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Critical reflection and action in supportive learning environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color

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Critical reflection and action in supportive learning environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color

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Content Critical Reflection and Action in Supportive Learning Environments
for LGBTQ+ Adolescents of Color
by
Roel Vivit
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2025

© Copyright by Roel Vivit 2025
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Roel Vivit certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Eric A. Canny
Anthony Maddox
Monique Claire Datta, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2025

iv
Abstract
Hostile school environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents remain a persistent challenge, with
compounded marginalization experienced by LGBTQ+ adolescents of color due to the
intersection of race, sexuality, and gender. Despite some progress, many schools continue to
reproduce heteronormative and racially biased policies and practices, leaving LGBTQ+
adolescents of color to navigate multiple layers of harassment and exclusion. This dissertation
examines the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, emphasizing the potential of
critical consciousness pedagogy to transform schools into healing-centered spaces. Using
qualitative research methods, including semi-structured interviews with alumni of a Midwest K-8
school, the study explores how critical reflection and student agency impact identity
development. Findings reveal significant challenges such as societal and familial pressures,
internalized stigma, and discrimination while also demonstrating the critical role schools play in
affirming intersectional identities through a positive culture and critical consciousness practices.
By drawing on queer crit, queer of color critique, and critical consciousness pedagogy, the
research underscores how integrating reflection and action into educational frameworks can
empower marginalized students, disrupt systemic oppressions, and promote both academic
success and personal well-being. Recommendations focus on fostering a stronger intersectional
support framework, enhancing peer support structures, and enhancing family and community
engagement to complement school critical consciousness practices to create equitable, affirming,
and inclusive educational spaces for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Keywords: LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, queer of color, intersectionality, critical
consciousness, queer crit, queer of color critique, healing-centered engagement, resilience,
identity development

v
Dedication
To the Spirit that creates, sustains, and loves all things.

vi
Acknowledgements
This dissertation would not have been possible without the expertise, efforts, and
encouragement from many people I hold in high respect and admiration.
To the seven remarkable individuals who participated in this study. Thank you for
sharing your stories with me for this study and for lifting your voices as part of the queer of color
community. You should be so proud of the brilliant, beautiful beings you are. I will forever draw
healing and inspiration from you. Our world is better because you are in it.
I would like to express my deep appreciation to my committee chairperson, Dr. Monique
Datta, whose unwavering encouragement and expert guidance allowed me to trust the process
and persevere through the vortex. Thank you also to my committee members, Dr. Eric Canny
and Dr. Anthony Maddox, for sharing your time, feedback, and insights with me.
To my crew of companions along my journey in education and in life. You pushed me to
explore the world, examine it critically, take action to make it better, hold myself and others with
compassion, and always live in wholeness. Because I knew you, I have been changed for good
and know nothing done in love is ever lost.
To my heart, my pamilya. Thank you to my parents, Dr. Romeo A. Vivit and Elena
Nepomuceno Vivit. Your Faith, courage, and belief in education have been guideposts for me.
Thank you to my sister, Stephanie, for always being a shining star. To my brothers, my in-laws,
my nephews and nieces, and my cousins, thank you for being my treasured tribe. To my
grandparents and ancestors, I honor you in this accomplishment. Nakatayo tayo sa balikat ng
ating mga ninuno.
Above all, to my Creator God, thank you for your blessings of love and abundance.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract ivDedication
vAcknowledgements
viList of Tables
ixList of Figures
xList of Abbreviations
xiChapter One: Introduction to the Study
1Context and Background of the Problem
2Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
4Importance of the Study
4Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
5Definition of Terms
6Organization of the Study
9Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
10Conceptual Framework
30
Conclusion 32
Chapter Three: Methodology 34Research Questions
34
Overview of Design 34Research Setting
36
The Researcher 37
Data Sources 38

viii
Participants 38
Instrumentation 39
Data Collection Procedures 40
Data Analysis 41
Credibility and Trustworthiness 41
Ethics 42
Chapter Four: Findings 4444Participants
45Findings Research Question One
47Findings Research Question Two
68Summary
88Chapter Five: Recommendations
90Discussion of Findings
90
Recommendations for Practice 96
Limitations and Delimitations 102
Recommendations for Future Research 103
Conclusion 104
References 107Appendix A: Pre-Interview 1 Communication Protocol on Artifact
119Appendix B: Interview Protocol 1
121
Appendix C: Interview Protocol 2 125

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources 36
Table 2: Participant Demographics 46
Table 3: Participant Pathways 88

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 31

xi
List of Abbreviations
GLSEN Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network
LGBTQ+ Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and those who identify with
a sexual orientation or gender identity not covered in the acronym
POC People of Color
QOC Queer of Color
QOCC Queer of Color Critique

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The problem of practice broadly under study is the persistence of hostile school
environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents. According to the 2021 National School Climate Survey
conducted by the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (GLSEN), 81.8% of LGBTQ+
students felt unsafe at school because of their actual or perceived characteristics and 83.1%
experienced harassment or assault. The same survey also reported that 58.9% of students
experienced LGBTQ+-related discriminatory policies or practices at school that included the
inability to use chosen names and pronouns and the restriction from forming or promoting GayStraight Alliances/Gender and Sexuality Alliances (GSAs). LGBTQ+ youth also experience
regular microaggressions such as the assumption of a universal LGBTQ+ experience and the
discomfort or disapproval of the LGBTQ+ experience (Nadal et al., 2011).
Consensus exists that dominant heteronormative society privileges identities that
maintain traditional sex and gender roles and ostracizes those who hold identities that deviate
from the norm (Meyer, 2007). The GLSEN survey results demonstrate how schools reproduce
heteronormative policies and practices that create challenges for LGBTQ+ adolescents. What
remains to be known and that this study will focus on is a better understanding of the challenges
experienced by LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who must navigate the intersections of multiple
oppressions. For example, the disaggregated GLSEN student survey data showed the impact of
compounded marginalization where Black LGBTQ+ students who experienced both racism and
homophobia experienced the lowest levels of belonging along with very high levels of
depression (Truong et al., 2020). Along with considering impacts specific to race, the experience
of transgender youth and individuals across the gender spectrum requires closer examination.

2
With wide diversity present through the intersections of race, gender, and sexual orientation,
more research is needed to lift the experiences outside the present literature that is predominantly
White and cisgender. The purpose of this study seeks to better understand the experiences of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color in schools that use critical pedagogy.
Context and Background of the Problem
Since GLSEN began administering the biennial National School Climate Survey in 1999,
educators could better access at a large scale the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents.
The results from the survey provide indicators and impacts on LGBTQ+ adolescents of a hostile
school climate characterized as unsafe due to negative remarks, harassment, and discrimination.
The survey also provides data on the availability and use of LGBTQ+-related school resources
and supports to counter the negative effects of a hostile school environment.
According to Kosciw et al. (2022), an examination of the survey data over time revealed
that although the school climate for LGBTQ+ students has improved, schools remain quite
hostile for many students. Previous declines in negative remarks, harassment, and discrimination
have recently stagnated or reversed and increased. At the same time, school support in the form
of student clubs, curricular resources, and supportive school personnel and policies was reported
as lower than in previous years. The slow progression toward improved school climates for
LGBTQ+ students demonstrates the impact of state legislation limiting and prohibiting
discussions on race and LGBTQ+ supports in schools. For example, Florida’s House Bill 1557,
referred to by proponents as the Parental Rights in Education bill and by opponents as the Don’t
Say Gay bill, bans discussion and instruction of sexual orientation and gender identity in primary
schools and additionally prohibits teaching that is not age appropriate or developmentally
appropriate (Parental Rights in Education, 2022).

3
While legislation such as Florida’s House Bill 1557 and the overall slowing of progress
in the improvement of school climate for LGBTQ+ adolescents harm all LGBTQ+ students,
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color experienced the hostile school environment more intensely
according to the disaggregated data from the 2021 GLSEN survey. Over half of all LGBTQ+
students of color experienced in-person victimization based on race or ethnicity. The majority
across racial and ethnic groups experienced some form of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination at
school. In particular, Black, Asian American, Pacific Islander, and Native and Indigenous
students were more likely to feel unsafe due to their race or ethnicity.
The GLSEN survey data provides insight and information on the school experiences of
LGBTQ+ adolescents that can help educators define goals and outcomes to better support them.
The indicators of a hostile school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color stem from
larger systems of oppression due to race, gender, and sexual orientation. To address systematic
oppression, some educators and researchers support using critical consciousness in schools
through reflection, action, and political agency to combat negative dominant social forces and to
help marginalized youth realize more positive outcomes (Seider et al., 2020). While adults work
for more just and equitable policies that ensure safety and resources for LGBTQ+ youth, critical
consciousness offers educators processes that engage and empower those who are marginalized,
such as LGBTQ+ students of color, to release internal self-blame and to reflect on and take
action against larger external systems of oppression (Watts et al., 1999).
The LGBTQ+ adolescents of color for this research study are alumni who attended a K-8
urban school in the Midwest, given the pseudonym Main, that integrates components of critical
consciousness into their model. The school also uses project-based learning experiences
connected to the community to support students’ growth in academics, character, and high-

4
quality work. Leadership and implementation of the model has remained consistent over time
allowing for ready access to school alumni with similar learning experiences.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of the study is to understand the school experience of LGBTQ+ adolescents
of color and the potential of providing them opportunities for critical reflection and action to
make school environments more healing-centered for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The study
addresses the following research questions:
1.What is the experience of the school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
who attend a school using critical consciousness pedagogy?
2. How do school experiences supporting critical reflection and encouraging student
agency impact the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
Importance of the Study
As institutions that maintain the dynamics of larger society, schools hold a significant
responsibility for creating safe and inclusive places of learning and development for all students.
The findings from the GLSEN survey reveal how LGBTQ+ adolescents and especially LGBTQ+
adolescents of color continue to confront disproportionate rates of in-school bullying,
victimization, and discrimination in comparison to their non-LGBTQ+ peers (Earnshaw et al.,
2016). This problem is important to address because hostile school environments pose barriers
for LGBTQ+ youth to achieve mental well-being and academic success as demonstrated by a
decrease in school belonging, an increase in depression, and increased absenteeism (Abreu et al.,
2022). Schools working towards equitable outcomes for students can improve the education
system by focusing efforts on those most marginalized by it including its LGBTQ+ students of
color.

5
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Queer crit (Misawa, 2010) is a theoretical framework used in this research study to
examine the persistence of hostile school environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
According to Misawa (2010), queer crit extends critical race and queer theory to interrogate
racist and homophobic institutions by addressing six components: (a) the centrality of the
intersection of race and racism with sexual orientation and homophobia; (b) the challenge to
mainstream ideologies; (c) confrontations with ahistoricism; (d) the centrality of experiential
knowledge; (e) multidisciplinary aspects; and (f) the social justice perspective. Of these
components, the centrality of experiential knowledge and the social justice perspective invites
researchers and LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to lift existing personal and collective
counternarratives to combat the roots of oppression by deconstructing and transforming racist
and heteronormative systems.
In line with the centrality of experiential knowledge and the social justice perspective,
critical reflection and action along with healing-centered engagement are emerging concepts
from the literature that are integral to understanding the research problem. Brookfield (2019)
distinguished reflection as critical when it challenges oppressive power dynamics and hegemonic
assumptions that frame everyday actions and practices. For LGBTQ+ adolescents of color,
critical reflection and subsequent opportunities to take action allow them to understand their
purpose, belonging, and intersectionality which can assist with their healing. According to
Ginwright (2018), healing-centered engagement involves an asset-based approach to healing
through the restoration of identity and the promotion of agency for marginalized youth
experiencing trauma including LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who continue to navigate hostile

6
environments at school. Along with content competency, Nagaoka et al. (2015) identified
integrated identity that honors all aspects of an individual’s identity and agency as key factors of
young adult success that youth settings should cultivate to support healthy development for
adolescents.
Based on the queer crit theoretical framework, school environments can lift diverse
experiences at school by LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and provide subsequent opportunities for
critical action. Moreover, critical reflection and action challenge dominant assumptions that pose
systemic barriers to equity and social justice for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and that deny
them access to purpose, belonging, and recognition of all aspects of their identity. Critical
reflection and action invite an individual and collective healing process to take place that creates
supportive conditions for young adult success as seen through an integrated identity, agency, and
competency.
For this study, a qualitative approach was used to gather information on the school
experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. Self-identified LGBTQ+ alumni of color from the
school described earlier who were 18 years of age or older were interviewed to share their
recollections on their adolescent experiences and the impact of critical reflection and action on
their short and long-term development and success. These alumni had additional reflections
looking back over the whole of their experience and further informed by the context of their
post-secondary experience.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions provide clarity for their use throughout this study.

7
● Agency refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and make choices that
impact their life and environment (Nagaoka et al., 2015).
● Agentive practices refer to the ways that queer students of color express, perform,
disclose, conceal, or prioritize their identities; engage in processes of knowledge
production; choose and negotiate peer and social affiliations; and make other decisions
that allow them to strategically navigate the institutional and identity politics of various
educational spaces (Brockenbrough, 2015).
● Critical consciousness describes how oppressed or marginalized people learn to
critically analyze their social conditions and act to change them (Watts et al., 2011).
● Critical reflection is a reflection that challenges oppressive power dynamics and
hegemonic assumptions that frame everyday actions and practices (Brookfield, 2019).
● Developmental experiences are those activities that provide youth with the necessary
conditions and stimuli to advance their development as appropriate to their age (Nagaoka
et al., 2015).
● Healing-centered engagement involves an asset-based approach to healing that is
strengths-based, advances a collective view of healing, and re-centers culture as a central
feature in well-being. It also suggests that those who have experienced trauma and
dehumanization participate in the active discovery of the causes of their harms
(Ginwright, 2018).
● Homophobic bullying refers to any form of bullying, harassment, or victimization that is
motivated by prejudice against someone's actual or perceived sexual orientation (Rivers,
2001).

8
● Identity development refers to the process through which individuals explore and
integrate various aspects of their identity (Phinney, 1989).
● Intersectionality refers to the different aspects of a person’s identity and understanding
how those aspects interact and contribute to unique experiences of oppression or privilege
(Crenshaw, 1990).
● LGBTQ+ is an umbrella term referring to people who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual,
and/or transgender. Sometimes the acronym is written as LGBTQ, with the “Q” referring
to those who identify as queer and/or questioning. The acronym can also include
additional letters, in reference to other identities that do not conform to dominant societal
norms around sexual orientation and gender identity and expression (GLSEN, 2014).
● Queer refers to same-sex desires and identities, as well as transgender and other gender
identities and expressions considered nonconforming by heteronormative power
structures (Brockenbrough, 2015).
● Queer of Color refers to queer subjects who are marked as non-White and targeted as
such under White supremacy; this includes people marked fully or partially as Black,
Latino, Asian, or Indigenous/Native American (Brockenbrough, 2015).
● Queer of Color critique refers to the theoretical approach that interrogates the
intersection of race, sexuality, and systemic oppression (Ferguson, 2004).
● Resilience refers to the ability to adapt and thrive despite adversities, especially as
experienced by marginalized individuals (Masten, 2001).
● Sexual orientation refers to the inner feeling of who a person is attracted to emotionally
and/or physically, in relation to their own gender identity. Some people may identify as
asexual, bisexual, gay, lesbian, pansexual, queer, straight, and more (GLSEN, 2014).

9
Organization of the Study
The dissertation follows a traditional five-chapter model. Chapter One describes the
problem of practice related to the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. Chapter
Two highlights the relevant literature and the conceptual framework for the study. Chapter Three
details the research methodology. Chapter Four provides the findings from the interviews
conducted with the participating LGBTQ+ alums of color. Chapter Five details the proposed
recommendations for schools and educators in promoting positive and healing-centered learning
environments committed to the success of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.

10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This review of the literature begins with a description of school experiences experienced
by a majority of LGBTQ+ adolescents as reported by the most recent GLSEN National Climate
Survey and supported by other reviews synthesizing research on school experiences for
LGBTQ+ adolescents. After gaining an aggregate view of school experiences, disaggregated
data by race and ethnicity from the survey will be discussed along with current studies specific to
school experiences for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The review of literature will move from
school experiences to the significance of intersectionality and identity development for LGBTQ+
adolescents of color and the role of schools in identity development. The review will share the
components of critical consciousness pedagogy and their connection to addressing hostile school
environments through an empowering, asset-based approach. Finally, the review will conclude
with the conceptual framework bringing together the concepts from the literature that inform the
focus of the research study.
School Experiences of LGBTQ+ Adolescents
The school experiences for LGBTQ+ adolescents continue to be challenging. Despite the
progress made in the acceptance and inclusion of LGBTQ+ students, research highlights that
LGBTQ+ students continue to encounter a more hostile school climate than their heterosexual,
cisgender peers (White et al., 2018). Kosciw et al. (2022) reported that 68% of LGBTQ+
students felt unsafe at school because of their sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender
expression characteristics and 58.9% experienced LGBTQ+-related discriminatory policies or
practices. Trends in the National Youth Risk Behavior Survey from 2011 to 2021 showed the
persistence of mental health disparities for LGBTQ+ students placing them at a higher risk for
hopelessness, suicidality, drug use, and experiencing violence (Centers for Disease Control and

11
Prevention, 2021). Along with negative impacts on their mental and physical health, LGBTQ+
students experienced a consequent impact on their academic outcomes. As a result of frequent
harassment and assault, LGBTQ+ students reported missing more days of school, having lower
grade point averages, and lower educational aspirations (Kosciw et al., 2022). Macro-level forces
at the state and district policy level along with micro-level interactions in the school climate
contribute to overall negative impacts on the adolescent development of LGBTQ+ students.
Impact of Policy
State policies have allowed outcome disparities in schools for LGBTQ+ students to
continue. Although the data shows ongoing harmful school experiences for LGBTQ+ students,
several states including Florida upheld legislation such as the Parental Rights in Education Bill
(2022) that prevents teachers from discussing and using curriculum and instruction that would
support their LGBTQ+ students. At present, less than half of the states in the United States have
laws that explicitly protect LGBTQ+ youth from discrimination in schools (Movement
Advancement Project, 2023). With laws that restrict support for LGBTQ+ students and without
laws in place to prohibit discrimination, schools, and districts do not possess the necessary policy
support to make changes to learning environments and outcomes for LGBTQ+ students. As a
result of the most recent prohibitive policies and public discourse, LGBTQ+ students reported
that they were less likely to have access to resources and support in their schools compared to
data collected in 2019 (Kosciw et al., 2022).
While inclusive sexual orientation and gender identity policies may offer accountability
to make changes in schools for LGBTQ+ students and have been associated with less truancy
(Day et al., 2019) and some declines in violence and bullying over time (Goodenow et al., 2016;
Kull et al., 2016), they are not sufficient to shift negative school experiences. For example,

12
despite New York’s efforts through legislation and policies, 54% of New York students still
experienced at least one form of anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination at school (GLSEN, 2021).
California Results from the California Healthy Kids survey from 2015 - 2017 reported that
LGBTQ+ students were at the greatest risk for hostile school climates compared to other groups
(Ioverno & Russell, 2022) despite ongoing efforts to introduce bills in support of LGBTQ+
students. A similar review of studies from 2009 - 2019 also confirms that even though many
states have enacted supportive policies, LGBTQ+ youth nationwide are exposed to more
negative school experiences when compared to their heterosexual and cisgender peers
contributing to adverse consequences for them (Abreu, 2022). Private non-religious schools that
are not obligated to follow district policies also had students who reported anti-LGBTQ+
language, victimization, discriminatory practices, and limited resources and support in their
schools (Kosciw et al., 2022). These studies indicate that although policies have worked to
reduce incidences of bullying of LGBTQ+ youth, a larger systemic school climate across
different settings leading to overall negative experiences for LGBTQ+ youth still exist.
School Climate for LGBTQ+ Adolescents
The overall school climate continues to result in negative experiences for LGBTQ+
adolescents. Since 1999, the GLSEN biennial National School Climate Survey has collected and
disseminated large scale data on the micro-level interactions in schools that shape the daily
experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents. The survey identified indicators of a hostile school climate
and their effects on students’ academic success and mental health. The indicators of a hostile
school climate include threats to safety, anti-LGBTQ+ remarks, harassment and assault, and
discriminatory policies and practices. In 2021, GLSEN surveyed 22, 298 students between the
ages of 13 and 21 from all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin

13
Islands, and Northern Mariana Islands. The results reported that 81.8% of LGBTQ+ students
reported feeling unsafe in school, 97% heard “gay” used in a negative way, 91.8% heard negative
remarks about gender expression, and 83.1% experienced in-person harassment or assault
(Kosciw et al., 2022). In addition, 58.9% experienced LGBTQ+-related discriminatory school
policies or practices such as being prevented from using bathrooms or locker rooms based on
gender, using their correct pronouns, and discussing or writing about LGBTQ+ topics in class
assignments. Abreu et al. (2022) performed a systematic review of 23 studies on LGBTQ+
student experiences in schools from 2009-2019 that supported the prevalence of ongoing
victimization that has led to negative outcomes in the short and long-term for LGBTQ+ students.
As a result of experiencing higher levels of in-person victimization, LGBTQ+ students
were nearly three times as likely to have missed school, felt lower levels of belonging, had
higher levels of depression, and were twice as likely to report that they did not plan to pursue any
post-secondary education (Kosciw et al., 2022). The Youth Risk Behavior Survey from 2011 to
2021 highlighted the detrimental effects of in-person victimization for LGBTQ+ students
reporting that nearly 70% of LGBTQ+ students experienced persistent feelings of sadness and
hopelessness and more than 20% of LGBTQ+ students attempted suicide due to negative school
experiences (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). Data from both the National
School Climate Survey and the Youth Risk Behavior Survey on the effects of victimization
compels schools to address the concerns over the safety and well-being of LGBTQ+ adolescents
with greater urgency.
While reporting on the extent of negative experiences, the GLSEN survey also identified
the presence and impact of LGBTQ+-related school resources and supports regarded as
protective factors to counter hostile elements of school climate. The resources and supports

14
included the availability of a gay-straight alliance/gender and sexuality alliance (GSA), the
availability of inclusive curricular resources, the availability of supportive educators, and the
availability of inclusive and supportive school policies. LGBTQ+ students with these supports in
their schools indicated they were less likely to feel unsafe, less likely to miss school, feel greater
belonging to their school community, perform better academically, and report lower levels of
depression (Kosciw et al., 2022). Previous reports shared similar findings on the benefits of
GSAs specifically in promoting feelings of safety and belonging along with better academic
outcomes for LGBTQ+ students (Gower et al., 2017; Heck et al., 2011; Kosciw et al., 2013;
Poteat et al., 2013; Toomey et al., 2012). Despite the benefits associated with supports such as
GSAs and inclusive curriculum, students surveyed in the 2021 National School Climate revealed
that only a third of them had an active GSA club in their school, 71.6% indicated that their
classes did not include any LGBTQ+ topics in class, only 23.7% shared their school
administration was somewhat or very supportive of LGBTQ+ students, and only 12% believed
their school had a comprehensive anti-bullying policy that specifically enumerates both sexual
orientation and gender identity/expression (Kosciw et al., 2022). The most recent data from
students points to an existing gap in the accessibility to protective factors for LGBTQ+ students.
Along with GSAs and inclusive curriculum, the GLSEN survey identified supportive
educators as another protective factor and provided insight into this by measuring disclosure by
students experiencing school-based harassment and assault. A significant percentage (61.5%) of
LGBTQ+ students chose not to relay incidents of victimization. Seventy percent of students
shared that they chose not to share incidences of victimization because they did not think the
school staff would do anything about it and 60.6% did not think the school staff’s handling of the
situation would be effective (Kosciw et al., 2022). These responses point to concerns and a lack

15
of trust by students in the adults in schools to ensure their safety. Reinforcing this belief is the
experience held by 60.3% of students that when they communicated harassment and assault, staff
took no action or told the students to ignore it. Kolbert et al. (2015) shared similar findings that
LGBTQ+ students did not feel support both inside and outside of schools because the adults did
not take the reports of homophobic bullying as seriously as other forms of aggression. Earnshaw
et al. (2020) highlighted through their study that even school health professionals who play an
important role in responding to instances of LGBTQ+ bullying had minimal awareness of and
effectiveness in addressing bullying. Shifting a hostile climate in schools requires that the adults
can be trusted by students to listen and take appropriate action when bullying takes place.
Towards An Asset-Based Frame of LGBTQ+ Adolescents
Emerging research seeks to examine what contributes to supportive school environments
for LGBTQ+ students. Johns et al. (2019) emphasized not only addressing the victimization of
LGBTQ+ youth but also highlighting their resilience. GSAs were referenced as spaces to provide
and nurture resilience by cultivating both individual assets while also providing external
resources to improve adolescent health. Mann et al. (2023) identified schools as potential sites
for generating gender euphoria, or positive emotional reaction, through a focus on pride and
LGBTQ+ representation in school roles and in the curriculum.
Current and future research seeks to shift the study of LBTQ+ adolescents in schools
from a dominant victim-based perspective to an asset-based perspective that acknowledges
student agency. Critical to the study of LGBTQ+ adolescent resilience and agency is a better
understanding of the intersecting identities of LGBTQ+ students (John et al., 2019). In particular,
more research from 2013-2023 and still ongoing provides more needed insight into the

16
complexity of the intersecting identities of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and how their
intersecting identities shape their school experiences.
School Climate More Challenging for LGBTQ+ Adolescents of Color
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color experienced the hostile environment more intensely
according to the disaggregated data in the 2021 GLSEN survey. One-third of the 22, 298 students
who participated in GLSEN’s 2021 National School Climate Survey were adolescents of color.
Of these students, over half reported experiencing in-person victimization based on race/ethnicity
and a majority across racial/ethnic groups had experienced some form of anti-LGBTQ+
discrimination at school. The data follows from GLSEN’s prior findings in 2019 that showed that
2 out of 5 LGBTQ+ students of color experienced both anti-LGBTQ and racist harassment at
school (Truong et al., 2019). The 2019 GLSEN survey also shared that students who experienced
both homophobic and racist victimization were the most likely to skip school due to feeling
unsafe, experienced the lowest levels of school belonging, and experienced the highest levels of
depression. Day et al. (2018) reported transgender youth of color having even higher levels of
truancy and absenteeism, general victimization, sexual orientation, and gender-based bullying,
and had more negative perceptions of their school climate than their non-transgender peers.
The disaggregated GLSEN data not only highlights the effects of multiple forms of
oppression for LGBTQ+ students of color as a whole but also points out differences by
racial/ethnic group. Native and Indigenous students experienced the highest levels of in-person
victimization, anti-LGBTQ+ discrimination, and school discipline and communicated lower
percentages of planning to pursue post-secondary education (Kosciw et al., 2022). In contrast,
Black and Asian American Pacific Islander (AAPI) students were generally less likely than their
peers of color to have had anti-LGBTQ+ experiences at school, feel unsafe due to their sexual

17
orientation or gender expression, and experience discrimination. The survey analysis
hypothesized that the data showing AAPI students being less likely to be out to their peers may
account for the differences in their school experience. Truong et al. (2020) attributed differences
in school experiences for Latinx students as stemming from their experiences of xenophobia and
anti-immigrant sentiment. Additional research is needed to closely examine root causes such as
these for AAPI and Latinx students that explain why anti-LGBTQ+ experiences differ across
racial/ethnic groups.
Addressing Shortcomings of the Climate Survey
The GLSEN Survey Data provides a limited picture of the school experiences of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. Additional studies complement, extend, and interrogate the
findings of the GLSEN’s National School Climate Survey by revealing more about the particular
experiences and challenges of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color in schools. In contrast to the
GLSEN data for Black students, qualitative reports share ongoing fear of the school
environments by Black students due to anti-LGBTQ+ rejection and abuse. Reid (2022) provided
evidence of identity suppression by New York City Black students to minimize discrimination in
school and reliance instead on accessing liberatory space outside of school through the city’s
ballroom culture. By finding a space of belonging to the LGBTQ+ community and their
ethnic/racial group, LGBTQ+ youth use their minority status as a protective factor (Murphy &
Hardaway, 2017). Opportunities that take place outside of the school setting such as New York
City’s ballroom culture provide an important and needed space to counter the reality of youth
with multiple minority identities shown to be particularly vulnerable to bullying and peer
victimization (Jackman, 2020). Consistent with previous studies, Jackman’s (2020) study lifted
up through intersectional analyses that all sexual minority and racial/ethnic minority boys and

18
bisexual racial/ethnic minority girls were at higher risk for bullying and peer victimization
compared to heterosexual peers of the same race/ethnicity.
Also different from the GLSEN data, quantitative and qualitative research share similar
ongoing stresses of the school environments specifically for AAPI students. Endo (2021)
conducted a two-year study of in-school experiences of Asian American LGBQ-identified1
adolescents who shared their experiences with violence-based encounters and gendered and
racialized forms of heterosexism and homophobia. While the GLSEN report referenced AAPI
students as less likely to have anti-LGBTQ+ experiences in school, participants in Endo’s study
elaborated on the complex reasons for their reluctance to formally report incidents of antiLGBTQ+ experiences including fear of being outed to peers and family disapproval.
Gorse et al. (2021) further shed light on the experiences of AAPI LGBTQ+ students by
using a larger sample from the California Healthy Kids survey to confirm that AAPI LGBTQ+
adolescents experienced more negative school climate, victimization, and mental health
differences from LGBTQ+ adolescents who were White. Additionally, the study differentiated
experiences within the AAPI group by reporting more adverse experiences for Asian Indian,
Cambodian, Hmong, Japanese, Korean, and Laotian students. Ocampo and Soodjinda (2016) in
their study of queer Asian Americans in the Bay Area lifted the differences and needs unique to
AAPI youth. They recognized the challenges youth face in gaining acceptance from outside and
within their ethnic group. They also highlighted the challenges connected to battling the model
minority myth.
Previously held explanations for the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
have been challenged. In their earlier national study of sexual minority youth of color, Truong
1 Trans adolescents were not part of the Endo (2021) study.

19
and Russell’s (2001) findings could not support the argument that queer youth of color are
doubly disadvantaged by their dual minority statuses and posited that their oppressions were not
additive. They went on to argue that LGBTQ+ youth of color possessed an advantage in
leveraging their racial minority status to help them navigate their sexual identity minority status.
Recent studies have opposed this earlier understanding in confirming that experiences of
oppression as manifested in depression symptoms and suicidal ideation were multiplicative and
additive respectively and that the reality of intersectional minority stressors negatively impacting
the mental health of sexual minority youth of color requires further investigation (Gorse et al.,
2021; Mallory & Russell, 2021).
While some studies recommend the supportive aspects of strategies such as the use of
inclusive curriculum and accessibility to GSAs for all LGBTQ+ students, other studies caution
against unintentional negative experiences due to the absence of considering intersectionality.
Through the GLSEN survey data, LGBTQ+ students in schools with an inclusive curriculum
reported less likely to hear homophobic remarks and were less likely to feel unsafe because of
their sexual orientation compared to students in schools without an inclusive curriculum (Kosciw
et al., 2021). While studying the use of inclusive curriculum in a high school humanities course,
Schey (2023) reported that the presence of inclusive text did not guarantee student engagement
and effective, critical classroom discourse. Depending on the classroom climate and facilitator,
LGBTQ+ students of color navigated the safety of the space to disclose aspects of their identity
or question the limits of the curriculum to highlight some aspects of identity while also
minimizing others. The study called for a critical review of inclusive texts so that they do not
perpetuate a monolithic and reductionist view of the LGBTQ+ experience. Moreover, greater
attention should be given to intersecting youth identities that include race and ethnicity.

20
GSAs also have both benefits and limitations that require careful attention before
instituting them as a panacea for belonging, particularly for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Studies by Gower et al. (2018) and Truong and Zongrone (2022) shared that students who attend
secondary schools with GSAs reported greater feelings of safety, better grades and school
belongingness, and less bullying/harassment involvement, substance use, and mental health
problems. However, as with the GLSEN survey data, the Truong and Zongrone study also had an
overrepresentation of White students. Both Endo (2021) and Ocampo and Soonjinda (2016)
provided evidence from the experience of AAPI students that GSAs were limited in their racial
and ethnic makeup and that they did not address needs around navigating coming out from a
multicultural perspective particularly when a collectivist culture conflicted with a more
individualist one. GSAs appeared to support those who were already out (Ocampo & Soonjinda,
2016) and invited stress and potential harassment and discrimination for those who were
questioning or were just beginning their sexual identity development (Endo, 2021). As with the
use of inclusive curriculum, GSAs can better support the belonging of all LGBTQ+ students
when they consider the intersectional identities of their LGBTQ+ students of color.
Overall, the school experiences for LGBTQ+ adolescents still show the persistence of
hostile climates through harassment, discrimination, and insufficient access to protective factors
including inclusive curriculum and supportive adults and peer groups (Kosciw et al., 2022). The
hostile environment is magnified for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who must manage
marginalization due to their intersectional identity (Kosciw et al., 2022; Truong et al., 2020).
Before applying general interventions of support, a deeper understanding of intersectionality and
identity development for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color is needed to provide differentiated
support responsive to the unique needs of each individual.

21
Intersectionality and Identity Development for LGBTQ+ Adolescents of Color
A key to shifting school experiences for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color involves more
effectively addressing intersectionality in supporting their identity development. Findings on the
school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color support the need to deepen understanding
of those experiences through an intersectional approach that acknowledges that individuals with
multiple marginalized identities tend to experience the negative impact of compounded multiple
forms of oppression (Crenshaw, 1990). Enno et al. (2022) further identified three trends in the
literature of intersectionality for ethnic minorities including those who are LGBTQ+: the additive
model, the resilience coming from separate identities, and the combined impact of multiple
oppressed identities.
The first trend, called the additive model, refers specifically to psychosocial outcomes
and theorizes that individuals possessing multiple oppressed identities have a greater risk for
adverse psychosocial outcomes (Huang et al., 2010). The additive model explains why LGBTQ+
adolescents are at greater risk for depression and suicidal ideation. The second trend asserts that
having multiple oppressed identities fosters resilience by allowing individuals to use coping
mechanisms experienced in one area of identity in another area (Ghabriel, 2017). Instead of
using multiple oppressed identities to minimize the magnitude of experiences of oppression
across identities as suggested earlier by Truong and Russell (2001), the current trend recognizes
the development and exercise of resilience across multiple experiences of oppression as a marker
of strength. The third trend seeks to consider the combined impact of multiple oppressed
identities instead of viewing them separately as a way to understand how individuals work
towards an integrated identity (Balsam et al., 2011). The multiple frames of intersectionality

22
allow for a more nuanced way to understand the diverse experiences of managing multiple
aspects of identity.
As the preceding trends in intersectional approaches suggest, addressing the multiple
identities of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color is complex. Employing a more intersectional lens to
the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color shows the intricate interactions that take
place between different identities inside individuals while also recognizing the external
influences acting on them from their social context (Chulani, 2019). Due to the diversity of
experiences, Johns et al. (2019) emphasized that schools must improve in applying a more
intersectional approach to support their LGBTQ+ students instead of an approach that has been
historically one-size-fits-all geared towards a monolithic LGBTQ+ population. More research is
needed to inform this change. The 2021 GLSEN National School Climate Survey report
continued to advocate for more qualitative and quantitative research on intersectional
experiences of LGBTQ+ students of color. In their review of reports since 1990 on sexual
minority youth of color, Toomey et al. (2017) found few reports that intentionally examined the
results of intersecting oppressions and privileges related to sexual orientation and race-ethnicity
on the health and well-being of sexual minority youth of color. While experts agree that the
study of intersectionality specific to LGBTQ+ adolescents of color requires more attention and
focus, fully understanding the processes and impacts of that intersectionality is challenging.
To more effectively address the complexities of intersectionality for LGBTQ+
adolescents of color, some experts have advocated for a range of responsive strategies that take a
more developmental approach. Kumashiro (2001) named the paradox inherent in attempting to
change multiple oppressions amidst multiple differences across individuals. Driving such change
requires recognizing that efforts to address oppressive experiences for one aspect or individual

23
may have unintended oppressive experiences for another aspect or individual. Consequently,
schools need to be constantly aware of the impact of their change initiatives and recognize whose
experience is being centered and whose is being marginalized. Since there are many and
evolving ways to define gender and sexuality and their intersection, Kumashiro cautions against
fixed definitions and solutions that can create harm within an already marginalized community.
While GSAs and inclusive curriculum provide promising support, schools need to use a critical
lens towards intersectionality to evaluate if the interventions are supporting the diversity of
LGBTQ+ students of color life experiences. Along with providing a range of interventions, Enno
et al. (2022) and Toomey et al. (2017) further encourage ensuring those interventions do not just
focus on the victim experience of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. Addressing intersectionality
well for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color requires understanding cultural strengths and processes of
ethnic and racial development as well as sexual identity development.
Diversity Exists in Identity Development
Many stage and fluid models have been constructed for racial-ethnic and sexual identity
development. They share common elements and create diverse, nuanced, and complex pathways
for identity formation. Phinney (1989) summarized the theories for racial-ethnic identity
development for minority group adolescents by describing individuals moving from an initial
state of unawareness of their membership in and views on their ethnic group through an
exploration process of their ethnicity following a traumatic or oppressive encounter. Exploration
further progresses into immersion experiences of their ethnic community that leads to an
integration phase where adolescents incorporate their ethnic identity into their selfimage. Chulani (2019) outlined a similar progression for sexual identity development that moves
from an initial awareness of and confusion by same-sex attraction to an awareness and

24
withdrawal from larger societal heterosexism. Subsequent exploration of and positive contact
with the LGBTQ+ community eventually leads to an acceptance and integration of an
individual’s sexual orientation in their self-identity. Chulani distinguishes the current model of
sexual identity development as including the processes of deconstructing previously internalized
heterosexual expectations and choosing to disclose sexual identity within a specific social and
cultural context. Together the ethnic-racial and sexual identity models provide a window into
intersecting processes of development taking place for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Unlike other forms of development, the ethnic-racial and sexual identity models have
been challenged to not operate in a linear fashion. Many have argued that adolescent experiences
do not operate in discrete stages as they are influenced and shaped by a myriad of additional
factors including age cohort, education, socioeconomic status, and geographic location
(Berkowitz et al., 2011). In their study of queer male youth between the ages of 16-22, Jamil et
al. (2009) reported results indicating that while ethnic-racial identity development may occur
concurrent to sexual identity development, the processes not only differed but appeared
independent of each other. The variety of possible developmental experiences along with
attending to two distinct processes makes a prescribed curriculum or intervention for
development limited in meeting the needs specific to an individual at a particular place and time
in their identity journey. The reality of the complexity supports Kumashiro’s (2001) argument
for the need to trouble the intersections of ethnicity-race and sexuality rather than seek to
simplify and generalize them. School support and interventions for LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color should allow room for differentiation.
The Role of School in Identity Development

25
Schools play an important role in adolescent identity development. The description of
phases alludes to adolescence as a time when youth move from initial awareness to exploration
of their identity particularly in relation to a larger social context. Jamil et al. (2013) argued that
given the amount of time adolescents spend in school in comparison to other contexts make
schools the ideal place to have open conversations about identity in addition to learning
academic content. During the exploratory period in identity development, schools also offer an
ideal place to access a range of resources for students to use as they work to construct an
integrated identity. Along with offering resources, Nagaoka et al. (2014) in their
developmental framework around the foundation for young adult success further push for middle
and secondary schools to offer developmental experiences that serve as catalysts for identity
exploration and development. Like Jamil et al., Nagaoka et al. support a school model that
includes academic competency, agency, and an integrated identity as key outcomes for students.
In their review of research literature on the role of schools in adolescents’ identity
development, Verhoeven et al. (2018) also pointed out schools as important contexts where
students are introduced to new ideas and meaningful experiences that can support their identity
development. They further highlighted findings that suggest that offering adolescents, especially
those who are at risk of marginalization, the opportunity to recognize and critically assess social
inequalities can foster both identity development and resilience. For example, Umaña-Taylor and
Updegraff (2007) reported higher levels of self-esteem for Latinx adolescents who had greater
access to ethnic-racial identity exploration and resolution. Identity development for LGBTQ+
adolescents provides a path for youth empowerment and not just protection from victimization.
Victimization is not the only narrative for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and schools
should not focus all efforts on protection from harm without also supporting student strengths

