Secondary teachers’ perceptions of transformative social and emotional learning strategies: the benefits and barriers of implementation

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Content Secondary Teachers’ Perceptions of Transformative Social and Emotional Learning
Strategies: The Benefits and Barriers of Implementation
Jamie Pelen Ochoa
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2025

© Copyright by Jamie Pelen Ochoa 2025
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jamie Pelen Ochoa certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Gregory Franklin
Alison Muraszewski
Maria Ott, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2025

iv
Abstract
This study applies the social cognitive theory (SCT) that describes the triadic reciprocal
determinism (TRD) to understand the interpersonal, behavioral, and environmental factors of
teacher self-efficacy when implementing transformative social and emotional learning (T-SEL).
The purpose of this study was to gain perspective on teacher experiences regarding the
implementation T-SEL and sought to determine how professional development (PD) affected
their self-efficacy. Using a qualitative approach to data collection, 14 teachers from one high
school were interviewed and coding was used for data analysis. Findings from this study indicate
that teachers came across challenges when enacting T-SEL due to a lack of administrative
support and time in the instructional day. Teachers expressed that PD played an integral role in
building their toolbox of T-SEL strategies, but time for collaboration, modeling, practice, and
feedback with their colleagues following PD would contribute positively to their self-efficacy.
When district and school administrators provide teachers with this time, T-SEL implementation
will thrive. This study begins to bridge a gap between teachers’ perceptions of their self-efficacy
enacting T-SEL and how improving the PD cycle can further support implementation to support
students of underserved communities.

v
Dedication
To my husband Gaston, thank you for your love, faith, encouragement, and delicious meals you
provided that sustained me throughout this dissertation journey. You and our sweet dogs,
Chancho and Dayzee, stayed by my side through it all and I love you with all my heart.
To my mom Corazon, brothers Justin and James Anthony, sister-in-law Justine, nephew Noah,
and niece Kyrie, I am in awe at how we stuck together through grief and loss these last few
years. Despite the many tears, we broke through the sadness. Without your love and the laughter,
I would have fallen apart. I made it through this doctoral journey with your support. Thank you.
To my family and friends, thank you for being there to listen to me through my ups and downs,
and for giving me hugs when I needed them. I am grateful for you all.
To my trusted doctors, thank you keeping me sane through this process. Your care did wonders
for my health and wellness in writing about a topic so dear to me. You helped me practice what I
advocate for in this dissertation.
To my dad in Heaven, I know you’re looking down on me with proud eyes. Thank you for all the
prayers. I miss you. I know you are with me.
To God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, I surrendered myself to You and You took care of
everything. Thank You for being my constant in the tumult of this doctoral program. It was
worth it all, for the sake of Your glory.

vi
Acknowledgments
This dissertation experience shaped me as a lifelong learner and educator in ways I could
only imagine prior to this doctoral program. With the help of other esteemed educators, I was
able to achieve such a feat. Thank you Dr. Maria Ott, my dissertation chairperson, for believing
in me and encouraging me to do my best. Your affirmation of my work helped build confidence I
needed, to believe that my topic was worth the research and effort. Thank you to Dr. Gregory
Franklin and Dr. Alison Muraszewski for your support and feedback as my committee members
and professors. You inspired me tremendously in this program. I am grateful for the Rossier
School of Education for an excellent experience, and especially for all my professors. Your
expertise inspired this work.
Thank you to my dissertation cohort for your encouragement through such a task. We
have been through a lot as we balanced writing, work, and life. We were each others’
cheerleaders and I appreciate you all for helping me do my best to stay the course and push
through.
Last, but not least, I thank my Tuesday night cohort for a wonderful three years. It was a
trying time for me in many ways, and without you, I would not be here celebrating this
accomplishment. This is just the beginning for us as Doctors of Education, and as we stay in
touch, I look forward to seeing where our journey continues. Thank you all, from the bottom of
my heart.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study.............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 5
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 6
About the Researcher.......................................................................................................... 6
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 7
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 11
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 11
Growth and Development of SEL..................................................................................... 12
SEL Practices and Strategies ............................................................................................ 15
Teacher PD Programs on SEL Implementation................................................................ 19
T-SEL Through an Equity Lens........................................................................................ 20
Teacher Perceptions.......................................................................................................... 22
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework........................................................................... 25
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 28
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 31
Research Questions........................................................................................................... 32

viii
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 32
Sample and Population of Research Participants.............................................................. 33
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 33
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 34
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 35
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 37
Participants........................................................................................................................ 38
Findings for Research Question 1..................................................................................... 40
Discussion: Research Question 1...................................................................................... 50
Findings for Research Question 2..................................................................................... 51
Discussion: Research Question 2...................................................................................... 59
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 60
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 62
Discussion of Findings...................................................................................................... 63
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 67
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 71
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................... 72
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 73
Connection to the Rossier School of Education Mission.................................................. 74
Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 75
References..................................................................................................................................... 76
Appendix A: Screening Instrument .............................................................................................. 82
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 84
Five Competencies of T-SEL............................................................................................ 84

ix
Concepts From Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview.............. 84
Interview Introduction ...................................................................................................... 85
Interview Questions .......................................................................................................... 86
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 89

x
List of Tables
Table 1: List of Participants 39
Table 2: The Five Emerging Competencies of Transformative Social and
Emotional Learning As Defined in the Interview Questions
41

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 26
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework Revisited 53

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Policies at the federal and state levels reflect the importance of social and emotional
learning (SEL) and research-based benefits that result in the implementation of SEL in schools.
SEL aims to focus on “all aspects of children’s learning and development, including social
emotional skills,” which has been called the “missing piece” in education (Gayl, 2017, p. 1).
Overall, the federally adopted Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) seeks to improve the
conditions of students to support student learning, and the California Dashboard is designed to
track student achievement, suspension rates, school culture and climate to hold schools and
districts accountable for consistent improvement to meet the standards. Embedded in this focus
on the “whole child approach,” SEL remains a priority to address student social and emotional
needs (California Department of Education, 2023). In addressing this priority, leaders in local
educational agencies (LEAs) must provide support through professional development (PD) to
teachers, who interact with students the most. It is important to address the benefits and barriers
teachers face by discovering their perceptions of the effect of SEL on students’ wellness and
well-being. Also, a form of SEL that allows students and adults build strong relationships that
are needed to build strong school and community engagement is transformative SEL (T-SEL). It
focuses on equity-based practices and inclusive communities through a social justice lens. T-SEL
serves the underserved populations by using strategies more culturally relevant for students of
color, low income, and immigrant students. Incorporating SEL with T-SEL will allow schools to
pursue equity in education, to affirm the strengths of marginalized students and developing their
relationship to their school and community (Jagers et al., 2021).
Teaching students the ability to be self-aware socially and mentally, to manage their
emotions, and focus on building relationships to make responsible decisions correlates with

2
academic success and enhanced career performance (Gayl, 2017). In addition, the perception of
teachers when implementing SEL strategies “shape their enthusiasm for teaching,” which
impacts teacher engagement with their students (Ee & Cheng, 2013, p. 60). Teacher self-efficacy
impacts student-teacher relationships and the success of SEL implementation (Poulou,
2017). How teachers perceive SEL is linked to how they manage themselves and their
relationships in the school setting and provides a foundation of understanding of their role in
implementing SEL strategies in an equitable manner, among diverse learners (Kennedy,
2019). Upon returning to the classroom post-pandemic, the need for teachers to implement SEL
has been necessary to cope with the stress of being back in school after the uncertainties of a
global lockdown (Kane 2021). To better understand how teachers describe their approach to
implementing SEL to promote student development in positive learning environments, this study
will examine teacher perception of their own self-efficacy through SCT. In addition, this study
will also show how teacher self-efficacy relates to the classroom environments to provide
students access to SEL strategies that are equitable, “developmentally appropriate, culturally
relevant, and attentive to school climate” (White et al., 2022, p. 4). Understanding teacher selfefficacy through the relationship between person, behavior and environment is essential (Rueda,
2011). Teacher self-efficacy also depends on their own emotional intelligence (Poulou, 2017).
Background of the Problem
The role of teachers is integral to the development of young learners through SEL.
Kennedy (2019) states that schools must execute SEL practices to “counteract institutional and
structural biases that drive inequitable outcomes, address the opportunity gap by offering SEL
skill building to students, ensure representation of teachers for students, and include students in
the decision making” (p. 478). The five competencies of the CASEL framework include self-

3
awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision
making (CASEL, 2017). T-SEL expands on these competencies by focusing on rights and
responsibilities of students and adults based on social justice and care for schools and the
community: identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity (CASEL,
2024).
In addition, understanding teacher perception of their own self-efficacy is necessary to
help them “develop their SEL competencies” through “high-quality teacher professional
development” (White et al., 2022, p. 6). In examining teacher self-efficacy through the lens of
social cognitive theory (SCT) and approaches, practices such as goal setting, showing empathy
and building positive relationships depend on teachers’ perceptions of their own emotional
intelligence with regards to their work (Ee & Cheng, 2013; Poulou, 2017). Immordino-Yang
(2018) states that teachers need “productive educational opportunities” to connect to student
learners’ goals (p. 10). This PD for teachers provides active learning opportunities, supports a
collaborative environment among colleagues, models effective practices and offers coaching
opportunities and ongoing support through self-reflection and feedback (Immordino-Yang,
2018). By redefining, refocusing and prioritizing SEL for teachers through PD, and building
opportunities that grant all students access to SEL in the classroom, the overall well-being of
students and educators will improve (Gayl, 2017). Schools and school districts will address the
critical role of positive learning environments and meet federal and state accountability standards
that improve student performance.
When practiced across stages of child development, the use of universal SEL
interventions improves student academic skills by providing tools for social and emotional wellbeing, benefiting students and teachers, as well as overall school culture. Borman et al. (2021)

4
and McCormick et al. (2020) found that SEL interventions across all grade levels are important
to students’ long-term academic success, especially during times of transition between
elementary, middle, and high school levels. Rutledge et al. (2015) determined that the use of
eight components of effective schools created environments that allowed students to balance
academics with social and emotional tools to improve student achievement in various aspects of
curriculum, instruction, and relationships between students, teachers, and leadership, as well as
families and the community. These empirical findings show that if policies reflect the need for
SEL and provide students access to SEL interventions, they will create an equitable, balanced
curriculum in schools where students and all interested parties will thrive.
Statement of the Problem
While teachers are essential to driving instruction of SEL and T-SEL interventions, they
do not feel prepared for or equipped with the necessary tools to improve the dynamic of their
classrooms through SEL due to a lack of knowledge and skills. (Sandilos et al., 2022). Research
on SEL indicates that the health and well-being of students leads to long-term academic success
in school and careers (Gayl, 2017). Sandilos et al. (2022) state that teachers are the primary
instruments delivering SEL practices in the classroom. Understanding teachers’ professional
learning needs on SEL and T-SEL in providing these supports is a critical component of
determining the appropriate PD to provide (Curcio et al., 2023). This study aimed to address
these gaps of knowledge of teacher perceptions of implementing SEL. Adding the element of TSEL also requires PD and support to understand and enact. By addressing the gap of knowledge
between teacher self-efficacy and teacher motivation for implementing SEL and T-SEL, students
will thrive academically, for social and emotional well-being is at the core of educational growth
and improvement.

5
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to gain perspective on teacher experiences regarding the
implementation of SEL and T-SEL. Amid post-pandemic instruction and the focus of SEL
through an equity-oriented lens, this study examined teacher perceptions of the benefits and
barriers to implementing SEL strategies (Gayl, 2017; Kane, 2021; Kennedy 2019). In addition, it
addressed the needs of teachers in terms of support and training to gain knowledge of the
implementation of SEL and build self-efficacy. The focus group for this study was secondary
teachers in a public school who identify as various ethnicities, and whose student body
population consists of at least 70% students of color. This study discovered what teachers need to
build knowledge and self-efficacy to teach SEL lessons and strategies in their classroom that
support student achievement. Through individual interviews, this study compared the
experiences of a select sample of teachers in their use of SEL strategies and discuss their needs
for continued support as drivers of SEL practices.
Two research questions guided this study:
1. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences enacting
transformative social and emotional learning in their classrooms?
2. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences with
professional development related to their implementation of transformative social and
emotional learning?
This study explored the ways in which teachers perceive SEL practices through their own
experiences and what they ascertain as barriers to reaching the whole child. It examined the
effects of their own emotional well-being, or absence of, as a benefit or barrier to building
positive teacher-student relationships and interactions (Sandilos et al., 2022). In turn, after

6
presenting the findings, recommendations were presented to improve teacher knowledge and
self-efficacy through ongoing professional development at the conclusion of this study. The
primary aim of this study was to provide insight into teacher experiences to enact policies that
support teachers in implementing SEL and T-SEL practices in their daily teaching with support
and guidance through coaching and reflection.
Significance of the Study
This study provided insight to the ongoing needs of teachers in supporting their own selfefficacy to lead students in developing social and emotional well-being and focus on the whole
child (Ee & Cheng, 2013). This study hoped to understand the pereptions of teachers in
implementing SEL and T-SEL in the classroom amidst any barriers teachers might face when
creating a safe space and positive atmosphere for students (Allbright et al., 2019; Sandilos et al.,
2022). Poulou (2017) stated that information concerning how teachers’ socioemotional
functioning and wellbeing contribute to the building of effective relationships with students is
“rather limited” (p. 126). Teacher surveys provided limited insight on development of teacher
self-efficacy (White et al., 2022). In discovering what support will be the most beneficial for
teachers, this study provided findings that inform school and district leaders of the policies that
must be in place to provide the means to meet the needs of teachers, which in turn meets the
social and emotional needs of students (Gayl, 2017).
About the Researcher
As an immigrant, woman of color who experienced childhood trauma and lives with a
mental illness, this topic shaped my interest. I have faced my trauma and continue to manage my
mental illness through psychological and psychiatric treatment. I understand first-hand the
importance of social and emotional tools and strategies, and the importance of it to cope with

7
daily stressors. This transfers to my role as an English teacher and my classroom implementation
of SEL. I agree with Poulou (2017) when she stated that SEL skills can benefit both teachers’
and students’ management of themselves, their work, and their relationships. I expected to see
that the parallels between teacher self-efficacy and positive teacher-student relationships lead to
impactful implementation of SEL and T-SEL skills.
My bias toward mental health services and the positive effects of it might have interfered
with this qualitative study through the way I framed my interview questions. I set aside my belief
that I believe all American teachers need a strong sense of self-efficacy in their own lives to be
great teachers, when the truth is that this is not the case. I was aware that there is a stigma around
mental health awareness. I also understood that applying acquired skills of self-regulation
through mental health awareness to SEL in schools is a growing practice since Every Student
Succeeds Act was implemented (CASEL, 2017). These biases might have shaped my study in
my interpretation of the responses to my interview questions. I was cognizant of this and
recorded my interviews with the interviewee’s permission.
Definition of Terms
Collaborative for academic social and emotional learning (CASEL) refers to providing a
framework to “foster knowledge, skills, and attitudes across five areas of social and emotional
competence” and “establish equitable learning environments and coordinate practices across four
key settings that support students’ social, emotional, and academic development” (CASEL,
2023, para. 1). CASEL designed a circle integrating “The CASEL Five,” which consists of
concentric circles surrounding SEL. It defines the roles of teachers in the classroom, the school,
and the greater community and the policies and training provided for the improvement of human
development (CASEL, 2023).

