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Follow the drinking gourd: a qualitative study on the underrepresentation of African American general and flag officers in the Department of Defense

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Content Follow the Drinking Gourd: A Qualitative Study on the Underrepresentation of African
American General and Flag Officers in the Department of Defense
by
Michael Files
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2025
Author Note
The issuance of the Executive Order “Ending Radical and Wasteful Government DEI
Programs and Preferencing” on January 20, 2025, may affect the generalizability of the study’s
findings.

ii
© Copyright by Michael Files 2025
All Rights Reserved

iii
The Committee for Michael Files certifies the approval of this Dissertation.
Anthony Maddox
Christopher Riddick
Corinne Hyde, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2025

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Abstract
African Americans are visible in the Department of Defense, but there is a lack of equitable
representation in general and flag officer ranks. This qualitative study sought to understand the
experiences of African American officers who successfully persisted in the general and flag
officer ranks. The study used Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model to understand their
career progression to general and flag officer. Nine retired African American general and flag
officer participants representing each service provided insight into the factors impacting their
persistence to general and flag officer and strategies to increase the number of African American
general and flag officers in the Department of Defense. The study drew upon interviews and
relevant documents, providing evidence-based recommendations to support African American
officers’ career progression and increase their representation amongst the general and flag officer
corps. The study addresses the lack of diversity in senior leadership, impacting decision-making
processes and perpetuating systemic racial inequalities. Mentorship and equitable access to
career development resources are vital to a successful career within the Department of Defense.
The study strongly encourages transparent reporting processes and sustained dialogue with
African American affinity groups. Policy revisions and enhanced accountability measures are
necessary to promote equity in promotion practices and improve access to opportunities. Future
research should focus on effective strategies to further the career advancement of African
American officers. Addressing the underrepresentation of African Americans within the
Department of Defense requires a multifaceted approach that acknowledges systemic barriers
and biases while promoting fairness and inclusivity.
Keywords: African American, Bronfenbrenner, Department of Defense (DoD), ecological
systems model (ESM), general and flag officer (G/FO), underrepresentation

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Dedication
To my caring and dependable parents, Jane and David Files; my understanding and sympathetic
sister and her family, Amy, Dallas, Zoe, and Alexis Pool; and my loving and supportive family,
Jessie, Sofia, and Mikaela Files.

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Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank God for giving me the strength and wisdom to
persevere.
I thank Dr. Corinne Hyde, my dissertation committee chair, for her unwavering support
and guidance. I am also grateful to Dr. Anthony Maddox and Dr. Christopher Riddick,
committee members whose insights enriched my dissertation journey.
I am indebted to Dr. Marc Pritchard, Commander, U.S. Navy (Retired); Dr. Roosevelt
Wright, Captain, U.S. Navy (Retired); Captain Jerome Davis, Supply Corps, U.S. Navy
(Retired); and Dr. Nicole Cuthbertson, Lieutenant Commander, Nurse Corps, U.S. Navy; for
their expertise and enthusiasm for the research topic.
To all Black and African American General and Flag Officers, past, present, and future,
who inspire and continue to pave the path for future generations.
I express my heartfelt thanks to the members of the Divine Nine and the National Naval
Officers Association for their invaluable participation in this journey.
I affirm that this study did not involve conflicts of interest, and I did not receive any
funding for it. I used my Post-9/11 GI Bill (Chapter 33) benefits for my doctoral coursework. If
you want to discuss this study, please email me at filesm@usc.edu.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xii
Follow the Drinking Gourd: A Qualitative Study on the Underrepresentation of African
American General and Flag Officers in the Department of Defense.............................................. 1
Context and Background of the Problem............................................................................ 1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions.................................................................. 3
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................... 3
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 4
Review of the Literature ................................................................................................................. 8
The Drinking Gourd.......................................................................................................... 10
The Tuskegee Airmen....................................................................................................... 10
Historical Context of Racial Integration in the Department of Defense........................... 11
African American Service Members in the Department of Defense ................................ 14
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model .................................................................. 16
Barriers to Promotion in the Department of Defense ....................................................... 28
Department of Defense Human Capital Strategies........................................................... 30
Gaps in the Literature........................................................................................................ 32

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Methodology for Studying Department of Defense Promotions..................................... 34
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 36
Methodology................................................................................................................................. 40
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 41
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 42
Participants........................................................................................................................ 44
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 45
Data Collection Procedures............................................................................................... 46
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 47
Credibility and Trustworthiness........................................................................................ 48
Findings ........................................................................................................................................ 51
Study Participants ............................................................................................................. 52
Research Question One Findings...................................................................................... 52
Research Question Two Findings..................................................................................... 65
Summary........................................................................................................................... 67
Recommendations......................................................................................................................... 69
Recommendation One: Family Wellness Programs......................................................... 70
Recommendation Two: Study Recommendations Implementation ................................. 71
Recommendation Three: Improve Rater Accountability Across DoD............................. 72
Recommendation Four: Guest Lecturer Program............................................................. 73
Recommendation Five: Junior Officer Mentoring Opportunities..................................... 75
Recommendation Six: Executive Coaching...................................................................... 76
Cost Benefit Analysis for Primary Recommendations..................................................... 78

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Recommendations for Future Research............................................................................ 79
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 80
References..................................................................................................................................... 84
Appendix A: Definitions............................................................................................................... 95
Appendix B: The Researcher........................................................................................................ 97
Appendix C: Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................. 99
Appendix D: Ethics..................................................................................................................... 101
Appendix E: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 103
Appendix F: University of Southern California Information Sheet............................................ 106
Appendix G: “Follow the Drinking Gourd” Career Map ........................................................... 108

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources................................................................................................................... 43
Table 2: Participant Profile Information....................................................................................... 53
Table 3: Guest Lecturer Program Assumptions............................................................................ 74
Table 4: Executive Coaching Assumptions.................................................................................. 78

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List of Figures
Figure 1: A Visualization of the ESM framework........................................................................ 17
Figure 2: “Follow the Drinking Gourd” Career Map....................................................................82

xii
List of Abbreviations
AFCOMA Air Force Cadet Officer Mentor Association
DoD Department of Defense
ESM Ecological Systems Model
G/FO General and Flag Officer
GLP Guest Lecturer Program
JOMO Junior Officer Mentoring Opportunities
NNOA National Naval Officers Association
MLDC Military Leadership Diversity Commission
OCS Officer Candidate School
ROTC Reserve Officer Training Corps
USD(P&R) Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness

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Follow the Drinking Gourd: A Qualitative Study on the Underrepresentation of African
American General and Flag Officers in the Department of Defense
General and flag officers (G/FOs) within the Department of Defense (DoD) lack
equitable African American representation. African Americans are highly visible in the DoD but
invisible within the upper echelons (Cooper, 2020). This study addresses the barriers to African
American officers persisting to G/FO ranks within the DoD. African American service members
constitute more than 17% (351,687 out of 2.07 million) of the DoD's armed forces. However,
African Americans account for 6% (96 out of 1,576) of G/FOs (Military Community
Demographics, 2022).
Context and Background of the Problem
The DoD ensures the security and stability of the United States at home and abroad. It
plays a crucial role in defending the nation against external threats, securing its borders, and
maintaining military readiness. The DoD also contributes to global stability by deterring
adversaries, supporting allies, leading efforts to combat terrorism, and providing humanitarian
aid in times of crisis. Furthermore, the DoD drives technological innovation in cybersecurity,
aerospace, and military hardware, enhancing military capabilities and having broader civilian
applications. As one of the largest employers in the United States, the DoD provides millions of
jobs and drives economic activity through its ties to the defense industry. The DoD plays a
crucial role in ensuring the security, prosperity, and well-being of the United States and its
citizens in an ever-changing global environment. Its strategic alliances enhance collective
security and encourage cooperation on mutual interests, bolstering the United States' diplomatic
standing worldwide.

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The DoD consists of the armed forces authorized under Title 10 of the United States
Code: U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Space Force. This
study does not cover the U.S. Coast Guard as it operates under a different authority, Title 14 of
the United States Code (Kapp, 2019). G/FOs refer to all officers in pay grades O-7 through O-10,
including one-star, two-star, three-star, and four-star officers (Jackson et al., 2020). General
officers are the most senior U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Space Force
officers, and flag officers are the most senior U.S. Navy officers (Kapp, 2019).
The DoD’s most influential leaders are the highest-ranking officers, who are four-star
G/FOs or O-10s. These officers occupy critical positions, such as the Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff, the chiefs of the five military branches, and the combatant commanders. One-star
G/FOs, or O-7s, are also essential leaders within the DoD. They hold various positions in large
organizations, including commanders, deputies, and critical staff. These officers are pivotal
figures and the backbone of large organizations, contributing significantly to the DoD's
operations (Kapp, 2019).
There are signs of an imbalance in the DoD representation, a problem for the impacted
population, African Americans. The current percentage of African American G/FOs does not
reflect the country's African American population of 14% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2021), even
though African Americans are overrepresented in the DoD more broadly. This highlights the
underrepresentation of African Americans in the DoD, considering historical service members
like the Tuskegee Airmen. During World War II, racial discrimination led to denying the
Tuskegee Airmen the full opportunity to participate. Still, they continued to fight to prove that
racial segregation was counterproductive and ineffective.

3
This study examined best practices for the career development of African American
officers within the DoD. The findings provide evidence-based recommendations for African
American officers’ progression to the G/FO corps. These efforts aim to build a G/FO corps that
accurately represents the diverse composition of the nation it serves (Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness [USD(P&R)], 2020).
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
This interview-based qualitative study aims to understand the barriers to African
American officers within the DoD persisting to G/FO ranks based on the lived experiences of
African American officers who have successfully persisted to such ranks. This study utilizes the
Bronfenbrenner (1979) ecological systems model (ESM) to understand the development of
individuals as they progress through the ranks, including the initial decision to pursue a career in
the armed forces. The promising practice approach examines the influence of the home and work
settings in the experiences of the African American G/FOs, allowing for an examination of the
challenges they faced in persisting to their rank and what was necessary for these individuals to
overcome them. As such, the following research questions guide the study:
• RQ1: How do African American G/FOs perceive microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
and chronosystem factors impacting their persistence to the G/FO ranks?
• RQ2: What strategies do African American G/FOs perceive could increase the number of
African American G/FOs in the DoD?
Importance of the Study
The problem of practice identified in this study is the underrepresentation of African
American officers within the DoD, persisting in G/FO ranks. Studying the lack of diversity
among high-ranking officers is crucial for distinct reasons. There are two primary reasons. First,

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a lack of diversity in leadership may restrict the effectiveness of decision-making processes.
Diverse perspectives often improve outcomes and better strategic decisions (Harrison & Klein,
2007). Second, underrepresentation can perpetuate systemic racial inequalities and hinder the
DoD’s ability to attract, retain, and develop a diverse workforce reflective of the nation it serves
(USD(P&R), 2020).
Ignoring this problem of practice could have significant consequences both within the
DoD and for the larger society. Failure to address these barriers to diversity could lead to a less
inclusive environment, potentially exacerbating racial disparities and negatively impacting
morale, retention, and overall performance (Blanche, 2021). Additionally, by not examining and
addressing the challenges faced by African American officers, the DoD may be missing the
valuable insights and contributions they can bring to the table, weakening the overall
effectiveness and readiness of the U.S. Armed Forces (USD(P&R), 2020).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Bronfenbrenner's ESM is the theoretical framework guiding this dissertation. This
framework provides a comprehensive lens for examining the development and experiences of
individuals within various systems and contexts (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Darling, 2007). The
ESM framework consists of four interconnected systems: the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and chronosystem. Each system influences an individual's development and
experiences differently (Neal & Neal, 2013).
The microsystem, the closest and most immediate layer in an individual's environment,
significantly influences African American officers and encompasses their experiences,
educational backgrounds, leadership skills, and career aspirations. Moving to the mesosystem,
the intricate web of relationships and interactions connects different microsystems. For African

5
American officers, this means the relationships between their respective military branches, units,
and peer groups. As African American officers navigate the challenges and opportunities, the
connections within the mesosystem will either serve as a catalyst or hinder their persistence
toward G/FO ranks. The exosystem, while not directly experienced, indirectly impacts African
American officers through its influence on their microsystem. Policies, initiatives, and leadership
development programs within their service branches are components of the exosystem. The
chronosystem introduces the element of time, encompassing the evolution of military policies,
societal attitudes, and the historical context.
By applying ESM to the study of barriers faced by African American officers in the DoD
as they persist to G/FO ranks, this research can generate a deeper understanding of the complex
interplay between individual and contextual factors that may contribute to the
underrepresentation of African Americans in these high-ranking positions. The ESM framework
is well-suited for examining the problem of practice, as it enables a holistic investigation of the
various social, cultural, and institutional factors that may influence the experiences of African
American officers in the DoD (Navarro & Tudge, 2022). Furthermore, the model's emphasis on
the importance of intersectionality allows me to consider how race, gender, and other social
factors intersect and impact these officers' career trajectories and experiences (Velez & Spencer,
2018). By applying ESM to this problem, the study aims to inform targeted interventions and
policies that promote diversity and inclusivity among DoD leadership, fostering a more equitable
and just institution (Spencer, 2008).
The methodology chosen for this dissertation is an interview-based qualitative study, as it
is particularly appropriate for exploring the lived experiences of African American officers who
have successfully persisted to G/FO ranks in the DoD. This methodology allows for an in-depth

6
examination of the challenges faced by these individuals and the strategies they employed to
overcome such barriers, thus providing valuable insights into the factors that may facilitate or
hinder the advancement of African American officers within the DoD (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
This qualitative study focuses on understanding the essence of a phenomenon as
experienced by individuals, emphasizing the importance of personal perspectives, beliefs, and
emotions in shaping their experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This methodology
investigates African American officers' barriers in the DoD and acknowledges individuals'
unique and complex experiences, which shape identities, contexts, and the broader social and
cultural forces surrounding them (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
This study employs non-probability purposeful sampling techniques to select participants
who are retired African American DoD G/FOs to address the research questions. This purposeful
sampling strategy ensures that the participants have firsthand experiences of the phenomenon
under investigation, providing rich and relevant data for analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Data collection methods include in-depth, semi-structured, open-ended interviews, allowing
flexibility in exploring participants' experiences and perspectives while focusing on the critical
research questions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Interview questions elicit information about the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem factors influencing participants'
persistence to G/FO ranks and their recommendations for increasing the number of African
American G/FOs in the DoD. Data analysis follows the steps outlined by Creswell and Creswell
(2018) for qualitative research, beginning with preparing the data, followed by analyzing the
data, reporting and interpreting the results that capture African American officers' barriers in the

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DoD and the factors contributing to their persistence to G/FO ranks (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
The study establishes trustworthiness by using multiple data sources, conducting member
checking, and documenting my thoughts, biases, and assumptions in a reflexive journal
throughout the research process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Triangulation involves comparing data from different participants to identify patterns and
inconsistencies, while member checking accurately represents sharing the findings with
participants to ensure experiences and perspectives (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
By employing a qualitative interview-based research approach grounded in
Bronfenbrenner's ESM, this dissertation aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of
the barriers faced by African American officers in the DoD and the factors that may facilitate or
hinder their advancement to G/FO ranks. The findings of this study have the potential to inform
targeted interventions and policies designed to promote diversity and inclusivity among DoD
leadership, fostering a more equitable and just institution that values the contributions of all its
members.

