relationship to those studied while also stating why this
research is important. Tracy and Hinrichs (2017) added that “scholars demonstrate rigor through
careful attention to detail, methodological thoroughness, precision of evaluation, and the
generation of requisite variety in regard to data richness and complexity” (p.4). The key to
credibility in interviewing is using member checks, also referred to as respondent validation, to
provide opportunities to solicit feedback from participants to rule out the possibility of
misinterpretation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Lochmiller and Lester (2017) also provided other
strategies for establishing trustworthiness, such as member-checking, engaged time in the field,
audit trails, triangulation, and peer debriefing. The recommendations by researchers such as
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), Lichtman (2013), Lochmiller and Lester (2017), and Tracy and
Hinrichs (2017) provided me with a guide to credible qualitative research.

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Role of Investigator
I am a Spanish-speaking Mexican American educator, a former school principal, and an
English learner who attended a predominantly White and English-only elementary school.
Taking into consideration my positionality ensured credibility. As a practitioner-scholar, I delved
into this research knowing my worldviews and how I interpret life (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Life experiences and assumptions can affect data interpretation and how the approach to the
research. I must be aware of my positionality as it can influence how I view other Latina school
principals and their approach to discipline for Latina/no students.
As a Latina and former elementary principal, it was important for me not to assume the
participants had the same life experiences and worldviews as me simply because they identify as
Latinas. This is an assumption that requires, as Milner (2007) stated, “unlearning the
misinformation and stereotypes we have internalized not only about others, but also about
ourselves” (p. 388). Lochmiller and Lester (2017) also added that “ontological assumptions are
concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality” (p. 12). I entered the research with an
open mind and a willingness to learn from the participants, allowing me to gather and interpret
data without bias. Furthermore, Maxwell (2013) states that “the conceptual framework of your
study—the system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that supports and
informs your research—is a key part of your design” (p. 39), meaning that this cannot be ignored
during the research. As a framework, Milner (2007) provided me a guide through the seen,
unseen, and unforeseen dangers of my beliefs and assumptions to ensure that I am engaged in
self-reflection. Milner (2007) recommended that researchers go through a process of inquiry in
researching the self, researching the self in relation to others, engaging in reflection and
representation, and shifting from self to system.

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Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations of this study were the positionality and the sample size. As the researcher,
I had to consider my positionality before beginning any research design. As a first-generation
Latina, raised in a Spanish-speaking home, educated, and an economically secure woman,
interviewing other Latinas, I cannot assume they had similar personal experiences. According to
Lochmiller and Lester (2017), practitioner-scholars must be aware of their views of the world, as
well as how they interpret life. My assumptions could have affected how I interpreted and
approached data.
Another identified limitation was the relatively small representation of Latinas in the
position of school administrator in California. According to the National Center for Education
Statistics (2018), in the 2017–2018 term, only 25% of California principals were Hispanic, while
White principals represented 66.1% of school principals. Furthermore, in that term, only 9% of
California principals who identified as Hispanic were Hispanic and female (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2018). In California, the majority of school principals tend to be White and
male, which can limit the number of Latina administrators available for sampling. For this
reason, the study was not generalized.

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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this project was to study promising practices of Latina elementary school
principals whose school suspension data has shown promise in eliminating or decreasing the
suspension rate of Latina and Latino students. Chapter Four focuses on the results and findings
of this project. In Chapter 3, the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) identified
possible influences on Latina elementary principals’ promising practices, and I organized
influences in the KMO areas. In this chapter, the results of this project are organized using
motivation, knowledge, and organization as categories to show the results regarding the
influences that cause a gap between organizational goals and current performance (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). I collected qualitative data using semi-structured interviews, allowing
the participants to go in-depth with their conversations and feel like a conversation (Lochmiller
& Lester, 2017). The qualitative data validated the assumed influences of Latina elementary
school principals as they handle disciplinary actions for Latina/no students. I did not conduct
surveys, observations, or document analysis for this study.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders for this study were 10 Latina elementary school principals in Southern
California school districts. They are responsible for making final decisions on student
disciplinary actions at their schools. All received a recruitment email (Appendix C), and if they
were interested in participating, we scheduled an interview. I assigned pseudonyms to district
names were issued pseudonyms and assigned participant numbers to the interviewees to ensure
their confidentiality. All participants self-identified as Latinas, with 80% identifying as first-born
in the United States and 20% born outside of the United States. The years of experience as
school principal varied among the participants, as noted in Table 7. The years as principal varied

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from 3 years to 13 years. All participants have been at their schools for more than 3 years. The
participants varied in years of experience as a school principal, with 60% having less than 10
years of experience and 40% having more than 10 years of experience. The range of experience
among the school principals is 3 years to 13 years.
Table 7
Participating Stakeholders
Participant Years as a school principal
1 4
2 5
3 4
4 7
5 14
6 10
7 3
8 11
9 13
10 8

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Determination of Assets and Needs
Interviews served as the data source for this study. Participants engaged in semistructured interviews recorded on Zoom. Using the gap analysis framework, all responses were
organized by KMO influences. As the researcher, I determined the cut-off for identifying
whether an influence was deemed an asset when at least eight interviewees determined it was a
need or an asset. This means 80% of them named that particular influence as a need or an asset. I
did not conduct a document analysis, a survey, or observations for this study.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
For this section, the results and findings look at assumed causes under the four categories
of the knowledge domain, which are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Declarative factual knowledge refers to the knowledge of basic
facts, terminology, details, and elements in a specific discipline to solve a problem (Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011). Latina elementary school administrators must be familiar with terms such as
“other means of correction,” “alternatives to suspension” and “equitable discipline practices” to
function in an organization whose goal is to reduce suspension rates of Latina/no students in its
schools. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something to accomplish a performance
goal (Rueda, 2011). For Latina school administrators to accomplish their goals of reducing
suspension rates for Latina/no students, they need to know the steps to handle student discipline
and how to provide support to students. Metacognitive knowledge is essentially thinking about
one’s thinking in a purposeful way (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), such as knowing when and
why to do something (Rueda, 2011.) As Latina administrators engage with Latina/no students
during disciplinary situations, it is important to know their thinking or metacognitive processing
as they decide whether to use exclusionary practices, such as out-of-school suspensions, as a

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disciplinary consequence. Interview responses were organized and sorted into four categories.
The results of the KMO influences, identified in Chapter Three, are based on participant
responses.
Factual Knowledge Influence
The factual knowledge influence examined herein was that administrators know terms or
can describe “other means of correction,” “equitable discipline practices,” “zero-tolerance,” and
“alternatives to suspensions.”
Interview Findings
Ten participants could define and give examples of “other means of correction,” “zerotolerance,” and “alternatives to suspensions.” Participant 1 described other means of suspension
as “not automatically suspending and trying other things” in lieu of suspension, while Participant
7 specifically names restorative practices as an example of “other means of correction.”
Participant 9 stated that “other means of suspension” means “not jumping to a suspension just
because it is on a suspension matrix.” In the area of alternatives to alternatives, Participant 10
referred to restorative circles and conferencing with students and asking how they can correct
their actions, along with giving counseling time. Participant 4 named alternatives to suspensions
as offering outside counseling, working with parents so they can implement supports at home,
student token boards, and school counseling before heading to a suspension. In the area of “zerotolerance,” all participants provided an understanding and examples of it. For example,
Participant 5 defined zero-tolerance as having “very little to no flexibility in Ed Code violations
and disciplinary actions, it is black and white,” while Participant 10 referred to zero-tolerance as
“behavior actions that student engage in and that Ed. Code specifically identifies as automatic
suspensions” and “ they are very punitive.”