8
CASEL framework consists of five competencies including promoting self-awareness and
social awareness, providing tools for self-management, building relationship skills, and guiding
decision making (CASEL, 2023; White et al., 2022).
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is a federal act that allows flexibility of educators to
shift toward “more positive behavior supports to focus on the whole child” (Kennedy, 2019, p.
474). It provides funding through various titles that can be applied to SEL programs. Title IV,
Part A (the Student Support and Academic Enrichment Grants) is explicitly designed to ensure
students receive a well-rounded education, which can include SEL programs. ESSA requires
states to include at least one non-academic factor in their accountability systems. While many
states chose indicators like absenteeism or graduation rates, this provision does create an opening
for states to consider SEL-related metrics in the future (The Aspen Education & Society Program
and the Council of Chief State School Officers, 2016).
Professional development (PD) refers to learning that changes teaching practices and
student learning (Immordino-Yang, 2019). ESSA also recognizes the importance of teacher and
school leader PD in areas beyond traditional academic subjects. The act allows for the use of
federal funds for training educators in techniques to foster safe, healthy, supportive, and drugfree environments that support student academic achievement, which aligns closely with SEL
practices (The Aspen Education & Society Program and the Council of Chief State School
Officers, 2016).
Self-efficacy is an essential variable of SCT and is an indicator of one’s
personal beliefs of their capacity to learn (Schunk, 2020). It demonstrates people’s views about
their capabilities to “design and enact courses of action and designated types of performances”
(White et al., 2022, p. 5). In addition, it reflects self-efficacy in how one controls their own

9
“motivation, behavior and social environment” and influences people’s goals, achievement, and
performance of behavior (APA, 2023).
Social cognitive theory (SCT) by Bandura believes that humans learn and “acquire
knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs and attitudes” in social environments through
modeling (Schunk, 2020, p. 125). It focuses on the relationship between person-behaviorenvironment and how each impacts the other, with the critical factor being the way individuals
perceive and interpret the situations around them (Rueda, 2011).
Social and emotional learning (SEL) is defined as focusing explicitly on factors that are
noncognitive, such as self-awareness, self-management, responsible decision-making
relationship skills, and social awareness (Gayl, 2017; Kennedy, 2019; White et al., 2022).
According to the CASEL website, SEL is the process by which all youth and adults learn and
apply “knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities, manage emotions and
achieve personal and collective goals. SEL allows students and teachers to build relationships
and advance equity through safe and collaborative learning environments” (CASEL, 2023 para.
1).
Sociocultural theory is the belief that the key to human development is the interaction
between the interpersonal (or social), cultural-historical, and individual factors (Schunk, 2020).
This perspective suggests attention to the social contexts of teaching and learning (Nasir et al.,
2021). According to Vygotsky, social environments are critical for learning and social
interactions transform learning experiences (Schunk, 2020).
Teacher self-efficacy is teachers’ beliefs in their competence to teach or affect student
performance in academics as educators. It has been reported in previous qualitative studies that
PD highly contributes to teacher self-efficacy (White et al., 2022).

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Transformative social and emotional learning (T-SEL) is the expanded definition of SEL
by CASEL (2024). It focuses on SEL with a social justice lens to equity and excellence in
schools by redefining the five competencies of SEL, which include identity, agency, belonging,
collaborative problem solving and curiosity. These align with the five core completencies of selfawareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decisionmaking respectively (CASEL, 2024; Jagers, 2021).
Well-being relates to an individual’s physical, mental, and social experiences of “positive
emotions, contentment, sense of purpose, healthy relationships” (Sandilos et al., 2022, p. 191).
Organization of the Study
Secondary Teachers’ Perceptions of Social and Emotional Learning Strategies: The
Benefits and Barriers of Implementation was organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides
an overview of the study, including the background of the problem and the purpose of the
research on how teachers perceive SEL practices in their classroom and school. It also includes
three research questions to respond to at the conclusion of this study. Chapter Two contains a
literature review of previous studies on the topic of teacher self-efficacy and well-being, and how
it relates to the perception of teachers and their implementation of SEL. Chapter Three describes
the research methodology selected for this study, which includes sample and population selection
and data collection via interview questions and observations. Chapter Four compiles and reports
the findings of the research. Chapter Five consists of a summary of the research findings,
practice implications, conclusions, and recommendations. References and appendices are
provided in the conclusion of this research study.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
SEL is a growing practice in schools. Focusing on the well-being of students has become
increasingly essential after the COVID-19 pandemic and distance learning and supported by
federal and state funding (Allbright et al., 2019). Students and teachers alike benefit from the
effects of practicing SEL, yet implementation of the strategies is challenging without proper PD
and training for teachers (Immordino-Yang et al., 2018). In addition, issues of context neutral
and colorblind SEL practices ignore the need for equity that not all PD programs that center
around SEL provide.
This chapter addresses the research surrounding SEL, which is a skill set that provides
competencies critical to the success of students in school and society and the policies that
support it (RAND Corporation, 2017). Upon examining the Collaborative for Academic, Social
and Emotional Learning (CASEL) framework and how certain states in the US implement it in
their classrooms, the history of SEL will be discussed. Related to the CASEL framework is the
study and implementation of transformative SEL (T-SEL) as a form of SEL “intended to
promote equity and excellence among children, young people, and adults” (Jagers et al., 2019, p.
162). This chapter addresses teacher perceptions of SEL through the lens of self-efficacy related
to SCT. Finally, SEL practices and strategies and its empirical research will be revealed.
Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to address the gaps in knowledge and self-efficacy in teacher
perceptions of implementing SEL. Teachers are expected to teach students self-awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness skills, and responsible decision-making, yet this assumes that
teachers are already skilled in managing their social and emotional well-being (Gayl, 2017;
Poulou, 2017). PD plays a role in teachers’ development of social and emotional competencies to

12
build self-efficacy in implementing SEL and is suggested to be of high quality to shape
classroom and school conditions (White et al., 2022).
Growth and Development of SEL
The CASEL framework has been adopted in federal and state policies in developing SEL.
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) recognizes the need for SEL in schools. This act
provides federal funding to the states and local educational agencies (LEA) to develop these
plans to enact SEL (Gayl, 2017). The growth and development of SEL programs stems from
historic educational reforms and initiatives that attempted to improve academic performance in
students but instead failed to address the “missing piece of America’s education system” (Gayl,
2017, p. 1). Dusenbury et al. (2020) states that CASEL’s development of SEL frameworks and
standards under ESSA helps states create competencies that further develop SEL programs for
LEAs to adopt, such as multi-tiered systems of support and positive behavior intervention
systems. However, while this creates a baseline for the implementation of SEL in schools, there
is more content for school administrators and teachers to learn.
Furthermore, federal and state policies and standards outline the skills students need to
know and understand to grow in school and life (Dusenbury et al., 2020; Eklund et al., 2019;
Gayl, 2017). The CASEL framework of SEL focuses on teaching “self-awareness, selfmanagement, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making,” which
provides a basis for what students must learn and what teachers must teach (Gayl, 2017, p. 1).
Additionally, Dusenbury et al. (2020) state that students thrive academically when they are
“healthy, safe, engaged, supported, and challenged” (p. 11). When federal and state policies align
their goals to focus on student well-being, SEL competencies become the priority in the
classroom, where educators can focus on the whole child.

13
SEL and Teaching the Whole Child
The term “SEL” represents the aspects of the whole child that are not found in academic
instruction but support the well-being of children through teachers, the family, and the
community (Allbright et al., 2019; APA, 2015; Immordino-Yang et al., 2018). In the classroom,
a student’s motivation is driven by the teacher’s persistent communication of their expectations,
which primarily comes from teachers providing emotional support to provide conditions for
students to thrive, which leads their decisions to engage more fully in academics (APA, 2015).
Immordino-Yang et al. (2018) state that providing purposeful opportunities for learning “requires
educators to attend to the development of the whole child context” (p. 16). Thus, SEL programs
can create a positive climate within the classroom, the school, and the greater community,
allowing students to feel safe socially, emotionally, and physically (Allbright et al., 2019).
Addressing students' social and emotional well-being by creating a safe environment
includes emotional support and a sense of community, which leads to child self-regulation for
academic success (APA, 2015; Gayl, 2017; Immordino-Yang et al., 2018). Self-regulatory skills
can be taught by teachers through “direct instruction, modeling, support, and classroom
organization and structure” (APA, 2015, p. 13). These teaching skills allow students to feel
comfortable participating in class activities by being included by the teacher and their peers.
Teachers create a social environment that is emotionally safe for students (Immordino-Yang et
al., 2018). Key standards of SEL make up a set of approaches that lead to self-regulation,
according to CASEL (Gayl, 2017). The teacher’s role in the dynamics of student well-being
affects students' success, as they are the leaders in the classroom that create unity and safety.

14
The Importance of SEL Skills on Academic Success
The studies that drive federal and state policies say that supporting positive behavior in
the classroom daily affects academic performance, and the absence of SEL in the classroom
contributes to negative outcomes on student academics (Allbright et al., 2019; Eklund et al.,
2019; Yang et al., 2018). The policymaker support provided to schools that are in place at the
local level sends the message that administrators and teachers care about positive behaviors and
encourages students to exhibit the class expectations (Eklund et al., 2019). Consequently,
according to Yang et al. (2018), SEL leads to environmental-organizational change. In addition
to these affirming results of SEL, Allbright et al. (2019) found that policymakers could do more
to support districts by providing PD and support from personnel dedicated to SEL
implementation. While federal and state policies fund SEL programs, more can be done for
districts and schools that prepare teachers to instruct these practices.
Allbright et al. (2019) designed a study on SEL strategies that explores “a set of positive
outliers, or schools … that exhibit behaviors or strategies that have yielded better solutions or
results” among eight school districts in California (p. 39). They assessed the practices of SEL
enacted in these districts and the challenges they faced in implementing these practices. This
study was created in response to ESSA’s requirement for states to “measure at least one indicator
of ‘school quality or student success,’ which can look like student engagement, school quality,
and engagement” (p. 36). Supporting and promoting a positive climate, teaching strategies for
managing emotions, leading restorative practices, enforcing clear values and expectations, and
training new and veteran teachers in SEL-specific classroom practices and curricula are what
Allbright et al. (2019) reported as effective school-level practices to support student SEL.

15
Yang et al. (2018), in a study on student engagement through school-wide SEL, found
that when SEL interventions are in place, students’ attachment and attitudes towards school
improve. This leads to improved “social attendance, higher motivation, and higher morale” (p.
46). However, this study examined more to learn about recognizing the teacher’s roles that lead
to self-efficacy in enacting SEL practices. While it shows a positive correlation between teacherstudent and student-student relationships with SEL learning in the classroom, teacher selfefficacy is contingent upon PD for teachers to promote student engagement.
CASEL examined five key strategies for states to plan and promote SEL in schools.
These include envisioning student success comprehensively, providing PD for educators,
identifying specific interventions in school improvement plans, utilizing Title IV grants to fund
SEL programs, and collect data to share with district and school communities (Allbright et al.,
2019; Gayl, 2017). If policy makers and educational leaders support this effort to create common
understanding of SEL with the community and invest the funds available to enact SEL practices
and strategies, student academic success will improve. This will exemplify teaching the whole
child.
SEL Practices and Strategies
Addressing the social and emotional difficulties students face upon meeting new students
in the advancement between elementary school, middle school, and high school can impact
student success in these stressful transitions (Borman et al., 2021). In addition, students in lowincome or urban schools who have access to SEL programs experience a positive change in
school culture and instructional practices in the classroom (Rutledge, 2015). The need for
empirical research on SEL practices in schools continues to assist LEAs in examining the goals
and local policies that public education has in place (Gayl, 2017). By examining the empirical

16
studies in SEL to allow policymakers to review research-based methods to address all aspects of
children’s learning, LEAs will find what works for them to address and ensure equity in
education.
Impact of SEL on Student Academic Performance
The following case studies assessed the aspects of SEL and the historical knowledge of
teacher experiences when enacting SEL in their classrooms. This research aimed to discover the
outcomes of students who are given access to SEL resources and highlight research-based
practices that may help policymakers adopt and design systems that help every student succeed.
The researchers found positive impacts of these SEL programs on students. They include
increased development and achievement, academic success in math and English, and improved
classroom instructions and environment (Borman et al., 2021; McCormick et al., 2020; Rutledge
et al., 2015).
Rutledge et al. (2015) conducted a year-long comparative case study exploring the impact
of SEL on student achievement in urban schools (p. 1060). The researchers found that the two
high schools that are higher performing had structures and programs in place that maintained a
balance between the academic and social learning needs of students, a structure they call
“personalization for academic and social emotional learning” (PASL). Rutledge et al. (2015)
argued that SEL bears equal importance on student development, achievement, and academic
success as instruction alone. They stated that there is empirical evidence that identifies specific
programs, policies, and practices that schools use to improve student achievement among
English learners and poor and minoritized students. After analyzing the data using the eightcomponent framework, it was found that the most significant difference between the higher and
lower-performing schools was the school’s implementation of SEL. The use of personalized