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Review of the Literature
The quest for equal opportunity and representation within the Department of Defense
(DoD) has remained a contentious and evolving issue, highlighted by ongoing discussions
around racial disparities and the promotion of African American officers. Despite implementing
desegregation policies and diversity initiatives, the DoD continues to underrepresent African
American officers, especially women, in senior leadership positions, as the literature elucidates.
This literature review synthesizes major themes from scholarly research, government reports,
and contemporary discourse to provide a comprehensive overview.
The discussion commences with examining the historical context of African Americans
in the DoD, delineating the persistent barriers since Executive Order 9981 mandated the
desegregation of the armed forces (National Archives and Records Administration [NARA],
n.d.). Various authors have scrutinized the impact of such historical directives on the progression
of African American officers through the ranks to senior positions (Hosek et al., 2001; Walker,
2020). A recurrent theme within the literature is the stark contrast between the high visibility of
African Americans in the DoD and their near invisibility at the top echelons, indicating a glass
ceiling effect (Cooper, 2020).
Research also delves into the nuances of career progression, underscoring the unique
challenges faced by African American officers, such as implicit bias and systemic barriers within
the promotion and evaluation processes (Butler, 1999; Smith III, 2010). These systemic issues
contribute to the disproportionate representation of African American officers in senior
leadership, as corroborated by statistical evidence (Kamarck, 2017). The impact of these barriers
extends beyond the individual, affecting the broader African American community and their

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family wealth generation, as only a tiny percentage of families reach a significant net worth
(Rhinehart, 2021).
Amidst the debates around diversity, equity, and inclusion policies, discussions pivot
toward color-blind approaches, which could inadvertently undermine the progress toward
diversity (Wilson & Pharms, 2022). Studies have proposed identity-based models for mentorship
to enhance career advancement opportunities, particularly for African American women who
face compounded biases and obstacles (Carter & Peters, 2016; Randel et al., 2021). However, the
literature suggests that such approaches neglect the complex socio-historical factors influencing
African American officers (Brown et al., 2023; Darda, 2018; Sisco, 2020).
Research has validated that institutional culture and role models can facilitate or impede
African American officers' rise to high-ranking positions (Delgado & Allen, 2019; Lloyd-Jones,
2011). The role of higher education in preparing African American officers for leadership
positions has also been an increasing focal point of research. Themes of mentorship and
sponsorship emerge as critical for the career development of African American officers,
highlighting the role of structured programs (e.g., Transition GPS (Goals, Plans, Success)
Program) (Bartee & Dooley, 2019).
Since 2021, initiatives and discussions around the importance of diversity in leadership
have gained traction, with various branches within the DoD focused on diversifying their officer
corps. However, progress has been slow (Myers, 2022). The discourse also encompasses the
broader societal implications of these disparities, such as the impact on civic representation and
the perpetuation of racial stereotypes (Epstein et al., 2017).
The literature review reveals that historical, structural, and cultural barriers impede the
promotion of African American officers to senior leadership positions in the DoD. These barriers

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manifest in various forms, from systemic biases in the promotion process to the lack of
mentorship. The literature calls for a multifaceted approach that addresses these issues
holistically, advocating for sustained mentorship programs, transparent promotion criteria, and a
culture that actively supports the inclusion of diverse leadership within the DoD.
The Drinking Gourd
The Drinking Gourd, referring to the Big Dipper constellation, played a significant role in
African American history. It guided enslaved people to escape to freedom through the
Underground Railroad in the 19th century. As slave lore tells it, the North Star was crucial in
helping enslaved people find their way—a beacon to true north and freedom (U.S. Department of
Interior [DoI], n.d.). The Big Dipper, with its distinctive shape, resembling a dipping ladle or
drinking gourd, served as a practical marker to locate the North Star, enabling enslaved people to
navigate their way to safety, often under the cover of darkness. Enslaved people learned celestial
wayfinding knowledge by 'reading' the night sky, which provided important clues for survival. A
popular African American folk song, Follow the Drinking Gourd, was composed decades after
the Civil War (DoI, n.d.). It is based on stories that memorialize the practical significance of
these stars. The Drinking Gourd symbolizes resilience and determination. Hopefully, this study
will provide essential clues to African American junior officers navigating their way, following
the drinking gourd, and persisting in G/FO ranks.
The Tuskegee Airmen
As a significant part of DoD’s African American history, the Tuskegee Airmen played a
critical role during a time of racial segregation and discrimination in the United States (Moye,
2010). Established in 1941, the Tuskegee Airmen were a part of a U.S. Army Air Corps
segregated training program by the Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama. Despite facing

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racial prejudice and limited opportunities for advancement, the Tuskegee Airmen aviators and
support staff persevered. They underwent rigorous training at Tuskegee Army Airfield and
served in the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group.
The Tuskegee Airmen flew combat missions during World War II, demonstrating
exceptional skill and bravery. Their success in escorting bombers and engaging enemy aircraft
earned them the nickname "Red Tails," reflecting their resilience and determination (Moye,
2010). Their achievements challenged prevailing stereotypes about African Americans' abilities
and played a pivotal role in paving the way for desegregation in the military. Recognizing their
service and contributions, the Tuskegee Airmen received the Congressional Gold Medal in 2007,
solidifying their place in history as symbols of courage, determination, and the ongoing struggle
for equality (Evans, 2020). Their exemplary performance in combat, including their success in
escorting bombers and engaging enemy aircraft, solidified their reputation as skilled and
courageous aviators, earning them widespread admiration and respect. The legacy of the
Tuskegee Airmen continues to inspire future generations.
Furthermore, despite the representation of African Americans in the field, this also
highlights the lack of African American leadership within the military. The Tuskegee Airmen
produced the first African American general officers in the Air Force. For example, Benjamin O.
Davis, Jr., the first African American general in the U.S. Air Force, was the son of Benjamin O.
Davis, Sr., the first African American general in the U.S. Army (Evans, 2020).
Historical Context of Racial Integration in the Department of Defense
Since World War II, racial integration in the DoD has progressed but still faces
challenges. The historical context of racial integration in the DoD represents a complex tapestry
of struggles, progress, policies, and milestones that reflect broader societal shifts toward

12
diversity, equity, and inclusion. The evolution of DoD policies regarding diversity has been a
critical aspect of this legacy. A solid foundation supports the efforts to establish a fair and
unbiased environment for all service members, regardless of their race, with particular emphasis
on the experiences of African American officers.
In 1948, President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9981 officially initiated the
integration of the DoD. The order mandated equal treatment and opportunity for all individuals
serving in the armed forces, regardless of race, color, religion, or national origin (NARA, n.d.). It
was a watershed moment in the DoD’s history. Though integration efforts accelerated after the
policy mandate during the Korean War due to a shortage of U.S. service members (Associated
Press [AP], 2008), the path toward integration was neither immediate nor devoid of resistance.
Over the decades, the DoD has continued to refine its approach to diversity, with policies
evolving to discourage discrimination and actively promote diversity within its ranks (U.S.
Department of Defense [DoD], n.d.). The development of these policies influences the growing
recognition of the benefits of diversity for personnel readiness and broader civil rights
movements (Cooper, 2020). These policy shifts have been instrumental in enabling the
progression of African American officers through the ranks. However, progress has been uneven
and slow, as evidenced by the data on the continued underrepresentation of African American
officers in the top echelons of DoD leadership (AP, 2008; Kamarck, 2017).
The milestones in African American service reflect and contribute to the broader
narrative of African Americans' fight for equality and respect. For instance, the valor and
performance of African American service members in World War II challenged prevailing
stereotypes and laid the groundwork for the integration order (Sherwood & Moger, n.d.).
Subsequent conflicts saw African American service members serving with distinction, gradually

13
eroding the barriers to advancement within the DoD structure (Sherwood & Moger, n.d.). The
elevation of General CQ Brown as the Air Force’s first African American service chief in 2020
represented a personal milestone and a symbolic victory for African American service members
(General Brown, 2021).
African American officers often face the additional burden of navigating an institution
marked by a historical legacy of segregation and discrimination despite the gains they have
made. The literature reflects the enduring impact of this legacy on the career trajectories of
African American officers and others who frequently confront subtle biases and institutional
barriers (Butler, 1999; Walker, 2020). Multiple case studies elucidate these experiences, such as
those focusing on African American generals (Basham, 2013) and the challenges African
American women face in leadership roles within the DoD (Carter & Peters, 2016).
Academic discourse around this topic has increasingly emphasized the need for sustained
and strategic diversity initiatives within the DoD, recognizing that representation alone does not
equate to proper integration or equality (Hosek et al., 2001; Randel et al., 2021). The literature
has also highlighted successful strategies African American service members employ to navigate
and ascend within the DoD, including mentorship, sponsorship, and developing robust
professional networks (Bartee & Dooley, 2019; Blanche, 2021).
The commitment to diversity parallels public and academic interest in the intersection of
DoD service, racial identity, and leadership development (Lloyd-Jones, 2011). In recent years,
the DoD has strengthened its commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion by creating
specialized advisory committees and implementing more thoughtful approaches to talent
management. These measures acknowledge and address the specific obstacles minority officers
face (DoD, 2022).

14
The integration of the DoD has unfolded over decades, characterized by considerable
progress against a backdrop of persistent challenges. This literature review reveals a prevailing
tension between the ideals of a meritocratic system and the realities of racial disparities.
Extensive documentation and analysis of African American service milestones, DoD’s diversity
policies evolution, and the legacy of this integration effort have provided insights into the
successes and remaining obstacles. While policies have progressively aimed at fostering
inclusivity, the enduring underrepresentation of African American officers in senior leadership
positions attests to the complexity of dismantling systemic barriers (AP, 2008; Moore, 2012).
Moreover, the literature indicates a growing consensus on the need for transparent, targeted
efforts to address these disparities and facilitate African American officers' upward mobility
(Blanche, 2021; Moore, 2012; Wilson & Pharms, 2022).
African American Service Members in the Department of Defense
In the contemporary DoD landscape, the representation of African American service
members reflects broader societal trends and a distinct tableau characterized by its unique
historical and cultural dimensions. The composition of African American service members
within the DoD presents an intricate profile, often shaped by broader societal dynamics yet
impacted by the specific contours of DoD culture and policy. An analysis of the demographics of
African American service members reveals a nuanced story that both parallels and diverges from
the U.S. demographics.
According to Sherwood and Moger (n.d.), the presence of African Americans in the U.S.
Navy, for example, has been historically significant. However, their representation, particularly
in senior officer leadership positions, should reflect the public it serves (Brook, 2020). The lack
of African Americans in leadership positions is emblematic of a broader trend across the DoD.

15
African American service members surpass their representation in the U.S. population by serving
in more significant numbers, but the upper echelons of DoD leadership underrepresent them
(Cooper, 2020).
When juxtaposed with the U.S. demographics, the data on African American service
members' representation reveals systemic inconsistencies. While African Americans comprise a
notable proportion of the DoD's total force, their presence in leadership roles does not
proportionately reflect this demographic weight (AP, 2008). This disconnect signifies a critical
area of focus as the DoD strives to mirror the nation it serves in its junior personnel and more
senior leadership.
The trends and changes over time in the representation of African American service
members underscore both progress and persistent challenges. Following Executive Order 9981,
there has been a gradual but steady increase in the enlistment and commissioning of African
American service members (NARA, n.d.). However, their ascension to the top tiers of DoD
leadership has not mirrored this rise. Studies by the Rand Corporation confirm institutional and
cultural barriers to minority and female officer promotion, suggesting institutional and cultural
barriers to promotion (Hosek et al., 2001).
Within this evolving panorama, the discourse reflects an ongoing debate about the
efficacy of diversity initiatives, the impact of mentorship and sponsorship programs, and the
structural impediments to career advancement for African American service members. For
instance, the RAND study highlighted the slower rates of promotion for African American
officers compared to their white counterparts. This observation has repeatedly surfaced in
academic and policy discussions (Hosek et al., 2001). Similarly, as explored by Bartee and

16
Dooley (2019), the career transition issues faced by African American veterans revealed that the
challenges for African American service members often extend beyond their active-duty service.
Debates within the literature often revolve around the nature and impact of diversity,
equity, and inclusion programs. Initiatives like the DoD's recent establishment of the Defense
Advisory Committee on Diversity and Inclusion (DACODAI) indicate a systematic approach to
addressing the representational discrepancies (DoD, 2022). However, the efficacy of such
programs is still under scrutiny, with questions about their capacity to dismantle long-standing
barriers and to affect meaningful change.
The synthesis of the literature on the representation of African American service
members within the DoD presents a rich tapestry of evolving dynamics, underscored by a tension
between incremental progress and enduring systemic barriers. Simultaneously, discussions about
the role of mentorship and sponsorship are prominent, as exemplified in the Randel et al. (2021)
identity-based model on sponsorship, highlighting the importance of such relationships in career
advancement opportunities for African Americans. Moreover, the unique experiences of African
American women in the DoD, as discussed by Carter and Peters (2016), add an intersectional
perspective to the conversation, emphasizing the compounded challenges African American
women face in reaching executive leadership positions. This review highlights the importance of
ongoing research, policy development, and discourse in understanding and addressing the
complexities surrounding the experiences of African American service members, both within the
DoD and the broader societal context.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model
The ecological systems model (ESM) developed by Bronfenbrenner (1979) has been
foundational in understanding human development within complex social structures, which

17
becomes particularly relevant when examining the career trajectories and experiences of African
American general and flag officers (G/FOs) in the DoD. According to Bronfenbrenner's (1979)
ESM, distinct types of environmental systems influence an individual's development, with the
model encompassing the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem. As shown in
Figure 1, each of these layers represents diverse levels of environmental interaction, from
immediate surroundings and direct interactions to broad societal and cultural influences over
time (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Figure 1
A Visualization of the ESM framework
Note. Adapted from Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory. From Simply Psychology, by
O. Guy-Evans, 2024. (https://www.simplypsychology.org/bronfenbrenner.html). In the public
domain.

18
Applying this ecological perspective to the DoD context reveals that the microsystem for
an African American G/FO might include their immediate work environment, their relationships
with peers and subordinates, and the daily operations within their unit. The mesosystem connects
two or more microsystems, highlighting the interplay between work and family environments.
The exosystem extends to settings individuals do not directly encounter but still affect them,
such as DoD policies and decisions made at the Pentagon or other high-level forums, including
broader societal attitudes, cultural norms, and ideologies around race and diversity. Lastly, the
chronosystem accounts for the dimension of time, capturing how personal and societal changes
impact the individual's development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Bronfenbrenner’s model is relevant to DoD career development, especially for African
American G/FOs. Daily experiences and interpersonal relationships can significantly affect
career progression at the microsystem level. Hosek et al. (2001) found that immediate
environmental factors and individual experiences can influence the career progression of officers
from minority and gender groups. The mesosystem, which refers to the interplay between
microsystems, such as family life and DoD obligations, can either facilitate or obstruct career
advancement.
When examining the exosystem, policies and institutional practices, which the individual
may not engage with directly, still have profound implications. For example, diversity postings
and the broader conversation around color-blind policies reveal the complex dynamics between
institutional intentions and the lived experiences of DoD personnel (Wilson & Pharms, 2022).
Furthermore, the exosystem includes societal narratives and stereotypes about race and
leadership capability, which are evident in the underrepresentation of African American women
in executive leadership (Carter & Peters, 2016).

19
The chronosystem is especially pertinent for African American G/FOs, who have served
before and after significant historical milestones, such as the desegregation of the DoD with
Executive Order 9981 (NARA, n.d.). Changes over time, including the DoD's integration and
evolving social attitudes towards race, influence career opportunities and challenges faced by
African American G/FOs. The temporal aspect also connects with the long-term effects of
mentorship and career advancement as the success strategies of African American veterans have
evolved (Bartee & Dooley, 2019).
These systemic factors relate to the lived experiences of African American G/FOs.
Analyzing the interaction between individuals and their different systems through the ESM can
provide a better understanding of the lack of diversity and transparency in the upper ranks of the
DoD, as highlighted by Cooper (2020), and the instances of racism faced by DoD personnel, as
reported by Laporta (2021).
Economic factors play a role in career choices, and the lack of generational wealth among
African American families (Rhinehart, 2021) influences African American officers’ career
sustainability in the DoD. Systemic barriers, such as the "Black Brass Ceiling" (Blanche, 2021),
manifest how broader societal and institutional factors embedded in the ESM can influence
individual career trajectories. The brass ceiling is an unwritten and uncodified barrier to
promoting women and minorities in the military (Blanche, 2021). The interplay of these systems
is also evident in the discussion of wealth building within the African American community,
which intersects with DoD career development.
Bronfenbrenner’s ESM offers a multifaceted framework for understanding the individual
development of African American G/FOs within the DoD. It encapsulates the complexity of
interactions between firsthand experiences, environmental contexts, institutional practices,

20
societal attitudes, and historical periods. This conceptual approach underscores the importance of
considering multiple levels of influence when addressing the unique challenges and opportunities
associated with career development for African American G/FOs, advocating for a nuanced
appreciation of their career trajectories within the DoD's ecological systems.
Microsystem Factors
The microsystem factors influencing career progression in the DoD are multifaceted and
deeply ingrained within personal, social, and organizational contexts. Extensive documentation
exists on how family influences and early education shape career trajectories (Rouse, 2019).
According to Rouse (2019), studies have indicated that family background, particularly in
African American communities, is pivotal in shaping individuals' educational and career
aspirations. Furthermore, Rouse (2019) emphasizes that the formative years are crucial, as they
set the groundwork for later professional success or failure. The role of early education is equally
significant, with disparities in educational opportunities often reflecting broader societal
inequities (American Psychological Association [APA], 2012). These disparities can create
hurdles that persist into adulthood, potentially impacting the progression of careers within
structured institutions like the DoD.
Mentorship and peer support within the DoD represent another critical microsystem
factor. Research has shown that mentorship can facilitate career progression, particularly for
underrepresented groups. The presence of mentors and peers who provide support and guidance
is essential for navigating the complexities of career paths (Randel et al., 2021). Mentorship
often extends beyond professional advice, encompassing emotional support and assistance in
overcoming systemic barriers. For African American personnel, having mentors who understand
and can navigate racial dynamics within the DoD is especially valuable (Walker, 2020).

