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Motivation, persistence, and achievement in East Asian languages learning: an expectancy-value theory perspective
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Motivation, persistence, and achievement in East Asian languages learning: an expectancy-value theory perspective
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Content
Motivation, Persistence, and Achievement in East Asian Languages Learning: An
Expectancy-Value Theory Perspective
Xiang Jian
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024
© Copyright by Xiang Jian 2024
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Xiang Jian certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Ruth Chung
Kimberly Hirabayashi, Committee Chair
Courtney Lynn Malloy, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
iv
Abstract
Through the lens of expectancy-value theory, this study explored the factors influencing
undergraduate students’ motivation and persistence in learning East Asian languages (Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean, or CJK). Motivational beliefs regarding enrollment and the predictive
effects of expectancy and task values on persistence in learning CJK courses were investigated.
Participants were 79 students who registered for a four-unit CJK course in the spring of 2023
semester at a private university in the western United States. The results showed that (a) intrinsic
value predicts the likelihood of enrolling in subsequent levels; (b) expectancy beliefs, task
values, language requirements, and external factors all affect students’ motivation. Specifically,
intrinsic value, utility value, attainment, expectancy of success, and external factors positively
influence students’ motivation, whereas effort cost negatively influences students’ intrinsic
motivation. The language requirement influences students’ motivation both positively and
negatively. Implications for teaching and future discussions were also discussed.
v
Acknowledgments
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Malloy and Dr. Hirabayashi, chairs of my committee, for
their invaluable patience and feedback. I also could not have undertaken this journey without my
defense committee member, Dr. Chung, who generously shared her knowledge and expertise.
Additionally, I cannot express enough gratitude to Dr. An, who has provided mentorship,
guidance, encouragement, and inspiration over the past 10 years. This endeavor would not have
been possible without her unwavering support.
I am also grateful to my two department chairs, my former and current colleagues from
the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean departments, and my classmates, for their help with
administrative support, participant recruitment, and their constant moral, spiritual, and emotional
support. Thanks should also be extended to the study participants from the university, who
generously gave their time to contribute to this study.
Lastly, I must express my profound appreciation to my family, especially my parents and
sisters. Their belief in me has been a constant source of motivation and encouragement
throughout this process. I would also like to thank my two roommates for their technical and
analytical support.
vi
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
Literature Review................................................................................................................ 4
Theoretical Foundations...................................................................................................... 9
Positionality ...................................................................................................................... 11
Methods............................................................................................................................. 13
Research Questions............................................................................................... 13
Context of the Study ............................................................................................. 13
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................... 14
Participants............................................................................................................ 15
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 17
Data Analysis........................................................................................................ 18
Findings for Research Question 1: What Are Students’ Motivational Beliefs
Regarding Learning East Asian Languages? .................................................................... 18
Findings for Research Question 2: To What Extent Do Motivational Attitudes
Predict Likelihood to Enroll in Subsequent Levels?......................................................... 32
Discussion and Implications............................................................................................. 33
Limitations........................................................................................................................ 38
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 39
References..................................................................................................................................... 40
Appendix A: Invitation to Participant in the Study ...................................................................... 51
Appendix B: Online Survey.......................................................................................................... 53
vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Reliability Coefficients for EVT Variables 14
Table 2: Demographic Statistics 16
Table 3: CJK Course Enrollment in the Spring 2023 Semester 17
Table 4: Primary Reasons for Enrolling in Advanced CJK Courses for Advanced
Level Students
20
Table 5: Primary Reasons for Pursuing an CJK Course for All Participants 21
Table 6: Summary of Students’ Responses (N = 79) and Descriptive Statistics of
EVT Constructs
22
Table 7: Correlation Matrix of Main Variables 25
Table 8: Regression Analyses for the Likelihood of CJK Enrollment 33
1
Motivation, Persistence, and Achievement in East Asian Languages Learning: An
Expectancy-Value Theory Perspective
The decline in the number of students enrolled in foreign language courses is not new in
higher foreign language education in the United States (Dupuy, 2000; Mori, 2019; Nagle, 2021;
Schulz et al., 2019). According to the Modern Language Association (MLA) census of language
enrollments in higher education in the United States, foreign language enrollments had a 9.2%
decline from Fall 2013 to Fall 2016. Furthermore, between 2016 and 2020, there was a 15.4%
decline in total enrollments (including undergraduate and graduate) in languages other than
English, as revealed by the MLA’s survey conducted in the fall of 2020. Undergraduate
enrollment in the most commonly taught foreign languages at the advanced level also decreased
significantly from 2013 to 2016 (Looney & Lusin, 2019). Meanwhile, many students discontinue
their foreign language study after fulfilling universities’ foreign language requirements (Looney
& Lusin, 2019; Nagle, 2021; Thomas, 2010; Thompson, 2017). This may explain why the
number of students enrolled in advanced levels of East Asian Languages (Chinese, Japanese,
Korean, or CJK) in higher education in the United States has been decreasing over the past 25
years (Diao & Liu, 2020; Mori, 2019; Saito-Abbott & Samimy, 1997; Schulz et al., 2019;
Shirane, 2003; Silva, 2007; Sung & Tsai, 2013; Xu, 2020). However, the underlying factors that
influence student motivation to enroll in advanced East Asian language studies are still unknown
because few studies have investigated the motivations behind the decisions on this downward
trend (Ruan et al., 2015; Schulz et al., 2019; Xu, 2020).
This study focuses specifically on the enrollment in language courses in the East Asian
Languages program in the Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures (EALC) at a
private university in the western United States. The EALC language programs face the same
2
issue of inconsistent enrollment and relatively low numbers of students in advanced classes. Data
collected from Spring 2007 to Spring 2021 shows that the average ratios of introductory (Level
1-3) to advanced (Level 4 and above) enrollments for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean are 3.9:1,
5.6:1, and 3.7:1 respectively. This indicates that many students stop enrolling in advanced CJK
classes after completing the three-semester language requirement. The drop-off inevitably leads
to a decline in the number of students who are eligible for an EACL minor or major because one
of the prerequisites for earning an EALC degree is completing at least four semesters of one CJK
language study. In order to mitigate such attrition trends, the EALC department has been
working on creating diverse and dynamic cultural learning communities by offering careeroriented language training courses and adopting up-to-date language teaching pedagogy.
However, an internal departmental assessment in 2020 indicated that the number of majors in
EALC still went through an overall decline over the past 10 years. The EALC department, as the
practitioner of a continuous effort to advocate diverse cultures, has a goal to stop this downward
trend.
There is a lack of research investigating the motivational factors of CJK students, and
even less research has considered students enrolled in advanced CJK courses. Research on
students’ motivation for foreign language learning has been primarily limited to the scope of
Romance languages like Spanish, French, or German (Busse & Walter, 2013; Dörnyei & AIHoorie, 2017; Moore, 2005; Price & Gascoigne, 2006; Saito et al., 2018; Thomas, 2010).
However, whether the findings of mainstream foreign language motivation research can be tested
and applied to CJK students (Lin, 2018) requires validation. Furthermore, according to the
Foreign Service Institute, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean are classified as the most difficult
languages for native English speakers to learn. It is unknown whether the difficulty of East Asian
3
languages should account for students’ discontinuation of level 4 courses due to the lack of
research on why and how students in American colleges choose to quit foreign language studies
(Diao & Liu, 2020; Wen, 2008). To fill this gap, this study will investigate foreign language
motivation in the context of East Asian languages learning.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the underlying motivational factors that lead
students to (a) pursue an East Asian language in college and (b) move beyond the minimum
requirements to continue to subsequent levels. To address the study aims, an online survey was
conducted with students who registered in the introductory and advanced CJK courses. The
survey data was analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods to learn more about the
multifaceted motivational beliefs and underlying factors that impact students’ decisions to pursue
East Asian language studies.
Proficiency in a foreign language brings a variety of benefits, such as improved cognitive
function, academic growth, intercultural competence, and professional development (Fox et al.,
2019; Kroll & Dussias, 2017; Price & Gascoigne, 2006). Students who want to achieve a high
level of proficiency in a foreign language must continue to study the language beyond the
introductory levels in a classroom setting (Busse & Walter, 2013; Nagle, 2021; Semaan &
Yamazaki, 2015). Proficiency in East Asian languages in particular requires this extended
learning period because it takes approximately three times as many instructional hours to reach
the same proficiency level as students learning Spanish, French, or German (Shirane, 2003).