17
learning connections and relationship-building by teachers encouraged students to become more
involved in school extracurricular activities. School culture was more positive, parental
involvement was high, leadership expected excellence among students and faculty, and the
schools used data to drive their policies and decisions.
McCormick et al. (2020) studied the effects of the SEL program INSIGHTS into
Children’s Temperament on long-term skills in math and language skills among elementary
students. After the experimental study, English Language Arts (ELA) and Math test scores were
evaluated using z-scoring to standardize scores within grade, subject, and testing year. Full test
scores were measured rather than categorical measures for more statistically significant results.
In discussing the findings and factors related to this longitudinal study, the researchers
questioned the reasons for why the transition from elementary school to middle school in fifth to
sixth grade. They determined that factors such as the phase of development “where peer
relationships become increasingly salient, and children experience downward shifts in selfesteem, efficacy, and engagement” impacts students’ social-emotional well-being (McCormick
et al., 2020, p. 20).
Borman et al. (2021) studied the building assets, reducing risks (BARR) model on ninthgrade students. BARR is meant to increase graduation rates by addressing the social and
emotional difficulties and stress that students face when transitioning from middle school to high
school. After implementing the BARR model with fidelity in no fewer than two-thirds of the
eleven schools being studied, the results suggest that the BARR model “is a promising
intervention that can improve the experiences and outcomes of 9th-grade students and their
teachers” (Borman et al., 2021, p. 830). This model requires schools to create small learning
communities where students have common teachers in core subjects and a school schedule that

18
allows for “block meetings” and “risk review meetings” (p. 830). After conducting qualitative
interviews with teachers regarding the relationships built between them and their students, the
study determined that the BARR model created positive impacts on classroom instruction and
environment.
These three case studies found that SEL intervention programs improve students’
academic success through SEL tools that improve the well-being of students and teachers
(Borman et al., 2021; McCormick et al., 2020; Rutledge et al., 2015). These, in turn, affect
school culture overall. Rutledge et al. (2015) found that SEL programs need structure
personalized learning experiences, and teacher relationship building. Additionally, McCormick
et al. (2020) state that student wellness through SEL requires interventions focusing on
development phases. Finally, Borman et al. (2021) discovered that schools thrive on small
learning communities to personalize student learning experiences. This shows that the structure
of SEL programs matters in creating successful results in student improvement through the five
competencies of the CASEL framework.
Teachers’ Role in Implementing SEL
The well-being of teachers plays a vital role in the success of SEL programs and
interventions. Educators recognize that teachers are the essential drivers of SEL in instilling
behavior, thinking, self-control, and motivational and engagement skills in students (McCormick
et al., 2020; Sandilos et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2018). However, teacher well-being makes a
difference in how SEL is implemented in the classroom. Yang et al. (2018) state that teachers’
“stress, job satisfaction, and teaching efficacy” are factors to take into consideration in
determining the positive effects of SEL interventions (p. 47). These factors determine teacher
self-efficacy as it relates to social-cognitive theory, in that knowledge of SEL alone does not

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create self-efficacy in implementing SEL (Schunk, 2020; Yang et al., (2018). McCormick et al.
(2020) state that positive interactions, the management of thoughts and feelings, and the ability
to stay calm when upset not only apply to student-to-student interactions but also to teacher-tostudent interactions. Teachers deliver the initial SEL strategies to the students and must have a
good grasp on their own stressors to change the classroom dynamics (Sandilos et al., 2022). As a
result, it is important for schools and school districts to provide comprehensive PD opportunities
that focus on teacher well-being.
Teacher PD Programs on SEL Implementation
PD and training for teachers is crucial to the implementation of SEL. While federal and
state policies provide funding for SEL programs, school districts must create opportunities for
teachers to learn how to serve the students with SEL strategies (Bridgeland et al., 2013; Curcio et
al., 2023; Huck et al., 2023). However, Bridgeland et al., (2013) state that resources are not
allocated evenly across grade levels, and high schools feel that this has a negative impact,
inhibiting students from becoming “knowledgeable, responsible, caring, and contributing
individuals” (p. 10). In a survey of teachers’ perceptions of SEL, they found that high school
teachers are less likely to receive professional training in SEL (47%). In comparison, preschool
and elementary teachers receive it more (60%). Yet teachers report that they have the eagerness
to learn and want more support from the district to implement these strategies, positive behavior
intervention systems specifically (Curcio et al., 2023). Huck et al., (2023) assert that SEL is a
cost-effective investment. With proper training, teachers will implement SEL with fidelity. Their
study on teacher perceptions of SEL in schools and classrooms determined that teachers believe
they should have received more training on working with diverse kids, especially those who live
with trauma. Additionally, they found that teachers need follow-up discussions after PD with

20
their staff to ensure implementation of SEL is done right. Teachers need district and school
leadership support in providing time for teachers to reflect on their own well-being to build the
self-efficacy they need to conduct SEL in their classrooms.
T-SEL Through an Equity Lens
While educational leaders recognize the importance of SEL for students, others argue that
in its general sense, believing that every student needs these interventions is not enough. CASEL
(2024) states that “some students are not currently experiencing opportunities and environments
that maximize their learning potential” (para. 2). Additionally, many other factors must be
considered in implementing the CASEL framework, such as socioeconomic status, race, and
disability status. As a result of existing gaps in educational opportunities, CASEL encourages
schools to utilize T-SEL, which focuses on skills for “individual success, interpersonal relations,
and community-building, as well as skills needed to ensure democratic, fair, and inclusive
communities” (CASEL, 2024 para. 4). The concept of T-SEL seeks to articulate the ways SEL
can address and mitigate the dynamics between educational, social, and economic inequities that
have developed throughout the United States in the form of generations of “racialized cultural
oppression” (Jagers et al., 2019, p. 163). T-SEL aims to serve underserved communities through
SEL that is culturally relevant for our students of color, low-income students, and immigrant
students by building on student identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and
curiosity (CASEL, 2024). It aims to build equitable opportunities for students and teachers to
address issues surrounding the marginalized student population.
Targeting the Marginalized Student Population
T-SEL targets the needs of marginalized students by supporting positive behavior,
combating bullying, and victimizing, and promoting equity (Allbright et al., 2019; Jagers et al.,

21
2019; Nickerson et al., 2019). T-SEL learning practices encourage additional research examining
emerging efforts intended to “ameliorate educational inequities” (Allbright et al., 2019, pp. 46–
47). It uses targeted approaches for marginalized students by supporting positive behavior. TSEL helps combat bullying and victimizing the “other” through schoolwide interventions that
positively affect school culture (Nickerson et al., 2019). It was found that the perception of
bullying related to the perception of school climate, where student exposure to SEL instruction,
perception of bullying, and victimization decreased. T-SEL promotes student growth and
development to develop “justice-oriented global citizens” (Jagers et al., 2019, p. 166). Through
skill development and risk prevention, community building and multicultural education, and
project-based learning and culturally relevant teaching, T-SEL addresses the five competencies
of self-awareness, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making of
CASEL.
A Comparison Between Conventional SEL and T-SEL
Conventional SEL, which describes the five competencies developed originally by
CASEL, lacks a focus on minoritized groups and issues of power and privilege and may instill
fear among groups of local and national leaders (Huck et al., 2023; McGovern, 2023; White et
al., 2022). It shies away from providing teaching opportunities for students to interrogate social
inequities in their lives and in society. At the same time, T-SEL’s framework addresses the
limitations of conventional SEL by taking it a step further and examining inequities and social
justice issues closely to “disrupt the reproduction of such inequities” (McGovern, 2023, p. 2).
Conventional SEL does not offer a focus on minoritized racial and ethnic groups who do not
experience such social and emotional well-being. Conventional SEL expression is affected by
power and privilege issues (White et al., 2022). Western norms are perpetuated, including anti-

22
blackness and other cultural biases. Integrating social justice as the center of the CASEL
framework and developmental approaches that examine the beliefs of educators leads to
equitable practices of SEL. Additionally, Huck et al. (2023) state that SEL overall has been a
“focus on recent political debate and rhetoric,” where politicians have been sending misleading
messages about it by “misconstruing SEL in discussion on critical race theory,” producing fear
around in the public and political world (Huck et al., p. 2). On the contrary, part of teaching in
learning means to set aside these fears and biases to promote learning and combat inequities.
According to APA (2015), Principle 11 of teaching and learning, teachers are the primary
instruments to communicate high expectations. Teacher biases may surface, inadvertently
leading to treatment based on bias. Conversely, it is important that “race, gender and social class
are not solid bases on which to form expectations on student ability” (p. 19). Incorporating social
justice with the five competencies of SEL will address the issues of inequity, power, and
privilege and challenge the societal norms that education perpetuates (Jagers et al., 2019).
CASEL’s reframing of conventional SEL, transformed by the lens examining race,
language, gender, and disability status, aims to reach all children and fill the gaps in
implementing SEL in schools. CASEL states that they do not provide a prescribed program for
T-SEL; rather, they leave the planning to the school leaders to decide what is best for the
community. By focusing on identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and
curiosity, the five competencies for SEL, schools are building inclusive communities (CASEL,
2024).
Teacher Perceptions
By examining teacher perceptions of SEL, researchers discover factors beyond PD that
affect the implementation of SEL strategies and practices. Teacher enactment of SEL depends on

23
their emotional and physical well-being (Poulou, 2017). Studies have found that to understand
teacher perceptions, they must also further assess the relevance of teacher self-care as it relates to
instruction in the classroom.
Teacher Well-Being
Teachers recognize their integral role in supporting SEL, and studies show that their
emotional intelligence (EI) contributes to their perceptions toward addressing student needs
(Curcio et al., 2023; Poulou, 2017; Zee & Koomen, 2016). Poulou (2017), in researching how
teacher well-being affects relationships with students through SEL, found that the information
was limited. However, more studies have been designed to examine the effects of teacher
socioemotional functioning as it builds positive behaviors in the classroom. Curcio et al. (2023)
found that teachers recognize that their self-care is important data in assessing teacher
perceptions of SEL, minding their daily roles. One teacher in their study expressed this as “we
teachers are everything to everyone” (Curcio et al., 2023, p. 12). This may lead to teacher
burnout, stress, and job dissatisfaction, as there is a correlation between psychological well-being
and self-efficacy (Zee & Koomen, 2016). Teacher EI is crucial to successfully addressing
students’ needs through SEL. Assuming that teachers are skilled socially and emotionally, they
can help students manage stress, anger, and social interactions while maintaining their safety
(Poulou, 2017).
The need for community and a culture of care for teachers helps mitigate classroom
stressors and contributes to teacher well-being (Cooper et al., 2023; Curcio et al., 2023; Santoro,
2021). Leaning on one another helps teachers to not carry the load alone when implementing
SEL (Curcio et al., 2023). According to Cooper et al. (2023), the COVID-19 pandemic caused
SEL discomfort due to the overall stress teachers and students were enduring. Supplementary

24
resources for teachers, such as a counselor, is needed for teachers to cope with psychological
distress related to the classroom. Furthermore, school administrators must acknowledge the time
it takes to prepare teachers by providing the training necessary (Santoro, 2021). Teachers must
be involved in the design of SEL practices for implementation. By including teachers in
developing a plan, school leaders will find that teacher buy-in will be more likely, creating an
environment where SEL thrives. This mutual respect, trust, and open communication allows for
growth in school and classroom care for students.
Understanding Teacher Perceptions of SEL
Increasing teacher buy-in by developing an SEL model is a cost-effective investment
once teachers are trained and knowledgeable in improving students’ social-emotional
competencies (Curcio et al., 2023; Huck et al., 2023; Poulou, 2017). Teachers believe that a
school-wide curriculum in SEL is needed to change the culture of schools, which will prepare
students for adulthood and improve student achievement in academics (Huck et al., 2023).
However, they perceive that training is sparse. School leaders must recognize that teachers
require proper training, support, and resources to implement SEL practices and interventions
with fidelity (Huck et al., 2023). PD in teacher EI will help them create goals for self-care to
equip teachers with the skills to care for themselves (Curcio et al., 2023; Poulou, 2017). It is
evident that teachers need ongoing support to teach SEL strategies regularly so that students can
reap their benefits.
Enactment of Equity-Based SEL
Rising interest in teacher perceptions and equity-based SEL has led to further research on
teacher perceptions of strategies related to culture, race, ethnicity, language, family income, and
background, and disability (Huck et al., 2023; Immordino-Yang, 2018; McGovern, 2023; White

25
et al., 2022). Huck et al. (2023) state that T-SEL leads toward educational equity by fostering
classrooms that produce strategies for children who lack opportunities to grow through culturally
relevant instruction. “Cultural connectedness,” as McGovern (2023) describes, requires that
“teachers need to have a deliberate stance to be reflective of their own identities” (p. 2). This
understanding of self may then align with the cultural identities of students to provide
connectedness through a “shared history, values, lifestyle, and purpose (Immordino-Yang, 2018,
p. 13). White et al. (2022) cautions against “white-washed SEL approaches” that lack
vulnerability toward students of color (p. 5). Forms of SEL lean toward behavior management
without first seeking to understand the sources of conflict that is “rooted in exclusionary
discipline practices, racism and discrimination,” which perpetuates inequities in schools (White
et al., 2022, p. 5). Incorporating T-SEL in classrooms to address these inequities presents
teachers with another aspect of SEL where gaps in knowledge may exist, which may lead to low
self-efficacy in SEL implementation.
Teacher well-being, perceptions, and knowledge of equity-based SEL may create barriers
to enacting SEL. Beyond PD on implementing the five competencies of SEL as provided by
CASEL, training self-care for teachers will provide them with tools for managing stress and
building their personal EI (Curcio et al., 2023). Tools such as goal setting for self-care and
strategies for self-reflection will contribute to teacher well-being. In turn, this may lead to
openness to enact equity-based SEL due to knowledge gained through training and practice.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
The theoretical framework this study used to focus on teacher self-efficacy is Bandura’s
SCT in relation to SEL. SCT explores humanness and human agency through self-regulation and
self-reflectiveness about the quality of one’s purpose (Bandura, 2003). The purpose of teaching

26
and learning, as relates to this study, will examine how learning occurs in a social environment
such as a school or classroom (Schunk, 2020). See Figure 1.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Using the Triadic Reciprocal Determinism of Social Cognitive Theory
Person:
Teacher and their knowledge of TSEL
Environment:
Challenges with self-efficacy
through professional development
Behavior:
Teacher experiences enacting TSEL in their classrooms
Teacher self-efficacy
and well-being