21
Balancing the impact of leadership and unit culture is crucial. Leaders set the tone for
inclusivity and professional growth within their units. A unit's culture, often a reflection of its
leadership, significantly influences its members' daily experiences and career advancement
opportunities. A positive unit culture that values diversity and provides equitable promotion
opportunities can positively affect African American officers' career progression (Cooper, 2020).
Conversely, a unit culture that perpetuates discrimination, whether overtly or through
unconscious biases, can severely limit opportunities for African American officers (Brook, 2020;
Sisco, 2020; Walker, 2020).
Literature also indicates that the interplay between these microsystem factors is complex.
The quality of mentorship and peer support can amplify or hinder a family's supportive role
within the DoD (Bartee & Dooley, 2019). Similarly, the impact of a supportive unit culture may
diminish if mentorship opportunities are lacking or if early education does not equip individuals
with the necessary tools for success (Hosek et al., 2001). Each factor does not operate in
isolation but interacts with others to shape career outcomes.
Despite the barriers, there have been notable strides in leadership diversity within the
DoD, reflecting broader societal changes and increased attention to diversity and inclusion
(General Brown, 2021). Efforts to improve unit culture and increase mentorship opportunities
have begun to address the unique challenges African American officers face. However, progress
is uneven, and work remains (DoD, 2022).
The microsystem factors of family influence, early education, mentorship, peer support,
direct leadership, and unit culture are interrelated and critical in influencing the career
progression of African American personnel. The existing literature underscores the importance
of addressing these factors to create an environment conducive to all DoD members' professional

22
growth and success. The challenge for DoD leadership and policymakers is to make systemic
changes that recognize and enhance the positive aspects of these microsystem factors while
mitigating the barriers they can present.
Mesosystem Interactions
The mesosystem, a concept from Bronfenbrenner's ESM, refers to the interrelations
among different microsystems in a person's environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In the context
of career promotion for African American officers, the mesosystemic interactions—specifically
the interplay between home and work environments, the influence of community and social
networks, and the role of professional organizations—are pivotal in understanding the
complexities of their professional trajectories.
The interplay between home and work environments is a significant factor in career
progression. For African American officers, this interplay often involves navigating dual
expectations and cultural dynamics that can either impede or enhance their career paths. Studies
have shown that supportive home environments can positively impact job satisfaction and career
advancement, creating a buffer against the stresses of work (Basham, 2013; Nelson, 2015).
However, African American officers also face unique stressors related to racial discrimination
and cultural misunderstandings both within the home and work domains, potentially leading to a
conflict between professional identity and personal cultural background (Carter & Peters, 2016;
Rouse, 2019).
Community and social networks are vital in shaping career opportunities and
advancement. For African American officers, networks and community ties can provide critical
resources and support that are otherwise inaccessible. Through formal or informal networks,
access to social capital influences career mobility and the ability to navigate institutional

23
structures (Bartee & Dooley, 2019). The studies underscore the importance of these networks in
examining the disproportionate representation of African Americans in high-ranking DoD
positions, suggesting that limited access to White networks may hinder career progression (AP,
2008; Hosek et al., 2001).
Professional organizations can catalyze change, promoting policies and practices that
facilitate the ascension of African Americans to leadership roles within the DoD (Basham, 2013;
Blanche, 2021). Organizations such as the U.S. Air Force Cadet Officer Mentor Association
(AFCOMA) (U.S. Air Force and U.S. Space Force centric), National Naval Officers Association
(NNOA) (U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Navy centric), and the ROCKS, Inc.
(U.S. Army centric) are instrumental in the career promotion of African American officers by
providing mentorship, networking opportunities, and advocacy. Military units engage in
discussions around diversity and inclusion, recognizing the need for representation and
dismantling barriers minority officers face (General Brown, 2021).
The existing discourse highlights ongoing debates around the best practices for fostering
an inclusive environment that recognizes the unique challenges faced by African American
officers. The literature synthesis revealed three themes: the persistence of systemic barriers that
affect home and work dynamics, the critical role of community and social networks in providing
support and access to opportunities, and the influence of professional organizations in advocating
for and enabling career promotion. These themes are not mutually exclusive but interwoven into
the mesosystem's fabric affecting African American officers.
Advocates of a color-blind approach argue that it promotes meritocracy (Wilson &
Pharms, 2022). Others critique this stance, emphasizing that it fails to address the systemic
inequities within the DoD (Cooper, 2020). Trends in the literature suggest a gradual

24
acknowledgment of the intersectionality of race, gender, and DoD culture (Carter & Peters,
2016), as seen in the increasing attention to the experiences of African American female officers.
These discussions are not academic; they reflect a broader societal movement towards greater
inclusivity and dismantling the "Black Brass Ceiling" within the DoD (Blanche, 2021).
The literature review underscores the need for continuous engagement with the
mesosystemic factors influencing the career promotion of African American officers. It reveals
the complex interdependencies among personal, social, and organizational systems and the
importance of multifaceted strategies to address disparities in career progression within the DoD.
As the discourse evolves, there is a clear mandate for ongoing research, policy development, and
action to foster environments where the interplay of diverse systems supports, rather than
hinders, the professional growth of African American officers.
Exosystem Variables
Navigating a successful career requires strategic planning and overcoming obstacles to
shape its trajectory. The dynamics that influence DoD careers are a constellation of exosystem
variables, which are often outside the control of the individual African American officer. These
factors can have a profound impact and need active management.
Educational and career development programs are critical scaffolding in designing DoD
career progression. Such programs are pivotal for African American service members who often
confront systemic barriers in their professional ascent (Bartee & Dooley, 2019). Despite the
potential for these programs to function as equalizers, the underlying inequities, as illuminated
by the APA (2012), suggest that disparities in educational opportunities continue to manifest in
the DoD context, echoing broader societal trends.

25
Policy decisions possess the inertia to significantly alter the landscape of DoD careers.
Kamarck (2017) illustrates the foundational role of policy in determining the composition and
structure of DoD leadership. Higher-level decisions affect the working environment of African
American officers in the context of racial disparities. Cooper (2020) suggests these policies
promote diversity, equity, and inclusion but must revise their efficacy and accelerate change.
Media representation and public perception collectively weave a narrative that can bolster
or undermine the stature of African American officers. The media plays a dual role in shaping
these perceptions. Simultaneously, the media can highlight successes and foster a positive image
(General Brown, 2021), perpetuate stereotypes, and reinforce biases (Cooper, 2020). Moreover,
the media's focus on racial disparities, as observed by Rhinehart (2021), further entrenches the
public perception of African American officers within the DoD.
The synthesis of these themes from the literature suggests an ongoing tension between
the structural support systems in place to foster career development and the lived reality of
African American officers. Although educational programs and policies support career
progression, they often need to address the nuanced challenges that African Americans face in
the DoD during their implementation. Media representation wields immense power to shape
public and self-perceptions of service members.
This complex interplay of educational opportunities, policy frameworks, and media
narratives creates an ecosystem within which African American officers must navigate their
careers. As they do so, they often pioneer previously less-trodden paths, breaking through
barriers and ceilings that institutional practices and societal attitudes have historically imposed.
The literature thus points to cautious optimism, recognizing the strides made in diversifying the

26
DoD's leadership while acknowledging the persistent undercurrents of racial inequality that
continue to challenge the notion of meritocracy within the armed forces.
While educational and career development programs, policy decisions, and media
representation form critical aspects of the exosystem that impact DoD careers, the literature
indicates that the confluence of these factors creates a nuanced and often challenging landscape
for African American officers. This review underscores the importance of a multifaceted
approach in addressing the complexities of race and representation within DoD career
development, with an understanding that change is both an evolutionary and a revolutionary
process within the DoD.
Chronosystem Influences
Historically, the integration of the DoD, mandated by Executive Order 9981 in 1948,
represented a significant sociocultural shift in DoD and civilian society (NARA, n.d.). However,
the legacy of segregation and the slow pace of integration impacted the career progression of
African American officers, as noted by Cooper (2020) and the persistent underrepresentation
highlighted in the G/FO ranks (Kamarck, 2017). This historical context sets the stage for
understanding the present-day experiences of African American officers in the DoD. The
literature reveals a complex interplay between broader sociocultural attitudes, historical events,
and changing demographics that shape and influence career opportunities for African American
officers in the context of chronosystem influence.
The broader sociocultural attitudes towards race and diversity in the DoD have evolved,
and civil rights movements have influenced the changing societal values. For instance, General
Brown (2021) discusses current efforts to address diversity, equity, and inclusion, signaling a
shift in official attitudes towards a more inclusive DoD culture. Nevertheless, as Carter and

27
Peters (2016) note, there remain significant barriers to executive leadership for African
American women, indicating that sociocultural attitudes still lag behind policy changes.
It is essential to consider how historical events have affected career opportunities.
Delmont (2022) and Lawrence (2022) illustrate how the systematic denial of benefits to African
American World War II veterans hindered their socioeconomic advancement and, as a result,
limited the career opportunities available to them and their descendants. The perpetuation of this
historical disadvantage through generations is evident in the low percentage of African American
families with significant net worth that could have otherwise funded higher education or career
development opportunities (Rhinehart, 2021).
The RAND Corporation study by Hosek et al. (2001) points out minority and gender
differences in officer career progression, emphasizing how demographic changes necessitate
ongoing adaptations in DoD structures and policies to ensure equity in career promotion.
Sociocultural attitudes and demographics interact in complex ways, as the African American
population within the DoD has historically been overrepresented in the enlisted ranks but
underrepresented in the senior officer ranks (AP, 2008; Cooper, 2020). This disparity points to
historically providing limited access to the social capital necessary for career advancement.
Changing demographics over time have also played a crucial role in shaping career
opportunities for African Americans in the DoD. Despite these challenges, there have been
positive trends in developing academic and public discourse around these issues. Blanche (2021)
and Moore (2012) highlighted African American officers' successful strategies. Their studies
suggest that targeted strategies and support systems can overcome barriers. Additionally, Bartee
and Dooley (2019) discussed practical approaches such as the Transition GPS (Goals, Plans,
Success) Program, which facilitates the career transition of African American veterans.

28
Although policy and awareness have made progress, broader sociocultural attitudes,
historical events, and demographic changes still shape the lived experiences of African American
officers, as suggested by the literature. Affirmative action policies, such as the U.S. Navy
Affirmative Action Plan (Sherwood & Moger, n.d.) and the focus on mentorship for career
advancement by Randel et al. (2021), illustrate the evolving discussion on overcoming systemic
obstacles in the DoD and beyond. These academic discussions find their place in public forums
and policy debates, indicating a society grappling with how best to achieve genuine equity in
career opportunities. This dynamic and complex interplay presents challenges and opportunities
for African American officers in their career trajectories, with implications for policy-making,
DoD culture, and societal attitudes towards race and diversity.
Barriers to Promotion in the Department of Defense
Systemic challenges within the DoD structure are foundational to the understanding of
the limitations faced by minority officers. The barriers to the promotion of minority service
members to G/FO ranks within the DoD are multifaceted and deeply entrenched in the systemic,
organizational, and psychological constructs of DoD culture. The interplay of systemic
challenges, organizational biases, and the psychological impacts of perceived brass ceilings
creates a complex landscape that hinders career progression for these individuals.
According to Kamarck (2017), rigid rules and traditions historically favored the majority
population in the DoD, an institution with a legacy of hierarchical and structured pathways. This
rigidness in the system is a barrier to change and the incorporation of diversity within the ranks.
The historical underrepresentation of minorities in the armed services reflects not only social
structures but also the systemic inequities that persist despite the desegregation of the armed
forces with Executive Order 9981 (NARA, n.d.).

29
The lack of minority representation in senior leadership roles perpetuates a cycle where
upcoming minority officers lack role models and sponsors, which are crucial for career
promotion (Cooper, 2020). Organizational biases manifest from overt discrimination to
unconscious biases that shape decisions on promotions and assignments. Within the DoD, these
biases may arise from stereotypical perceptions of capability and leadership potential, often
disadvantageous to minority service members (Hosek et al., 2001). Randel et al. (2021) observed
that White officers have disproportionately greater access to mentorship, sponsorship, and
networking opportunities, indicating the presence of implicit biases.
The DoD must recognize the psychological impacts of the perceived brass ceiling. The
concept of a brass ceiling, where minorities can see the next level of advancement but cannot
seem to reach it, creates a demoralizing effect, impacting motivation, and the perceived value of
effort (Carter & Peters, 2016). The feedback paradox worsens the perceived brass ceiling for
minority officers. Despite their high performance, they receive less meaningful feedback or
recognition, which is crucial for their career progression (Buckingham & Goodall, 2019). The
psychological strain of navigating a career within such a constrained environment can have
profound effects on the mental health and well-being of minority officers, potentially leading to
attrition or the decision not to pursue promotion (APA, 2012).
The brass ceiling for minority officers is not solely a psychological barrier, as real-world
experiences reinforce the inequality. For instance, the underrepresentation of African American
women in executive leadership within the DoD echelons is a tangible reflection of their
challenges, from systemic exclusion to organizational biases (Carter & Peters, 2016; Delgado &
Allen, 2019). Like their civilian counterparts, African American officers often bear the burden of

30
proving their worth beyond their peers to ascend the ranks, as elucidated by Basham (2013) and
Walker (2020).
In addressing these barriers, it is critical to consider the DoD's commitment to diversity,
equity, and inclusion as a social justice imperative and a strategic one. The lack of diversity
within the high brass compromises the richness of perspectives necessary for complex problemsolving and decision-making in a global context (Chivvis & Lauji, 2022). The DoD's efforts to
achieve diversity goals reveal institutional recognition of existing barriers, but their slow pace of
change suggests deep-rooted challenges.
As the literature reveals, to create pathways for the promotion of minority officers, the
DoD must confront these systemic, organizational, and psychological barriers head-on. Facing
these barriers involves a concerted effort to reform the very fabric of DoD culture, to question
and revise the traditional criteria for leadership, and to invest in the development and visibility of
minority officers. Only through such transformative efforts can the DoD achieve a leadership
cadre that genuinely represents the diversity of the nation it serves.
Department of Defense Human Capital Strategies
The literature provides extensive insights into the recruitment, development, and
retention strategies of minority officers within the DoD and comparable institutions. The need
for robust recruitment programs that enhance diversity is well-documented. The U.S. Air Force
Public Affairs Agency highlights initiatives such as the U.S. Air Force’s Chief of Staff, which
discusses diversity, equity, and inclusion, underscoring efforts to promote representation within
the U.S. Air Force (General Brown, 2021). Bartee and Dooley (2019) and Rouse (2019)
highlight the specific challenges faced by African American officers and veterans, indicating that
addressing unique barriers requires targeted efforts.