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Summary
The findings indicate that the interviewees have factual knowledge of the following
terms: “zero-tolerance,” “other means of correction,” and “alternatives to suspension.” This
influence was determined to be an asset as 100% could provide examples of these terms and how
they implement them as they discipline students. The examples of these terms served to show
their understanding of terms and how they implement them. As an example, Participant 7
referred to restorative practices to explain “other means of correction.” This influence is
determined to be an asset.
Procedural Knowledge Influence 1
The first influence concerning procedural knowledge examined in this study was that
administrators know the steps to handle discipline equitably based on current policies such as
AB1729, SB419, and ESSA, requiring offering students support and documenting alternatives to
suspensions.
Interview Findings
All participants could speak to equitable practices when handling and taking disciplinary
actions. Participants shared specified actions they take when handling discipline and ensuring
equitable practices. Participant 5, for example, mentioned that she considers “the developmental
age, the situation, the source… I also know which teachers are more tolerant.” Participant 2
added that she disciplines by questioning students and asking, “Why are you here?” She talks
students through their thought process to “understand why they did that and determine how to
help the student so they don’t do it again.” Participant 9 also added that she is intentional:

66
[I work] very hard to ensure that my students understand that we all make mistakes, we
discuss how the incident may affect them and others, and we reflect on what we can learn
from this mistake and come up with a plan to move forward.
Participant 4 also mentioned that when taking steps to handle discipline, she reminds herself
“Behavior is a mental state. … I want to know where is the student coming from and what is the
root cause” before taking action. Even more, Participant 1 indicated, “I try to hear the students
out” and “investigate with witnesses because you cannot just assume that they did it just because
they were in trouble before.”
Summary
The findings indicate that the participants have procedural knowledge and are familiar
with policies such as AB1729, SB419, and ESSA requirements for documenting alternatives to
suspensions. This influence is an asset, as all participants spoke to and gave examples of
equitable practices. Participants mentioned taking into consideration a student’s developmental
level, listening to students, allowing time for students to reflect on their actions, investigating
with witnesses, and not assuming guilt for students who have been in trouble before. These steps
show that participants are thinking equitably when taking steps that may lead to disciplinary
actions. This influence is determined to be an asset.
Procedural Knowledge Influence 2
The second procedural knowledge influence was that administrators need to know the
steps to gather, analyze, evaluate, and share discipline data to identify and eliminate the
disproportionate number of suspensions for Latino/Latina students.

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Interview Findings
All participants identified how they gather, receive, and analyze data, but only nine
mentioned that they share their discipline and suspension data intended to reduce or eliminate
suspensions for Latina/no students. Participant 10 was the only one who acknowledged that data
are not shared once received, specifically sharing that they receive suspension data but do not
regularly share the data with their staff or parents. Participant 10 mentioned, “Each year, we
receive suspension data from our district office, and I keep my own data, but I do not share it
with my staff or with families as often as I probably should.” The other nine participants shared
how they gather, receive, analyze, and share their suspension and discipline data. Participant 3
noted, “We use PBIS data to track our major infractions using [the school-wide information
system], and our student services department sends updates on our suspension… our PBIS team
shares our discipline data to our staff.” In addition, Participant 5 stated,
I am transparent about our discipline data. As part of the PBIS process, I am bringing
teacher teams this summer to analyze major infraction data and look at [office discipline
referrals] and see which behaviors we see the most and plan for that. … Our student
services department sends us reminders about our suspension because of the California
Dashboard.
Summary
The findings indicate that the interviewees know how to gather, analyze, evaluate, and
share discipline data to identify and eliminate the disproportionate number of suspensions for
Latina/no students. This influence is an asset, with nine participants explaining and giving
examples of how they gather, analyze, evaluate, and share their discipline data. Participants
shared that they received data from their district office and used their discipline data to inform

68
what student behaviors are most apparent, which guides their next steps to support students.
While only Participant 10 mentioned that they do not share their data with school stakeholder
groups, this was still an asset as nine participants had a system for sharing their data through the
PBIS framework. This influence is determined to be an asset.
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 1
The first influence concerning metacognitive knowledge examined in this study was that
administrators reflect on disciplinary actions taken and whether the action/consequence are
appropriate for the behavior.
Interview Findings
All participants shared an experience where they reflected on a disciplinary action for
Latina/no students and why they approached the situation, ensuring the action was appropriate
for the behavior. For example, in speaking about a student who was new to the school and had
used inappropriate language toward the teacher, Participant 9 said, “My first action was to begin
building rapport and sharing what our school culture is like and learning about his family and
background.” Participant 9 chose not to suspend but rather meet with the family and share with
the student the appropriate language to use at school versus home. This participant decided not to
take punitive disciplinary action despite the teacher requesting a punitive consequence. Another
example came from Participant 2, who shared an incident where a student hacked another
student’s Google account and found through the investigation that he was bullied by the student
he hacked. While Participant 2 had the right to suspend, she opted not to, sharing, “The
consequence does not always have to be punitive, but calls and meeting with parents is a
consequence. You talk to them and help them understand the behavior so they don’t do it again.”

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Participant 3 mentioned an incident in the afterschool program that led to a restorative
circle to determine what happened and how to resolve the issue instead of suspending.
Participant 3 said, “By talking to each other, you can identify what the issue was. They might not
always be given the opportunity to share what they are thinking or feeling.” Finally, Participant 4
recalled that when she was an assistant principal in middle school, teachers demanded that she
strictly follow discipline codes even when there was a reason or explanation behind the behavior
(e.g., a student was tardy because their parent came home late after working a night shift).
Participant 4 shared, “It is not a one-size-fits-all, and I decide what is best for our
students and their situation. … Being an elementary principal now, you have more sole authority,
and in middle school, you must follow the codes.” Participant 4 compared her experience as a
middle school versus an elementary school principal and how she can better decide what is the
best disciplinary action for her students in elementary school.
Summary
The findings indicate that the participants reflect on the disciplinary actions taken, and if
the action/consequence was appropriate for the behavior. This influence is an asset with all
sharing a time they reflected on their disciplinary actions. All participants referenced a moment
in which they reflected on a situation that required disciplinary action but opted to use a
restorative approach that they deemed more appropriate. Based on participant responses, the
administrators were interested in hearing students, supporting the student, and trying to resolve
the issue instead of suspending a student. It is important to note that participants mentioned they
are not against suspending students and will suspend them if the situation deems appropriate.
Additionally, two of the principals mentioned they chose a non-punitive response to behavior

70
despite teachers requesting and pressuring for a more punitive consequence. This influence is
determined to be an asset.
Metacognitive Knowledge Influence 2
The second influence pertaining to metacognitive knowledge was that administrators
reflect whether cultural competence impacts their disciplinary actions toward Latino/Latina
students.
Interview Findings
Nine participants indicated that their cultural competence influences their disciplinary
actions toward Latina/Latino students. When speaking about how cultural competence affects
disciplinary actions for Latina/Latino students, Participant 5 shared, “I can easily tap into
different facets of my personality. I can be Latina. I can be East LA girl. … Depends on the
energy that is coming and what will work with students when I speak to them.” Additionally,
Participant 10 sees being Latina as a tool when handling discipline for Latina/Latino students.
Participant 10 shared, “When I interact with Latino families, and I know they speak Spanish, my
entire conversation or how I interact with parents shifts, and I tap into my Latina-ness. … It is an
arsenal in my toolbox.” Participant 7 shared an incident when a teacher was disciplining a
student and told the administrator, “They behave that way because they are that [emphasis hers]
kind of Mexican,” implying that there are two types of Mexicans: those who behaved and ones
who did not. Participant 7 mentioned that, as a Latina, it is her “role to stick up for students, and
bring the issue to the forefront, and keeping it to what is the behavior and what is causing the
behavior, and remove all other elements.” This led to providing the student with counseling and
providing support to the family who was dealing with trauma at home. In addition, Participant 1
shared,