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SCT and Teaching
The origin of SCT by Bandura (1986) stems from social learning theory that describes the
triadic reciprocal determinism (TRD) as a “reciprocal interplay of intrapersonal, behavioral, and
environmental determinants” in a conceptual framework for learning (Rutledge et al., 2015, p.
1081). This theory’s main elements examine how students’ behaviors and classroom climate
influence one another through the TRD model of causality and how the person, environment, and
behavior interact with one another (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 2020). Rutledge et al. (2015) state
that researchers found a correlation between teacher self-efficacy and teacher perceptions, as
they are likely to have a motivational and socializing effect in the classroom between students
and teachers. SCT also emphasizes the importance of the social environment as a critical role in
self-efficacy (Schunk, 2020). Additionally, Woodcock and Tournaki (2023) assert that what
many researchers studied about SCT shows that teacher self-efficacy is one of the most
important variables that influence teachers’ performance.
The criteria for inclusion of this theoretical framework are the learning aspect of SCT
which observes the relationship between the person, the behavior, and the environment, from
where teacher self-efficacy derives (Schunk, 2020). Woodcock and Tournaki (2023) determine
that the TRD model of SCT shows that self-efficacy is a belief attributed to the personal factor of
the theoretical framework and, therefore, influences the environmental and behavioral factors.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory was considered a possible theoretical framework for this study,
as it also focuses on the environmental factors of social interactions using cultural tools (Schunk,
2020). However, regarding teacher self-efficacy, SCT contains the elements of teacher
perceptions of their experiences in implementing SEL. The social cognitive theoretical
framework is more appropriate for this study in answering how teachers perceive their enactment

28
of SEL. By reflecting on their experiences with PD, SCT provided a structure for
methodologically examining teacher self-efficacy.
Teacher Self-Efficacy
Exploring SEL through the lens of SCT regarding teacher self-efficacy is a rising topic of
research for SEL programs that focus on social behaviors and interactions and culturally relevant
practices (Rutledge et al., 2015; Schunk, 2020; White et al., 2022). Rutledge et al. (2015) use a
model of SEL that they refer to as PASL and attribute SCT to the enhancement of students’
“self-efficacy beliefs, sense of belonging, and the development of agency” (p. 1081). Regarding
teachers, the effect of SCT and self-efficacy depends on the perception of themselves and a
community of belonging among school leaders and their colleagues. In addition, SEL
interventions tend to lack cultural sensitivity and attention to racial and social injustice, which
leads to low teacher self-efficacy in enacting equitable practices (White et al., 2022). However,
when SCT is used as a theoretical framework in this study, it can further examine the interactions
between individuals, behaviors, and environments among students of color and their teachers.
This will lead to exploring more equitable SEL practices rooted in social justice.
Chapter Summary
This comprehensive review of the literature examined aspects of research that focused on
the five competencies of the CASEL framework and the implementation of strategies that enact
SEL in schools and classrooms. This study addressed the research gaps, including teacher
support and PD linked to teacher self-efficacy. A discussion on perceptions of teachers addressed
the experiences teachers have with enacting SEL in their classrooms. It also observeed how
implementation is affected by PD experiences.

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This chapter’s report on the reviewed literature shows ample research on the importance
of SEL and its effects on students and teachers. Academic research has helped create
opportunities for school districts and schools to implement growing programs that address SEL
needs. It has also been discovered the perceptions of teachers are a critical aspect of the
implementation of SEL strategies. While researchers state the positive impacts of SEL, studies
find that teachers’ perceptions of their self-efficacy depend on teaching SEL with fidelity.
The literature also concludes that teachers need the emotional support of the school
community, including administrators, school leaders, and their colleagues. In creating a positive
climate for students, teacher well-being includes the chance to reflect on their self to manage
stress, maintain job satisfaction, and increase teacher self-efficacy. In addition, when
determining whether to adopt or create an SEL program for the school, school leaders must
include the input of teachers in building teacher buy-in. Teachers recognize that they are the
driving force to enactment of SEL, but the research reviewed in this examination of the literature
shows that more support is needed.
Based on the research studied in this review, the aspect of SEL that teachers need more
PD and training in is T-SEL. By allowing teachers time to discuss their identity and positionality
as teachers with their colleagues as they relate to student experiences, schools will build a culture
of equity through SEL and further support a diverse community of students. The literature
addresses the traumas that surface when implementing SEL and stresses the importance of
teacher self-efficacy in focusing on social justice issues for the marginalized student population.
Chapter Three will introduce the methodology and research used for this study, including
the problem, the research questions, and the details of data collection. Further studies from
scholars will assist in determining the rationale for the chosen research methods and discuss the

30
research design, sampling, and data analysis. Additionally, this study provided information on
current research, allowing other researchers to replicate these research methods. Following this
chapter, data collection began, and findings were reported with possible recommendations for
practice based on the findings of this study.

31
Chapter Three: Methodology
While teachers are essential to driving instruction of SEL interventions, they do not feel
prepared for or equipped with the necessary tools to improve the dynamic of their classrooms
through SEL due to a lack of knowledge and skills (Sandilos et al., 2022). Research on SEL
indicates that the health and well-being of students leads to long-term academic success in school
and careers (Gayl, 2017). Understanding teachers’ perceptions on SEL regarding their selfefficacy in providing these supports is a critical component of determining the appropriate PD to
implement (Curcio et al., 2023). Additionally, examining T-SEL through the lens of this research
will address the existing gaps in educational opportunities. To build relational skills to
underserved communities and mitigate inequities in education, this study will gain teacher
perspectives on SEL as it relates to a diverse, marginalized student body.
Conversely, research concerning how teacher well-being contributes to effectively
building relationships with students is limited (Poulou, 2017). This study aimed to address these
gaps of knowledge of teacher perceptions of implementing T-SEL. Teachers are expected to
teach students self-awareness, self-management, social awareness skills, and responsible
decision-making, yet this assumes that teachers are already skilled in managing their own social
and emotional well-being (Gayl, 2017; Poulou, 2017).
It is important to collect first-hand accounts of teacher experiences in applying
knowledge gained in PD in T-SEL strategies and methodology. In addition, discovering their
perspective on their own self-efficacy based on training and how it builds their self-efficacy will
show common threads and larger themes between the research participants’ stories (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). This data will help discover how teachers perceive the benefits of their T-SEL
instruction.

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Research Questions
This study will examine the following questions:
1. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences enacting
transformative social and emotional learning in their classrooms?
2. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences with
professional development related to their implementation of transformative social and
emotional learning?
Methodology
The methodology used in this study was a qualitative approach because the nature of this
study sought to discover the perceptions of teachers regarding T-SEL implementation at their
school. For that reason, interviews were important to answer the research questions. In
interviewing teachers, this qualitative method collected data about teacher perceptions of their
own knowledge and self-efficacy in enacting T-SEL in their classrooms.
This study employed Albert Bandura’s SCT (Schunk, 2020). SCT utilizes a framework of
reciprocal interactions between personal, behavioral, and environmental variables and how they
interact with one another (Rueda, 2011). In addition, discovering their perspective on their own
self-efficacy based on training and how it builds their self-efficacy will show common threads
and larger themes between the research participants’ stories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Hence
this study examined the relationship between the teacher, their classroom and students, and the
strategies learned in PD trainings that shape their knowledge, self-efficacy, and self-efficacy in
implementing T-SEL (see Figure 1).
This conceptual framework comprised student wellness and well-being at the center of
teacher experiences enacting T-SEL strategies with training in PD. The knowledge and self-

33
efficacy levels of teachers resided outside of what teachers learned and were discovered through
the methods outlined in this chapter. The data was examined through SCT and teacher selfefficacy.
Sample and Population of Research Participants
In this study, 14 high school teachers in various core subjects and electives matters were
interviewed as research participants. They were from a single high school where the student
population is 70% or more students of color, that has received PD in SEL and/or T-SEL. This
school implements SEL strategies that teachers received training provided by the school district,
but did not receive formal training on T-SEL. To recruit a diverse group of teacher research
participants, an initial survey was administered to the school to collect demographic information,
including how teachers identify in ethnicity. Participation was solicited by email. To answer the
research questions as they apply to T-SEL implementation, teacher and student identities were
taken into consideration in the data analysis.
Instrumentation
This study used interviews as the instrument for data collection. A screening survey was
designed to collect demographic data about the school and their identities as self-reported by
teachers. Teachers were selected to be interviewed from the screening survey, which asked if
they were willing to be participants in the study (see Appendix A).
Interview questions included 23 questions regarding teacher experiences with SEL and TSEL. The questions asked the research participants to describe their experiences enacting SEL in
the classroom and their understanding of T-SEL. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) listed question
types suggested by Patton (2015) and Straus et al. (1981), which were used as templates for the
interview questions. This varied the question types. A variety of question types allowed the

34
interviewees to look at aspects of the research questions from a different angle, which gathered
rich data. This strategy maximized interview findings that were credible.
Participants were asked to share their knowledge and self-efficacy in implementing SEL
based on their training opportunities from their school or district. The conceptual framework
concepts that were addressed are T-SEL strategy implementation, knowledge of T-SEL practices
and strategies through PD, and teacher perception of T-SEL PD. Additionally, this study
gathered descriptions of the research participants’ self-efficacy in enacting T-SEL practices and
strategies after training and teacher perceptions about implementation of SEL and teacher
experiences implementing T-SEL (see Appendix B).
Data Collection
This qualitative study gathered interviewee responses and created a narrative. Coding was
used in summarizing the findings through language-based data (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Through this qualitative approach, the study discovered factors that might have contributed to the
self-efficacy of teachers to participate in implementing SEL (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
research questions were analyzed by conducting and recording the interviews on Zoom for
transcription reporting, with consent from the research participant being interviewed. The video
recording featured on Zoom captured the interviewees’ responses to collect their narrative
verbatim. Conclusions were drawn based on the findings of the interviewee responses, and their
responses were coded to assign meaning to the data (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Through
coding, similarities between phrases, relationships between ideas, and themes were drawn by
their responses.

35
Data Analysis
The data collected was analyzed through coding. Emergent themes were drawn from the
interview transcripts. Teacher perceptions, knowledge, self-efficacy, and self-efficacy were
assessed in the coding to align with the conceptual framework and SCT.
Ethics
In this study, ethical practices were kept in mind. These considerations minimized harm
to my participants. The IRB process was completed. Then, permission from the school district
and school administration to collect data at their site was obtained. Next, the teachers who agreed
to participate in the study were given written consent to interview.
Also, there were ways to ensure voluntary participation and confidentiality in this study.
One strategy that Milner (2007) highly encouraged was reflecting on the self as a researcher
through the process of data collection. For interviews, the Zoom transcripts ensured that the data
analysis is accurate, and the video recordings were stored in a password-protected space
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The observations included audio recorded and typed field notes.
Finally, a reflection on what was relevant to the study ensured the participants’ personal and job
safety.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To reduce bias in this study, the data was interpreted by use of verbatim transcripts from
Zoom and the audio recordings in the interviews and observations respectively. Stating biases
toward the importance of T-SEL in interview questions, for example, minimized the risk of
inaccurately interpreting the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Maxwell (2013) stated that if the
specific threat to credibility or validity is identified, ways to attempt to rule out the threat could

36
be developed. Strategies to keep the study credible and trustworthy are to use rich, descriptive
data in the analysis, to triangulate the data through the interviews, and to member-check the data.
Summary
This chapter stated the methodology this study used, including the conceptual framework
used to answer the research questions. This qualitative study employed one research instrument:
Interviews. The sample was small and purposeful for the face-to-face interactions and thematic
coding and interpretation of the narrative data took place. Ethics, credibility, and trustworthiness
were considered when developing the analysis of the data.

37
Chapter Four: Findings
This study aimed to understand how teachers describe their self-efficacy in enacting TSEL in their classrooms based on their experiences with PD. Through teacher perceptions of
conventional SEL, this study sought to understand the benefits of practicing T-SEL in their
classroom and how PD played a role in their practice. This chapter will focus on the findings of
14 structured interviews with teachers from one high school in a unified school district. All
certificated teachers at the high school received a questionnaire via email, which collected
demographic information, years of teaching, whether teachers received formal PD training in
conventional SEL, and if they were willing to be interviewed about their experiences in the PD,
if at all. 14 teachers responded “yes” as willing to participate in an interview. The data collection
process of this study focused on two research questions:
1. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences enacting
transformative social and emotional learning in their classrooms?
2. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences with
professional development related to their implementation of transformative social and
emotional learning?
The school where they teach serves a diverse student population of 2200 students of
students, representing 6.4% Black/African American, 0.2% American Indian, 14.4% Asian, 5.1%
Filipino, 44.5% Hispanic/Latino, 5% two or more races, 0.5% Pacific Islander, 23.8% White. In
addition, 6.6% of students are multilingual learners, 8.2% are unhoused, 59% are
socioeconomically disadvantaged, and 14.4% are students with disabilities. The diversity of
students supports the need for T-SEL, especially post-COVID. This chapter will include a
detailed discussion of the responses to interview questions (See Appendix A). These questions

38
focused on the five competencies of T-SEL and how they use strategies in the classroom based
on PD trainings they have received.
The data showed some unexpected findings. T-SEL had not been formally introduced to
the participants through PD training, yet many participants responded with T-SEL knowledge,
based on the definitions given to them about the T-SEL competencies. Teachers recognized that
these competencies of T-SEL are important for student well-being based on the diversity of their
respective classrooms, even though the “transformative” part of T-SEL were new concepts that
they had not yet experienced. Many participants expressed the need to build student agency. The
data show that teachers were seeking ways to build agency in their students. In this post-COVID
environment, this is significant. These surprising findings revealed the needs of students and
teachers, and how PD can improve the dynamics of the classroom and school culture.
Each research question organizes the research findings below. There will be a brief
review of literature that is relevant to the research question with a preview to the findings. Each
set of results contains three to five themes that emerged related to each question and will include
a summary, both after each research question and at the conclusion of the chapter.
Participants
The participants of this study were high school teachers from one high school. To
participate, they must have been teaching for at least three years and agreed to be interviewed
about their experiences teaching SEL strategies. They completed a questionnaire with
demographic and contact information and selected the option to agree to participate in an indepth interview.
Between the 14 participants in this study, their years of teaching ranges from six to over
20 years. They teach curriculum of various subjects, from electives to core classes, including

39
special education. Table 1 provides additional information on the background of participants for
fuller context. To protect the anonymity of each participant, pseudonyms were used.
Table 1
List of Participants
Years in education (range) Teacher pseudonym
6–10 Camren, Izzy, Jessie, Riley
11–15 Charlie, Chris, Eden
16–20 Dani, Elizabeth, Jordan, Sam
Over 20 Anna, Alex, Sandra
Note. Participants reported their years in education on the Screening Questionnaire upon
recruitment.