26
and development. Akerlund and Chung (2000) early on pointed out that the literature on minority
queer youth of color focused heavily on the deficit aspects of discrimination, oppression,
assimilation, and rejection and few identified cultural strengths. Toomey et al.’s (2017) more
recent review of the literature on sexual minority youth of color revealed that most reports
continued to frame a deficit perspective focused on health-related outcomes (i.e., suicide and
depression) while substantially fewer attended to normative developmental processes such as
those for identity or interpersonal relationships. Their findings support that most research with
sexual minority youth of color has been framed by a persistent deficit perspective, rather than
emphasizing normative developmental processes or strengths.
Ginwright’s (2018) model of healing-centered engagement works to counter the deficit
perspective by focusing on desired well-being rather than suppressing symptoms and not on
defining individuals by their trauma. Ginwright’s model advocates for places such as schools to
offer marginalized youth healing as a restoration of identity. Healing-centered engagement
supports the studies by Russell (2005) and Battle and Linville (2006) that the process of
negotiating multiple identities may make some queer students more resilient than other groups of
students. LGBTQ+ adolescents of color are not just the statistics of traumatic victimization.
Their experiences in schools also include narratives of agency in crafting their identity and
developing skills that help them work through challenges towards their academic and personal
successes.
Addressing the concerns of LGBTQ+ students requires an intersectional approach that
considers all aspects of their developmental experiences. The intersectional approach involves
many layers of identity that are influenced by a particular social context requiring a differentiated

27
response for each student. Shifting the focus from being entirely on victimization to identity
development supports youth engagement and agency.
Critical Pedagogy as Promising Support for LGBTQ+ Adolescents of Color
Intersectional development can work with critical consciousness pedagogy to address
symptoms and combat root causes of structural oppression that LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
encounter in schools. Critical consciousness originated from Paolo Freire (1970) whose work
with migrant workers in Brazil led to his development of the use of reflection and action for
oppressed groups to understand and challenge inequitable social forces. Freire believed that
critical consciousness demonstrated through reading, reflection, dialogue, and action toward
social change functioned as the primary goal of education for oppressed people.
Critical Reflection and Action Combats Oppressive Systems
Researchers since Freire further defined elements of critical consciousness pedagogy.
From their review of research on critical consciousness, Watts et al. (2011) determined three core
critical consciousness components: critical reflection, political efficacy, and critical action.
Critical reflection involves the ability to name and analyze inequitable systems where biases and
discrimination persist through institutions and policies. Political efficacy refers to the belief that
an individual and the collective possess the capacity to make social change. Critical action
includes engagement in the events and activities meant to challenge oppressive structures and
create change.
Contemporary research has expanded applications of critical consciousness from
oppressed communities to investigate its impact specifically on youth. Deimer et al. (2016) in
their discussion of measures for critical consciousness referred to critical consciousness and its
components as an important way to promote positive development for marginalized youth. The

28
critical consciousness scale has provided a way to quantitatively measure baseline and
development in critical consciousness for youth as their settings offer opportunities for reflection
and action. Matthews et al. (2020) examined the intersection of critical consciousness and ethnic
racial identity development processes among youth of color and argued that the processes
together provide a way for youth of color to exercise their agency by resisting and challenging
racial marginalization and navigating diverse sociopolitical contexts. Agency through collective
action was the focus for the study of Chan and Mak (2020) who were looking at the connections
between critical reflection and action specifically for LGBT and cisgender heterosexual
individuals. Their research highlighted the benefits of critical consciousness in empowering both
groups to combat oppressive dominant structures.
Along with helping marginalized youth more successfully manage the challenging social
contexts they encounter in school, the cultivation of critical consciousness in schools also
provides additional health and academic benefits. In their systematic review of research on the
effects of critical consciousness on adolescents and young adults, Maker Castro et al. (2022)
determined that critical consciousness, particularly critical motivation or political efficacy, was
strongly associated with better well-being in terms of mental and physical health with stronger
effects found for youth of color. Seider et al. (2023) studied youth from different racial-ethnic
groups and across different content areas in schools in their investigation of the association
between critical consciousness and academic achievement. Their research supported that the
different components of critical consciousness predicted students’ academic achievement in
different content areas. They also found that the associations between critical consciousness and
academic achievement were stronger for students of color.
Queer of Color Critique Empowers LGBTQ+ Adolescents of Color

29
Research has extended critical consciousness pedagogy by shifting the role of queer
individuals of color from passive to active study participants. Ferguson’s (2004) sociological
examination of race, gender, and sexuality in African American culture emphasized the need for
more anti-oppressive knowledge production by and for queer individuals of color. Kumashiro
(2001) also advocated for knowledge production by and for queer individuals of color. Both
Ferguson and Kumashiro ushered in a distinct form of critical scholarship particular to the
experiences of queer people of color called queer of color analysis (QOCA) or queer of color
critique (QOCC). This body of work sought to challenge the dominant discourses and beliefs in
educational studies that has led to deficit narratives about queers of color and the resulting
misguided interventions to address their needs (McCready, 2013). Brockenbrough (2013) called
this deficit approach a pathologization of queers of color and stressed the need to name and
contextualize marginalization while also highlighting the varied strategies of resistance used by
queers of color to counter their marginalization.
Instead of focusing on an at-risk or crisis perspective as communicated through reports
only of victimization, Brockenbrough (2015) argued that queers of color should be
acknowledged and studied for their agency in navigating obstacles to their personal and
academic success. To expand the discourse on how to educate and support queer youth,
Brockenbrough (2016) presented findings from a study of an urban, not-for-profit HIV/AIDS
prevention and support services center that focused on serving Black and Latino urban queer
youth. The study described the youth-focused, culturally responsive approach of the center to
provide a model for a similar approach in urban secondary schools and community-based
organizations. The model, which offered a sense of family and engaged the interest and talent of

30
the participants, proved that spaces exist where queer youth of color choose to participate to meet
their needs and experience belonging and agency.
Models of Anti-Oppressive Education for LGBTQ+ Adolescents of Color
A range of approaches in schools have recently worked to challenge heteronormativity
and oppression focusing on the strengths of LGBTQ+ students. Pennell (2017) described the use
of the queer cultural capital framework during professional development for teachers to
recognize assets specific to LGBTQ+ students. Moorehead and Jimenez (2020) documented a
case study of one public high school’s yearlong course that combined a semester-long LGBTQ+
studies course with a semester-long ethnic studies course to get at intersectionality more fully for
LGBTQ+ students of color.
In addition, Ibrahim et al. (2022) examined the connection between critical consciousness
development and arts participation. Their findings suggested that arts involvement promoted
critical consciousness for youth with varied experiences of oppression and privilege. Like the
youth center study by Brockenbrough (2016), Reid (2023) analyzed the practices of ballroom
educators and presented their approaches to curriculum as a guide to designing LGBTQ+
inclusive curriculum that responds to the experiences of Black LGBTQ+ youth. Additional
research is necessary to offer diverse narratives of empowerment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color that counter the dominant narrative of victimization.
Conceptual Framework
Queer crit (Misawa, 2010) is the theoretical framework that this study uses to examine
the persistence of hostile school environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and how to
address those environments with an asset-based approach. According to Misawa (2010), queer
crit extends critical race and queer theory to interrogate racist and homophobic institutions by

31
addressing six components: (a) the centrality of the intersection of race and racism with sexual
orientation and homophobia; (b) the challenge to mainstream ideologies; (c) confrontations with
ahistoricism; (d) the centrality of experiential knowledge; (e) multidisciplinary aspects; and (f)
the social justice perspective. Of these components, the centrality of experiential knowledge and
the social justice perspective invite researchers and LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to lift existing
personal and collective counternarratives to combat roots of oppression by deconstructing and
transforming racist and heteronormative systems.
In line with the centrality of experiential knowledge and the social justice perspective,
critical reflection and healing-centered engagement are emerging concepts from the literature
that are integral to understanding the research problem. Brookfield (2019) distinguishes
reflection as critical when it challenges oppressive power dynamics and hegemonic assumptions
that frame everyday actions and practices. For LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, critical reflection
allows them access to understanding their purpose, belonging, and intersectionality that can
assist with the healing process. According to Ginwright (2018), healing-centered engagement
involves an asset-based approach to healing through the restoration of identity and the promotion
of agency for marginalized youth experiencing trauma including LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
who continue to navigate hostile environments at school. Along with content competency,
Nagaoka et al. (2015) identify integrated identity and agency as key factors of young adult
success that youth settings should cultivate to support healthy development for adolescents.
Focusing on the centrality of experiential knowledge from the queer crit theoretical
framework, Figure 1 shows how school environments can lift diverse experiences at school by
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and provide an intrapersonal and interpersonal process through
critical reflection for acknowledging those experiences. Moreover, critical reflection challenges

32
dominant assumptions that pose systemic barriers to equity and social justice for LGBTQ+
adolescents of color and that deny them access to purpose, belonging, and recognition of all
aspects of their identity. Critical reflection invites an individual and collective healing process to
take place that creates supportive conditions for young adult success as seen through an
integrated identity, agency, and competency.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Conclusion
The research literature offers data showing the persistence of hostile school environments
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The research also highlights how intersectionality increases the
magnitude of the experiences of oppression and calls for differentiated interventions rather than
implementing one-size-fits-all approaches that treat LGBTQ+ adolescents of color as a monolith.

33
While high percentages of harassment and victimization in schools for LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color continue and demand urgency, a deeper understanding of identity development can provide
a way to address the problem from a reactive approach in treating symptoms to a proactive
approach ensuring health and well-being. Critical consciousness pedagogy provides a way for
schools to work with their LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to name and acknowledge oppressive
structures while also providing a process of reflection and action that honors student strengths
and agency. Thus far, studies have shown critical consciousness as applied to ethnic/racial and
sexual identity separately. This study seeks to further understand school experiences for
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and how the critical consciousness components of reflection and
action embedded in existing school models may or may not have addressed the unique
intersectional needs of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.

34
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter describes the design for the research study. The purpose of the study is to
understand the school experience of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and the potential for critical
reflection and action to make school environments more healing-centered for LGBTQ+
adolescents of color. Following a review of the research questions, an overview for the design of
the study will describe the approach, context, and data sources of the study. Sections are devoted
to describing in greater detail the research setting, research, and data sources with a full
description of the survey instrument and data collection procedures. The chapter will conclude
with actions taken to ensure validity and reliability and to maintain safety for participants in the
study.
Research Questions
The study addressed the following research questions:
1. What is the experience of the school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
who attend a school using critical consciousness pedagogy?
2. How do school experiences supporting critical reflection and encouraging student
agency impact the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
Overview of Design
For the study, a qualitative approach aligned with the research purpose to better
understand the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color since it is an approach for
exploring and understanding the meaning individuals attribute to a social problem (Creswell &
Creswell, 2022). According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the qualitative approach uses an
inductive process by the researcher to generate a rich description which is helpful in the

35
construction of meaning in the unique experiences of the LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
participating in the interview.
Method 1 of the qualitative approach used interviews. The research interview is defined
by deMarrais (2004) as “a process in which a researcher and participant engage in a conversation
focused on questions related to a research study” (p. 55). Since the study sought to understand
past school experiences, the interview method allowed individuals to reflect on and offer
impressions related to their prior adolescent school experience. To provide participants with
adequate space to process and share their experiences related to both race and sexual orientation,
they were interviewed twice. The first interview focused on how they self-identify and a
description of general school experiences related to their identity to provide insight on the first
research question. The second interview allowed participants to expand upon their responses
from the first interview with a focus on experiences related to the impact of critical reflection and
the encouragement of student agency in school. The content from the second interview addressed
the relationship between critical consciousness pedagogy and identity formation emphasized in
the second research question.
Method 2 of the qualitative approach used an artifact selected by the interviewee. The
artifact served as an open-ended means for participants to define their identity by choosing any
representation of it through a photo, image, piece of artwork, or other form. Using the artifact to
open the first interview allowed individuals to bring themselves into the interview space. By
describing their artifact, they had the opportunity to be producers of knowledge as advanced
through queer of color critique (Brockenbrough, 2013) through defining their own identity and
experience in a representation of their choice.

36
Table 1
Data Sources
Research Question Interview Artifact
RQ1: What is the experience of the school environment for
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who attend school using
critical consciousness pedagogy?
X
RQ2: How do school experiences supporting critical
reflection and encouraging student agency impact the identity
development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
X X
Research Setting
The site for the study was a K-8 urban school in the Midwest. The school serves a
predominantly African American and Latinx population reflective of the demographics of the
surrounding community. As part of its model, the school integrates components of critical
consciousness, including critical reflection and opportunities to take action to address school and
community injustices, into their elementary and middle school classrooms. Self-identified
LGBTQ+ alumni of color from this school who graduated between 2015-2020 and who are
consequently 18 years of age or older provided insight into their previous experiences as
adolescents and the impact of critical reflection and action on their short and long-term
development and success.
To enhance its critical consciousness pedagogy, the school uses project-based learning
experiences connected to the community to support students’ growth in academics, character,

37
and the production of high-quality work. Leadership and implementation of the model has
remained consistent at this school over time. Leadership and staff retention contributes to an
overall climate of trust. Alumni regularly return to the school to visit, and several have taken up
support staff roles there. Strong alumni contact and engagement allowed for access to a large
pool of graduates as potential study participants. Moreover, since the school has upheld and
refined its approaches of critical reflection and project-based learning experiences for positive
community impact, interviewees had common experiences of critical consciousness pedagogy.
The Researcher
As a first-generation gay Filipino American who has worked in the field of education, I
identify personally and professionally with the research topic. As a student, I adapted to the
dominant heteronormative culture reinforced in school. While challenging, the intersectionality
of my identity allowed me to work through power structures at personal and interpersonal levels.
Having experienced racial and homophobic microaggressions, I can understand the experience of
marginalization of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. At the same time, I recognize my identity as
an Asian cisgender male and that there is diversity of experiences across races and genders and
across the LGBTQ+ spectrum.
To mitigate biased assumptions and interpretations of data collected from interviews and
focus groups, I worked for diverse representation in the sample and solicited feedback on
findings from participants through member checks (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) by taking time
during the second interview to review emergent ideas and themes. In examining the role of
critical reflection in the experience of LGBTQ+ adolescents, I looked for variation in responses
about critical reflection and the encouragement of student action using the strategy of negative or
discrepant case analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For some participants, I held a relationship

38
as a former teacher and principal. Addressing power dynamics was important as was Interviewee
Transcript Review (ITR) to ensure that I did not introduce assumptions based on previous
experiences with students I already knew.
Data Sources
The research study sought to understand the unique adolescent school experiences of
LGBTQ+ people of color. As described in Merriam and Tisdell (2016) on types of interviews,
the study used a semi-structured approach to allow for a more open exploration of experiences
while also obtaining specific responses across respondents on topics of focus in the study related
to intersectionality, critical reflection, and agency. An interview protocol was used to collect
information on school experiences and experiences of critical reflection and action and their
possible connections to identity development. Prior to the interview and as part of it, participants
selected and brought an artifact of their choice that spoke to the intersectionality of their identity.
Participants
As the demographic for the study is specific to LGBTQ+ people of color and due to the
personal nature of the study, purposeful sampling was used to gain insight from a sample from
which the most can be learned (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Since the study sought to understand
past school experiences, the interview method allowed access to information on the impressions
related to the adolescent school experience. The participants were self-identified LGBTQ+
alumni of color who all attended the same K-8 urban school in the Midwest, graduated between
2015-2020, and who were consequently 18 years of age or older. The school uses critical
reflection and encourages students to take action to address school and community problems.
Consequently, those involved in the study were familiar with elements of critical consciousness
pedagogy and will provide helpful insight into their general experiences as adolescents and the

39
impact of their school experience on their short and long-term development and success. The
alumni had additional reflections looking back over the whole of their school experience and
further informed by the context of their post-secondary experience.
I worked with the current school leadership for an initial general outreach to alumni who
attended the school for their interest and participation in the study. To ensure confidentiality,
alumni who were interested could choose who they felt safe with to communicate initially. They
could work directly with the researcher or through current school leadership. I asked the first
confirmed participants about other potential alumni who fit the study criteria and may be
interested and comfortable with joining. In this way, the study used a snowball strategy, which
moved to a more theoretical sampling strategy to get as diverse representation as possible by race
and ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation. The sample size was seven participants to deepen
conversations through two interview sessions to adequately address intersectional experiences in
school. A total of 14 interview sessions took place.
Instrumentation
For the artifact portion of the interview, guidance was provided to support participants in
their artifact selection. The guidance used a standard communication (Appendix A) that was
emailed to all participants at least one week prior to their interview. The first interview protocol
in Appendix B was composed of seven questions. The first two questions included discussion of
the participant selected artifact and focus on intersectional identification. These first two
questions including the artifact focused on identity and identity development that came up
prominently in the second research question. The next five questions were on school experiences
related to intersectionality and specifically addressed the first research question on the
experience of the school environment. The second protocol in Appendix C was composed of six

40
questions. The first question asked participants to share reflections following a review of the first
interview transcript. The second set of three questions addressed the second research question
and focused on critical reflection and its connection to intersectional identity development. The
last set of two questions also addressed the second research question and focused on the
encouragement of taking action in school and its connection to intersectional identity
development.
The questions on critical reflection and agency follow the more open questions on the
overall school experience as an LGBTQ+ adolescent of color to provide a possible bridge
between the experiences and the role, if any, critical reflection and agency may have played in
the identity development of the participants. As described by Patton (2002), the interview
protocol used a combination of question types with most of the experience and behavior
questions followed by a few opinion and value questions and a couple key opening
background/demographic questions. Follow up probing questions homed in on the feelings of the
participants.
Data Collection Procedures
For the research study, data was collected through two 60-90 minute interviews with
seven participants through the online platform Zoom that allowed recording of the interview.
Recording only took place with explicit permission by the interviewee and the recording was
destroyed once it was no longer needed. I also took notes by hand for answers to my interview
protocol.
As distinguished by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the online interview was conducted
synchronously which helped with essential rapport building due to the personal nature of the
interview content. Moreover, the online platform also opened geographic access to alumni and

41
permitted participants to select a location where they felt safe to share their responses. I was
mindful to share that I was in a location that prevented others from listening in on the interview
to protect the confidentiality of the participants. The recording of the interview also ensured
trustworthy data collection as shared by Merriam and Tisdell since participant responses were
not reliant on the notes taken during the interview while notes were still collected. The file of the
recording was submitted into Vook.ai which is an application used to generate the transcription
of the interview for later review. The Zoom video recording was available to refer back to for
observation of participant interaction and nonverbals. Seven participants engaged in the study.
Data Analysis
Following the interviews, data was coded for themes related to intersectional
identification, both supportive and challenging intersectional experiences in school, and the
impact, if any, of critical reflection and the encouragement of student action on identity
development. After review of the first round of interviews, codes were reevaluated to determine
typologies that emerged across the data connected to the research areas of school experiences of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and the impact of critical reflection and action on identity
development. These typologies were shared with participants in the second interview for
feedback and were reviewed across all interviews once they were completed for consistency.
Since the number of interview participants was small, I used the comparative strategy of case-bycase comparison (Gibbs, 2018) to examine the typologies across the participants and how they
addressed the research questions on school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and the
impact of critical reflection and the encouragement of student action on identity development.
Credibility and Trustworthiness

42
For trustworthiness, particularly since I needed to guard against filtering for my
assumptions based on the conceptual framework, I used the technique of the Interviewee
Transcript Review (ITR) as described by Hagens et al. (2009) to allow the participants the
opportunity to review the information collected and my interpretations. For credibility, I worked
ahead of time to ensure a consistent interview protocol and that key topics of focus were asked of
all participants. I supported participants in identifying interview locations that guarantee their
confidentiality, so they felt they were able to share freely. Additionally, for those participants
who had previous experience with me as a school leader, I supported their candid responses by
highlighting that their honest feedback would support improvements at the school, would be
shared with the school as trends across the interviews, and would remain anonymous.
Ethics
Since the research study seeks to address the problem of persistent hostile school
environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, recommendations gleaned from the experiences
shared by research participants will serve and benefit the interests of current and future LGBTQ+
adolescents of color. By providing a space for participants to share their experiences, the
research also sought to serve the interests of the research participants in using critical reflection
as a form of healing. There was potential harm to participants in having them share potentially
triggering past school experiences. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) caution that in-depth interviews
may have long-term effects that are not intended and could be painful. Consequently, I worked to
set up participants with norms that would support their ability to opt in as they felt able and
willing. Additionally, I prepared a list of resources for the participants should they want
additional and need support. The school from which the students came from could also be
harmed if there is information shared that could pose reputational risk. I discussed risks with

43
participants and the school and asked the participating LGBTQ+ alumni of color and school
leader what additional risks they saw and would need addressed.
I ensured voluntary participation and informed consent by getting written permission to
proceed with the study. I shared verbally and in writing with the school leader and alumni
participants the research purpose and methodology. Additionally, I communicated potential
benefits and risks, recommendations to protect participant mental health and safety, and how the
data will be used. Included in this was ensuring confidentiality using pseudonyms as agreed upon
by the school and participants and not providing information that could trace back to specific
schools and students.
Results were shared with the University of Southern California dissertation advisor and
committee as well as with the school leader of the participating school to support healthy
learning environments for LGBTQ+ students of color. The design of the study has implications
on school policy and practices. I established with the school leader ahead of time a clear process
to respond in a timely manner to recommendations shared.