The decreasing trend in advanced CJK enrollments may result in fewer individuals
proficient in East Asian languages as well as decreased interest in East Asian studies. Such
decline may also make it more difficult to recognize the potential value of using East Asian
languages in an era when the economies of the United States and East Asian nations are
4
intertwined. Furthermore, this declining enrollment and proficiency can potentially hinder
intercultural understanding and collaboration, which are essential for fostering international
relations and mutual growth in today’s globally interconnected world.
This article begins with a summary of relevant literature discussing the theoretical
foundations guiding the research questions. I then describe the study methods, data collection,
and analysis procedures and list my findings. I conclude by discussing the implications of my
findings and providing practical strategies that can be used to enhance students’ enrollment in
East Asian languages.
Literature Review
This present study examines the motivation for learning East Asian languages (CJK).
Literature related to foreign language learning motivation and motivation theories will be
reviewed to ground the current study on East Asian language learning. Specifically, this section
addresses instrumental and integrated motivation, expectancy for success, and task values to
provide a better understanding of the motivational factors that are being investigated during the
study.
Motivation for Foreign Language Learning
Motivation is one of the most determining factors among the individual factors of foreign
language learners, which has been studied extensively and deeply by researchers from a variety
of perspectives, including social-psychological (Dörnyei, 1998; Gardner, 1985, 2006) and
cognitive perspectives (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011; Jiang et al., 2018; Rosenzweig et al., 2019). In
a foreign language learning context, motivation is the internal force that stimulates learners’
desire to put effort into reaching an advanced proficiency in the target language (Gardner, 1985,
2006). Gardner and Lambert (1959) are the early scholars who established the foundation for the
5
theoretical construct of foreign language learning motivation. In their research, Gardner and
Lambert (1959) found that motivation and attitude positively correlate with language learning
achievement. They identify two motivational orientations: integrative and instrumental. This
integrative-instrumental dichotomy was further developed as a dominant theory and praxis in the
socio-educational model (Tuan, 2011). The integrative motivation refers to learners’ intrinsic
orientation to learn the target language and culture and want to be accepted as a member of the
community, whereas instrumental motivation is about the utilitarian or pragmatic reasons to
learn the target language, such as improving career opportunities or fulfilling academic
requirements (Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972).
Integrative and instrumental orientations have been studied in a variety of ways since the
development of the socio-educational model. However, this dichotomy is unrealistic given that
individuals’ motivation could potentially be impacted by two concurrent dimensions rather than
a singular focus. For example, Oxford and Shearin (1994) argue that the dichotomy approach is
clearly inadequate for measuring motivation because of the variety of factors that could influence
students’ foreign language learning. Wen (1997) also discovered that the dichotomy approach is
insufficient for investigating motivational factors for students learning Chinese as a foreign
language and that a broader and context-specific approach to motivational research should be
used.
A large amount of literature has also evidenced that integrated orientation alone is
insufficient to contribute to students’ motivation to learn a foreign language. It operates in
combination with instrumental orientation and is significantly influenced by multiple factors,
such as heritage status, language exposure, and foreign language requirements (Csizér &
Dörnyei, 2005; Lin, 2022; Liu, 2017; Semaan & Yamazaki, 2015; Shaaban & Ghaith, 2000;
6
Yang, 2003). A few studies even found instrumental orientation was more important than
integrative orientation in predicting foreign language learning achievement (Dörnyei, 1990b;
Rueda & Chen, 2005; Thomas, 2010; Wen, 2011). The divergent results generated from these
studies also lead to criticism of the integrative-instrumental dichotomy.
Because the nature of motivation is complex and multifaceted, it is important to capture
the components of motivation in learning a foreign language as comprehensively as possible.
The integrative-instrumental model, while promising and considering students’ feelings and
attitudes toward the second language, failed to investigate the numerous cognitive factors that
shape learners’ behavior and actions (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021; Guerrero, 2015). Therefore,
new theories and models of cognitive perspectives have emerged, such as intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and Expectancy-value Theory (Eccles et
al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2000, 2002), to consider various variables (e.g., intrinsic vs.
extrinsic incentives, expectation, value, needs, and cost) on foreign language learning
motivation.
Motivation for East Asian Language Learning
The review of literature revealed that motivation in East Asian languages has been
studied both empirically and non-empirically in individual East Asian languages, e.g., Chinese
(Lin, 2013; Wen, 2011), Japanese (Gilmore, 2017; Saito & Samimy, 1996), and Korean (Choi,
2015; Lee, 2018; Silva, 2007) or in related language groups, e.g., CJK (Liu & Shibata, 2008;
Mori, 2019; Murphy et al., 2009; Yang, 2003), or East Asian languages with other IndoEuropean languages (Awad, 2014; Price & Gascoigne, 2006; Thompson, 2017). Based on
questionnaires (Ma et al., 2018; Yang, 2003), surveys (Kim, 2012; Ruan et al., 2015; Rueda &
Chen, 2005; Tsui et al., 2017), interviews (Awad, 2014; Teo et al., 2019), or systematic reviews
7
(Kondo-Brown, 2010; Mori, 2019), various variables such as students’ interests, opinions,
identities, and attitudes toward East Asian languages and cultures can influence their language
learning motivation. Although each East Asian language has its uniqueness, some common
factors suggested by these studies that influence students’ enrollment in East Asian language
courses include the following: (a) instrumental (Price & Gascoigne, 2006; Rueda & Chen, 2005;
Silva 2007; Thomas, 2010; Wen, 2011) and integrative orientation (Wang, 2020; Yang, 2003);
(b) East Asian Cultures (Lee, 2018); (c) language difficulty (Shirane, 2003; Xu, 2020); (d)
heritage and identity (Comanaru & Noels, 2009; Rueda & Chen, 2005; Yang, 2003); (e) foreign
language requirement (Wong & Xiao, 2010; Yang, 2003); (f) career advantage (Awad, 2014).
Studies on individual East Asian languages are mixed regarding the most critical factors
that influence East Asian language learning. First, some studies found that instrumental
motivation has a greater influence on CJK students’ motivation (Rueda & Chen, 2005; Silva
2007; Thomas, 2010), whereas other studies found that integrative motivation tends to be more
effective in motivating students to learn CJK (Gilmore, 2017; Lee, 2018). These inconsistent
findings reaffirm the inadequacy of the integrative-instrumental dichotomy in various foreign
language learning contexts (Mori & Gobel, 2006; Rueda & Chen, 2005; Wen 1997). Second,
ethnicity, or the heritage background connected with the target East Asian language, has a mixed
influence on learning success in East Asian languages. Comanaru and Noels (2006), Mori
(2019), and Wen (2011) discovered that having a Chinese heritage background seemed to be
more likely to achieve success in learning Chinese, whereas Gillmore (2017) found that Japanese
heritage students are less interested in learning Japanese than non-Japanese heritage students in a
small heritage sample study (n = 21). Third, the difficulty of language plays an important role in
students’ achievement in CJK learning. Several studies found that the difficulty of East Asian
8
languages is one of the reasons why non-heritage students drop out of the target language studies
(Silva, 2007; Kondo-Brown, 2010; Xiao & Wong, 2014).
Unlike studies on individual East Asian languages, studies on a combination of East
Asian languages (CJK) and other Indo-European languages have uncovered a number of factors
related to the pursuit of foreign language learning: (a) orientation to learning; (b) cultural
understanding; (c) foreign language requirements; and (d) heritage background. Integrative
orientation was found more effective than instrumental orientation on CJK learning achievement
(Liu & Shibata, 2008; Murphy et al., 2009; Thomas, 2010; Yang, 2003). Semaan and Yamazaki
(2015) even found that both the integrative and instrumental orientations positively influence
students’ motivation for CJK learning. East Asian culture also impacts students’ motivation to
learn East Asian languages. In other words, students are more motivated to learn an East Asian
language if they have a greater cultural understanding (Liu & Shibata, 2008; Murphy et al., 2009;
Yang, 2003). Foreign language requirements at universities were found to be a validated
motivational variable, although the effect varies between ethnic groups. For example, Yang
(2003) discovered that heritage learners fulfilling a foreign language requirement were the most
motivated group among all East Asian language learners.
Regardless of the variety of motivational factors discovered by existing studies, there are
three major limitations that warrant the current study. First, there is a lack of voice from students
enrolled in advanced CJK courses. The majority of studies have focused on the beginning
students’ motivation for learning CJK, with only a few studies focusing on the perspective of
advanced students (e.g., Awad, 2014; Saito & Samimy, 1996; Wen, 1997). Meanwhile, the
current literature has greatly enhanced our understanding of the variables influencing students’
motivation to learn East Asian languages, particularly in relation to intended enrollment.
