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Mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures

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Mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures

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Content Mindset and its Role in First-Year Music Teachers in Differing Cultures by Jialin Li A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS MUSIC TEACHING AND LEARNING December 2023 Copyright 2023 Jialin Li ii Dedication To my family and Lisa Parker. Thank you for always believing in me and instilling in me a growth mindset that has kept me positive. iii Acknowledgments This dissertation’s completion is inseparable from many people’s contributions. First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude from the bottom of my heart to my extraordinary professor, Dr. Peter Webster, for being my primary mentor in the long journey of crafting this dissertation and for showing interest in and making an effort to assist me with this writing even after his official retirement at USC. It has been my privilege to be his last dissertation student and work with him throughout the entire process. Second, I would like to give special thanks to my professors from the USC Thornton Music Teaching and Learning program. Their scaffolding, encouragement, and open-mindedness have instilled in me a path to follow as a future music educator. In particular, Dr. Beatriz Ilari, Dr. William Coppola, and Dr. Candice Mattio presented in my defense and provided insightful feedback to help me improve the research. I also would like to give special thanks to my professors from the USC Rossier School of Education. My academic learning in the field of educational psychology has motivated me to explore this interdisciplinary topic between mindset and music education. In particular, Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi served on my dissertation committee, and her expertise in educational psychology helped me refine the research. Third, I would be remiss in not mentioning all my participants for their willingness to share their experiences up until the end of their first year of teaching in music, which helped me interpret their mindsets and complete this dissertation. Fourth, I would like to acknowledge all the professors, staff, and fellow students that I have had the pleasure of working with throughout my time at USC. In particular, my academic advisor, Dr. Job Springer, helped me efficiently finish the program. iv Lastly, I am extremely grateful to have constant support from my husband Zhenning Yang and my little furry baby Tiger for my learning and research at USC. Love you all! v Table of Contents Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements……………....…………………………………….………………………...iii List of Tables………………………………………………………………….…………......….viii List of Figures…………….……………………………………………………………………....ix Abstract........................................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................................... 1 Narrative 1................................................................................................................................... 1 Narrative 2................................................................................................................................... 6 Mindsets Revealed ...................................................................................................................... 9 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 10 Researcher Perspectives............................................................................................................ 15 Need for Research ..................................................................................................................... 16 Chapter Overview ..................................................................................................................... 18 Purpose Statement and Research Questions.............................................................................. 18 A Brief Overview of the Design ............................................................................................... 19 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 20 Definitions of Terms.............................................................................................................. 20 Mindset Explained: Theoretical Overview............................................................................ 22 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 35 Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................... 35 Chapter 2: Literature Review........................................................................................................ 37 Chapter Overview ..................................................................................................................... 37 Mindset and Music Learning..................................................................................................... 38 Why Does Music Learning Need a Growth Mindset ............................................................ 39 Music Student Mindset and Growth Mindset Intervention for Music Students.................... 41 Fixed Mindset Triggers in Music Learning........................................................................... 45 Mindset and Music Teaching .................................................................................................... 50 Why Do Music Teachers Need a Growth Mindset................................................................ 50 Music Teacher Mindset Research.......................................................................................... 57 How to Implement a Growth Mindset in Music Classroom Culture..................................... 62 Mindset and Culture .................................................................................................................. 68 The Connection Between Culture and Mindset..................................................................... 69 vi The Presentation of a Growth Mindset in Differing Cultures............................................... 74 Fostering a Growth Mindset in Differing Cultures ............................................................... 79 Chapter Summary...................................................................................................................... 86 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 89 Chapter Overview ..................................................................................................................... 90 Research Design........................................................................................................................ 90 Qualitative Multiple Case Study............................................................................................ 90 Overall Design....................................................................................................................... 92 The Role of the Researcher: Emic vs. Etic................................................................................ 93 Study Timeline .......................................................................................................................... 94 Recruitment of Participants and Obtaining Consent................................................................. 95 Implementation Needs............................................................................................................... 99 Study Participants.................................................................................................................... 100 Data Collection Methods and Procedures............................................................................... 101 Preliminary Written Survey................................................................................................. 102 Follow-up Interview ............................................................................................................ 103 Teaching Artifacts ............................................................................................................... 105 Data Analysis Methods and Procedures.................................................................................. 105 Trustworthiness of Data .......................................................................................................... 110 Pilot Study: Changes Before the Data Collection ................................................................... 111 Adaptations Made for the Survey........................................................................................ 111 Adaptations Made for the Follow-up Interview .................................................................. 112 Challenges During the Data Collection................................................................................... 113 Adaptations Made for the Survey........................................................................................ 113 Adaptations Made for the Follow-up Interview .................................................................. 114 Adaptations Made for Teaching Sample ............................................................................. 114 Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................... 115 Chapter 4: Findings..................................................................................................................... 116 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................... 116 Within-Case Analysis: Identification and Description of Mindsets in Interviews.................. 117 Alex ..................................................................................................................................... 119 Bella..................................................................................................................................... 130 Calvin................................................................................................................................... 142 Ai ......................................................................................................................................... 156 Bei........................................................................................................................................ 169 vii Chen..................................................................................................................................... 183 Cross-Case Analysis: Mindsets Viewed by Culture ............................................................... 197 Main Theme 1: Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic .......................................... 197 Main Theme 2: Level of Knowledge About Motivation..................................................... 205 Main Theme 3: Understanding About Musical Talent........................................................ 212 Chapter Summary.................................................................................................................... 218 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion ....................................................................................... 220 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................... 220 Overall Summary of Findings................................................................................................. 221 Discussion of Findings............................................................................................................ 222 Research Question #1 .......................................................................................................... 222 Research Question #2 .......................................................................................................... 225 Research Question #3 .......................................................................................................... 229 Implications for Practice ......................................................................................................... 245 Limitations and Future Research Suggestions........................................................................ 249 Dissertation Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 252 References................................................................................................................................... 255 Appendix A: IRB Study Approval Letter................................................................................... 275 Appendix B: Survey Protocol ..................................................................................................... 276 Appendix C: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 293 viii List of Tables Table 3.1: Timeline of Events ………………………………………………………………...…96 Table 3.2: Phases of Recruiting Participants…………………………………………………….96 Table 3.3: Descriptions of Study Participants ……………………………………………….....101 Table 3.4: Analysis Metric.…………………………………………………………………......109 Table 4.1: Within-Case Mindset Analysis for Participants in the United States……………….154 Table 4.2: Within-Case Mindset Analysis for Participants in China…………………………...195 ix List of Figures Figure 1.1: Two Mindsets.……………………………………………………………….………30 Figure 1.2: Growth Mindset Culture.…………………………………………………………….32 Figure 4.1: The Cross-Case Mindset Analysis Themes and Topics.………………………..….199 x Abstract Fixed and growth mindsets describe the underlying beliefs people have about human capacity to grow (Dweck, 2006). The theoretical framework of growth mindset classroom cultures (Murphy et al., 2021) as interpreted in the context of music education provided a solid foundation. This qualitative multiple case study explored the mindset construct and its role in first-year music teachers from the United States and China. Three research questions were focused on their mindset development about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability throughout their first year of teaching and any similarities and differences in their mindsets across two cultures. Through within-case and cross-case analyses of their experiences via interview and teaching material, six novice music teachers’ mindsets displayed differing results and varied after teaching practice. Three music teachers changed their mindsets and moved toward the growth end of the mindset spectrum in terms of their teaching ability, and there was no change in six music teachers’ mindsets toward students’ learning ability at the end of their first year of teaching. All six participants’ perspectives on the main themes of the COVID-19 pandemic, motivation, and musical talent further revealed mindset differences in terms of different cultures. The findings suggest that music educators should gain a thorough understanding of the growth mindset and apply this concept to their teaching. To achieve this goal, it was recommended that teacher preparation programs in music teaching and learning establish a growth mindset culture as part of instruction. 1 Chapter 1: Introduction “It is not only the presence of social and academic adversity that determines a person’s outcomes but also a person’s interpretations of those adversities” (Yeager & Dweck, 2012, p. 303). This present study centers on the mindset of music teachers. The following narratives offer a personal perspective on teaching mindset. Narrative 1 In Fall 2019, I got the opportunity to mentor newly accepted mentees at a university community music program. They were all musicians who were excellent performers on their instruments, but they lacked experience in teaching music. The program provided basic training to help them succeed on the path to becoming a music teacher. I was responsible for continuing to train mentees who were interested in recorder teaching in particular and closely working with them on a weekly basis to give support for any problems in their ensemble teaching practice. Soon after the semester had started, each mentee received their teaching assignments at public schools. Max W., a trumpeter pursuing a bachelor's degree in jazz studies, was the first mentee to show up in my email inbox and ask me for advice on his first class. He wrote. “I was wondering if you had any advice for teaching my first class. So far, I have a couple ideas for objectives, such as simply introducing the recorder by playing it and explaining how it works. Do you think I should print out fingering charts and simple songs such as ‘Hot Cross Buns’ for the students to preview what they are going to learn over the semester? Are there any particular teaching styles you think would go well with my 3rd and 4th graders?” I was impressed by his initiative and humility. I encouraged him to try out his plan. I advised him to set rules with his students before playing the recorder and emphasized that 2 teacher demonstration is a great way to show students how to gently treat the instrument and produce a nice sound. I also suggested him to create fun activities, such as mimicking bird calls with the mouthpiece and playing the echo game on repeated notes. These activities may allow students to explore the recorder in an accessible way and be good techniques to keep them engaged and motivated. After a few days, I followed up with Max to see how his first week of teaching had progressed. He sounded satisfied. “My last two classes went well. Took a little getting used to the first one for third grade, but by the second class for fourth grade on the first day I had a handle on it, I think. By the way, your advice on the ‘rest, ready, and play’ positions worked really well with the kids!” A week later, I received his second week of teaching reflection. As I read it, however, his response to the questions of what did not go well and what ideas he might come up with for the next class caught my attention. He wrote. “I didn’t have enough time to teach all the concepts I had prepared. Maybe I need to stick only to quarter notes and half notes, speed up my speaking, and remind students to keep up.” In his third week of teaching reflection, he sounded more worried and inquired about how to keep the classroom under control. By watching his teaching video, I found that the learning of concepts was overemphasized—more than two-thirds of class time was spent on explaining beat and rhythm. I was unsure of the rationale behind his decision to introduce concepts at such an early stage, and the class chaos promoted me to visit his next class and help the class get on the right track. 3 In Max’s next class, I sat in the corner to observe his teaching and the students’ participation. With the assistance of the classroom teacher, Max passed out the recorders in order and asked students not to open the case until everyone had received one. Soon, he started the class by inviting volunteers to play one note they had learned so far. Surprisingly, almost everyone was confident enough to play more than just one note. During the following echo game between Max and the students, their facial and bodily expressions, as well as their beautiful playing in unison on the recorder, clearly showed their progress, and they seemed to be having fun. This might have been a good preparation for introducing the song “Hot Cross Buns,” but Max paused the song-learning process to begin reviewing concepts they had learned so far. Clearly, this shift did not please students, and they were reluctant to take the recorder off their mouths. Max ignored the students’ reactions and asked them to put recorders aside and clap out four different types of notes on the whiteboard with him. When it came to the eighth note patterns in the music, the students encountered some difficulties, including speeding up the tempo and clapping more than eight times. Max looked flustered at this unexpected situation. He rolled up his shirt sleeves, turned on the metronome on his phone to aurally give students a steady beat, and added a cut-off hand motion to visually help students stop clapping. After seeing some improvement in this rhythm activity, Max presented a slide show with the score of “Hot Cross Buns.” Students got super excited with eyes wide open, spontaneously picking up their recorders and waiting for the song to be played. However, instead of directly playing the tune, Max began to point out the musical staff and explain the musical notation. Students began getting bored with Max’s lecture. One sigh after another around the room 4 indicated their discontent. Despite this decreasing energy among students, Max did not give up on his plan to teach them how to read music. Finally, a student interrupted. “Mr. W, can we play the song now? Only 5 minutes left.” Max paused and looked up at the clock on the wall. A flicker of embarrassment was perceived in the movement of his eyebrows. He glanced at the class and held the recorder in his left hand to indicate the class should play together. In the last five minutes, students got the chance to play the recorder again. Max performed the entire song and demonstrated it phrase by phrase. He walked around the room to provide individual instruction and reminded students of playing posture and air use. Students were intently concentrated. They worked in small groups and helped one another learn. Everyone looked satisfied with playing this first song on the recorder! Even after the class was over, they kept on playing. As we collected recorders, I told Max how much I liked the part at the end where everyone was having fun and playing recorders. Max nodded at me and then shrugged his shoulders with a wry smile. “They need more practice on music reading, but, anyway, I hope it’s not too bad.” His reaction prompted me to ask about his motivation for teaching. He explained that he grew up in a musical family, with his mother teaching piano and his father teaching trumpet. His decision to pursue a career in music was deeply influenced by his family tradition. When I proceeded to inquire about his emphasis on concept learning, he said that the way he taught was totally based on what he had learned from his family. In his experience, learning to read music was very important. Given that half of his family members who learned music in this way continued to become professional musicians, he believed there was no reason not to keep copying this teaching style. However, at the same time, he noted that students were not interested 5 in what he had planned, and he found it difficult to understand why the knowledge he delivered in class was not well received. That made him frustrated about his ability to teach music. I explained to him that what he expected to happen might not have worked with these beginners because they did not entirely see themselves as becoming professional musicians at this early stage. Right now, they come to music just for fun. I suggested that he might view this challenge as an opportunity to experiment with more possibilities that could facilitate not just experiencing music for fun but also perhaps fostering a more serious desire to go further. Since Max had to teach the second class right away, we wrapped up our conversation quickly. While he turned to leave, he expressed his interest in continuing this discussion. Later, he wrote. “Teaching recorder has been a great experience this semester. I haven’t worked with kids this small in a long time, and I’ve never taught them in a learning environment such as this. Teaching recorders forced me to think about teaching music in a much different way and confront my vulnerability as a novice. I’m not trying to refine what someone else can already play the way I do in my private lessons. Instead, I need to think about how to make students want to play. Probably the best bit of constructive feedback I received was rethinking how I begin teaching notes and songs. I think my enthusiasm and teaching attitude are well off, but I’m going to restructure the actual content next time. I knew I couldn’t teach them how to do everything, so I needed to prioritize what we could learn the easiest and quickest while still maintaining energy and enthusiasm in the classroom. 6 What you said about what level I’m trying to teach them at stuck out to me. Am I trying to make them professional musicians? I’ve unconsciously been taking the more professional route, teaching them about the staff, clef, and note names, which can all become extremely confusing. Instead, I can use a much easier method of teaching them, such as using numbers to mark fingering. Wouldn’t that be more fun? This method will be less confusing, and it will prepare them just enough to give a good performance. After all, I’m not trying to make them ready to play recorder for the Los Angeles Philharmonic! Anyway, there is so much to learn on this path to becoming a teacher.” Narrative 2 In the spring of 2022, I taught a group of 2nd graders at a public elementary school in Manhattan, NY. This group had 15 students in total, with more girls than boys. The girls were confident about their musical ability—their singing voice—and they never got tired of telling the rest of the class how good they were at singing and how many songs they already knew by memory. These girls did have beautiful voices, but that strong belief about their natural talent in singing caused them to prefer singing as soloists without listening to each other and only engaging in the singing activity. Compared to the talkative girls, the boys were silent, no matter if the content was related or unrelated to music. Boys rarely spoke up unless I called their names, but they followed directions all the time, as I could tell through their body language and facial expressions. Once I posed a question, the boys always had a better memory than the girls about what they had learned and answered correctly without hesitation. Differently from girls, singing seemed to be boys’ least favorite activity. Regardless of sharing songs with which they were familiar or 7 creating melodies with freedom, it was quite difficult to persuade boys to open their mouths and sing individually. Their reluctance to sing had been a headache for me for a while. Today is June 6th, 2022, the third to the last class before the summer break. As usual, the classroom teacher, Mrs. Shen, brought students to the music room. As they came in, I played the welcome song on the piano to help them sing, sit, and pay attention. Then, I gave an agenda for the day’s lesson. First, I proposed an idea for our last music class this semester. “For our last class, how about we do a mini concert? You can pick a favorite song from what we have learned or heard on the radio, or, more interestingly, you can make a song if you would like. Sounds good? Feel free to collaborate with peers and add instruments, movements, and so on as you wish. Just be creative!” The girls got super excited and started brainstorming with each other. In contrast, boys were relatively quiet. For me, it was not surprising to see such a reaction from boys. As I walked to the boys to ask about their ideas, Zack widened his eyes. “Mrs. Li, do we have to sing?” Joey turned his head towards me. “Can you help us sing?” I replied. “If you can tell me which song you would like to sing, maybe we can do some practice together before the concert? Your classmates may expect more from your voices.” My response seemed to have them upset, and they started looking at each other with hesitation. Doug lowered his head and curled up his body. “No, I get stage fright whenever I have to sing in front of people.” 8 Stage fright was the excuse they frequently used to avoid singing individually. I encouraged them to not believe that is going to happen all the time, especially after practicing. I also encouraged them to self-control this negative attitude toward singing. After a few seconds, Nathaniel moved his mouth, but his voice was barely heard. “Yes, but Mrs. Shen said our voices are ‘terrible’.” Jack straightened his back and followed. “She didn’t like our voices at all.” Nick looked down and pulled the thread from the rug. “Not as good as girls.” I was surprised by their reactions. As I was about to ask further, Amy chimed in. “We had a musical to perform at school last semester. Mrs. Shen said girls are better than boys after she heard our voices. She said boys sound ‘terrible’.” The abrupt quietness after her speaking seemed to reveal the reason that was deeply associated with boys’ unwillingness to sing, and even worse, the stereotype that boys sound “terrible” which was already commonly acknowledged in the classroom. To avoid further embarrassment, I stopped the conversation, as it seemed not appropriate to continue. While I told students I would check with Mrs. Shen after the class, I quickly walked to my piano and started playing a song we had learned last week to drag their attention back to today’s content. Expectedly but unfortunately, boys were not motivated throughout the rest of the class and did not even answer any questions they were used to answering. Later, Mrs. Shen, as usual, knocked on the door and stood outside. As we sang the goodbye song, I walked to her and asked if she could stay for a second. She nodded at me, asked students to wait inside the classroom, and closed the door. Mrs. Shen did not often talk to me before and after the class. She looked concerned about what I was going to say. I whispered to her what had happened in today’s class. She pushed her glasses up her nose and looked unhappy 9 about what she had heard. She denied her comment about boys’ voices and explained to me that it was a miscommunication. Mrs. Shen turned to open the door and bent down with one hand on her knee. She kept herself at the same height as the students and lowered her voice to repeat the words with no more details. “Boys, that’s just kidding. You know I didn’t mean that your voices were bad. It can’t be your excuse to not sing.” Students avoided making eye contact with her. After a moment of silence, she glanced at her watch and patted the back of the line leader to let them know to go back to their classroom for the next class. She hastily made an apology to me about her students’ performance and firmly said that she would talk to them later about this problem. The week after, I received an apology in loud volume from students, particularly boys, for their complaints about not singing. Nothing immediately changed with the boys’ openness to show their voices in class, but gradually over time with my help, the climate changed. Mindsets Revealed The above narratives presented two sets of events that relate to teacher mindset. The first one illustrated a new music teacher named Max from the United States, who is a trumpeter with years of professional training in music. His first month of teaching the recorder to young children made him doubt his ability to teach music. Instead of insisting on applying a highly structured system that was familiar to him but not appropriate to those he was teaching, he started reflecting on a different approach, stepping out of his comfort zone, and thinking of different ways to motivate beginners to play the recorder and enjoy the music. His growth mindset played an important role in changing his attitude and approach to improve his teaching. He was guided to think this way by myself as his mentor, who assisted him in solving his problems. 