44
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of the study was to understand the school experience of LGBTQ+
adolescents of color and the potential for critical reflection and action to make school
environments more healing-centered for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The conceptual model
pulled from the experiential knowledge and social justice components of Queer crit (Misawa,
2010) to examine and interrogate persistent hostile school environments for LGBTQ+
adolescents of color. By encouraging critical reflection and opportunities to take action by
students, schools using critical consciousness pedagogy have the potential to transform learning
environments so that all students feel safe, confident, and empowered.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the experience of the school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
who attend a school using critical consciousness pedagogy?
2. How do school experiences supporting critical reflection and encouraging student
agency impact the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
The study analyzed fourteen (n=7) 60-90 minute semi-structured interviews of alums
from an urban K-8 school in the Midwest who graduated between 2015 and 2019. Each
participant was interviewed twice virtually to provide participants with adequate time to
elaborate on their intersectional identities and reflect on their prior school experiences. As
described in Merriam and Tisdell (2016) on types of interviews, the study used a semi-structured
approach to allow for a more open exploration of experiences while also obtaining specific
responses across respondents on topics related to school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color. The interviews were obtained through purposeful sampling. As the demographic for the
study was specific to alums of a particular demographic based on race, gender, and sexual

45
diversity, purposeful sampling was used to gain insight from a sample from which the most can
be learned (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The chapter provides a description of the interview participants and the most prominent
findings that emerged from their interviews. Following the interviews, data analyses were
conducted that coded for themes related to school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
and the impact on identity development through critical reflection and action. Findings from this
study are shared highlighting the themes present across the interviews. Each subsection focuses
on a theme and relevant subcodes. Direct quotations provide evidence for each of the findings
and themes.
The findings are divided into two key sections. The first section addressing Research
Question One examines the challenges and affirmations participants encountered as LGBTQ+
adolescents of color at Main. The first section includes themes related to the difficulties of
navigating intersectional identities and the significant role that a positive school culture played in
shaping those identities. The second section explores Research Question Two on how critical
reflection and opportunities for student agency impacted the participants' identity development.
Participants described how critical reflection allowed them to challenge oppressive systems and
how experiences encouraging agency helped them assert themselves and grow as advocates.
Throughout the chapter, participant voices are highlighted through direct quotes, offering rich,
nuanced insights into their experiences. The findings provide the foundation for the
recommendations discussed in the subsequent chapter.
Participants
The seven participants in this study all attended and graduated middle school from the
same urban K-12 school in the Midwest that uses elements of critical consciousness pedagogy.

46
The participants referred to their school, given the pseudonym Main. The participants differed in
the length of their career at the school with some beginning since kindergarten and others
transferring in at later grades. All students referenced their time at the school as part of their
coming out journey whether they chose to come out while they attended the school or after they
graduated. The participants are alums who are 18 or older. Along with using pseudonyms to
protect anonymity, the researcher also refrained from sharing any demographic information not
related to the research questions given the small sample size and the sensitive nature of the topic.
Table 2 provides a list of the interview participants and the individual demographic
characteristics pertinent to this study. As the researcher, I used racial, ethnic, gender, and sexual
orientation identities as described and desired by the interview participants shared during the
interviews. The participants used African American and Black interchangeably.
Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant Ethnic/Racial Identity Gender Identity Sexual Orientation
Valerie African American
Puerto Rican Female Bisexual
Charis African American Female Pansexual
Isaac African American
Vietnamese Male Pansexual
Dani
White Hispanic
African
Indigenous
Trans
non-binary
Gender Fluid
Pansexual
Rhonda African American Female Pansexual
Monet African American Female Bisexual
Nicki African American Female Lesbian

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Findings for Research Question One
Research Question One sought to provide a description of a school environment using
critical consciousness pedagogy for its LGBTQ+ adolescents of color through their anecdotes
and examples. Much of the research literature provides insight on school experiences for
LGBTQ+ adolescents in aggregate across many schools or in a typical school with no set
pedagogical approach in terms of identity development for the whole school. The responses by
the participants offer a nuanced understanding of intersectional identity. The following two
themes address both the negative and positive aspects at a school committed to affirming the
identities of all students. The themes are the challenges LGBTQ+ adolescents experience
navigating their intersectional identity and the crucial role positive school culture plays in their
identity development.
Challenges Navigating Intersectional Identity
All seven participants shared experiences as LGBTQ+ adolescents of color shaped by the
intersection of race, sexuality, and cultural expectations. Given the significant challenges
experienced at the intersection of family, culture, and societal expectations, many of the
participants expressed those external elements overwhelmed the school’s intention to create an
inclusive environment. The external elements manifested for participants as silence and rejection
within their families, scrutiny from their peers, and the weight of cultural norms that demanded
conformity at home and school. When asked if there was anything the school could have done to
support students, Rhonda said, “It [addressing the problem of persistent homophobia] was really
bigger than the school. It was more society and it was way more controversial. There was
nothing that could have been done that would have helped that.” Along with homophobic
attitudes, rigid views of gender roles, hyper masculinity, and difficulties stemming from ableism
maintained the fear and internalized shame felt by the participants regarding their identity. This

48
section on the theme of navigating intersectional identity discusses the external family and
societal pressures that impacted participants’ school experiences, experiences of various types of
harassment, harmful impacts on mental health, isolation in navigating identity, and the fear of
rejection.
External Family and Societal Pressures Impacting School Experience
While intersectional tensions originated from and existed outside the school, the
participants highlighted how family and society exerted considerable pressure on their ability to
navigate their identities both in and out of school. Many participants felt caught between the
need to honor their families’ expectations and the desire to live authentically. The resulting
tension created significant challenges that emerged in their educational experiences through a
suppression of identity at school and constrained communication about needs for support.
Impact of Family Environment. Family dynamics played a significant role in shaping
the developmental experiences of African American LGBTQ+ students. Four participants shared
that their families avoided or dismissed conversations about feelings and identity, fostering
environments where shame and isolation grew. Valerie explained, “In Black households, we
don’t really talk about feelings or sexuality... it’s kind of just ignored.” Charis reflected on the
cultural expectation to suppress vulnerability, sharing, “My mom always said, ‘What goes on in
my house, stays in my house.’ That was instilled in me since I was a kid... It’s a no-brainer not to
talk about it [feelings].” She added, “Being a person of color, I wish we could change our ability
to just open up... to know it’s okay to have feelings, that you don’t always have to be tough.”
Lack of open communication about sexuality and emotions often left the African American
LGBTQ+ adolescents in this study feeling unsupported in processing their identities.

49
While silence posed a barrier to self-exploration, some exchanges at home created
confusion. Charis said, “At school, it [talking about emotions and identity] wasn’t a big deal, but
to go home and then hear, ‘Oh, that’s not right,’ was just confusing.” Beyond expressing
disagreement, family interactions resulted in explicit rejection. Charis recalled that when her
mother discovered her sexual identity, “She made me stop playing basketball,” an activity at
school that was important to her. Valerie and Charis highlight how familial rejection, whether
through silence or explicit actions, created a sense of insecurity and self-doubt and left them
without guidance or affirmation. Monet added that for some students, finding a sense of
community within their schools became essential, especially when family dynamics lacked
support. She shared, “Some people just don’t have homes to be open with their sexuality, and
just having a group of people you can surround yourself with can really make a difference.” For
her, moments of support at school inspired her to want to help others, saying, “It opened up a
side of me I didn’t know I needed. It made me want to go to school for psychology and help my
community with mental health.” Monet’s experience highlighted how vital it was to find safe
spaces to process identity and build confidence, even when those spaces were outside the home.
Impact of Social Norms. Beyond familial pressures, social norms placed significant
pressure on some participants to conform to traditional expectations regarding gender, sexuality,
and racial identity. The norms often resulted in adolescents feeling torn between honoring their
families and communities and being true to themselves. Isaac recounted his mother dismissing
his identity as a “phase” and explained, “Many people in the Black community hold traditional
views on masculinity... it does lead to feelings of isolation or rejection for those who don’t
conform to those expectations.” For Nicki, the pressure was particularly tied to racial identity, as
her father’s expectations dictated whom she was allowed to love. She shared, “He expected me

50
to marry a Black man... so I thought, well, if he’s upset about that, he’s going to cry if I bring
home a woman.” Black LGBTQ+ youth faced heightened scrutiny and expectations tied to race
and community perceptions. Valerie reflected on the burden of being a Black woman and
challenging traditional expectations, noting, “You’re made to feel inferior, and when you’re a
Black woman, it feels like you’re letting down your community because you can’t be what
everyone else wants you to be.” The external pressure to conform often discouraged authenticity,
leading students to mask parts of themselves at school to avoid standing out. At school, peer
interactions further reinforced norms experienced at home and influenced how participants
navigated the social dynamics there.
Family and Social Norms Impacting School Experiences. Peers at school often
mirrored the cultural expectations imposed by families and communities. Participants shared
how the expectations affected their sense of self and created an environment where they often
felt scrutinized or excluded. Nicki described the judgment she faced from classmates, saying,
“Friends would say, ‘Oh, I didn’t know you went that way. Is that okay?’ And it always made
me feel like I was wrong. It was hard to have to put up a block all the time.” Valerie explained
how students echoed their parents’ prejudices, stating, “Kids would come back to school and
repeat whatever their parents said at home, like, ‘Are you trying to turn us gay?’” The social
policing made it difficult for students to feel accepted by their peers and left many unable to
share their struggles.
Four participants made it a point to name that for gay Black males in particular,
traditional views of masculinity within their families and communities posed unique challenges.
Valerie spoke about a close friend who constantly faced discrimination for not adhering to the
stereotypical image of a "strong, buff gangster." She described how her friend, who was openly

51
gay, was criticized because he did not conform to traditional notions of Black masculinity,
explaining, “He wasn’t what everyone else wanted him to be, so he constantly faced
discrimination.” Isaac highlighted how these rigid expectations created isolation, stating, “Being
Black and gay is particularly challenging due to the stereotypes tied to both identities, which
created a sense of pressure.” Additionally, Isaac shared that being Black, Asian, and lighter in
skin tone, he felt he had to constantly prove that he was Black. The stereotypes left gay Black
males feeling caught between conflicting expectations, as they struggled to find acceptance in
environments that rejected their full selves.
The stigma surrounding gay Black males often extended into peer interactions at school,
where they faced bullying and exclusion. Rhonda observed how boys who were openly gay
became targets for ridicule, explaining, “It’s because he’s a boy. They feel like they can play
with men that are gay because they think they’re feminine.” This perception not only invalidated
their masculinity but also made them more vulnerable to harassment and rejection. Rhonda
described the difference in treatment between boys and girls saying her classmates “weren’t
going to talk about me [a girl] as much as a boy being gay because they [peers] talk about boys
being gay more than they will talk about girls.” Charis recounted how a close male friend felt
compelled to prove his masculinity by adopting a “street reputation,” saying, “He got a street
reputation... but I think if he was able to be himself, he wouldn’t have tried so hard to show his
masculinity.” Traditional notions of masculinity intersected with race and sexuality. The pressure
to project hyper-masculinity often forced gay Black males to suppress their true identities,
further isolating them from their peers.
For neurodiverse LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, the challenges of navigating their sexual
identities were compounded by ableism and societal expectations surrounding neurodiversity.

52
Dani, who identifies as neurodiverse, described how their ADHD and autism shaped their
experiences of self-discovery and social interaction. They highlighted the pressure to mask both
their neurodiversity and queer identity, stating, “We pretend to be ‘normal because that’s what
society expects.” This dual masking reflected the intensified difficulties of navigating ableism
alongside cultural and societal expectations regarding gender and sexuality. Dani also explained
that neurodiverse individuals often possess a heightened sense of “justice sensitivity,” which
fuels their resistance to societal norms. Dani shared, “When there is an injustice done to us or to
others, we’re like, ‘Absolutely not. We’re not doing this’.” This deep sense of fairness, however,
made it harder for them to tolerate environments where discrimination against LGBTQ+
individuals was normalized.
The Impact of Religion on School Experiences. Three participants addressed the role
religion played in shaping the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, particularly
in a school community where Christianity held a central role in the culture despite being a public
school. Rhonda described how religious teachings created fear and confusion, recalling a period
when she searched for ways to “not be gay”. “I was scared... I really thought I was going to be
condemned to hell,” she explained. This fear was reinforced by the homophobic attitudes
prevalent in her community, where many people equated being gay with sin. Rhonda shared that
she later got slandered at school for being an atheist. “I was reserved before that, but that
probably helped me become even more reserved,” Rhonda explained, illustrating how a
homophobic mindset maintained at school due to religion prompted her to withdraw in her
classes. Another participant, Isaac, reflected on the tension between religion and identity, noting,
“A lot of them believed that if you’re gay, you’re going to hell... it was way less accepted back
then [when we were in school].” Nicki shared similar experiences with peers wanting to take her

53
“to church with them to pray the gay away.” Religious beliefs prompted educators to avoid
addressing LGBTQ+ topics for fear of backlash from parents, leaving students without the
support they needed to reconcile their identities.
Experiences of Various Types of Harassment
Harassment profoundly shaped the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
in this study as reflected in the findings. Six of the seven participants described enduring various
types of harassment based on sexual orientation, gender expression, race, and body size. The
adolescents’ stories were consistent with the 2022 GLSEN National School Climate Survey
results, which revealed that 83.1% of LGBTQ+ students faced in-person harassment or assault
based on personal characteristics and 81.8% of LGBTQ+ students felt unsafe at school because
of at least one personal characteristic.
Harassment based on sexual orientation and gender expression was a common
experience. Valerie discussed how her masculine style of dress made her a target: “Before when
I stepped into the building, there were already these stereotypes about me and the way that I
dressed, and people just automatically assuming that I was LGBTQ+.” The imposition of labels
caused her to feel deprived of defining herself. Similarly, Dani shared their fears of being
harassed for expressing their gender fluidity, saying, “I got so scared because I was like, what if
that [harassment of queer individuals inside and outside of school] happens to me?” Valerie and
Dani highlight the impact of harassment in denying them the agency to construct and express
their identities at school.
The use of slurs and verbal harassment was pervasive. Valerie noted how slurs were
frequently directed at students based on their perceived sexual orientation: “Anytime she
[another queer classmate] would get mad, it would be a particular group of students that would

54
throw slurs at her degrading her sexuality.” Such behavior not only marginalized individuals but
reinforced a culture of intolerance that fostered fear and self-doubt among LGBTQ+ students.
Charis added that the fear of harassment often prevented students from standing up for one
another, explaining, “How can I speak up for you? And I don't even know how to do it myself.”
Charis’ hesitation underscores the isolating effects of harassment, which not only silences
victims but discourages allies from intervening. The persistent threat of verbal abuse silenced
many students and discouraged them from openly embracing their identities.
Racial harassment also emerged as a significant issue, particularly for participants who
faced colorism and other forms of racialized discrimination. Rhonda described how her darker
skin tone made her a target: “People would just talk so bad about it. I eventually felt like it was
bad too. It makes you start to feel some type of way when you constantly hear something.” Isaac
also faced racial harassment, with peers undermining his identity by saying, “Oh, you’re not
Black. Oh, you’re gay.” These accounts reflect the intersectional nature of harassment
experienced by LGBTQ+ students of color, as their racial identities became intertwined with
other personal characteristics in the discrimination they faced.
Harassment based on body size compounded identity challenges for one of the
participants. Monet, who described herself as a “much heavier set person” during her time at the
school, recounted how her appearance made her a frequent target: “A lot of people would bully
me because I was bigger.” Despite finding some support from the school social worker, the
constant ridicule about her body left lasting scars in middle school and delayed her coming out as
bisexual until later in high school. Harassment in the form of body-shaming for Monet and
colorism for Rhonda signaled for them that school was not a safe space to be out about their
sexual orientation. Their experiences demonstrate how harassment often targets multiple aspects

55
of identity for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, creating a compounded sense of vulnerability and
alienation.
Significant and Harmful Impact on Student Mental Health and Well-being
Participants shared that their regular experiences of home and harassment took a toll on
their mental health and well-being. Charis shared,
My mom drove me to [a behavioral health center] when she found out I had a crush on a
girl. The people told her, ‘You can’t admit her in here because she likes girls. There’s
nothing wrong with her’…I couldn’t understand it. And I remember just going through
maybe it was depression.
Charis chose not to share her mental health with the school out of fear that her mother would
transfer her out. Even though school supports were available through the social worker for
individual and small group sessions, Charis and other LGBTQ+ students of color struggling with
their identity chose not to access support for fear of conflict with or outing themselves to their
families and pers. Rhonda explained that even if the school offered an affinity group space, she
and others would not have attended. Even Monet who found and later led her high school’s
LGBTQ+ affinity group said she did not feel safe to join an affinity group in middle school. For
queer students of color, the journey of navigating identity development often occurs in isolation,
as societal stigma and inadequate support systems compound their challenges, leaving them
vulnerable to feelings of alienation and despair.
Severe and persistent pressure from home and community, coupled with a lack of options
at school for effective intervention, culminated in a tragic event referenced by three interview
participants: the suicide of a fellow student. As Charis noted, “She actually, she actually, killed
herself. And, she struggled with, she struggled with her sexuality a lot.” Although she did not

56
openly express or show her internal struggles, the student showed signs that were evident to
Charis and others with similar lived experiences, explaining, “She didn’t show that she struggled
with it, and she didn’t, say that she struggled with it, but you can see it. As a queer person, you
can see it.” Charis described how like her this student and another queer classmate also had
constant challenges with their mothers connected to their queer identity. Charis recounted an
incident where her mother came into her room and in anger over her sexuality ripped down and
threw away all her awards from school saying, “I should’ve never sent you to that school.”
Charis reflected,
I've always just been such a confident kid and a kid that always been praised by
everybody. That one little thing [my queer identity], kind of knocked everything down. It
was just, it was just heartbreaking to me. Yeah, yeah. I just didn't understand it.
When asked by a friend why she didn’t tell anyone at school, Charis responded, “I didn’t want to
be that kid that was queer and had problems with their mom, you know? It was kind of
embarrassing.” Charis’ explanation revealed why she like her classmate didn’t share the intense
home challenges at school. Rhonda commented that some students could push through the
struggles at home on their own but that sadly for the student that lost her life, managing the
conflict at a young age and on their own became too much. For Valerie as for many in the school
community, the loss of a student to suicide was a shock. Moreover, Valerie expressed the very
real and heavy feeling of sorrow and despair stating,
We [in the queer of color community] don’t really have that many options. Some of us
can struggle through the challenges at home, some of us drop out, and it’s hard to know
that some of us are even dead.