9
However, there is a need for further discussion regarding the relationships between these
motivational factors and persistence in East Asian language learning, such as continuing to the
next level and enrolling in advanced courses. Third, there is a lack of ethnic diversity and
inclusion in current literature because most studies focus on East Asian heritage students. The
motivation of CJK students from other ethnic groups should be studied equally to ensure
comprehensiveness and inclusiveness.
Theoretical Foundations
Motivation plays an important role in foreign language learning. Understanding students’
motivation is crucial, as it plays a critical role in shaping their choices, such as enrolling in a
foreign language course, and sustaining their persistence to continue to the next level (Nagle,
2021; Smith, 2009; Wen, 2008). The expectancy-value theory (EVT), a motivational framework,
is essential to this understanding. This theory explains how individuals’ expectations of success
and the perceived value of a task influence their engagement in learning activities in an
educational setting.
Expectancy-Value Theory
Developed by Eccles et al. (1983), the expectancy-value theory (EVT) aims to explicate
why and how an individual chooses one behavior over another in order to achieve a goal. EVT
contains two types of motivational forces: individuals’ expectancy of success and the value they
place on tasks. According to EVT, these two primary factors influence individuals’ motivation to
perform a task (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Meyer et al., 2019).
Expectancy is defined as an individual’s belief in their ability to perform well in a given
task. This concept is closely tied to achievement and performance, such as grades or assessment
scores. Conversely, value refers to individuals’ perception of the worth and importance of a task.
10
This concept is more about choice, such as course enrollment or career decisions. Furthermore,
value is a multidimensional component that includes attainment value (the importance of doing a
task), intrinsic value (the enjoyment of performing a task), utility value (the usefulness of a task),
and cost (the effort put into a task).
Theoretical Application
EVT has been applied extensively in different educational settings to understand student
motivation. In the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), research
on college-level students has found a link between changes in expectancy and value and the
impact on motivation, task choices, and persistence. For instance, Robinson et al. (2019)
discovered that students with a slower decrease in both expectancy and value and a slower
increase in effort cost were more likely to persist in their engineering major. Similarly, studies in
a foreign language learning context have also shown empirical evidence to support the
significant influence of EVT in understanding student motivation. For example, Wen (1997)
found that students with higher expectancies (ability to achieve desired outcomes) tend to retain
enrollment in the intermediate level Chinese course, while attainment value (significance to
achieve desired outcomes) motivates students to enroll in Chinese classes. In addition, Nagle
(2021) discovered that attainment value predicts motivated behaviors (willingness to
communicate in the target language), intrinsic value promotes persistence, and expectancy of
success predicts achievement. These two constructs operate jointly to predict an individual’s
achievement-related choices, persistence, and performance (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Expectancy-Value Theory and Foreign Language Learning
EVT is a motivational theory that aims to explain how individuals make choices, exert
effort in tasks, and display persistence in the face of difficulty. However, current research has
11
primarily been conducted in the STEM field, and there is still little research examining the
factors influencing college students’ motivation to learn foreign languages through the EVT lens
(Nagle, 2021). Moreover, most research in the context of foreign language learning has focused
primarily on English as a second language (Dong, 2022; Mori & Gobel, 2006; Shaaban &
Ghaith, 2000). Therefore, more in-depth investigations are needed to understand how the
expectancy of success and task value predict students’ achievement, persistence, and choices in
less commonly taught foreign languages (Loh, 2019).
As EVT predicts, achievement-related choices, performance, and persistence are
primarily determined by expectancy for success and task values. Students will become more
motivated to learn, put more effort into learning, become more persistent, and will continue to
pursue an academic field when they simultaneously feel competent to perform a task and find the
task rewarding (Wu et al., 2019). Because EVT is widely used as a motivational determinant of
academic achievement, choices, and persistence (Meyer et al., 2019), more studies have
incorporated EVT in investigating the links between motivation and persistence in college-level
foreign language learning (Mori & Gobel, 2006; Nagle, 2021; Wen, 2008). Thus, this study will
set EVT as a framework and look into how students’ motivational orientations could affect their
intentions toward learning East Asian languages.
Positionality
I am a doctoral student and professor at a private university in the United States of
Chinese nationality. I understand that my ethnicity, race, and cultural background impact my
pedagogical praxis and understanding of this research study. My passion for foreign language
advocacy is gradually shaped throughout my experiences as a foreign language teacher. I have
taught Chinese at many levels in different academic settings, such as urban universities and rural
12
liberal arts colleges. In the past 10 years, I have also witnessed the instability of students’
enrollment in the three languages (CJK) offered in the EALC department. My reflections on
factors influencing students’ enrollment have led me to learn more about motivation and foreign
language learning. I am particularly interested in East Asian languages (CJK) due to my close
connection with Japanese and Korean programs in my department. My interactions with
undergraduate and graduate students of different ages, races, nationalities, genders, and language
abilities have enabled me to value diversity and constantly seek to understand different
perspectives and cultures.
However, since I do not fully understand other languages and cultures, this affects my
ability to be an unbiased and objective observer. I acknowledge I hold bias toward the Chinese
language and its culture as a Chinese person and Chinese instructor. Moreover, as a foreign
language teacher, I would inherently find it beneficial to be proficient in a foreign language due
to my proficiency in both English and Chinese. This tendency can lead to a biased consideration
of research design, data collection, and analysis. As I obtain data that is contrary to my
preconceived assumptions, it may prevent me from thinking objectively and impartially.
Maxwell (2013) argued that researcher bias and subjectivity could threaten validity and make
conclusions invalid. Therefore, to reduce bias, I have collaborated with other researchers to peer
review my study. This involves seeking feedback on my survey design from my colleagues in the
CJK departments. Additionally, I integrated validated instruments from existing studies to ensure
the reliability and validity of the data measurements and analysis. I removed any identifiable
information through blind data analysis, which prevents unconscious biases from influencing the
interpretation of results. By using these strategies, I hope to increase the objectivity, validity, and
reliability of my study.
13
Methods
Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to investigate the underlying factors that influence students’
motivation to learn an East Asian language and move beyond the minimum requirements to
continue to subsequent levels. Specifically, this study used EVT to learn more about the
underlying factors that influence students’ motivation to pursue an East Asian language in
college and how these motivations and attitudes predict their likelihood of enrolling in
subsequent levels of East Asian language courses. The research questions of this study are as
follows.
1. What are students’ motivational beliefs regarding learning East Asian Languages?
2. To what extent do motivational attitudes predict likelihood to enroll in subsequent
levels?
Context of the Study
This study took place at a private university in the western United States. The university
offers thirteen Indo-European languages and three East Asian languages (CJK). Students who are
studying in the College of Letters, Arts and Sciences are required to complete a three-semester
language requirement in one foreign language. Data shows that 75% of students fulfill this
requirement by enrolling in the Indo-European languages. Moreover, most students stopped
enrolling in the advanced level of CJK courses after they completed the three-semester foreign
language requirement. The language requirement for earning an EALC minor is 2 years or the
Course IV of one East Asian language. However, students pursuing an EALC major are required
to study 3 years of an East Asian language, which is 1 year more than the minimum language
requirement for a major in an Indo-European language at the university. This study aims to
14
investigate the possible influences and motivating factors that could impact students’ decision to
enroll in and persist with East Asian language courses.
Instrumentation
This study employed an online survey consisting of two sections. The first section was a
survey designed to collect data on students’ demographics, such as gender, age, and
race/ethnicity. It also examined the academic background, including CJK languages studied, CJK
course level, year at college, family language spoken, interest in minor, and interest in major.
The second section includes the EVT scale (motivational beliefs), which contains five variables:
expectancy of success, attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and effort cost. These
variables were adapted from Nagel (2021) and modified to focus on CJK discipline rather than
Spanish. Detailed scale items can be found in Appendix 1. All scales were measured in English
using a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The
reliability analysis of these five variables revealed good internal consistency of EVT variables
(α >.80; see Table 1).
Table 1
Reliability Coefficients for EVT Variables
EVT variables α
Expectations of success .83
Attainment value .81
Intrinsic value .83
Utility value .91
Effort cost .87
15
Participants
I distributed an online survey to all 420 students registered for a four-unit CJK course in
the spring semester of 2023 at the university’s EALC department. A total of 92 students’
questionnaires were received, of which 79 were deemed valid for analysis. The remaining 13
were considered invalid, primarily due to issues of incompleteness. These invalid questionnaires
either lacked sufficient information or were not fully completed, making them unsuitable for
analysis in this study. All of the courses, ranging from beginner level to advanced level, were
chosen to ensure a diverse level of student competencies for comprehensive and inclusive sample
representation. Using the foreign language requirement as a cut-off, most participants (73.4%, n
= 58) were from lower-level (Level 1 to Level 4) courses, while the rest (26.6%, n = 21) were
from advanced levels (Level 5 and above). All participants were over 18 (M = 20.87, SD = 4.05).