31
Development programs are equally crucial for retention and career progression. For
instance, Blanche (2021) explored the success strategies of African American female leaders in
the DoD, suggesting that leadership development programs tailored to this group's specific needs
could be beneficial. Basham (2013) further supports this by examining African American
generals' motivation and success strategies, implying that understanding these strategies could
inform development programs.
Comparative analysis reveals that the DoD's approach to minority officer progression
shares similarities and differences with other institutions and countries. The RAND
Corporation's study by Hosek et al. (2001) comprehensively examined minority and gender
differences in officer career progression, suggesting that barriers are consistent across nations
and institutional types. For example, the challenges highlighted in the work of Carter and Peters
(2016) about the underrepresentation of African American women in executive leadership extend
beyond the DoD context, indicating systemic issues that pervade multiple sectors.
These analyses provide the basis for drawing recommendations for policy and
programmatic interventions. Kamarck (2017) and Kapp's (2019) analysis of G/FOs and diversity
in the armed services offer structural insights that could inform policy revisions. Additionally, in
their 2021 study, Randel et al. proposed an identity-based model to enhance career advancement
opportunities for African American officers through sponsorship, which the DoD can more
effectively implement.
Intervention debates often hinge on the effectiveness of diversity training and the
implementation of policies that prevent discrimination. Wilson and Pharms’s (2022) critique of
color-blind policies highlighted the need to critically evaluate interventions for their potential
unintended consequences. Moreover, Butler (1999) and Smith III (2010) addressed the systemic

32
factors contributing to the failure of African American officers, pointing to the need for
comprehensive policy reforms that address the root causes of underrepresentation.
The DoD has committed to diversity, equity, and inclusion, as reflected in establishing
the DACODAI (DoD, 2022). However, as Cooper (2020) indicates, the visibility of African
Americans in the DoD does not translate to their representation at the top levels. This disconnect
suggests that DoD must reevaluate its retention strategies to ensure that they not only bring
diverse individuals into the fold but also support their ascension to leadership positions.
Overall, the literature suggests that successful programs within and outside the DoD have
incorporated intentional recruitment strategies, development and mentoring programs, and a
critical evaluation of policy interventions. While there has been progress, the comparatively slow
pace of change, as reflected in the limited fulfillment of the Pentagon's diversity goals (Myers,
2022), indicates significant room for improvement. Continuous research and policy reform are
essential to deeply ingrain diversity, inclusion, and equal opportunity in the structural framework
of institutions like the DoD. Reforms will help institutions address emerging themes, debates,
and trends in this area and uphold these crucial values.
Gaps in the Literature
The DoD needs African American officers in top leadership positions, indicating a need
for further research into this demographic's unique experiences and obstacles. The current
literature demonstrates a pressing need to address the underlying factors contributing to the
underrepresentation of African American officers in the DoD. Existing research has yet to fully
explore the complexities of career progression for African American officers or the systemic
issues that may inhibit their ascension (Butler, 1999; Hosek et al., 2001). This gap is a
multifaceted challenge, influenced by historical, structural, and cultural barriers that have

33
sustained an environment where diversity at the highest ranks remains an aspiration rather than a
reality.
African American officers' journey and professional development require more
comprehensive analysis, moving beyond mere statistical representation to delve into the
qualitative aspects of their career experiences (Basham, 2013; Blanche, 2021). The potential for
future studies lies in exploring the intersectionality of race, rank, and role within the DoD. There
is a significant opportunity to examine how the intersection of these identities affects career
progression and the role of mentorship and sponsorship in the career promotion of African
American officers (Randel et al., 2021). Such research could inform the development of targeted
interventions and programs, like the Transition GPS (Goals, Plans, Success) Program,
highlighting its potential to facilitate successful career transitions for African American veterans
(Bartee & Dooley, 2019).
The implications for policy and practice are profound. Current diversity, equity, and
inclusion initiatives could be reevaluated and enhanced based on empirical evidence from new
research areas. Research can involve analyzing and comparing the methods used by various
minority groups (e.g., Asian Pacific Islanders, Hispanics, and Native Americans) in the DoD to
overcome obstacles and achieve success. This analysis may identify common barriers and best
practices for collective action (Carter & Peters, 2016; Delgado & Allen, 2019). Insights from
these studies could lead to a more nuanced understanding of the cultural and institutional
changes required to foster an inclusive leadership culture within the DoD. One viable way to
ensure fair promotion practices for African American officers within the DoD would be to
examine and modify feedback and assessment procedures to eliminate biases (Nelson, 2015;
Nicol & Macfarlane‐Dick, 2006).

34
According to Lloyd-Jones (2011) and Walker (2020), policies that obstruct African
American officers from navigating professional norms, such as mentorship and professional
development opportunities, require examination and reform. Understanding the financial barriers
to entry and the disparities in economic capital among African American families may also lead
to more equitable recruitment and retention policies (Rouse, 2019). Additionally, financial
barriers might include developing targeted financial assistance programs or career incentive
structures that acknowledge and mitigate these economic disparities.
The DoD's cultural and institutional norms require scrutiny, including the unofficial but
influential 'rules of the game' that guide career progression (Dorsey, 2022; Rouse, 2019). The
recent establishment of the DACODAI reflects a step toward addressing these issues at a policy
level (DoD, 2022). It is essential to closely monitor the effectiveness of such committees to
ensure they have the power to enact meaningful change rather than just being symbolic.
While existing literature provides a foundation, significant gaps remain. A focused
research agenda that emphasizes qualitative insights, developing targeted interventions, and reexamining existing policies is essential. Future studies should provide a robust evidence base to
inform practices that acknowledge the unique challenges faced by African American officers and
actively work towards dismantling the barriers to their promotion within the DoD. This research
could contribute to a more diverse DoD leadership, promoting inclusivity, effectiveness, and
equity.
Methodology for Studying Department of Defense Promotions
Various research designs mark the study of DoD promotion, particularly in the context of
underrepresented groups like African American officers. Existing literature has employed
qualitative methodologies, such as case studies and ethnographic approaches, to gain a deep

35
understanding of individual experiences and institutional cultures (Basham, 2008; Blanche,
2021). Hosek et al. (2001) found that people widely use statistical analysis to identify trends in
career progression and promotions. Mixed-methods research, combining qualitative and
quantitative approaches, has been remarkably insightful for triangulating data and providing a
comprehensive view of the multifaceted challenges faced by African American personnel
(Torres et al., 2010).
Despite these methodological advances, research on DoD promotion confronts significant
challenges and limitations. One primary concern is the availability and access to detailed,
longitudinal data necessary for tracking career trajectories over time. Such restrictions can
impede the ability to draw robust conclusions about the impact of race on career outcomes
(Hosek et al., 2001). Additionally, studies often face the difficulty of isolating race as a factor
due to the intersectionality of identity, where race, gender, and other social categories intertwine
to influence one's career (Carter & Peters, 2016). This study relies on self-reported data;
inaccuracies and biases may exist (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Acknowledging the challenges of race-related DoD career promotions and designing a
research approach sensitive to the topic's nuances is essential. A longitudinal research design,
though resource-intensive, could provide valuable insights into the progression of African
American officers over time. Ensuring a representative sample and accounting for the
intersectionality of identities will also be critical (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Leiba, 2022). It is
essential to incorporate robust controls for confounding variables to discern the specific impact
of race on other career promotion factors. Furthermore, employing mixed methods can enhance
the study's richness and validity, allowing for a nuanced exploration of both quantitative trends
and the qualitative experiences of individuals (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).

36
The proposed methodology must address the sensitive nature of discussing race and
discrimination, ensuring that research practices do not reinforce racial biases or stereotypes.
Ethical considerations must guide the research design, especially when managing sensitive
personal information and experiences related to racial identity and discrimination (APA, 2017).
Comprehensive, multi-source data collection can mitigate the limitations of self-reported
data, incorporating official DoD records, third-party reports, and in-depth interviews with
African American officers (Basham, 2013). Additionally, to combat potential biases in the
interpretation of data, it would be beneficial to involve researchers from diverse backgrounds and
to incorporate reflexivity practices throughout the research process (Lloyd-Jones, 2011).
The study of DoD promotion, particularly among African American officers, has
evolved, employing a range of research designs and facing various methodological challenges.
This study must adopt a methodological approach sensitive to race and identity, grounded in
ethical research practices, and contribute to the existing literature. The synthesis of quantitative
data with qualitative insights will provide a richer, more accurate portrayal of the career
trajectories of African American officers, contributing to the ongoing discourse surrounding
diversity, equity, and inclusion within the DoD.
Conclusion
The study of African American promotion in the DoD has unraveled its complexity. The
subject's multifaceted nature has revealed patterns, challenges, and the influence of structural and
individual factors on the career progression of African American officers. The intersection of
race, organizational culture, leadership, and policy has emerged as a critical locus for
understanding the persistence of disparities in the DoD's upper echelons.

37
Research into the racial disparities in the DoD echelons indicates a persistent
underrepresentation of African Americans in senior leadership positions (Cooper, 2020). Despite
the DoD's efforts toward diversity, equity, and inclusion, as Brook (2020) articulated, the top
brass still needs to adequately reflect the racial demographics of the United States and its enlisted
ranks. This disparity is not merely a result of current practices but the legacy of a historical
pattern of exclusion and marginalization that has continued despite formal desegregation policies
codified by Executive Order 9981 (NARA, n.d.).
The ESM proposed by Bronfenbrenner (1979) underscores the importance of the multiple
environmental systems that influence individual behavior and outcomes. This perspective aligns
with findings from assorted studies (e.g., Delgado & Allen, 2019; Hosek et al., 2001) that
suggest the DoD's environment, policies, and culture collectively impact the career trajectories of
African American officers. Within this context, mentorship and sponsorship highlight vital
components for career promotion (Randel et al., 2021), yet for African American officers, lack of
representation in the higher ranks limits access to these forms of support.
The "Black Brass Ceiling" (Blanche, 2021) refers to the discriminatory barriers faced by
African American officers, both overt and covert. While inspiring, narratives of individual
success and resilience, such as those of African American G/FOs (Basham, 2013; Gaines-Bryant,
2023), also highlight the exceptionality required of African American officers to break through
the barriers to promotion. This exceptionality often comes with an added burden, as African
American officers must navigate not only the standard challenges of service within the DoD but
also the complexities of racial dynamics (Walker, 2020).
Despite the DoD's commitment to meritocracy and equal opportunity, studies show that
subjective factors and biases continue to influence evaluations and promotions, sometimes under

38
the guise of cultural fit or leadership style, which can disproportionately disadvantage African
American service members (Basham, 2013). The financial implications of career progression, or
the lack thereof, are also notable. With African American families significantly less likely to
have a substantial net worth (Rhinehart, 2021), the financial benefits associated with graduating
from college, commissioning as an officer, and persisting to senior officer ranks within the DoD
add significance for African American officers potentially affecting generational wealth
throughout their careers (Christian, 2022).
Nelson (2015) recognizes that formal education and targeted training programs are
crucial in promoting diversity in leadership. However, the representation of African Americans
in these programs only sometimes translates to equitable outcomes. A range of factors, including
discriminatory practices, social networks, and biased assessment tools, contribute to the
underrepresentation of African Americans in senior leadership roles (Butler, 1999; Carter &
Peters, 2016).
The academic discourse around feedback and performance assessment (Buckingham &
Goodall, 2019; Kluger & DeNisi, 1998) is particularly relevant when considering the career
progression of African American officers. Critiques of color-blind policies have emerged,
suggesting that such approaches, rather than advancing diversity, may inadvertently perpetuate
disparities (Wilson & Pharms, 2022). The DoD's reliance on formal evaluations for promotion
means that biases in feedback can have significant impacts on the careers of minority officers,
not just African American officers. This debate aligns with the broader discourse on the
effectiveness of diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives and their implementation within the
DoD. Some DoD leaders acknowledge that targeted interventions will improve systemic
inequities (AP, 2008).

39
The evolution of the discourse reflects an increasing awareness of the systemic nature of
the barriers faced by African American officers and the need for multifaceted interventions. In
synthesizing the various strands of literature, it becomes evident that while policies and
structures are critical, they must accompany a cultural shift that embraces diversity not merely as
a metric but as a value. The discussions highlight the importance of mentorship, the need for
bias-free assessment, the impact of informal networks, and the critical role of leadership in
fostering a culture that actively promotes diversity and inclusion (Leiba, 2022; Lloyd-Jones,
2011). The debates surrounding diversity in the DoD, which involve calls for both structural
reform and a reevaluation of the DoD's cultural norms (Nelson, 2015; Blanche, 2021; Dorsey,
2022), underscore the need for a comprehensive approach to dismantling the "Black Brass
Ceiling."

40
Methodology
This study employed an interview-based qualitative study design to explore the lived
experiences and the barriers of African American general and flag officers (G/FOs). The
qualitative approach supports the participants' experiences and the contextual factors that
influenced their progression through the Department of Defense (DoD) hierarchy (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). A qualitative study research design is well-suited for this study because it
describes the essence of the phenomenon under investigation by focusing on the individual's
subjective experiences and perceptions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
I used semi-structured open-ended interviews as this study's primary data collection
method to gather rich, in-depth data. I interviewed African American G/FOs, which ensured that
the participants sampling had firsthand experience of the phenomenon under investigation
(Palinkas et al., 2015). Semi-structured open-ended interviews allowed flexibility and
adaptability during the data collection process, enabling me to probe further into specific areas of
interest and facilitating a more nuanced understanding of the participants' experiences (DiCiccoBloom & Crabtree, 2006).
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems model (ESM) informed the study's methodological
design. It served as the conceptual framework for examining influencing factors, the participants'
career trajectories, and their experiences with barriers to diversity (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This
study identified and analyzed the complex interplay of individual, interpersonal, and systemic
factors contributing to African American officers' underrepresentation in senior positions using
Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical lens.
This qualitative study employed a well-suited methodological design to address the
research questions and the broader aim of understanding African American officers' barriers to

41
persisting to G/FO ranks in the DoD. Through semi-structured open-ended interviews and
applying Bronfenbrenner's ESM, the study sought to contribute valuable insights to the literature
on diversity, equity, and inclusion within the DoD.
Research Setting
This interview-based qualitative study examined the experiences of African American
G/FOs in the DoD across various contexts throughout their careers. This study focused on the
participants' experiences; thus, the research setting is not specific to a particular location or
environment. Instead, the study explored various settings that have shaped the participants'
careers, such as personal and professional relationships, mentors, and societal and organizational
norms throughout their service.
The DoD is a large and complex organization with its mission to deter war and ensure the
United States’ security. One of the largest employers in the world, employing over 2.8 million
employees (including civilian and service members), and specifically, over 2 million active-duty,
reserve, and National Guard service members and comprising five branches: the U.S. Air Force,
U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Space Force (U.S. Department of Defense
[DoD], 2022). Each of the five branches has its unique culture, policies, and practices related to
career progression and leadership development. The demographic profile of the DoD reveals that
African Americans constitute approximately 19% of the total enlisted force and 9% of the total
officer corps (Military Community Demographics, 2022). However, African Americans remain
underrepresented in the G/FO ranks, a crucial concern addressed in this study.
The choice of this broad research setting reflects the need to understand the diverse and
intersecting factors that impacted African American officers' career trajectories in the DoD. The
study addressed the research questions by examining multiple contexts and settings and explored

42
the complex interplay of microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem factors within
Bronfenbrenner's ESM.
The study involves nine African American officers who successfully persisted to G/FO
ranks (O-7 to O-10) in the DoD. Their inclusion in the study is based on the research questions
that aimed to understand the barriers and facilitators to career advancement for African
American officers in the DoD and to identify strategies for increasing the representation of this
group in the highest leadership positions. The participants' diverse experiences and perspectives
provided valuable insights into their challenges and the factors contributing to their persistence
and success in G/FO ranks.
Data Sources
Table 1 highlights this study's data sources: Interviews and Relevant Documents. In this
interview-based qualitative study, the primary data source is the in-depth interviews conducted
with African American officers who successfully persisted to G/FO ranks within the DoD. The
secondary data sources are relevant documents, reports, and publications. Multiple data sources
help ensure the trustworthiness and credibility of the study by allowing for data triangulation
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Comparing the primary data obtained from the interviews with the
secondary data from documents and literature helped identify patterns, corroborate findings, and
uncover discrepancies and contradictions that warrant further investigation.
I employed a systematic data organization and storage approach to collect and manage
these data sources. Field notes and relevant documents were in digital format to protect the
confidentiality of participants’ interview transcripts. Coding facilitated the analysis and
interpretation of data, ensuring the findings were based on participant experiences and the study's
Bronfenbrenner’s ESM. By combining primary and secondary data sources, this study provides a

43
comprehensive understanding of the barriers to diversity among G/FOs in the DoD. It offers
valuable insights into the factors and strategies that enabled African American officers to persist
in these ranks.
Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Interviews Relevant
documents
RQ1: How do the perceptions of microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and chronosystem factors impact the persistence of
African American officers in advancing to G/FO ranks?
X X
RQ2: What strategies do African American G/FOs perceive could
increase the number of African American G/FOs in the DoD? X X
Method 1: Interviews
Interviews provided rich and detailed accounts of the participants' lived experiences,
allowing for an exploration of the barriers they faced and the strategies they employed to
overcome them. Furthermore, the interviews examined the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and chronosystem factors influencing their persistence and advancement in the DoD
hierarchy.
Method 2: Relevant Documents
In addition to the interviews, the study drew upon secondary data sources, such as
relevant documents, reports, and publications, to provide context and support for the findings.
For example, I used official DoD policies, guidelines, and demographic reports to understand
better the organizational context in which they pursued their careers. Similarly, scholarly

44
literature on diversity and inclusion within the DoD offered insights into the broader trends and
issues that shaped the experiences of the study's participants.
Participants
The target population for this interview-based qualitative study consisted of retired
African American G/FOs who served within the DoD. To ensure a rich and diverse
representation of experiences, the study employed purposeful sampling, specifically nonprobability purposeful sampling, to select participants who met the predefined criteria relevant to
the research questions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Patton, 2014). In the case of this study, the
criteria for inclusion as a participant follows:
1. Self-identification as Black or African American.
2. A retired U.S. G/FO (O-7 to O-10) in the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine
Corps, U.S. Navy, or U.S. Space Force.
3. Willingness to share their experiences and insights related to their career in the armed
forces, barriers to advancement, and factors that contributed to their persistence to
G/FO ranks.
Given qualitative research's exploratory and in-depth nature, I obtained an informationrich sample that provided valuable insights into the phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2014). I
recruited nine participants and ensured the representation of each service branch. The sample
size was within the limits of an interview-based qualitative study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Recruitment for the study involved a multi-pronged strategy to identify and engage
potential participants. This strategy included contacting relevant professional organizations and
networks, leveraging my personal and professional contacts within the DoD, and using social
media platforms and online forums to reach out to eligible retired African American G/FOs.