57
For Charis, Rhonda, and Valerie, their classmate’s suicide revealed the harsh reality of limited
support systems and the emotional weight borne by members of the queer of color community
that threatens their ability to survive and thrive. In the next section, participants described the
work required to manage identity challenges on their own.
Isolation in Navigating Identity
For many participants, identity development took place in isolation due to home and peer
conflict. The process required intense self-reflection and grappling with internal struggles.
Valerie, for example, described the difficulty of navigating her identity alone, stating, “It took a
lot of self-reflection and coming to terms with it for me.” She further shared that “some of [the
challenges] are just internal, and you have to get over them yourself.” Valerie’s sentiment
reflects the solitude many adolescents feel as they confront questions about their identity without
external guidance. The participants’ reflections highlight how internal struggles often become a
necessary part of personal growth, even though they may feel isolating at the time.
Charis articulated the difficulty of understanding her sexuality while navigating
adolescence in isolation. She explained, “If you just don’t know that you’re gay and you don’t
know what you’re going through, then it’s…I can’t help you, because I don’t even know what
I’m going through.” This lack of clarity both for herself and others in her support network that
she knew who were exploring their identity on their own underscores the challenges of identity
development without sufficient role models or community support. Charis’ experience illustrates
how the absence of external affirmation can compound feelings of confusion and loneliness
during critical developmental years.
For Dani, the internet provided a vital resource for exploring their identity. They shared,
“I was online all the time…Googling everything and researching and looking into things all the

58
time because we [neurodivergent individuals] have curious minds.” Growing up as part of
Generation Z, Dani found solace in online communities, which exposed them to diverse queer
identities and allowed them to learn about themselves in ways that their immediate home and
school environment could not. Their experience highlights how digital spaces often serve as
surrogate communities for LGBTQ+ adolescents who may not have local support systems.
Dani’s self-work eventually led to self-advocacy in their journey. They remember earlier on
adopting a mindset of, “Take up space, get dressed up, do what you want to do…Treat yourself
like you’re sacred.” This approach reflects their determination to affirm their identity
unapologetically, despite societal pressures to conform. By “learning how to honor [themself],”
Dani demonstrated a commitment to self-acceptance, which became a source of empowerment
during their adolescent years.
Just as Dani derived benefit from working through their identity on their own, Rhonda
described her preference for privacy during her journey of self-discovery. “I just had to figure
out stuff for myself,” she explained, adding, “I really don’t like interference when I’m trying to
figure something out.” This need for autonomy shows how some adolescents rely on solitude to
process their feelings and explore their identities. For Rhonda, privacy was not only a coping
mechanism but also a deliberate strategy to shield herself from external judgment while
navigating deeply personal questions about her identity.
Like Dani, Isaac emphasized how navigating his identity by himself during middle school
eventually led to self-love and independence. He reflected, “I was being dependent on other
people to feel loved instead of loving myself,” but noted that his journey pushed him “to become
more independent for myself instead of relying on others to make me feel better.” This turning
point in Isaac’s life shows the role of self-love in fostering resilience and emotional well-being,

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particularly for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who may not always find affirmation from
external sources.
While independence was empowering for Dani and Isaac, Monet revealed a different
perspective. Reflecting on her middle school experience where she was reluctant to reach out for
support from the school or her peers, she admitted, “It felt like I didn’t have anybody…Which I
kind of regret.” Monet’s acknowledgment of regret reveals a common occurrence of navigating
identity in isolation. Her story serves as a reminder that while solitude can foster growth, it can
also lead to delayed development and harm if not balanced with community support.
Despite the isolation many participants experienced, some found solace in selective
support systems. Rhonda shared, “Even if nobody’s going to be there for me, I have a select
group of people who are my people, who understand me, who get me, and that’s all that I need.”
This sentiment demonstrates the importance of finding even small pockets of understanding and
affirmation, which can mitigate the challenges of broader societal rejection. Whether in person or
digitally, peer support mentioned by the participants appeared to address an underlying fear of
rejection.
Fear of Rejection
A throughline among five of the seven interview participants was the pervasive fear of
rejection experienced by LGBQ+ adolescents of color. Dani shared their apprehension, saying, "I
was honestly scared to come out because I knew there would be a reaction, and I was scared that
that reaction was gonna be negative." Similarly, Nicki expressed concerns about judgment,
stating, "I'm just scared of rejection, or not even just rejection, but those looks of like, really? Or
those looks of disgust." Rhonda’s recollection of searching for ways to suppress her identity by
looking online for conversion therapy, driven by fear and internalized stigma given the bullying

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due to colorism and her beliefs on religion contrary to the wider group, illustrates the lengths to
which some go to avoid rejection and condemnation. The fear of judgment shows the complex
interplay of personal identity and societal expectations that these young individuals navigated
daily.
Participants sought genuine acceptance that felt illusive given the fear of rejection. Isaac
and Monet highlighted their struggles with fitting in and maintaining friendships while grappling
with their identities. Isaac reflected, "I wanted to fit in with everybody, but at the same time, I
didn’t want to be something I wasn’t." Monet shared, "I kept myself closeted because I didn’t
want to lose any friends." Their reflections show the importance of fostering environments where
acceptance is the norm rather than the exception. Schools, as central hubs for adolescent
development, have a critical role in creating a culture of acceptance, ensuring that no student
feels the need to hide their true selves to avoid rejection. The participants also shared their
experiences of a supportive culture for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color that will be discussed in
the following section.
The Role of Positive School Culture in Identity Development
A positive culture at school through encouraging words and actions from teachers and
classmates allowed participants to develop their intersectional identities amidst the challenges
they faced from family and society. While school was a microcosm where racial and homophobic
aggressions were inescapable, all seven participants referred to their school, given the
pseudonym Main, as a place where they could access a different and hopeful reality that
countered everyday experiences of harassment and rejection. Charis shared,
I think Main kind of always helped me understand that what I was going through at home
wasn't the norm for queer people. It didn't have to be that. So I don't know. I think Main

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kind of just gave me the opportunity to build my character in a way that I wouldn't have
been able to if I maybe went to a different school. I think that's why I'm so protective
over Main now cause I always kind of felt safe there.
Nicki expressed the same sentiment of safety saying, “Nobody was judging me for my race or
sexuality. Like Main truly felt like home. Like going to school every day was a safe space.” By
having a foundational sense of safety, participants felt encouraged to persevere through
challenges and explore their identity at a time that felt right for them. Monet reflected, “Main just
gave the strength to go on and try to be more open.” For the participants, Main’s positive culture
contributed to their identity development through supportive relationships with school staff and
peers and through interactions that affirmed and normalized their identity.
The Importance of Supportive Relationships with School Staff and Peers
Creating a positive school culture for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color relied heavily on the
presence of supportive relationships with both adults and peers. Through the experiences of the
participants, it became evident that adults served as crucial allies and models, while trusted peers
provided invaluable camaraderie and affirmation. This combination fostered a sense of
belonging, which was essential for navigating the complexities of adolescence in environments
both in and out of the school where multiple identities intersected.
Class Community as an Intentional Culture and Structure. Two participants
highlighted the significance of the intentional class community structure at Main in cultivating a
sense of belonging and accountability. As Valerie explained, being part of a class community
allowed all students to "form these really, really great bonds" and find "the right community and
people who genuinely support you." Main operated on the class community belief of everyone at
the school working for each other’s well-being and success. Valerie emphasized the shared belief

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allowed her to feel that the community at school cared for her. The belief also led her to care for
and advocate for others. Valerie said,
I had an internal struggle going on. I don't want anyone in my community feeling the
same way that I feel every day, making them feel they have to go through this internal
struggle. So even though I never faced it directly, I was constantly calling people out on
ignorant comments that were made because I understand that it all just comes from a
place of ignorance.
Rhonda recalled attending one of her class community meetings, where she witnessed a
classmate express acceptance and positivity towards LGBTQ+ people. Rhonda said, “I just
always remembered that as a vivid moment. I don't know why, maybe that was me
subconsciously being comforted.” Both experiences of class community by Rhonda and Valerie
suggests the structure provided a space for open dialogue between students. The class
community structure served as a model for participants to seek out similar spaces for support
later in high school and college. Monet and Isaac experienced the class community structure
through their respective high school LGBTQ+ affinity groups and Valerie and Dani chose to
create their own informal support spaces. Overall, the class community structure appeared to be a
crucial component in modeling the value of nurturing supportive relationships to sustain
resilience and positivity.
Adults as Models of Acceptance and Supportive Allies. One key finding is the role
adults play as models of acceptance and supportive allies. The participants named several
teachers who exemplified acceptance and support through their actions and philosophies. Valerie
recalled, “[Our school social worker] was really good at teaching acceptance and not just
accepting others but truly accepting yourself,” a theme that influenced her personal journey of

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exploring her identity. Isaac credited an African American teacher for inspiring his pride in his
Black identity “because of how she challenged me not to listen to others’ questioning my
Blackness and embrace it for myself.” This modeling of self-acceptance and openness about
one's identity was invaluable for the students, as it showed them that they could also be true to
themselves.
Along with modeling acceptance, participants also emphasized the importance of
teachers as allies who took complaints about homophobic behavior seriously. As Isaac shared,
"They [the staff] were very no nonsense when it came to being homophobic and they took
allegations seriously." Quick response from the adults helped create a safer and more inclusive
school environment for the LGBTQ+ students. However, participants acknowledged the limits
for teachers to effectively address every homophobic incident. Rhonda named the prevalent antisnitch culture that discouraged some students from reporting to teachers to enlist their support.
Nevertheless, students felt there were adults at Main that would address any case of LGBTQ+
harassment or aggression. For this reason, Charis chose not to report any challenges at home
because she did not want the school to intervene. Charis shared about the school social worker:
Believe it or not, I always kind of avoided [the school social worker]. When I would see
her, I tried my best to make sure I seemed good because I knew how she was, and she
didn't play about her babies. She was on point. If you needed something or somebody
wasn't treating you right at home, she was on it. And I knew that if she found out what
was going on with me and my mom, she would have stopped it immediately. And I just
wasn't ready for that yet. Yeah. I just wasn't ready for that yet.
Charis’ reflection shows her trust in the ability of school staff to support her. However, she held
real concerns about the school mediating conflict at home.

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Importance of Representation and Adults as Role Models. In addition to supportive
allies, the participants shared the significance of the importance of having adult role models
represented on staff who openly embraced their own LGBTQ+ identities. Charis described when
the music teacher brought her baby to class for the students to meet and how the music teacher
would always talk about her wife. Charis shared, “I didn’t show it then but that was a big deal for
me.” She later explained how adult role models allowed her to have open exploratory
conversations with her father:
I remember we had a performance, actually, and my dad had came, and I had pointed out
to my dad, ‘Look, dad, that's her kid, you know that? That's her wife,’ and he was ‘Yeah,
that's okay, there's nothing wrong with that,’ and he ain't even make it a big deal, and he
was ‘Oh, yeah, that's a cute little baby, ain't nothing wrong with that.’
The performance that night and the exchange that took place allowed Charis to see a different
reality and to learn her father’s acceptance even though her mother was not accepting. Charis
became more open and hopeful for herself.
Similarly, Monet found comfort in being around the drama teacher, who was openly
lesbian. As Monet shared, "I appreciated being around her. You know, I just felt like I could
connect with her a little bit more." As with the modeling from the music teacher, the students
seeing an adult who was comfortable and confident in their LGBTQ+ identity provided a
powerful example for them and inspired them to embrace their own identities.
Peers as Supportive Allies and Models. Similar to adult allies and models, classmates
of the participants also helped them feel accepted and understood. When Dani chose to come out
in seventh grade, they selected two close classmates to share their identity with during a sleep
over. Their classmates expressed acceptance and happiness for them which brought Dani

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immense relief. Dani felt encouraged to come out more widely through a social media post. Dani
shared, "And everyone was really accepting. I got a lot of comments, especially from my
classmates. So people who went to Main with me, like everyone was accepting." While Dani
found wide acceptance in her class, Rhonda reserved sharing her identity with a select based on
class conversations about religion. Nicki also found comfort in sharing her identity with just
three close classmates who were also queer. Nicki said, “It just felt nice to know that I could
share this with them, like how we were feeling.” A place for open and honest sharing of identity
and feelings was especially important for Nicki because she could not do this with her parents at
home. The acceptance from their peers was crucial in helping the participants feel more
comfortable in their identities.
For some participants, peers like Dani that were out more openly offered models as
participants explored and expressed their identity. Nicki described meeting a classmate who
transferred into middle school:
She stood for what she stood for. She was a lesbian. But like I'd never been around one.
Like not around one, but like one that like I felt like I could connect to. And I think
seeing her in the way that she was and the way that she acted and the way that she carried
herself, like I felt like that was me. Like I felt like that's who I wanted to be, but I was
just terrified to do it. Having her in my class really changed me. Like she made me, like
she showed me what I wanted. It was right in front of me, and I could reach out and grab
it.
Nicki’s description demonstrated the power of peer modeling in providing possibility for openly
embracing an LGBTQ+ identity. Rhonda similarly shared how having a more outspoken queer
classmate prompted her to challenge social norms. She shared, “Hearing my classmate talk about

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her identity during our class community meetings made me think about what was happening to
me at home and think, hey, wait, that’s not normal. There’s another way.” Peer role models
served as powerful inspiration for participants to envision their own authentic selves.
School Interactions that Affirm and Normalize Identity
The experiences at Main described above contributed toward cultivating a positive
culture at the school that countered the persistent fears of rejection by affirming and normalizing
the participants’ identities. Beyond any policy or club, participants benefitted from subtle acts of
support that took place in quick interactions throughout the day outside of class community
meetings. Charis recounted one moment at recess with a supervising teaching assistant who was
an African American woman where she accidently opened up to her:
She [the teaching assistant] could kind of see what was going on [between me and
another girl in the class]. I remember her just asking me, “You like that girl?” And I was,
“Who? What are you talking about?” So, I'm kind of squirmy and I say, “That's a girl. I
don't like her. You think I'm going to like a girl?” And she was, “There's nothing wrong
with that.” And I just kind of froze up because ain't no Black woman can be, “There's
nothing wrong with that.” You know?
Charis’ highlighted how this moment in passing at recess was significant because it changed
what she was being told to her at home by her mom about what was normal. For Charis, it made
a difference that the teaching assistant was African American admitting that she really did not
pay much attention or give importance to her White homeroom teacher talking about her gay
son. Charis explained,

67
With Black teachers and Black students it’s a different kind of bond. It’s something that
feels different. In that moment at recess, I felt like it was possible for someone like me to
like a girl. It was a small thing, but it was big.
Along with seeing adult and peer models, in the moment affirming interactions such as this one
proved to significantly impact participants’ sense of self.
Small, subtle affirming interactions mattered to the participants because they made them
feel normal. Rhonda recalled the school leader one day during a class community meeting
quickly showing the class photos from her phone of another school leader with his husband after
they got married. Rhonda noted that the reactions from her classmates were not in disgust or
judgement but expressed happiness and interest, even from her male classmates. “Showing
pictures of everyday life, that meant something. It doesn’t have to be these huge events, but these
small things that happen, that just make it [an LGBTQ+ identity] normal.” Charis further
supported the importance of small, subtle interactions saying,
The best thing that Main did for me was kind of just making it [a queer identity] seem
normal. When you highlight it too much, that's when things get too complicated, you
know? The more normal it felt for me, the better. You know. It was the small things like
quickly telling us to stop chit chatting with our girlfriends and get to class. The best thing
you can do for [LGBTQ+ students] is make them feel as normal as possible. Make them
feel it.
For Nicki, a big part of helping LGBTQ+ students included removing any judgment and
cultivating openness and belonging. Nicki said, “Nobody passed judgment on me. I didn't get
singled out at all. At Main, we felt like a community. I haven’t experienced that since at my
other schools after graduating. I miss it.”

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The participant responses to research question one provided a candid assessment of the
complex experience of school for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color at Main. On the one hand, the
participants encountered challenges stemming from family and societal pressures, various types
of harassment by peers, harm to their mental health, isolation, and fear of rejection. On the other
hand, the participants experienced a positive school culture through supportive relationships with
school staff and close peers and regular interactions that affirmed and normalized their identity.
The contrast of experiences required the participants to manage the tension of conflicting
realities. The following section detailing the findings from research question two offers a
window into how practices of critical reflection and action for social change framed those
conflicting realities and subsequently impacted the participants’ identity development.
Findings for Research Question Two
Research Question Two sought to describe practices of critical reflection and action as
experienced by LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. Moreover, this question wanted to determine if
there was a relationship between practices of critical reflection and action and the identity
development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The themes for this section are the role of critical
reflection in identity development and the impact of experiences encouraging agency on identity
formation. Each theme includes an initial description of the types of critical reflection and action
practices experienced by the participants followed by impacts of those practices on their identity
development.
The Role of Critical Reflection in Identity Development
The participants offered examples and perspectives of critical reflection consistent with
the definition for it in the research. Critical reflection refers to the ability to name and analyze
inequitable systems where biases and discrimination persist through institutions and policies

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(Watts et al., 2011). After sharing types of critical reflection practices at Main, this section
discusses how the practices allowed participants to challenge oppressive systems and cultivate
compassion for themselves and others.
Critical Reflection Experiences at Main
The participants described a range of instances where critical reflection took place at their
school, providing valuable insights into the context, timing, and methods through which it
occurred. At Main, students experienced critical reflection in various settings, often facilitated by
trusted adults and peers. Four students referenced specific curricular units dedicated to critical
examination of race, ethnicity, and identity that encouraged deeper questioning of societal
norms.
Dani recalled a unit on the history of Puerto Ricans in the city. They explained learning
how at one point in the city’s history it was not legal for Puerto Ricans to fly the Puerto Rican
flag:
We were banned from just showing pride, like taking pride in our identities. That blows
my mind, and it makes me so sad knowing that. There's a reason why Puerto Ricans take
so much pride now because we had history of not being able to do that. At one point it
was illegal for us to fly the flag, but now we freely can. And it's no wonder and actually
interesting that June is not only Puerto Rican pride month, but it is [Queer] Pride month
as well. So, I love that the Puerto Rican identity is so synonymous with the queer
identity, that it was normal growing up to see vendors selling [Queer]Pride flags and
Puerto Rican flags together.

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Dani’s reflection speaks to how their experience of the Puerto Rican history unit allowed them to
recognize an unjust moment in the city’s history while also highlighting the significance of June
in celebrating their intersectional pride as a queer Puerto Rican.
Isaac provided an example of how critical reflection at Main deepened his understanding
of history. He explained how the school presented a more truthful perspective on slavery
compared to his previous school:
Like I knew slavery happened, I just never knew to the extent that slavery happened until
I came to Main. History is painful, history is uncomfortable. When you distort it by sugar
coating it, you’re not truly acknowledging the significance of what happened.
Isaac’s reflection on the discomfort of confronting painful historical realities demonstrates how
critical reflection can be transformative, challenging students to grapple with harsh truths.
Rhonda spoke to the significance of the middle school book study on the Jason Reynolds
and Ibram X. Kendi text Stamped: Racism, Antiracism, and You (2020). She said the study
allowed for foundational individual and whole school critical reflection and deconstruction of
race sharing,
It [the book] disproved a lot of early racist ideas because, you know it's just a racist idea
we got that Black equals bad everywhere. Like, even in words like blackmail, Black
magic, it's so much deeper than, like, it's just so deep. It's a mind thing. Like, changing
somebody's mind is really hard.
Rhonda’s comment expresses how important the study was in providing critical language while
also pointing to the challenge in changing mindsets. Formal planned units described by Dani,
Isaac, and Rhonda prompted students at Main to reflect on historical and contemporary issues,
enabling them to recognize and deconstruct harmful policies, practices, and ideologies.