Table 2 presents an overview of participants’ detailed demographic information. Table 3 shows
all of the CJK courses students enrolled in the Spring 2023 semester.
16
Table 2
Demographic Statistics
Variable Value Frequency Percent
Gender Female 40 50.6
Male 31 39.2
Non-binary/third
gender 6 7.6
Prefer not to answer 2 2.5
Ethnicity groups Asian: 20 25.3
Asian-American 28 35.4
Black or African
American 1 1.3
Hispanic or Latino 2 3.8
White 14 17.7
Mixed Race 9 11.4
Other, please specify 2 2.5
Prefer not to answer 2 2.5
Year at college Freshman 15 19
Sophomore 23 29.1
Junior 14 17.7
Senior 19 24.1
Graduate 8 10.1
Language of studies Chinese 40 50.6
Japanese 24 30.4
Korean 15 19
Note. The answers for “Other, please specify” were Black, Latino, Indigenous, and Mixed
Latino/White.
17
Table 3
CJK Course Enrollment in the Spring 2023 Semester
Language Course level N Percent
Chinese Chinese I 2 2.5
Chinese II 9 11.4
Chinese III 9 11.4
Chinese IV 12 15.2
Advanced Modern
Chinese I 1 1.3
Advanced Modern
Chinese II 1 1.3
Business Chinese 4 5.1
News and Web
Chinese 2 2.5
Japanese Japanese I 8 10.1
Japanese II 7 8.9
Japanese III 2 2.5
Japanese IV 4 5.1
Advanced Japanese I 3 3.8
Korean Korean I 2 2.5
Korean II 1 1.3
Korean III 2 2.5
Advanced Korean I 1 1.3
Advanced Korean II 9 11.4
Data Collection
Data was collected through an online anonymous survey. The data recruitment contained
two steps: the department chair of EALC approved the study and the directors of CJK programs
sent a recruitment email to the targeted students. Specifically, the department chair of EALC first
reviewed and approved the content of the recruitment email to be sent out to all students enrolled
in CJK courses in the Spring 2023 semester. The directors of CJK programs then received
approval from the chair of EALC and forwarded approved email to the targeted students. To
increase response rates, the CJK program directors also invited the CJK lecturers to inform their
18
students about the survey in class and encourage them to complete the survey outside of class.
The recruitment email stated that participation in the study was completely voluntary. Interested
students were asked to click on the link provided in the recruitment email to take the survey. It
took participants approximately 10 minutes to complete all the surveyed items.
Data Analysis
A multi-analytical approach was used for data analysis. The quantitative data collected in
this study was analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software.
First, the multiple-choice survey was used to categorize and quantify the primary reasons
students chose to pursue East Asian language studies. Second, descriptive statistics of EVT
instruments were summarized to identify the main constructs contributing to students’
motivation to learn the East Asian language. Pearson correlations were used to examine the
relationships between the EVT variables. Multiple regression was used to explore the
associations between the underlying factors and students’ intentions to enroll in future CJK
courses. Additionally, the qualitative data from open-ended questions in the survey was analyzed
through thematic analysis. Patterns and themes were identified to gain a deeper understanding of
the underlying factors that influence student motivation to pursue CJK courses.
Findings for Research Question 1: What Are Students’ Motivational Beliefs Regarding
Learning East Asian Languages?
Primary Reasons for Pursuing East Asian Languages
To learn more about the motivational beliefs regarding East Asian languages, survey
participants were asked two multiple-choice questions: “What are the primary reasons why you
chose to pursue learning an East Asian language course” (all participants), and “What are the
primary reasons why you chose to enroll in an advanced East Asian language course”
19
(participants in advanced courses only). Each participant was allowed to select more than one
choice from the following options: degree requirements, personal interest, cultural heritage,
career path, travel to East Asia, and other reasons.
For advanced-level students, the primary reason is personal interest. 92.9% of students (n
= 26) identified personal interest as the main reason for studying an East Asian language. This
highlights the fact that intrinsic motivation plays an important role in foreign language learning,
particularly at higher proficiency levels. Cultural heritage and career paths were also chosen as
significant motivators, with 60.7% (n = 17) and 57.1% (n = 16) of the sample identifying them
as primary reasons, respectively. This factor may suggest that exploring and connecting with
cultural heritage can help promote students’ interest in learning an East Asian language.
Moreover, recognizing the benefits of being fluent in East Asian languages for various career
paths and opportunities becomes another driving force for advanced students to learn East Asian
languages. Similarly, travel to East Asia was a noteworthy reason because 46.4% (n = 13) of
them underlined the importance of the practical application of learning an East Asian language.
On the contrary, a relatively smaller proportion (28.6%, n = 8) of advanced students identified
fulfilling degree requirements as the primary reason, indicating that compulsory language
requirements might not motivate them to continue their East Asian language studies in advancedlevel courses. Table 4 presents the statistics of advanced students’ responses regarding the
primary reasons for enrolling in an advanced East Asian language course.
20
Table 4
Primary Reasons for Enrolling in Advanced CJK Courses for Advanced Level Students
Reason categories Count Percent of cases
Personal interest 26 92.9
Cultural heritage 17 60.7
Career path 16 57.1
Travel to East Asia 13 46.4
To fulfill requirement for
degree 8 28.6
For all participants, personal interest was also the most significant factor, given that
84.6% of students (n = 66) from all levels chose it. When students put a high value on learning
activities, finding them interesting and enjoyable, they are intrinsically motivated and will
become more engaged in learning activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This
suggests that, regardless of proficiency level, a genuine interest in East Asian languages is a
predominant factor in student motivation. Similarly, the career path, selected by 55.1% of the
students (n = 43), was another significant motivator for studying East Asian languages. The rates
for cultural heritage, fulfilling degree requirements, and travel to East Asian countries were
41.0% (n = 32), 43.6% (n = 34), and 44.9% (n = 35) respectively, indicating that compared to
students who are pursuing advanced East Asian language studies, students in general value
learning an East Asian language for its multifaceted purposes. Table 5 presents the statistics of
responses from all participants regarding the primary reasons for pursuing an East Asian
language course.
21
Table 5
Primary Reasons for Pursuing an CJK Course for All Participants
Reason categories Count Percent of cases
Personal interest 66 84.6
Career path 43 55.1
Travel to East Asia 35 44.9
To fulfill requirement for
degree 34 43.6
Cultural heritage 32 41.0
Motivational Beliefs
To understand students’ motivational beliefs about learning East Asian languages, five
attitudinal subscales were utilized: expectancy of success, attainment value, intrinsic value,
utility value, and effort cost. Every attitudinal item was rated on a 6-point scale ( 1 = strongly
disagree to 6 = strongly agree). See Table 6 for an overview of all items, including the
frequencies and percentages of disagreement and agreement for each item, and means and
standard deviations for each subscale.
22
Table 6
Summary of Students’ Responses (N = 79) and Descriptive Statistics of EVT Constructs
EVT variables Disagree Agree M SD
n % n %
Expectations of success
I am certain that I can master the content in the East
Asian Language course I am taking this semester.
8 10.2 71 89.8 4.9 1.14
I will be able to master the content in even the most
challenging East Asian Language course if I try.
15 19 64 81 4.38 1.18
I am certain that I can earn a good grade in my East
Asian Language course.
7 8.9 72 91.1 5.05 1.14
Attainment value
Being someone who is good at learning the East
Asian Language is important to me.
7 8.9 72 91.1 4.41 1.345
Being good at learning the East Asian Language is an
important part of who I am.
17 21.5 62 78.5 4.11 1.34
Being involved in East Asian Language-related
activities is a key part of who I am.
28 35.5 51 64.5 5.03 1.1
Intrinsic value
I enjoy learning the East Asian Language. 4 5.1 75 94.9 5.32 0.96
Learning the East Asian Language is exciting to me. 1 1.3 78 98.7 5.3 0.9
I would like to take more East Asian Language
courses.
11 13.9 68 86.1 5.04 1.27
Utility value
Learning the East Asian Language is valuable
because it will help me in the future (like when I
get a job, travel to China, etc.).