10 The second narrative illustrated a phenomenon that was observed in my music class— boys were not willing to sing and used stage fright as their frequent excuses to avoid singing individually. The underlying reason was finally revealed through a class discussion on the final project as a fixed mindset from a classroom teacher, Mrs. Shen from China, that dramatically altered the willingness of boys to sing. Perhaps not intentional, but a negative previous comment about boys’ voices resulted in the idea in boys that they are terrible singers, and in their classmates to form a stereotype. It also had a major impact on me as their music teacher and on my ability to convince boys that they have lovely voices. It took action by Mrs. Shen and eventually me to repair the misconception and encourage them to sing. These narratives provided two examples of teaching practices involving the mindset effect. In this study, teacher mindset about one’s own ability to teach music and about students’ ability to learn music are two foci to be discussed. These narratives aimed to help further understand the concepts of growth mindset and fixed mindset by Carol Dweck (2006) in the context of teachers as practitioners. Problem Statement At a very young age, the ability to learn develops quickly. Babies seem excited to get familiar with the new world without fear. Music is attractive to children, who naturally engage with listening, singing, body movement, and facial expression. With curiosity, a child who is just starting to walk might climb onto a chair and randomly strike keys on a piano to imitate what they see on the TV or what they observe others do in the family. That self-oriented, free musicmaking opens a door for the child to further experience sound. It not only motivates a child’s interest in music but also enriches a sense of enjoyment, achievement, and awareness of learning. 11 The ability to grow is at the center of human development. People's awareness of their growth potential is crucial since it can motivate them to expand possibilities and achieve success (Haimovitz & Dweck, 2017). According to Carol Dweck, an American psychologist known primarily for her work on motivation and mindset theory, beliefs about human capacities and human qualities are regarded as mindsets (Dweck, 2006). In very simple terms, Dweck suggests that there are two generally defined mindsets: fixed and growth. The fixed mindset is the belief that one’s ability is limited and unchangeable, and the growth mindset is the belief that one’s ability is unlimited and changeable. Different mindsets affect the level of motivation a person has for a specific goal and their actions to ask for help and try new strategies—especially in the face of setbacks. Considering the natural attributes of babies, if their curiosity and bravery are supported, they should all have a growth mindset. Why does a fixed mindset happen? What causes them to start doubting their ability to learn and even saying, “I can’t?” Much research evidence in music education reveals that people exhibit a fixed mindset by adopting the belief that they are not “good” at music. Here are two examples from the literature: When I was a young girl in choir, my teacher told me to just mouth the words. I knew it meant I was no good, so I just stopped singing. I haven’t sung since then. Not to my children, not in church…I didn’t want to sing because I wasn’t good. (Adam, 2019, p. 26) I think that men are actually losing out there, because not a lot of them, the good male singers aren’t coming through…lads tend to shy away from singing, it’s just not the manly thing to do. (O’Neill et al., 2002, p. 157) Along with Mrs. Shen’s comment about boys’ voices in the second of the beginning narratives above, these questionable statements conducted with a fixed mindset raise an important concern 12 for our field and partially tell us why students lose interest in music at school. Imagine how difficult it would be for a girl who is used to singing in a choir and loses the confidence to sing anymore. How disappointing it would be for a boy who experiences voice change during puberty and gets laughed at by peers in a choir to also lose confidence in singing. These examples alert teachers to examine their own mindsets toward teaching ability and students’ learning ability in music. As we know, teachers have a profound impact on students' lives and shape the way that children view the world. Dewey defined the formation of the mind in his book Democracy and Education (1916) as wholly a matter of the presentation of the proper educational materials selected by the educator (p. 37). In other words, what teachers instruct in the classroom— through words, gestures, and facial expressions—has a tremendous impact on how students develop their brains, comprehend new information, and apply it to their own lives. Yeager et al. (2022) found that teacher mindset plays an important role in sustaining the positive effect of a growth mindset invention they provided for students because “the intervention is like planting a “seed,” but one that will not take root and flourish unless the “soil” is fertile (a classroom with growth mindset affordances)” (p. 5). Teachers, who practice the idea of the capacity to grow through assignments and assessments in the classroom, such as mistakes as learning opportunities rather than indicators of poor ability, enable students to continue benefiting from their growth mindsets. Dweck and Yeager (2019) have pointed out that teacher mindset is the next step in mindset research, as teachers are the key to fostering a growth mindset in the classroom culture that shapes students’ beliefs, values, and behaviors: …current direct to student programs do not tell us about the full potential of growthmindset concepts and practices to enhance motivation and learning. We will understand 13 this more clearly when educators (and leaders of all kinds) create environments in which challenges are greeted with relish rather than dread, mistakes are learned from rather than punished, people collaborate to formulate effective learning strategies, and everyone’s talents are deeply respected and vigorously developed. (p. 29) Therefore, it is reasoned that the complicated process of nurturing a growth mindset in music education is a worthy topic for research, especially the impact of music teachers on operating a growth mindset in music classroom culture. A few music education researchers have already started to experiment with the growth mindset in the classroom and have gained satisfied outcomes not only in students but also in teachers (Adams, 2019; Morrison, 2019). Furthermore, novice music teachers might benefit from having a growth mindset. According to Stringham and Snell (2019), the first-year music teacher’s experience may not be as promising as expected, so a series of concerns about how to better prepare, induct, mentor, and retain a music teacher in our profession are urgent to discuss. Based on what I have experienced, the majority of novice music educators tend to conduct their music lessons in a way consistent with how their own teachers have trained them without considering the contextual change. This results in unpleasant experiences in their early careers. Why is this so? One possibility is that novice music teachers believe the approach that made them succeed would also work for their students. They are not used to exploring new ways of teaching. Additionally, this lack of autonomy that often emerges in teaching may be due to an unconscious transfer from their learning experience in higher education, where professors likely establish a power relationship and may decide pathways to perfection without valuing the learner’s input (Jorgensen, 2002). Another possibility is that growth mindset is not a concept that is mentioned in music teacher education preparation programs. Preservice music instructors may 14 not stress the idea that teachers need to be active for the unknown, flexible for the variation, creative for the solution, and reflective on what music teaching and learning mean to them. Thus, a case can be made that the quality of music teaching and learning can be improved by including an awareness of growth mindset not only in the minds of students but also in music teachers. In addition, novice music teachers from different cultural backgrounds provide another factor in comprehending mindset development and suggest new considerations for adaptation. According to Haimovitz and Dweck (2017), “as future research considers more diverse populations, we may gain considerable insight into how variations in beliefs and socialization practices across cultures affect variations in children’s mindsets” (p. 1855). Lee (2021) also suggested looking at a much broader demographic of people from various cultural backgrounds in order to look into any data conflicts. Cross-cultural heterogeneity has been detected in growth mindset research (Dweck & Yeager, 2021). According to PISA 2018, there is less evidence in many school and national contexts of a link between a growth mindset and improved student results. Students who reported having a growth mindset, for instance, performed better academically in subjects like reading. It did not, however, explain the situation in China since reading performance among Chinese students was negatively associated with growth mindset (OECD, 2021). Murphy et al. (2021) reflected on the limited knowledge about the outcomes of the growth mindset practices applied in other nations and cultures, as the majority of growth mindset research has been conducted in the United States. Consequently, it becomes clear why it is important to investigate cross-cultural similarities and differences between music teachers regarding their mindsets. How are the mindsets of beginning music teachers formed and developed with experience? What shifts in first-year music educators’ mindsets are ascribed to the conflicts 15 between what they had encountered in their first full-time teaching job and what they had learned at school? Are there ways that music teacher educators can help endorse a growth mindset in their preservice students to help deal with the struggles during the transitioning stage from college student to practitioner? And how do the questions of mindset in beginning music teachers differ between very different cultural contexts, if at all? These are some of the questions that can be explored by analyzing the challenges encountered by early-career in-service music teachers across different cultures as well as how they interpret those adversities. Answers then might better allow music teacher candidates with a mindset tool to adapt to the environment. Researcher Perspectives First of all, the concept of mindsets resonated with me when I first learned about this construct in an educational psychology class. I strongly believe that a growth mindset is at the core of my belief system and has been cultivated in my family, school, and culture since I was a child. This inner power has played a significant part in my life, helping me grow as a student and a teacher. Now, it has become an important element in my teaching that I aim to transfer to my students. Thus, I am motivated to understand mindsets. Second, my experience in life is mainly intertwined with two cultures. In my early 20s, I made a pause in my development within China and experienced an opportunity to know another aspect of myself in the United States. The integration of Eastern and Western cultures is a deeply rooted experience for my growth. Thus, I am motivated to understand mindsets as they apply to multiple cultures. Third, my own early-career experience served as an inspiration to study with first-year music instructors. As I spoke with other music teachers who were just starting their full-time teaching, some issues resonated between us—we struggled miserably when our expectations 16 were hard to fulfill in teaching practices, and there were many distracting factors that needed to be dealt with at the same time. Having a growth mindset can encourage novice music teachers who are encountering difficulties to conduct music lessons by helping them see obstacles as opportunities and thrive in the face of challenges. Thus, I am driven to understand the mindsets that music instructors have at the beginning of their careers and how those mindsets may change within the first couple of months of work. In the present study, I explored the mindset endorsed by first-year US and Chinese music teachers toward music teaching and learning by focusing on six distinct teacher experiences. These participants started full-time teaching positions at K-12 schools in 2021 after receiving a bachelor’s or master’s degree in music education. Their interpretations of experiences during their first-year experience were analyzed. Data from China and the United States were chosen to investigate the subtle nuance of having a fixed or growth mindset in relation to cultural impact. Need for Research This study is designed to investigate beginning music teachers’ mindsets from multiple perspectives. It is not designed just to identify their underlying beliefs about students’ capacity to learn music but also about their own capacity to teach music, and how their mindsets about music teaching itself (philosophies, pedagogies) are influenced by teacher education and ongoing teaching experience. Other previous learning events and finally how these mindsets are manifested in their exemplar teaching artifacts are of interest. Furthermore, the inconsistency between music teachers’ words and actions in a growth mindset is of interest because it reveals a “false growth mindset”, a term coined by Susan Mackie, in teachers “who professed to have a growth mindset did not fully grasp what it was and 17 were implementing practices that failed to communicate a growth mindset to their students” (Dweck & Yeager 2019, p. 27). In addition, in line with the intent of early growth mindset interventions to close the achievement gap and help students succeed in the face of challenging transitions (Aronson et al., 2002; Good et al., 2003; Blackwell et al., 2007), first-year music teachers who are going through a transitional stage in their lives are worthwhile to study. The general features of their developmental period, known as early adulthood, which starts in the early twenties and lasts through the thirties, reflect a struggle to establish both personal and economic independence. Meanwhile, as they begin a career path in educating the next generation, they are under stress as their identity changes from student to teacher (Santrock, 2011, p. 17). Dweck (2019) clarified the value of fostering a growth mindset: The message was not that all human attributes could or should be changed, or that anyone could necessarily be or do anything. The message was about the benefits of understanding that we are all capable of meaningful growth, that people can further develop their abilities through sustained effort, good strategies, and lots of input and guidance from others. (p. 22) Having a growth mindset might not only improve teachers’ professional development in music teaching and students’ motivation in music learning, but it may also impact their well-being in this ever-changing world. The present study aimed to help provide a solid knowledge base about the motivational concept of mindset, to generate a report from six first-year music teachers who reflected their beliefs and practices through sharing their stories, and to examine their mindsets in a cross-cultural setting. It was also hoped that this study would inspire more music teachers to get involved in “communities of practice” (Wenger, 2000), confidently implement the mindset 18 concept into their teaching, particularly in regard to navigating experiences during their initial years of teaching music and improve the quality of music teaching through mutual learning. Additionally, it was expected that the significance of a growth mindset for achieving equality in music education and the meaning of music education for promoting well-being in the classroom, school, community, and culture could be revealed. Chapter Overview This beginning chapter presents a general picture of this study. Following two personal narratives of teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and their students’ learning ability in music, the problem statement explains the motivation for undertaking this research, and the need for research highlights its significance for music education development. The context of this study is demonstrated in the purpose statement, research questions, and a brief view of the design. The theoretical framework describes the mindset concept, including its definitions and the related literature, to provide a foundation that supports this study. Finally, the scope of this research is defined by the delimitations. The organization of the study is also provided to introduce the rest of the contents. Purpose Statement and Research Questions The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the state of beginning music teachers’ mindsets about their ability to teach music and about their students’ ability to learn music. It included a sampling of first-year music teachers across two cultures. Also of interest was how mindsets may change as part of initial experiences teaching music. A crosscultural perspective was included to understand how these self-described mindsets and subsequent self-submitted teaching evidence might reflect the impact of the cultures of China and the United States. 19 Research questions were: 1. What are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching? In addition, what influences might have contributed to these mindsets? 2. How are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching? In addition, what did they do to implement these mindsets, and did their submitted teaching materials support these mindsets? 3. What cross-cultural similarities and differences can be found between music teachers in China and the United States regarding their mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability? A Brief Overview of the Design As noted in above, I used a qualitative multiple case study research design to explore the knowledge of first-year music teachers’ mindsets and their behaviors toward music teaching and learning. After analyzing the results of a preliminary survey, a group of six finalists—three music teachers in the United States and three music teachers in China—were purposefully selected. Each of them in their cultures represented one of three mindset patterns (growth, fixed, or mixed) as identified in the survey results. They were invited to participate in the follow-up interview to self-describe their first year of teaching, as well as the teaching artifact submission that demonstrates their self-described mindsets in first-year practice. Through a within-case analysis, the mindset determination generated from a preliminary survey was either confirmed or refined by the interview data. The teaching artifact submission further clarified the mindset determination at the conclusion of their first year of teaching. The 20 first two research questions were answered to describe first-year music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and about their students’ learning ability throughout their first year of teaching. Through a cross-case analysis, the third research question was answered to explain cross-cultural similarities and differences in first-year music teachers’ mindsets. Theoretical Framework Definitions of Terms Fixed Mindset and Growth Mindset. Dweck (2006) coined the terms “fixed mindset” and “growth mindset” to describe the underlying beliefs people have about human malleability and the capacity to grow. A fixed mindset is the belief that one’s human abilities cannot be developed and are “carved in stone,” which “creates an urgency to prove yourself over and over” (p. 6). A growth mindset, in contrast, is the belief that one’s human abilities can be developed over time through continuous effort, useful strategies, and help from others. It tends to support the idea that “although people may differ in every which way—in their initial talents and aptitudes, interests, or temperaments—everyone can change and grow through application and experience” (p. 7). According to Dweck (2015), people are and will be all a mixture of mindsets since they exist on a continuum from fixed to growth. As a result, people can only be on a journey to a growth mindset as they are aware of fixed mindset triggers and consciously work on them. Furthermore, depending on different situations, people tend to lean toward either the fixed end or the growth end of the mindset spectrum. As Dweck and Molden (2017) continued, “they can even hold different mindsets about different intellectual skills, for example, believing that their math ability is fixed but their verbal abilities can be developed” (p. 136). Besides, people can hold different mindsets about different personal qualities (Dweck et al., 1995). 21 Mixed Mindset. Discussed in some research studies, a mixed mindset was considered as a third mindset type. This is a hybrid of both the growth and fixed mindsets, meaning the mindset is part fixed and part growth depending on the situation. According to Dweck and Molden (2017), some people’s mindsets cannot be clearly categorized as fixed or growth: Although many people think fixed mindsets are dominant in our society, it turns out that both mindsets are equally popular. When they are assessed in children or adults, about 40% of people tend to endorse a fixed mindset, about 40% tend to endorse a growth mindset, and about 20% are undecided. (p. 136) Given that little research has focused on people who endorse an undefined mindset, Lou et al. (2022) conducted a latent profile analysis with 234 first-year students who enrolled in foreign language courses at a Western Canadian university. They discovered the mixed mindset profile in addition to the fixed and growth mindset profiles. The majority of foreign language learners (57.7%) fell within this mixed mindset system: We named this group of learners as mixed not only because they endorse both mindsets but also they pursue multiple goals in their language studies—strong performanceapproach and -avoidance goals and a relatively strong mastery goal—yet they were relatively persistent but anxious in using languages. (p. 620) Lee (2021) explored the undergraduate music students’ mindsets through case studies. As he discovered, “mindset beliefs are much more dynamic than the growth and fixed-oriented dichotomy might be able to describe” (pp. 69-70). He argued that this ambiguity implies the possibility of a mindset change towards a more positive end through reinforcement. For a 22 particular female subject, Lee detected more of a mixed mindset and noted that “she believed in fixed levels of talent, while simultaneously feeling that she is growth-oriented” (p. 83). In terms of the current study, it was anticipated that the mindset assessment results would not place subjects clearly on opposite ends. I added a third mixed mindset determination for this study to characterize the state in which one is not clearly following a fixed or growth direction but rather traveling between the two. Participants were selected for more of a mixed mindset pattern based on the results of a preliminary survey that included the key items of the mindset assessment designed by Dweck herself. If their answers displayed both features of the fixed and growth mindsets as they reflected on their teaching beliefs and practices, they were considered to have more of a mixed mindset. Mindset Explained: Theoretical Overview A mindset refers to a set of attitudes and beliefs established through a person’s experience that form a habitual and typical way of thinking to interpret and respond to situations. Dweck has long studied people’s beliefs about the nature of human attributes, such as intelligence or personality, and the consequences of these differing beliefs on human motivation and human behavior to overcome challenges and achieve success, irrespective of their starting ability (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). Dweck was initially drawn to the ideas of learned helplessness in animals (Seligman & Maier, 1967) and attribution theory in humans (Weiner, 1986). With the assistance of her colleague (Dweck & Reppucci, 1973), they found the connection between these two theories in that children’s explanation for their failure leads to either the reaction of giving up or persevering in the face of adversity. To deep dive into this phenomenon, Dweck and her colleague (Elliott & Dweck, 1988) discovered the achievement goal theory to reveal that children’s interpretation of 23 setbacks is caused by their performance goals to prove their ability or learning goals to improve their ability. This important observation further convinced Dweck and her student Bandura (Bandura, 1983) that there is a difference in how people view their ability—paving the way for mindset research to begin: A strong wish to prove the adequacy of one’s ability makes that ability seem like a deepseated, fixed attribute of the self, whereas a strong desire to improve one’s ability makes it seem like a more dynamic quality that can be developed. (Dweck & Yeager, 2019, p. 7) Through tracing the root of why people have different achievement goals, make different attributions, and produce different reactions to failure, Dweck presented the psychological process that underlies behavioral patterns. By using a social-cognitive approach, Dweck and Leggett (1988) explained how people’s implicit conceptions about the nature of ability produce divergent goals, which result in different cognitive patterns for outcomes and input, affective reactions to challenges and setbacks, and behavioral responses to task choices, all of which influence the quality of performance in the face of failure. Therefore, the key to generating two distinct self-systems was discovered and defined as “implicit theories of intelligence.” It later evolved into a “fixed mindset” and a “growth mindset” as discussed in this research (Dweck, 2006). Mindset Triggers: The Antecedents of Mindsets. People acquire a variety of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions through observing how others behave, and they cognitively represent the behavior of others and adopt this behavior themselves (Bandura, 1986). Past experiences serve as catalysts for developing differing mindsets, influencing individuals’ interpretations of any gains and losses in current life and their confidence to anticipate success or failure in the future. This shows that the fixed or growth mindset triggers come from the context people are living in and 24 the information they have been receiving from parents, peers, teachers, and other people around them, especially at an early age. Regarding how adults’ actions affect children’s mindset development, Haimovitz and Dweck (2017) stated that “adults’ words and deeds appear to tune children into the process of learning or lead them to focus on their abilities and performance, creating conditions that give rise to a growth or a fixed mindset in children” (p. 1855). Praise, as one of the simple and frequent ways that people express approval for others’ work, is one of the potential antecedents of mindsets. Students learn how to think about themselves in terms of academic performances and personal qualities based on two types of praise from their teachers and parents (Dweck, 1999). Many studies have investigated a relationship between adults’ praise for intelligence (person praise) or praise for effort (process praise) and children’s subsequent mindsets (Mueller & Dweck, 1998; Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Cimpian et al., 2007; Gunderson et al., 2013; Pomerantz & Kempner, 2013; Zhao et al., 2017). Gunderson et al. (2013) and Pomerantz and Kempner (2013) examined parent praise in home environments and its impact on children’s mindset development. Gunderson and colleagues (2013) characterized the praise that parents had given their children at home and investigated the long-term effects of this early parental praise on children’s motivational frameworks five years later. Fifty-three children and their primary caregivers from the greater Chicago area were invited to the study. Their daily interactions were videotaped periodically when children were 14 to 38 months old, and separately, children were asked to complete two questionnaires about their motivational frameworks when they were around 8 years old. By analyzing the results from two materials, Gunderson and colleagues confirmed their prediction that children who had received more process praise for their effort at a young age would be more likely to endorse an incremental framework that included believing in their malleable traits, 25 seeking out challenges, attributing success and failure to effort, and coming up with strategies for improvement. A study by Pomerantz and Kempner (2013) revealed person praise, another type of praise, and its role in the development of a fixed mindset. Different from the previous research, they recruited 120 children around 10 years old and their mothers, who were mostly European Americans. Based on daily interviews with mothers to record their self-reported praise toward their children’s academic performance at school and survey responses from children about their mindset and learning motivation, researchers found that the more person praise mothers gave their children for doing well in school, the more children later endorsed entity theory or a fixed belief about their intelligence, felt vulnerable to failure, ran away from challenges, and refused to remedy their shortcomings. In addition, Rattan et al. (2012) looked into how messages sent from teachers affected students in a classroom context. On the one hand, they investigated teachers’ mindsets and corresponding behaviors. Instructors or teaching assistants in math-related undergraduate courses at a United States university were hired. They were asked to complete a questionnaire about their implicit theories of math intelligence and attitudes toward teaching, as well as imagine a scenario when a new student failed the first test of an introductory course. The finding indicated that the more teachers endorsed entity theory or a fixed mindset toward math intelligence, the more they attributed students’ low grades to a lack of ability in math, comforted students to feel okay if math is not their strongest subject, displayed lower expectations for students’ future performance, and provided unhelpful practices to engage students in further learning. On the other hand, researchers recruited undergraduate students at the same university to explore students’ perceptions and corresponding behaviors. Through an online survey, they imagined 26 themselves in a calculus course and received