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Just being able to help our parents who are newer to the country. They just don’t know
how to get resources, and because I speak the language, they feel comfortable with me,
and I can help them when their child is struggling with behavior. They share more with
me. Sometimes, our families don’t know where to go for help.
On the contrary, Participant 8 indicated that being Latina does not influence disciplinary actions
for Latina/Latino students. Participant 8 shared, “I don’t see it that way. I tell our students that
we have to respect our school culture and we need to be proud of our school. I have to expect the
same behaviors for all students.” Participant 8 indicated that she holds all her students to the
highest standards of behavior and academics.
Summary
The findings indicate that the participants’ cultural competence influences their
disciplinary actions toward Latino/Latina students. This influence is an asset as nine of them
shared an experience or example of how their cultural competence influences how they approach
disciplinary actions for Latina/Latino students. Those who agreed shared that their cultural
competence led to advocating for their students when staff made biased comments; speaking and
connecting with parents in their primary language; supporting newly arrived families with
resources such as housing, food, or health services; helping new families navigate the
educational system so they could advocate and know who to ask for help; and making
connections with students who may have cultural or school experiences similar to their own.
While only Participant 8 indicated that her cultural competence does not influence how she
approaches discipline action differently for Latina/Latino students, she did mention that she does
connect with her families and students through their primary language and is accessible to them.
Overall, this influence is determined to be an asset.

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Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
For this section, the results and findings look at assumed causes of motivation for Latina
elementary principals. Motivation is an internal process that leads a person to initiate, pursue,
and sustain goal-oriented actions (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2020).
Motivation plays a significant role in reaching organizational performance goals. According to
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework, a reason for organizational performance gaps
is motivation.
For Latina administrators, motivation is important as it energizes them to pursue the goal
of reducing Latina/no students’ suspension rates. As individuals, the value, self-efficacy, and
attributions we place on our goals and actions lead to performance motivation (Bandura, 1997;
Schunk, 2020; Schunk & Usher, 2019). Schunk and DiBenedetto (2020) described attributions as
an individual’s perceived causes and reason for their outcomes. Attributions are worth exploring
as they may contribute to outcome goals. Self-efficacy refers to the effort a person expends and
their persistence (Bandura, 1978). Self-efficacy is essential in working toward the goal of
lowering suspension rates. Value also contributes to motivation. Schunk and Usher (2019)
defined value as an “individuals’ perceptions of the importance and utility of learning and acting
in given ways” (p. 19). Clark and Estes (2008) found that people value what they believe will
help them be effective in accomplishing a task or goal. As Latina administrators, the value they
place on student discipline approaches can help in reducing suspension rates for Latina/no
students. It is worth noting that the value we place on tasks or goals is subjective and can be
different from person to person (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020). Each value placed on reducing
suspension rates for Latina/no students by each administrator must be viewed individually. This

73
section will explore the value, self-efficacy, and attributions that are part of Latina
administrators’ beliefs as they work toward reducing suspension rates for Latina/no students.
Value Influence 1
The first influence pertaining to value was that administrators see the value of decreasing
the disproportionate suspension rates for Latino/Latina students.
Interview Findings
All participants indicated that they value decreasing the disproportionate suspension rates
for Latina/o. Participant 6 values decreasing the suspension rate. She shared, “It is extremely
valuable. I do not want to exclude my kiddos. This [suspensions] is an entrenched practice and I
can control it for the social justice reason so our kiddos do not become a statistic.” Participant 4
also mentioned that exclusionary practices are not good for students and their future. Participant
4 stated,
I do place a lot of value because I know deep in my heart that it will not be helpful to
students in the long run and try other means of correction because I do not want to
assume guilt. I do not like to suspend unless it is a safety issue.
Participant 10 also mentioned statistics about suspensions as to why she places much value on
decreasing suspensions: “Statistics show that when students are suspended, they are more likely
to enter the school-to-prison pipeline. I do not want my students on that path. This is why I place
a lot of value in decreasing suspensions.” In addition, Participant 3 said,
Yes, it is a top goal for me because some may view [Latina/Latino students] as at-risk or
treat them differently simply because they are Latinos. It is important that my Latino
students know they have worth, and with hard work and respect, anything is possible.

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All participants indicated that they place value in decreasing suspensions for Latina/Latino
students in their school.
Summary
The findings indicate that the interviewees see the value of decreasing the
disproportionate suspension rates for Latino/Latina students. This influence is an asset as all
participants shared examples of the value they place on supporting their students rather than
moving directly to exclusionary practices. Specifically, Participants 6, 4, and 10 put value in
ensuring exclusionary practices do not affect the futures of their Latina/Latino students. As an
example, Participant 10 referred to avoiding placing her students in the school-to-prison pipeline.
Participant 3 valued decreasing suspensions for Latina/Latino students based on biases held by
others about Latina/Latino students, which may lead to being treated unjustly, ultimately
affecting their future. Therefore, this influence is determined to be an asset.
Value Influence 2
The second influence pertaining to value was that Latina administrators see value in their
ethnic and cultural identity that influences their discipline practices.
Interview Findings
All participants indicated that they see value in their ethnic and cultural identity, which
influences their discipline practices. Participant 8 shared,
I do, I do. I feel connected to my families. … Make connections and relate to our kids. I
stand outside in the morning and talk to families and students. I try to catch things from
the start. I am like mama hen, and if there is an issue, they call me.
Participant 2 added, “Yes, I think it does have value. I never had a Latina/Latino principal.
Having this influence for my Latino students ensures their success, which means showing being

75
respectful and doing the right thing.” Similarly, Participant 3 said, “I believe so; I think I serve as
a model for my students, especially being a woman, a Latina woman. I hope they see me and
look at a role model.” Finally, Participant 1 stated,
Yes, I think yes. I have an understanding of the culture and know where their values are
and what they go through. It is about believing in our kids, and I try to instill that in our
school so they can thrive at school.
Lastly, Participant 1 shared racism as a reason for placing value in reducing suspensions for
Latina/Latino students and shared a personal family story. Participant 1shared,
People gave my family chances. My mom went to the school where I am a principal and
had to deal with racism, and my grandparents, too. Knowing that, I try to remember that
and keep it in the forefront when working with Latino families and students. They deal
with so much more racism and look down on them, more someone who is White people.
In all, the participants claimed that their ethnic and cultural identity influences their discipline
practices.
Summary
The findings indicate that the interviewees see value in their ethnic and cultural identity,
which influences their discipline practices. This influence is an asset as 100% of participants
shared examples of how their cultural competence influences how they approach disciplinary
actions for Latina/no students. The participants mentioned being role models for their students,
along with connecting culturally with their students and families. These statements indicate that
connecting with families and understanding their students’ similar experiences can influence
how they approach discipline. Participant 1 called out racism as a reason to address the Latina/no

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students’ suspensions. These participants place value in their ethnic and cultural identity, which
influences their disciplinary practices. This influence is determined to be an asset.
Self-Efficacy Influence
The self-efficacy influence examined herein was that administrators have high beliefs in
their skills and knowledge to reduce or eliminate the disproportionate suspensions for
Latino/Latina students.
Interview Findings
Seven administrators indicated they have high beliefs in their skills and knowledge to
reduce or eliminate the disproportionate suspensions for Latina/no students. The seven
participants indicated they had received training in PBIS and/or restorative practices. Participant
1 shared, “I went to a training on restorative practices training, and it changed how we did things.
I attend PBIS trainings, and I went to the PBIS conference in Sacramento. I learned a lot of
strategies there.” In addition, Participant 8 stated, “PBIS is where I received the bulk of my PD
not only in my current district but in my previous district.” Participant 6 also indicated, “I
received PBIS training. The district sent teams, but the leaders were not there except for me. You
need to be the lead.” Participant 8,
We have a full [multi-tiered system of support] initiative and PBIS training from our
district, and we have 20 minutes at staff meetings to go over our PBIS practices. We also
had Kagan Structures professional development to help keep kids engaged. If they are not
engaged, behaviors boil up.
Despite seven participants indicating having received training and feeling knowledgeable
in reducing suspensions, Participants 2, 9, and 10 do not feel they have received adequate
professional training. For example, Participant 2 said,