45
Before participating in the study, I provided an information sheet to all participants regarding the
voluntary nature of their participation and the steps taken to protect their confidentiality and
privacy after they learned about the purpose of the study.
At the beginning of the data collection process, participants provided relevant
demographic information, such as age, gender, service branch, years of experience, and highest
rank achieved. This information provided a context for understanding the participants'
experiences and identified patterns or differences in their perspectives related to barriers and
facilitators of career advancement within the DoD.
Instrumentation
I used a semi-structured open-ended interview protocol (Appendix E) as the primary
instrument for collecting data in this interview-based qualitative study. I explicitly designed the
interview protocol for this research. This approach allowed me to collect rich, in-depth
information about the lived experiences and perceptions of African American officers who have
persisted in G/FO ranks in the DoD. Additionally, the semi-structured open-ended interviews
provided the flexibility to explore emerging themes and probe further into participants' responses
while focusing on the research questions and conceptual framework (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
The interview protocol included open-ended questions that addressed each research
question within Bronfenbrenner's ESM. These questions explored the participants’ perceptions of
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem factors on their persistence to G/FO
rank and strategies for increasing the number of African American G/FOs in the DoD. I pilottested the interview protocol questions with two retired U.S. Navy captains/O-6 subject matter
experts in African American officer development. This pilot test helped me ensure the questions'

46
clarity, relevance, and appropriateness and identified potential issues that could arise during the
interviews (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To enhance the trustworthiness of the data, the study
employed member checking, where participants reviewed and commented on the interview
transcript; this allowed participants to ensure I interpreted their responses correctly (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Member checking helped ensure the accuracy and credibility of the findings.
Data Collection Procedures
Data collection for this interview-based qualitative study took approximately three weeks
to conduct nine semi-structured open-ended interviews. I initially planned to interview 12
participants. However, I achieved theme saturation and stopped interviewing after my ninth
interview (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I recruited participants nationwide through social and
professional networks (i.e., the Air Force Cadet Officer Mentor Association, the National Naval
Officers Association, the Divine Nine, and the ROCKS, Inc.). All interviews were via video
conferencing, specifically Zoom (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The interviews lasted
approximately 70 minutes, which allowed participants to share their experiences and
perspectives with me. I arranged the interviews to fit the participants' schedules and conducted
them in a way that maintained confidentiality and encouraged open and truthful communication
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The participants understood that I would use a professional
transcription service to transcribe their interviews to ensure verbatim transcription and accurate
data.
Using audio recordings and verbatim transcriptions ensured the data's accuracy and
comprehensiveness and enabled detailed analysis and interpretation of the participants’ responses
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In addition to the audio recordings, I took field notes during the

47
interviews to document observations, reflections, and emerging themes that would inform the
data analysis process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
I chose semi-structured open-ended interviews as the primary data collection method,
which allowed me to collect rich, in-depth information about the lived experiences and
perceptions of the participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This approach was well-suited to
the research questions and the qualitative nature of the study, which aimed to explore the
meaning and significance of the participant's experiences in the context of Bronfenbrenner's
ESM.
Data Analysis
In this qualitative study, I followed an inductive approach to analyze the data to identify
themes and patterns that emerged from the participants' lived experiences. The study employed
thematic analysis, a widely recognized method for analyzing qualitative data (Braun & Clarke,
2006). The thematic analysis allowed me to identify, analyze, and report themes within the data,
which provided a detailed account of the phenomenon under investigation (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
The data analysis process began with the transcription of the interviews, converting the
recorded conversations into written text. Next, I read the transcripts and noted initial
impressions, ideas, and observations. This analysis facilitated familiarity with the data and
provided a foundation for the subsequent coding process.
Coding involves arranging data into text segments. I systematically identified and labeled
significant data segments corresponding to the research questions and the study's framework. I
used open coding to identify connections among the codes (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This

48
process allowed me to refine, combine, and discard the codes as necessary to ensure that the final
set accurately reflected the data.
I identified themes by grouping the codes based on underlying patterns when I finished
coding. I reviewed and refined these themes to ensure the data aligned with the study's research
questions and conceptual framework. I used memo writing to explore further the themes'
relationships to the analytical process (Saldaña, 2015).
I provide a detailed account of this study's findings and present them clearly. I include
direct participant quotations to illustrate the themes and ensure I authentically represent their
lived experiences. By following this data analysis approach, the study ensures the trustworthiness
and credibility of the findings, contributing valuable insights into the understanding of barriers to
diverse G/FOs in the DoD.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
When assessing a study's credibility, researchers frequently substitute validity and
reliability for confirmability, credibility, dependability, and transferability (Lincoln & Guba,
1985; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These standards are crucial for qualitative research and ensure
this qualitative study's credibility and trustworthiness.
First, the research questions and conceptual framework closely align to guide participant
selection, interview protocol development, and data analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This
alignment ensured that the research design was coherent; the findings were relevant and
meaningful to the study's purpose and objectives.
Second, the participant selection purposefully targeted individuals with direct experience
of the phenomena under investigation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This approach increased the

49
credibility and transferability of the findings. Participants provided insights and perspectives
through their experiences navigating the hierarchy as African American officers.
Third, the interview protocol used the research questions and the relevant literature,
ensuring that the questions were comprehensive and relevant to the study's objectives (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016; Jackson et al., 2020). The open-ended and flexible interview questions also
allowed the participants to elaborate on their experiences and insights in their own words
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Regarding data collection strategies, using semi-structured open-ended interviews and
field notes allowed me to capture rich, in-depth information relevant to the research questions
and the conceptual framework (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The interview protocol is a tool
qualitative researchers use to record and document information gathered during an interview
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This approach enhanced the credibility and dependability of the
findings, which provided a detailed and nuanced understanding of the participants' experiences
and perspectives.
To ensure the dependability and confirmability of the findings, the data analysis process
involved multiple stages of coding, categorizing, and interpretation, as well as the use of
reflexivity and memo-writing to track my thought process and decision-making (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This approach enhanced the transparency and rigor of
the analysis, hopefully making it easier for others to assess the trustworthiness of the findings.
Finally, to enhance the credibility of the findings, two specific strategies were employed:
triangulation and member checking (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation involves
comparing the data from different participants and incorporating relevant literature to validate
the emerging themes (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Member checking shares the preliminary

50
findings with the participants, allowing them to confirm or challenge my interpretations to
represent their perspectives accurately (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

51
Findings
This study aimed to understand the reasons behind the underrepresentation of African
American general and flag officers (G/FOs) in the Department of Defense (DoD).
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems model (ESM) framework identified direct and
indirect influences on the participants’ lived experiences as they persisted to the G/FO corps.
This section synthesizes the participants' responses to the interview questions and the
information gleaned from the literature review. The findings of this study will provide valuable
insights for African American officers who aspire to Follow the Drinking Gourd and persist in
reaching the G/FO corps.
The findings presented relate to the following research questions:
• RQ1: How do African American G/FOs perceive microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and chronosystem factors impacting their persistence to the G/FO ranks?
• RQ2: What strategies do African American G/FOs perceive could increase the
number of African American G/FOs in the DoD?
This study focuses on "persistence," which refers to the ongoing commitment and
determination shown by African American officers despite facing potential obstacles or
disparities in their career paths (Simmons, 2019). In this context, persistence is about enduring
challenges and actively navigating and overcoming them to achieve career goals. Through the
participants’ interview responses, the study revealed the complex dynamics involved in how they
perceived and interacted with their respective systems, both directly and indirectly. The Findings
section introduces the research participants, presents the research questions, and concludes with
relevant findings before the Recommendations section.

52
Study Participants
This study focused on the experiences of retired African American G/FOs in the DoD.
Specifically, the participants had to self-identify as Black or African American who have retired
as a U.S. G/FO with a rank ranging from O-7 to O-10 in the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S.
Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, or U.S. Space Force, and be willing to share their experiences and
insights related to their career in the DoD, barriers to advancement, and factors that contributed
to their persistence to G/FO.
Before the one-on-one interview, each participant completed a pre-interview online
demographics survey containing questions about race, gender, rank, branch of service at
retirement, and last uniformed position before retirement. Participants also provided an overview
of the qualifications relevant to their preparation for a successful military career.
Nine G/FOs met the participation criteria and completed their pre-interview demographic
surveys and Zoom interviews. Two females and seven males participated. Six of them reached
the grade of O-8, two reached the grade of O-9, and one reached the grade of O-10. Table 2
provides the participants’ selected pseudonyms and their respective pertinent profile information.
Research Question One Findings
Research question one and related interview questions focused on African American
G/FOs' perceptions of microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem factors
impacting their respective persistence in the G/FO ranks. My research question delved into the
intricate relationship between the various ecological systems and the careers of African
American officers within the DoD. Utilizing Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ESM, this study examined
specific environmental influences, including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and
chronosystem. This theoretical framework allowed for a thorough investigation of how the

53
environmental factors collectively shaped individual perceptions and experiences, providing a
comprehensive understanding of the career progression of African American officers aspiring to
reach G/FO ranks.
Table 2
Participant Profile Information
Note. U.S. Army (USA), U.S. Navy (USN), U.S. Marine Corps (USMC), U.S. Air Force
(USAF), Officer Candidate School (OCS).
The data highlights three main themes: family background and support, professional
experience and development, and career development initiatives. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979)
microsystem is associated with family background and support, which depicts the relationships
between the participants and their families and friends. Professional experience and development
and career development initiatives relate to Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) mesosystem and
exosystem. The mesosystem involves the interactions among different microsystems in the
Pseudonym Gender Branch Rank Commissioning
source
Career branch
Relentless Six Female USA MG/O-8 OCS Combat Service Support
Voltaire Male USA MG/O-8 ROTC Combat Service Support
Gator Guy Male USN RADM/O-8 OCS Unrestricted Line Officer
TEXSWO Male USN RADM/O-8 OCS Unrestricted Line Officer
Mongoose Male USMC Maj Gen/O-8 OCS Combat Arms
Charlie B. Male USMC Maj Gen/O-8 Academy Aviation Combat Element
Jay Bro Male USAF Lt Gen/O-9 Academy Rated (Flying)
Titan Female USAF Lt Gen/O-9 ROTC Rated (Flying)
Random Male USAF Gen/O-10 Academy Rated (Flying)

54
participants' environment, and the exosystem influences are beyond the participants' control but
have a significant impact and must be actively managed.
Family Background and Support
An old U.S. Navy saying goes: ‘If the U.S. Navy wanted you to have a family, it would
have issued you one in your seabag.’ Research shows that family and early education
significantly impact career paths, especially within African American communities (Rouse,
2019). Among the participants, three had at least one parent who served in the military. They all
expressed that without the support of their immediate family, spouses/significant others, and
close friends, they would not have been able to reach the rank of general or flag officer.
Random stated, "I wanted to join the U.S. Air Force at 9. Growing up in a U.S. Air Force
family, I was well-prepared to serve and knew what the U.S. Air Force was about." Random also
stated:
I had great support from my wife and two kids at home. It is challenging for families,
especially when moving around as much as I did. We always discussed whether to
continue with military life at different points. At one stage, we involved the kids in the
decision-making process, and their reaction was supportive.
Charlie B. shared how important his parents were in his military career, “My parents,
both teachers in South Carolina, always taught me that I could achieve anything through hard
work and determination, without being afraid of failure or others' opinions." Mongoose added:
I am thankful for the tremendous support from my wife and friends. Their support was
invaluable to me. I have friends from various backgrounds, including those in the military
and those who are not. I value their grounded perspective on life.

55
The DoD has implemented policies and allocated resources to support over 2 million
uniformed service members and 2.6 million family members worldwide. Programs like the
Military Health System, Military OneSource, Military Parent Resource Center, Military Spouse
Education and Career Opportunities, and Single Service Members aim to support the well-being
of military personnel and their families (DoD, n.d.).
Professional Experience and Development
Professional experience and development are crucial elements of a successful military
career. Performance matters significantly; it's not just about being above average; sustained
superior performance distinguishes those who advance to G/FO ranks. Mentorship plays a vital
role in supporting the growth of African American officers within the DoD. The impact of
professional military mentoring organizations, such as the Air Force Cadet Officer Mentor
Association (AFCOMA), the National Naval Officers Association (NNOA), and ROCKS, Inc.,
enhances career development and advancement. Moreover, incorporating external professional
coaching to improve the existing career development programs within the DoD would benefit the
career development pipeline for African American officers.
Sustained Superior Performance
One saying I often heard throughout my career in the U.S. Navy is 'sustained superior
performance.' This means comparing your accomplishments and responsibilities to those of your
peers and other officers in the same pay grade. It is not just about having a "good" record but
consistently maintaining a "superior" one. TEXSWO stressed the importance of sustained
superior performance:
At the end of the day, whatever you do, you must be #1 at it, okay? It would be best if
you were the best, not #2, #3, or #4. That is the message I share with everyone. Wherever

56
you go, strive to be the best you can be. Not #2, because that is not the best you can be.
You must be #1.
Random similarly commented about his career experiences with competitive rankings:
The experiences in my early career were significant and stayed with me. Competing
against peers and achieving high rankings in formal education and training courses were
crucial to my career progression. Being a distinguished graduate showed that I
consistently performed well compared to my peers, accelerating my career.
Jay Bro encapsulated the essence of sustained superior performance through his personal
experience:
A friend mentioned that he could not believe he had beaten me out. I asked, "Beaten me
out for what?" He explained that he would be a distinguished graduate, and there was
only one per class. Frankly, I had no idea such a title existed. If I had known, I might
have tried harder, but probably not. The point is, I did not know. So, when I advanced
and attended Squadron Officer School, I decided to work harder than I did as a cadet and
became a distinguished graduate of Squadron Officer School. When I went to Air
Command and Staff College, I thought, "I know how this goes, and I am going to work at
this." However, now that I had a family, I had to figure out how to balance both. I am
sure my wife would say, "You were not very successful at doing both there, Buster."
Nonetheless, I was also a distinguished Air Command and Staff College graduate. Senior
minority and underrepresented officers had been advocating for more diversity in the
senior administration at the U.S. Air Force Academy; when the superintendent selected
me to serve as his aide, I just happened to be in the right place at the right time with a

57
record that seemed suitable to them. They may not have chosen the perfect person, but
they did select someone with impressive credentials.
Achieving sustained superior performance often hinges on mentorship, which shapes and
refines one's career path. For superior performers, mentorship plays a vital role in maneuvering
through the intricacies of professional growth.
Mentorship
Mentorship within the DoD is essential for the career advancement of African American
officers and veterans (Bartee & Dooley, 2019). Throughout their military careers, all the
participants received mentorship and went on to serve as mentors themselves, and each one
emphasized the importance of mentorship in their persistence to G/FO ranks. Charlie B. agrees
that mentorship is crucial. It involves finding someone to advise, formally or informally, and
exclaims, "Everyone wants a mentor!" Research indicates that mentorship assists in career
progression, especially for underrepresented groups. Relentless Six shared that once she reached
certain positions within her organization, she mentored individuals regardless of their
backgrounds. "It is about guiding and providing valuable advice to help junior officers along the
way.”
Mentors who provide support and guidance play a crucial role in navigating the
complexities of career paths (Randel et al., 2021). It is especially valuable for African American
officers to have mentors who understand and can navigate the specific dynamics within the DoD
(Walker, 2020). Voltaire's statement reflects his strong belief in mentorship:
I have been fortunate to have had mentors throughout my career. They have continued to
support and guide me even after moving on from their professional roles because their
influence extended beyond my career and into my personal life. Thanks to the

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encouragement of my mentor, I decided to pursue graduate school and apply for the
White House Fellowship, a program I had not previously been aware of. My mentor's
support also led me to pursue a Ph.D. The concept of mentorship is all-encompassing; it
is like a protective cloak that has played a significant role in my life. My mentors have
been there for my career advancements and the good and challenging days. Mentorship is
a two-way street; it is reciprocal. I have contributed to their lives just as they have
enriched mine.
Mentoring Organizations
Professional organizations like the AFCOMA, NNOA, and ROCKS, Inc. play a vital role
in helping African American officers advance in the U.S. military through mentorship and
networking (Basham, 2013; Blanche, 2021; McAdams, 2016). Social and professional networks
are vital to understanding African American officer career trajectories. All participants stated
that social and professional organizations benefited their careers and recommended junior
officers participate in similar organizations; however, it is essential to network and be a part of
an organization, if possible, but be cautious. Avoid getting involved with groups with negativity,
complaining, and whining. It is crucial to be discerning about the groups you join; as a reminder,
try using professional organizations for 411 (information) and not 911 (emergency).
Gator Guy articulated the value of NNOA:
The NNOA is a vital sea service organization due to its diversity and support for
members from various branches. As a junior officer, it is best to start at the local level,
support regional initiatives, and gradually take on more responsibilities for personal
growth.