different feedback about their poor performance on the first exam. Unsurprisingly, students were very sensitive to any information provided by teachers as the results demonstrated. Compared to students who received strategy-oriented feedback, students who received comfort-oriented feedback interpreted their professors who were more likely to believe that math intelligence is predetermined and to set lower standards for their future math learning. They also felt less encouraged and motivated to work harder to improve their final exam. These voices from students implied that teachers’ comfort-oriented feedback negatively influenced their attitude and effort toward failure. The above study by Rattan et al. presented the cause and result of having a fixed mindset in education. First, it examined how students interpret feedback from teachers and how that affected their learning experience and long-term motivation for the subject, implying a significant trigger from teachers that could construct students’ mindsets and behaviors. Second, it examined how teachers’ mindsets influenced their reactions to students’ academic performance, presenting an example of a mindset-based “meaning system” in the context of teaching, as explained later. Furthermore, these teachers reported that they did not anticipate these low-performance students to make as much future progress based on a single poor grade, suggesting a stereotype about which students are less likely to be good at math. It reveals another issue about the role of mindset in the social dimension: “people’s judgments of others and their behavior toward them” (Dweck & Yeager, 2019, p. 17). According to Canning et al. (2019), the self-reported mindset beliefs of 150 undergraduate STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) professors about which students have ability in STEM were likely to influence how they designed their courses, interacted with students, and encouraged students to persist, which in turn 27 had important implications for student engagement and performance. This differential treatment of students highly associated with teacher mindset uncovered a context of stereotype threat toward underrepresented racial and ethnic minorities, including Black, Latino, and Native American students. According to over 15,000 students’ course evaluations, greater racial achievement gaps and lower levels of student motivation to do their best work found in more fixed-minded STEM faculty classes emphasized the importance of mindset in the social world. Several studies also revealed that individuals who believe in fixed personal attributes were more inclined to predict the future behavior of others based on their traits, anticipate the same traitrelevant behavior in various contexts, and generalize their trait judgments to unknown groups (Chiu et al., 1997; Levy & Dweck, 1999). Meaning Systems: The Consequences of Mindsets. From the history of mindset theory, it is obvious that mindsets are not independent concepts but are associated with other variables when discovering their effects on motivation and behavior change, especially under unfavorable conditions. Thus, Dweck and her colleagues proposed that mindsets serve an organizing function to create a larger “meaning system” including variables of goals, attributions, helplessness, effort beliefs, and so on (Hong et al., 1999). When people have a fixed or growth mindset, the importance or meaning of each of these factors may vary to reflect their beliefs, presenting a divergent outlook. For example, if people view ability as fixed and static, they may want to look smarter and pursue performance goals to validate their ability. They are more likely to avoid challenges, ignore negative feedback, and give up easily with helpless behavior patterns in the face of setbacks that can reveal the truth. Furthermore, they tend to regard effort as a sign of low ability, failure as a result of a lack of ability, and mistakes as a threat to their ego. The success of others 28 also makes them stressed out. Therefore, they probably have less persistence to put in more effort when the task is no longer easy for them, resulting in less achievement. By contrast, if people view ability as developed and malleable, they may focus on learning more and pursue learning goals to enhance their skills. They are more likely to embrace challenges, welcome criticism, and demonstrate mastery behavior patterns in the face of adversity. They tend to see failure as an opportunity to accumulate experience so that they study these obstacles with greater effort and resilience. They are also used to reflecting on their ongoing process and adopting strategies from the success of others. As a result, they probably have more persistence to work harder to reach their full potential, leading to a higher level of achievement (Dweck & Yeager, 2019; Yeager & Dweck, 2020). (see Figure 1.1) Researchers have investigated the framework of meaning systems that surround the core of mindsets in real-world academic settings, especially how mindsets affect students’ motivation to overcome challenges with resilience in learning. Several studies indicated mindset was related to other motivational concepts (Robins & Pals, 2002; Blackwell et al., 2007, Study 1; Burnette et al., 2013; Yeager et al., 2019; Rege et al., 2021). A meta-analysis from Burnette et al. (2013) stressed the importance of a growth mindset and its impacts on different variables. They found a connection between implicit theories and self-regulation. For example, learning goals in goal setting, mastery-oriented strategies in goal operating, and optimistic expectations in goal monitoring were all highly predicted by people with incremental theory or a growth mindset. Additionally, the effects on goal setting and goal operating were stronger when people encountered potential threats to themselves, such as failure feedback. At the University of California at Berkeley, Robins and Pals (2002) conducted a longitudinal study and noticed that undergraduates with entity theory or a fixed mindset tended 29 to adopt performance goals, attribute failure to fixed ability, feel more negative about their academic performance, respond helplessly to problems, and further experience declines in selfesteem. Conversely, undergraduates with incremental theory or a growth mindset reacted differently and worked hard over the course of three years to produce optimistic results. Another longitudinal study by Blackwell et al. (2007) paid attention to the role of mindsets in adolescents’ academic achievement in the United States. Over the course of two years of junior high school through the seventh and eighth grades, they observed that students with incremental theory or a growth mindset viewed effort as a way to get better, focused on learning more, and applied strategies and mastery response patterns toward failure. As a result, they presented increased motivation, harder work, and higher math grades. In contrast, students with entity theory or a fixed mindset did not show any improvement. In addition, two large-scale studies tested the mindset-based meaning system in two different cultures. Yeager et al. (2019) investigated the effects of a short-term online growth mindset intervention that delivers important scientific information on brain plasticity and how the brain changes with learning with a nationally representative sample of more than 14,000 9thgrade students in the United States (called the National Study of Learning Mindsets). They discovered that students with a growth mindset performed better in grade point average and engaged in taking risks, such as signing up for advanced mathematics classes. The benefit of this intervention was particularly obvious for low-achieving adolescents, which helped them shift their fixed mindsets as well. In Norway, Rege et al. (2021) applied the same intervention to local high schools with over 5,000 students and generated similar results, including a decline in the students’ reports of fixed mindsets and an increment in hypothetical challenge-seeking 30 behaviors. Students were motivated to select harder problems and study the more difficult math classes, and they also earned good results at the end of the course. Figure 1.1 Two Mindsets, Carol S. Dweck, Ph.D. - Graphic by Nigel Holmes (Taken from Mindset Works, 2017, https://www.mindsetworks.com/Science/Impact) 31 In the neuroscience literature, Mangels et al. (2006) and Moser et al. (2011) discovered that learning prompts neurons in the brain to form new connections and provided some evidence in the brains of individuals with different mindsets. By examining the neural mechanisms that underlie the link between beliefs and reactions to errors, they found that undergraduate students with incremental theory or more of a growth mindset toward their learning and intelligence exhibited a positive attitude toward mistakes or negative feedback, paid greater attention to corrective information, and showed larger improvement on the retest. This discovery of neural underpinnings implied greater success in learning for those with a more growth-oriented mindset and supported the significance of teaching a growth mindset that learning alters the brain and makes it stronger with use. Growth Mindset Classroom Cultures. The study of a classroom environment to determine whether it provides a welcoming space for students to continuously apply their growth mindset after the growth mindset intervention has become an important research focus to consider (Yeager et al., 2019). In response to that work, Murphy and her colleagues (2021) developed the concept of “growth mindset classroom cultures” as the next step. They interpreted culture in the context of education by expanding on Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn’s definition (1952), which emphasizes the mutual effect between individuals and their surroundings. That is, the explicit and implicit messages and values ingrained in the large context of national, regional, and school/district cultures gradually form the small context of classroom cultures. The teacher’s understanding of what, why, how, when, where, and who to teach and learn these essential topics frame classroom cultures through behaviors and interactions and guide students to experience and experiment with self-growth. As the person who has the most direct contact with kids in the classroom, the teacher has a crucial role in filtering out the 32 information and material that can prevent pupils from gaining the full benefits of an education. Murphy and her colleagues theoretically proposed that establishing a growth mindset in classroom cultures is largely dependent on three aspects: Strong growth mindset classroom cultures are likely to emerge when teachers intend to uphold growth mindset beliefs, when the intention is manifest in their implementation of teaching practices, and when students perceive and experience the growth mindset beliefs and behavior as normative and supported. (p. 9) (see Figure 1.2) Figure 1.2 Growth mindset culture comprises teachers’ intentions, implementation, and students’ perceptions and experiences (Taken from Murphy et al., 2021, p. 9) This research responds to a new direction in mindset research by examining teachers— how they conduct a classroom environment in which students can practice their growth-oriented beliefs in learning. 33 Applying this model to achieve a growth mindset in classroom cultures in the context of music education, in the first stage, the music teacher, as the key facilitator in the classroom, has to take the initiative to develop critical thinking skills and evaluate a set of fixed attitudes about music education that exist in society, the community, the school environment, and even the music teacher’s personal belief system. For example, reflections on how to interpret human talent in music, how to understand the challenge during the teaching practice, and other questions may become a daily routine for the music teacher throughout the journey. By correcting preconceived notions that prevent music from being accessible to everyone, the music teacher tends to embrace more of a growth mindset to believe in students’ potential for learning music and further communicates this idea by allowing freedom for music making, celebrating musical diversity, and valuing every musical inspiration, along with other growth mindset teaching strategies: Teaching for understanding, giving feedback that enhances understanding, giving students opportunities to revise their work and display their growing understanding, sending messages about how effort and struggle are part of learning, and scaffolding this message with an emphasis on how teachers will collaborate with students in the learning process. (Haimovitz & Dweck, 2017, p. 1855) In the second stage, students, by being immersed in such a supportive culture, are motivated to work hard on solving musical problems, trying out alternative ways, and helping each other succeed in music learning. At the same time, their experiences induce a positive effect on their mindset development as well as other allied beliefs, goals, and behaviors toward musical engagement. They tend to believe that their ability to learn music can be developed and put into action to achieve mutual musical growth. 34 In the third stage, the music teacher, by seeing students’ progress in music learning, acknowledges the power of having a can-do attitude and gains confidence in continuing to foster a growth mindset in the classroom. The music teacher is encouraged to view her teaching ability as something that can be improved, hone her teaching skills, experiment with new ideas, and step out of her comfort zone to make a change. By doing so, a growth mindset in music classroom cultures is established, and continues to motivate the music teacher and students to produce better outcomes. The above theoretical framework of growth mindset classroom cultures as interpreted in the context of music education provides a solid foundation for this study. The music classroom is a setting that frequently impacts the individual student’s mindset in music learning. The music teacher is the leader who sets the tone for the classroom culture that encompasses core ideas that the teacher deeply believes in. If the music teacher endorses a growth mindset in music education and changes practice to reflect this, a positive way of viewing challenges and setbacks can take root and flourish in the classroom to enhance student learning. Students’ growth in music learning, in turn, stimulates the music teacher to continue fostering a growth mindset in music classroom culture. This study focuses on the first component of building growth mindset classroom cultures: music teachers’ intentions regarding their ability to teach music and their students’ capacity to learn music, as well as their self-described implementation. Although students’ voices are not included in this research to verify the classroom culture rooted in the growth mindset from their perceptions and experiences, the analysis of teachers’ mindsets and behaviors does provide some insight into the environment they created for the mindset growth. 35 Organization of the Study Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study and presents the information needed to understand the purpose and underpinning theories of the study. Chapter 2 extends the review of literature on mindset theory further by synthesizing important work in selected music studies as well as past studies of teachers and culture that are most relevant to the current study. Chapter 3 explains the methodology adopted for this study, including the procedures for recruiting participants, collecting three types of data, and analyzing the information. Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study by describing the mindsets of six cases from two cultural contexts. Common and distinct topics related to three pre-determined main themes in terms of the cultural impact across six cases are explored as well. Chapter 5 offers a discussion of the findings and is organized around a review of the research questions. A connection to past research is made to interpret the findings generated in this study. Suggestions for practice and future research are also provided at the end. Chapter Summary This chapter provided an opening for this dissertation to help readers engage in the more detailed chapters that are presented later. It started with two personal narratives about teaching experiences that reflect teachers’ mindsets about their own ability to teach music as well as their students’ ability to learn music. A problem statement further clarified the motive for conducting this study, and the need for research emphasized the expected value that can be achieved, along with the purpose statement, research questions, and a brief view of the design. To assist readers in understanding the background of this work, a theoretical framework was offered as a foundation for discussing the three main factors, including mindsets, teachers, and culture in this research. Definitions of terms and key elements of mindset theory were presented. Finally, 36 delimitations clearly defined the scope of this research and the rationale behind it. An organization of the study was provided at the end. 37 Chapter 2: Literature Review In this chapter, I examine the existing body of knowledge on the concept of mindset and its role for first-year music teachers in differing cultures by expanding on the review of the mindset theory literature presented in Chapter 1. Significant work is reviewed from selected music studies as well as the publications on music teachers and culture that are most pertinent to the present study. This review of the literature is the basis for my investigation of the research questions and the theoretical framework. Research questions are repeated here: 1. What are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching? In addition, what influences might have contributed to these mindsets? 2. How are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching? In addition, what did they do to implement these mindsets, and did their submitted teaching materials support these mindsets? 3. What cross-cultural similarities and differences can be found between music teachers in China and the United States regarding their mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability? Chapter Overview This chapter focuses on mindsets in terms of a broad scope of educational research and a narrow sense of music teaching and learning. Three sections summarize the content based on mindset and music learning, mindset and music teaching, and mindset and culture. The first section is organized into three subtopics explaining the more subtle and complicated background on mindset and its impact on music learning from the literature: (1) why 38 does music learning need a growth mindset, (2) music student mindset and growth mindset intervention for music students, and (3) fixed mindset triggers in music learning. The second section is centered on three themes related to teacher mindset, particularly that of music teachers, and their mindset-oriented behaviors that are demonstrated in their teaching from the literature: (1) why do music teachers need a growth mindset, (2) music teacher mindset research, and (3) how to implement a growth mindset in music classroom culture. The third section is focused on three subjects that summarize the discussions regarding culture and how it affects mindsets from the literature: (1) the connection between culture and mindset, (2) the presentation of a growth mindset in differing cultures, and (3) fostering a growth mindset in differing cultures. Music research related to mindset and culture is included. Mindset and Music Learning Mindset research has been increasingly conducted in both the lab and the field since the 1980s (Miele & Molden, 2010; Nussbaum & Dweck, 2008). These studies supported the notion that “mindsets can also be induced experimentally…they can be taught or primed…as a quality that can be developed throughout one’s life” (Dweck & Molden, 2017, p. 136). Their results promoted later mindset interventions that aim to narrow the academic achievement gap by delivering the power of brain change with learning in the educational setting (Panuesku et al., 2015; Yeager et al., 2014). Inspired by the evidence that a growth mindset could be taught and could have promising effects, more researchers have observed growth mindset in different aspects of life in terms of improving mental health (Schleider & Weisz, 2016), increasing social harmony (Goldenberg et al., 2017), and fostering effective parenting (Rowe & Leech, 2019). In order to boost resilience and encourage positive experiences in different walks of life, growth 39 mindset strategies have also been applied to businesses (Nadela, 2017), sports (Brady & Alleyne, 2017), and government policies (Dweck, 2019). This section is about the concept of mindset in the context of music as well as the studies that demonstrate how mindset impacts music learning among music students. Student beliefs about musical intelligence and the values they support make a difference in levels of motivation, achievement, and enjoyment in music learning. Why Does Music Learning Need a Growth Mindset Creativity. According to one of the individualist definitions of creativity (Sawyer, 2012), “creativity is a new mental combination that is expressed in the world” (pp. 7-8). The implied link between creativity and brain activity is that an open mindset plays a role in nurturing innovative ideas, blending different thoughts, and finally carrying out actions to experiment with possibilities. Krskova and Breyer (2023) proposed a new M.D.F.C. Innovation Model, including a growth mindset (M), discipline (D), flow (F), and creativity (C), and stressed that “it all starts with a growth mindset” (p. 3). They explained that the first step in the creative process is being open to new ideas and willing to put effort into something that could fail. In other words, having a mindset that believes in growth is essential to encouraging individuals to engage in divergent thinking and pursue their creativity. In a study by Pretz and Nelson (2017), the hypothesis that creativity is favorably associated with the growth mindset was tested and strongly supported by the analysis of a collage-making task result among undergraduate students in the United States. The likelihood of producing creative work was higher among students who endorsed the belief that creativity can be nurtured. In terms of music and creativity, Haddon and Potter (2014) noted that “music itself appears to be an inherently creative art” and “so often used as a tool to unlock other kinds of 40 creativity” (p. 129). As a free and flowing element that goes beyond words to express our emotions, music naturally invites creative thinking when making and reacting to different sound arrangements. Schmidt (2021) also suggested a developmental framework for creative musical mindsets in performance-ensemble learning environments. He pointed out that a growth mindset is the key to the final verification stage of creative thinking. Fostering a growth mindset helps students be resilient and reflective during the revision process to polish their musical performance. The following statement by Sawyer (2012) about creativity in the music domain indicates the importance of effort, which is strongly associated with the growth mindset: Like all creativity, musical composition is 99% hard work and only 1% inspiration, and that 1% is sprinkled throughout the creative process in frequent mini-insights that are always embedded in the conscious hard work under way. Great music is rarely created in a Romantic burst of inspiration. (p. 339) This statement makes it clear that creativity is developed by continuing to learn, practice, and reflect throughout the musical learning journey, and that is a positive outcome of adopting a growth mindset. Currently, music creating as one of the three artistic processes has been recognized in the 2014 National Coalition for Core Arts Standards1 to enhance student engagement. It requires students to generate musical ideas, make original choices, and develop personal interpretations of musical works. Self-learning. In 2009, Dweck published a viewpoint essay to address what twenty-firstcentury learners should be. She mentioned that fostering a growth mindset helps students become passionate, resilient, and independent learners who eagerly seek out learning new things, engage in critical thinking, and improve self-accountability and self-assessment strategies. It highlights 1 See The 2014 Music Standards, https://nafme.org/publications-resources/standards/ 41 the urgent need for cultivating individual agency for learning nowadays and, more importantly, the belief that the capacity to grow as the motivation for children to pursue valued goals and desired outcomes in their lives. Dweck (2015) stressed that a growth mindset “will give our children the tools to succeed in their pursuits and to become productive workers and citizens.” Scholars in music education also responded to the mission of creating a long-term impact that helps students be able to utilize music as a tool for their well-being. O’Neill (2012) pointed out the goal “to empower learners as active agents in their own musical development” (p. 163). From the angle of the learner’s experience, Karlsen (2011) viewed musical agency within a music-sociological approach and proposed that it can be a possible lens for investigating music education practices. She emphasized that the relevance of music education for people living in present and future forms of society can be achieved when students know how to use musical actions to regulate emotion, shape identity, and develop skill in the individual dimension, as well as to create atmosphere, coordinate movement, and understand the world in the collective dimension. This statement suggests that nurturing a musical agency in students, having them self-learn musical knowledge and self-explore musical curiosity, is the key to music education, as it reveals the ultimate value of music learning. It also implies that a growth-oriented belief as the driving force behind these self-motivated actions needs to be addressed since it displays a positive attitude toward the unknown, which is the first step in achieving self-learning. Music Student Mindset and Growth Mindset Intervention for Music Students Music Learning Impacts Mindset. According to some research, studying music can help students establish a growth mindset (O’Neill, 1994b; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Holochwost et al., 2021). For example, O’Neill (1994b) studied 172 children aged 6 to 11 and found a link between their implicit theories of musical ability and their involvement in music. 42 Kids who had experience learning instruments were more likely to endorse incremental theory or a growth mindset than kids who had no experience in instrumental playing. Later, she discovered a similar outcome with her colleague McPherson (2010) through a large sample of 24,143 students aged 9 to 21 from eight countries. Compared to non-music learners, music learners who had experience in instrumental or voice training exhibited a much stronger commitment to music learning, as they reported higher competence beliefs for music, higher values for music, and lower task difficulty for music. In the setting of orchestral music education, Holochwost et al. (2021) examined the link between music engagement and growth mindset. The results showed that students in grades 3-5 who participated in an El Sistema-inspired program in the United States over at least two consecutive academic years reported higher levels of overall growth mindset than their peers who did not enroll in the program. Furthermore, their levels of musical growth mindset increased after a year of participation. The evidence presented above indicates that music involvement might foster a musical growth mindset that views musical ability as something that can be improved through effort, as reflected in their music learning experience. It may have a further impact on the development of an overall growth mindset for engaging in various academic subjects at school. Müllensiefen and Harrison (2020) described the impact of music learning on mindset development: Learning an instrument might not be necessary for the development of a positive growth mindset. Instead, it could be sufficient to understand how practice and musical learning can contribute to the development of new musical skills. This gives rise to a plausible hypothesis: learning about the effects of music can possibly have tangible benefits for learning attitudes as well – without the need to become a music virtuoso first. (p. 235) 43 Mindset Impacts Music Learning. O’Neill (2011) highlighted the positive outcomes of developing a growth mindset in young musicians, including “a passion for learning, the active seeking of challenges, a valuing of effort, and the resiliency necessary to persist in the face of obstacles or adversity” (p. 38). Intrigued by many investigations that have revealed that the way people view their potential significantly impacts subsequent motivation and accomplishment, O’Neill and her colleague discovered mindset effects in the domain of music learning. Expectedly, their studies (O’Neill, 1994a, 1996, 1997; O’Neill & Sloboda, 1997) indicated that children’s motivational patterns in music learning are closely related to their beliefs—how confident they are in their abilities to succeed. With the same group of 51 children aged 6-10, O’Neill and Sloboda (1997) found that low confidence as a sign of a fixed mindset caused children to exhibit the helpless behavioral pattern after failure and perform poorer in their subsequent standardized melodic direction test, even though it was similar to the previous one in which they performed much better. O’Neill (1997) indicated that children who showed the mastery behavioral pattern as an outcome of endorsing a growth mindset used time more effectively in daily music practice, especially on the tough piece, and made greater progress on their performance achievement. In Demorest, Kelly, and Pfordresher (2017), musical self-concept was found to be a significant predictor of both music participation and singing accuracy among 6th graders in the United States. The results of two questionnaires and a singing measure demonstrated that students who chose to continue elective music instruction in Grade 7 and performed better in singing ability had a noticeably higher level of positive attitudes about music and about themselves as musicians. 