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There’s the PBIS stuff that we do but no official training. Before that, we had a little inservice with scenarios, but we don’t do that anymore. I would like to have an official PD,
but what we know of PBIS is helpful.
Participant 9 also shared that she has not received professional development that directly
contributes to lowering suspensions but refers to other practices to gain knowledge and skills.
She said,
Unfortunately, I feel that I have not received a lot of training. I read a lot of articles and
listen to podcasts. I have received rapid on-the-job training and talk to other principals.
Maybe a little PD from student services during our short principal meetings, but nothing
in particular that I can point to.
Summary
The findings indicate that not all participants have high beliefs in their skills and
knowledge to reduce or eliminate the disproportionate suspensions for Latina/no students. This
influence is a need as seven of them specified examples of professional learning or training they
have received to reduce suspension. Latina principals contributed skills and knowledge to their
training or professional learning on a multi-tiered system of support, PBIS, Kagan Structures,
and restorative practices offered by their district. The three participants who indicated this
influence as a need referred to a lack of intentional and in-depth professional development from
their districts. They also mentioned learning how to reduce suspension through reading articles,
on-the-job learning, and collaborating and learning from other principals. This influence is
determined to be a need.

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Attribution Theory Influence
The influence related to attribution theory was that administrators could attribute specific
behaviors to explain the outcomes in reducing suspensions.
Interview Findings
All participants indicated can attribute specific behaviors to explain the outcomes in
reducing suspensions. This is evident in the following responses. Participant 6,
Yes, absolutely, we work hard to create a positive culture and climate. This helps build
relationships and reduce suspensions. Before the pandemic, I had zero suspensions; I
expect some due to social-emotional needs. If there is zero tolerance, then I am the zerosuspension principal.
Participant 5 also agreed that her efforts to reduce suspensions have paid off by stating, “I think
it has. You are interviewing me because I have low suspensions. Everything we do at the school
we have done to ensure we don’t suspend but try to figure out what is happening with the
student.” Participant 10 added,
There is always work to do when it comes to supporting our students. As far as has it paid
off, I would say yes, but it is a lot of work. Our teachers, social workers, and our whole
staff believe in our students’ success.
Finally, Participant 9, like Participant 6, also agrees that they “work to reduce suspensions, but
the pandemic has made it hard to not suspend students. I know what we are doing is working
because our students are getting the help they need and are happy to come to school.” In all, the
participants agreed that their efforts to reduce suspensions have paid off.

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Summary
The findings indicate that the interviewees can attribute specific behaviors that explain
their outcomes in reducing suspensions. This influence is an asset as all provided examples of
specific behaviors that explained their outcomes in reducing suspension for Latina/no students.
Participants indicated that reducing suspensions is much work, as they must determine the
support students need and then arrange that support for students. Some mentioned that they
anticipated a rise in suspensions due to the pandemic and a need to be ready to provide support.
Participants measured their effectiveness in reducing suspensions by the number of suspensions
and looking at positive school climate, the amount of support students receive, and whether
students are happy at school as important measuring points. Hence, this influence is determined
to be an asset.
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences
Motivation, knowledge, and skills are essential to achieving organizational goals, but
barriers such as inadequate material resources and processes in an organization can hinder
performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). Rueda (2011) states that organizational influences such
as culture, structure, policies, and practices can determine organizational gaps. Furthermore,
Clark and Estes (2008) added that there must be a connection and alignment between the larger
goals of the organization and the members of its organization to reach its performance goals.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), for organizational goals to be reached, organizations must
look closely at gaps in resources (Rueda, 2011), policies and procedures (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Rueda, 2011), cultural settings (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011), and cultural
models (Rueda, 2011). As Latina principals work within their organizations, understanding their

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organizations’ cultures, structures, policies, and processes can help identify barriers to the
reduction of suspension rates.
Resources Influence
The resources influence examined in this study was that the organization provides
training to administrators on practices that support equitable disciplinary practices that reduce
suspension rates.
Interview Findings
All participants named resources provided by their organization to reduce suspensions.
Participant 4 said that full-time counselors and PBIS training offered to schools are a resource.
She stated, “We have full-time counselors. That plays a pivotal role for establishing preventative
measures for behavior and PBIS trainings that set the culture and helps with suspensions. Our
counselor supports our systems.” Participant 6, “They pay for restorative practices training. We
also had a boring training on laws from a lawyer on classroom suspension. I had to pay my own
PD for PBIS and cultural competency.” Participant 7 mentioned receiving training from their
district, but she is not sure of the resources available to her. She added,
The district offered diversity, equity, and inclusion training with Dr. Rios. [It] also offers
resources from our student services department when we need extra support with
suspensions. I am still newer as an administrator, so I am still not sure everything is
available to us.
Lastly, Participant 8 shared, “Our assistant superintendent of student services is interested in
PBIS, and we get release time and full-day subs and meet with LACOE on PBIS.”

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Summary
The findings indicate that the participants’ organizations provided training to
administrators on practices that support equitable disciplinary practices that reduce suspension
rates. This influence is an asset as all named specific resources their organizations provided.
Participants shared resources such as support staff positions (e.g., social workers), funding
allocations for substitutes, release time, training, and accessibility to support staff at the district
office (e.g., student support services, assistant superintendent). The participants directly found
this to support their efforts to reduce suspensions. This influence is determined to be an asset.
Policies, Processes, and Procedures Influence
The influence pertaining to policies, processes, and procedures examined herein was that
the administrators work in districts that have policies intended to reduce suspensions and
expulsions.
Interview Findings
Six participants mentioned that they work in districts that have policies intended to
reduce suspensions and expulsions. Four participants seemed unsure or did not feel their district
has policies to reduce suspensions. Participant 1 mentioned that her district did have policies that
administrators review. She shared, “We go by [the education code], and we look at that. We also
have board policies. As a district, we also look at other means of correction and the policies
around implementing them so [students] can be at school.” Participant 5 added,
Our process here is very supportive. We have a school and community department, and
the sites are assigned a community resource coordinator to be a thought partner or to
work with me to handle behavior or a contentious parent. Our procedures are to work
with them to make sure we are following processes in place to ensure we did everything

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to support a student with behavior. I guess that is a policy to handle behavior and don’t
suspend as much.
On the contrary, four participants were unsure or did not feel their district had policies to reduce
suspensions. Participant 9 shared that she is not aware of any policies, and if there are, she would
need to look for them. Participant 9 said, “I’d have to look them up, but no, not I am aware of.”
The following participants were unsure about policies in their district to reduce suspension but
referred to Education Codes to determine suspensions. Participant 10 mentioned, “I am not sure.
I guess we use [education codes] that tell us what we can and cannot suspend for. … We don’t
go over any other policies except when we get updates on any changes in [education codes].”
Participant 3, “I think we are growing in this area, but it is an area of growth for us, in terms of
understanding and having clarity of what to do and how to do it. Participant 2 seemed unsure
when answering, “I think one policy is that we cannot suspend for the first time. I do use
[education codes] a lot to guide me.”
Summary
The findings indicate that not all interviewees work in districts that have policies
intended to reduce suspensions and expulsions. This influence is a need as only six of them
mentioned their district had policies and procedures to reduce suspensions. Participants 1 and 5
specifically pointed to having personnel in the district office who reviewed and presented district
policies and the state’s education code with them at least annually. Participants who mentioned
having policies in their organization to reduce suspensions also mentioned feeling supported by
district-level personnel. Four participants seemed unsure if they had district policies to reduce
suspension but referred to using and understanding Educational Codes to inform their decisions
to suspend. This influence is determined to be a need.