7 8.8 72 91.1 5.23 1.13
The East Asian Language will be useful for me later
in life.
9 11.4 70 88.6 5.28 1.12
The East Asian Language is practical for me to
know.
8 9.9 71 89.9 5.16 1.148
Effort cost
When I think about the hard work needed to be
successful in the East Asian Language, I am not
sure that studying the East Asian Language is
going to be worth it in the end.
17 21.5 62 78.5 2.53 1.54
Learning the East Asian Language will require more
effort than I am willing to put in.
18 22.8 61 77.2 2.61 1.52
For me, learning the East Asian Language may not
be worth the effort.
10 12.7 69 87.3 2.06 1.33
23
Responses from the expectancy of success construct indicated that students have strong
confidence in their ability to become proficient in East Asian languages. This construct included
three statements reflecting students’ beliefs in their ability to do well in East Asian language
courses: “I am certain that I can master the content in the East Asian Language course I am
taking this semester,” “I will be able to master the content in even the most challenging East
Asian Language course if I try,” and “I am certain that I can earn a good grade in my East Asian
Language course.” 89.8% (n = 71), 80.9% (n = 64), and 90.1% (n = 72) of students agreed with
these statements, respectively.
Students attached strong importance to being proficient in East Asian languages. For
example, a total of 91.1% (n = 72) agreed that “Being someone who is good at learning the East
Asian Language is important to me.” Similarly, students considered competence in East Asian
languages as important for their identity. This was evidenced by 78.5% (n = 62) and 64.6% (n =
51) of students who agreed with the statements, “Being good at learning the East Asian
Language is an important part of who I am” and “Being involved in East Asian Language-related
activities is a key part of who I am,” respectively.
Results from the intrinsic value construct suggest that students not only value learning
East Asian languages but also derive enjoyment and excitement from the process. When asked
about “I enjoy learning the East Asian Language,” 94.9% (n = 75) of students expressed high
levels of agreement and engagement. Similarly, for the statements “Learning the East Asian
Language is exciting to me,” and “I would like to take more East Asian Language courses,”
99.3% (n = 78) and 86.1% (n = 68) of students, respectively, indicated strong agreement.
With respect to perceived utility, overall, students indicated that learning East Asian languages is
valuable and will be beneficial in the future. Specifically, 91.1% (n = 72) and 88.6% (n = 70) of
24
students exhibited strong agreement with “Learning the East Asian Language is valuable because
it will help me in the future (like when I get a job, travel to East Asia, etc.)” and “The East Asian
Language will be useful for me later in life,” respectively. Additionally, 89.8% (n = 71) of
students agreed that “The East Asian Language is practical for me to know.”
Regarding the effort cost construct, results revealed that students believe the effort
required to master East Asian languages surpasses the potential benefits. When asked about
potential challenges regarding learning East Asian languages, a majority of students agreed with
the following three statements. Specifically, 78.5% (n = 62) agreed with “When I think about the
hard work needed to be successful in the East Asian Language, I am not sure that studying the
East Asian Language is going to be worth it in the end,” 77.2% (n = 61) agreed with “Learning
the East Asian Language will require more effort than I am willing to put in,” and 87.3% (n =
69) agree with “For me, learning the East Asian Language may not be worth the effort.”
Correlations Between EVT Subscales
As reported in Table 7, a Pearson correlation analysis revealed that all EVT constructs—
except for cost—were significantly correlated with each other. Specifically, attainment value was
positively correlated with expectancy of success (r = .339, p < .01). Utility value was also
strongly correlated with expectancy (r = .375, p < .01), attainment value (r = .487, p < .01), and
intrinsic value (r = .554, p < .01). Similarly, intrinsic value was positively correlated with both
expectancy value (r = .455, p < .01) and attainment value (r = .495, p < .01). Effort cost was
found to have a negative relationship with intrinsic value (r = –.246, p < .05), suggesting that
students who perceived higher effort costs associated with learning East Asian languages tended
to attribute less intrinsic value to the learning activities. This negative correlation aligns with the
literature, demonstrating a negative relationship between students’ perceived cost and their
25
engagement in academic tasks and achievement (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Jiang et al., 2018;
Nagle, 2021; Rosenzweig et al., 2019; Safavian, 2019; Schnettler et al., 2020).
Table 7
Correlation Matrix of Main Variables
Expectancy
value
Attainment
value
Intrinsic
value
Utility value Effort cost
Expectancy
value
–
Attainment
value
.347** –
Intrinsic
value
.479** .493** –
Utility value .384** .485** .552** –
Effort cost –.173 –.106 –.246* –.187 –
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*
. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
26
Factors Influencing Student Motivation to Enroll in the Next Level
Qualitative data were collected from 79 students’ comments in response to open-ended
questions in the survey to understand the motives behind their decisions to enroll in the next
level of East Asian language courses. The dominant factors that either positively or negatively
impact their motivation were identified using thematic analysis. These factors were then
categorized within the EVT (Expectancy-Value Theory) framework, including 1) Effort Cost; 2)
Intrinsic Value; 3) Utility Value; 4) Expectancy of Success; 5) Attainment Value; 6) Language
Requirement; and 7) External Factors.
Effort Cost
Time Constraints. In this study, time emerged as a significant factor that influenced
students’ enrollment in CJK courses at the next level. It was defined as any time-related
constraint that prevents students from proceeding to the next level, including aspects such as
impending graduation, a heavy course load, or insufficient space in the course plan. The data
revealed that time constraints were the most frequently cited factor that affected students’
enrollment of likelihood. Specifically, 37.97% (n = 30) of students mentioned that because of
time limitations, such as impending graduation or lack of available space in junior year’s course
schedules, they were not able to enroll in the next language level, even if they would like to. For
instance, one participant stated, “I’m a senior, so I can’t [enroll]. I think if I was a junior I
would.” This comment was echoed by another participant who shared, “My only problem is
trying to fit it into my already busy course plan for the future.”
Time Commitment. Time commitment referred to the extreme workload that prevented
students’ continuation to the next level, namely, the excessive time commitment required in CJK
courses. It was mentioned by 11.39% (n = 9) of the students. They identified the extreme
27
workload and time dedication required for these non-major courses as significant factors
contributing to amotivation. For example, one student mentioned, “School work is busy; there
was a large time commitment.” Another student echoed this sentiment: “Workload is extreme,
(there is) too much time dedicated to a non-major class.” They felt that the demands of the CJK
course were high, considering that it was not their primary area of study.
Language Difficulty. The perceived difficulty of the CJK courses was mentioned by a
small portion of the participants. About 6.33% (n = 5) of them stated that the coursework was
challenging, and the high learning standards in advanced-level CJK courses required more time
and effort than they were willing or able to put in. This was noted by the comment below:
Learning the language often takes a lot more time and effort than I am willing to
put in, and I don’t feel confident that I’ll have the motivation to keep up with the
higher learning standards in the next level.
Unlike time constraints, in which students held a neutral perception of factors influencing
continued language learning, it is worth noting that some students cited time commitment and
the perceived difficulty as negative factors associated with their willingness to continue to the
next level. Students felt that the CJK courses expected too much of them, and the commitment
made them feel rushed and overwhelmed. One student clearly stated the negative feelings that
these two factors have brought up:
Workload is extreme, too much time dedicated to a non-major class, feels too
rushed, and a lot is expected of us. Many people have previous experience in the
language so it makes those without any prior experience before taking the classes
at the university feel like they’re falling behind/more stupid.
28
This response portrays a vivid image of the pressure students experienced, which was
exacerbated by their comparison to peers who appeared to have an advantage due to prior
exposure to East Asian languages. These findings highlight the significant impact of time
commitment and perceived difficulty, two related yet distinct aspects of effort cost within the
EVT framework, on students’ motivation to continue their CJK language studies.
Intrinsic Value
The intrinsic value, particularly the enjoyment aspect, was another significant motivator
for students to continue their studies in CJK courses. In this study, it was defined as the pleasure,
satisfaction, or joy derived from studying East Asian languages or cultures. 35.44% (n = 28) of
students identified enjoyment as a critical incentive to drive them to pursue further CJK studies.
Sentiments such as “having so much fun learning the language,” “favorite classes,” and “excited
to learn more” were frequently mentioned. One student even considered enrolling in an
additional East Asian language course due to the engaging and enjoyable experience of learning
Korean:
This class is a great way for me to stay engaged in my studying and communicate
further with Korean. I really enjoy learning about East Asian Languages and
cultures, to the point that I am considering taking a language course in Chinese
apart from my current Korean course.