44 Steyn et al. (2016) conducted an exploratory study to examine the effect of a seven-week intervention on 36 undergraduate music students studying at a South African university. Growth mindset was a major strong point of this intervention to influence students’ perceptions of failure and musical ability as they were frequently exposed to high-pressure situations. By comparing the results of measurements related to their psychological well-being collected before and after the intervention, the experimental group compared to the control group displayed an increased growth mindset, self-confidence, anxiety management, concentration, relaxation, and motivation in terms of music performance. Cogdill (2013) led a descriptive and quantitative study to examine the factors that affect students’ mindset of singing ability and their engagement in singing activities. A total of 426 first-year college students at a Midwest university in the United States were recruited for the research. After analyzing the survey responses, Cogdill found that music majors exhibited more of a growth mindset toward singing ability than non-music majors. Additionally, students who had prior musical experience before college displayed more of a growth mindset toward their singing skills. According to their growth mindset of singing ability, they were more likely to have a positive self-evaluation of their singing quality and engage in singing activities in the future. Lee (2021) conducted two case studies to explore undergraduate music students’ mindsets and how these beliefs affected their second-year instrumental performance learning at a Canadian post-secondary institution. After a preliminary survey assessment on mindset, Lee was not able to get participants from both ends of the mindset spectrum, so he eventually selected two second-year music education majors who were both leaning towards a growth mindset, but to varying degrees. Through a six-week research period of three private lesson observations, 45 three independent practice sessions, and three in-person interviews with each participant, interesting findings were identified to explain the role of a growth mindset in the context of music learning. First, through a synopsis of the mindset research provided by the researcher during the mid-interview, both participants noted that they benefited from this knowledge sharing, which had a positive impact on their music learning process, including increasing patience, self-compassion, and resilience, especially in the face of setbacks, as well as improving practice efficacy and performance outcomes. Second, they both viewed the challenge as a sign to move forward and realized that feelings of failure can be defeated with effort. However, since one of the participants presented a more mixed mindset regarding the process, her level of positive emotion and willingness to take an active role when confronted with a difficult situation were slightly different. This study also revealed the varied impact that music professors, parents, and other related people had on students’ beliefs about their learning ability in music throughout their music learning journey. Fixed Mindset Triggers in Music Learning Music is a Talent for Only a Few People. Many young musicians, however, believed that their musical achievements were attributed to an inherent musical talent or ability (O’Neill, 2002; O’Neill et al., 2002). Misconceptions can display a fixed mindset toward music, such as the idea that music is a talent for only a few people. This misinformed notion, on the one hand, discourages students with less initial talent from seeing themselves as musical and seeking music-making opportunities in their lives. On the other hand, it misguides students with more initial talent to heavily rely on their special musical intelligence as a sign of success. Shaw (2018) interpreted the negative impact of an ability-fixed mindset on predetermined musical talent: 46 Students who see musical ability as fixed may conclude that they are not one of the lucky few who “have what it takes”, stop trying as hard, predictably fail to achieve, and drop out of music programs. Other succeed early, conclude that they have special gifts, and then are unable or unwilling to practice or receive instruction when faced with challenges. (p. 11) In a 1994 publication, Sloboda et al. argued that “the uneven distribution of musical ability in our society is not caused by large individual differences in innate musical gifts and talents…the mental capacities underlying musical ability are more widespread than commonly thought” (p. 349). They disputed the assumption of folk psychologists that have attributed the phenomenon of the differences between people in musical ability to their innate musical talent that they had at birth. They explained that, first, this belief has been overstressed by the music profession as the most important factor in determining why great musicians have achieved success in Western cultures and music traditions and why many young people try hard but often fail to develop their musical ability. Second, as this belief is widely and mistakenly held by the public, it has resulted in fewer opportunities, resources, and support for certain young people who have been identified as lacking the talent to pursue music. In fact, musical talent, rather than any predetermined intelligence, is really a form of growing musical expertise via deliberate practice (Ericsson et al., 1993; Sloboda et al., 1996). In her book, Dweck (2006) also raised the question “is it ability or mindset” and referred to Mozart, asking “was it Mozart’s musical ability or the fact that he worked till hands were deformed?”, to emphasize the importance of work ethic (p. 63). Researchers in music education have investigated the relationship between musical ability and innate factors. For example, Sloboda and Howe’s study (1991) explored the biographical precursors of musical expertise in a group of musically gifted students from 10 to 47 18 years old at a specialist music school in England. The summary of their interviews showed that the majority of students did not exhibit any unique early musical potential, and their musical achievements were mildly related to any strong musical history in their family background. In addition, according to O’Neill (1994a, 1996), the relationships between the amount of performance achievement and general intelligence as well as musical talent were examined. She conducted a short-term longitudinal study of 51 children aged 6 to 10 who were in their first year of learning how to play a musical instrument. Before their first lesson and at the end of their first year of lessons, children were interviewed individually and given a general IQ test, a musical skills test, and a problem-solving task. At the end of their first year of instrumental learning lessons, they were also asked to perform a preparatory test, a self-selected piece of music, and several aural tests. It turned out that how well children played was not as clearly associated with how smart in intelligence and talented in music they were. Music is Less Important. Another kind of misguided fixed mindset relates to the imagined value of music. Students’ motivation to participate in music and any other school subjects at school may be viewed as “a dynamic process involving the self-system (perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, emotions), the social system (e.g., teachers, peers, parents and siblings), actions (motivated behavior including learning investment and regulation), and outcomes (learning, achievement)” (Austin et al., 2006, p. 213). However, the understatement of music value in a broad context and formal schooling hinders a growth mindset development in music learning to stimulate active participation. According to McPherson and O’Neill (2010), a report from over 20,000 students aged 9 to 21 from eight places, including Brazil, China mainland, Finland, Hong Kong, Israel, Korea, Mexico, and the United States, found that the majority of students tended to rate their 48 competence beliefs to succeed, their value to engage, and their perceptions of task difficulty in music lower than other school subjects, including art, mother tongue, physical education, mathematics, and science. This finding implies that the belief that music is less important and difficult than other so-called academic subjects at school may be mistakenly accepted as a public view, preventing people from exploring their possibilities in music and benefiting from engaging in music. According to what they proposed, misconceptions about the purpose of music education resulted from historical views that academic subjects are more important and useful than music and that music is viewed as a natural talent. These views have an adverse effect on students’ expectations about their capacity to become competent in music as well as their decisions to participate in school music. As Eisner (1987) argued, “the side of creativity in music teaching and learning is devalued because standardization tends to convert education into a race” (p. 25). Influenced by the standardization that focuses on the musical product and the music performance, music education is forced to put aside the joy of music making and dig into skill development instead. This performance goal with an emphasis on perfection might stimulate tangible results in a short amount of time but exert an increasingly negative influence on the development of students’ mindsets about the malleability of musical ability. Therefore, “fixed mindsets are endemic in school music” (Shaw, 2018, p. 11). It is because the setting that supports a growth mindset in music learning is not always provided through some kinds of music education, as music teachers are trained in a more fixed teaching style to engage students in music learning. According to Mazzocchi (n.d.), more and more students quit music learning in their K-12 schooling. In a study by North et al. (2000), a mismatch between students’ needs and an educational environment that is unable to address those needs was noted to explain why students 49 lose motivation and interest in music learning at school. By investigating the involvement with musical activities among 2,465 adolescents in England, the results from questionnaires showed that most students gave up on learning a musical instrument as well as more negatively valued classical music than pop music. This discovery reveals a serious issue in music education—the music curriculum does not fully support young people’s musical preferences and lacks providing a space for them to develop a growth mindset in music learning. In other words, it is not relevant to their everyday lives and does not correspond with their idealized self-image to satisfy their social, emotional, and cognitive needs. To address this problem, O’Neill (2005) further investigated the reasons behind young students who stopped playing music after entering secondary school in England. As students reported, there was often a mismatch between the instruments they desired to learn to play and the ones they were actually allowed to play. They also had fewer opportunities to take ownership of certain aspects of their musical involvement. Another factor that undermines a musical growth mentality was supported by a qualitative study examining music identity among 35 college students who are neither music majors nor minors (Salvador, 2014). According to their self-reflections, nearly all students stated that they had a good feeling about music and a positive musician identity during their childhood and in elementary school. However, it did not continue to grow throughout their adolescence and into their early adulthood because they were negatively influenced by their teachers’ criticisms of their musical talent, the pressure to maintain a high level of performance, the reduction in practice time, and the lack of support from their families. Their frustration with how much they could still improve their musical ability reveals a mindset shift from a positive side as a result of a false goal in music education and a lack of understanding of motivation in formal schooling, 50 especially secondary school music instruction, that are unable to scaffold a positive musician identity to further pursue music. Mindset and Music Teaching Many studies have focused on shaping student mindsets for learning, but what is perhaps more crucial is building a growth mindset in teachers. As the key characters that lead the classroom and establish its culture, their daily interaction with students is likely to provide a coherent meaning system for students to experience the notion of growth. Teacher mindset has been increasingly recognized as a powerful factor in promoting professional learning (Gero, 2013), enhancing teaching emotion and well-being (Frondozo et al., 2022; Nalipay et al., 2021), improving student mindset and learning (Sun, 2015; Muenks et al., 2020), and fostering a growth mindset in classroom culture overall (Dweck & Yeager, 2021; Murphy et al., 2021). However, mindsets for teachers in general (Yeager et al., 2022; Rissanen et al., 2019) and for music teachers in particular (Pike, 2020; Salvador et al., 2020) surprisingly received little attention. How music teachers view the growth mindset effect in the classroom is essential to be examined. When teachers themselves model a growth mindset and infuse it in their classrooms, students’ growth mindsets may take root and blossom. Why Do Music Teachers Need a Growth Mindset Teacher Retention. Retaining new music teachers is a concern in the field that has continually been discussed (Stringham & Snell, 2019; Krueger, 2000; Mateos-Moreno, 2022; Sindberg, 2014). The problem of teacher retention “relates to handling the unexpected, whether it be meeting the needs of all learners, classroom management, or any other problem teachers may encounter” (LaFrance & Rakes, 2022, p. 119). Early-career music teachers can be overwhelmed by their teaching experience because of “praxis shock”—the discrepancies between teachers’ 51 expectations of school life and the realities of teaching (Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2002). As researchers (Darling-Hammond et al., 1999; Odell, 1986) have noted, the experience during the initial years greatly influences music teachers’ attitudes, morale, and effort toward music teaching in future years. This suggests that without a growth mindset to overcome critical challenges within the first few years, music teachers may easily develop ineffective teaching styles or leave the profession completely. Ballantyne (2007) interviewed 15 Australian secondary music teachers with less than five years of experience about their perceptions regarding their early experiences of teaching music. Based on their responses, praxis shock was a common experience among these early-career music teachers. Their stated perceptions uncovered a possible gap in teacher preparation programs that failed to prepare them for the realities of the teaching experience in early career teaching. They explained that they felt ill-prepared for physical and professional isolation because of a lack of music community within the school. Furthermore, they were stressed about the high workload and multiple responsibilities outside the music classroom. This unpleasant experience made them not focus on how to teach effectively but on how to survive in their jobs. Another study from Stringham and Snell (2019) revealed a similar experience of praxis shock in a narrative study with a first-year, well-prepared female instrumental music teacher in a United States rural county school district. As she self-reported, the problems of professional isolation, workplace incivility, gender inequities, power struggles, and overemphasis on performance challenged her previous expectations as a first-year teacher. These frustrations caused a transition in her from a person who was filled with enthusiasm to be a reflective music teacher that would improve the quality of an instrumental music program with new colleagues to 52 someone who gradually became upset about her teaching journey and began to question whether she should continue in this profession. Decreasing confidence and increasing uncertainty about teaching among novice music teachers may discourage them from achieving what they expect in the music classroom. To address this issue, Dweck (2014) proposed that teachers in the early stages of their careers especially need the support of a growth mindset to believe that they can grow their teaching abilities and to persist in improving their teaching skills in the face of challenges. Teachers’ beliefs about whether they are able to teach well may play a role in their decisions to leave or stay in the field. In interpreting the phenomenon that many young teachers who believed they were born to be teachers dropped out within a year or two, Dweck speculated that new teachers with a fixed mindset probably felt that their natural talent in teaching was not enough to continue after being shocked by the contrast between what they expected and what they experienced. This situation may be interpreted as signs of no talent in teaching in their fixed mindsets, persuading them to quit (Fives, 2005; Fives & Buehl, 2008). Insufficient Music Teacher Training. Teacher educators may need to anticipate the issue of praxis shock, especially problems with a fixed-oriented mindset about perceived teaching ability, and think about how music teacher training programs can effectively prepare pre-service music teachers for the realities of teaching not just from a technical standpoint but from mental and emotional standpoints as well. As Allsup (2015) noted, “our understanding of how we teach and why is reflected in our beliefs about education, which finds material structure in our university coursework” (p. 13). Many music education philosophers have criticized issues observed in music teaching, including an asymmetrical power structure, an undemocratic instructional approach, and excessive 53 conservatism and formality (Gould, 2005; Allsup & Benedict, 2008; Mantie, 2012; Jorgensen & Yob, 2019). These problematic teaching behaviors might reveal a fixed mindset in music teachers toward one’s teaching ability and students’ musical ability, and that is developed through the act of “depositing” (Freire, 2000) by their music teacher training programs, which mistakenly educate preservice music teachers as passive learners rather than scaffolding them to be independent practitioners. Kaschub and Smith (2014) pointed out that music teacher education has faced harsh criticism for failing to keep up with the changing demands and interests of twenty-first-century students. Kratus (2007) argued that music education has demonstrated a resistance to change and a detachment from the prevailing culture, not only in the content music teachers provide to enrich students’ music experience but also in the approach they present to deliver musical knowledge. As he pointed out, “rather than develop curricula that complement the ways people actually experience music in their lives, teachers typically base their curricula on their own goals and the way they were taught” (p. 45). This may highlight a problem with music teachers who are trained not to question what they have learned about teaching and not to attempt to teach in a novel way. Over time, they tend to neglect the importance of practicing critical reflection on what, why, and how to teach and form more of a fixed mindset. Thus, it is hard for them to believe that they are able to change their ability in music teaching. Allsup (2016) underscored the responsibility of music teacher training programs to cultivate the habit of thinking and questioning in preservice teachers: We must assert that our mission is different, that it is tied to an understanding of education as a way of seeing that looks simultaneously ahead and behind. Instruction in music is not 54 the same as education in music. Induction is not the same as expertise. Success is not the same as quality. Parsing these distinctions, debating their implications, and complicating the questions that arise is our charge as we move forward. (pp. 64-65) Yeager and Dweck (2012) stressed that neglecting to address the importance of developing a growth mindset and resilience might prevent teachers and students from fully taking advantage of new ideas in curricula and instruction that are actually adequate to achieve promising outcomes. “Many educational reform efforts have focused on increasing rigor in curricula and instruction, but if they do not also address resilience in the face of these more challenging standards, then making such improvements may be less effective than hoped” (p. 306). Based on the results of two surveys on the awareness of mental skills, including fixed and growth mindsets, among over 600 musicians and incoming university music majors in the United States, Allan (2016) found a common expectation to acquire mental skills for improving their performances and suggested that “music school curricula should include various opportunities to learn mental skills as an integral part of the music education of all students… not just for those who begin to struggle” (p. 18). Reimer (1989) argued that a comprehensive general music curriculum needs to be provided for undergraduate and graduate programs: Such a curriculum requires all the musical knowledge a bachelor’s and master’ degree holder has acquired. It requires the breadth beyond music that such teachers have gained in their general education courses. It requires as well teachers who understand the school as an organism; understand the nature of children as developing beings; are steeped in methods of teaching as varied, broad, creative, adaptable as children are and as music is; have developed a philosophical stance deep enough to illuminate the aesthetic nature of 55 music and the musical capacities of children; know how psychology can be applied in relevant ways in the teaching-learning environment; understand principles of curriculum development, including evaluation, that make their classes as educationally sound as all basic subjects deserve to be; apply research and scholarship to problem-solving and program improvement. Anything less than a curriculum requiring that these learnings in undergraduate and graduate programs be applied, is a curriculum for which such learnings are largely or entirely irrelevant. (p. 79) However, is there a growth mindset cultivation in music teacher training programs that helps preservice teachers optimize their potential in the changing future and the varying context to develop music classes for relevance to today’s students? As stated in the writings (O’Neill, 2011; Evans, 2015; Cogdill, 2015), music educators may not have a solid understanding of theoretical conceptualizations of motivation in terms of music teaching and learning due to the lack of a unified theoretical approach and concrete evidence in music education research related to motivation that could be applied in today’s music classrooms. Cogdill (2015) has especially maintained that the music education profession would benefit from adopting the growth mindset intervention. This missing component in learning how motivational processes influence behavioral change prevents preservice music teachers from taking advantage of contemporary motivational and learning theories, such as the benefits, processes, and development of a growth mindset, resulting in unintended negative consequences for students, particularly within formal music education contexts. She noted: As music educators continue their way through the Information Age, it might be time to adapt current practices. Students may benefit from teacher reinforcement fostering beliefs 56 that they can learn and be musical, as well as appropriate motivation and learning tools to be successful. (p. 54) Negative Attitudes Toward Music Education Majors Within Music Schools. In addition to promoting reflective thinking and interdisciplinary learning inside the music education department, a growth mindset regarding the power of music teaching and learning is needed for music education students to remain steadfast in their profession and confront stereotypes from the outside. Conway et al. (2010) conducted a qualitative case study to investigate the lived experience of 34 instrumental music education undergraduate students within the school of music at a large Midwestern university. Through questionnaires, interviews, and researcher journals and meetings, the perceived tension toward themselves and their major was reported by participants. Some of the students detected a bias between themselves and their peers in the performance major in terms of music performance ability. Music professors, as they noted, greatly impacted the negative attitude toward music education majors through their comments during class. In addition, Fallin and Garrison (2005) argued that the music education department suffered from a lack of communication between faculty involved in music performance, musicology, music theory or composition and faculty focused on music education. “When collaboration and mutual acceptance are absent, music education faculty and music education majors may feel they are perceived as "second class" musicians because they have chosen to teach music” (p. 46). As recent research has suggested, when stigmatized people expect to be stereotyped by fixed-minded institutions, they experience a sense of exclusion with more anxiety and less interest in what they are doing (Emerson & Murphy, 2015; Bian et al., 2018). Therefore, these misunderstandings that devalue the department of music education might discourage its students 57 from developing a growth mindset about being music teachers. When this fixed mindset about musicianship is pervasive among preservice music teachers, they might feel less confident in responding to failures in classroom settings and less positive about demonstrating a musical growth mindset as they begin their careers. Music Teacher Mindset Research Music Teacher Mindset, Teaching Quality, and Student Learning. A few research studies have reported on the impact of music teacher mindset on teaching quality and student learning. Pike (2020) conducted a qualitative study to explore the mindsets of five music education lecturers at the University of Pretoria through their feedback given to their student teachers. Based on interview data, the link between lecturers’ praise and feedback, their thinking process on selecting musical repertoire for student teachers, and their expectations after student teachers’ poor performance were all predictors of music education lecturers’ mindsets. To illustrate, giving praise for effort and process, investing more time in helping student teachers with what they need to work harder, and ascribing student teachers’ struggles to a need for scaffolding suggested a growth mindset in a lecturer who saw musical ability as malleable. However, giving praise only for performance outcomes, expressing lower expectations toward student teachers who were less experienced and less successful, and attributing student teachers’ frustrations to a lack of commitment suggested a fixed mindset in a lecturer who saw musical ability as predetermined. This implies a need to help music lecturers endorse a growth mindset and learn how to give feedback that can instill a growth mindset in their students. Salvador, Paetz, and Lewin-Zeigler (2020) conducted a descriptive interview study with twenty preK-12 music educators in the United States to explore their changes in mindset and practice after learning about inclusive instruction in their graduate school. From their interview 58 reports, all participants described shifts in their established set of attitudes and practices by engaging in the process of reflecting on how to become a more inclusive and socially just educator. They noted that they were more able to articulate their beliefs and values and to align their practices with their increasing awareness of diversity, equity, and inclusion. This included cultivating relationships with minority students and their families, stepping out of their comfort zone to hone their teaching skills, and creating student-centered classrooms to value individual needs. Some of the participants also received positive feedback, like engaging in learning and achieving greater success from their students, after they made changes in the classroom climate. The Self-report of Growth Mindset Music Teachers. Several music education scholars have shared their opinions on the growth mindset. Squires (2017), Guberman (2019), and Weidner and Skolar (2021) advocated for adopting a growth mindset in music teachers to increase student engagement. Their work showed that music teachers’ ability to understand these theories of motivation and provide these motivational techniques for their students through modeling and curriculum design were the keys to achieving success in their music classrooms. Squires (2017) was introduced to the mindset concept during her undergraduate education, and she noticed significant improvements after using this inner voice in her clarinet study, such as working harder and maintaining a long-lasting learning focus. As a preservice music educator, she was eager to implement this effective motivational strategy like process praise in her secondary music classroom in order to make students feel motivated, generate a growth-oriented attitude toward challenges and competitions, and put time and effort into practicing the hard sections of the music. Guberman (2019) reflected on the concept of mindsets as a tool to support his collegiate teaching and discussed its application to music education. For the assignment of writing about 59 music, instead of describing a great composer or music style in history, he changed the requirement by asking students to talk about a piece of music they found interesting based on their own experiences. He realized that the language of greatness and genius can inhibit student learning and undermine music teaching when it lacks relevance to their experience of music and places an emphasis on natural talent. It caused frustration for students to recognize their own expertise that contributes meaningfully to the profession and to improve their musical ability with effort: Many music students find themselves in an awkward position. We emphasize repeatedly the importance of consistent practice and incremental improvement. However, we also speak about “natural” talent. This combination can be especially frustrating for students when they reach a wall, wondering if they have reached the limit of their natural ability and the point at which returns on practice will diminish. (p. 2) As a university researcher and a high school band director, Weidner and Skolar (2021) took a closer look at failure in the ensemble classroom and reflected on how adopting a growth mindset affected students’ attitudes about it. They argued that the advocation of risk-taking in music education can only be achieved when accepting failure as a potential outcome. Through observation and discussion with Skolar’s students, Weidner was impressed with the closeness between members of the classroom and the fact that everyone is contributing to mutual improvement and relating their success and failure to one another. He determined that this environment was rooted in the idea of “FAIL spelled out—First Attempt In Learning” (p. 24), as it was used as a way to guide students