40
There were no notable differences between the participants’ responses based on years of
teaching experience. Most teachers received the same training for the district-adopted SEL
program during distance learning, and some mentioned trainings they attended since then. Their
years of teaching experience was not an indicator of their knowledge and enactment of T-SEL
strategies.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asks, “How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their
experiences enacting transformative SEL in their classrooms?” The interview questions asked
referred to T-SEL as the “five emerging competencies” of SEL. Since T-SEL is a new concept
that is examining the efforts to ameliorate inequities in education, the questions referenced TSEL by its competencies of identity, belonging, agency, collaborative problem-solving, and
curiosity (Allbright et al., 2019). Teachers shared their experiences using various strategies in
their respective classrooms based on the definitions described in the interview questions about
these competencies. See Table 2.

41
Table 2
The Five Emerging Competencies of Transformative Social and Emotional Learning as Defined
in the Interview Questions
Core SEL framework T-SEL competency Definition given to participants in
the interview
Self-awareness Identity Refers to how students view
themselves as individuals and the
world around them
Self-management Agency Refers to students learning the
power to make choices that
create a positive impact
Social awareness Belonging Refers to students’ experience with
acceptance, respect, and
inclusion within a group or the
community, such as your
classroom
Relationship skills Collaborative problem-solving Refers to students building a
shared understanding to come to
solutions
Responsible decisionmaking
Curiosity Refers to students leading
themselves to pursue knowledge
and different perspectives
Note. These definitions were adapted from the CASEL Framework (2023).
Teachers answered questions related to these emerging competencies of SEL and the
common themes on implementation of these competencies. In terms of self-efficacy, they
responded in various levels of confidence when implementing the T-SEL competencies, along
with the challenges they face enacting them. Three themes emerged regarding teacher
implementation of T-SEL, including the understanding of the teacher’s role, their self-efficacy
teaching strategies based on the five competencies, and the challenges they face in the classroom.

42
Understanding the Teacher’s Role in T-SEL Implementation
A theme that emerged from these interviews was the common understanding that teachers
are the key players in creating an environment where students can engage in academics through
SEL. Teachers play a significant role in creating a social environment where students feel safe
emotionally (Immordino-Yang et al., 2018). Out of 14 participants interviewed, 11 stated the
importance of creating a supportive classroom environment through elements of T-SEL. They
emphasized the significance of creating a sense of belonging, validating students’ identities, and
promoting agency and self-advocacy. This belief of T-SEL’s importance motivates teachers’ selfefficacy.
Many teachers emphasized the importance of fostering a space where students feel they
belong by establishing strong relationships with their students. For example, Riley stated, “I
greet my students at the door by name and ask a question to check in on how their day is going.”
Chris mentioned that engaging with students one-on-one helps to understand the student’s
comfort level when participating in the lessons and activities. In addition, Jessie noted that when
students feel validated and are not constantly reprimanded, they are most likely to feel that they
belong in the classroom. She stated, “When the teacher repeatedly corrects their use of the
English language, for example, the students feel criticized, as it also criticizes their culture.”
Consequently, they feel as if they do not belong in her class. However, Camren mentions that
sharing and being open with students can help establish a mutual understanding, contributing to a
sense of belonging.
Through T-SEL, teachers stated the need to validate students’ identities to support them
emotionally by listening to their experiences without judgement. Anna mentioned that this helps
students be “heard and valued.” Elizabeth expressed that validating students’ identities “creates a

43
safe space where students can express themselves without fear of judgement.” She says that this
aligns with the idea that when students feel safe, they are more likely to engage in learning and
participate in activities in the classroom. Teachers recognized the diverse backgrounds of their
students and the need to tailor their approaches to the T-SEL competencies to meet those needs.
Eden discussed the importance of understanding each students’ unique circumstances and
adapting strategies accordingly. This understanding and awareness of the diversity of their
classrooms leads to self-efficacy, yet barriers to implementation are still present.
Teachers acknowledged their role in fostering agency and self-advocacy by creating
supportive environments, encouraging communication, modeling positive behaviors, and
providing students with choices and tools to navigate their educational journeys. For example,
Izzy mentioned encouraging her students to speak up when they need additional help or more
time on assignments. Anna discussed the importance of creating an environment where her
students can feel comfortable to express their emotions, including frustration. She added that her
role as a teacher is to support students in articulating their needs, a key component of selfadvocacy. Some teachers like Eden and Jordan stated that they involve students in decisionmaking processes by providing them choices on projects and assignments to assess their
learning. They shared that they modeled what agency looks like by implementing T-SEL
strategies to help students build self-awareness when navigating challenges. When asked about
their classroom experiences, teachers expressed their understanding that they play an integral
role in implementing T-SEL in their interviews. They stated that these transformative elements
of SEL that foster students’ identity, agency, and belonging help students succeed academically
and become more well-rounded. Teachers disclosed that their level of confidence and self-

44
efficacy in delivering T-SEL strategies varies, however, and their needs for further support must
be addressed.
Self-Efficacy Implementing T-SEL’s Five Competencies
Another theme that emerged centered around the teachers’ self-efficacy teaching the five
competencies of T-SEL. When each competency was presented in the interview questions,
teachers described their level of confidence with these specific categories in delivering lessons
and building relationships with their students. When broken down, teachers identified specific
ways they address identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity. All
14 participants shared various strategies they use in their classrooms.
Identity
Fostering identity development looks different in their teaching, but teachers expressed a
similar goal: Knowing who they are teaching. For example, Jordan allows students to express
themselves by sharing their backgrounds and experiences. She says, “I think it creates a dynamic
classroom environment where students will learn and respect each other.” Sandra commits to
learning about what they do outside of class instruction, such as sports, theater, or music. Eden
focuses more on belonging and agency but inherently involves identity by establishing
community. She too aims to learn about their backgrounds and strengths, wanting to know who
her students are. Camren expresses that she supports students’ identity development by “always
asking questions about them.” Other teachers expressed the importance of knowing their cultural
backgrounds, home language, and the origin of their names. Some created projects that allowed
students to express their identities in their respective subject matters. This idea of recognizing
students’ identities was significant to all participants.

45
Agency
Teachers stated that they recognized the implication of giving students agency to take
ownership of their learning in ways that resonate with them. Eden, Alex, and Jordan feel
efficacious in allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their understanding of the
concepts learned in their respective subjects. For example, Jordan states, “I like to give them
choice on that project, whether it be doing a slide presentation or a mock podcast or an artistic
representation.” They shared that this agency empowers their learning. On another level of
learning, Riley expressed that she has conversations with her students about how they have
choices in how they see themselves as individuals. She said that she reminds them that they are
“not defined by their mistakes and can choose to change their mindsets.” The interview data
showed that student autonomy was a focus in this area of T-SEL. However, some teachers, like
Sandra, Camren, and Chris, stated that they want more opportunities to learn how to help their
students build agency. They expressed that there is more room for improvement in this
component to increase their self-efficacy.
Belonging
Regarding the T-SEL component of belonging, teachers expressed various insights and
strategies. Seven teachers described “belonging” as building community, mutual understanding,
and the importance of validation to promote relationships and connectedness. For example, Eden
stated that by fostering a sense of community in class where students “actively speak and
actively listen to each other,” they feel comfortable sharing their feelings and experiences. Riley
shared the following:

46
So I think … the bedrock of it, or the cornerstone of it all is building that relationship and
building that vibe in the classroom, and the foundation of it is just them knowing, you
know, first and foremost, that they’re important in that space.
Also, Camren spoke about the importance of mutual understanding, saying that she also prompts
discussions with open dialogue to feel connected. Anna stated that “validating students’ progress
helps nurture belonging as well.” She added that she tries to encourage and reinforce positive
behavior with her students. All teachers agreed that this component of T-SEL is significant in
students’ sense of community in the classroom.
Collaborative Problem-Solving
When asked for examples of collaborative problem-solving, teachers expressed varying
levels of comfort and self-efficacy. All 14 teachers shared strategies that they use in their
classroom, where students work in groups for various amounts of time within the class period.
For instance, Eden stated that the way she uses collaborative problem-solving is through
discussions, saying that she is “all about conversations.” The teachers said that it is an important
skill for students to learn. Some teachers felt especially confident doing group work, based on
their experiences with PD opportunities. Jordan shared that she learned how to conduct a
collaborative “gallery walk” in PD that she uses in her classroom. In other teachers’ experiences
though, seven teachers emphasized that they would like to learn more strategies to implement
this emerging component of SEL.
Curiosity
In terms of curiosity as the fifth competency of T-SEL, teachers expressed a range of
feelings and strategies. One insight includes the importance of using open-ended prompts to
encourage students to think deeply and explore ideas. Eden shared, “I give students a lot of very

47
open-ended writing prompts, and basically just tell them, whatever pops into your brain, just run
with it.” Similarly, Jordan demonstrates confidence in teaching curiosity through interactive
activities. However, Camren, Chris, Sandra realized their limitations with activities that promote
this competency of T-SEL. Charlie stated, “I don’t know, that was a hard one.” These teachers
shared that they would like to have more opportunities to support and enhance their effectiveness
in this area.
Overall, the teacher participants expressed a commitment to fostering an environment
where identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity are integrated
into the learning experience. While some teachers articulated higher levels of self-efficacy in the
five competencies of T-SEL, others feel the need for more support. They shared various
challenges related to T-SEL implementation and how it affects their self-efficacy.
Challenges When Enacting T-SEL in the Classroom
Another theme in which teachers expressed challenges when enacting T-SEL in their
classrooms. These included student engagement and participation, negative perceptions of SEL,
and finding relevant materials. Allbright et al. (2019) determined implementing SEL in schools
include these issues. In this theme, conventional SEL was the focus, as T-SEL has not been
formally introduced to the school. Several teachers shared their experiences with their students
and the lack of self-efficacy when teaching SEL strategies, which led to difficulties in and
barriers to implementation.
Student Engagement and Participation
Several teachers shared challenges with student engagement and participation. Dani
expressed concern when discussing sensitive topics, noting that some students may not want to
delve into emotional discussions, saying that they “don’t want to go down that path … they want

48
to be left alone.” Alex noted that when encouraging students to help each other, it is important to
recognize that many students struggle with group work or collaboration because the work in this
content area is “so personal.” Riley discussed how some students initially resist SEL practices,
stating that they feel “annoyed” at mindfulness activities at the beginning of the year, and it takes
consistent practice of the activities for students to adapt to this as a normal classroom strategy.
She stated that the variability in student engagement made it difficult for students to trust others,
making students hesitant to engage. This negatively affected her self-efficacy. For example,
Jordan stated, “it’s not necessarily challenging to implement it, maybe challenging just to get
everybody to participate. The teachers share that this leads to negative perceptions that the
students develop about SEL.
In addition, teachers stated that self-doubt makes them question their effectiveness in
implementing T-SEL competencies. Six teachers agree that they feel low confidence as a barrier,
because either there is no diligent focus or accountability to be consistent with SEL. Elizabeth
and Anna wondered themselves if they are on the right track. Anna asked herself, “Am I doing
this right?” They shared that they tended to see fluctuations in how they teach based on the
dynamics of the classroom. Camren acknowledged the challenge that the students’ responses to
the strategies or lessons affects her confidence levels. Sandra agreed when she said that she feels
“confident in the fact that she can present the material … but sometimes it’s a struggle to get the
same kind of feedback” reciprocated from the students. Most teachers expressed that they tried
from day one of the school year to build rapport and trust with the students, but this took time as
teachers’ self-efficacy levels increase as the year progressed.

49
Negative Perceptions of SEL
The negative perceptions of SEL teachers expressed come from both the staff and the
students. Jessie pointed out that there can be cultural sensitivities and biases among both students
and teachers, which can impact how SEL is perceived. She posed the question, “How do you
validate the students” and “validate the teachers as well?” Chris indicated that some students
view SEL activities as unimportant, describing how they complete activities without deep
engagement. Riley noted that sometimes SEL is viewed as an additional burden, since it takes
away from traditional instruction “in the sense that you’re not focused on the instruction that
moment,” emphasizing that it is a challenge to integrate SEL without detracting from core
academic content. Additionally, regarding the staff, Dani discussed the perception of SEL as
something optional rather than essential, stating that some staff may view it as “just another thing
to check off a box.” They wished that more could be done about these negative perceptions.
Finding Relevant Materials and Strategies
Several participants expressed the lack of access to relevant materials in the classroom to
provide SEL activities for their students. This was related to ideas they were given at the various
SEL PD training sessions they attended. Some felt that the strategies they received were
insufficient and they needed more training. Eden highlighted the need for better tools and support
from the administrative team, stating that they could provide more support. She mentioned the
need for more accessible strategies for all teachers, stating that she would like to see more of
“what actually works in the classroom.” Jessie and Alex expressed frustration with the lack of
follow-up in PD regarding how to implement strategies effectively. Jessie stated, “We learned the
prescription, but then we never follow up … how did you implement that in your classroom?”
These posed challenges for the teachers like Sandra, who state that they want to implement SEL

50
“with fidelity,” but need additional resources to do just that. Two teachers shared physical and
tangible materials such as a mood board, but most of what they said they needed were strategies
that would suit the needs of their diverse population of students. They said that the PD presenters
offered suggestions of materials to use such as mood boards for students to check in, but their
school will not provide such things. In discussing Research Question 2, teachers expressed that
more effective PD would help them feel more self-efficacy.
Discussion: Research Question 1
Interview data indicated that while teachers had a good grasp on the concepts of the TSEL competencies, they still experienced challenges in the classroom. The responses related to
Research Question 1 expressed two thoughts. First, in assessing one theme, teachers expressed
that the importance of their role as teachers delivering T-SEL strategies creates a safe space for
their students and that implementing the competencies of T-SEL in various ways helps them
connect with them as well. Teachers understood the impact T-SEL strategies can make when
used regularly and see it as a vital part of their daily interactions with students. This reiterated the
findings from previous literature that teacher well-being plays a vital role in their self-efficacy
teaching SEL and the need for more research on how the emerging T-SEL can be used to target
marginalized populations.
Second, teachers expressed their commitment to integrate the five competencies into their
daily lesson, but there were challenges to consider when using T-SEL strategies from students,
teachers, and leadership that affect their self-efficacy. Prior research stated that teacher wellbeing is a factor when considering the positive effects of SEL interventions (Yang et al., 2018).
These interview data showed that teacher self-efficacy relies on materials and further strategies