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Cultural Models Influence
Administrators are in an organizational culture that values trust in innovative ideas to
reduce suspensions.
Interview Findings
Eight participants are in an organizational culture that values trust in innovative ideas to
reduce suspensions. Participant 4 shared that her organization is supportive of her ideas to reduce
suspensions, and the support of the district staff also adds to the support provided. She shared,
I think so. Our student services provides guidance. We have had two involved directors,
and if we need help, they are there to help find a solution. … They support our creative
ideas, such as our lunch soccer camp, where we taught them sportsmanship skills before
they could play soccer. The earned badges. We received extra funding for this. …Yes, the
culture of our district is supportive of my ideas.
Participant 2 also feels that her district has a culture that is supportive of her ideas, which
enhances her PBIS program. She added,
The district supports whatever I do. They leave me alone because they know I do good
things. I do fun things for our students. … We get PBIS money from LCAP, and it goes
directly to our students. Our culture is supportive because they give us money for our
activities that promote positive behaviors.
Participant 6 mentioned, “[District leaders] support us. Our superintendent sees us as a great
example of their priorities. They come by, complement our positive culture, and they leave.”
However, two of the participants indicated that their organizational culture does not value
trust in innovative ideas to reduce suspensions. Participant 9 indicated,

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The district doesn’t know what I am doing to reduce suspensions. It is not something they
asked about or that I share. It is just something that I do. I think that our culture is that if
you are not on the radar, that’s good.
Participant 8 added that her organizational culture favors only a few because not all have the
same level of autonomy to do innovative things to decrease suspensions. She said, “Not all of my
colleagues get the same response as I do when I ask for something or do something out of the
box. I get full autonomy. They don’t question or challenge what I do to reduce suspension.” This
shows that the culture in her organization does not value trust in innovative ideas for all
administrators.
Summary
The findings indicate that the interviewees are part of organizational cultures that value
trust in innovative ideas to reduce suspensions. This influence is an asset, as eight identified
examples of how their districts trust them to do what is needed to support students and reduce
suspensions. Specifically, Participant 4 shared that she goes over her ideas with her student
services director, who supports her ideas, leading to a soccer lunch camp to reduce fights or
inappropriate behavior during lunchtime. On the contrary, two participants indicated their district
staff are not as involved or not all administrators are treated with the same level of trust. For
these participants, it means that their organizational culture does not place value on trusting all
administrators to be innovative. This influence is determined to be an asset.
Cultural Settings Influence
The influence relating to cultural settings was that the district has a culture that values
and promotes diversity in its leadership.

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Interview Findings
Four participants indicated that their districts have cultures that value and promote
diversity in their leadership, while the other six participants did not. The following participants
indicated that their district did not value or promote diversity. Participant 1 stated, “Some people
in our organization are all about diversity, and some are not. I think we need more cultural
proficiency as a district.” In addition, Participant 4 said, “Do you want me to [be] honest? Some
leaders are valued more based on their ethnicity. I also believe they have assumptions of us as
leaders based on our ethnicity. I’ll leave it at that.” Furthermore, Participant 8 shared,
The district cabinet does not represent the student population, and our school
administrators are a little more diverse but still not representative of our community. I do
not see or can explicitly name things that our district is doing for diversity. And that
makes me sad.
Participant 9 added that in her district, there are Latina/Latino principals, but schools are still
segregated. She conveyed,
The district wants to have diversity, but I am confused. All but two Title I principals are
Latina, and non-Title I schools have a White male or female principal. I don’t think I
would be considered for a principalship at a non-Title I school because I am Latina. Our
schools are still very segregated.
On the contrary, some participants felt that their district is supportive of diversity. For example,
Participant 7 shared that top leadership is changing and starting to reflect the community and
students it serves. She explained,
For the longest time, our district staff was not reflective of the community, but we do see
staffing changing. We had our first Latino superintendent, and it brought light to the

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Latino teachers and the Latino parents. They also hired a new Latina assistant
superintendent. Our Spanish-speaking parents felt heard. I see more intentionality in
diversifying, and I’ve been in this district for many years.
Participant 10 also noted that her district values and promotes diversity. She said,
I think yes. Our district has participated in equity training for leadership and has an equity
and inclusion committee that includes parents and community partners to address
diversity in our schools. This is being supported and guided by our top leadership.
Summary
The findings indicate that not all participants work in a district that has a culture that
values and promotes diversity in its leadership. This influence is a need, as four participants
could identify examples of how their district’s culture values and promotes diversity in its
leadership. Not all participants experienced working in an organization that promotes diversity.
As an example, Participant 4 mentioned biased assumptions about her leadership because of her
ethnicity, while Participant 9 added that the school leadership and the district staff do not reflect
the community they serve, which is primarily Latino. However, those participants who
mentioned their district places value in diversifying its leadership, highlighted strides in hiring
personnel who reflect their students and community, while others shared that their district is
offering equity and inclusion training led by top district leadership. While four participants
identified this influence as an asset in their organization, six viewed this as a need. This influence
is determined to be a need.

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Summary of Validated Influences
Tables 8, 9, and 10 show the KMO influences for this study and their determination as
assets or needs.
Table 8
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed knowledge influences Asset or need
Declarative factual (terms, facts, concepts)
Administrators must know terms such as “other
means of correction,” “zero-tolerance,” and
“alternatives to suspensions.”
Asset
Procedural
Administrators know the steps to handle discipline
equitably based on current policies such as
AB1729, SB419, and ESSA requiring offering
students support and documenting alternatives
to suspensions.
Asset
Administrators need to know the steps to gather,
analyze, evaluate, and share discipline data to
identify and eliminate the disproportionate
number of suspensions for Latino/Latina
students.
Asset
Metacognitive
Administrators reflect on disciplinary actions
taken and whether the action/consequence are
appropriate for the behavior.
Asset
Administrators reflect whether cultural
competence impacts their disciplinary actions
toward Latino/Latina students.
Asset

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Table 9
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Motivation Influences Asset or need
Value
Administrators see the value of decreasing the
disproportionate suspension rates for
Latino/Latina students.
Asset
Latina administrators see value in their ethnic and
cultural identity that influences their discipline
practices.
Asset
Self-efficacy
Administrators have high beliefs in their skills and
knowledge to reduce or eliminate the
disproportionate suspensions for Latino/Latina
students.
Need
Attribution theory
Administrators can attribute specific behaviors to
explain the outcomes in reducing suspensions.
Asset

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Table 10
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed organization influences Asset or need
Resources
The organization provides training to
administrators on practices that support equitable
disciplinary practices that reduce suspension
rates.
Asset
Policies, processes, and procedures
The administrators work in districts that have
policies intended to reduce suspensions and
expulsions.
Need
Cultural models
Administrators are in an organizational culture that
values trust in innovative ideas to reduce
suspensions.
Asset
Cultural settings
The district has a culture that values and promotes
diversity in its leadership.
Need
Chapter Four identified the gaps in the presumed KMO influences as the participants
handled disciplinary actions for Latina/no students. The findings showed there were more assets
than needs, but there were gaps that existed that impeded Latina principals from meeting
organizational goals. In the area of knowledge influences, no gaps were identified. After
interviewing Latina principals, there was an identified gap in the area of motivational influences,
specifically in self-efficacy. Under self-efficacy, I asked administrators if they had high beliefs in
their skills and knowledge to reduce or eliminate the disproportionate suspensions for Latina/no
students. In the area of organizational influences, there were two identified gaps. The gaps were