to explain what their failure was and how they might overcome it, and to expect that failure is common for everyone: 60 An embracing of failure in the music ensemble promotes a growth mindset that lends to greater student agency toward lifelong musicianship. The classroom that incorporates failure as a first step toward mastery of a concept or skill creates an environment that is socially supportive, emotionally nurturing, and sufficiently cognitively rigorous to allow for students to recognize failure and progress toward success. (p. 24) Two other examples of self-reporting on mindset include Adams (2019) and Morrison (2019). Slightly different from the above articles, they deeply shared their own experiences about creating rehearsal spaces that fostered a growth mindset in their choral ensembles and reported perspectives for both them and their students. They stressed that teachers need to understand, cultivate, and model a growth mindset in all aspects of music teaching and learning. Adams (2019) told a story about how she endorsed a growth mindset to help a girl who struggled with pitch matching but consistently signed up for choir for two years. Adams started occasionally giving instructions before and after school to help her recognize the gap and apply new strategies. In addition, Adams emphasized the idea that everyone is capable of musical growth and reframed her feedback in rehearsal to create a growth mindset in music classroom culture. It turned out that the girl became an excellent singer in the choir and confidently continued to enroll in the choir with a strong belief in her improvable musical skills. Adams reported that the whole class also benefited from this motivational concept, such as increasing musical independence and taking ownership over their learning. At the same time, she, as the teacher, improved her mindset together with students by including a willingness to take risks, taking satisfaction in daily teaching, decreasing her stress prior to the performance, and experiencing immense growth in her own skills. Their collective positive experience also 61 encouraged them to extend their growth mindset into the community by inserting audience singalongs at the end of the concert. Morrison (2019) noticed the benefits of having a growth mindset for students who were not initially good at consistent intonation and pitch matching but then improved with effort, practice, and guidance from others. Based on her own experience as a choral conductor working mostly with adolescents, she stated that this group especially needed this mindset strategy to overcome the impact of physical changes on their vocal development. With a growth mindset to focus on building community, creating safe spaces, and forging relationships during her choir rehearsals, she reported that her choral ensemble worked together collaboratively and supported each other to promote musical growth. She, as a teacher, also opened up to learning something new with courage and vulnerability and taking risks with resilience and self-awareness. It is worth noting that changing mindsets is not an easy process, as several researchers commented, but it is possible and needed by teachers and students in the long run (Adams, 2019; Morrison, 2019; Squires, 2017). Salvador et al. (2020) and Scripp et al. (2013) further emphasized that having community support is crucial when going through a mindset shift, such as getting rid of an ability-fixed mindset on predetermined musical talent. Education policy stakeholders, including parents, students, artists, educators, and administrators, need to act to maximize human potential: Changes in mindset and practices were a process that involved considerable vulnerability for the music educators, who nevertheless felt their efforts to increase inclusiveness were successful. Music teachers may want to seek out like-minded colleagues to form a supportive cohort for encouragement, dialogue, and meaningful feedback. (Salvador et al., 2020, p. 17) 62 How to Implement a Growth Mindset in Music Classroom Culture General Considerations. In Chapter 1, the proposed theoretical framework for creating growth mindset classroom cultures in the context of music education underlines the role of music teachers and their instructional practices in fostering this environment. Dweck and Yeager paid close attention to the pressing needs of educational practitioners and formed the foundation of the Global Mindset Initiative (2021) as a new global research collaborative to guide teachers in cultivating supportive classroom cultures for the next decade. They published a series of articles with their colleagues that addressed the key points around this next research focus (Murphy et al., 2021; Bryan, C. et al., 2021; Trzesniewski et al., 2021; Tipton et al., 2021). In particular, Murphy et al. (2021) reviewed empirical data and summarized four types of effective teaching strategies that can boost a growth mindset supportive classroom culture for students. These approaches included: (1) creating an inclusive classroom environment where all students are capable of succeeding and are responsible for helping one another grow by allowing students to engage with same material in multiple ways and to contribute their different ideas to enhance learning; (2) enhancing organization and classroom management to help students concentrate on the learning process by articulating the rationale behind each activity, providing a variety of learning strategies, and encouraging help-seeking behaviors; (3) improving supportive instruction and assessment by working on challenges and mistakes as a whole group, giving constructive and formative feedback to scaffold student learning, providing periodic growth mindset assessment to address a continued growth; and (4) preparing and planning the term by setting up a progress chart to track the class’s learning over time and regularly reflecting on current practices to ensure that the concept of growth mindset is communicated in daily instruction throughout the semester (pp. 28-30). 63 To help new teachers believe in their own teaching skills and sustain a love of teaching, Dweck (2014) advised them to be prepared for a journey that has a bitter beginning and a sweeter ending. She encouraged them to realize that every student can contribute something to their own knowledge and to regard the challenges and mistakes students make in the classroom as opportunities to hone their skills, deepen their understanding, and become better teachers. Reflecting on one of her students’ self-described experiences, she summarized several ways that new teachers can put a growth mindset into practice in their teaching, including (1) setting reasonable goals, (2) having more patience, (3) engaging in frequent self-reflection, (4) videotaping self-teaching, (5) discussing with colleagues about challenges, and (6) seeking feedback from more experienced teachers. Music-based Application. Many scholars have written conceptual pieces that suggest the mindset effect in music teaching practice. In an article by Regelski (2021), a range of generalized teacherly roles that described how music teachers might engage in their teaching practices were explored. For example, push and lead teachers imply two opposing teaching styles and mindsets that direct their teaching behaviors. The former teacher, as a maestro, decides on the musical goals and outcomes and requires students to accept and sacrifice their own interests to follow the teacher. The latter teacher acting as a coach, in contrast, provides students with interesting and challenging musical paths to self-explore and go on adventures. Students are cultivated as independent music learners to choose their destinations and optimize their musical growth (pp. 19-22). Shaw (2018) underlined the impact of assessment on students’ musical values, musical identities, and mindset development regarding their musical abilities. He emphasized that “a central reason to reconsider assessment and grading practices is the powerful message they send 64 to students about whether they are the kind of person who can succeed in music” (pp. 11-12). He urged music teachers to develop a growth mindset in refining assessment planning, including examining their own potential biases, acknowledging the subjectivity of student assessment, and paying more attention to any criteria not usually measured, such as musical artistic expression showing a reflection of musical understanding and recognition of interdependent musical elements. In addition, several music educators acknowledged the importance of incorporating educational psychology in music teaching and suggested possible strategies for music teachers to implement a growth mindset in the music classroom (Boyett, 2019; Morrison, 2019; Davis, 2017; Cogdill, 2015; Patston & Waters, 2015; Persellin & Davis, 2017; Adams, 2019, 2021; Weidner & Skolar, 2021; Shaw, 2018). The strategies are summarized below: (1) being aware of their own fixed mindset, accepting it, and working through it, modeling a growth mindset to believe that musical ability is a changeable skill, using growth-mindset-related speech in teaching, helping students recognize unproductive or negative thought patterns and learn how to replace them with positive self-talk, (2) talking about growth mindset and providing scientific information, research evidence, and other relevant material that explain the plasticity of the brain and ability, (3) giving praise on effort and resilience in problem-solving, skill development, goal planning and execution, and sustained concentration, rewarding successive approximations, celebrating the small progress along the way that indicates the capacity to be musical, and utilizing them as evidence to boost confidence to an eventual success, 65 (4) providing growth-oriented constructive feedback with the word “yet” to characterize failure, mistake, struggle, and error as natural steps to success, viewing them as learning opportunities to work on tricky spots in multiple ways, analyzing these moments with the whole class to learn together, and providing detailed rubric and exemplars to scaffold student learning, (5) setting realistic learning objectives and mastery goals that emphasize the importance of the journey of music making, tracking progress over time, viewing each performance as a joy-sharing event and an opportunity to see how much improvement has been made, (6) inserting creativity, novelty, and desirable difficulty and challenge into curriculum design, allowing ample opportunities to try new things and for productive struggle, encouraging students to figure out the answer for themselves by combining old and new knowledge, (7) getting rid of the feedback on musical talent to label students’ musical abilities and aggravate social comparison, highlighting effort and deliberate practice by introducing successful musicians’ stories that highlight the role of diligence, practice, perseverance, and passion for learning, (8) teaching reflective practice and thinking time from videotaped rehearsal and performance recordings, this pedagogical tool of cognitive apprenticeship engages students to follow instructors’ thought processes, experiment with strategies, and apply them to their own learning, 66 (9) emphasizing active, hands-on activities in which students work together and can fully engage in the process of discovery, and encouraging peer learning between younger students and older students, (10) allowing students to take ownership of their own learning, such as revising assignments for credit and designing assessments that take growth as well as standards into account. False Growth Mindset. The expansion of growth mindset research has led to varying results and some degree of confusion among individuals and within organizations. Dweck (2015, 2016) clarified the meaning of having a growth mindset after detecting an outbreak of “false growth mindset” with her colleague Susan Mackie, which displayed a misalignment between what people said about and how they actually acted on the growth mindset. First, the most common misconception is simply equating the growth mindset with effort, which leads teachers to praise students’ effort and make them feel good in the short term even if no learning happens. Yet, effort needs to be productive in order to connect the growth mindset to a successful outcome and motivate students in the long term. Dweck (1999) proposed a framework for teachers and parents to wisely use praise: “first, get students to focus on their potential to learn; second, teach them to value challenge and learning overlooking smart; and third, teach them to concentrate on effort and learning processes in the face of obstacles” (p. 4). Second, people mistakenly believe that they either have a fixed mindset or a growth mindset, and the latter is the right thing to have. This interpretation urges teachers to claim that they have a growth mindset. In fact, everyone has a combination of fixed and growth mindsets, and this combination changes over time as they gain more experience. To endorse more of a 67 growth mindset, teachers need to not ban but legitimize the fixed mindset as well as pay attention to its triggers to keep their mindset under control. Third, educators use mindset work to explain why some students are not learning instead of finding a way to help them overcome academic adversity. They teach this concept without doing it in their classroom practices, so that students become more miserable, feel hopeless, and even quit. Indeed, the path to a growth mindset is a long journey instead of a proclamation. Teachers’ actions need to reflect their mindsets instead of only saying the words of a growth mindset without doing anything else to support student learning. In music education, a few scholars also commented on the false growth mindset as a concern. Shaw (2018) provided a careful consideration of this issue: Growth mindset has been mischaracterized both as the answer to systemic poverty (especially when couched as “grit”) and as an excuse for children to learn nothing as long as they have healthy self-esteem. Growth mindset is not the same as mindfulness, positive thinking, or the self-esteem movement of decades past. Success comes from more than beliefs; it also comes from effective teaching and student involvement. And, of course, growth mindset is not a substitute for achievement; we do want students to eventually succeed. (p. 12) The danger of praising effort even if no learning is involved misguides some students to ineffectively work hard without regard to the expected outcome or disappoints other students who know that they do not make any actual progress. Furthermore, asking the most musical students based on teachers’ requirements to perform in front of the class might trigger a fixed mindset toward music learning in the classroom and discourage some students who are identified 68 as having poor musical abilities from trying harder with confidence. Adams (2019) suggested teachers think about some difficult questions as they begin to avoid a false growth mindset: Do I approach teaching with the deeply held belief that all students can learn? Do I believe that all students are musical and that musical ability encompasses varied learned skills? Do I have strategies for helping my students grow musically, or do I rely on innate ability in my students for their growth? (p. 24) Mindset and Culture Based on a forecast that 65% of school-aged children worldwide in 2030 will reside in low-income or lower middle-income countries and confront obstacles to upward economic and social mobility, Dweck and Yeager (2021) speculated if a growth mindset could become a tool to enhance the global education systems and assist more young people in the face of future challenges. However, recent research has shown that it is not easy to develop a growth mindset in various contexts (Yeager et al., 2022). As several researchers have suggested, there is a need to include wider populations in future mindset research in order to understand how differences in beliefs and socialization practices across cultures affect variations in people’s mindsets (Lee, 2021; Haimovitz & Dweck, 2017). This section addresses culture and its impact on mindset development in relation to education and music. The following highlights how culture and mindset are connected, how the idea of growth is presented, as well as how to foster a growth mindset in differing cultures. The cultural values individuals adhere to affect the way they interpret the growth mindset and apply it to their daily lives. 69 The Connection Between Culture and Mindset Environment Effect. According to Kluckhohn and Kelly (1945a, as cited in Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952), “culture is a complex whole that includes artifacts, beliefs, art, all the other habits acquired by man, and all products of human activity as determined by these habits” (p. 44). That is to say, culture impacts and is impacted by human development. Culture, as a shared system of values and meanings passed on from generation to generation over many years, has a large effect on people's daily lives, influencing the way they think and act. At the same time, people, as active recipients of experience through interacting within a context or setting, contribute to and construct the culture with new inspirations that shape the present and the future. As an important aspect of human socioemotional development, a growth mindset is subject to change due to environmental influence (Holochwost et al., 2021). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998, 2006) proposed that human growth is influenced by several environmental systems. In particular, the macrosystem involves the large culture that indirectly affects how people perceive, reason about, and react to various situations, while the microsystem involves the small culture in which individuals directly communicate with their parents, peers, and teachers who surround them in this close environment as they grow up. Since the small culture in the classroom has been illustrated in the preceding sections on mindset and music learning as well as mindset and music teaching, the following content focuses on the large culture beyond the individual classroom and its role in mindset development. Culture Beyond the Individual Classroom. Motivation depends on the cultural context. As Markus (2016) stated, in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) contexts, motivation to do good things comes from internal forces or personal needs. However, 70 in non-WEIRD contexts, motivation comes from important others. Markus and Kitayama (1991) stated that self-concepts that are associated with motivations can take on a continuum between independent self-view and interdependent self-view, corresponding to the individualismcollectivism construct. Individualism and collectivism, as two widely acknowledged frameworks, have been suggested to differentiate the beliefs and practices between Asian countries, such as Japan, China, and Korea, and Western countries, such as the United States, Canada, and Australia (Triandis, 1995). According to Triandis, McCusker, and Hui (1990), they defined different attributes, antecedents, and consequences of individualism and collectivism. For example, selfreliance in collectivist cultures means to not get the family into trouble, but in individualist cultures, it means to be who I want to be. As they described, in terms of collectivism, the ingroup bond grew out of the historical practice of food hunting to save large families. Each family is an ingroup to be analyzed as a unit of society, and the self is attached to it. Collectivists place an emphasis on family integrity, security, obedience, and conformity, which influences an individual’s social behaviors. They are more likely to be homogenous in opinion and sacrifice for ingroup goals and norms when there is a conflict. Hierarchy, harmony, and saving face are more important attributes in collectivist cultures. They pay more attention to ingroup fate, achievement, and interdependence within the ingroup. Vertical parent-child relationships are prioritized over horizontal spouse-spouse relationships. In terms of individualism, affluence leads small families to leave ingroups and raise children individually, which presents a weaker differentiation between ingroups and outgroups. Individualists tend to regard themselves as single units, and they are used to making their own 71 decisions in different situations. They care more about personal goals, preferences, cost-benefit analyses, and attitudes. They focus more on personal fate, achievement, and independence from the ingroup. In individualist cultures, since there is no hierarchical relationship, disagreements are acceptable within the ingroup communication. Autonomy, creativity, pleasure, and competition are highlighted. Horizontal spouse-spouse relationships are prioritized over vertical parent-child relationships (pp. 1007-1008). Even though individualism and collectivism provide a method to understand people’s preferences and values from different cultures, Triandis et al. suggested an analysis on a collectivism-individualism continuum, as a person can be a pure collectivist, a pure individualist, or a third intermediate type, which: Theoretically, one can classify people by means of multidimensional schemes that are based on similarities in patterns of having or not having particular attributes. This means that, in addition to “pure collectivism” there are also many intermediate types, as well as types with both individualist and collectivist attributes. (p. 1007) Furthermore, Oyserman (2011) proposed the notion of cultural mindset to explain the complex cultural impact on human thinking and doing. It means “a set of mental representations or cognitive schema containing culture-congruent mental content, cognitive procedures, and goals” (p. 165). According to her perspective on culture as situated cognition, the large cultural categories, such as individualism and collectivism, only present a general inclination to interpret the circumstances of different groups of people, but their decision making also depends on how they currently view the circumstances. “While culture does cue a first, fluent meaning, people across societies can use both individualistic and collectivistic cultural mindsets. Which mindset comes to mind is dependent on features of the immediate context” (p. 165). In other words, a 72 more flexible and comprehensive way to understand people’s attention in context is suggested when both individualistic and collectivistic mindsets are applicable across cultures. When operating within an individualistic mindset, people as independent beings tend to focus on things related to distinction; when operating within a collectivistic mindset, people as interdependent beings tend to focus on things related to connection. Zha et al. (2006) surveyed 55 American and 56 Chinese doctoral students and explored the relationship between culture and creative potential as well as academic achievement. Importantly, they noted that both cultures have many individualistic and collectivistic individuals within them, even though American graduate students would be more individualistic than Chinese graduate students. The stereotypes towards Chinese with an emphasis on conformity and obedience to authority, and Americans with an emphasis on self-actualization and selfexploration were confirmed. The findings also showed that American graduate students displayed higher creative potential based on their scores on the test of divergent thinking, while Chinese graduate students displayed higher skill mastery according to their scores on the quantitative test of the Graduate Record Examination. Furthermore, the researchers interpreted that this outcome may be due to the differences in the educational systems of the United States and China. “American education, more than Chinese education, emphasizes self-discovery, which may promote creative potential at the expense of lower achievement. In contrast, Chinese education’s emphasis on direct instruction may promote mastery and skill fluency while undernourishing creative potential” (p. 363). In the context of music, the impact of individualist and collectivist cultures is mentioned in articles by Bowman (2007) and Juslin et al., (2016). Bowman suggested a non-Western alternative way to improve social justice in music education—a Buddhism belief system that is 73 “grounded in the idea of the organic interdependency of all beings, and in commitments to honoring and preserving that interdependency” (p. 9). This collectivist view, in contrast to the individualist view that emphasizes an autonomous and independent self, considers the idea that “others are utterly constitutive of what and whom I am” (p. 10). According to his statement, when music teachers adopt this collectivist perspective that includes others as part of themselves, it might lead to more effective practice in music education by utilizing personal excellence to promote the good of all. Juslin et al. (2016) emphasized that “the values within a culture should strongly influence the motives for engaging in music experiences, the frequency with which people engage in musical activities associated with particular emotion-induction mechanisms, and the specific emotions resulting from those activities” (p. 296). The researchers explored the cultural differences in emotional reactions, psychological mechanisms, and motives during music listening with 668 participants from 6 countries. By analyzing the results from a web survey, they found that cross-cultural similarities tend to be greater than cross-cultural differences in terms of emotions, mechanisms, and motives. For example, differences in listening motives were not observed between cultures. Yet, the emotions of nostalgia–longing, love-tenderness, and spirituality–transcendence and the mechanisms of episodic memory were more frequent in collectivist cultures (e.g., Brazil, Kenya, Portugal). The emotions of sadness–melancholy and the mechanisms of musical expectancy were more frequent in individualist cultures (e.g., Australia, Sweden, U.S.A.). As they interpreted these findings, the higher prevalence of nostalgia, love, and spirituality in collectivist cultures presents a feature of social embeddedness within this group of people who are opposed to change and would rather preserve their identity in the community. It also shows that collectivist cultures value low-arousal positive emotions (e.g., calm, relaxed, 74 serene) as they are used to fitting the environment to adjust their needs; individualist cultures value high-arousal positive emotions (e.g., enthusiastic, excited, energetic) as they are used to changing the environment to suit their demands (Tsai et al., 2006). The Presentation of a Growth Mindset in Differing Cultures Eastern Culture and Music Education. Is there a history of the growth mindset in Eastern culture? The works of Confucius (kongzi) [孔子] (551–479 BCE), a Chinese philosopher who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages, emphasized the importance of having a malleable mindset on human attributes. An example in the collection of his sayings (lunyu) [论语] (Eno, 2015) recorded by his students documented a conversation about how he induced a growth mindset in his student named Ran: Ran Qiu said, “It is not that I do not delight in your dao, Master – my strength is insufficient.” The Master said, “Those with insufficient strength fall by the path midway. You are simply drawing a line.” (p. 26) To explain, when Ran felt it was hard to keep learning knowledge and began to doubt his ability to learn, Confucius criticized his attitude of wanting to give up before taking any action and pointed out that his fixed mindset set limits for him to go forward instead of the knowledge itself. This story demonstrates that the hardest obstacle for people to overcome actually comes from inside, as opposed to outside forces. By developing a growth mindset to be confident in the face of social and academic difficulties, people can fully concentrate on their practice and achieve promising outcomes. Confucianism-dominated traditional Chinese culture may have a significant impact on how people absorb philosophy and conduct themselves in daily life. Li (2001) found that 75 Chinese beliefs about learning are shaped by their cultural values. By examining the conception of learning with learning-related terms in Chinese college seniors, such as the Chinese term learn–learning (xuexi) [学习], “seeking knowledge” was identified as one of the common understandings with “heart and mind for wanting to learn (hao-xue-xin) [好学心]” (pp. 117-122) as the first and most important dimension. This dimension contained the ideas of “lifelong pursuit of learning, a set of learning virtues (diligence, endurance of hardship, steadfast perseverance, and concentration), humility, and desire to learn” (p. 122-126). In particular, the author suggested that humility is associated with “a mindset that regards people as always in need of improving themselves, making them always retain the state of being ready to be taught and to seek learning” (p. 126). However, this attitude toward learning appears to make students less confident in their own ability to acquire knowledge, unless with the support of teachers. Yang, Zheng, and Li (2006) explained this behavior among Chinese learners as “it is commonly recognized that Chinese learners tend to believe in knowledge from authority and expert” (p. 350). Rao and Chan (2010) further interpreted their insecurity based on cultural values, as their achievement motivation is socially oriented. Since they are used to connecting success and failure to their families, they feel more pressure to do well in school. In addition, Chinese culture embedded in Confucian ideology emphasizes the idea that personal success is dependent on intrinsic motivation, continuous effort, and willpower, regardless of individuals’ intelligence and social status (Ma et al., 2020). Chinese culture believes more in effort than in ability. Many Chinese idioms that represent the collective wisdom of Chinese culture convey the power of effort as one variable of the growth mindset framework to effect change. For example, diligence is a strategy for compensating for dullness (qin-neng- 76 bu-zhuo) [勤能补拙]. There are also some interesting metaphors used in Chinese proverbs that imply success resulting from cumulative effort, such as constant dripping water wears through the rock (shui-di-shi-chuan) [水滴石穿] and constant grinding turns an iron rod into a needle (tie-chu-cheng-zhen) [铁杵成针]. Similarly, in the context of music education, the idea of musical growth has a strong link to personal virtues. Music learning has a broad purpose to help the development of well-rounded individuals. Fung (1994) reviewed a book chapter about music (yueji) [乐记] written by Confucius’s students. As Fung noted, the education of music (yue) [乐] in ancient China aims to cultivate ethical qualities, including propriety (li) [礼] (virtue, propriety, customs, rituals, etiquette, and