This positive perception clearly revealed that intrinsic value as a powerful motivator can not only
increase students’ persistence in CJK studies but also inspire them to go beyond and pursue
multiple East Asian languages.
Utility Value
29
Utility value was modified by the practicality and relevance of language proficiency in
personal and professional life experiences. 24.05% (n = 19) of students reported that the practical
benefits or future usefulness of CJK language learning motivated them to continue to the next
level. As one participant noted, “It is practical. It will be helpful and relevant for me in the future
in both my personal life and professional career.” Another student emphasized the practical
usage of mastering Chinese in future academic pursuits, saying, “I am highly motivated to learn
Chinese for my graduate research.”
The study abroad factor emerged as a subcategory of utility value, mentioned by 5.06%
(n = 4) of students, increasing the total percentage of students reporting utility value to 29.11%
(n = 23). These four students were motivated to enroll in further CJK courses due to their future
study abroad plans. One student expressed, “I want to learn Korean and study abroad at Yonsei
University again in the spring semester of 2024.” Another participant stated, “I want to study
abroad in Japan so I have to take two levels. I am open to working my career abroad too.” This
aspect of utility value suggests that students viewed East Asian language learning as a strategic
investment for future opportunities, especially those associated with studying or working abroad,
which motivated them to enroll in further levels.
Expectancy of Success
Expectancy of success in this study relates to students’ belief that they can achieve
fluency and improve their language proficiency. Among the respondents, 32.91% (n = 26) noted
that the desire to become fluent or improve their language skills motivates them to continue to
the next language level. Students made statements such as, “I wish to improve my skills [...] I
want to be able to speak professional Chinese” and “I’m not yet at the level of proficiency I
would like to be at, and need to keep studying to get there.” On the other hand, a lack of
30
confidence could be linked to students’ disengagement and reluctance to enroll in further East
Asian language courses, as some students expressed concerns about the fear of failure or not
meeting the higher learning standards of the next level. Comments such as “I fear I will not do
well in the next level course” and “I don’t feel confident that I’ll have the motivation to keep up
with the higher learning standards in the next level” well represent these kinds of concerns.
Language Requirement
The language requirement, such as a minor or major, was cited by 22.78% (n = 18) of
students as an important factor in influencing their decisions to enroll in further CJK courses.
However, opinions regarding the role of language requirements were mixed. Some students
viewed it as an incentive for progression. This sentiment is supported by phrases such as “need
to keep going for requirements and self-fulfillment” and “become fluent, as well as complete my
minor.” On the other hand, some students expressed that fulfilling the language requirement was
a reason to discontinue. For example, one student mentioned, “It is not a requirement for me to
take further East Asian language classes. So I will stop taking them as my other coursework
becomes heavier.” Another student even stated that the only reason they chose to take an East
Asian language course was because of a university requirement: “I was taking Chinese solely as
a university requirement as it takes a large time commitment.” This negative attitude towards the
language requirement, along with the cost (time commitment) factor, could lead to
disengagement and discontinuation of future CJK studies. Therefore, the data reveals that the
language requirement plays a dual role in students’ decision-making process—it can both
encourage and hinder students’ decision to enroll in the next level of CJK courses.
Attainment Value
31
Attainment value is about personal importance, such as connecting to heritage or
maintaining identity, which emerged as another driving force for students’ engagement in
subsequent CJK courses. A total of 13.92% (n = 11) of students expressed the need to continue
learning to connect their identity or heritage. One student, for instance, expressed a strong
connection to their heritage language: “I feel like it is my duty to learn the language when I have
the chance because it is part of my nationality.” Similarly, another student emphasized the close
relationship between East Asian language proficiency and affirmation of personal identity,
stating, “I still really value language skills and being fluent as it is part of my identity and way of
communication with extended relatives and friends, etc.”
External Factors
External factors, such as teaching style, teacher characteristics, and classroom
environments, emerged as influential factors that increased the likelihood of enrollment in future
CJK studies beyond the EVT framework. There were 12.66% (n = 10) of students who identified
a variety of external factors that influenced their experiences with CJK learning. For example,
one student appreciated a particular teaching style that made East Asian language learning
enjoyable: “Last semester [fall 2022] was the only time I really enjoyed learning Chinese due to
the de-emphasis on homework/character writing and the emphasis on speaking in class/practical
usage.” Similar sentiments that made students enjoy learning an East Asian language include a
supportive environment provided by the Department of East Asian Languages and a sense of
community among peers, as this student commented: “The EALC courses at the university that I
have taken have had small class sizes. I always felt supported, close to the professor, and close to
my peers/a sense of community amongst my peers.”
32
Findings for Research Question 2: To What Extent Do Motivational Attitudes Predict
Likelihood to Enroll in Subsequent Levels?
A multiple regression analysis was used to explore the extent to which motivational
constructs predicted likelihood to enroll in the next level. The five EVT constructs were used as
predictive variables, and the likelihood of enrollment in the next level was used as dependent
variables. To assess the likelihood of students enrolling in the subsequent level of the CJK
courses, a 6-point scale was used, with 1 being “strongly unlikely” and 6 being “strongly likely.”
Responses from this scale indicated that 71.8% (n = 56) of students expressed positive intentions
to continue with their language studies (i.e., rating likelihood a “4,” “5,” or “6”), while 28.2% (n
= 22) of students reported being unlikely (i.e., rating likelihood a “1,” “2,” or “3”) to enroll in the
subsequent levels. The mean rating for likelihood to enroll was 4.26 (SD = 1.82). Results
indicated that among all the constructs, intrinsic value was the only significant predictor of
likelihood to enroll in the next level of CJK courses (β =.340, p =.023). This indicates that
students who value the CJK course more intrinsically are more likely to enroll in the next level.
Table 8 presents the statistics of the regression analysis of EVT constructs and dependent
variables (likelihood of enrollment in subsequent levels).
33
Table 8
Regression Analyses for the Likelihood of CJK Enrollment
r2 F b SE Beta t p Tol VIF
Intent to
enroll
.114 2.43 <.05
Expectancy
of success
.084 .230 .046 .365 .716 .739 1.352
Attainment
value
–.270 .221 –.161 –1.223 .226 .683 1.464
Intrinsic
value
.689 .296 .340 2.329 .023 .557 1.796
Utility value .154 .240 .089 .643 .523 .622 1.607
Effort cost –.081 .157 –.058 –.517 .606 .931 1.074
Discussion and Implications
One of the key findings of this study is that the role of intrinsic motivation, specifically a
genuine interest in East Asian languages, influences students’ decisions to enroll in subsequent
CJK courses, which fills a significant gap in the existing literature. This intrinsic motivation, as
evidenced by a substantial proportion of students (92.9% of advanced level students and 84.6%
of those at lower levels) expressing a sincere appreciation for East Asian cultures and languages,
highlights the significance of interest-driven motivation in fostering engagement and persistence
in academic pursuits. Previous studies have primarily focused on the motivations of heritage
learners, such as Comanaru and Noels’ (2006) investigation including 145 Chinese heritage
learners, Gobel and Mori’s (2006) study with 453 students in Japan, and Wen’s (2011) research
including 317 students of both heritage and non-heritage backgrounds. These research designs
focused on students with heritage backgrounds, leaving a gap in our understanding of motivation
in diverse student populations. This study, by contrast, highlights the intrinsic interest in East
34
Asian languages as a notable factor influencing students’ decisions to enroll in CJK courses by
exploring the motivations of students across varied backgrounds and proficiency levels.
The findings also showed alignment with the EVT, demonstrating a strong connection
between the values students associate with learning East Asian languages and their choices and
persistence in these language courses. According to EVT, individuals’ choices, persistence, and
performance in learning activities are influenced by their expectations of success and the values
they attach to the tasks. The significant correlation reported between the EVT constructs,
particularly the correlation between the task values (except for effort cost) and the intentions to
study East Asian languages, underscores EVT’s applicability in understanding motivations in a
broader context, going beyond the STEM areas to context-specific foreign language learning
settings.
Furthermore, the emphasis placed by students in their responses to open-ended questions
and the multiple-choice survey enriches our understanding of the existing literature on how
various dimensions of factors contribute to students’ motivation to pursue the CJK courses in
two key ways. For one, the data shows the differences in motivations based on students’ levels
and personal circumstances. Although personal interest was cited as a primary reason for
enrolling in CJK courses, practical considerations such as degree fulfillment, career
advancement, cultural connection, and travel opportunities are also cited as key drivers.