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identified in policies, processes, and procedures, as well as in cultural settings. For policies,
processes, and procedures, I asked the interviewees if they worked in districts that had policies
intended to reduce suspensions and expulsions. This was identified as a need. Under cultural
settings, I asked if their districts had a culture that values and promotes diversity in its leadership.
Based on the interview data, this was identified as a need. In Chapter Five, I offer
recommendations for future research and recommendation for solutions to these influences based
on findings and a review of the literature.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluations
This study analyzed the promising practices of Latina elementary school principals
whose school suspension data has shown promise in eliminating or decreasing the suspension
rate of Latino and Latina students. Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis, a systematic analytical
method, was used to understand the participants’ promising practices. The gap analysis
framework addressed the possible knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that
may affect Latina elementary principals’ decisions to suspend Latino/Latina students. The
analysis focused on the assets in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational
resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Chapter Four analyzed the data and validated the assumed
influences of Latina elementary school principals as they handle disciplinary actions for
Latina/no students. The results were organized using motivation, knowledge, and organization as
categories to show the influences that cause a gap between organizational goals and current
performance (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011).
In Chapter Five, the validated influences will inform the recommendations for this study
and will be organized by the categories of validated influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
recommendations for this study are based on work from the Center for PBIS. The Center for
PBIS provides technical support for districts implementing PBIS in their schools. PBIS is an
evidence-based framework for improving and supporting students’ behavioral, academic, social,
emotional, and mental health through a tiered system of support (Center on PBIS, n.d.; Horner &
Sugai, 2015).
Organizational Context and Mission
This study examined Latina elementary administrators who have reduced suspensions
and expulsions at their schools between the 2021–2022 and the 2022–2023 school years. The

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participants work in districts across Los Angeles County. According to the National Center for
Education Statistics (2018), 9% of California principals who identified as Hispanic were female.
The LACOE’s (n.d.) mission is “improving the lives of students and our educational community
through service, leadership, and advocacy” (para. 6). The county’s schools enroll 1.3 million
students in K–12. The demographics of Los Angeles County’s population are such that 65.9% of
people are Hispanic/Latino, 13% are White, 7.8% are Asian, 6.9% are African American, 0.2%
are American Indian/Alaska Native, and 0.3% are Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander.
Organizational Performance Status
The LACOE (n.d.) is the nation’s largest regional educational agency. While its mission
is to improve students’ lives, the data show otherwise. In 2022, the state’s education department
assigned it a very high status in the suspension indicator, but the goal is to reach a low
suspension rate (California Department of Education, 2022). Los Angeles County identified
seven student groups in the very high suspension status: African American, English learners,
foster youth, Hispanic, homeless, socioeconomically disadvantaged, and students with
disabilities (California Department of Education, 2022). Pertinent to this study, there is limited
research addressing how inequities affect Latina/no students
Organizational Performance Goal and Current Performance
This study looked at promising practices of Los Angeles County Latina elementary
school principals. I used suspension data from 2022 and 2023. Performance levels are ranked
from highest to lowest: blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. Performance levels are determined
by comparing the current year’s status to the previous year’s data to determine the change in
progress. In 2019, English learners, Hispanic/Latino, foster youth, socioeconomically

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disadvantaged, and White students were identified as red. Specifically, the suspension rate for
Hispanic/Latino students increased 2.9% from the 2018–2019 to the 2019–2020 school year.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
A stakeholder group is a group of individuals who directly contribute to and benefit from
achieving the organization’s performance goal. Four stakeholder groups contribute to eliminating
the disproportionate suspension of Latina and Latino students. The first stakeholders are the
students who are the recipients of disciplinary decisions. Principals’ decisions and districts’ goals
directly affect these students. Secondly, teachers work directly with students in the classroom
and influence them academically and emotionally (Welch & Payne, 2010). Thirdly, research has
found that students’ families have a positive impact on reducing the likelihood of suspension for
their children (Bartz et al., 2017; Ferrell, 2009). Sheldon and Epstein (2002) found that when
schools and families work together, they improve student behavior. Finally, school
administrators are responsible for administering discipline decisions. Research has found that
principals are the key drivers to creating a positive school culture (Hebegger, 2007). The school
principal sets the tone, culture, behavior expectations, and support for teachers (Prokopchuk,
2016).
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, I selected only one stakeholder group. In this study, the focus was on a small sample of
Latina elementary principals working in LACOE’s jurisdiction. Knowing that this is a small
sample of a larger population of elementary principals, I identified the characteristics of the
sample (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). This research required a small sample due to time
constraints.

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The interviewees are women who identify as Latina, served at least 2 years at the same
school and showed promising progress in eliminating or decreasing the suspension rates of
Latina/o students. This provided insight into what perceived factors Latina principals believe
influence how they decide to approach disciplinary actions for Latina/o students and, in return,
provided some insight into how we can support Latina principals in reducing suspension rates of
Latina/o students. I found possible participants by narrowing down Latina elementary
administrators in Southern California school districts and using statewide online databases to
identify which elementary schools are decreasing suspension data for Latina/no students and led
by Latina administrators.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to study promising practices of Latina elementary school
principals whose school suspension data has shown promise in eliminating or decreasing the
suspension rate of Latino and Latina students. The analysis focused on the assets in the areas of
knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). While a
complete study would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes, Latina elementary
administrators are the focused stakeholders.
As such, the research questions that guided the promising practice study are the
following:
1. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences of Latina elementary
school administrators in relation to reducing the suspension rates of Latina/no students?
2. What solutions and recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources influence the successful implementation of promising practices

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for Latina/no elementary school administrators with a goal of reducing suspension rates
for Latina/no students?
Recommendations for Practice to Address Influences: Strengths and Weaknesses of the
Approach
Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework is a conceptual framework that analyzes
KMO gaps that may hinder an organization’s mission, thus influencing how Latina principals
approach discipline. This conceptual framework is a problem-solving approach that provides
organizations with a method to reach their goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The
strengths of the gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) include seeing the organization as a whole
through the KMO lens and identifying the assets and the needs. As a strength, the gap analysis
framework removes assumptions or guesswork in identifying the causes that impede
organizations from meeting their performance goals. These assumptions, if taken as facts, can
lead to further performance problems for the organization (Rueda, 2011). For this study, the gap
analysis framework examined the assumed KMO influences of Latina administrators as they
determine whether to suspend or expel Latina/no students. The weaknesses of using the KMO
gap analysis for this study are the small group sampling and limited time for the study. With
limited time for interviews and only a sampling, Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis only
captured a small amount of data to determine assets and needs.
Recommendations for Implementation
This study offers recommendations for school districts with a significant population of
Latina/no students and who are working to reduce or eliminate the suspensions of Latina/no
students. The interviewees shared that they implemented PBIS to create inclusive, positive, and
supportive environments for students, which contributed to reducing suspensions for Latina/no

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students. Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports refers to a research and evidence-based
framework for improving and supporting students’ behavioral, academic, social, emotional, and
mental health through a tiered system of support (Center on PBIS, n.d.; Horner & Sugai, 2015).
Studies by Fowler (2011) and Wald and Losen (2003) also confirmed that schools implementing
PBIS respond better to students’ needs through a multi-tiered intervention system, leading them
away from the path to the school-to-prison pipeline.
The Center on PBIS (n.d.) is a resource for getting started with implementing PBIS and
offers tools for doing so. The Center on PBIS recommended starting the implementation of PBIS
by first gathering and establishing a leadership team with a school administrator, teachers, nonclassroom staff, classified staff, families, and students. In addition, they suggested the PBIS
leadership team represents a variety of skill sets such as behavioral expertise, coaching expertise,
knowledge of student academic and behavior patterns, as well as knowledge about how the
school operates across grade levels and programs. Once the leadership team is established, the
team will assess currently established school behavior interventions and supports using the
Tiered Fidelity Inventory tool to provide a valid, reliable, and efficient measure of how the
school is applying the core features of PBIS. The results of this assessment will provide insight
into school practices and support needed at Tiers I, II, and III. The Center for PBIS
recommended that district leadership provide the time, people, and other resources needed for
schools to implement PBIS practices and supports. This is important as all study participants
shared that their organizations provided them with the resources necessary to implement PBIS
and other behavioral interventions. I recommend that districts or principals interested in reducing
suspensions for Latina/no students research the Center for PBIS and its implementation
framework.