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Five participants described more informal opportunities for critical reflection. For Monet,
Dani, and Isaac, the most impactful reflections took place during conflict resolution moments,
where real-world scenarios encouraged them to reflect on their actions and the consequences of
societal pressures. Charis reported on the regular practice of completing an exit ticket that asked
students to self-reflect on their ability to listen attentively and receive critical feedback during
difficult conversations in class community meetings. For Charis, this shaped her identity by
expanding her perspective saying:
I think it [exit ticket reflecting] really shaped my identity too because now I think I'm
able to see perspectives way better because of that. Y'all gave us no choice but to look at
things from more than one perspective. It wasn't just about the work, the assignments, or
grades. It was always about the reflection and always about the life aspect behind it.
Charis recognized how critical self-reflection cultivated a life-long habit of considering diverse
perspectives which was important in her identity development. Valerie recalled that some of the
most profound moments of reflection occurred during informal one on one conversations with
teachers, where they could engage in discussions about sexuality and identity on a deeper level,
saying, "You were able to have those conversations about like sexuality and like identity, like
more at an in-depth level with trusted adults". Valerie highlights how spaces for open dialogue
allowed students to reflect critically on their personal experiences and societal norms in an
alternative safe space. Monet, Dani, Isaac, Charis and Valerie provided examples above of
critical reflection differentiated to make it relevant and applicable to personal issues and skill
development. Across the types of critical reflection, the participants used the practice to
challenge the oppressive systems they encountered.
Critical Reflection Used to Challenge Oppressive Systems

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All seven participants emphasized how critical reflection played a vital role in their
identity development by enabling them to challenge oppressive systems that manifested through
family and societal expectations and structures. The opportunity to challenge assumptions and
biases allowed them to redefine their sense of self. As the participants reflected on their
experiences, they confronted societal pressures surrounding race, gender, and sexuality,
ultimately reshaping their identities in ways that resisted conforming to harmful stereotypes.
Critical reflections challenging oppressive systems emerged organically in response to
current events. Two participants referenced the critical reflection that came about both
individually and as a class following the murder of George Floyd. Isaac shared his anger during
that time:
I’m still facing the same systematic oppression that other African Americans have to go
through, and I feel like after George Floyd died it felt weird because so many people
were standing up for us and it felt weird because it should not take for someone to lose
their life for us to affect meaningful change. I feel like the only way for serious
meaningful change to happen in the United States is that we need an entirely new system
rebuilt from the ground up.
Isaac’s critical reflection extended beyond individual identity to confront broader societal
inequities. Charis added on to Isaac’s idea of holding a larger system accountable by explaining
larger systemic causes for the violence taking place in communities and nationwide saying, “The
only reason they [people in the community] are turning into violent people is because of like
what the city is doing and like what the government is doing [referring to police brutality].”

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Isaac and Charis’ critique of the local and national government illustrates how self-reflection can
lead to a reevaluation of societal structures, empowering LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to
challenge not just personal barriers, but also the systemic forces that perpetuate inequality.
Along with government, participants through critical reflection also held religious and
family systems accountable for harmful homophobic and sexist mindsets. Rhonda challenged
religious institutions’ use of Biblical text to condemn those who are queer saying,
I feel like we should go to the actual verse that they [the religious institution] are talking
about in the Bible, because I'm pretty sure if I remember it correctly, it says something
like, no man shall love a boy, but I'm pretty sure that's about pedophilia. I don't think
that's about [being gay]. Like, I'm pretty sure the verse that they're referring to is about
pedophilia.
By challenging the use of Biblical text, Rhonda challenged origins of homophobic beliefs in the
church where she encountered a lot of undue judgment. Rhonda further called to task the
homophobic and racist beliefs in households naming, “a lot of parents from our grades was
homophobic and racist, because a lot of our parents was Black, a lot of them to be honest, a lot of
them were racist to Hispanics.” Valerie observed similar inequitable treatment within homes and
troubling the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation by sharing,
It's so weird how, like, in Black households, like your parent is kind of more willing to
accept their daughter being gay versus their son being gay, because I guess they feel like
with women, they don't have to compromise their femininity to kind of be like, to be gay,
or even if they are like a masculine presenting woman, a lot of Black families kind of
want boys anyway. I've literally seen households accept their daughters for being gay,
and then their sons even still kind of face backlash from it. So that's a really big problem

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in the Black community. I would say I don't know how it is with different minorities. But
for us, these are struggles that Black women and men face when they're part of the
LGBTQ+ community.
Valerie’s reflection speaks to Kumashiro’s (2001) paradox of identity in marginalized
communities where some identities are privileged, and others are excluded creating margins
within the margins. She engaged in an examination of the resistance to difference that allowed
her to see her identity development within a larger complex dynamic.
Critical reflection helped Rhonda confront the colorism she experienced. She recounted a
memory of a moment where she and a peer, both dark-skinned, found themselves in an escalated
conflict, only to realize, "we are the same skin tone, why are we insulting each other's skin tone?
Because it also reflects that I have internalized racism.” Rhonda’s self-awareness at that moment
reflects how critical reflection allows individuals to recognize not only external societal
pressures but also the internalized prejudices they may carry. Noticing and disrupting patterns
was important to Valerie and her identity development sharing, “We could deconstruct why all
these things [racism, colorism, homophobia, sexism] happen. And it was like really, really
important to me that I didn't become like a product of my society.” Through self-awareness,
participants could question the status quo and choose a different way of being.
The critical reflections shared reveal how participants were able to dissect and critique
the family and societal pressures that impacted them. As Ginwright (2018) explained as part of
his healing centered engagement model for work with youth experiencing trauma, the analysis of
issues such as those the participants presented is important to prevent young people from
internalizing and blaming themselves for the homophobic and sexist behaviors they experienced.

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Through this critical analysis, LGBTQ+ adolescents of color can recognize they are not to blame
and can release the experience of shame regarding their identity.
Freed from the blame and shame of family and societal pressures, the participants
articulated the importance of being able to shape their identities beyond the expectations placed
on them. According to Nicki, shaping her identity included the ability to choose an accepting
community: “Being a person of color and being a person of my identity [queer], being who I am,
I can choose the people that I surround myself with. It's not me that has to change.” Valerie
shared the importance of holding herself and others accountable to disrupt stereotypes saying “It
[class discussions on racism] made me reflect on what are we continuing to do to allow these
stereotypes to still be made as well as what are we doing to stop and prevent these stereotypes
from continuing?” The disruption of stereotypes revealed a more active response to external
biases showing that Valerie would no longer stand to be a victim of oppression. Amidst the
social pressures in middle school, Monet offered an alternative vision of herself when she
reflected,
I just wanted to be different. I realized if people are judging you because you're different,
that means that they just want to be different, but they don't know how to be different.
When I would write something about me wanting to be different from the stereotypical
African American that people see on social media, which is this loud ghetto type person,
instead of me wanting to be that loud ghetto type person, I just wanted to do like arts and
crafts and being in plays and studying all over the world.
Monet’s response is an example of what Ginwright (2018) referred to as the ability to dream and
imagine another way of living which is another important aspect for marginalized youth to center
their healing and well-being and not be defined by their trauma or stereotypes. For the

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participants, their identity development involved a deeper understanding of themselves along
with the oppressive systems impacting them, their families, and their community.
Critical Reflection Used to Cultivate Compassion
For the participants, critical reflection imparted an awareness that led to the cultivation of
compassion for themselves and others. The deeper understanding of larger systems of oppression
allowed them to see shared struggles which reduced isolation and increased practices of care.
Valerie said that critical reflection at her school “was not only looking at the struggles of Black
people, but seeing what Asian people go through with Asian hate and what the Hispanic
community goes through. It kind of opened my eye to like everyone’s struggles.” Knowing
common struggles due to racism, sexism, and homophobia, Valerie pointed to the importance of
being a positive community member by recognizing and preserving the intrinsic goodness in
people saying, “Kids aren’t born racist. They aren’t born homophobic. These are things like you
have to learn. So I have to think, how can I choose to live in a way that can help people unlearn
these things?” Valerie’s reflection demonstrates how an acceptance and commitment to one’s
identity contributes to addressing harmful mindsets that negatively impact others.
Several participants spoke to their environments and histories that included harm to their
identities and how critical reflection helped them hold the past, their community, and their family
members with compassion and patience for the change. Rhonda explained, “It [racism] is so
subconsciously ingrained in society and even in the Black community colorism is so
subconsciously ingrained in mindsets and that is gonna take time.” Placing hurts in the larger
context of time and environment similarly offered Valerie perspective on the homophobic slurs
she experienced:

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And I think like even those moments, like looking back at that now, as ignorant as it kind
of feels to see someone speak in such a hateful way, act in such a hateful way, just
because someone else identified in a different sexuality. I don't know, I almost just
couldn't blame them for that. Cause like I said, a lot of times sexuality gets pushed down
at home and we have to also think about it before COVID, being able to come out and
being who you were wasn't really a big thing at all.
Valerie’s reflection acknowledges a larger root cause for the hateful behaviors she experienced
and at the same time surfaces the need to address the root cause rather than returning or
harboring hate. Rhonda captured this response saying,
I feel like most of my experiences personally really pushed me to go in the opposite
direction of the hate I was seeing. Like, the homophobia and colorism had me
deconstructing the internalized racism I had in me. I don't really want that. I don't want
no parts of that mindset. It's affecting me in a bad way. So, I feel like it pushed me to go
in the opposite way. It pushed me to be like, just a kinder person.
Through critical reflection, Rhonda identified the hurt from being a victim of homophobia and
colorism and used that reflection to act counter culturally by cultivating kindness.
While Valerie and Rhonda referenced broad compassionate ways of being, some
participants spoke to specific instances where critical reflection gave rise to compassionate
thinking and acting. Monet described a peer who was struggling at school and at home as a gay
African American male. When asked more about the struggle, Monet explained,
Because, it's just kind of like basically their home where they [African American gay
males], grew up at. Because most African American males, their dad is just, you know,
oh, you shouldn't cry, or you shouldn't talk about your feelings, and you should just be

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this alpha male figure. And it's just not helpful for them mentally and physically. So,
yeah, I just feel it definitely affects their home situation.
Monet went on to explain how she recruited her peer for the school LGBTQ+ group saying,
“You know, if you feel like home is not where you're supported at, you have a second home,
which is this group.” As Monet experienced healing through her own reflection and participation
in the group, she was able to provide this to her peer. For Isaac and Charis, compassion from
critical reflection manifested itself through acceptance. After being fired from a Christian camp
due to his sexual orientation, Isaac said,
The coping mechanisms that Main gave me enabled me to keep my cool. I know for a
fact I'm not the only one who has experienced this [discriminatory] situation. And I kind
of understand now because it [the camp] is a different environment. It is in a different
state, and they view and they live the world completely differently than we view the
world. And I feel like that [acceptance] is one of the things that I want to fight for as a
politician.
Through critical reflection, Isaac was able to acknowledge the harm he experienced, gain
perspective, and resolve to work for change. Charis demonstrated similar perspective in her
turbulent relationship with her mother. While processing her mother’s anger about her sexuality
and not accepting her girlfriend, Charis reflected,
I get a lot of my identity from my parents because my mom is very strong minded, and
she hasn't learned how to see different perspectives yet, but then again, she probably
hadn't never had no one to teach her that. So, I think that's a lot of the reason why I'm not
really mad at her now. Because I understand I have the same anger that she has. And
being a Black woman, you kind of born with that. I hear the terms like angry Black

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woman, and then people think it's a bad thing but it's not a bad thing. I know I'm an angry
Black woman. I'm mad as hell. I don't see nothing wrong with that. You just got to know
how to accept it and learn it and hold on to it and put it away. Now I'm ready to just kind
of heal from all of that and just let myself just breathe and see where my true self takes
me in life.
For Charis, critical reflection allowed her to cultivate compassion and acceptance not only for
her mother but for herself as well. The process offered a path for her own healing and allowed
her to make progress in her identity development.
Critical reflection played a significant role in helping the participants cultivate greater
compassion for themselves and others. Through reflection, they engaged deeply with their
identity, including sexuality, race, and personal experiences, which allowed them to better
understand how these factors intersected and shaped their environments and perspectives. Along
the journey of developing their identities, healing from various harms played a key role. Dani
emphasized, “There’s hurt happening. And change cannot be made if the hurt isn’t healed.” For
the participants cultivating compassion did not mean ignoring the harms. In their own ways, they
learned how to address them, make sense of them, and heal from them. Nicki shared, “It
[reflection] had me think of everything I experienced, everything I want to be, where I want to
be, who I want to be. I felt like it’s a pledge to my future self.” By reframing the past and
opening doors to the future, critical reflection equipped the participants to navigate the
complexities of their lives with greater confidence and resilience. The next section describes how
action coupled with reflection further supports identity development for LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color by offering them roles and opportunities to enact change.

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The Impact of Experiences Encouraging Agency on Identity Formation
The interview responses from the participants about their school experiences that
encouraged their agency included different events that influenced their identity formation.
Common across these experiences is the fact that they equipped the participants with models for
what empowerment could look like and feel like. As LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, feeling a
sense of power and control amid encounters that marginalized their existence was significant in
building their self-esteem and efficacy. According to Ginwright (2018), offering opportunities
for marginalized youth experiencing trauma to have a sense of power and control is essential for
their healing. The school experiences encouraging agency align with the definition by Watts et
al. (2011) for critical action as the engagement in events and activities meant to challenge
oppressive structures and create change. The experiences provided varied opportunities for
students to assert themselves, grow as leaders and advocates, and confront harmful words and
actions.
One memorable experience allowed one of the participants to assert herself along with
her peers in the community to protest gun violence both locally and nationally. Joining the
national walkout to honor the lives of those killed at Stoneman Douglas, Charis and her middle
school peers formed a human peace symbol outside the school to symbolize their hopes for the
community while chanting demands for stricter gun regulation. For Charis, the walkout was not
only a memorial for students attending another school far away. It was also a memorial to family
and classmates she personally knew that were lost to gang gun violence in her community for
whom a national outcry felt nonexistent. Along with the peace symbol captured by an overhead
drone and shared widely through social media, the students continued their calls for ending gun
violence by leading a peace march in the community. Charis initially resisted going public in the

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community in this way unsure of how her family and the community would receive the
demonstration. Charis described her participation in the peace march:
I remember seeing my family seeing me doing that march. Again, my family is some of
the people that is in the streets a part of the gun violence and makin’ stuff happen. So for
them to see me doing that and for them to actually say they respect it, I think that was a
big thing for me. Some of the people on the streets was out there with us. Some of the
corner boys was telling us ‘We respect what y'all doing, we appreciate it.’And I
remember one male kept saying ‘It ain't that easy, it ain't that easy,’ like he was saying
with peace and unity in the community. Being older like I understand that it's not that
easy. It's really not.
Charis emphasized the significance of the march at that time to participate in something public
and take action to create positive change in her community. For her, the respect she felt offered
her an experience of being seen and powerful. While Charis acknowledged the march did not end
violence in the community, she attributed tremendous value to the moment of agency to begin to
address mindset shifts. She reflected,
I think a lot of people would like to see peace in the world but it's not that easy. You can't
just make stuff like that happen, but I think when people see it [taking action], it gives
like people a little bit of hope. And I think especially when you talk about like identity
and sexuality, I think hope is one of the biggest things you can have and one of the
biggest things to hold onto. We didn't want everything to just be fixed then, but I think in
the end we just want you to know the goal.
Charis’ reflection shows the lasting, healing effect of the march that encouraged and activated
her agency. She transferred hope and the need to keep an eye on the ultimate goal for change

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from one change area of addressing community violence to another change area of addressing
mindsets around sexuality and identity. She conveyed the sense of hope for change in her family
sharing her mother’s reaction to the march:
Even though me and my mom like went through it I remember like me and her talking
about it and like her just being like ‘How did y'all do that?’ I was just there living in it,
and I think when you living in it, in the moment of doing something like that powerful,
when you're doing something to send a message, you don't think about how much hard
work you put into sending a message. You're just thinking about getting the message
across: If we all come together with the best piece of ourselves, then it can have a really
big outcome.
For Charis, the march and subsequent interactions with family, peers, and community members
imprinted on her the belief that change is possible and the value of bringing her full self forward
in bringing about positive change.
Through an agentic opportunity leading a national conference workshop for adults on
restorative justice practices, Valerie grew as a leader during her eighth-grade year. During her
middle school years, Valerie assisted Main in its transition from suspensions to restorative
practices by serving as one of its leading peer mediators. She facilitated peer to peer conflict
resolution circles and served as an accountability partner for students working to restore trust and
relationships with those they harmed. The school invited Valerie to share her experiences and
guidance during one of only a few student-led workshop sessions offered by a national
conference of educators. Valerie remembers,
We were standing and talking to a bunch of adults at a national conference and educating
them on how we were moving out of suspensions. It really affected me because I was

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really, really, really shy and that experience pushed me to get my confidence. I was like
I'm about to walk in a room full of adults and I'm about to teach them something and I
have to get this right because they could bring it back to their schools and it has to be
done in a way that supports their schools. It was like wow, I'm a kid and I'm teaching
adults. I want to be just as knowledgeable as the next person. It was one of the biggest
experiences that kind of pushed me to step out of my comfort zone. To be in a leader
position just felt really nice, and it gave me that much more confidence.
Valerie’s experience allowed her to be seen and to see herself as a confident and competent
leader. She went on to share that she extended her leadership role in high school by participating
in student government and being one of the leaders who helped students move up to the next
grade. Valerie recognized the significance of her leadership in supporting her identity and that of
others through her representation saying, “Having someone in these leadership roles who had
similar experiences for someone who was LGBTQ+ and also a person of color meant everything.
It was important for me to be this leader.” For Valerie, actively participating in change meant
leading and being that change.
For participants like Dani, having early experiences of agency allowed them to integrate
the role of advocate into their identity. While Dani also spoke about their experiences
participating in the peace march and in peer mediation circles, they highlighted a formative
experience that took place in second grade:
I remember a huge earthquake happened in Haiti. I saw what was happening to them and
my justice sensitivity kicked in and I was like, well, this isn't fair. So that's when I
remember me and a classmate proposed to our teacher and led a fundraiser to help rebuild
their homes and help them return to normal. I feel ultimately, that is one thing that Main

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has taught me is that yes, you can do something about these situations. So, knowing that I
was able to do something like that at such a young age, I'm extremely proud of myself for
that. And I'm extremely glad to know that I was taught at such a young age too, that I can
do something about it. And to this day, I still am actively ensuring that I'm being very
vocal.
For Dani, their advocacy work allowed them to channel their need to do something to address
local and global injustices instead of feeling helpless and passive in the face of challenges. Dani
listed the many causes they have been and are vocal about through social media. Similar to
Valerie, Dani was known to be more quiet and reserved in elementary school. During and since
that time, they have made their voice heard. One organization they have been vocal about in
support of holds particular significance for their identity:
I support a clinic I currently use [for my transition]. They are a clinic that prioritizes the
health of queer people. And they are very, very active with the way that they do it. They
are also very active in providing a lot of support groups for queer people because they
recognize that it is very common for queer people to not receive a lot of help, especially
mental health wise, because a lot of queer people, unfortunately, are discriminated
against by their friends, by their family, by everyone around them.
While very attuned to the needs and struggles of others, Dani recognized that their advocacy
work also included their own well-being and that of the community they belong to.
For two participants, their experience of agency was part of a Civil Rights unit in sixth
grade that also led them to adopt the role as advocate. As part of the study, the students traveled
from the Midwest to Birmingham, Alabama to visit the 16th St. Baptist Church, the Birmingham
Civil Rights Institute, and have an audience with the Foot Soldiers who protested for civil rights

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as youth. Isaac remembered the impact of that audience with the Foot Soldiers in encouraging his
agency saying,
Those hundreds of teenagers back then marching down the street demanding that the
schools and government acknowledge that they exist and that they have a fundamental
right to go to school, that's taking action. You have to be willing to sacrifice things in
order for meaningful change to happen. And you have to be willing to put yourself on the
line in order for change to happen.
Isaac’s reflection and lessons learned from his Birmingham experience offers a concrete model
for the definition of agency provided by Nagaoka et al. (2015) as allowing one to confront the
challenges and barriers in life as obstacles that can be overcome. Since that experience, Isaac has
gone on to take action at school and in the community as he seeks in the long-term a career in
public policy or politics following his model, Harvey Milk. Nicki remembered the experience
with the Foot Soldiers prompting immediate advocacy work and generating lasting inspiration:
That was one of the coolest experiences I've ever gotten to talk to them [Foot Soldiers]
and actually hear their stories. And the fact that we took the time to advocate for them. I
remember writing letters to people like Oprah and Ellen. We were writing everybody
trying to get this one Foot Soldier a high school diploma because he told his story about
how he missed getting his diploma because he went out to protest and he never got it. It's
just like we've come a long way thanks to them. Like I can be anything I want to be. I
need to do better for myself and for my people because we've come so far.
Nicki’s response demonstrates how the experience of ancestry and agency provided pride,
possibility, and a sense of purpose which all contributed towards her identity development.