Second, the correlation analysis showed significant interrelations among most constructs,
reinforcing EVT’s applicability in understanding motivations in the context of learning East
Asian languages. In addition, the negative or mixed-influence factors affecting student
persistence in learning CJK, such as effort costs, language requirements, and external factors,
35
help us not only understand what motivates students to learn and continue their learning but also
identify factors that may lead to avoidance motivation.
One interesting finding that deserves attention is the negative correlation between effort
cost and utility value. This negative relationship suggests that as students’ perceived effort costs
increase, their intrinsic motivation to learn East Asian languages decreases. It is important to
note that perceived cost can lead to a decrease in students’ motivation, and this decreased
motivation can, in turn, lead to disengagement in academic tasks (Jiang et al., 2018). Given the
critical role of cost in leading to amotivation, minimizing cost and enhancing other EVT values
may provide a practical approach to fostering student motivation and persistence in learning East
Asian languages.
The findings contribute to the literature on students’ motivation to learn foreign
languages. First, our study focuses more on learners’ motivation with more demographic
backgrounds than previous studies. Some previous studies have primarily investigated the
motivation of participants with the same demographic background to learn a foreign language,
such as the studies by Rueda and Chen (2005) and Gilmore (2017) on heritage students, and
Lee’s (2018) study on non-heritage students’ motivation for learning Korean. Similarly, there
were studies that, despite examining the motivation of learners with multiple backgrounds to
learn a foreign language, the goal of the study was not to focus on East Asian languages (Mori &
Gobel, 2006; Semaan & Yamazaki, 2015) or focused only on one East Asian language (Diao &
Liu, 2020). Additionally, this study examined a broader range of students’ proficiency levels
than previous studies. The majority of existing research has mainly centered around beginning
students’ motivations, overlooking the motivations of students at advanced levels. Understanding
the motivations of students at the advanced levels will help provide a more comprehensive
36
knowledge of students’ motivations to learn East Asian languages. Lastly, this study not only
validates the foundational principles of the EVT but also reveals multiple motivational factors
influencing students’ engagement and persistence in learning East Asian languages. These
factors include career path, cultural heritage, degree requirements, and external factors such as
teaching style and classroom environment. By understanding these various motivational
dynamics, this study extends the current literature by offering a comprehensive perspective on
the driving factors influencing students’ progress in their East Asian languages learning journey.
The findings have important implications for East Asian languages teaching. First, from
the EVT lens, we understand that teaching practices should be designed to improve students’
expectancies of success and task values, as well as to decrease the perceptions of effort cost, in
order to promote student motivation and persistence in learning East Asian languages. EVTbased interventions, or instructional interventions designed to improve students’ expectancy of
success and help them value their learning (Hecht et al., 2019; Lazowski & Hulleman, 2016;
Rosenzweig et al., 2019), can be used to achieve this goal. Harackiewicz and Priniski (2018)
argue that EVT-based interventions, such as task value interventions, can help increase
engagement and interest in learning by enabling students to find value in what they are studying.
A typical task value intervention involves a writing assignment asking students how their
learning is relevant to their lives. Students can choose the topic of their interest to answer. These
student-centered task value interventions enable students to actively engage in discovering the
value of learning. This, in turn, motivates them to engage with the topic and ultimately improves
their performance. The same task interventions can be used to encourage students to connect the
content of CJK courses with their success, the significance of learning, and practical
applications.
37
Second, this study highlights the diverse motivational factors in learning East Asian
languages, requiring a teaching design that could meet the common needs of students, such as
those who solely seek to satisfy language requirements in general education, while also
respecting individual differences, such as those who want to learn East Asian languages to
promote career pursuits, personal development, and cultural competencies. To achieve this goal,
the integration of Project Based Learning (PBL) is recommended, as PBL has been shown to
effectively enhance student engagement by fostering personal interest and promoting student
autonomy in learning (Shin, 2018). In CJK programs, curricula and course activities can be
designed to incorporate projects that align with students’ intrinsic interests, heritage connections,
and career aspirations. For example, a project that involves mapping Chinatown in an advanced
Chinese course could be an engaging way to integrate cultural exploration and language learning.
Such a project would allow students to link their learning to real-world situations and personal
interests, thereby making learning more meaningful and relevant.
Third, students’ motivational beliefs and factors related to learning persistence call for
CJK programs to provide a more supportive teaching environment. Autonomy-supportive
teaching, which emphasizes supporting students by allowing them to take initiative in their
learning, honoring their perspectives, and acknowledging and respecting their choices, interests,
and personal goals (Patall & Zambrano, 2019), can be an effective strategy in CJK teaching
practices. This approach can ultimately lead to better academic performance and increased
engagement in class, as it fulfills students’ innate psychological needs (Reeve & Jang, 2006;
Ryan & Deci, 2000). In CJK classes, when students are fully supported, they tend to become
more self-motivated in learning activities without the need for external stimuli. This approach
38
may help reduce students’ perceived effort cost of learning, as they are driven by their desire to
learn, thereby increasing their intrinsic, attainment, and utility values.
Limitations
While the EVT lens has shed light on the various motivations underlying students’
engagement and persistence with East Asian languages, this study could be expanded in several
ways. First, it remains unclear how the language requirement and effort cost can result in
disengagement and the discontinuation of East Asian language studies in the future. Given the
mixed opinions regarding the role of language requirements, future research could investigate
how these mandatory policies affect student motivation and overall learning experiences in CJK
courses. In addition, it would be helpful to learn more about the impact of the effort cost on
students, such as whether the perceived language difficulty puts students under pressure and
brings them psychological distress, and whether the time commitment is at the expense of their
major courses. Only by knowing what these adverse impacts are, can educators design a better
supportive teaching and learning system that aims to alleviate these effort costs, reduce the
barriers, and support students to move beyond the minimum requirements to continue to
advanced levels of CJK courses.
Second, external factors, such as teacher style and classroom environments, emerged as
important factors influencing students’ learning experiences in CJK studies. This dimension
broadens the discussion beyond the five EVT constructs, opening up an inquiry into how both
external and internal factors interact with each other and contribute to student motivation to learn
East Asian languages. Educators can gain greater knowledge of how dynamic and complex
factors affect students’ intentions, persistence, and achievement in East Asian language studies
by integrating this holistic perspective.
39
The study design also has several limitations. First, it relies on a single motivational
theory and focuses on the internal perspectives of individuals, ignoring external factors that
might impact student motivation, such as the learning environment, social and cultural
interactions, and teacher influence. Second, the 20.5% survey response rate raises concerns about
the lack of representativeness of findings and may also introduce bias in the findings. Because
student motivation is complex and dynamic, a one-time data collection may not fully capture the
constructs and determinants. A longitudinal study that covers the entire college experience would
provide a more comprehensive understanding of underlying factors that influence student
motivation in learning East Asian languages.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study offers new insights into the pursuit of East Asian languages by
examining intrinsic value, utility value, attainment, effort cost, expectancy of success, language
requirement, and external factors. One major finding of this study is that intrinsic value must be
high for students to continue enrolling in subsequent levels and taking advanced East Asian
courses. The EVT constructs, including expectancy of success, attainment, utility, and intrinsic
values, are all positively correlated with each other, highlighting the importance for East Asian
language educators to acknowledge and leverage the positive impact of this interplay on
promoting student motivation to pursue East Asian language studies. Lastly, the findings have
practical implications for improving pedagogical strategies to better support students during their
learning journey in East Asian languages. Moreover, in today’s globally interconnected world,
these findings highlight the importance of future research on engaging more students to become
proficient in East Asian languages.
40
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Appendix A: Invitation to Participant in the Study
My name is Xiang Jian and I am a graduate student in the Rossier School of Education at
the University of Southern California. Conducting a research study is a requirement of my EdD
degree. The purpose of this study is to figure out the underlying factors that impact students’
motivation to pursue an East Asian language at college and/or to move beyond the minimum
requirements to continue to the subsequent levels. Participation in this study will involve the
completion of an online survey. The information you share with us is really important and can
help us better understand how East Asian language programs at USC can improve their service
and become more engaging for future students.
Study description: This one-time survey is short (~15 minutes). Most survey questions
are multiple-choice, but you’ll have several opportunities to expand your answer in a few openended narrative responses.
Benefits and risks: There will be no direct benefit resulting from your participation in this
survey. However, your participation may contribute to a better understanding of the factors that
influence university students to (a) pursue an East Asian language and (b) enroll in advanced
East Asian language courses. There are no risks for you to participate in this study.