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Among other recommendations is utilizing the assets identified by Latina principals to
implement culturally relevant pedagogy and culturally responsive leadership. Ladson-Billings
(2014) defined culturally relevant pedagogy as “the ability to link principles of learning with
deep understanding (and appreciation for) culture” (p. 77). Furthermore, Ladson-Billings (2014)
states that without culturally relevant pedagogy, students of color will be disengaged, leading to
academic failure, suspensions, and expulsions. These can be implemented in teacher and
administrative credential programs to prepare them for serving students of color and students
who come from cultural backgrounds different from their own. Another recommendation is to
include culturally relevant pedagogy in school districts with the goal of decreasing suspensions
for minoritized students. This study found that Latina principals’ ethnic and cultural identity
influenced their discipline practices and was an asset. Considering this finding, it would be
highly recommended that districts explore culturally relevant pedagogy.
In addition, the participants found that their cultural competence influenced their
disciplinary actions toward Latina/no students. Based on these findings, districts interested in
decreasing suspension rates can implement leadership training on culturally responsive
leadership. This type of school leadership is necessary because if leaders are not aware of racism
or oppression of minoritized groups, they can replicate forms of systemic oppression (Clayton &
Goodwin, 2015; Khalifa, 2020). In addition, Terrell et al. (2018) mentioned that to drive
organizational change, specifically in schools serving marginalized populations, a successful
school leader understands cultural proficiency and their own self-identity. District and school
leadership can use the fourth edition of Cultural Proficiency: A Manual for School Leaders as a
tool for implementation. In this manual, district and school leaders learn about essential elements
of a culturally responsive leader and then, using an assessment tool, assess their current practices

98
and proposed practices. Districts can then use the template for developing an action plan focused
on cultural proficiency. Action steps are then developed along with identifying the resources and
skills required to implement these action steps.
Future Research
This study focused on the promising practices of Latina elementary school principals
whose school suspension data has shown promise in eliminating or decreasing the suspension
rate of Latino and Latina students. While this study highlights the assets that Latina principals
bring to reducing suspensions, there are recommendations for future research.
This study had limitations, which included a small sample of Latina principals and did
not follow the same principals over a longer period. Based on these limitations, there are some
recommendations for future research. The first includes doing a similar study with other
principals from different ethnic groups. If the study is replicated with other ethnic groups, what
promising practices might they implement that impact suspension rates for students of a similar
ethnic group? Another recommendation is doing a similar study with self-identified Latino
principals. This study focused on self-identified Latina principals. By exploring Latino principals
there might be some differences or similarities in how they approach discipline for Latina/no
students. A possible question to explore pertains to the assumed influences of Latino principals
as they determine whether to suspend or expel Latina/no students. A final recommendation for
future research is a longitudinal study of Latina principals. This study looked at Latina principals
and their suspension over a 2-year period. A longitudinal study would look at whether the
influences identified as assets were maintained over the years or shifted to needs. The KMO
influences can provide a framework to continue to analyze and evaluate these influences.

99
Conclusion
While LACOE has begun to do work to reduce inequities in academic success and
exclusionary discipline practices for African American students, there is a need to reduce the
suspension rates of Latina/no students. Several stakeholders contribute to decreasing the
suspension rates for Latina/no students, but this study focused specifically on Latina elementary
school principals. I selected Latina principals based on the limited amount of research on them
(Murakami & Hernandez, 2015). In Chapter Three, the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes,
2008) identified possible influences on promising practices of Latina elementary principals and
organized influences in the KMO areas. Chapter Four identified the gaps in the presumed
influences and the assets and needs in KMO as they handle disciplinary actions for Latina/no
students. This study contributes to the much needed literature on Latina principals and how their
cultural identity impacts how they approach discipline for Latina/no students. Evident in this
study is the interviewees’ pride and care toward students with cultural and ethnic backgrounds
similar to their own. The participants are social justice warriors, ensuring that Latina/no students
have opportunities to succeed in school and beyond.
Although this study’s sample was small, the results are impactful. This study noted the
principal’s role in eliminating suspensions, how they advocate for social justice and equity for
students, and the need to be culturally responsive. As social justice warriors, the participants
advocate and speak up when they see and hear inequities or biases regarding Latina/no students
and their families, regardless of whether it is popular to do so. As Latinas, they connect with
their students because of their cultural connection and experiences, leading them to provide
support to their students and families in a caring and culturally responsive manner. This, in turn,
builds deep trust and community with their families. They are leading schools and, in their own

100
ways, transforming schools and disrupting discipline practices that have historically
marginalized students of color.
The participants exemplified what Fraise and Brooks (2015) referred to as school leaders
who seek to “value, even celebrate, culture, and build schooling around it rather than seek to
change it” (p. 14). Leaders with a commitment to disrupting and dismantling inequities in
education should employ the practices that this study’s participants found were essential to
eliminating suspensions for Latina/no students. With the majority of California teachers and
principals identifying as White and the majority of their students being Latina/Latino, there is a
need for culturally responsive leaders and educators. This study highlighted the need for Latina
school leaders. It found that Latina principals have much to offer education; they just need an
opportunity to share their experiences and their voices. The time to hear Latina voices is now.

101
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Today’s interview is not intended to be evaluative but rather to inform my study, which is
trying to gather information on the perceived factors that Latina elementary school principals,
like yourself, believe influence how they decide to approach disciplinary actions for
Latino/Latina students. This study will be instrumental in bringing the voices, experiences, and
perspectives of Latina elementary principals. There will be multiple Latina elementary school
principals that will be participating in this study, which along with you, will provide me with
very important information. As a former Latina elementary school principal, I look forward to
hearing your experiences and perspectives.
I would like to remind you that your name and district will be kept confidential.
● Although you have already signed a consent form to be interviewed, do you still
agree to be interviewed?
To best capture your voice and perspectives during the interview, I will be using a
recorder (or recording on Zoom), and I will also be using a notebook to write down some notes.
The recording and notes will be viewed by only me and saved on my computer.
● Do I have your permission to record?
● Do you have any questions for me before we get started?
I would like to begin our time together with some background questions about you. Please feel
free to have me repeat the questions, if needed. Are you ready to begin? Great! Let us begin.
1. Do you self-identify as a Latina?
2. How many years have you been at your current school site and district? (background)
3. How many years have you been in education? (background)
4. What do you enjoy most about your role as a school administrator? (background)

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5. What do you consider to be your three most important responsibilities as the
(elementary) administrator?
Transition
Thank you for sharing this information. As you know, you were selected due to your low
suspension data in 2019–2020. Has that continued in 2022? It helps me get to know you better.
In the following questions, I will be asking you about your personal experience in school and
your approach to discipline. These questions will help me understand your experiences and learn
more about you. As a reminder, only I will view the information collected. Are you ready to
begin? Okay, thank you.
6. What would you say was your overall school experience? Please explain.
7. Tell me about a time when, if any, you were disciplined by a teacher or principal in
school. What was the incident?
● How did that experience make you feel?
● Did you find this affected you in any way? If so, how?
8. Can you describe some steps you take when handling discipline issues?
9. Can you recall the last time you decided on a restorative approach to discipline versus
an exclusionary approach for a Latino or Latina student? Probe: Can you tell me what
led to that decision? What was your thought process or considerations?
10. Can you tell me a time being Latina influenced or incentivized you to approach
discipline differently? Probe: Can you share a story?
11. What discipline data is available to you as an administrator? Probe: Can you explain
how that data is used to inform your goals for reducing the suspension rates for
students?