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Along with singular moments of agency, everyday interactions that required confronting
harmful words and actions were also important experiences of agency and resistance. After being
bullied by peers due to colorism and watching a gay male classmate being repeatedly harassed
by peers, Rhonda committed to ensuring the well-being for others and consistently calling out
hurtful slurs and behaviors,
Watching [my classmate] and then even my experiences with them talking about me,
like, it made me focus on mental health a little bit more for other people, you know, just
checking in on people more, making sure that they're okay, not allowing people to get
talked about around me, because you ain't going to do that around me. You can do that
around anybody else, but I'm not going to sit there and watch that happen.
Rhonda shared that this approach was different from her usual tendency to remain quiet in the
background showing her courage and the amount of effort necessary to counter aggressions and
make change. Monet similarly spoke to the work necessary of pushing beyond one’s usual way
of being to interrupt and change harmful mindsets:
Bisexual means you're attracted to both genders and a lot of people think, ‘Oh well if
you're like attracted to both genders then why not pick one?’ One time a classmate asked
me about if I would have a threesome and I kind of got offended and kind of retaliated
which I wish that I would never had did but it was just at that moment it was just very
disrespectful. Because the classmate, he was known to be homophobic. Very
homophobic. So, it just kind of put it put me in a position of where I was just like do I not
say anything to him or do I say something to him? I ended up saying something to him
and he kind of got offended by what I had said. But I told him ‘You getting offended
about what I said? You don't think I took offense to what you had asked me?’ So, you

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know the things that we go through as a community it kind of can make or break
somebody.
In her response, Monet spoke to how through a moment of agency she was able to actively
protest harms as part of the larger queer community. She also brought necessary attention to the
microaggressions that make change efforts challenging and exhausting day in and day out.
The interview responses from the participants illustrated how their involvement in school
experiences encouraging their agency not only empowered them but also allowed them to engage
with social justice issues that they were able to connect to their identities as LGBTQ+
adolescents of color. Through the march against gun violence, Charis deepened her
understanding of changing mindsets around guns in her community and about sexual orientation
in her own home with her mother. By teaching adults about peer mediation, Valerie recognized
the significance of her leadership as a queer person of color. The advocacy efforts of Dani, Isaac,
Nicki, Rhonda, and Monet drew power from their racial and queer pride. It is clear that their
involvement in the social change initiatives at school played a transformative role in helping
them develop as confident leaders fully aware of the importance of standing up for others and
asserting their rights. Table 3 lists the current career pathways of the participants with
commentary from them demonstrating their sense of purpose. While their career pursuits are still
in progress, they are shared to celebrate their resilience, recognize their ongoing efforts to
actively work for change, and highlight their vision of themselves for the future. The stories they
have shared and their aspirations for their life stories to come are evidence of their success and
the progress they have made in the development of their identities.
Table 3
Participant Pathways

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Participant Pathway Participant Comment
Valerie School Therapist
I realized how important support was and how I can be supportive
to those around me. I wanted to be an addition to a community, a
healing one at that.
Charis School
Teacher/Admin
Now I'm able to work with kids and take that same passion and
put it into them. It's just something that I really need to do.
Isaac Public
Policy/Politics
I want to be a representative for not just one group of people, but
for a vast group of people.
Dani Visual Artist It is possible to start your own organization and do something for
the people around you.
Rhonda Medical
Scientist/Law
When you see somebody doing something wrong, really speaking
up for it. Because that's what you're supposed to do. You're
supposed to use your voice to say what you believe in and speak
up for what you feel is right, regardless of what the other people
around you is doing.
Monet Psychologist We need more African American therapists.
Nicki Coast Guard It [water quality testing] felt like I was special, and it made me
feel like I could do anything
Summary
The findings reveal the multifaceted experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
attending a school using critical consciousness pedagogy. The approaches at the school aimed to
foster a supportive environment for students' intersectional identities amidst external family and
societal pressures. The findings highlight key challenges and strengths, emphasizing the pivotal
role of school culture in identity development.
Participants faced significant external pressures, including familial conflict, societal
norms, and cultural expectations. The external factors often overwhelmed the school’s inclusive
efforts, manifesting in internalized shame, isolation, and fear of rejection. Harassment that
included homophobia, racism, and ableism, further compounded their struggles, often negatively

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impacting mental health and creating barriers to self-expression. Yet, amidst these challenges,
participants found moments of refuge and growth within their school community.
The school’s positive culture and intentional practices emerged as a counterbalance to the
broader challenges. Supportive relationships with teachers and peers, along with class
community structures, provided safe spaces for students to explore and affirm their identities.
Critical reflection activities encouraged students to analyze systemic inequities and develop
compassion for themselves and others. Additionally, moments of agency such as participating in
restorative practices, activism, or leadership roles, empowered students to take ownership of
their identities and advocate for change.
Overall, the findings underscore the transformative potential of a critically conscious
educational environment. By having opportunities to address both individual and systemic
barriers, LGBTQ+ adolescents of color could cultivate resilience and self-advocacy. Through
establishing habits of critical reflection and exercising agency, LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
experiencing trauma and marginalization can experience positive impact on their healing and
empowerment.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
This study aimed to explore the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
within the context of a school using a critical consciousness pedagogical model. Specifically, the
study examined how an approach using critical reflection and action impacts the identity
development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The purpose of this chapter is to provide
discussion and recommendations based on the findings. Following are the discussion points
relevant to the specific context of the study, recommendations for practice based on the findings,
limitations and delimitations related to the study, and recommendations for future research.
Discussion of Findings
The research study findings offer a more nuanced description of the intersectional
experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color and the unique challenges both inside and outside
the school encountered by the participants. The findings also provide a window into aspects of
school culture and critical consciousness practices that support the identity development of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The findings clearly address a gap in the conceptual framework
that accounts only for interventions inside the school. By not incorporating elements external to
the school such as family and societal expectations, the conceptual framework failed to address
needs important for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to fully achieve an integrated identity and
agency.
Navigating Intersectional Identities
The participants' experiences underscore the profound challenges LGBTQ+ adolescents
of color face in navigating their intersectional identities. Participants shared that external
pressures from families and societal norms often influenced their school experiences, despite
efforts by the school to create an inclusive and affirming environment. Family environments and

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cultural norms often reinforced silences around identity and emotions, creating barriers to selfexpression and exploration. The tension between familial expectations and authentic selfexpression resonated with Misawa’s (2010) Queer Crit framework, which highlights how
systemic oppression operates at the intersections of race and sexual orientation.
The findings align with the literature on intersectionality, particularly Crenshaw’s (1990)
framework, which names the reality of compounded oppressions. Participants’ reflections, such
as Charis’ experiences of familial silence, echo the challenges highlighted in research by Truong
et al. (2020), which found that LGBTQ+ students of color experience heightened marginalization
due to overlapping systems of racism and homophobia. The disclosure by participants such as
Rhonda and Charis on choosing not to share with the school their challenges at home suggests
that schools cannot solely focus on internal structures but must consider broader cultural
influences when supporting students.
Participants like Rhonda and Valerie expressed that while the school’s efforts were
valuable, they were often unable to counteract the pervasive societal and familial pressures
shaping the students’ experiences. Ongoing experiences of harassment and feelings of isolation
in navigating intersectional identity reflects a limitation in the scope of critical consciousness
pedagogy, which primarily operates within the boundaries of the school environment. The
experiences lifted by participants that took place at home or with peers outside the school show
that external influences often left students feeling unsupported despite the school’s inclusive
practices.
While the study focused on the intersectional identities of race and sexual orientation, an
important finding was the significant influence of rigid cultural norms around gender roles.
Participants like Isaac reported feeling pressured to conform to hyper masculine expectations,

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compounding the challenges of exploring his sexual identity. From her experience, Valerie also
expressed how she felt females are treated differently from males in terms of acceptance for their
sexual orientation based on their gender. The examples from Isaac and Valerie show how gender
norms intersect with sexual orientation to shape students’ experiences in unique ways. To address
this, schools must expand their understanding of intersectionality and employ inclusivity efforts
that tackle both homophobia and restrictive gender norms. Integrating discussions of gender
diversity into critical consciousness frameworks could help deconstruct these expectations.
The participants described silence or avoidance, particularly within families, as both a
barrier and a coping strategy. Charis’s account of her family’s “what happens at home, stays at
home” mindset reflects how silence sometimes served as a protective mechanism, allowing
students to navigate potentially unsafe spaces. Rhonda and Monet also used silence regarding
identity intentionally in school when they perceived potential threat from peers. While silence is
typically viewed as an obstacle to identity development, these accounts reveal its role as a
temporary form of self-preservation. The finding suggests that schools must balance providing
safe spaces for self-expression with respecting and responding to the complexities of familial and
larger socio-cultural dynamics. As Kumashiro (2001) noted, interventions must be nuanced and
avoid imposing fixed solutions that may inadvertently create conflict. Charis’ decision to not
inform the school about challenges she encountered at home offers an example of the need for
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to recognize a range of support options from the school that can
help them navigate their intersectional realities effectively.
While participants valued access to resources like group support sessions with the school
social worker and individual conversations with supportive teachers, they critiqued the limited
representation of intersectional identities, particularly with a majority White teaching staff.

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Charis, for instance, noted how affirmation of her sexual orientation felt different coming from
an African American staff member versus from her White classroom teacher. Rhonda also
expressed concern with the limited understanding of teachers to effectively address homophobia
and colorism. The participants’ experiences underscore the importance of tailoring support
structures to the specific needs of LGBTQ+ students of color. Schools should evaluate their
support systems to ensure they can adequately address the diverse experiences of their student
body.
The Queer Crit framework’s focus on experiential knowledge and social justice
highlights the importance of addressing external barriers while empowering students to navigate
oppressive systems. As shared, participants described struggles to reconcile their authentic
identities with cultural expectations that emphasized conformity. The persistence of the external
pressures reinforces the need for schools to consider broader cultural and societal dynamics
when designing support structures. The conceptual framework’s emphasis on healing-centered
engagement (Ginwright, 2018) offers a pathway to address these external pressures. By fostering
environments where students feel empowered to reflect on and reclaim their identities, schools
can play a crucial role in mitigating the harm caused by external family and societal pressures.
The Role of Critical Consciousness Pedagogy
The findings suggest that critical consciousness pedagogy, particularly through
opportunities for critical reflection and action, holds promise in addressing the systemic barriers
faced by LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. Opportunities for critical reflection enabled participants
at Main to name and analyze inequitable systems, as described by Watts et al. (2011). Several
participants shared how project-based learning tied to community advocacy provided avenues for
self-expression and purpose, reflecting the efficacy of Freire’s (1970) principles of reflection and

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action. The process enabled some participants to develop a strong sense of agency and
belonging, even in the face of external pressures and harassment.
The opportunities for the students to participate in project-based learning that connected
with community issues such as the Peace March and the Civil Rights study in Birmingham
helped foster a sense of purpose and recognition of their identities. Meaningful school
experiences that integrate identity development align with Seider et al. (2023), who emphasize
the role of critical consciousness in promoting academic and personal resilience among
marginalized youth. However, the study also revealed gaps in implementation. As shared earlier,
participants like Rhonda noted that the school’s efforts were sometimes insufficient to counteract
the deeply rooted societal and familial pressures. This finding emphasizes the importance of
pairing critical consciousness pedagogy with systemic interventions, such as culturally
responsive family engagement strategies, to create more holistic support systems for LGBTQ+
students of color.
Despite the benefits of critical consciousness pedagogy, some participants described still
feeling isolated within the broader school community due to inadequate representation of their
LGBTQ+ experience in curricula or schoolwide activities. Most participants navigated this
aspect of their identity development on their own. The literature (Moorehead & Jimenez, 2021;
Pennell, 2017) suggests that equipping educators with the skills to effectively and explicitly
address the complexities of intersectional identity development is critical to fostering inclusive
environments.
Impacts on Identity Development
The study shows the significant role schools play in shaping the identity development of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color through its culture and pedagogical practices. Drawing from

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Phinney’s (1989) and Chulani’s (2019) models of identity development, participants described a
progression from initial suppression to exploration and, for some, integration of their racial and
sexual identities. However, these processes were not linear, reflecting the complexity of
intersecting identities.
While the school provided a safer space for self-expression compared to other
environments, participants highlighted the need for more targeted interventions to address
intersectionality. As Kumashiro (2001) cautions, interventions that do not account for the
diversity within LGBTQ+ communities risk perpetuating harm. Participants emphasized the
value of peer networks and supportive educators in facilitating their identity development,
consistent with findings from Kosciw et al. (2022), who noted that Gay-Straight Alliances
(GSAs) enhance belonging and reduce victimization. For instance, Monet highlighted the value
of peer networks in providing a sense of community. However, participants like Rhonda and
Charis who shared a reluctance to join an affinity group even if it had been offered identified
limitations in the school’s ability to fully support their intersectional needs. This finding echoes
critiques by Endo (2021) and Ocampo and Soodjinda (2016), who argue that generalized support
structures like GSAs often fail to address the nuanced needs of LGBTQ+ students of color.
While intersectional identities were sources of compounded oppression, several
participants also framed them as a foundation for resilience and personal growth. Dani, for
instance, shared that embracing their multifaceted identity allowed them to navigate societal
pressures with greater confidence. Dani’s experience demonstrated the empowering aspects of
intersectional identity and reinforces Brockenbrough’s (2015) view that schools should leverage
a more strengths-based perspective. Schools can do this by designing programs and curricula that
affirm and celebrate the unique perspectives of LGBTQ+ students of color. Incorporating

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culturally responsive projects and leadership opportunities could further empower students to
view their identities as assets rather than burdens.
Recommendations for Practice
The findings highlight the need for schools to adopt multifaceted approaches that address
not only internal school dynamics and policies but also the broader societal and familial contexts
influencing students' experiences. Participants often referred to interactions and relational
exchanges that were small but made a big impact on how they processed their identity
development and self-acceptance. Building on a school’s aspiration for a more inclusive culture
to impact mindset shifts of the larger ecosystem of the school requires expanding the knowledge
and skill of staff to effectively address intersectionality, providing capacity and opportunities for
peer support, and engaging families and the wider community.
Recommendation 1: Foster a Stronger Intersectional Support Framework
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color often face a unique set of challenges as they navigate the
intersection of their racial, sexual, and gender identities. Studies highlight how intersectionality
amplifies the challenges faced by LGBTQ+ students of color, with disaggregated GLSEN data
revealing that these students experience higher levels of both racial and LGBTQ+-based
discrimination than their peers (Kosciw et al., 2022; Truong et al., 2020). The findings revealed
that participants struggled with compounded pressures stemming from racism, homophobia, and
heteronormative home and school environments. Several participants noted how these external
forces often manifested as feelings of isolation, misunderstanding, and marginalization, which
were not fully mitigated by the school’s efforts at inclusivity. The participants’ experiences
underscore the need for schools to adopt a deliberate intersectional framework that validates the

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multiplicity of students’ identities and equips staff to address the compounded forms of
oppression that students may face.
Addressing intersecting oppressions to transform schools into spaces where students feel
safe and valued is important. The participants shared the positive impact on their identity
development through the deconstruction of race. However, explicit deconstruction of other
normative constructs related to gender and sexual orientation was lacking. To achieve this,
professional development for teachers from community organizations with expertise in gender
and sexuality diversity should include training on the intersectionality of race, gender, and sexual
orientation (John et al., 2019). Additionally, curricula should feature diverse texts, voices, and
perspectives that reflect the lived experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color (Schey, 2023).
By explicitly integrating intersectional frameworks into their pedagogical practices, schools can
ensure that all students feel a sense of belonging and are equipped to succeed both academically
and personally.
Building on curriculum content and resources, schools can implement an asset-based,
healing-centered approach by explicitly linking critical reflection and action strategies to
intersectional identity, with a particular focus on gender and sexual orientation (Brookfield,
2019). The research participants valued opportunities for reflection and action that allowed them
to process their identities in meaningful ways. However, these opportunities were not always
explicitly tied to their experiences as LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. While the school
encouraged discussions on social justice such as demonstrating against gun violence, the absence
of intentional conversations about gender and sexual orientation left participants feeling unseen
in critical aspects of their identity. The feeling of isolation that participants shared in navigating
their identity points to the need for schools to create structured opportunities for students to

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critically examine how intersecting aspects of identity such as race, gender, and sexuality shape
their experiences and empower them to take action toward social change.
Schools can integrate critical reflection and action related to intersectionality into their
curricula and extracurricular activities. For example, schools can design project-based learning
opportunities that allow students to explore the intersections of race, gender, and sexual
orientation (Schey, 2023). The projects might include researching historical and contemporary
movements for LGBTQ+ rights, creating presentations on intersectional identity, or organizing
community campaigns to promote inclusivity and equity. Additionally, schools can support
students in identifying and impacting areas where their school climate could be more inclusive
and work collaboratively to implement those changes. By linking critical reflection and action to
intersectional identity and explicitly addressing issues of gender and sexual orientation, schools
can foster resilience, agency, and a sense of belonging among LGBTQ+ students of color.
Recommendation 2: Enhance Peer Support Structures
Peer support structures for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color require a thoughtful and
intentional approach that addresses the barriers highlighted in the findings. Participants in the
study shared that while peer relationships were often a source of support, many avoided formal
support groups due to fears of exposure and rejection. Societal and familial pressures
compounded the challenge of feeling rejected, leaving students feeling isolated and unable to
fully engage with existing support systems. To create a truly inclusive and healing-centered
school environment, schools must address these barriers and design peer support initiatives that
are accessible, culturally responsive, and sensitive to the intersectional identities of their students
(Abreu, 2022).