protocol), benevolence (ren) [仁] (love, benevolence, charity, humanity, and great virtue), and harmony (he) [和] (harmonious, peaceful, mild, pleasant, and kind), through a holistic and united music-making experience of composing, performing, and listening (pp. 49- 50). This emphasis on values education has been maintained in music teaching and learning since the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). “Music, painting and literature are used as symbolic systems linked to cultural identity, specific social ideals, attitudes and ultimately to social behavior” (Ho & Law, 2004, p. 150). Luting He (1903-1999), the famous director of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in China, devoted his life to advancing Chinese music education in the dual context of nationalism and globalization. He believed that “the stronger the national color, the more lively the music is, and the more it is welcomed by any other nation in the world” and that “Since there have been nations in the world, there has been mutual exchange of national cultures. Exchange will not eliminate national music, but will 77 promote the development of national music” (Xu & Tang, 2022, p. 121). Nowadays, music is categorized as the core of aesthetic education (meiyu) [美育] which is the main area of quality education (su-zhi-jiao-yu) [素质教育] to promote cultural inheritance and improve individual and social well-being (Yang & Welch, 2023). Western Culture and Music Education. In Western culture, beliefs about human malleability can be traced to the Renaissance which was a period of flourishing in arts, science, and culture and promoting a new conception of what makes us human. In contrast to historical concepts of fixed endowments and predetermined positions in the hierarchy of merit, an Italian philosopher Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1486/2012) highlighted human potential and stated that people are able to grow themselves through education to become who they wish to be (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). The American philosopher John Dewey, who was born in the 19th century, is known for his growth-oriented theories that have influenced social and educational change. In his book Democracy and Education (1916), “growth is regarded as having an end, instead of being an end” (p. 26). As the primary condition of growth, immaturity means the possibility of growth and the ability to develop. Plasticity, as one of the chief traits of immaturity, refers to the ability to learn from experience and transfer this knowledge to a later situation with careful consideration to modify subsequent actions to deal with challenges. Dewey further depicted education as growth, with the goal of fostering a desire to learn. “The criterion of the value of school education is the extent to which it creates a desire for continued growth and supplies means for making the desire effective in fact” (p. 28). He criticized ideas that inhibit growth and their misapplications in education: 78 The merely privative nature of immaturity, static adjustment to a fixed environment, and rigidity of habit, are all connected with a false idea of growth or development, -- that it is a movement toward a fixed goal…The educational counterparts of the three fallacious ideas are first, failure to take account of the instinctive or native powers of the young; secondly, failure to develop initiative in coping with novel situations; thirdly, an undue emphasis upon drill and other devices which secure automatic skill at the expense of personal perception. (pp. 26-27) In the context of music education, Allsup’s book Remixing the Classroom (2016) pictured that “the teacher is a growing being, with evolving skills, curiosities, and understandings, a teacher-learner who is interested in what other explorers have to share and disclose” (p. 44). He proposed an open philosophy of music education that is fully rooted in the ideal of growth. As he stated, being “mindfully flexible” (p. 45) is essentially needed in music teaching and learning in order to progress in the ever-changing world. His definition of capacity also presented a growth-oriented view to stress an open attitude that is willing to learn and ready to change. “Capacity, in this temporal sense, suggests both an orientation to being receptive and open to the needs of others and the inhered potential for movement and growth among changing social landscapes and the aesthetic forms we study and teach” (p. 45). In her book Pictures of Music Education (2011), Jorgensen described a metaphor of the garden and its related model of growth to reflect music education. In the section on teaching, she concentrated on the responsibility of music teachers to create an environment where students are able to grow musically. The most important thing, as she claimed, is to explore students’ natural desires to learn and grow. “By taking advantage of students’ impulses or natural inclinations to learn, teachers transform these initial impulses into desires for and commitments to longer term 79 development” (p. 117). In her most recent book, Values and Music Education (2021), she continued to use the garden metaphor in relation to a number of beliefs that teachers, as gardeners, need to have a deeper understanding of and put into practice to achieve optimal performance: Growth… requires fidelity and persistence to sustain effort through good seasons and bad, patience in waiting until the fullness of time when plants produce their flowers and fruits and grow to maturity, and loyalty to all the plants in one’s garden which one must attend to, trim, reposition, or give every opportunity to thrive if one is to have a beautiful garden…where there is fidelity to the musical tradition, persistence in practice, patience to gradually become a musician, and loyalty to one’s teachers and fellows. (p. 228) Fostering a Growth Mindset in Differing Cultures Issues. Dweck and Yeager (2021) noted the impact of large and small cultures on fostering a growth mindset. As explained earlier, sustaining growth mindset effects greatly depends on the support from the classroom environment—the small culture—created by the teacher who plays a significant role in scaffolding students to take advantage of this positive belief. When the classroom culture does not embody the mindset concept or create the conditions for students to apply a growth mindset to their learning, students may stop benefiting from this can-do attitude. Likewise, the heterogeneous effects of growth mindset interventions conducted in other nations question the feasibility of using a growth mindset tool to improve global education systems and propose an urgent need to figure out the causes of failure (Tipton et al., 2021). Murphy et al. (2021) argued that much of the research on the growth mindset has been conducted in Western culture which largely focuses on an expression of individualism, but it 80 might not tell the same story in Eastern culture. They reflected on the cultural diversity when applying a growth mindset: “While the goal of creating growth mindset classroom cultures is one that can be applied and studied broadly across cultural contexts, special attention must be paid to avoid a one-size-fits-all approach to creating these cultures” (p. 10). Through a review of the literature, Henrich et al. (2010) exposed the issue of generalizing about humans based on the dominant research and the representative sample in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies across the behavioral sciences. The writers analyzed four of the most studied domains, including “social decision making, independent versus interdependent self-concepts, analytic versus holistic reasoning, and moral reasoning” (p. 69), and generated several contrasts between WEIRD and non-WEIRD populations. According to self-concepts, for example, they summarized that Westerners are more likely to understand themselves in terms of personality traits and attitudes and less likely to understand them in terms of roles and relationships than non-Westerners. As they highlighted, this independent self-concept is highly associated with “(1) positively biased views of themselves; (2) a heightened valuation of personal choice; and (3) an increased motivation to ‘stand out’ rather than to ‘fit in’” (p. 71). However, non-Westerners, particularly those from East Asia, tend to have more interdependent self-concepts, such as being modest and humble about their own abilities, relying on trusted others to make decisions, and following social norms. Chinese scholar Li (2000, 2010) also argued that evaluating Asian achievement motivation based on the idea of fixed and growth mindsets that is deeply rooted in Western conceptions of intelligence, ability, and competence ignores cultural difference. In fact, an important aspect of a cultural model of learning and achievement needs to be considered: the desire to learn and achieve in Chinese culture focuses more on developing personal virtues in 81 relation to family and society. “The Chinese model is complex, involving primarily not intelligence but other personal, social, and moral purposes of life. Moreover, learning, not achievement per se, assumes higher importance in this model” (Li, 2001, p. 131). Examples. In 2018, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) conducted the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), which surveyed around 600,000 15-year-old students from 78 countries and economies about what they know, what they can do, and their beliefs about intelligence malleability. In 2021, the OECD reported the analysis of the PISA 2018 data on how growth mindset may influence various groups of students differently in terms of learning and well-being. Several findings revealed heterogenous effects in different cultures (OECD, 2021). First, a majority of students presented a growth mindset toward their intelligence but more than twothirds of students in the Philippines, Panama, Indonesia, Kosovo, and the Republic of North Macedonia (hereinafter referred to as North Macedonia) demonstrated a fixed mindset about how much they can change their intelligence. Second, students who reported having a growth mindset scored higher in academic performance, such as reading. However, it didn’t explain the situation in China as the growth mindset was negatively associated with reading performance in Chinese students. It suggested that the impact of Confucian cultural heritage in East Asian countries may explain the different effects of the growth mindset: Growth mindset in such contexts can be assimilated into the dominant cultural ethos of working hard (vs. working smart, in other words, diligently as opposed to cleverly). This may lead to popular support for a “false growth mindset” centered on diligence and suggest that in such environments even fixed mindset students have internalized a value of working hard, which can attenuate the negative effects of a fixed mindset. (p. 19) 82 Third, as the majority of growth-minded students, students in Korea and China with a growth mindset exhibited higher levels of self-efficacy, but they did not exhibit lower levels of fear of failure. Fourth, the widest gap in the sense of belonging at school between students with a growth mindset and those with a fixed mindset was found in Ireland, China, and Korea. Also, East Asian countries like Korea, China, and Japan displayed the widest gap in positive feelings between students with a growth mindset and those with a fixed mindset (pp. 15-31). Chinese researchers noticed the benefits of endorsing a growth mindset and carried out several studies (Zhang & Koshmanova, 2021; Zeng et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2018; Fang et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2020). Zhang and Koshmanova (2021) conducted a qualitative case study with 12 Chinese teachers and interviewed them about their challenges and strategies in teaching at an exam-oriented, disadvantaged private international high school in Beijing, China. Teachers’ reflections on their growth from novice to expert in their professional performance highlighted that maintaining a positive attitude in the face of difficulties is a key to their self-improvement in an unsupportive environment. Their experience also suggested that a growth mindset culture is needed to enhance teaching quality and promote student achievement as it allows “to communicate with all community members in the field with an open-minded setting” (p. 15). In addition, Zhao et al. (2018) and Wang et al. (2021) both proposed that growth mindset interventions can be provided for students to boost their autonomy, grit, and self-esteem based on their positive research outcomes with Chinese students. Based on the results of questionnaires given to 1,842 primary and middle school Chinese students, Zhao et al. (2018) investigated the relationship among growth mindset, learning motivations, and grit. Through the analysis of a structural equation model, they discovered that the relationship between grit and growth mindset 83 is partially mediated by learning motivations. They also found that students’ learning motivations are predicted to be autonomous when they have a growth mindset, and this strengthens their grit. Wang et al. (2021) examined how the variables of growth mindset, reasoning ability, and self-esteem are specifically related to each other in 1,083 Chinese students aged 14 to 19. The results of multiple measures demonstrated a positive correlation between growth mindset and reasoning ability, and that a stronger positive influence of growth mindset on reasoning ability was linked to higher self-esteem. Solutions. According to Kluckhohn and Mowrer (1944, as cited in Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952), “culture, as the transmitted experiences of preceding generations very largely determines what man learns, and even determines to a considerable extent how the teaching that is essential to this learning shall be carried out” (p. 108). Research (OECD, 2021; Yeager et al., 2022) revealed that cultural impact as another factor in deciding what to learn and how to teach in the classroom varies the growth mindset effects. The PISA 2018—a large cross-national study of growth mindset—found that students’ growth mindset is highly associated with their teacher support. “This association suggests that when educators not only teach, but also demonstrate an indefectible support to their students, it establishes a safe learning environment conducive to growth mindset development” (p. 34). When their teachers assisted them with their learning, gave them extra help as needed, continued teaching until they understood, and showed an interest in the learning of all students, students were more likely to have a growth mindset. This group of effective teaching practices perceived by students across a wide range of countries might suggest a consistent global approach to cultivating a growth mindset in the classroom (OECD, 2021). 84 Yet, regarding people living in different contexts with more independent or interdependent cultural norms or higher levels of individualism or collectivism cultural dimensions, fostering a growth mindset in the classroom might produce more benefits when taking cultural differences into consideration. As Murphy et al. (2021) addressed: How teachers can effectively convey growth mindsets to students in these interdependent contexts is likely to differ from how teachers convey growth mindsets in more independent contexts. Teachers may, for example, focus on helping students in interdependent cultures adopt a collective identity as a class who believes that they can work together to grow as a group. Rather than focusing on the benefits to individuals, teachers may help students recognize how growth mindset beliefs and behaviors are beneficial to their family and communities (e.g., by working hard to grow, you can set a good example for your younger siblings). (p. 10) This modification demonstrates the idea of integrating culturally relevant pedagogy and culturally responsive teaching with growth mindset practices proposed by Dweck and Yeager (2021) and Murphy et al. (2021) as they reflect on the effects of cultural heterogeneity. They suggested establishing “culturally sensitive and inclusive classrooms that value all students’ learning equally, emphasize understanding and progress, and help all students learn from their setbacks and struggles” (Dweck & Yeager, 2021, p. 11). By applying this cultural approach to the mindset application, more students from a wide range of cultural backgrounds may be able to benefit from endorsing a growth mindset. These culturally responsive growth mindset practices, such as delivering growth mindset messages in culturally responsive ways and leveraging students’ cultural differences to encourage growth mindset development, guide students to utilize their mindset power to enhance their learning. 85 An article from McKoy (2021) reinforced the link between culture and mindset in music teaching and learning in her statement that “culturally responsive teaching is more than approach to instruction; it is a disposition, a mindset” (p. 25). She presented four guidelines for music teachers to incorporate a culturally responsive approach into their daily instruction. On the one hand, music teachers need to recognize their own assumptions through critical self-reflection and self-assessment and structure their instructional delivery in ways that are responsive to cultural diversity. On the other hand, music teachers need to acknowledge the culturally situated musical knowledge and learning style that students bring to the classroom, create a supportive environment with care and expectation for every student, and introduce students to a variety of music as well as connect to the music related to students’ needs (pp. 22-25). The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic. The spread of COVID-19 since March 2020 has forced schools to move all classes online immediately. This urgent development undoubtedly puts pressure on many teachers and students to adapt to a virtual teaching and learning environment, especially those who are used to working together in more traditional ways. In the face of this unanticipated challenge, different mindsets help students deal with the difficulties in their learning: The idea that psychology plays a role in students’ learning processes sheds light on the limitations of traditional input-based indicators in predicting the performance of an education system. Focusing on learning processes themselves could provide insight on why some countries invest less time and money on education and yet still perform better than their counterparts. (OECD, 2021, p. 10) Several music educators have highlighted the importance of having a growth mindset in response to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic (Pike, 2021; Merrick, 2020). To conduct 86 remote music instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic, Merrick (2020) created an Adaptive Teaching Framework (ATF) for teaching the Music Teaching Program (MTP) for graduate students. In this framework, he emphasized the role of music instructors in practicing growth mindset in promoting students’ thinking and doing “to move beyond their established perceptions of their ability as learners” (p. 5) in the face of this challenged online learning mode and to develop their autonomy, competence, and intrinsic motivation in music learning. Pike (2021) explored the experiences and perceptions of nine music teachers about teaching instrumental and vocal music online in individual lessons in the United States during the coronavirus pandemic. In particular, four of these teachers returned to in-person instruction, and five of these teachers adapted to online teaching during the pandemic. Based on their interviews, teachers who successfully adapted to online instruction demonstrated flexibility in their lesson planning and exhibited a growth mindset to improve their teaching to figure out the best way for students to learn. By reflecting on music teachers’ different reactions to the pandemic, Pike further suggested developing a growth mindset for preservice music teachers. “If teachers can be encouraged to cultivate a growth mindset—even before they embark upon teaching, when they are students—they may be better positioned to embrace the creative aspects of teaching music” (p. 69). Chapter Summary This chapter concentrated on three keywords—mindsets, teachers, and culture—and how they interact by reviewing previous literature to lay a solid foundation for the research and to promote growth mindset implementation in music education. According to articles in general and music education, mindset and its impact on the development of teaching and learning abilities in music, as well as on subsequent behaviors, were discussed in detail with the support of evidence. 87 In terms of mindset and music learning, according to Persellin and Davis (2017), “many aspects of music learning require this can-do attitude, from producing a good sound with your voice or instrument to playing complex patterns of notes and rhythms and blending with others” (p. 69). As music is a subject that is largely dependent on investing time and effort into daily practice in order to develop a high level of expertise, adopting a growth mindset may help music learners be resilient in the learning process. As Evans (2015) emphasized, “regardless of whether musical abilities are innate and immutable, it is beliefs about whether they are innate or immutable that seem to matter” (p. 68). Similarly, Sloboda and his colleagues suggested that it would be advantageous to implant the notion that everyone is musical in young people’s minds. In their words, “promoting a positive self-concept in a person identified as talented, it provides that individual with sources of motivation which are pre-requisites to the investment in long hours of practice required to develop musical skills” (Sloboda et al., 1994, p. 352). Regarding mindset and music teaching, a comprehensive approach for creating a growth mindset in music classroom culture was illustrated to help music teachers better envision an action plan. A growth mindset is a crucial strategy that novice music teachers may use to overcome praxis shock and persist in improving their teaching skills to address the teacher shortage problem (LaFrance & Rakes, 2022). In other words, no matter how good or bad their experiences are during their early careers, the growth mindset approach helps them thrive on setbacks that threaten them in practice and sustain a passion for teaching. Also, music teachers who are confident in their capacity to grow pave the way for grit and success in both their classrooms and those of their students. With music teachers’ carefulness to foster a growth mindset in music classroom culture, students are engaged in endorsing a positive self-theory to have confidence in improving their musical abilities and resilience to the difficulties that they 88 will inevitably encounter in their music learning. As they gain a sense of enjoyment and achievement in the process of becoming lifelong learners and lovers of music, students are inspired to transfer this growth mindset experience in music to generate more opportunities for success in many areas of their lives. About mindset and culture, culture as an important factor influencing mindset development was highlighted, which opens an opportunity to explore the nuance of growth mindset in different contexts and for different populations. Different cultures have varied effects on how the growth mindset concept is understood and how a classroom culture is created to foster musical growth. “The brain shapes culture, but it is also shaped by culture and the experiences that individuals have or pursue” (Santrock, 2011, p. 10). Culture plays an important role in shaping how people perceive various situations, communicate with others, and manage their own personal development. In order to introduce the concept of mindset in a global context and achieve optimal outcomes for different populations, the nuance influenced by their different cultures in how people interpret and apply this idea to their lives may be a worthwhile factor to investigate. With the rise of globalization, everything seems to be required to undergo a changing and evolving process more frequently. Education as a primary path to acquire knowledge is in need of transformation and provides individuals with the practical tools they need to overcome unforeseen challenges in the future. Culturally responsive growth mindset practices as an approach to value diversity and the power of belief help future young people strive. 89 Chapter 3: Methodology This chapter is designed to explain the formulation and methodological foundations for this study. According to Mills (2014): Methodology determines how the researcher thinks about a study, how they make decisions about a study, and how they position themselves to engage firstly with participants and then with the data generated/collected…Choosing a methodology is strongly linked to the desired outcome of the study. (p. 32) Of importance is gaining evidence about first-year music teachers’ mindsets about their teaching ability and students’ learning ability both as they came into their first year of teaching as well as how that might have changed after their first year of teaching based on their responses to interview questions. Differences and similarities that might emerge between two cultural contexts are also of interest in this regard. Further, the causes and consequences of different mindsets are presented. The consistency between responses to interviews and their teaching exemplars is also evaluated. In considering this data, together with past research as summarized in Chapter 2, we might begin to better understand music teacher mindsets in Chapter 4 and generate possible implications for music teacher education and bases for further research that will be a large part of Chapter 5. Here again is a statement of the purpose and research questions, as reinforced by the related literature in Chapter 2. The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to explore the state of beginning music teachers’ mindsets about their ability to teach music and about their students’ ability to learn music. It included a sampling of first-year music teachers across two cultures. Also of interest was how mindsets may change as part of initial experiences teaching music. A cross-cultural perspective was included to understand how these self-described 90 mindsets and subsequent self-submitted teaching evidence might reflect the impact of the cultures of China and the United States. Research questions were: 1. What are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching? In addition, what influences might have contributed to these mindsets? 2. How are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching? In addition, what did they do to implement these mindsets, and did their submitted teaching materials support these mindsets? 