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12. Do you believe that your effort in reducing suspensions has paid off? Probe: Does
that matter to you? Why?
Transition
I appreciate you sharing your experience as a student in school as well as how you handle
discipline. Before we move on to the next set of questions, is there anything else you would like
to add or further elaborate on? If no, thank you. Now, the next set of questions will ask about
your identity and cultural background. Before we begin on this next set of questions, I want to
ask if you need a break to stretch or if you want to continue and take a break later. How are you
feeling?
We’ve been talking about your professional experience and your personal experiences as
a student in school. Now, I’d like to take our conversation a bit deeper.
As we begin on this next section of questions, I would like to take a moment to define
cultural competence for the purpose of this study. Cultural competence, as used in this study,
refers to
the ability of a person to effectively interact, work, and develop meaningful relationships
with people of various cultural backgrounds. Cultural background can include the beliefs,
customs, and behaviors of people from various groups. Gaining cultural competence is a
lifelong process of increasing self-awareness, developing social skills and behaviors
around diversity, and gaining the ability to advocate for others. It goes beyond tolerance,
which implies that one is simply willing to overlook differences. Instead, it includes
recognizing and respecting diversity through our words and actions in all contexts. (de
Guzman et al., 2016, p. 1)

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Do you have any questions regarding the definition of cultural competence, as it is used
in this study? Okay, thank you. As a reminder, you are participating in this research study
because you self-identified as Latina/Chicana, and some of the questions may refer to you as
Latina/Chicana.
13. For the purpose of this study, can you tell me about your cultural background? Why
do you self-identify as Latina?
14. Think about your school goals. What value do you place in reducing the suspension
rates for Latina/no students? Please explain.
15. Do you think that your cultural and ethnic identity brings value in reducing
suspensions for students? Probe: Why do you say so?
Transition
Now, let us talk about restorative and punitive approaches.
16. You might be familiar with the term “other means of correction.” What does that
mean to you? Probing: Or perhaps, are there other terms that you are familiar with or
use?
17. What are some alternatives to suspension that you employ?
18. What is your understanding of zero-tolerance?
19. Tell me what you know about restorative practices.
20. What types of professional development or training have you received around
discipline or alternatives to discipline? Probe: Can you share what types of PD or
training you have received? How does this professional development/training impact
how you approach discipline?

124
Transition
We are coming to our last section of questions. I know we have been talking for some
time. Do you want to take a quick 5-minute break/stretch?
Our next section will ask questions focused around your organization.
21. Can you name some examples of resources that the district provides to reduce
suspensions?
22. Can you recall or refer to policies that help reduce suspension/ expulsion rates?
23. Tell me about the culture of your organization. Probe: Does this organizational culture
support your efforts in reducing suspension rates in your school? Why or why not?
24. What are some innovative ideas that you tried to reduce the suspension rates of your
students? Probe: Do those ideas align with the organizational culture? Please explain.
25. Does district office leadership support your ideas? How do you know?
26. What would you say are the beliefs and values of your district when it comes to diversity
in its leadership? Probe: What might be evidence of that?
27. Does the district provide acknowledgment or rewards for efforts or success in reducing
suspensions? Probe: Can you share some examples?
Closing
We have finally reached the end of our interview. Thank you again for taking time out of
your busy day to support my study. I appreciate your willingness to share your thoughts,
experiences, and perceptions. All the rich information you have provided will serve as critical
information to help me address my research question. Do you have any questions or thoughts
regarding the interview you just engaged in?

125
If needed, would you be open to allowing me to reach out again in the event that I need to
clarify any of the information you have shared? If so, what is the best way to contact you? Here
is my contact information if you should have some questions or if you want to provide further
information. As a reminder, I will be utilizing pseudonyms for your name and district/school to
ensure confidentiality. Again, thank you for your participation.

126
Appendix B: Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles CA, 90089
Latina Elementary Principals’ Promising Practices to Disrupting Disproportionate Suspensions
of Latina and Latino Students
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study aims to identify promising practices of Latina elementary school administrators shown
to reduce the suspension rates for Latina/o students.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a semi-structured
interview. You will be asked to answer questions via video conference or in person, which is
dependent on your personal preference and time constraints. The interview will take approximately
60–90 minutes to complete, requiring scheduling time that fits your schedule.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
Required language:
The members of the research team, the funding agency, and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
The Principal Investigator is Andrea Román, romana@usc.edu, (909) 641-4301
The Dissertation Chair is: Darline P. Robles, Ph.D., dprobles@usc.edu, (562) 355-8317
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

127
Appendix C: Recruitment Email
Subject: Participation in a Promising Study of Practice of Latina Elementary School
Administrators and Reducing Suspensions
Greetings Ms./Mrs. ______________,
My name is Andrea Román, a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California. I am currently working on a study that focuses on the promising practices of Latina
elementary school administrators, specifically in reducing or eliminating the suspensions of
Latina/no students. As a former Latina elementary school administrator, I hope to connect with
other Latina administrators who are implementing promising practices that help reduce the
suspension rates of Latina/no students.
You are being contacted because you meet the criteria for this study. According to the
CA Dashboard your school has shown a decrease of suspension for at least 2 years, you have
been at your school site for at least 2 years, and work in a school in a southern California school
district. One of the criteria is to self-identify as a Latina. If you self-identify as a Latina and feel
you meet all the other criteria listed, I would like to invite you to participate in this study.
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a semi-structured
interview. You will be asked to answer questions via video conference or in person, which is
dependent on your personal preference and time constraints The interview will take
approximately 60–90 minutes to complete and around the time that best fits your schedule. The
interview will be recorded but will only be viewed by the researcher and deleted after the study
is completed. The confidentiality of participants is maintained by ensuring there is no identifiable
information in connection with this study. Your name, address, or other identifiable information
will not be collected.

128
I want to thank you in advance for your time and willingness to consider being a
participant in this study. If you have any questions about this study or are interested in being
interviewed, I can be reached at (909) 641-4301 or romana@usc.edu. My dissertation chair is Dr.
Darline Robles, and she can be reached at dprobles@usc.edu or at (562) 355-8317. Attached to
this email is the informed consent/information sheet about this study for your reference.
Thank you,
Andrea Román
Doctoral Candidate at USC

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify promising practices of Latina elementary school principals whose school suspension data has shown promise in eliminating or decreasing the suspension rate of Latino and Latina students. Identifying these promising practices is beneficial to future and current Latina elementary principals and non-Latina leaders and educators committed to reducing exclusionary practices for Latina and Latino students. The study acknowledges the unique life and cultural experiences of Latina principals that affect how they approach student behavior and disciplinary actions for Latina and Latino students. Furthermore, the study addresses the important role principals have in creating and sustaining a positive school culture, which correlates to student success at school and decreased exclusionary practices for Latina and Latino students. The study provides recommendations based on the promising practices of the Latina principals in this study.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Roman, Andrea (author)

Core Title Latina elementary principals’ promising practices to disrupting disproportionate suspension of Latina and Latino students

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 01/31/2025

Defense Date 01/31/2025

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag alternatives to exclusionary discipline practices,culturally responsive,elementary,Latina and Latino students,Latina principals,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive school culture,promising practices,suspensions

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