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Voltaire conveyed the importance of participating in other mentoring organizations by
adding:
The ROCKS, Inc. is a fundamental organization for African American junior officers in
the U.S. Army. Another organization that helped me was my fraternity, Omega Psi Phi.
Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc. is one of the nine historically African American
fraternities and sororities, commonly called the Divine Nine. Omega was vital in helping
me navigate my career by providing valuable lessons, such as identifying who was
dependable, who was not, and who could help. My fraternity members, also mid to senior
U.S. Army officers, had experienced challenges that I was just beginning to face, and
their guidance prevented me from making the same mistakes.
Jay Bro gave a thorough history of U.S. Air Force-specific mentoring organizations. He
explained that the U.S. Air Force Academy established the Way of Life in the 1960s during the
civil rights movement to address cadets' desire to actively participate in making a difference
while on active duty. The Way of Life has evolved over the years, proving successful for cadets
and active-duty officers.
Since its early days, Jay Bro has been actively involved with AFCOMA, which drew
influence from U.S. Air Force Colonel Paul Patton's "Letter to a Second Lieutenant" and
modeled itself after ROCKS, Inc. Former secretary of state and retired General Colin Powell was
a staunch supporter of the ROCKS, Inc. Senior U.S. Air Force leadership recognizes AFCOMA
as an instrumental mentoring organization that benefits the U.S. Air Force and includes it in
regulatory guidance.
Participant insights reveal that AFCOMA, NNOA, and ROCKS, Inc. influence the
careers of African American military officers by offering vital networking and mentorship. Gator

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Guy, Voltaire, and Jay Bro stress the importance of thoughtfully engaging with supportive
groups for positive experiences. The following section will explore how professional coaching
supports career advancement, highlighting how personalized guidance enhances these
organizations' networking advantages.
Outside Professional Mentorship (Coaching)
Research suggests successful programs outside the DoD should include intentional career
development, mentoring, and coaching. The DoD needs to review and reform policies that hinder
African American officers from seeking professional guidance (Lloyd-Jones, 2011; Walker,
2020). All participants emphasized the importance of coaching or similar support. Mongoose
agreed, “I currently work as an international executive coach but have mentored and coached
throughout my career. There are benefits to using executive coaches.” Having mentors or
coaches who understand and can navigate within the DoD and executive leadership is crucial for
African American officers (Walker, 2020). Gator Guy further illustrated this by comparing
coaching to preparing athletes for peak performance:
Coaching is essential for preparing players (officers) to perform well on the field (in their
jobs). Coaches help players (officers) improve by pushing them out of their comfort
zones. Therefore, receiving proper mentorship and coaching early on is crucial. It is also
important to seek out coaches who specialize in the areas where you want to improve.
The most effective coaches are the ones who encourage you to do things that may be
uncomfortable at first.
These insights suggest that professional mentorship, especially coaching, can be
transformative for African American officers. Timely access to qualified coaches can provide
essential guidance for navigating military career challenges, offering career advice, emotional

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support, and additional development initiatives needed to thrive in a competitive and often
isolating environment.
Career Development Initiatives
The evolving demographics and changing social attitudes in the DoD have impacted
career opportunities for African American officers persisting in G/FO ranks. Efforts to improve
unit (career field) cultures and mentorship opportunities address African American officers'
unique challenges, but progress is uneven, and more work remains (DoD, 2022).
Combat Career Fields
African American officers frequently receive advice to pursue non-combat career fields
such as logistics, personnel, legal, and medical positions during or shortly after their
commissioning programs. This pattern is influenced by historical and community factors
stemming from the mistreatment of African American soldiers after the Vietnam War (Chivvis &
Lauji, 2022). Serving in non-combat career fields can limit career advancement opportunities, as
80 percent of G/FO corps consist of combat career field officers, such as aviation, infantry,
surface warfare, and special forces (Chivvis & Lauji, 2022).
Charlie B. explains the importance of combat arms roles in the U.S. Marine Corps and
states:
Retired and active duty African American general officers must encourage young African
American officers considering joining the U.S. Marine Corps to choose combat arms as
their main Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) if possible. This is because general
officers and leaders of the U.S. Marine Corps are typically selected from the combat
arms. While I will not judge whether this is right or wrong, it is a fact. We should support
(mentor) young officers in choosing infantry, artillery, aviation, or other combat arms

62
rather than support roles in the U.S. Marine Corps, as these roles may make it more
difficult for them to reach the rank of a general officer.
The culture and leadership within different career fields significantly impact officers'
daily experiences and opportunities for advancement. A positive culture that values diversity and
provides equal promotion opportunities can positively influence the career progression of
African American officers. In contrast, discrimination and lack of mentorship opportunities can
severely restrict their advancement. Among the participants, seven were in combat careers, while
two were in non-combat careers. All participants agreed that for African American officers to
have the best chance of promotion to G/FO ranks, they should choose a combat career field upon
commissioning.
Jay Bro emphasizes the importance of understanding what your service values:
This is an old airman's view, so correct me if I am off base here, but in the U.S. Navy, it
is crucial to have blue water all over you, whether floating on top of it or submerged
underneath. Flying above has become all right. Your initial assignment choice is critical.
For the U.S. Army, it is essential to begin with combat arms. While you may transition to
other career fields later, starting with combat arms is necessary. For the U.S. Air Force,
you must start with earning your wings. This distinction has become blurred, especially
with the increasing significance of drone operators across all services. Nevertheless, there
are still fixed-wing pilots out there. Progressing can be challenging if this is your sole
exposure to operational roles. Once again, understand what your service values. You
might not think you want to be a longtime surface warfare officer, a longtime
infantryman, an artillery guy, or a longtime aviator; if your aspirations are not aligned
with your service values, your path to career advancement becomes increasingly narrow.

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Every service and career field views career development opportunities through its own
lens. It’s crucial for your service and career field to acknowledge the benefits that your career
broadening experience can offer, as well as your ongoing success.
Career Broadening Opportunities (Nominative Positions)
In 2021, Randel et al. proposed an identity-based model to support the career
advancement of African Americans through sponsorship, including participation in stretch
assignments, which are special assignments and career-broadening opportunities. The
Department of Defense's Board on Diversity and Inclusion Report acknowledged barriers to
equal opportunity and inclusion within the military personnel life cycle. They recommended
developing diverse candidate pools for nominative positions to address these barriers.
The Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness will collaborate with
military departments and joint staff to identify and rectify barriers to developing racially and
ethnically diverse candidate pools for senior leadership positions and other unique officer
development positions (DoD, 2020).
All participants agreed that it was important for African American officers to engage in
special assignments and career-broadening opportunities, such as career-specific training
opportunities, the White House Fellowship, joint military professional education, service-specific
war colleges, and domestic/international staff colleges.
Titan likened the nominative process to the Rooney Rule in the National Football League
coaching hire practice. She explained that she aimed to ensure that diverse and deserving Airmen
had the opportunity to lead. She ensured a diverse selection when she became a wing commander
and reviewed promotion slates. If there were no females or people of color, she identified whom
they were mentoring to ensure those officers would be competitive for future opportunities. She

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did not compel promotions for officers they did not believe were qualified but insisted that they
mentored their officers to ensure all deserving candidates had an equal opportunity for
nominative positions.
Gator Guy shared his experience from an international staff college, where he was one of
only two U.S. military students among 450 international students, with the majority leaning
towards pro-Russia views. He found the engaging class discussions insightful and enjoyed the
travel and meeting new people. He recommended seeking out unique opportunities like the
Olmstead Scholar program for young junior officers, as they offer valuable experiences for their
future careers.
Relentless Six explained her process of appointing qualified, diverse officers to critical
out-of-state assignments. She placed 11 Colonels in 1-star positions outside of the state in
broadening assignments to get them promoted in these positions. Her approach involved
advocating for her officers, understanding their skill sets and backgrounds, and recommending
them to the right room at the right place and time. However, if roles did not have combat branch
requirements and she had both qualified male and female candidates, she would place the female
candidate in that role because there were more positions for the male candidates. For the other
positions that limited her choices to males, she would place the female candidate in those
positions.
Research Question One examined African American G/FOs’ perceptions of the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem factors that impact their persistence in
G/FO ranks within the DoD. The findings highlighted three primary themes: (1) Family support
was essential, as participants emphasized the role of spouses/significant others, children, and
close friends in their professional journeys. (2) Professional growth was vital, with consistently

65
high performance, mentorship, and engagement in professional organizations such as AFCOMA,
NNOA, and ROCKS, Inc. identified as key factors. Study participants also noted the importance
of coaching (including external professional coaching) and guidance in overcoming career
obstacles. (3) Career development initiatives revealed a need for greater representation in combat
career fields and access to key leadership positions. Participants also highlighted the need for
broadening career opportunities and addressing systemic issues that may hinder the further
advancement of African American officers. Findings from research question one support the
results of research question two, which helped identify strategies that African American G/FOs
believe could enhance African American G/FO representation within the DoD.
Research Question Two Findings
Research question two and its related interview questions explored the strategies that
African American G/FOs believe might improve the representation of African American G/FOs
within the DoD. Gator Guy nicely summarized the emerging theme from the data: "We simply
need to implement the policy recommendations that the DoD and its services have already
studied.” All participants indicated an awareness of existing policies to improve the
representation of African American G/FOs within the DoD and their affiliated services.
However, they each felt that not all proposed suggestions had received sufficient resources for
implementation.
Studies
Random, Jay Bro, Titan, and Gator Guy specifically mentioned From Representation to
Inclusion: Diversity Leadership for the 21st-Century Military(2011), commonly referred to as
the MLDC (https://rb.gy/bro7io), Charlie B. mentioned Overcoming Barriers to Increasing
Black Representation in U.S. Marine Corps Tactical Air Pilot Corps (2021)

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(https://rb.gy/gofmr4), and Gator Guy added Task Force One Navy: Our Navy Team –
Navigating a Course to True North (2021) (https://rb.gy/bpt9ro). These are only a handful of the
dozens of studies the DoD and services have commissioned throughout the past decade or so to
increase equity and inclusion in their respective organizations. The DoD and its services are
fortunate, as all the studies have recommendations; however, Mongoose points out the
challenges: “The policies are in place, but enforcing accountability is the main issue. Service
chiefs and secretaries in the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Army must ensure compliance
with directives from the top.”
Jay Bro opined, “Members of the MLDC have received criticism for one of their
questions: "Is the promotion system fair?” The selection board process is fair. Unfortunately, the
reporting, informal mentoring, and sponsorship systems are implicitly or explicitly unfair.”
Voltaire provided an example and offered a solution: Voltaire shared a specific example
demonstrating how biases can affect decision-making within the system. My boss was a four-star
general when I served on selection boards. I took notes on all the reviewed files. I noticed that
my boss had rated one African American male and one African American female in the top
block. At the same time, everyone else center mass. The two officers he rated top block did not
have a realistic chance of becoming general officers. Upon returning from the boards, I requested
a meeting with my boss, with whom I had a good relationship, and discussed my observations
with him. Our conversation made him realize his blind spot, which was eye-opening as he
thought he was doing everything correctly. This experience emphasizes addressing blind spots
and biases to bring about meaningful change. Voltaire recommended:
It is important to acknowledge and address implicit biases and blind spots. To ensure
fairness and equity in the evaluation systems, rater and senior rater profiles should

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include demographic data and be accessible to senior leadership. Although implementing
this policy would require a change, it could have helped my boss recognize his blind spot
earlier in his career. This policy change will enable the Department of Defense and
service leaders to identify implicit biases or blind spots in raters and senior raters earlier
in their careers.
Research Question Two examined the participants’ perceived strategies for improving the
representation of African American G/FOs within the DoD. The interviews uncovered a shared
sentiment among participants, mirroring Gator Guy’s assertion that the DoD and services should
adopt representation-focused study and policy recommendations. Although all participants
acknowledged the existence of proposed studies and policies, they contended that the lack of
leadership and inadequate resources possibly hindered their effective implementation and
enforcement.
Summary
The study researched the experiences of African American officers persisting in G/FO
ranks within the DoD. It explored their perspectives on factors influencing their career longevity
and proposed strategies to increase the representation of African American G/FOs in the DoD.
The data uncovered three main themes: the impact of family background and support, the
importance of professional experience and development (especially the need for sustained
superior performance and actively seeking mentorship from a diverse group of senior leaders),
and career development initiatives (notably the recommendation for African American junior
officers to pursue combat career fields and excel in career-broadening opportunities). The
participants shared personal insights into the factors contributing to their success, citing
supportive families, positive mentoring relationships, and engagement in career-expanding

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opportunities. Overall, with the support of their families, colleagues, and leaders, these African
American officers could persist to the G/FO ranks.
Participants highlighted the significance of implementing the policy recommendations
previously examined by the DoD. I invite Random to wrap up the Findings section with his
poignant remarks: "I have a friend who is a retired four-star general. He often talks about
commission after commission." I hope this study's findings and recommendations help his friend
find solace.

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Recommendations
“I do not have any obvious insights. I asked other Black four-star officers, ‘How did we
get here, and others did not?’ We all have a story; I do not think it is just luck. There is more to
learn,” purported Random.
To systematically analyze participants’ experiences. The experiences of African
American officers require further investigation, as they currently make up less than 6% (96 out
of 1,576) of general and flag officers (G/FOs) (Military Community Demographics, 2022).
The research highlighted environmental factors impacting African American officers’
persistence to G/FO ranks and proposed recommendations to address these challenges. These
recommendations include focusing on family wellness programs, implementing suggestions from
previous studies, enhancing accountability in the evaluation processes, initiating career
development programs, promoting mentorship opportunities, and providing junior officers with
professional advising/executive coaching.
Implementing these recommendations is not just a step forward but a significant leap
toward a more diverse and inclusive military. These measures are anticipated to pave a more
straightforward path for junior officers to advance to the G/FO level and substantially increase
the number of African American officers in the G/FO corps. Ultimately, the findings and
recommendations from this research have the potential to influence and significantly transform
policies and regulations within the DoD and the military at large.
I provide Recommendations One and Two in addition to the study’s primary
Recommendations Three to Six, which aim to raise awareness of the importance of family
wellness programs within the DoD and respective services and implement commissioned study

70
recommendations. It is imperative that these organizations not only commission the studies but
also resource and implement their recommendations.
In this section, I consider the following information: The DoD invests an average of
$500,000 for a junior officer (O-3, five to nine years in service after commissioning), covering
their commissioning program, initial and follow-on job training, and professional development
costs, and $1 million for a field grade officer (O-5, 16 to 20 years in service after
commissioning), for follow technical training, education, and career field specific bonuses. There
is an average of 500 African American junior officer resignations across the DoD, which
amounts to a yearly investment loss of $250 million and $1.2 billion over five years. The
numbers used in this section are estimates and hypothetical. The Under Secretary of Defense for
Personnel and Readiness (USD(P&R)) and service branch personnel departments can provide
actual numbers upon request via the Freedom of Information Act.
Recommendation One: Family Wellness Programs
Research indicates that family support is crucial in career decision-making, particularly
within African American communities (Rouse, 2019). Consequently, family wellness programs
are not merely ancillary services but essential for African American service members’ long-term
career success and retention. These programs can address family-related stressors, which often
disproportionately impact minority groups, influencing decisions regarding whether to continue
in service or pursue leadership roles that lead G/FO ranks. The DoD must maintain its focus on
prioritizing and allocating resources to family wellness programs, ensuring that these services are
both accessible and effective in supporting service members' families. Research from this study
showed that officers who felt supported by strong family programs had increased morale and
were more inclined to seek increased leadership opportunities.

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In contrast, those who lacked family support often left the service earlier, hindering their
opportunities for senior ranks. Commanders and supervisors, as key influencers, should actively
promote family support programs within their units, highlighting the direct connection between
family well-being and professional success. Additionally, the literature review highlights the
significance of family support as a protective factor against burnout and attrition (Blanche,
2021). Family wellness initiatives, such as financial literacy, counseling, and childcare, can help
alleviate stressors that may deter African American officers from committing to long-term
careers within the DoD, particularly in command-specific or combat-related positions that serve
as gateways to G/FO ranks. Making family support resources readily available and encouraged is
a strategic approach to addressing underrepresentation within the G/FO ranks.
Recommendation Two: Study Recommendations Implementation
The DoD and services have commissioned dozens of studies over the past decade. This
study’s Findings section identifies three studies that could improve the representation of
underrepresented officers in the G/FO ranks. Implementing recommendations through costbenefit analysis is crucial, especially if the anticipated return on investment is positive, yielding
more value than the actual implementation cost (Stobierski, 2019). Holding parties accountable
presents challenges, and policies to enhance diversity and inclusion must be reevaluated for
effectiveness (Cooper, 2020). Continuous adjustments within DoD structures are vital to
ensuring fairness in career promotion (Hosek et al., 2001). To increase African American and
other underrepresented officers’ representation in the G/FO ranks, the DoD must prioritize
implementing existing commissioned studies recommendations through a holistic strategy that
includes cost-benefit analysis, accountability initiatives, and policy revisions with a sustained
focus on equity and inclusion.