99
Enhancing peer support structures for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who are not yet out
or are exploring their queer identity requires a nuanced approach that prioritizes confidentiality,
accessibility, and cultural responsiveness. The participants suggest that creating anonymous and
confidential options for peer support is important for LGBTQ+ adolescents who are not out. For
instance, digital platforms such as moderated online forums or anonymous chat groups have been
shown to provide safe spaces where students can connect with others without the fear of being
identified (Craig et al., 2021). These virtual environments allow students to seek advice, share
experiences, and access resources while maintaining their privacy.
For students ready to join a group, culturally responsive peer groups can be a good option
for supporting LGBTQ+ adolescents of color who are in the process of self-discovery. Research
by Endo (2021) and Ocampo and Soodjinda (2016) emphasizes the importance of
intersectionality in peer support systems, noting that traditional GSAs often fail to address
unique experiences of students navigating both racial and sexual identity challenges. The groups
should incorporate content and programming that acknowledges the cultural and familial
dynamics that shape students’ experiences, providing opportunities for connection without
requiring public disclosure of their identities.
Just as some participants in the study trained to be peer mediators, students can also be
trained as peer allies as another option to enhance peer support for LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color. Allies can discretely signal their support through seemingly small but impactful actions
such as wearing inclusive symbols, using affirming language, and modeling respectful behavior.
Subtle acts of allyship can create a sense of safety and normalcy for students who are still
figuring out their identities (Marx & Kettrey, 2016). Participants in the study expressed the value

100
of such inclusive gestures, noting how even small signals of support made them feel more
comfortable at school.
Integrated activities that allow students to engage in advocacy or community projects
without disclosing their identities also represent a promising approach. Activities focused on
broader social justice issues, such as racial equity or mental health advocacy, provide meaningful
opportunities for connection while avoiding the pressure of self-identification. Participants in the
study noted that such opportunities for collective action helped them develop a sense of agency
and belonging without feeling singled out or exposed. Through opportunities such as these,
schools can transform peer support structures into inclusive, affirming spaces that empower
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, particularly those who are not yet out or are still navigating their
identities.
Recommendation 3: Enhance Family and Community Engagement
Participants in the study frequently identified family rejection and societal taboos as
significant barriers to their development and well-being. Despite the school’s efforts, participants
felt constrained by cultural norms and expectations that stigmatized LGBTQ+ identities.
Families and communities play a critical role in shaping the experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents
(Ginwright, 2018). Schools like Main need to engage these stakeholders more effectively.
Family and community attitudes profoundly influence LGBTQ+ adolescents’ mental
health and educational outcomes. Studies show that family rejection correlates with higher rates
of depression, suicidality, and school absenteeism among LGBTQ+ youth (Ghabriel, 2017;
Kosciw et al., 2022). To address these challenges, schools can partner with community
organizations to host workshops that educate families on LGBTQ+ issues, offering strategies for
fostering acceptance and understanding. For example, schools could collaborate with local

101
LGBTQ+ advocacy groups to create family education nights focused on building affirming home
environments. Additionally, engaging in community dialogues to name and challenge harmful
normative behaviors and responses can help bridge the gap between students’ school and home
experiences. Initiatives addressing root causes align with the social justice perspective of Queer
Crit, which calls for systemic change that extends beyond schools into broader societal contexts,
ensuring a more holistic support system for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Schools could enhance family and community engagement efforts by leveraging
LGBTQ+ alumni of color as visible models of resilience and support (Linville, 2022). Several
participants recounted feelings of isolation or rejection, and the absence of family support
magnified their need for representation and mentorship within the school environment. LGBTQ+
alumni who have navigated similar challenges can bridge this gap by serving as mentors,
advocates, and facilitators of dialogue between families, communities, and schools.
Schools like Main can explore establishing an LGBTQ+ alumni network to support
current students and engage families in affirming practices. Alumni could host family
workshops, sharing their stories to promote understanding and acceptance while addressing
cultural norms that contribute to stigma. For example, alumni panels could focus on navigating
identity within specific cultural contexts or strategies for building affirming relationships at
home. Alumni can also participate in school programming, such as mentoring students
individually or co-facilitating social justice initiatives. In collaboration with families and
students, alumni could work to develop inclusive school policies, organize community events, or
advocate for broader systemic changes. By integrating LGBTQ+ alumni into family and
community engagement strategies, schools create opportunities for healing and empowerment

102
that extend beyond the classroom. This dual approach not only provides representation for
students but also fosters a broader culture of inclusivity and support within the community.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are constraints or restrictions beyond the researcher’s control that may affect
the study’s results (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). First, the small sample size of seven participants
limits the generalizability of the findings to the broader population of LGBTQ+ adolescents of
color. While the purposeful sampling allowed for in-depth exploration of individual experiences,
it does not capture the full diversity of intersectional identities across different geographic,
cultural, and institutional contexts. Second, as alumni were the subjects for the study, one
important limitation to note is accuracy and detail of experience based on the length of time from
the participants’ actual school experience. Additionally, unlike experiences shared by students
currently in school, alumni will have their own filters and frames with which to review, reflect
on, and communicate their recollections. Having alumni as participants affords a benefit of
seeing in hindsight school experiences with a more long-term view. However, it also provides a
limitation in precisely capturing the actual experience of an adolescent in that stage of
development.
One key limitation of this study is its focus on self-identified LGBTQ+ alumni of color
who were either out during their school years or willing to share their experiences at the time of
the research. By design, the study does not fully capture the unique challenges and experiences
of students who were not out as queer during their time at school. Closeted students often
navigate unique dynamics that may differ substantially from their out peers. For example, they
may have avoided school support structures due to fear of exposure, or they may have relied on
less visible forms of support, such as anonymous online communities. The exclusion of this

103
perspective limits the study’s ability to provide a comprehensive understanding of how schools
can support all LGBTQ+ students, including those who choose not to disclose their sexual
orientation or gender identity. It is important to acknowledge that interventions designed with
visibility in mind might inadvertently overlook the needs of students who are not ready or able to
be open about their identities.
Delimitations are choices made by the researcher to define the boundaries or scope of the
study (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). While the study seeks to understand school experiences of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, the focus will be on those experiences from one school that uses
critical consciousness pedagogy. By focusing exclusively on self-identified LGBTQ+ alumni of
color from one K-8 urban school in the Midwest, the study highlights the unique intersectional
experiences within this specific educational context. However, this focus limits the applicability
of the findings to other educational settings, such as rural schools, high schools, or schools
without a critical consciousness pedagogy. Expanding research to include these contexts would
provide valuable insights into how different environments influence the identity development of
LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Recommendations for Future Research
The study highlights several possibilities for future research to expand the understanding
of school environments and their impact on LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. First, future studies
could explore the experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color across diverse educational
settings beyond the single urban K-8 school studied. Comparing environments such as rural
schools, suburban schools, and high schools could reveal how different contexts shape the
intersectional experiences of these students and their identity development. A broader sample

104
could also provide greater insight into the variability of challenges and support mechanisms
across geographic and demographic boundaries.
Another important area for future inquiry is the role of families and community
influences on the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. This study identified
external pressures from family and cultural norms as significant factors impacting students’
experiences. Research that delves into strategies for engaging families in supportive ways, as
well as the role of community-based organizations in fostering safe spaces, could provide
actionable recommendations for educators and policymakers.
Furthermore, additional research is needed to examine the intersectionality of race,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, and gender identity in more nuanced ways. This study revealed
diverse and complex experiences among LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, yet certain identities
such as students from less-represented racial or ethnic groups require more focused exploration.
Understanding how overlapping identities influence school experiences can inform targeted
interventions that address unique needs.
Conclusion
This study sought to understand the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color
and the impact of critical reflection and action on their identity development by lifting and
honoring the stories of seven thoughtful and courageous individuals. The participants candidly
shared their journeys from a fear of who they are to embracing who they are. Their liberation
came from letting go of the anxiety over being rejected by society and instead actively rejecting
the false constructs created by society. Often, their evolution created internal conflicts as they
wrestled with apparent contradictions in the intersecting parts of their identity. They experienced
confusion. They experienced hurt from those who barely knew them and those they thought

105
knew them well. Their stories resonated deeply for me and reminded me so much of my own in
school. As a testament to their resilience and brilliance, all of them navigated their identity
development with persistence, curiosity, and compassion for themselves and others. The seven
participants had different stories to tell, but they all shared the importance of experiencing a
school culture that normalized, empowered, and celebrated all aspects of themselves. They all
also share a common mission of wanting others like them and following them to experience
success through an integrated identity and agency.
Investments in education have traditionally focused on curricular and tactical solutions
aimed at addressing long-term challenges. However, despite these efforts, progress in advancing
student success has stagnated, prompting educators to question why the desired outcomes have
not materialized. It is time to shift investments towards addressing the critical needs of LGBTQ+
adolescents of color, particularly in areas of identity, relationships, and belonging. Positive
identity development and affirming relationships are foundational to the well-being and success
for all students. When students feel supported and seen, their academic performance and overall
development are more likely to improve. By realigning resources to foster a sense of safety,
connection, and identity integration, schools can create conditions that not only enhance
educational outcomes but also contribute to the lifetime success of our youth. Without this shift
in focus, current investments risk continuing to yield insufficient results. Now is the moment to
prioritize these essential supports and unlock the potential of every student.
There are stories not told here of peers who are overwhelmed by the journey. For some,
the harrowing journey has taken their life. It is unacceptable and unconscionable that lives
continue to be threatened or lost due to damaging mindsets and harmful rhetoric. In the current
climate where critical race theory and transgender rights are under constant attack, this study

106
centers those who truly are the best of us. They have done the work of transforming beliefs and
forging new paths for themselves not limited or defined by the inequitable systems that still exist.
Through their own continued practice of critical reflection and action that has taken the form of
daily journaling, reciting affirmations, and counseling and advocating for others, the participants
in this study point to the possibility and hope of what healthy and healing spaces could be for all
our students and for society. In the midst of so great and necessary a change, in the words of
Charis, “Hope is one of the biggest things you can have and one of the biggest things to hold
onto.”

107
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Appendix A: Pre-Interview 1 Communication Protocol on Artifact
Research Questions:
1. What is the experience of the school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
2. How do school experiences supporting critical reflection and encouraging student agency
impact the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
Respondent Type:
Alumni between the ages of 18 and 25 who attended a K-8 urban school in the Midwest that used
critical consciousness pedagogy elements of critical reflection and encouraging student action to
address school and community problems.
Pre-interview Communication on Artifact
Thank you for being willing to participate in the interview aspect of my study. My study
seeks to understand the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The study also
seeks to understand their school experiences of reflection and action related to their identity.
The aim of this research is to help provide insight on experiences in school that may
support positive identity development for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Through the interview there will be an opportunity to explore and honor your
intersectional identity, particularly at the intersections of race/identity, gender identity, and
sexual orientation. For this purpose, I am inviting you to bring to the interview an artifact of your
choosing representing your identity that will serve as a starting point for our conversation.
What can you bring: You have full freedom to choose what your artifact will be. It can
be deeply personal or symbolic, such as:
• A photograph (of yourself, loved ones, or a meaningful place)
• A piece of artwork (created by you or another artist)

120
• A cultural or gender expression item
• A written piece (like a poem, letter, or story)
• A spiritual or community object
• Any other item that holds significance for you
How to choose your artifact: When selecting your artifact, think about
• How it reflects your experiences at the intersection of race/ethnicity and
LGBTQ+ identity.
• What emotions, memories, or stories it brings up for you.
• How it represents your challenges your journey as a person of color and an
LGBTQ+ individual.
No “wrong” choice: There are no limits to what you can bring. It’s all about what feels
meaningful to you. If you’re unsure or need assistance, feel free to reach out, and I’ll be happy to
help.
I look forward to our first interview and hearing the story behind your artifact and how it
connects to your identity.

121
Appendix B: Interview 1 Protocol
Research Questions:
1. What is the experience of the school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
2. How do school experiences supporting critical reflection and encouraging student
agency impact the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
Respondent Type:
Alumni between the ages of 18 and 25 who attended a K-8 urban school in the Midwest that used
critical consciousness pedagogy elements of critical reflection and encouraging student action to
address school and community problems.
Introduction to the Interview:
I’d like to thank you once again for being willing to participate in the interview aspect of
my study. As I have mentioned to you before, my study seeks to understand the school
experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The study also seeks to understand their school
experiences of reflection and action related to their identity.
The aim of this research is to help provide insight on experiences in school that may
support positive identity development for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Our interview today will last approximately one hour during which I will be asking you
about your artifact and how you self-identify and your experiences in school related to your
identity as an LGBTQ+ person of color.
Do I have your permission to record our conversation by Zoom?___Yes ___No
If yes: Thank you! Please let me know if at any point you want me to turn off the recorder or
keep something you said off the record.
If no: Thank you for letting me know. I will only take notes of our conversation.

122
Please know that everything in our time together will be kept confidential and no
personal information identifying you directly will be shared.
Before we begin the interview, do you have any questions? [Discuss questions] If any
questions (or other questions) arise at any point in this study, you can feel free to ask them at any
time. I would be more than happy to answer your questions.
Interview Questions Potential Probes
RQ
Addressed
Key Concept
Addressed
1. Tell me a little bit about
yourself and your
personal interest in
participating in the study.
Tell me about your
artifact. What does your
artifact share about how
you currently identify
within the LGBTQ+
spectrum and by race or
ethnicity?
• Could you tell me
what you mean by
…?
• Tell me more
about that.
1 & 2 Intersectional
identification
2. How is how you selfidentify now different
from how you selfidentified at your K-8
school?
• Would you explain
that?
• How else has your
identity evolved?
1 & 2 Intersectional
identification
3. How would you describe
your overall experience in
school as (an LGBTQ+
person of color)?
• Walk me through
the experience.
• Could you tell me
what you mean by
…?
• Who played
significant roles in
these experiences?
What role did they
play?
1
Intersectional
experience in
school
4. What school experiences
were pivotal in your selfdiscovery as (an
LGBTQ+ person of
color)?
• This is what I
think I heard you
say…Did I
understand you
correctly?
1
Intersectional
experience in
school

123
• What may have
been different for
you without those
experiences?
5. What were any positive
school experiences that
made you feel supported
as (an LGBTQ+
adolescent of color)?
• What made those
positive?
• In what ways were
they supportive?
• How did that make
you feel?
1
Intersectional
experience in
school -
supportive
6. What were any specific
challenges you faced
during school related to
your LGBTQ+ identity
and race?
• What helped you
navigate these on
your own?
• What help did you
need from others?
• How did that make
you feel?
1
Intersectional
experience in
school -
challenges
7. Describe some of your
experiences in navigating
your LGBTQ+ identity
and your racial or ethnic
identity in school?
• What helped you
navigate these on
your own?
• What help did you
need from others?
• How did that make
you feel?
1
Intersectional
experience in
school -
assets and needs
Conclusion to the Interview:
I appreciate you sharing your time and experiences openly with me. Are there other reflections
on your school experiences related to your identity as a LGBTQ+ person of color that are
important to know?
I look forward to meeting for our second interview. If you have any important reflections
on our conversation that occur until we meet for that interview, please know that I will provide
time for you to share them when we meet again.
You will not have to prepare or bring anything for the second interview. The second
interview will refer to reflection experiences at school, such as those during crew (class
meetings), following fieldwork, and for your student-led conferences and passage portfolio

124
presentation. It was will also refer to expedition work that you did in the community. I am
sharing this with you in case it helps to have time to recall those experiences since time has
passed since them.
Do you have any questions for me? Again, I look forward to continuing our conversation
in the next interview which we are scheduled to have on _______________. If you have any
questions or concerns or if you need to reschedule, please feel free to reach out to me at any
time.

125
Appendix C: Interview 2 Protocol
Research Questions:
1. What is the experience of the school environment for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
2. How do school experiences supporting critical reflection and encouraging student
agency impact the identity development of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color?
Respondent Type:
Alumni between the ages of 18 and 25 who attended a K-8 urban school in the Midwest that used
critical consciousness pedagogy elements of critical reflection and encouraging student action to
address school and community problems.
Introduction to the Interview:
I’d like to thank you once again for being willing to participate in the interview aspect of
my study. As I have mentioned to you before, my study seeks to understand the school
experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color. The study also seeks to understand their school
experiences of reflection and action related to their identity.
The aim of this research is to help provide insight on experiences in school that may
support positive identity development for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.
Our interview today will last approximately one hour during which I will be reviewing
some things we discussed last time and then go on to talk about your experiences of reflection
and action in school related to your identity as an LGBTQ+ person of color.
As a review from last time, you completed a consent form indicating that I have your
permission to record our conversation by Zoom. Are you still ok with me recording (or not) our
conversation today? ___Yes ___No

126
If yes: Thank you! Please let me know if at any point you want me to turn off the recorder or
keep something you said off the record.
If no: Thank you for letting me know. I will only take notes of our conversation.
Again, please know that everything in our time together will be kept confidential and no
personal information identifying you directly will be shared.
Before we begin the interview, do you have any questions? [Discuss questions] If any
questions (or other questions) arise at any point in this study, you can feel free to ask them at any
time. I would be more than happy to answer your questions.
Interview Questions Potential Probes
RQ
Addressed
Key Concept
Addressed
1. Since our first interview
session, having reviewed
the transcript, and hearing
the emerging themes, is
there anything you feel is
important to share?
• Could you tell me
what you mean by
…?
• Tell me more
about that.
1 & 2 Intersectional
identification
2. Describe any
opportunities you had in
school that allowed you to
reflect on your identity?
• Who or what
prompted your
reflection?
• What do you
remember seeing,
hearing, feeling?
2
Reflection in
school on
intersectional
identity
3. Describe any experiences
from school that allowed
you to reflect on
challenges due to race and
an LGBTQ+ identity?
• Which experiences
were most
influential?
• Who or what
prompted your
reflection?
• How did these
experiences make
you feel?
2
Critical
reflection in
school on
identity
4. You have shared some
school experiences
involving reflection
related to your race and
• What changed for
you?
• Tell me more
about that.
2
Impact of
reflection in
school on

127
LGBTQ+ identity. How,
if at all, have these
experiences shaped your
subsequent beliefs and
actions about your
identity in college and
beyond?
• This is what I
think I heard you
say…Did I
understand you
correctly?
identity
development
5. Tell me about any
opportunities in school
you had to take action
related to race and
LGBTQ+ identity?
• What do you
remember seeing,
hearing, doing?
• Where were you?
• Who were you
with?
• What do you
remember feeling?
2
Action in school
related to
intersectional
identity
6. You have shared some
school experiences
involving taking action
related to your race and
LGBTQ+ identity. How,
if at all, have these
experiences shaped your
subsequent beliefs and
actions about your
identity in college and
beyond?
• What changed for
you?
• Tell me more
about that.
• This is what I
think I heard you
say…Did I
understand you
correctly?
2
Impact of
actions offered
by school on
identity
development
Conclusion to the Interview:
I appreciate you sharing your time and experiences openly with me. Before we end, are there
other reflections on your school experiences related to your identity as a LGBTQ+ person of
color that are important to know?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Hostile school environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents remain a persistent challenge, with compounded marginalization experienced by LGBTQ+ adolescents of color due to the intersection of race, sexuality, and gender. Despite some progress, many schools continue to reproduce heteronormative and racially biased policies and practices, leaving LGBTQ+ adolescents of color to navigate multiple layers of harassment and exclusion. This dissertation examines the school experiences of LGBTQ+ adolescents of color, emphasizing the potential of critical consciousness pedagogy to transform schools into healing-centered spaces. Using qualitative research methods, including semi-structured interviews with alumni of a Midwest K-8 school, the study explores how critical reflection and student agency impact identity development. Findings reveal significant challenges such as societal and familial pressures, internalized stigma, and discrimination while also demonstrating the critical role schools play in affirming intersectional identities through a positive culture and critical consciousness practices. By drawing on queer crit, queer of color critique, and critical consciousness pedagogy, the research underscores how integrating reflection and action into educational frameworks can empower marginalized students, disrupt systemic oppressions, and promote both academic success and personal well-being. Recommendations focus on fostering a stronger intersectional support framework, enhancing peer support structures, and enhancing family and community engagement to complement school critical consciousness practices to create equitable, affirming, and inclusive educational spaces for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color.

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Creator Vivit, Roel N. (author)

Core Title Critical reflection and action in supportive learning environments for LGBTQ+ adolescents of color

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 01/30/2025

Defense Date 01/24/2025

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag critical consciousness,healing-centered engagement,identity development,intersectionality,LGBTQ+ adolescents of color,OAI-PMH Harvest,queer crit,queer of color,queer of color critique,resilience

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