51
for T-SEL implementation, echoing the existing literature. Research Question 2 delves deeper
into the support teachers need to address these challenges.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asks, “How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their
experiences with professional development related to their implementation of transformative
social and emotional learning?” This question seeks to examine the quality of PD provided to
teachers, reflecting on the qualities and weaknesses of the trainings. It asks how the PD helped
them implement T-SEL strategies in the classroom and what competencies were addressed in the
training, if at all. This research question also seeks to understand the challenges after the PD that
affect their ability to enact T-SEL in their classrooms. Themes that emerged from this question
included teachers’ perceptions on the quality of PD, their learning of the five competencies of TSEL, and the ongoing challenges implementing T-SEL after their PD experiences. Since these
trainings occurred during distance learning and the COVID-19 pandemic and shortly after
returning to school, SEL had not yet been introduced as “transformative,” hence the questions
were referred to as solely “SEL.” The formal instruction on the T-SEL components had not been
accomplished, therefore the teacher participants had to make connections to what was already in
the SEL toolkit to answer questions about the T-SEL competencies.
Overall Quality of PD and Its Effectiveness
Teachers were asked to describe various PDs they attended. A common training that 13 of
the 14 participants attended and shared the SEL program adopted by the school district during
the COVID-19 pandemic. Other trainings included shorter presentations led by other teachers
within the district and optional trainings led by mental health practitioners. When asked about
the quality of these PDs, teachers shared various aspects of the training as effective and

52
ineffective. In addition, they expressed various ways that PD improved their self-efficacy in
enacting T-SEL strategies. From the content to the professionals who presented the various
training opportunities, teachers reflected on their experiences learning about SEL and its
emerging components. The participants described the PD sessions as hands-on, with the
opportunity to role play and practice the strategies as teachers and as students.
Assessing the quality and effectiveness of PD required revisiting this study’s theoretical
and conceptual framework and Bandura’s SCT. In terms of SCT’s triadic reciprocal determinism,
the interplay of the person, environment, and behavior shifted during data analysis. In this
finding, the data reflects the TRD in this framework. The “person” is teacher self-efficacy, as it
relates to the “behavior” of T-SEL practice in terms of the “environment,” which is the PD expert
presenter who gives the participants feedback at the training. Figure 2 shows the ideal TRD
relationship between teacher self-efficacy, T-SEL practice of strategies, and ample feedback from
expert presenters.

53
Figure 2
Conceptual Framework Revisited
Effective Aspects
The teachers emphasized the importance of engaging PD presenters. As expressed by all
14 participants, expert-led training from knowledgeable facilitators made the trainings
worthwhile to attend. Teachers like Chris emphasized the value in having training consultants
“who are knowledgeable about SEL materials.” This expertise of the presenters contributes to
teacher self-efficacy in terms of trust that they are receiving valuable information and strategies.
The ability to ask questions and receive informed responses contributed to a more impactful
learning experience.
Person:
Teacher self-efficacy
Environment:
Professional development experts
and their feedback
Behavior:
Practice of T-SEL strategies
Effective
implementation of
T-SEL strategies

54
Additionally, nine teachers appreciated PD that incorporated hands-on activities and
discussions through practical application and collaboration. For example, teachers found value in
sessions that included breakout rooms for online trainings for practicing strategies and sharing
experiences, which facilitated a deeper understanding of how to implement SEL practices. They
found the content beneficial, relatable, and relevant and that it connected directly to teachers’
experiences and classroom challenges. For example, Anna, Eden, and Jordan, highlighted that
the PDs they attended provided validation that they were on the right track with their practices
and reinforced their self-efficacy in implementing SEL.
Other elements of PD that teachers expressed were adaptability and alignment with
school culture. Alex emphasized the need for PD to be adaptable and responsive to teachers’
needs saying, “I think teachers need the ability to make changes, the ability to experiment …
what kinds of things can you use, and what kinds of things could you adapt.” Jessie discussed the
importance of acknowledging students’ identities, which was a key aspect of the PD she
attended. She expressed, “It’s about teaching the appropriateness of those things.” She and Sam
also highlighted the need for school culture that supports SEL, that it should align with the larger
school initiatives. Jessie stated, “It would be more ideal if [SEL] is something that’s supported
within the school site.” Sam also expressed a similar sentiment.
Weaknesses of PD
Some ineffective aspects of PD that teachers shared included that the content was a onesize-fits-all approach. This is characteristic of conventional SEL. Educators like Eden and Alex
expressed frustration with PD that felt too scripted or generic, lacking the flexibility to address
the unique needs of diverse student populations. They said that this can make the content feel
irrelevant or impractical for their specific contexts.

55
Seven of 14 teachers noted that PD sessions are often too brief to allow for meaningful
engagement or exploration of SEL strategies. This insufficient time and structure of the PD limits
the depth of learning that includes modeling, practice of the new strategies, and feedback. For
example, Camren mentioned wanting “more collaboration time for more depth of practice of
SEL.” Sometimes there are too many strategies provided to attempt to implement, which
decreases self-efficacy. Additionally, teachers expressed their concern that some PD activities
can feel forced or disconnected from genuine classroom experiences. Eden and Alex pointed out
that when SEL discussions are framed as obligatory tasks, they lose their organic nature and
effectiveness. Eden stated, “I think social and emotional learning is always organic and it either
happens or it doesn’t.” Alex said that the most valuable strategies from PDs are those that are
easy to “experiment with” and that feel “most organic.” All 14 teachers shared the various ways
that they use SEL strategies in the classroom that are unique to their content and diverse
population of students. Eden shared:
I kind of think it’s dependent on teachers and dynamics, but, I do think tools, anything we
could be provided, that give us a creative edge or a different way to teach the same tried
and true concept are going to possibly bring that social, emotional aspect into the
classroom.
Teachers appreciate the flexibility to adapt the content, but strategies are not always presented to
them in ways that encourage the practice of SEL as a necessity, rather, as mandatory.
This theme highlighted the positive and negative outlooks on the PD training experiences
that these teachers participated in within the last four years since distance learning and the
COVID-19 pandemic. They expressed that there has not been schoolwide training for SEL or the
T-SEL elements since then. While they saw the value of SEL, they believe that there is room for

56
improvement in the PD process in training teachers to be practitioners of SEL. It is not a lack of
knowledge of T-SEL that affects teacher self-efficacy, rather, the lack of time modeling and
practicing new strategies, and providing feedback from expert presenters that affect
implementation of T-SEL.
The Need to Address Learning Strategies on T-SEL Competencies
T-SEL competencies addressed in PDs varied in the participants’ experiences. When
asked how aspects of identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity
were presented, the teachers recalled that some strategies pertained to them, and some did not.
The five competencies were broken down into two categories: The ones that teachers could
identify as present in the PD yet lacked depth and those that were not present at all.
Identity, Agency, and Belonging
With identity, some teachers felt that while PD provided strategies, they often lacked
specificity for their diverse student populations. For instance, Jordan mentioned that she
“couldn’t recall specific strategies on building student identity.” Also, Izzy discussed the
challenge of teaching about identity within the constraints of the curriculum, making it difficult
to address topics related to identity. Regarding the competency of the fostering agency, seven of
14 participants highlighted the importance of giving students a choice in their learning. Charlie
mentioned the challenge of not all students being recognized individually, which may hinder
their sense of ownership over their education. Sandra, however, expressed that the PD “did not
effectively address ownership or agency,” which made guidance in this area insufficient.
Teachers practiced belonging strategies, that were addressed in the PD, noting various ways for
teachers to check in with students and make connections. They were taught ways to open
conversations that allow teachers to learn more about their students to contribute to their sense of

57
belonging in their classroom spaces. However, Dani expressed the “need for more culturally
relevant strategies” to meet the diversity needs in the student population and make students feel
welcome and acknowledged. She shared that she believed the PD could be more intentional in
this area.
Collaborative Problem-Solving and Curiosity
Two teachers, Eden and Jordan, shared their experiences with collaborative problemsolving, but most teachers did not experience how students may use this competency for SEL.
They identified the need for it, but most SEL strategies they use and learn are more individually
based. Regarding curiosity, none of the 14 teachers recalled that the PD trainings addressed this
competency. Sam said, “Yeah, they didn’t cover that one.” Riley stated, “I’d like to know more
about how to implement that one.” They recognized that fostering curiosity is essential but felt
that PD did not provide enough practical strategies to instill this in students.
The Need for Administrative Support in Implementing T-SEL After PD
The third theme for this research question focused on the need for administrative support
when implementing T-SEL after participating in PD. These supports involved the school leaders
and the follow-up after attending trainings. Teachers said that the lack of overall staff buy-in,
time to implement T-SEL, time to collaborate with other educators, and time to receive ongoing
In affected their self-efficacy. In addition, student participation when enacting T-SEL took time
and practice. Teachers shared ways that they can thrive with SEL to build their self-efficacy.
Teacher Perceptions of SEL and Staff Buy-In
Teachers stated that administrative leaders on their campus can affect staff buy-in. They
said that administrative backing is crucial for the successful implementation of SEL initiatives.
Camren said, “It’d be nice if [SEL] was a supported thing at my school.” Some participants

58
stated that many teachers on their campus did not use the time dedicated for SEL. Sandra
expressed that this was “due to a lack of accountability” from the school leaders for teachers to
“commit to the lessons.” This did not increase teacher self-efficacy. Nine of the 14 teachers
stated that if administration would prioritize SEL by giving teachers time to enact SEL lessons,
the perception of it would change.
Time to Implement SEL
The primary challenge the participants in this study faced was the lack of time to
implement SEL. They expressed the difficulty in balancing time between curriculum with SELspecific activities makes it difficult to implement SEL consistently. Anna said, “I feel like
teachers, we have so much to do … that there is a lot to keep track of.” Similarly, Chris mentions
that the “limited time available due to other school activities make it difficult to integrate time
for SEL.” Jordan, Sandra, and Sam explained that there was a specific time frame in the school
day that was dedicated to SEL activities for all classrooms. It was a few minutes of the day
where every teacher would deliver an SEL lesson. They explained that the time was taken away
and now there is no dedicated time for SEL. All 14 teachers find ways to integrate SEL in their
teaching, however, they would appreciate more time during the instructional day.
Collaboration Among Educators and Ongoing Feedback
In addition to time in the classroom, some teachers mentioned the importance of
collaboration among educators. Teachers recognized that ample time around the pandemic was
dedicated to PD as a staff. However, there was little to no follow-up as to how teachers were
utilizing these strategies. For example, Alex noted, “It’s frustrating that we just did [the PD] and
then we moved on, like it didn’t happen,” and expressed the desire for time to collaborate with
other teachers. By circling back to the PD and seeing what strategies worked for them, they

59
would have a chance for additional modeling, practice of the new strategies, and feedback from
their colleagues. Five of 14 teachers expressed that they valued the collaborative nature of the
PDs and wanted to see more of that. Chris shared a confidence level of “7 out of 10” and due to
being “a little more out of practice” than when they had “such a huge focus during and
immediately following the pandemic.” Several teachers agreed and expressed the need for more
support to build their motivation, confidence and self-efficacy while teaching T-SEL strategies.
Teachers found the PD content valuable, but to keep it more relevant and practical, they
said that they needed ongoing support and feedback from administrative leaders. This continuous
support from administration would help them maintain their SEL practices over time, they say.
However, this was not happening at their school. They stated that engaging in discussions about
what works and what does not can help build a supportive community focused on SEL
implementation.
Discussion: Research Question 2
Interview data for Research Question 2 revealed that while PD had effective and
ineffective qualities to them, teachers found it worthwhile overall. They liked that PD was handson, interactive and collaborative, but sometimes lacked depth in content. In addition, some
teachers expressed that the one-sized-fits-all approach did not work in their classrooms, and that
they needed more strategies for differentiation. With more time in PDs to collaborate and engage
with each other, teachers expressed that there would be more depth in learning and implementing
SEL.
However, while the teachers found the PD content valuable, T-SEL competencies were
not addressed in most cases. They could recall some examples of how the activities might have
covered the competencies, but it was not explicit to T-SEL. Some teachers discussed the need for

60
more culturally responsive strategies to meet the needs of diverse learners to meet the
competencies of identity, belonging, and agency. Similarly, teachers did not experience ways to
use T-SEL strategies pertaining to collaborative problem-solving or curiosity but would like to
learn more about them.
Finally, as previous research has shown by Huck et al. (2023), teachers need
administrative support and follow-up discussions after PD with their peers to build their selfefficacy in T-SEL implementation. Staff buy-in begins with the school leadership to ensure that
teachers are provided support in SEL initiatives. From providing more time during the
instructional day to implement T-SEL to providing more opportunities for follow-up and
collaboration from previous PDs, teachers stated that they would feel more efficacious with TSEL strategies. Most teachers shared that they would feel more apt to enact T-SEL consistently.
Summary
Key findings in this chapter focused on two areas of research: teacher perceptions of their
self-efficacy and experiences implementing T-SEL in their classrooms and how PD influenced
their self-efficacy when implementing T-SEL strategies. Teachers generally described their
experiences enacting SEL as challenging due to a lack of administrative support and the limits of
time in the instructional day. They say that PD plays an integral role in building their toolbox of
T-SEL strategies, but time for collaboration with their colleagues will contribute to their selfefficacy. However, they see the importance of T-SEL and their role in incorporating this approach
in their classrooms. The teachers in this study desire to improve.
Research Question 1 focused on how teachers described their self-efficacy in enacting TSEL in the classroom and their experiences with the five competencies. The interview data stated
that teachers believed in the importance of T-SEL competencies and strategies to create safe

61
spaces for their students. They understood the impact of these strategies when used consistently
and that there is more to learn. The challenges to consider include the need for more material to
use that they lack, including time and materials to supplement the implementation of T-SEL.
With each T-SEL competency, teachers described their understanding of them as being
significant and they wanted to learn more about them. Their experiences enacting them presented
difficulties that only administration at their school could face.
Research Question 2 focused on PD and how these opportunities contributed to their selfefficacy in implementing T-SEL. All 14 participants shared their experiences with the SEL
program their school adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, plus additional trainings
that their school district offered since then. While the teachers found these PDs valuable, SEL
competencies were the focus, but T-SEL competencies were only implied. Some teachers
described some PD strategies they attended as lacking cultural relevance. Previous research
states that T-SEL addresses that absence. The consensus between teachers is that what they need
is more administrative support to implement SEL with fidelity. With more time to collaborate
with colleagues about best practices and strategies, and time in the classroom to implement TSEL lessons from the SEL program, their self-efficacy as SEL practitioners will increase.
Chapter Five provides implications for practice with T-SEL and recommendations for future
research.