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Recommendation Three: Improve Rater Accountability Across DoD
The military services continuously reassess their evaluation processes, recognizing the
need for improvements. While this Recommendations section does not make specific
recommendations for individual services' evaluation systems, the DoD needs to ensure that each
service enhances rater accountability by making its profiles transparent to senior service
leadership.
The participants consider promotion and special boards fair. However, they are
concerned that the reporting, informal mentoring, and sponsorship systems may introduce
potential unfairness, noting that evaluations reaching the board process may contain implicit or
unconscious bias. Lattice (2018) proposes combating bias by implementing a checks and
balances system in the performance review process, allowing someone other than the employee’s
supervisor to compare employee output.
To encourage fairness and equity in the evaluation process, rater and senior rater profiles
should be accessible to senior leadership. Implementing this policy change would allow the DoD
and service leaders to identify implicit biases or blind spots in raters and senior raters earlier in
their careers. During these reviews, services should provide tailored service-specific implicit bias
training if they identify biases or blind spots, as the raters may not be aware of their biases or
blind spots.
Modifying the evaluation system to allow senior leaders to see how subordinates evaluate
by race, gender, and specialty would be straightforward and cost-effective. Each service
Secretariat overseeing the evaluation and promotion board process would simply need to activate
these additional categories in their algorithm. The recommendation could save the DoD
approximately $20 million annually, specifically, $15 million in enhanced retention savings and

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$5 million in increased trust savings annually. Implementing this recommendation should not
incur additional expenses for the DoD, as it only requires an algorithm update. Improving rater
accountability through this recommendation provides a positive benefit-cost ratio and is not just
a suggestion but a necessity to ensure fairness and transparency in the evaluation process.
Recommendation Four: Guest Lecturer Program
The services already have initiatives to enhance engagement opportunities with
underrepresented cadets and midshipmen. This recommendation aims to formalize these efforts
across the DoD to increase the number of African American officers in combat career fields
during commissioning programs.
Seven participants were in combat career fields, while two were in non-combat career
fields. All participants agreed that African American officers should choose a combat career field
upon commissioning for the best chance of promotion to G/FO ranks. Jay Bro stressed the
importance of aligning personal aspirations with service values, stating that if an individual's
aspirations do not align with their service values, their career advancement becomes increasingly
limited.
Serving in non-combat career fields can restrict career advancement opportunities, as
80% of the G/FO ranks consist of combat career field officers, such as aviation, infantry, surface
warfare, and special forces (Chivvis & Lauji, 2022). Charlie B. underscores the significance of
combat arms roles in the U.S. Marine Corps, stating that retired and active duty African
American general officers should encourage and mentor young African American officers to
choose combat career fields as their primary occupational specialty if they consider joining the
U.S. Marine Corps. He emphasizes that U.S. Marine Corps general officers and leaders typically
come from the combat career fields.

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The proposed Guest Lecturer Program (GLP) initiative, a creative internal recruitment
strategy (Rosales et al., 2023) that can positively impact cost per hire and time to hire
(Workforce Solutions, n.d.), involves sending two to three African American combat field career
officers (O-3 to O-5) to serve as guest lecturers and mentors for three days at Historically Black
Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), selected predominantly White institutions (PWIs) ROTC
units, and the service academies (U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) (U.S. Air Force and U.S
Space Force), U.S. Military Academy (USMA) (U.S. Army), and U.S. Naval Academy (USNA)
(U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy)) twice a year in the fall and spring.
The recommendation can potentially save the DoD approximately $25 million per year.
Specifically, a 10% increase in African American officers entering combat career fields could
result in $15 million in recruitment cost savings and $10 million in improved leadership
representation, which could positively impact retention and operational effectiveness.
Implementing the GLP recommendation is an estimated investment of less than $650,000 per
year (Table 3).
Table 3
Guest Lecturer Program Assumptions
Institutions Participants Visits
(annual)
Estimated investment
(annual)
HBCUs
25 HBCUs hosting 61 ROTC units
(17 Air Force/Space Force, 25 Army,
7 Marine Corps, 12 Navy)
122 $376,980
PWIs Up to 10 institutions (preferably with
all four service ROTC units) 80 $247,200
Service
Academies USAFA, USMA, USNA 6 $18,540
208 $642,720
Note. The approximate budget per visit is $3,090 ($400 for transportation, $150 for lodging per
night, and $60 per diem per day for three officers).

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The GLP program managers will try to select alums as guest lecturers. Furnishing guest
lecturers through this recommendation would provide a positive benefit-cost ratio, potentially
leading to an immediate and substantial increase in the representation of African American
officers in combat career fields, thereby contributing to the overall readiness and effectiveness of
the DoD.
Recommendation Five: Junior Officer Mentoring Opportunities
The services have budget line items to encourage junior officers (O-1 to O-3) to attend
annual symposiums to develop mentoring opportunities. The aim is to formalize these efforts
across the DoD so junior officers are adequately resourced and encouraged to participate in these
career development events.
All participants stated they received mentorship and subsequently became mentors,
emphasizing the importance of mentorship in their journey to G/FO. Mentorship is crucial for
career advancement, with individuals like Charlie B. affirming this sentiment. Mentorship
involves seeking advice from someone, formally or informally, and is a valuable tool for career
progression. Abel Personnel (2024) provided the following statistics, which align with
participants' lived experiences: Organizations with formal mentoring programs are 23% more
likely to promote high-potential employees from within. Employees at Deloitte who participated
in mentoring programs were 68% more likely to stay with the company for over five years, and
mentees experienced a 22% higher promotion rate than those without a mentor.
There is a strong consensus that mentorship is crucial for navigating the complexities of a
career. African American officers benefit significantly from mentorship provided by individuals
who understand and can navigate the specific dynamics within the DoD (McAdams, 2016;

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Randel et al., 2021). Voltaire's statement reflects the reciprocal nature of mentorship, stating that
it enriches both the mentor and the mentee.
Professional organizations such as the Air Force Cadet Officer Mentor Association
(AFCOMA), the National Naval Officers Association (NNOA), and the ROCKS, Inc. provide
significant career development opportunities for officers. Research has shown that professional
organizations play a vital role in the career development of African American officers (Basham,
2013; Blanche, 2021). I would encourage junior officers to use these professional organizations
for 411 (information), not 911 (emergency).
The proposed Junior Officer Mentoring Opportunities (JOMO) initiative aims to send 75
junior officers from each service (U.S. Air Force/U.S. Space Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine
Corps, and U.S. Navy) to participate in the annual AFCOMA, NNOA, ROCKS, Inc., or similar
three to five-day symposiums. This recommendation could save the DoD around $35 million
annually in recruitment, training, and professional development costs due to increased retention.
The estimated investment in implementing JOMO is less than $500,000 per year. Junior officers
attending mentoring opportunities through this initiative should provide a positive benefit-cost
ratio. The modest investment in mentorship and professional development should lead to positive
career growth for junior officers, improved career advancement, a more robust leadership
pipeline, and enhanced professional effectiveness.
Recommendation Six: Executive Coaching
During the literature review and data collection, I learned that African American officers
can benefit from effective coaching (McAdams, 2016; Seay & Muscarella, 2024). However,
there is a lack of senior African American officers who can fulfill this role. To address this, I
recommend that the DoD assign qualified executive coaches to due course African American

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officers. The research suggests that successful career development programs outside the DoD
include coaching (Seay & Muscarella, 2024). Most participants emphasized the importance of
coaching or similar development opportunities. Mongoose, an international executive coach,
stated, "There are benefits to using executive coaches." Gator Guy explained that coaching is
essential for preparing officers to perform well in their roles, and mentors or coaches familiar
with the DoD and executive leadership are crucial for African American officers. Seay and
Muscarella (2024) note a study that found a significant return on investment and economic
benefit from executive coaching. This includes costs related to personnel replacement,
productivity losses, and gains from increased employee engagement.
The recommendation is that the DoD offer field grade officers, O-4 or O-5 levels, who
demonstrate leadership potential beyond O-6 the opportunity for executive coaching. The first
G/FO in their chain of command will endorse and validate that they acknowledge the officer’s
potential and believe that through the coaching, the officer will achieve their career development
goals and receive skills to execute the DoD’s mission better. The officers may incur additional
service obligations.
This recommendation could yield $30 million yearly for the DoD by improving
leadership skills among command and staff officers, thereby boosting mission success and
organizational performance. Table 4 shows the projected annual cost of executive coaching for
field grade officers in the DoD, estimated to be under $500,000 at a discounted rate of $75 per
session. The skills gained from these coaching sessions will result in a favorable benefit-cost
ratio.
The coaching sessions will initially occur twice a month and last one year. Professional
advising and executive coaching will enhance the DoD’s leadership capabilities and prepare

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officers from underrepresented groups for higher-level command and staff positions within the
DoD and its respective services.
Table 4
Executive Coaching Assumptions
Service Officers (annual) Estimated investment
(annual)
Air Force/Space Force 75 $135,000
Army 100 $180,000
Marine Corps 35 $63,000
Navy 50 $90,000
260 $468,000
Note. The approximate cost per session is $75, with 24 sessions annually. The estimated
investment per officer per year is $1,800.
Cost Benefit Analysis for Primary Recommendations
The study's primary recommendations (Recommendations Three to Six) aim to improve
rater accountability, establish a guest lecturer program, provide junior officer mentoring
opportunities, and offer executive coaching for due course officers within the DoD.
Implementing these recommendations could save the DoD $110 million for one year and $550
million for five years. The estimated investment for these initiatives is approximately $1.7
million for one year and $8.2 million for five years.
Enhancing leadership development initiatives for African American officers and
promoting their representation in senior leadership positions within the G/FO corps is essential. I
advocate for implementing all four primary recommendations, as the benefits outweigh the
associated costs. I suggest coordinating the executive recommendations within the USD(P&R).
Placing the executive coordination functions for the recommendations under USD(P&R) will

79
allow them to establish clear metrics and evaluation criteria and provide logistical support and
administrative needs during the initial implementation of the proposed recommendations. The
strategic investment will foster a more capable and resilient officer corps and promote inclusivity
and readiness across all services, aligning with the DoD's goals of increasing diversity and
inclusion and enhancing overall readiness.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study examined the underrepresentation of African American G/FOs in the DoD.
The participants' experiences and comments reflect the beliefs of most retired African American
G/FOs. As Creswell and Creswell (2018) note, saturation occurs when no new themes or
information arise from the data. After conducting the ninth interview, I noticed no additional
insights or patterns emerging, indicating that I had reached saturation. Therefore, I determined
that the data collection process was complete and stopped additional interviews. The
conversations with the participants mentioned ideas for further research relevant to this study.
While some of these ideas were briefly discussed, conducting more comprehensive scholarly
research on the topics could potentially improve the representation of African Americans in the
G/FO corps.
Future research, grounded in insights from this study and a review of existing literature,
can help address several gaps. This study shows significant disparities persist despite efforts to
increase African American representation in military leadership, particularly in G/FO roles.
Critical gaps include the underrepresentation of African American students in commissioning
programs like ROTC and service academies. Future research could explore why fewer African
Americans enter these programs than other demographics. Another area that warrants

80
investigation is the lower participation of African Americans in combat career fields, which are
often pivotal for promotion to G/FO ranks.
Additionally, what is the effectiveness of third-party holistic wrap-around service
organizations, such as Link in the Chain Consulting, LLC (https://rb.gy/84fhfy) and Resolve
Solutions, Inc. (https://rb.gy/ffoh9o), in supporting the DoD and historical professional
organizations in developing African American G/FOs remains unexplored. Future research could
assess whether these organizations can successfully bridge mentorship, training, and career
development gaps. Researchers need to conduct additional studies to understand why African
American O-6s, on track for promotion, often fall short of reaching G/FO positions. Investigating
the factors behind this attrition could provide critical insights into systemic barriers and potential
solutions. Also, a crucial area for future study is the perception among G/FOs that the DoD and
military services "fail" to implement recommended equity and inclusion policies from
commissioned studies fully. Titan's hypothesis states, "There must be a coalition of the willing. If
there is not a coalition of the willing, it will not happen. The coalition should not depend on the
current political administration," which is necessary for progress. This suggests researchers must
explore forming enduring coalitions to drive long-term change independent of political cycles.
This research could focus on the structural and cultural factors influencing policy
implementation and sustainability within the military.
Conclusion
This study examined the experiences of African American officers who persisted to G/FO
ranks within the DoD. There is a lack of proportional representation of African American
officers in the G/FO corps. Investigating the diversity deficit among these officers is crucial, as

81
inadequate diversity in senior leadership roles can hinder effective decision-making. Diverse
viewpoints typically contribute to improved strategic decisions and outcomes.
In today’s climate, the chronic underrepresentation of African American G/FOs
perpetuates systemic racial inequalities. It hinders the DoD's ability to attract, retain, and develop
a diverse workforce that reflects the nation it serves. This study included interviews with retired
African American G/FOs and examined relevant literature to identify best practices for effective
career development among African American officers. The evidence-based recommendations
from this study aimed to support the persistence of African American officers in the G/FO corps
and contribute to building a more diverse G/FO corps that accurately represents the nation’s
demographics.
In addition to the six recommendations I pose in this study that the DoD and services can
continue and implement, I present the following career map, which focuses on the officers’
initiative and control. As shown in Figure 2, with supplementary information in Appendix G, the
career map provides prospective and current African American officers a framework for
navigating their careers. This career map provides key strategies for success, including:
• Commissioning and Early Career
• Leadership and Professional Development
• Networking and Mentorship
• Values and Community Impact
Failing to address barriers to diversity will have significant consequences within the DoD
and broader society. Neglecting these challenges will lead to a less inclusive society, exacerbate
racial disparities, and hurt morale, retention, and overall performance (Blanche, 2021). By not
examining and addressing the challenges faced by African American officers, the DoD might be

82
overlooking their valuable insights and contributions, which could weaken the DoD's overall
effectiveness and readiness.
Figure 2
“Follow the Drinking Gourd” Career Map
Note. The career map uses information gleaned from the literature review and participant
interviews.

83
It is worth noting that even if African American officers diligently “Follow the Drinking
Gourd,” they may still encounter barriers to advancing to G/FO. This somber realization recalled
my conversation with Random, who quipped, “There may be a little luck in everyone’s
persistence to G/FO.”

84
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Appendix A: Definitions
African American
For this study, ‘Black’ may substitute for African American. It encompasses anyone of
sub-Saharan African descent, regardless of whether the individual is native-born, (grand)children
of immigrants, or traces their American ancestry to the 19th century or earlier (Berlin, 2010).
Armed Forces
The “land services,” the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Space
Force have general officers, and the “sea service,” the U.S. Navy, has flag officers (Kapp, 2019).
Barriers to Diversity
Obstacles that hinder the inclusion and equitable representation of individuals from
different racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds in various settings, such as the workplace or
educational institutions (Barak, 2022).
Department of Defense (DoD)
It is the largest U.S. government agency, tracing its origins to pre-Revolutionary times
and continually evolving to provide the necessary armed forces to deter war and ensure national
security (DoD, n.d.).
Divine Nine
Nine international Black Greek Letter Organizations (BGLOs) make up the National PanHellenic Council (NPHC); historically, African American fraternities and sororities collectively
referred to as The Divine Nine (Jones, 2017)

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Due Course
A career path that describes the successive milestones servicemembers need to achieve to
be competitive for promotion to each rank; deviations from the due course path can negatively
affect an officer’s competitiveness in the selection process (Military Leadership Diversity
Commission [MLDC], 2011).
Ecological Systems Model (ESM)
A theoretical framework developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner that examines the complex
interrelationships between an individual and the various environmental systems within which
they develop and interact (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Flag Officers
The most senior U.S. Navy officers are flag officers (Kapp, 2019).
General Officers
The most senior U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Space Force
officers (Kapp, 2019).
General and Flag Officers (G/FO)
The phrase refers to all officers in pay grades O-7 through O-10, including one-star, twostar, three-star, and four-star officers (Jackson et al., 2020).