Confidentiality and privacy: This survey is completely anonymous. No personally
identifiable information will be captured and collected. In order to protect your anonymity,
please do not provide any personal identifiable information, such as your name, in your
responses.
Voluntary participation: Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You
may stop or withdraw from the study at any time, or refuse to answer any questions for any
reason without receiving any negative consequences. Your decision to participate or not will
52
have no impact on your grade in your current East Asian language course, nor will it affect your
relationship with your instructor in the East Asian language program.
If you have any questions, please email us using the information provided below.
Xiang Jian: xjian@usc.edu
Before the survey begins, you will be asked for your consent. Proceeding to the survey
implies your consent.
Please answer all the questions with an asterisk (*).
53
Appendix B: Online Survey
Part 1: General information
1. Are you over the age of 18? (If no, the survey will automatically disqualify
respondents under the age of 18 by indicating “Sorry, you do not qualify to take this
survey. Thank you for your interest!”)
• Yes
• No
2. Year at college:
• Freshman
• Sophomore
• Junior
• Senior
• Graduate
3. Gender
• Female
• Male
• Nonbinary
• Prefer not to say
• Other: _____________________
4. Have you declared a major that is a language?
• Yes
• No
• If yes, what language: ______________________________
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5. Have you declared a minor that is a language?
• Yes
• No
• If yes, what language: ______________________________
6. What school is your major housed in? Please select your school. If your school is not
listed, please select “Other.”
• Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences
• USC School of Architecture
• Roski School of Art and Design
• Iovine and Young Academy for Arts, Technology and the Business of
Innovation
• Marshall School of Business
• USC School of Cinematic Arts
• Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism
• Kaufman School of Dance
• USC School of Dramatic Arts
• Viterbi School of Engineering
• Davis School of Gerontology
• Keck School of Medicine
• Thornton School of Music
• Chan Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy
• Gould School of Law
• USC School of Pharmacy
55
• Price School of Public Policy
• Other
7. Are you currently enrolled in an East Asian language class in the Spring 2023
semester?
• Yes
• No
If yes - what are you enrolled in? If your course is not listed, please select “Other.”
• Chinese I (EALC 104)
• Chinese II (EALC 106)
• Chinese III (EALC 204)
• Chinese IV (EALC 206)
• Advanced Modern Chinese I (EALC 304)
• Advanced Modern Chinese II (EALC 306)
• Advanced Modern Chinese III (EALC 404)
• Advanced Modern Chinese IV (EALC 406)
• Japanese I (EALC 120)
• Japanese II (EALC 122)
• Japanese III (EALC 220)
• Japanese IV (EALC 222)
• Advanced Japanese I (EALC 320)
• Advanced Japanese II (EALC 322)
• Advanced Japanese III (EALC 422)
• Advanced Japanese IV (EALC 424)
56
• Korean I (EALC 115)
• Korean II (EALC 117)
• Korean III (EALC 215)
• Korean IV (EALC 217)
• Advanced Korean I (EALC 315)
• Advanced Korean II (EALC 317)
• Advanced Korean III (EALC 415)
• Advanced Korean IV (EALC 417)
• Other (please specify):
8. Were you enrolled in an East Asian language class in the Fall 2022 semester?
• Yes
• No
If yes, what were you enrolled in? If your course is not listed, please select “Other.”
• Chinese I (EALC 104)
• Chinese II (EALC 106)
• Chinese III (EALC 204)
• Chinese IV (EALC 206)
• Advanced Modern Chinese I (EALC 304)
• Advanced Modern Chinese II (EALC 306)
• Advanced Modern Chinese III (EALC 404)
• Advanced Modern Chinese IV (EALC 406)
• Japanese I (EALC 120)
• Japanese II (EALC 122)
57
• Japanese III (EALC 220)
• Japanese IV (EALC 222)
• Advanced Japanese I (EALC 320)
• Advanced Japanese II (EALC 322)
• Advanced Japanese III (EALC 422)
• Advanced Japanese IV (EALC 424)
• Korean I (EALC 115)
• Korean II (EALC 117)
• Korean III (EALC 215)
• Korean IV (EALC 217)
• Advanced Korean I (EALC 315)
• Advanced Korean II (EALC 317)
• Advanced Korean III (EALC 415)
• Advanced Korean IV (EALC 417)
• Other (please specify):
9. What language(s) does/do your family speak in the home where you grew up?
• primarily English
• primarily a language other than English
• other (please specify):
10. Do you speak any of the following East Asian languages with your family? Check all
that apply.
• Chinese
• Japanese
58
• Korean
• Other (please specify):
11. What is your race/ethnicity?
• Asian (please specify your nationality):
• Asian-American
• Black or African American
• Hispanic or Latino
• Native American or American Indian
• White
• mixed race
• Other:
12. What is your age?
Please type your answer: ______________________________
Part 2: EVT Instrument (Nagel, 2021):
Questions 13 through 777 utlize a six point likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree to 6 =
Strongly agree).
Please indicate to what degree you agree with the following statement:
Expectations of success:
13. I am certain that I can master the content in the East Asian Language course I am
taking this semester.
14. I will be able to master the content in even the most challenging East Asian Language
course if I try.
15. I am certain that I can earn a good grade in my East Asian Language course.
59
Attainment value:
16. Being someone who is good at learning the East Asian Language is important to me.
17. Being good at learning the East Asian Language is an important part of who I am.
18. Being involved in East Asian Language-related activities is a key part of who I am.
Intrinsic/interest value:
19. I enjoy learning the East Asian Language.
20. Learning the East Asian Language is exciting to me.
21. I would like to take more East Asian Language courses.
Utility value:
22. Learning the East Asian Language is valuable because it will help me in the future
(like when I get a job, travel to China, etc.).
23. The East Asian Language will be useful for me later in life.
24. The East Asian Language is practical for me to know.
Effort cost:
25. When I think about the hard work needed to be successful in the East Asian
Language, I am not sure that studying the East Asian Language is going to be worth it
in the end.
26. Learning the East Asian Language will require more effort than I am willing to put in.
27. For me, learning the East Asian Language may not be worth the effort.
Part 3: Intention for enrollment and reason for enrollment.
28. How likely are you to enroll in the East Asian Language course in the next level?
Why do you feel this way?
60
29. What are the primary reasons why you chose to pursue learning an East Asian
language course? Check all that apply.
• to fulfill requirement for degree
• personal interest in learning languages
• cultural heritage
• career path
• travel
• Other (please specify):
30. (FOR STUDENTS IN ADVANCED COURSES) What are the primary reasons why
you chose to enroll in an advanced East Asian language course? Check all that apply.
• to fulfill requirement for degree
• personal interest in learning languages
• cultural heritage
• career path
• travel
• Other (please specify):
31. How likely are you to pursue the EALC minor? (1 = Strongly disagree to 6 =
Strongly agree)
32. How likely are you to pursue the EALC major? (1 = Strongly disagree to 6 =
Strongly agree)
The End
Thank you very much for participating in this survey!
谢谢!ありがとう!감사해요!
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Through the lens of expectancy-value theory, this study explored the factors influencing undergraduate students’ motivation and persistence in learning East Asian languages (Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, or CJK). Motivational beliefs regarding enrollment and the predictive effects of expectancy and task values on persistence in learning CJK courses were investigated. Participants were 79 students who registered for a four-unit CJK course in the spring of 2023 semester at a private university in the western United States. The results showed that (a) intrinsic value predicts the likelihood of enrolling in subsequent levels; (b) expectancy beliefs, task values, language requirements, and external factors all affect students’ motivation. Specifically, intrinsic value, utility value, attainment, expectancy of success, and external factors positively influence students’ motivation, whereas effort cost negatively influences students’ intrinsic motivation. The language requirement influences students’ motivation both positively and negatively. Implications for teaching and future discussions were also discussed.
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Jian, Xiang
(author)
Core Title
Motivation, persistence, and achievement in East Asian languages learning: an expectancy-value theory perspective
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership
Degree Conferral Date
2024-05
Publication Date
01/19/2024
Defense Date
11/30/2023
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Chinese,East Asian Languages,foreign language learning,Japanese,Korean,motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Hirabayashi, Kimberly (
committee chair
), Malloy, Courtney Lynn (
committee chair
), Chung, Ruth (
committee member
)
Creator Email
oedipus.kan@gmail.com,xjian@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113809405
Unique identifier
UC113809405
Identifier
etd-JianXiang-12612.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-JianXiang-12612
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
Jian, Xiang
Internet Media Type
application/pdf
Type
texts
Source
20240124-usctheses-batch-1121
(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
Chinese
foreign language learning
motivation