62
Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes findings related to the implications for practice within
education. These implications intend to inform educational leaders, including teachers and
administrators, of the value of T-SEL and the needs for teachers to enact T-SEL in their
classrooms and school. In addition, this chapter provides recommendations for future research
within the context of the study.
This study focused on the integral role teachers play in the development of students
through SEL. It also examined teacher perceptions of their own self-efficacy and experiences
with developing their T-SEL competencies through PD. As schools address the opportunity gap
by offering SEL strategies to students, the teachers need support to develop their SEL and T-SEL
competencies (CASEL, 2017; CASEL, 2024; Kennedy, 2019). By examining teacher selfefficacy through the lens of SCT, PD provides active learning opportunities, collaboration with
colleagues, and models effective strategies with ongoing coaching and support through reflection
and feedback (Ee & Cheng, 2013; Immordino-Yang, 2018; Poulou, 2017; White et al., 2022).
Understanding the needs of teachers regarding PD is critical (Curcio et al., 2023). The purpose of
this study was to gain perspective on teacher experiences regarding the implementation of TSEL. These questions guided this study:
1. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences enacting
transformative social and emotional learning in their classrooms?
2. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences with
professional development related to their implementation of transformative social
emotional learning?

63
The methodology used for this study was a qualitative approach as the nature of this
study aimed to discover the perceptions of teachers regarding T-SEL implementation at their
school. The means for data collection was through interviews with 14 teachers that answered the
interview questions. The participants were from a single high school where the student
population were 70% or more students of color. Qualitative analysis through coding interview
responses created a narrative to summarize findings of what contributed to the self-efficacy of
teachers in participating in T-SEL implementation (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The interview data through Zoom transcripts resulted in qualitative findings that
addressed the research questions.
Discussion of Findings
Study findings propose that teachers believe T-SEL competencies and strategies create a
positive impact on their students when used consistently. These competencies of identity, agency
belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity create safe spaces for students, and
teachers want to learn more strategies to use. However, teachers find challenges when enacting
T-SEL strategies that pertain to student participation and time. While teachers found PD on SEL
collaborative and beneficial, they believed that ongoing support from school administration after
PD experiences will improve their enactment of T-SEL. Additionally, the T-SEL competencies
were not addressed directly and only implied. Yet they identified strategies that they use that
exemplify the T-SEL competencies and find relevance in them. Six themes emerged from this
study’s two research questions. This section summarizes and discusses the study’s findings in
relationship to extant literature and current practices.
Research Question 1

64
Research Question 1 asked, “How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their
experiences enacting transformative social and emotional learning in their classrooms?” Two
findings emerged from this research question. These findings answer the research question by
addressing the teachers’ role in enacting T-SEL and their needs to engage students in the lessons
and activities.
In the first finding that emerged, this study’s data demonstrated that teachers understand
their role in enacting T-SEL in the classroom and commit to fostering an environment where
identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity are integrated into the
learning experience. This finding is aligned with several studies where educators recognize that
teachers are the essential drivers of instilling behavior, thinking, self-control, and motivational
engagement skills in students (McCormick et al., 2020; Sandilos et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2018).
Their self-efficacy when implementing T-SEL depends on their belief in the commitment to
creating a learning environment where students can grow. Connecting this finding with this
study’s conceptual framework, the teacher and their knowledge of T-SEL positively affect their
experiences and behavior enacting T-SEL. A study by Immordino-Yang et al. (2018) states that
teachers create a social environment that is emotionally safe for students. The teacher
participants in this study also expressed a commitment to fostering an environment where the TSEL competencies are integrated into the learning experience. They understand that as leaders in
the classroom, they have an integral role in the dynamics of student well-being that create
belonging and safety. This understanding and commitment to T-SEL contributes positively to
their self-efficacy.
Through the second finding that emerged, the study’s data demonstrated that teachers
need ongoing PD to engage students in participation with the T-SEL strategies. This finding is

65
aligned with several studies that policymakers can do more to support districts and schools in
providing PD and support from personnel dedicated to SEL and T-SEL implementation
(Allbright et al., 2019). To connect this finding to this study’s conceptual framework, the
challenges with self-efficacy through PD need to be addressed for the teacher and their
experiences to be balanced. One study stated that high school teachers are 47% less likely to
receive professional training compared to preschool and elementary teachers, yet teachers have
the eagerness to learn and want more support from school leaders to implement these strategies
(Curcio et al., 2023). Additionally, Allbright et al. (2019) state that there must be more support to
promote a positive climate, teaching strategies to manage emotions, lead restorative practices,
enforce clear values and expectations, and train new and veteran teachers in specific SEL and TSEL classroom practices and curricula. They reported these as effective school-level practices to
support student learning. Yang et al. (2018) state that teacher self-efficacy is contingent on
teacher PD that promotes student engagement. Teachers agreed that the impact of T-SEL
strategies is a vital part of their daily interactions with students, but teacher self-efficacy depends
on ongoing training.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their
experiences with professional development related to their implementation of transformative
social emotional learning?” Two findings emerged from the data for this research question.
These findings address this question through the efficacy of PD and the further needs of the
teachers to boost their self-efficacy in delivering T-SEL strategies and lessons.
In the first finding, the study’s data demonstrated that PD needs to address T-SEL
competencies more intentionally. This finding is in alignment with several studies that also found

66
that the concept of T-SEL aims to express the ways SEL can address and mitigate the dynamics
between social, educational, and economic inequities present through generations of cultural
oppression regarding race in the United States (Jagers et al., 2019). Several studies asserted that
T-SEL aims to build equitable opportunities for students and teachers to support the
marginalized student population by supporting positive behavior (Allbright et al., 2019; Jagers et
al., 2019; Nickerson et al., 2019).
In addition, teachers in this study acknowledged the need for more culturally relevant
strategies to meet the needs of the diverse student population. One study by Huck et al. (2023)
determined that training teachers to implement SEL with fidelity is a cost-effective investment.
They say that teacher perceptions of SEL in schools and classrooms determined that teachers
need more training on working with diverse students, especially those who live with trauma.
Allbright et al. (2019) encourages additional research examining emerging efforts intended to
amend educational inequities. The data in this study demonstrate that the T-SEL competencies of
identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity are new and emergent,
and new strategies on these need to be updated and built into PD. Through improved PD focused
on T-SEL, teacher self-efficacy will grow.
Through the second finding, the study’s data demonstrated that teachers need time to
implement T-SEL strategies that they learned from PD. This finding is in alignment with several
studies that also found that teachers need time for discussions to collaborate with their colleagues
after a PD experience (Huck et al., 2019). The teachers in this study recognized that they need
time collaborating with other teachers to know whether they are enacting T-SEL effectively. This
would contribute to their self-efficacy. The PD experience alone did not support that belief. The

67
data in this study demonstrate that teachers need support from school leadership by providing
time for them to reflect and build their self-efficacy to conduct T-SEL in the classroom.
Furthermore, the study’s data with this finding demonstrated that teachers need time in
the classroom to implement T-SEL strategies. This aligns with several studies that asserted the
need for a school-wide curriculum in T-SEL that will change the school’s culture and prepare
students for adulthood and improve student achievement (Huck et al., 2023). The teacher
participants in this study stated that their primary challenge is the lack of time dedicated to
implementing SEL, which affects teacher buy-in. Several studies demonstrate that teacher buy-in
will increase after teachers are trained in the T-SEL competencies (Curcio et al., 2023; Huck et
al., 2023; Poulou, 2017). However, the teachers in this study find it difficult to implement SEL
consistently without the support from school administrators. Teachers need allotted time to enact
T-SEL strategies and lessons during the school day, which will increase their self-efficacy in
enacting T-SEL strategies.
The findings from teacher interview data assert that with training and support, T-SEL
competencies and strategies create a positive impact on their students. However, they identified
strategies that they use that exemplify the T-SEL competencies and find relevance in them.
Additionally, teachers find that challenges with student engagement and time and access to
materials need to be addressed by school leaders and administrators. While teachers found PD on
SEL valuable, they believed that they needed administrative support in enacting T-SEL
strategies. The next section provides recommendations for further practice.
Recommendations for Practice
Based on the data from this study, three recommendations for practice emerged. These
recommendations reflect the findings discussed in the previous section related to the two

68
research questions that linked the study’s data with existing literature on the topic of T-SEL.
Moreover, these recommendations link back to the conceptual framework that guided this study.
Recommendation 1: Provide Updated Professional Development That Reflect T-SEL
Competencies
All 14 teachers interviewed indicated the absence of strategies related to the T-SEL
competencies of identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity. One
finding in this study demonstrated that teachers lacked training in the fundamentals of T-SEL.
They thought that the strategies they received in PD were insufficient and they needed more
training. The recommendation is to provide updated PD that reflects the T-SEL competencies
with a focus on meeting the needs of a diverse student population.
Previous studies attest to the appropriateness of this recommendation. White et al. (2022)
state that the teachers’ development of their self-efficacy depends on high-quality PD. T-SEL
seeks to serve underserved communities through culturally relevant SEL for students of color,
low-income students, and immigrant students by building on the five competencies (CASEL,
2024). CASEL research encourages schools to utilize T-SEL to address the existing gaps in
educational opportunities for students. The teacher participants in this study expressed that more
effective PD would help drive their self-efficacy in implementing T-SEL with fidelity. District
and school administrators are the ones to provide this PD. This recommendation aims to provide
more opportunities for schools to address issues surrounding the marginalized student
population.
Recommendation 2: Provide Ongoing Support for Teachers in Implementing T-SEL
Eleven of 14 teachers interviewed indicated a lack of self-efficacy in their ability to enact
T-SEL strategies. Another finding demonstrated that teachers need ongoing support to

69
supplement PD in T-SEL. The recommendation is to provide the ongoing support teachers need
to implement T-SEL that allows them time to reflect on what is and is not working for their
students and to collaborate with their colleagues about best practices. This ongoing support
creates a culture of value on T-SEL and builds toward the school-wide practice of it in the
classroom. It is crucial for this support to be provided by district and school administrators. This
may be in various forms, including providing teachers on special assignment to provide time to
model, practice new strategies, and receive feedback and contribute greatly to teacher selfefficacy with T-SEL strategies.
Preceding research attests that SEL programs, such as ones learned in professional
development, need structure, personalized learning experiences, and teacher relationshipbuilding (Rutledge et al., 2015). When given the time to collaborate, teachers support each other
in the enactment of T-SEL, and their well-being improves. This study’s conceptual framework
explores T-SEL through the lens of SCT regarding teacher self-efficacy. This is a rising topic of
research for SEL programs that focus on social behaviors and interactions and culturally relevant
practices (Rutledge et al., 2015; Schunk, 2020; White et al., 2022). The effects of SCT and selfefficacy depend on teacher perceptions of themselves among the community of belonging among
school leaders and their colleagues.
When instilling motivational engagement skills, behavior, thinking, and self-control
strategies in students, teacher well-being makes a difference in how SEL is implemented in the
classroom (McCormick et al., 2020; Sandilos et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2018). Teachers need time
to support and learn from each other about their struggles and positive effects of implementing
T-SEL. Additionally, school and district administrators must take into consideration teacher
“stress, job satisfaction, and teaching efficacy” in determining the “positive effects of SEL

70
interventions” (Yang et al., 2018, p. 47). Time for teacher collaboration, discussion, and
reflection is needed as a follow-up from PD to ensure T-SEL implementation follows best
practice.
Recommendation 3: Develop a Program and Allot Time to Implement T-SEL With
Teacher Input
Ten of 14 teachers interviewed indicated that during the school day and during class
periods, there was not enough time to implement T-SEL lessons that were mandated to be
incorporated in their lessons. The finding from Research Question 2 demonstrated that teachers’
primary challenge for enacting T-SEL lessons and strategies is the lack of time dedicated to
implementation. This affects teacher and student buy-in. The recommendation is to allot time
during the school day to implement T-SEL lessons from the school or district-adopted program
and include teachers into developing that plan to support student academic development. This
may look like a restructuring of the school day where a dedicated amount of time is spent on a TSEL activity, which may be about 10–15 minutes. It could also look like incorporating a single
strategy surrounding an academic lesson where T-SEL is addressed for a few minutes every class
period on a given day. This restructuring does not need to involve additional costs. This structure
is dependent on the culture of the school and input of the teachers practicing these strategies.
This recommendation echoes previous studies, which attest that teachers must be
involved in the design for SEL practices for implementation. Santoro (2021) states that school
administrators must acknowledge the time that is necessary for teachers to implement T-SEL
lessons. By including teachers in the development of a T-SEL plan, school leaders will find that
teacher buy-in will likely increase, which will create an environment where T-SEL will thrive.
Developing a model where teachers are knowledgeable and trained to improve students’

71
transformative social and emotional competencies is a cost-effective investment in increasing
teacher buy-in (Curcio et al., 2023; Huck et al., 2023; Poulou, 2017). In turn, teacher selfefficacy and well-being will lead to the openness to enact equity-based, T-SEL.
Additionally, it is crucial for schools to know what works and what does not. Observing
other T-SEL programs that exist will provide a model for successful implementation. In this
study, most of the participants experienced PD training that was for a specific SEL program. The
school district adopted this program, yet it was not evident that the school was utilizing a format
of this program that was efficient. Participants in this study stated that there was no current plan
for teaching and implementing the T-SEL lessons and strategies from the program. Future
research on various T-SEL programs and how schools and districts are adopting the resources
will bring awareness to various options for implementation. Providing schools with a template or
model program for T-SEL that reaps high results as evidenced by teacher self-efficacy and
student well-being can increase positive school culture.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study is limited to a select group of teachers from core and elective subject
departments at a single secondary school. It included 14 teachers, a small sample that may lack
generalizability to broader populations. Given that these data were collected from one high
school, the interviews may reflect the culture, demographics, and policies of this school. It is also
limited to anecdotal data from interviews. In addition, this study cannot know how SEL and TSEL affect students’ grades, given that this is not an ethnographic, longitudinal study that
examines the teachers’ use of SEL strategies long-term, given that the study met the parameters
of time and participation needed to examine the topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In addition, a
delimitation is that what the researcher cannot know, which includes the opinions of a large