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Appendix B: The Researcher
Villaverde (2008) defines positionality as “how one is situated through the intersection of
power and the politics of gender, race, class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, language, and other
social factors” (p. 10). I am a 49-year-old cisgender African American male who retired as a U.S.
Naval officer, Commander/O-5, after serving almost 24 years. Daily interactions with people,
news stories, and social media posts make me aware of this country's systemic racism. As a
middle-class, able-bodied, post-secondary educated, heterosexual male, I hold privilege in
society. I recognize and appreciate the privileges afforded to me. As an African American
veteran, I have experienced ongoing marginalization. A relevant contradiction that shapes my
positionality is being a retired U.S. Navy commissioned officer who graduated from the U.S.
Naval Academy. Society reluctantly recognizes that African Americans serve as commissioned
U.S. officers. Unfortunately, systemic barriers still impede African American service members'
promotion to G/FO.
The DoD does not successfully recruit, develop, and retain African Americans to the
ranks of G/FOs, as demonstrated by the DoD’s African American G/FO corps population of 6%,
which does not reflect the nation’s African American population of approximately 14%. Douglas
and Ngana (2015) describe one’s epistemology as a highly nuanced filter constructed from an
amalgamation of the social, political, and historical dynamics of lived experience. Through my
unique personal experience, I have gained knowledge pragmatically through studying the subject
and experiencing situations firsthand. I served in the DoD and witnessed my friends and
colleagues promoted to the G/FO ranks. One of the limiting factors in understanding this
problem is that I have never been a G/FO. However, I plan to use the experiences gained and
networks made during my U.S. Navy career to assist in exploring and obtaining a better

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understanding of the problem. Failure to address the DoD’s lack of African American G/FOs
limits the ability to have a corps representative of the nation it serves as well as negatively
impacts its ability to maintain future forces to protect our nation’s sovereignty and security.

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Appendix C: Limitations and Delimitations
In any research study, it is essential to recognize the potential limitations and
delimitations that may impact the study's findings, interpretations, and transferability. In this
section, I discuss the limitations and delimitations of my research study.
As the study relies on self-reported experiences, respondents may unintentionally or
intentionally provide inaccurate, incomplete, or harmful information (Creswell & Creswell,
2018). To ensure the truthfulness and accuracy of the responses, I used open-ended questions and
interview probing techniques to encourage participants to elaborate on their experiences and
share detailed and authentic insights.
Another limitation of the study was the potential for researcher bias, which could
influence the interpretation and analysis of the data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I engaged in
reflexivity by critically examining my assumptions, beliefs, and potential biases throughout the
research process to mitigate these biases. I also employed multiple strategies, such as
triangulation and member checking, to help ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of my
findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The choice of Bronfenbrenner's ESM as the study's conceptual framework delimited the
research by focusing on the various environmental influences on participants' experiences. While
this framework provides a comprehensive and systematic approach to understanding the barriers
to diversity among G/FOs in the DoD, it only captures limited factors and perspectives (Navarro
& Tudge, 2022). Other theoretical frameworks, such as Social Cognitive Theory, might have
offered additional insights into the experiences of African American officers. However, choosing
to use Bronfenbrenner's ESM narrowed the focus of this study to the specific research questions
this study aimed to answer.

100
The qualitative study used in-depth interviews as the primary data collection method.
While this approach allowed for a rich understanding of the lived experiences of African
American G/FOs, it limits the study's transferability due to the small number of participants
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I encourage future research to consider employing mixed methods
or quantitative approaches to expand the scope and transferability of the findings.
The study's focus on African American G/FOs delimited the investigation by excluding
the perspectives of officers who faced similar barriers but did not achieve the G/FO ranks. This
choice provided insights into the experiences of successful officers but only partially represented
the range of experiences within the broader African American officer population. This
delimitation also aligns the study with the goals of “promising practice” research, focusing on
understanding successful experiences to generalize findings and expand the implementation of
successful practices. While interpreting the study's findings, I applied appropriate caution and
contextual understanding by acknowledging the study’s stated limitations and delimitations.
Furthermore, these considerations now inform future research to address the identified gaps and
expand the knowledge of barriers to diversity among G/FOs in the DoD.

101
Appendix D: Ethics
The ethical conduct of research involving human participants is paramount, as it protects
their rights, dignity, and well-being (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I implemented measures in this
study to ensure ethical standards and maintain research integrity.
Information Sheet (Informed Consent): Before data collection, I provided each participant
with the University of Southern California’s information sheet (Appendix F) outlining the
purpose of the study, the nature of their involvement, the potential risks and benefits, and their
rights as research participants (APA, 2017). I answered and clarified any questions the
participants asked and sought before deciding whether to participate. By providing the
information sheet, the study adhered to respect for persons, recognizing their autonomy and right
to make informed decisions about their participation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Voluntary Participation: Participation in the study was entirely voluntary. I informed the
participants that they could withdraw from the study without penalty or consequences (APA,
2017). This approach aligned with the ethical principle of beneficence (U.S., 1978), ensuring I
did not coerce or pressure the participants into participating in the research (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
Confidentiality: I employed strategies to protect participants' privacy and ensure the
confidentiality of the data. I removed all identifying information from the transcripts and used
pseudonyms of their choosing for each participant (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Additionally,
any information that could potentially identify participants, such as their specific rank or
location, was anonymized (APA, 2017).
Permission to Record: I received consent from all participants to record the interviews as
part of the data collection process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I assured the participants that the

102
recordings were only for transcription and analysis. The participants’ recordings are in a secure
location. I will dispose of the recordings appropriately after any follow-up research in
compliance with regulations for research data retention (APA, 2017).
Data Storage and Security: I stored all data, including interview recordings, transcripts,
and field notes, on my computer, which you must access using biometric authentication. I
ensured the participants that only a professional transcription service and I could access the data
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). I will remove personal information and follow institutional
guidelines and ethical standards by securely storing and erasing the data after any follow-up
research (APA, 2017).
Having addressed these ethical considerations and adhering to the principles of respect
for persons, beneficence, and justice, the study ensured the protection and well-being of the
participants, maintaining the integrity and trustworthiness of the research process (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).

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Appendix E: Interview Protocol
From African American generals: A multiple case study of motivation and success strategies, by
C. S. Basham Jr, 2013. On July 6, 2023, Dr. Basham permitted me to adapt his interview guide
for this study.
Script
Hello, I am Michael Files. Thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to participate
in this qualitative study on the development of African American general and flag officers
(G/FOs). Protection of your privacy is paramount; your data recordings will receive an
identifiable and unique code. I plan to transcribe the interview; however, if I cannot, I will
request a professional transcription service to transcribe the recording. I will keep your notes safe
on my computer, which you must access using biometric authentication, and dispose of them
after completing my dissertation and any follow-up research in compliance with regulations for
research data retention. If you decide to withdraw from this study, there are no consequences,
and the study will not include any of your collected data. If there are no questions, I will begin
recording the interview and start with demographic data.
Research questions:
• How do the perceptions of microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and chronosystem
factors impact the persistence of African American officers in advancing to G/FO ranks?
• What strategies do African American G/FOs perceive could increase the number of
African American G/FOs in the DoD?
Pre-interview demographic information:

104
• Please provide your full name, gender, age, race/ethnicity, marital status, the highest level
of education, current occupation, retired rank, branch of service, last uniformed position
held, and length of service.
• Describe your educational background (e.g., high school, collegiate, and advanced
education—classes, grades, extracurricular activities (both in and out of school), support
network, influencers, and propensity to serve in the armed forces) and explain how these
experiences prepared you for a distinguished career.
Interview:
1. Summarize your professional experience as an officer in the Department of Defense.
2. Discuss specific positions, assignments, or professional development opportunities that
contributed to your persistence as a general and flag officer. Can you elaborate on one or
two of the most influential?
3. Discuss significant interactions with junior (subordinates), near-peer, and senior
(supervisors) personnel that influenced your leadership style and professional growth,
and explain how these interactions impacted your career.
4. Describe the professional and personal challenges you faced in your career and discuss
how you overcame them.
5. What role do you believe mentorship, sponsorship, and championship play in supporting
the career advancement of African American officers? Discuss how the meanings of
these terms evolved throughout your career.
6. Describe professional and personal support networks and associations that positively
impacted your career (e.g., the Air Force Cadet Officer Mentor Association, the National

105
Naval Officers Association, the ROCKS, Inc., fraternal/sororal, career field-specific,
etc.).
7. During your career, what cultural shifts or changes in societal attitudes did you observe
that impacted your opportunities for career advancement as an African American officer?
8. Describe how the Department of Defense, specifically your branch of service, can
improve the recruitment and retention of African American officers.
9. What is your opinion on the representation of African American general and flag officers
in the Department of Defense, and how might this impact the organization's
effectiveness?
10. Please discuss how the Department of Defense addresses potential systemic barriers or
biases that may hinder African American officers' career progression to general and flag
officer ranks. Additionally, please suggest any policy changes to enhance future
representation.
Thank you again for your time. I will send you a transcript of the interview shortly; please
review and validate the accuracy of the information and tone. Also, as a reminder, for your
participation in today’s interview, I will donate $100 to Resolve Solutions, Inc. on your behalf. If
you have any questions about the interview or the study, please contact me at 619.245.8651 or
filesm@usc.edu. Have an enjoyable day and a purposeful week.

106
Appendix F: University of Southern California Information Sheet
My name is Michael Files, and I am a University of Southern California student. I am
conducting a crucial research study to understand the significant barriers that African American
officers face within the Department of Defense, which persist to general or flag officers based on
their lived experiences. The name of this impactful research study is “Follow the Drinking
Gourd: Command, Citizenship, and Legacy.” I am seeking your valuable participation in this
study.
Your participation is entirely voluntary, and I will address your questions or concerns at
any point before or during the study.
You may be eligible to participate in this study if you meet the following criteria:
1. Self-identify as Black or African American.
2. A retired U.S. general or flag officer (O-7 to O-10) in the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army,
U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, or U.S. Space Force.
3. Willingness to share your experiences and insights related to your career in the
Department of Defense, barriers to advancement, and factors that contributed to your
persistence to general or flag officer.
If you decide to participate in this study, I ask that you do the following activities:
1. Complete an online demographic survey (10 questions) for 10-15 minutes
2. Participate in a 1:1 online interview (10 questions) over Zoom for 45-60 minutes
3. Review your interview transcript via email for 10-15 minutes
After you complete the above research activities, I will donate $100 to Resolve Solutions,
Inc. (www.resolvesolutions.org) as a token of appreciation for your valuable participation in this

107
research study. Your insights will contribute significantly to our understanding of the barriers
faced by African American officers.
I will take all necessary measures to protect the security of your personal information. All
data will be de-identified before any publication or presentation. I may share your de-identified
data with other researchers in the future. Your privacy and security are of the utmost importance
to us.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me at (619) 245-8651 or
filesm@usc.edu. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please
contact the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or
email hrpp@usc.edu.

108
Appendix G: “Follow the Drinking Gourd” Career Map
This appendix presents supplementary information with additional context and details
regarding the “Follow the Drinking Gourd” career map:
Commissioning and Early Career
★ Explore Diverse Commissioning Sources: To increase your chances of selection and
success, research and choose the best commissioning source for you, including ROTC, service
academies, and Officer Candidate Schools.
★ Attain a STEM or BS Degree: Pursue a degree in a STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, Mathematics) field or a Bachelor of Science. Military leadership roles increasingly
value these disciplines and can provide a solid foundation for future technical positions.
★ Aim to be a Distinguished Graduate and Ranked #1: Striving for excellence in
academics, physical fitness, and leadership roles during your commissioning program and career.
Becoming a Distinguished Graduate and achieving #1 rankings will open opportunities and boost
your career. Master your specialty and any subspecialties, and volunteer for critical collateral
duties.
★ Pursue Combat Career Fields: Consider selecting combat career fields upon
commissioning. These fields often provide more significant opportunities for career
advancement and promotion to general and flag officer ranks.
★ Engage in Early Career Development Programs: Become the “go-to” junior officer
in your new job. Your branch of service will provide career development programs, valuable
training, mentorship, and leadership opportunities. Take advantage of these opportunities.
Develop excellent communication skills (writing and speaking).

109
★ Involve Family (close friends and mentors) in Career Planning: Engage close
friends, family, and mentors (as applicable) in discussions about career planning to ensure their
support and understanding of the demands and benefits of your military career.
Leadership and Professional Development
★ Align Career Aspirations with Service Needs: To enhance your chances of career
advancement, ensure your career aspirations align with the needs and values of your branch of
service. Identify and achieve key career-specific milestones, being flexible in assignments to
gain diverse experiences (https://rb.gy/vfchz2).
★ Pursue Command Positions and other Leadership Roles: Actively seek command
and staff assignments, excel in your job (Be #1), and maximize opportunities for leadership roles
by volunteering for challenging assignments throughout your career.
★ Engage in Career Development Programs: Participate in career development
programs and initiatives that prepare you for higher-level command and staff positions, such as
civilian graduate schools, service and war colleges, and fellowships (i.e., White House
Fellowship).
★ Seek Advanced Training and Education: Take advantage of the advanced training
and educational opportunities your branch of service offers to enhance your skills and knowledge
in your career field.
★ Foster a Culture of Accountability: Promote accountability, implement mentorship
programs, support family wellness initiatives, and demonstrate ethical leadership.

110
★ Master the Promotion Process: Know how to decipher and write effective
evaluations (know your and your rater’s trait averages). Develop the skills to provide clear and
constructive feedback that supports professional growth and development. Volunteer to serve on
selection, promotion, and special boards to gain experience and insight – early and often!
★ Build Resilience and Health: Prioritize mental and physical health with regular
fitness, healthy eating, and mental health resources. Foster a supportive environment and
promote work-life integration. Conduct regular check-ins and advocate for programs to enhance
resilience and health for you, your personnel, and their families.
Networking and Mentorship
★ Seek Out Mentorship Early: Actively seek mentorship from senior officers early in
your career to gain insights, advice, and support to help you navigate your career. You should
seek mentors from diverse backgrounds, i.e., different races, genders, career fields, branches of
service, etc., to ensure you receive different perspectives.
★ Participate in Mentorship Programs: Participate in mentorship programs to receive
support from successful senior officers and mentor junior officers by sharing your experiences
and providing guidance.
★ Build a Strong Network: Engage in unit social activities. Build and maintain a
professional network within and outside the military to access support, advice, and opportunities.
Join professional organizations such as AFCOMA, NNOA, and ROCKS, Inc. Attend career
development events to expand your network and gain valuable insights. Use organizations for
411, not 911.

111
Values and Community Impact
★ Uphold Core Military Values: Always embody your branch of service core values in
all your actions. Lead by example: Show commitment to your values, service, and community,
inspiring others to follow suit.
★ Serve the Community (Military Ambassador): Participate in community service to
give back, enhance military reputation, and build civilian-military relations. Mentor and inspire
youth by engaging with patriotic youth organizations (https://rb.gy/x23bnv) to instill patriotism
and encourage military careers.
★ Share Success Stories: Share your success stories and the stories of other officers to
inspire and motivate others to pursue and persist in military careers.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract African Americans are visible in the Department of Defense, but there is a lack of equitable representation in general and flag officer ranks. This qualitative study sought to understand the experiences of African American officers who successfully persisted in the general and flag officer ranks. The study used Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model to understand their career progression to general and flag officer. Nine retired African American general and flag officer participants representing each service provided insight into the factors impacting their persistence to general and flag officer and strategies to increase the number of African American general and flag officers in the Department of Defense. The study drew upon interviews and relevant documents, providing evidence-based recommendations to support African American officers’ career progression and increase their representation amongst the general and flag officer corps. The study addresses the lack of diversity in senior leadership, impacting decision-making processes and perpetuating systemic racial inequalities. Mentorship and equitable access to career development resources are vital to a successful career within the Department of Defense. The study strongly encourages transparent reporting processes and sustained dialogue with African American affinity groups. Policy revisions and enhanced accountability measures are necessary to promote equity in promotion practices and improve access to opportunities. Future research should focus on effective strategies to further the career advancement of African American officers. Addressing the underrepresentation of African Americans within the Department of Defense requires a multifaceted approach that acknowledges systemic barriers and biases while promoting fairness and inclusivity.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Files, Michael (author)

Core Title Follow the drinking gourd: a qualitative study on the underrepresentation of African American general and flag officers in the Department of Defense

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 01/30/2025

Defense Date 01/30/2025

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag African American,Bronfenbrenner,Department of Defense (DoD),ecological systems model (ESM),general and flag officer (G/FO),OAI-PMH Harvest,underrepresentation

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hyde, Corinne (committee chair), Maddox, Anthony (committee member), Riddick, Christopher (committee member)

Creator Email filesm@usc.edu,michael_files@yahoo.com

Unique identifier UC11399FVTB

Identifier etd-FilesMicha-13797.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-FilesMicha-13797

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Files, Michael

Internet Media Type application/pdf

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Source 20250131-usctheses-batch-1239 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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