72
sample of secondary teachers, the way a quantitative survey would offer (Johnson &
Christensen, 2017). These limitations and delimitations are taken into consideration in the
findings, recommendations, and conclusion of this study.
Implications for Practice
This study explored the value of T-SEL and the teacher perceptions about how T-SEL
implementation and professional development influence each other. From the study’s findings,
key themes emerged. Provided are three implications for practice from these findings. The first
implication examines the results of experiencing the positive effects of addressing gaps of
learning among marginalized student groups. The second implication assesses the results of
providing structure and follow-up collaboration on PD experiences. The third implication asserts
the effects of increasing teacher and student buy-in to T-SEL practices while improving teacher
well-being.
The first implication derived from the findings in this study indicates that teachers and
school leaders will experience the positive effects of addressing gaps of learning and reach all
students in underserved communities. This study focused on the five competencies of T-SEL that
address gaps in learning opportunities and environments of marginalized groups. Providing
teachers with knowledge and experience with the T-SEL competencies of identity, agency,
belonging, collaborative problem-solving and curiosity will address the needs of all students and
build equitable learning environments. T-SEL will provide strategies and lessons for teachers to
use in their classrooms that are culturally relevant for the diversity of students.
Additionally, the second implication states that providing ongoing support and structure
for PD that includes follow up collaboration improves the practice and implementation of T-SEL
strategies. The teacher participants in this study shared that they value the thoughts and

73
experiences of their colleagues and enjoy learning from each other. Incorporating teacher
collaboration into the PD cycle of learning will ensure growth in T-SEL implementation.
Teacher and student well-being will improve.
Furthermore, the third implication asserts that creating an SEL program with built-in time
for implementation of the lessons and strategies will increase teacher and student buy-in and
improve teacher well-being as practitioners of T-SEL. The findings show that participants need
time to enact T-SEL lessons with their students. They state that with a consistent block of time to
implement these lessons, teachers and students will experience the shift in culture surrounding TSEL. Building a school-wide practice will develop a school culture that prioritizes personal wellbeing.
Future Research
Based on the findings of this study, future research is needed to improve the
implementation of T-SEL to increase teacher self-efficacy and improve professional
development trainings. Two recommendations for future research are provided. The first
recommendation is to create longitudinal studies that examine the effects of the T-SEL
competencies. The second recommendation is to examine how teacher well-being increases with
experience and knowledge of T-SEL implementation.
First, creating a longitudinal study that examines the effects of T-SEL competencies will
improve PD and implementation. The participants in this study did not receive formal instruction
and background of T-SEL through PD, only SEL. The data findings would be different if the
participants had prior experience with T-SEL, such as the possibility of sharing different
examples of strategies. While this study assessed T-SEL as a new concept, a longitudinal study
can follow the stages of growth when implementing T-SEL strategies. Future studies may further

74
indicate the needs of marginalized students and how they are affected by T-SEL. Allbright et al.
(2019) stated that learning practices for T-SEL encourages additional research examining the
efforts that are emerging, which intend to amend inequities in education. A longitudinal study
would assess the targeted T-SEL strategies used by teachers and observe if these approaches
support marginalized students in positive behavior (Nickerson et al., 2019). This future research
is worth examining to attest to the efficacy of T-SEL strategies.
Second, examining how teacher well-being increases with experience and knowledge of
T-SEL will further indicate the teachers’ needs as practitioners. As an extension to this study,
this recommendation focuses on helping school and district leaders understand what is required
for teachers to implement T-SEL with fidelity. Prior studies indicate that job satisfaction and
stress contribute to determining the positive effects of SEL interventions (Yang et al., 2018).
This study examined teachers’ perceptions of their self-efficacy of their enactment of T-SEL
strategies and did not focus heavily on teacher well-being. However, future research can provide
additional teacher well-being techniques for personal growth.
Connection to the Rossier School of Education Mission
This study connects to the USC Rossier School of Education mission by focusing on
teacher leaders to improve the educational outcomes and opportunities in schools (USC Rossier
School of Education, n.d.). T-SEL seeks to tackle issues surrounding marginalized students,
which aligns with the mission. T-SEL focuses on the inequities that affect students of historically
marginalized groups through the five competencies of identity, agency, belonging, collaborative
problem-solving, and agency. By instructing and supporting teachers with tools to use in the
classroom, they will learn to value and respect the cultural context of the communities in which

75
they teach. Additionally, they will use their power, knowledge, and expertise to interrogate and
shape policies and practices of T-SEL in their schools.
Conclusions
This study confirms that teacher self-efficacy is crucial to the development of students’
well-being through T-SEL. The findings show that while teachers had not received formal
training in T-SEL, they identified various ways they are already implementing the five
competencies, and how professional development could provide more guidance. The themes in
this study developed recommendations for practice that will drive teacher self-efficacy. The
recommendations determine that teachers need effective training, focusing on the five
competencies of T-SEL, time to collaborate with each other as a follow up after the training, and
time during the school day to implement T-SEL consistently. School leaders and administrators
must involve teachers in creating a plan to enact these strategies.
This study’s implications show that when teacher self-efficacy with T-SEL strategies
increases, all students benefit, which is crucial post-COVID. SEL is evolving, and as future
studies of T-SEL continue, more resources will be available to schools and districts. As these
resources become available, teachers will have more strategies in their T-SEL toolkit. Without
support for teachers, however, T-SEL programs will not thrive. Focusing on teacher well-being
and including them in planning of school-wide implementation will make a significant impact on
student well-being and affect their growth, development, and success in education by providing
them space to foster students’ identity, agency, belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and
curiosity. Teachers deserve the time and support to build their expertise, for they are the driving
force that does the hard work teaching our students the power of T-SEL. They are worth the
investment.

76
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Appendix A: Screening Instrument
This screening instrument will be used to collect demographic data from the teacher
research participants. This will also be used to gather participants for interviews and observations
to gather the data.
1. What is your gender? (Select one)
• female
• male
• non-binary
• transgender
• I use a different term: ________
2. What is your ethnicity? (Select one)
• White
• Black or African American
• Hispanic or Latino/a/e
• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Asian Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
• some other race: _______
• multiple races: ___________
3. What are your total years of teaching experience?
• 0–2 years
• 3–5 years
• 6–10 years
• 11–15 years

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• 16–20 years
• over 20 years
4. What subjects do you teach? (Select all that apply)
• English
• math
• science
• history/social studies
• physical education
• fine arts
• performing arts
• foreign language
• regional occupation program elective(s)
• career technical education elective
• other elective(s): __________________
• special education
• English language development
5. Have you attended training on improving student wellness and well-being, or social
and emotional learning (SEL)?
• yes
• no
6. Are you willing to be interviewed about your experience with SEL?
• yes
• no

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
Two research questions guided this study:
1. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences enacting
transformative social and emotional learning in their classrooms?
2. How do teachers describe their self-efficacy through their experiences with
professional development related to their implementation of transformative social and
emotional learning?
Five Competencies of T-SEL
• identity
• agency
• belonging
• collaborative problem-solving
• curiosity
Concepts From Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
• knowledge of T-SEL competencies of Identity, agency, belonging, collaborative
problem-solving, and curiosity
• teacher experiences enacting T-SEL in their classrooms
• teacher perception of experience with professional development on T-SEL strategy
implementation
• knowledge gained through professional development on T-SEL strategies
• teacher perceptions about challenges implementing of T-SEL
• self-efficacy in enacting T-SEL practices and strategies after training

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Interview Introduction
Thank you for your willingness to participate in my study. I appreciate you setting aside
time to answer the questions. As I mentioned to you, this interview should take about an hour.
Does that still work for you?
My study seeks to understand the experiences of high school teachers who implement
SEL strategies in the classroom. I selected your school to be part of my study because of its
diverse population of students demographically, between race and ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, home language, and disability status. I selected you to be a part of my study because as a
teacher who works with these student groups and your thoughts and opinions are important for
my study.
Before we start, I want to remind you about the overview of the study, which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet and answer any questions you might have about
your participation in this interview. I am a student at USC conducting a study on teachers’
experiences enacting social emotional learning, or SEL. I am interested in understanding how
professional development plays a role in supporting teachers to implement SEL. My research is
exploring an emerging element of SEL that focus on five components: Identity, agency,
belonging, collaborative problem-solving, and curiosity. These emerging components help
students develop the skills needed for school and community engagement. I look forward to
talking to multiple teachers to learn more about their experiences.
I would like to ensure you that today, I am taking on the role as a researcher. What I
mean by that is that I am not here to evaluate you as a teacher or judge you or your responses. I
seek to understand your point of view.

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You will also be able to view the transcript of our conversation before I begin writing my
report to ensure it was transcribed correctly.
As I stated in the Study Information Sheet provided to you previously, this interview is
confidential. I will not share your name with anyone outside of my research team. I especially
will not share them with other teachers, the principal, or the district. I will compile this data into
a report without identifying you in my data by using a pseudonym. My priority in reporting this
data is to protect your confidentiality.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password protected
computer and all data will be destroyed after three years. What questions do you have about the
study before we get started?
(Pause)
Since we are meeting on Zoom, I have the capability to record our conversation for accuracy in
my report. The recording is for me to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with
anyone outside the research team. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
(Pause)
Thank you.
(Hit record and ensure its recording.)
Now we will begin the interview.
Interview Questions
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions.
1. How long have you worked in the field of education?
2. What subjects do you teach?

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I’d like to now ask you about social emotional learning. I may refer to this as “SEL”
throughout the interview.
1. If someone were to ask you what social emotional learning is, how would you
describe it to them?
2. Think about a recent time when you implemented an SEL strategy in your classroom,
if at all. Will you tell me about it?
3. What challenges, if any, did you discover when you implemented this SEL strategy?
Now I’d like to as you some questions about SEL implementation. These questions will
reflect the five emerging elements about SEL.
1. Identity refers to how students view themselves as individuals and the world around
them. Describe an example of how SEL strategies you implemented in your
classroom helped students build their identity, if at all. (pause)
2. Agency refers to students learning the power to make choices that create a positive
impact. How, if at all, did the SEL strategy you implemented help students build
agency?
3. Belonging refers to students’ experience with acceptance, respect, and inclusion
within a group or the community, such as your classroom. How, if at all, did the SEL
strategy you implemented help students build a sense of belonging?
4. Collaborative problem-solving refers to students building a shared understanding to
come to solutions. How, if at all, did the SEL strategy you implemented help students
build the skill of collaborative problem solving?

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5. Curiosity refers to students leading themselves to pursue knowledge and different
perspectives. How, if at all, did the SEL strategy you implemented help students build
a sense of curiosity?
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about how professional development helps you
implement SEL. I may refer to professional development as PD throughout the interview.
1. Please describe a professional development opportunity you have received related to
SEL implementation, if any.
2. Think about the quality of this PD. What was the most valuable part of this PD, if
any?
3. What was a weakness of this PD, if any?
4. How, if at all, did the PD address the needs of the diverse student population of your
classroom?
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about how professional development helped you
address student learning through the emerging SEL components.
1. Describe how this PD helped you address SEL in terms of teaching students how to
build their identity, if at all.
2. Describe how this PD helped you address SEL in terms of teaching students how to
build their agency if at all.
3. Describe how this PD helped you address SEL in terms of teaching students how to
build their belonging, if at all.
4. Describe how this PD helped you address SEL in terms of teaching students how to
build their collaborative problem-solving, if at all.

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5. Describe how this PD helped you address SEL in terms of teaching students how to
build their curiosity, if at all.
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about confidence in enacting SEL strategies.
1. What, if anything, do you do in your own classroom because of this PD experience?
2. What, if anything, do you find challenging to enact in your classroom after
participating in this PD?
3. Think about your belief in your ability to implement SEL. Describe how confident do
you feel enacting SEL strategies.
4. What do you need to implement SEL with confidence, if any?
What other experiences would you like to share about our conversation on social
emotional learning implementation that I might not have covered, if any?
Conclusion
Thank you for sharing your thoughts with me today! I appreciate you taking time out of
your day to share your experiences. All that you have shared is valuable for my study. If I find
myself with follow up questions, may I contact you?
(Pause)
If so, does email work?
(Pause)
Again, thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you, please accept this token of my
appreciation.

Asset Metadata

Creator Ochoa, Jamie Pelen (author)

Core Title Secondary teachers’ perceptions of transformative social and emotional learning strategies: the benefits and barriers of implementation

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2025-05

Publication Date 05/07/2025

Defense Date 04/21/2025

Publisher University of Southern California (original), Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag emotional,implementation,learning,professional development,Secondary,SEL,self-efficacy,social,social and emotional learning,social cognitive theory,strategies,teacher perceptions,transformative,transformative SEL,transformative social and emotional learning,triadic reciprocal determinism,T-SEL

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Advisor Ott, Maria (committee chair), Muraszewski, Alison (committee member), Franklin, Gregory (committee member)

Creator Email jpochoa@usc.edu,dr.jpochoa@gmail.com

Unique identifier UC11399KHAA

Identifier etd-OchoaJamie-14009.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-OchoaJamie-14009

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Ochoa, Jamie Pelen

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies the social cognitive theory (SCT) that describes the triadic reciprocal determinism (TRD) to understand the interpersonal, behavioral, and environmental factors of teacher self-efficacy when implementing transformative social and emotional learning (T-SEL). The purpose of this study was to gain perspective on teacher experiences regarding the implementation T-SEL and sought to determine how professional development (PD) affected their self-efficacy. Using a qualitative approach to data collection, 14 teachers from one high school were interviewed and coding was used for data analysis. Findings from this study indicate that teachers came across challenges when enacting T-SEL due to a lack of administrative support and time in the instructional day. Teachers expressed that PD played an integral role in building their toolbox of T-SEL strategies, but time for collaboration, modeling, practice, and feedback with their colleagues following PD would contribute positively to their self-efficacy. When district and school administrators provide teachers with this time, T-SEL implementation will thrive. This study begins to bridge a gap between teachers’ perceptions of their self-efficacy enacting T-SEL and how improving the PD cycle can further support implementation to support students of underserved communities.