3. What cross-cultural similarities and differences can be found between music teachers in China and the United States regarding their mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability? Chapter Overview This chapter includes an explanation of the research design, information about the role of the researcher, and the study timeline. This is followed by a description of the recruiting and consent gathering as well as the implementation needs. Study participants are presented, and data collection methods are clarified. Data analysis procedures are then provided, along with information about data trustworthiness procedures. The role of the pilot study is addressed, and its effects on redesign are listed. The chapter ends with some challenges encountered during the process. Research Design Qualitative Multiple Case Study 91 The choice of research design, including the methods of data collection, must always fit the purpose and the research questions. Different from quantitative research, which places emphasis on detailed numerical data designed to show statistically significant trends with a large dataset, qualitative research aims at generating an in-depth interpretation of a variety of datasets often with fewer subjects over time. According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), qualitative research is “an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (p. 41), and its major characteristic is to gather information by “actually talking directly to people and seeing them behave and act within their context” (p. 257). In music education, qualitative research has frequently been applied as a methodology to explore the processes of music teaching and learning over time. Matsunobu and Bresler (2014) noted that qualitative research methodology has an epistemological foundation. It assumes that “knowledge is neither inside a person nor outside in the world but exists in the relationship between them because humans are not mere repositories of knowledge but active constructors of meaning” (p. 23). In this study, in order to explore the knowledge of mindset and its role in music teaching and learning, qualitative research was judged to be an appropriate approach that addresses the complexity of the human mind, language, and behavior to help explain the nuance in music teachers’ internal feelings and external manifestations in the context of music education. There are many different types of qualitative research, and among the most prevalent is the case study. It was selected for the present study. According to Yin (2006), “case study has the ability to examine, in-depth, a ‘case’ within its ‘real-life’ context…is best applied when research addresses descriptive or explanatory questions and aims to produce a firsthand understanding of 92 people and events” (pp. 111-112). As with many other studies in the field of music education that use the genre of case study to investigate music teachers’ perceptions (Conway, 2008; Matherne, 2023; Hourigan, 2009; Eros, 2013), this study aimed to incorporate a qualitative case study methodology in order to explore the mindset state of music teachers about music teaching and learning and its impact on instruction by analyzing the first year of experience within differing cultures. “Underlying the use of qualitative research conducted in cross-cultural, international settings is the expectation that the field of music education will be advanced further by examining our taken-for-granted assumptions” (Matsunobu & Bresler, 2014, p. 33). Furthermore, this study included more than one single case. This multiple case study not only requires the researcher to “collecting and analyzing data from multiple examples selected to inform particular research questions” (Borman et al., 2006, p. 123) but also strives to discover the connection across cases “to locate what is general in what is particular” (Barone & Eisner, 2006, p. 101). Matsunobu and Bresler (2014) also pointed out that “the quality of the study depends on the richness of case(s) rather than the size of sample(s)” (p. 28). Therefore, this multiple case study provides an opportunity to comprehend the case itself as well as interpret the similar and different ideas between cases. Descriptions from each case itself help reveal a gap between theories and practices in their experience, to reflect individual current misunderstandings, and propose future improvements. Also, narratives through the sharing of representative cases help detect a broader issue underlying a phenomenon to provoke a public discussion and the resonance of other related cases in the context (Stake, 2000). Overall Design 93 As noted in Chapter 1, I used a qualitative multiple case study research design to explore the knowledge of first-year music teachers’ mindsets and their behaviors toward music teaching and learning. After analyzing the results of a preliminary survey, a group of six finalists—three music teachers in the United States and three music teachers in China—were purposefully selected. Each of them in their cultures represented one of three mindset patterns (growth, fixed, or mixed) as identified in the survey results. They were invited to participate in the follow-up interview to self-describe their first year of teaching, as well as the teaching artifact submission that demonstrates their self-described mindsets in first-year practice. Through a within-case analysis, the mindset determination generated from a preliminary survey was either confirmed or refined by the interview data. The teaching artifact submission further clarified the mindset determination at the conclusion of their first year of teaching. The first two research questions were answered to describe first-year music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and about their students’ learning ability throughout their first year of teaching. Through a cross-case analysis, the third research question was answered to explain cross-cultural similarities and differences in first-year music teachers’ mindsets. The Role of the Researcher: Emic vs. Etic The researcher plays a key role in collecting data and reporting the main findings. To ensure objectivity, the researcher should acknowledge the subjectivity formed by personal background, culture, and experiences within a specific context that might shape subsequent interpretations. Despite the fact that it is not always easy to uncover preconceived notions rooted in background and values until facing the questioning of participants, the researcher may consider writing memos during the study to establish self-awareness about personal thoughts as well as improve empathy to understand others’ perspectives when engaging in qualitative 94 research (Matsunobu & Bresler, 2014). Kvale (1996) described a useful metaphor by positioning the research as a journey and the researcher as a traveler: The journey may not only lead to new knowledge; the traveler might change as well. The journey might instigate a process of reflection that leads the interviewer to new ways of self-understanding, as well as uncovering previously taken-for-granted values and customs in the traveler’s home country. (p. 4) As an insider in the music education community for many years and a music teacher who has encountered frustration throughout the initial years, I was aware of the issues in the field and had the ability to perceive and appreciate other first-year music teachers’ experiences. At the same time, as I was involved in differing cultures in China and the United States, I was able to understand the cultural impact on shaping attitudes and ideas toward music teaching and learning. On the one hand, all the aforementioned knowledge gained from being an insider gave me the benefit of creating rapport with participants and providing an emic understanding in terms of mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures. On the other hand, this familiarity acted as a caution to me to hold back my own beliefs and opinions and refrain from interrupting or persuading in response to opposing views when interacting with participants. Additionally, the familiarity alerted me to avoid biases in generating themes and interpreting meanings during the data analysis. By doing so, I provided an etic understanding as an outsider to generate credible interpretations (De Munck, 2009; Patton, 2002). As Creswell and Creswell (2018) emphasized, “the researchers keep a focus on learning the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or that writers express in the literature” (p. 258). Study Timeline 95 The proposal for this study was approved by the dissertation committee on January 28, 2022. The Institutional Review Board approval letter from the University of Southern California was received on March 15, 2022 (see Appendix A). After that, the pilot study was conducted for the next month. Beginning in the middle of April, emails were sent to professors and directors of music teacher training programs in China and the United States for any recommendations of their graduates working as first-year music teachers in 2021-2022. Prospective participants began receiving emails with the invitation to take the preliminary survey on May 17, 2022. In late July, the preliminary survey was gradually sent out. In August, all survey responses were gradually received, and I, as the researcher, started the analysis at the same time. At the end of August, an invitation to the follow-up interview was sent to selected participants based on their preliminary survey results. Since then, six participants have each taken part in the interview independently and provided any teaching evidence that presents their self-described mindsets. Data collection was completed in the middle of September 2022. Table 3.1 outlines the timeline of these events. Recruitment of Participants and Obtaining Consent Purposeful criterion-based sampling was used in this study. Different from random probability sampling used in quantitative research, the purposeful sampling approach “focuses on selecting information-rich cases whose study will illuminate the questions under study” (Patton, 2002, p. 230). Criterion-based sampling was used to study cases that met predetermined qualifications and were better suited for in-depth follow-up through standardized questionnaires. It generates cases that may “reveal major system weaknesses that become targets of opportunity for program or system improvement” (p. 238). In this study, the list of criteria for qualifying participants to take part in the preliminary survey included that the participant: (1) be a first-year music teacher in 2021-2022, (2) be graduated from a music teacher training program in China or 96 the United States, (3) must work full-time in an elementary, middle, or high school in China or the United States. Table 3.1 Timeline of Events Time Length Event January 28, 2022 Presented proposal to the dissertation committee and received approval March 15, 2022 Received permission from the institutional review board (IRB) March 16 - April 13, 2022 Conducted the pilot study April 14 - May 16, 2022 Contacted professors for recommendations May 17 - August 28, 2022 Contacted list of recommended names July 26 - August 28, 2022 Send out the preliminary survey via email to prospective participants August 1 - August 28, 2022 Analyzed results of the questionnaire August 29 - September 15, 2022 Emailed prospective participants who were selected for the follow-up interview August 30 - September 15, 2022 Conducted the follow-up interview with six participants August 30 - September 15, 2022 Received additional teaching artifacts from six participants September 16, 2022 - September 16, 2023 Analyzed the interview transcripts and teaching evidence of six participants September 17, 2023 - December 13, 2023 Completed defense and finalized final copy This study used a five-phase process to recruit participants. A detailed action plan of phases in sequential order is depicted in Table 3.2. Table 3.2 Phases of Recruiting Participants Phase Event 1 Sought recommendations of first-year music teachers from directors and professors working at music teacher training programs in China and the United States 2 Contacted pool of prospective survey participants 3 Sent out a preliminary survey in English or Chinese version via email 4 Analyzed the results of the returned surveys 5 Contacted pool of prospective interview participants 6 Scheduled the follow-up interview with six participants 97 In phase 1, I contacted the professors and directors of several music teacher training programs in China and the United States through email to ask for their help in generating a list of names of students who graduated from their programs and started working full-time as first-year music teachers in 2021. I chose representative music teacher training programs mainly in the southern region of China and in the western region of the United States. I also emailed my colleagues and other school music teachers to recommend possible qualified persons they know. A list of 35 names was generated from their email replies. In phase 2, I contacted the recommended names on the list. In the email, I introduced myself and briefly explained my research. I told them the reason I got in touch with them was because they were referred by their previous program directors or professors based on the research criteria. I asked them if they met the criteria and were willing to participate in the study. I have attached my contact information for any questions. I also explained that a raffle incentive of a $50 Amazon gift card would be drawn from the pool of survey participants in order to encourage their responses. A list of 30 prospective survey participants was generated based on their replies. In phase 3, I sent out the preliminary survey (see Appendix B) in English or Chinese version by email to prospective survey participants who were recruited based on their selfjudgement of the criteria as previously described. I also used snowball sampling to ask them for references to other people. The total number of returned surveys was 29, but only 24 of them matched the criteria established after my review. In phase 4, I started my analysis while obtaining the survey results. I determined which of the three mindset patterns (fixed, mixed, and growth) each survey participant belonged to based on their responses to a total of 25 closed-ended and open-ended questions in the survey. I paid 98 more attention to their answers since Q13, as it started asking them about their subjective reflections on their first year of teaching. One aspect of my interpretation of their mindsets was based on the open-ended questions. I referred to the notes on mindset theory and its meaning systems to aid my analysis. More keywords in their responses related to the idea of viewing ability as improvable suggested more of a growth mindset, while more keywords in their responses related to the idea of viewing ability as unchangeable suggested more of a fixed mindset. A mixed mindset was demonstrated when their responses with keywords showed both growth-oriented and fixed-oriented beliefs. Another aspect of my interpretation of their mindsets was based on the closed-ended questions derived from the website of Mindset Works (2017). Q21 and Q22 were created by a mixture of growth mindset statements and fixed mindset statements toward the ability of music teachers and the ability of students to find out their attitudes. Q23 was created by a mixture of growth mindset behaviors and fixed mindset behaviors in teaching to find out how frequently these behaviors were performed by them in their classrooms. To generate prospective interview participants, I selected at least two names for each mindset type in each culture. I also invited two judges to independently provide their recommendations on the mindset analysis. Finally, a total of 12 prospective interview participants leaning toward a fixed, growth, or mixed mindset pattern in differing cultures was listed. In phase 5, I contacted the pool of prospective interview participants one by one and asked if they were interested in being involved with the follow-up interview. When the first candidate in each mindset pattern was unable to participate in the follow-up interview, I emailed the next person on the list. I also provided an additional incentive of a $25 Amazon gift card to 99 each interview participant who agreed to a follow-up interview in order to encourage a higher response rate. While receiving their replies on participating in the follow-up interview, a second criterion sampling phase was employed based on a new set of qualifications. In particular, a more conceptually-oriented version of criterion sampling—theory-based sampling—was applied (Patton, 2002, p. 238). It required: (1) three interviewees from each culture, (2) each of whom represented one of three mindset patterns (fixed, mixed, or growth). Based on these criteria and their willingness to participate in the follow-up interview, three prospective interview participants from each culture with the aim of finding the one who leaned the most heavily towards the growth end of a mindset spectrum, the one who leaned the most heavily towards the fixed end of a mindset spectrum, and the one who traveled between both mindsets were selected for the final set of study participants. A list of six prospective interview participants was generated. An analysis metric (see Table 3.4) was also applied to find out the finalists. In phase 6, I sent out an email to individually schedule the follow-up interview with six prospective interview participants who were recruited based on the second criterion sampling phase as previously described. The six cases in this study were finally confirmed. Implementation Needs Since the period of data collection was under the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the mode of interaction with interviewees considered was to interview online instead of face-to-face. This alternative approach provided opportunities to recruit interviewees who were not available to take part in the in-person interview option due to geographical distance, time zone difference, or schedule conflict (Roulston, 2014). 100 Several approaches were taken in this study to reduce the limitations of this mode of computer-mediated communication and to smooth the online interview procedure. First, the synchronous online interview was conducted through two web-based video tools, one in English (Zoom) and the other in Chinese (WeChat 微信). Participants were familiar with these tools. Second, before the interview, participants were told to test the internet connection, find an undistracted and private space, and prepare enough time for better communication quality and an in-depth reflection process. Third, on the day of the interview, the information sheet explaining the confidentiality of their data and the way to protect the privacy of electronic communication was verbally given to each participant. Participants consented to turn on their cameras to verify their identities as well as gave permission to record their interviews for use in the subsequent data analysis. They also agreed to show their upper body engagement during the interview to make it as natural as in the in-person mode. Fourth, as the interview started, each interview question was intended to be short, simple, and clear and to allow participants enough time to think about and respond. Study Participants The target populations for this study were those who graduated from undergraduate or graduate music teacher training programs and had started working full-time as first-year music teachers at K-12 schools in China and the U.S. in 2021. Participants in the preliminary survey given bilingually included 24 music teachers from two cultures. In particular, 15 music teachers are from the United States, and 9 music teachers are from China. Based on the results, a followup interview was scheduled with 3 music teachers from each culture, each of whom represented one of three mindset patterns (fixed, mixed, or growth). Table 3.3 provides descriptions of study participants. To protect their identities, pseudonyms are used as a measure of privacy. 101 Table 3.3 Descriptions of Study Participants Number Pseudonym Gender Race Age Current place of residence 1 Ava Female White 24 United States 2 Olivia Female White 33 United States 3 Isabella Female White 25 United States 4 Noah Male White 23 United States 5 Jayden Male White 28 United States 6 Luna Female White 26 United States 7 Oliver Male White 25 United States 8* Alex Male White 26 United States 9 Liam Male White 27 United States 10* Bella Female White 39 United States 11 Hannah Female White 45 United States 12 Harper Female White 27 United States 13* Calvin Male White 23 United States 14 Ethan Male White 24 United States 15 Scarlett Female White 29 United States 16* Ai Female Asian 25 China 17 Zhao Female Asian 24 China 18* Bei Female Asian 24 China 19 Xi Female Asian 21 China 20 Liu Female Asian 23 China 21 Zhang Male Asian 23 China 22 Li Female Asian 24 China 23 Sun Female Asian 21 China 24* Chen Male Asian 23 China Note. *These subjects were initially chosen and participated in the follow-up interview and collection of artifacts, which constituted the main data set for this study. Data Collection Methods and Procedures Qualitative approaches to data collection “generally include capturing records of interviews, audio-visual materials and physical objects, documents including surveys, and observations” (Mills, 2014, p. 37). Furthermore, triangulation of data was used as a strategy to verify the decision about mindsets by collecting data from multiple sources (Mills, 2014; Matsunobu & Bresler, 2014; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Yin, 2006; Patton, 2002). According to Patton (2002), “by using a variety of sources and resources, the evaluator observer can build on the strengths of each type of data collection while minimizing the weaknesses of any single 102 approach” (p. 307). Mills (2014) also pointed out that “identifying a well-balanced and justified mix of methods to both collect and generate data with participants will result in a deeper and more complex data set that should allow for higher levels of conceptual analysis” (p. 44). It increased the trustworthiness of interpretation and strengthened reliability and internal validity. In this study, I used a variety of data collection tools: (1) a preliminary survey, (2) a follow-up interview, and (3) teaching documents, along with data from my research journal, to help identify music teachers’ mindsets in detail. These data collection methods are described in more detail below. Preliminary Written Survey The preliminary survey was the first round of information gathering. It was sent out through two web-based survey tools, one in English (Qualtrics) and the other in Chinese (Credamo 见数). It took about 30 minutes to complete. This survey was built upon the surveys from the website of Mindset Works (2017) which is a company founded in 2007 based on the mindset research of Carol Dweck and her team and provides a diagnostic tool used in many studies to assess participants’ mindsets. The survey in this research had general questions adapted from the website as well as specific questions on music teaching and learning added by myself (see Appendix B), in order to examine the mindset within each first-year music teacher and to determine any patterns that might indicate a fixed, growth, or a mixed mindset in the context of music education. A total of 25 closed-ended and open-ended questions were created in advance and reviewed for appropriateness by a panel of experienced music teachers familiar with the study and its purposes. The questions were organized into six sections to capture a general picture of first-year music teachers’ beliefs and practices. The six sections were: (1) general demographics, (2) 103 educational background, (3) working experience, (4) general teaching expectations, (5) specific teaching beliefs and practices, and (6) COVID impact. In particular, Likert-type scales were adapted from Vagias (2006). At the beginning of the preliminary survey, I shared an information sheet with each participant in Chinese or English to explain the research study, their rights as participants, the confidentiality of their data, etc. At the end, I expressed my gratitude for their time and asked them to retype their name and contact information so I could get in touch with them for a potential follow-up interview. Results from this portion of the data analysis helped find the pool of prospective interview participants. During the analysis of the survey results, I paid more attention to their answers since Q13, as it started asking them about their subjective reflections on their first year of teaching. Two judges were also involved in the mindset analysis to provide their recommendations. Based on the criteria to get three interviewees from each culture, each of whom represented one of three mindset patterns (fixed, mixed, or growth), as well as their willingness to participate in the follow-up interview, the six cases in this study were finally confirmed. An analysis metric (see Table 3.4) was also applied to find out the finalists. Follow-up Interview The follow-up interview was the second round of gaining information. It was given in two languages and conducted through two web-based video tools, one in English (using Zoom) and the other in Chinese (using WeChat 微信). It took around 120 minutes to finish, with a 10- minute break offered. In this semi-structured interview, questions were not always asked in the same order. I asked the first questions and then followed up with probes based on the interviewee's descriptions and accounts (Roulston, 2010). Furthermore, according to Roulston, 104 “probes frequently use the participant's own words to generate questions that elicit further description” (p. 13). The interview protocol consisted of a total of 12 open-ended questions based on current research and the theoretical framework for this study (see Appendix C). Questions for the interview were developed in advance with room for probes and reviewed by a panel of experienced music teachers familiar with the study and its purposes. The interview was divided into four sections designed to reach a deeper understanding of first-year music teachers’ beliefs and practices. Four sections were: (1) music learning experience before and during college, (2) first year of teaching experience, (3) general teaching philosophy, and (4) wrap-up questions on other related topics. Particular attention was paid to how each of the three mindset patterns was displayed through their interview answers. The interview aimed to further explore the blind and blurry spots in the survey results and search for more details and evidence from interviewees to support interpretations of the mindsets. An important part of the follow-up interview was that it served as a basis for detailed coding of themes that helped to answer the research questions 1, 2, and 3. This is explained in greater detail in the section below on data analysis and procedures. At the beginning of the interview, I read the information sheet with each participant in Chinese or English, especially the confidentiality of their data in the recording, and briefly introduced the interview sections. At the end, I expressed my gratitude for their time and asked them to submit a teaching example that demonstrated their self-described mindsets. All interviews were fully recorded while taking place online. Recordings were stored on a passwordencrypted external hard drive, which was only accessible by me, the sole researcher, to ensure security. 105 Teaching Artifacts The last dataset was comprised of teaching examples required at the end of the follow-up interview. I asked each interviewee to email me a piece of teaching evidence they interacted with students with sometime during the 2021-2022 school year that reflected their current attitudes toward music teaching and learning. The evidence might be in the form of a student assessment, a class handout, a lesson plan, or a similar artifact. Even though it would not be as natural and direct as my personal observation, I expected the written material to assist me in determining how they gave instructions and communicated with students in a real classroom setting. It was designed to help me detect a false growth mindset by examining the consistency between what they said and what they did, thus verifying my interpretations of their mindsets. Data from this analysis helped answer the sub-question in research question 2. Data Analysis Methods and Procedures Data analysis is the process of cleaning the raw data, filtering, and teasing out the relevant information based on the research questions, and then interpreting it in depth to generate valuable insights for the study. As the most common ways to analyze interview data, Roulston (2014) explained that coding and categorization approaches are “labeling sections of data with ‘codes’ that reflect some combination of topical content, structural features, and/or concepts derived from literature in the field” (p. 263). Creswell (2007) recommended a three-part analysis for the multiple case study: When multiple cases are chosen, a typical format is to first provide a detailed description of each case and themes within the case, called a within-case analysis, followed by a thematic analysis across the cases, called a cross-case analysis, as well as assertations or an interpretation of the meaning of the case. (p. 75). 106 In this study, the main body of data analysis focused on the interview transcripts of six cases. These data analysis methods are elaborated on the following data analysis procedures. The first round of data analysis began as more and more survey responses were gradually received. Since the preliminary survey was given in Chinese for participants in China and in English for participants in the United States, the results were displayed in two languages. To improve the efficiency of data analysis, I translated the results received from Chinese participants into English. Then, the data analysis took place in the same language. Considering the purpose of the preliminary survey was to select the representative cases to participate in the follow-up interview and collection of artifacts, my knowledge of the mindset theory and its meaning systems served as a guideline to help me evaluate the mindset demonstrated in each preliminary survey report. An analysis metric (see Table 3.4) was applied to find out the finalists. Particularly, the answers to the open-ended questions to a large extent affected my final decision to categorize survey participants into three mindset patterns. The information from the closedended questions served as extra evidence to support my judgment. Two judges were invited to provide their case choices to reinforce my decision. The second major round of data analysis started after finishing six interviews and collecting six teaching examples. Each analytical step conducted in this stage is elaborated according to the overview of the data analysis process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, pp. 268-270). (1) Organize and prepare the data for analysis. The auto-saved interview recordings were stored on a password-encrypted external hard drive. I used two web-based transcription tools, one in English (Otter) and the other in Chinese (iflynote 讯飞语记), to transcribe all of the audio recording data into six Word documents. Each document was a 2-hour interview transcript with 107 an individual case. It was marked with the research title, the date of interview, the interviewee’s pseudonym, and the duration of interview. (2) Read or look at all the data. I relistened to the audio recordings not only for checking the transcripts for accuracy but also for noting the ideas during this initial interpretation for future coding and analysis. At the same time, I translated the Chinese transcripts into English. Then, six interview transcripts in the same language were prepared for the coding process. (3) Start coding all of the data. Cases are units of analysis. I started the hand-coding process with the interview transcript of the first case on the list by reading through each line of text. I used a combination of emerging codes rooted in the actual language of the participant and predetermined codes rooted in the literature and common sense to break down the content. A list of codes from the first interview transcript was generated. Then, I categorized the codes by grouping them by the sameness and similarity and labeling each category with the most appropriate term. After coding and categorizing the information from the first case, I repeated the same hand-coding process for the interview transcript of the second case on the list and so on. By doing so, it also became more apparent to me which mindset pattern each case belongs to according to the analysis metric (see Table 3.4) and what the mindset development trajectory is in each case, which may either reinforce or challenge my previous interpretation. The teaching artifact submitted by each case was also analyzed at this time by jotting down interesting observations. (4) Generate a description and themes. “Case study and ethnographic research involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 272). Once all six cases were done with coding, I first conducted a within-case analysis to generate a description for each case, including detailed 108 information on the key categories. However, the interpretation of three cases’ mindsets (Ai, Calvin, and Bella) based on the interview transcripts slightly differed from the previous mindset interpretation based on the survey results. For example, Ai’s mindset toward teaching ability was identified as more of a growth mindset through the survey, but it showed a shift from more of a mixed mindset as she began her first year of teaching to more of a growth mindset as she reflected on her first year of teaching through the interview. Then, I started a cross-case analysis by reviewing all the categories from six cases and exploring the main themes. The main themes identified were heavily influenced by the questions posed, but the associated topics that emerged were not. The associated topics under each main theme were the highlighted categories from the six cases’ responses to the questions. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic was a predetermined main theme as I asked all six participants this same question, but their responses created the common topics of assessment choice and empathy, as well as the distinct topic of online instruction vs. face-to-face instruction. Once the main themes were drafted, I reread six transcripts to aggregate the relevant information into each theme to ensure the list of the main themes was supported by multiple perspectives. An ongoing check back and forth by using the inductive and deductive approaches was applied to see if more evidence is needed to support each theme in order to create a comprehensive set of themes (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 257-258). (5) Representing the description and themes. After reviewing all my analysis of the preliminary survey, the follow-up interview, teaching artifacts, and my research journal, I decided which were the most valuable ideas to present to ensure an in-depth exploration of the research questions. Then I used a narrative passage to convey the findings of the analysis by 109 showing the flow of ideas and writing a detailed summary for each of them to report what I learned from this multiple case study. Table 3.4 Analysis Metric Participant pseudonym name: Mindset type Survey: Teaching - Learning - Change in expectations about music teaching and learning: Mindset type Interview: Teaching - Learning - Items for growth mindset and its meaning systems Typical manifestation Participant expression Items for fixed mindset and its meaning systems Typical manifestation Participant expression Growth mindset - View ability as improvable Fixed mindset - View ability as unchangeable Learningoriented goal - Learn and enhance ability Performanceoriented goal - Look smart and validate ability Positive effort belief - Regard effort as a useful tool Negative effort belief - Regard effort as a useless tool Lack-of-effort attribution for setbacks - See setbacks as a sign of work harder Lack-ofability attributions for setbacks - See setbacks as a sign of low ability Masteryoriented strategies after setbacks - Embrace challenges - Learn from criticism - Persist in the face of setbacks - Find lessons and inspiration in the success of others Helplessoriented strategies after setbacks - Avoid challenges - Ignore useful negative feedback - Give up easily - Feel threatened by the success of others 110 Trustworthiness of Data According to Matsunobu and Bresler (2014), “the acknowledgement of researchers’ values, the transparency of the research process, the recognition of multiple perspectives, and the practice of member checks are meant to increase trustworthiness” (p. 32). As previously mentioned, this study employed multiple validity procedures, including clarifying the bias in the foreground, outlining the study timeline, and triangulating different data sources, to enhance the trustworthiness of the interpretation. My prolonged engagement in the field, which helps develop an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon, also added another layer to a credible explanation of the data. As noted by Creswell and Miller (2000), “the longer they stay in the field, the more the pluralistic perspectives will be heard from participants and the better the understanding of the context of participant views” (p. 128). In addition, member checking was another way to ensure the validity of the findings. It is a strategy “by taking the final report or specific descriptions or themes back to participants and determining whether these participants feel that they are accurate” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018, p. 274). In this study, I clarified with participants about unclear information and incorrect interpretation of data during the interview process and the stage of report writing based on transcripts. By doing so, participants’ comments added credibility to the findings by giving them an opportunity to reflect on what they said and the meaning behind it. Importantly, the data collections from the survey, interview, and teaching artifact provided opportunities to analyze each participant’s mindset based on these three sources, increasing the trustworthiness of the data. The first stage of interpretation through the survey results was verified by the second stage of interpretation through the interview transcripts, and the second stage of interpretation through the interview transcripts was verified by the third stage 111 of interpretation through the teaching artifacts. During the first stage of interpretation through the survey results, two judges were invited to participate in the mindset analysis, and the final six cases were in their recommended name lists. Pilot Study: Changes Before the Data Collection According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), pilot testing “is important to establish the content validity of scores on an instrument; to provide an initial evaluation of the internal consistency of the items; and to improve questions, format, and instructions” (p. 216). In March 2022, I performed the pilot study with two experienced teachers of music. One of them works in China, and the other works in the United States. They helped me with the designs of the preliminary survey and the interview, as well as other related issues like how to formally start the interview following the informal conversation. Important changes were made based on their comments, and these are described in more detail below. Adaptations Made for the Survey (1) Music teachers in the pre-K programs were not recruited since prekindergarten is not considered compulsory education in China or the United States. (2) The order of the fixed-oriented and growth-oriented mindset statements in the questions of 21, 22, and 23 was changed. (3) A couple of wording clarifications were edited from suggestions, such as editing the question of “Are you satisfied with your work so far?” to “Are you satisfied with your work as a music teacher so far?” (4) Participants were asked to type in their age and the grade level(s) they are credentialed to teach instead of choosing a category. 112 (5) Some of the music teacher training programs in China that are branches of the musicology department were also considered promising places to recruit prospective participants. (6) Since the Qualtrics software was not accessible over the internet in China, Credamo 见数, an international prevailing web-based survey tool, was applied instead. This did not change in any substantial way the information that was requested, but simply changed the delivery system. (7) The average time to complete the preliminary survey was extended to 30 minutes. (8) The survey designs were adjusted to incorporate suggested features, such as adding a progress indicator, displaying the unanswered warning, and capitalizing important words. Adaptations Made for the Follow-up Interview (1) The repeating reminder was set up a week before, a day before, and an hour before the interview. (2) The brief introduction of the sections on the interview questions was provided at the beginning as an agenda. (3) A couple of transitioning words and phrases were added to smooth the interview process, such as “let’s talk about your experience with your students and their learning during your first year of teaching.” (4) The follow-up probes were edited to elicit more information, such as “How well do you believe the program has prepared you to teach music? In what ways could your program have better prepared you for contemporary music teaching?” 113 (5) The interview protocol was edited to follow the chronology from music learning experience before college, music learning experience during college, the first year of music teaching, to the next year of music teaching. Challenges During the Data Collection Creswell and Creswell (2018) discussed the characteristics of qualitative research and pointed out that one of them is “emergent design” (p. 258). It means that as the researcher is exploring the topic or phenomenon under study in more depth, “the initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed, and some or all phases of the process may change or shift after the researcher enters the field and begins to collect data” (p. 258). This characteristic was displayed during the data collection throughout this study, as evidenced by several important modifications described below. Adaptations Made for the Survey (1) The first candidates for each mindset pattern were not all available during the period of data collection. For example, two candidates in China were restricted by the poor internet connection. Therefore, when the first candidate in each mindset pattern was unable to participate in the follow-up interview, I emailed the next person on the list. This process continued until six interviewees were confirmed. The last interviewee in China was recruited through convenience sampling. (2) The prospective survey participants were not limited to music teachers who graduated from undergraduate music teacher training programs, music teachers who graduated in the year 2021, and music teachers who were working in elementary schools. As one of the directors from the undergraduate music teacher training programs replied, “none of our 2021 graduates is working full-time at an elementary school.” 114 (3) A few typos and unclear statements in the survey responses were fixed after the clarification, such as changing the time to first start a full-time position as a music teacher from “08/2022” to “08/2021.” (4) Some design features were missing from the web-based survey tool in Chinese (Credamo 见数), such as a progress bar to show how many questions are remaining. To solve this issue, the question number “Q1” was modified to “Q1/25.” (5) The progress bar design to answer the Likert-type scale in the questions of 21, 22, and 23 was not very clear for the participants. Confusions were fixed after the clarification. Adaptations Made for the Follow-up Interview (1) The plan to collect a teaching videotape and a written reflection on how it supports their mindset statements from music teachers was modified to conduct a 2-hour interview with a 10-minute break offered and require one teaching example that demonstrates their self-described mindsets. (2) More imaginative interview questions related to music teaching and learning were created to explore if their teaching practices were in line with their mindsets. (3) Informal conversations were added at the beginning and end of the interview to show empathy, especially for some interviews that were scheduled at night, and they still had to work after that. Adaptations Made for Teaching Sample (1) Not every interviewee submitted their teaching artifacts. It ended up getting five teaching artifacts from five interviewees. 115 Chapter Summary This chapter detailed the methodology of this study. The qualitative case study was specifically chosen as the research design to portray the mindsets of first-year music teachers. The role of the researcher was described and the whole process from generating the dissertation proposal to submitting the final document to the library was listed in the study timeline. The study participants and how they were purposefully selected through the recruitment strategies were clearly presented, along with information about implementation needs. Data were collected from a variety of sources, including a preliminary survey, the follow-up interview, and other teaching documents. The procedures for data collection and analysis were elaborated in detail. The trustworthiness of the data was also demonstrated in the chapter to illustrate certain procedures that the researcher used to guarantee the accuracy of the findings and their qualitative validity. Furthermore, the challenges before the data collection through the pilot study and the challenges during the data collection were addressed to explain the changes made throughout the study. 116 Chapter 4: Findings In seeking answers to the research questions posed by this study, this chapter focuses on the findings from the study of six selected teachers who were interviewed after completing the survey phase. Alex, Bella, and Calvin were participant cases from the United States; Ai, Bei, and Chen were participant cases from China. As noted in Chapter 3, names are pseudonyms for the purposes of confidentiality. Research questions are repeated here: 1. What are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and about their students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching? In addition, what influences might have contributed to these mindsets? 2. How are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and their students’ learning ability as they reflect on their first year of teaching? In addition, what did they do to implement these mindsets, and did their submitted teaching materials support these mindsets? 3. What cross-cultural similarities and differences can be found between music teachers in China and the United States regarding their mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability? Chapter Overview Following careful analysis of the data collected both from surveys and from lengthy interviews (see Chapter 3), I formulated the findings reported in this chapter. These findings were organized into two large sections, one that focused on the within-case analyses (research questions 1, 2) and a second that featured the cross-case analysis (research question 3). In the first major section, I describe the results of the within-case analysis of the mindset development that was observed in participants from the United States and China about their 117 teaching ability and students’ learning ability (research questions 1, 2). Related causes and consequences were also presented throughout. Also integrated within this section were results from the study of submitted teaching artifacts that helped clarify the mindset of each teacher at the conclusion of their first year of teaching. Table 4.1 (case participants from the United States) and Table 4.2 (case participants from China) provided a summary of the mindset analysis for each case. In the second major section, I describe the results of the cross-case analysis of the patterns of similarity and difference that were observed between the mindsets of participants from the United States and China about their teaching ability and students’ learning ability (research question 3). I list three predetermined main themes as asked in the interview questions (see Appendix C), including (1) experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) level of knowledge about motivation, and (3) understanding about musical talent. Within each main theme, related topics were generated, as highlighted by all participants. In each main theme, I discuss how common and distinct their attitudes toward this issue are in the context of differing cultures. Figure 4.1 provides a summary of the cross-case mindset analysis for the six participants. Within-Case Analysis: Identification and Description of Mindsets in Interviews As noted in Chapter 3, the within-case analysis was designed to help answer research questions 1 and 2 and focused on the data from the six participant interviews from the United States and China cultures. Each participant’s mindset development throughout their first year of teaching would be explained. In the following sections, findings were described in three ways for each participant. 118 First, their mindsets for their teaching ability and students’ learning ability (growth, fixed, or mixed) were identified as perceived first from the preliminary survey (see Appendix B) and then from the interview data (see Appendix C) which either confirmed or revealed refinement in mindset determination. This was immediately followed by a set of representative quotations from the participant’s interviews that helped to identify the mindset of each music teacher toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability. Second, a brief profile about the participant’s background and teaching context was given. The interview process and my first impression of the participant were presented. The participant’s music learning experience before and during college was summarized to lay the foundation for the subsequent mindset analysis as they began their first year of teaching. Third, a detailed account of the mindset analysis was reported, supported by more quotations from the interview. In particular, the first part of the mindset analysis was devoted to finding the answer to research question 1 that addressed the participants’ mindset about teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching. The second part was devoted to finding the answer to research question 2 that addressed the participants’ mindset about teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching. Related causes and consequences were also presented throughout. The third part was also devoted to finding the answer to research question 2, which addressed the alignment between the participants’ mindset and the participants’ behavior in teaching. Table 4.1 (case participants from the United States) and Table 4.2 (case participants from China) provided a summary of the mindset analysis for each case. 119 Alex Identification of Mindsets and Key Quotations. From Survey Teacher: Growth View of Student - Growth From Interview Teacher: Growth View of Student - Growth You always have to keep learning. You're always improving, and you have to keep adjusting. (Alex, interview) Every kid they had a potential to learn music well. (Alex, interview) Background and Teaching Context. My interview with Alex took place on a late afternoon in August 2022 through an online meeting. Within an almost two-hour conversation, Alex shared his experience along with a great deal of laughter. I sensed he is a warm and flexible teacher in dealing with his students. Alex works in an affluent and predominantly white suburban district on the West Coast of the United States. He graduated from an undergraduate music teacher training program near his current employment in 2019, receiving his teaching credential in January 2021. After a fivemonth substitute teaching, he started his first year of full-time teaching in August 2021 with an instrumental focus involving three age levels at public schools: fourth through sixth grades in elementary school, seventh and eighth grades in middle school, and ninth through twelfth grades in high school. In terms of his musical background, he described himself as a trumpet player as a result of his public music education. When he was in fifth grade, he began playing trumpet. “My school district wasn’t necessarily super supportive of the arts definitely when I was going through school, but I didn’t have any bad experiences with the music teachers.” He said that he was “a band kid” as he tried to play a lot in different bands. After graduating from the high 120 school, he took a couple of gap years and then attended the city college. He was “kind of clueless” about how to choose a major but eventually picked music as he has been actively involved in music throughout his life so far. “I was like, well, I know music, I guess I'll do that (laughter).” Fortunately, he became “the one of the top jazz musicians there.” When he decided to switch to a four-year university, his music director advised him to choose either music performance or music education. “I remember telling him, well, I'll do education, because I know the audition is going to be a little easier.” Therefore, he selected music education as his major in order to “play safe” in the audition and “continue playing music in different ensembles.” In fact, he “had no idea what music education meant.” “I would say that anything prior higher education, I didn’t know what I was doing. I didn't even know music education was really a thing. I didn't know that was something you actually had to get a major for.” As an outsider in music education, he felt “hard” and “tough,” especially during the first couple of years in the program. “The first year especially was like a wakeup call for me. It was like, do you want to teach, because if you're majoring in music education, they don't mess around, they really make that clear.” Even though the learning experiences in the music education department frustrated him, he did not change the major but “kept doing the methods classes” while “participated in different ensembles.” He believed that the learning from “playing in all kinds of bands” was “more beneficial” for him being a teacher. As he reflected on his experience in the program, he did not sound very positive: To be honest with you, it wasn't really inspiring when I was going through it. There's a lot of work. And they can’t offer as many classes as they used to because of budget cuts. I 121 had to just catch up really quick. There were also somethings that we learned that I never use. (Alex, interview) However, he felt that the student teaching helped him a lot. “I was able to figure out more on something that I didn’t really learn there.” According to his words, it was not until he started his student teaching and his first year of teaching that his enthusiasm for teaching music became apparent. Mindset Analysis. Data from the interview transcript seemed to suggest that Alex was happy with his first year of teaching and began to enjoy his new identity as a music teacher. He said that he was lucky to teach in a school district that had “a well-organized arts education.” The school was “respectful and supportive,” and the kids had “a strong foundation in music from day one kindergarten.” Through a yearlong adventure in the music classroom, he was “inspired” to become a good music teacher by his students’ attitudes toward music learning. Alex was categorized as having more of a growth mindset toward his teaching ability and his view of students’ learning ability after his first year of teaching. It was the same as the prediction from the result of the preliminary survey. Compared to the beginning of his first year of teaching, he had more firm expectations for his second year of teaching. More details are described below. At the Beginning of the First Year of Teaching. Alex had firm expectations but some wonderments as well about music teaching and learning as he began his first year of teaching, especially the purpose of elementary music. “My student teaching experience shaped my beliefs and philosophy towards music education. However, I did not student teach in an elementary music classroom.” Since his student teaching placement was not in the same setting and he had 122 no prior experience in teaching elementary music, he was unsure if his experience with older students during his student teaching would support his instruction of younger students. Soon after beginning his first year of teaching, he encountered the challenge of teaching severely disabled students with IEP (Individualized Education Program). “I really was not as prepared to teach students with special needs.” Although he had “no clue” in the first place, he did not escape from this issue but instead tried to work on it: I think that a big challenge was learning how to work with kids with IEPs. I just don't have that much experience with it. Like I had a kid with autism that come in class and throw things, and I really didn't know how to deal with that. But I tried as many ways as I could think of to help him. (Alex, interview) He continued explaining his attitude on helping every kid learn no matter who they are: You have 10 kids with IEPs, what is the purpose of your job at this point, do you want to get them to sound good? Or do you just want to get him to, you know, look like they “sound good,” to not throw something during the concert? (Alex, interview) He also encountered another problem with the new elementary curriculum. “I got hired two weeks before I started. So, it was just figuring out a lot on the fly.” He decided to make up the knowledge on his own. This ability to self-learn was the most important lesson he took away from the music teacher training program: I think the biggest things for me going through the music education program, one, understanding how important knowledge is and how much access we actually have to it. Two, understanding that you have to keep learning and you have to keep adjusting. When there's resources that come out, and you need to catch up quickly and add them to your bag of tools. (Alex, interview) 123 He commented on the need to develop a habit of “active learning” as the teacher preparatory program might not be able to fully prepare him for the reality of the classroom: Well, there were definitely things that the program could have been more supported for my first year, but at the same time, I think it was also important for me to figure it out. So, my student teaching really drove me to be a self-learner to find the answer on my own. (Alex, interview) His attitude towards improving his ability to teach music indicated more of a growth mindset. As he clearly stated, “one thing I realized is that you're practicing, you’re a practicing educator. It's not like you know how to do it. You are always improving. You’re learning on the way.” Furthermore, his attribute of this self-directed learning played a role in developing a growth-oriented belief about his students’ ability to learn music, as demonstrated by his explanation of why he strongly agreed with the statement that everyone can be successful with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others: I think every kid can be successful in music in some aspect of it. I wouldn't say, you know, everyone can be a player or a theorist. I think every kid has the ability to be really successful in music in some way. I definitely think it is possible, but it also does depend on, I'd say first and foremost, one teacher, two the environment, and then three, the resources that they have. I think if those things, especially teachers, are in line, I think it is possible for every student to be successful in some way as far as their music education. (Alex, interview) To instill this growth-oriented belief in his students, he shared two things he conducted in the classroom. First, he argued for “staying away from picking favorites” in teaching as he 124 reflected on the misbehavior of his former middle school teacher. “I don’t like to think that a kid is going to be good since you never know. There are kids if you give them another year, then all of a sudden, something might click.” He chose to provide an alternative way of motivating students, like “giving every kid a shot at proving themselves:” I have to get better at this, and I have to just work on paying attention to everyone. There are some kids that are really quick, and then there are also kids that know what they're doing, and they know the concepts, but they just don't speak up when I ask. So that’s really important for me to be aware of all the kids and gave them an equal opportunity to be seen. (Alex, interview) He continued giving an example of how he came to realize different ways of learning among students: One day I was teaching a middle school class, and we were playing something, and it was sounding awful. So, I told them to practice for a couple of minutes, but I didn't hear anything. And I was like, well, I guess they know how to play it. Then I started looking around. They were all writing in their note names, they were writing in their fingerings, and things like that. So, it's not like they know how to play it, but this is the way that they know they have to do it then they play it right. (Alex, interview) Second, he tried to talk about “different musical cultures” when he can by “showing some sort of representation from every music culture,” such as “jazz music,” to convey the inclusive message that “music is available for everyone:” I think it is important to let them kind of see that and not think that music is only a white thing, especially for those kids raised in this affluent area, you know, they don't know that they're that lucky. So, I think it's important to show representation in that way to motivate 125 everyone to learn and succeed. Like Jazz, Jazz music, right? You know, coming from living in poverty, not knowing how to read music, and still figuring it out. That's a lesson that you can be successful, maybe not in the traditional sense, those guys don't know how to play. (Alex, interview) At the End of the First year of Teaching. Alex had more firm expectations for his second year of teaching. According to his words, the first year was “hard” but the student teaching made him feel “prepared” and “successful.” “I think if I hadn’t gone through student teaching, I would have been in just survival mode the whole time now.” He continued talking about his developing insights in teaching elementary music, which indicates a growth mindset in his ability to teach music: My beliefs and philosophy have changed to fit an elementary music environment. I used to be really focused on performance. I wanted all the kids I taught to be really good players. But now I really don’t think that’s the case, especially with elementary. I am now better understanding the purpose of an elementary music teacher is to get students enthusiastic and fired up about music as well as to make sure that they have a good music education experience through public school, so they “hopefully” decide to continue doing it into middle school and high school. (Alex, interview) His satisfaction about his first year of teaching was increased after seeing students’ growth in their music learning: There was a lot of fun working with kids and playing music with them every day. And at the end of last year, they put on their first concert, they played well, they were dressed nicely, and they took it seriously, you know. I think that was inspiring. And I wasn't expecting many kids to learn given the online environment, but I was surprised by 126 actually how many kids were able to learn—about 75% of the kids. I mean, I had kids that did it online without me actually physically being there, and they just had to listen to me, and they were able to figure it out. Their ability to learn music is high and they pick it up really quickly. It’s really impressive. (Alex, interview) He was also excited about his own development in “planning lessons,” “modeling instruments,” and “pinpointing what is going to be hard on each instrument with each concept.” He mentioned work ethic as the most important factor to make him succeed in his first year: I mean, there's a lot of my peers I went to school with, and they were really, really talented in terms of teaching in college, you know. But then they actually got a teaching job and had a really, really hard time. And I think what it really comes down to it, I mean, it is work, you know, and it's you have to show up every day, and you have to do a good job. So, I think there's a difference when it comes to work ethic, that determines success as well. Like if you want to run a good music program, you have to put in extra hours to do a lot of monotonous things, for example, rewriting music to make it easier, because you want kids to sound their best on each part that they play. I think talent is a big thing, but things like that really don’t take a lot of talent. It's just more so you have to do it. (Alex, interview) The progress of his first year motivated him to have a clearer picture for his second year of teaching, “I think this year I have a better idea of what I need to improve and what I want to do, rather than having to figure everything out really fast like last year.” He listed the things that need to be improved in order to better scaffold his students’ music learning, such as “conducting more informal assessment especially with the online 127 students” and “paying attention more to kids that are having a hard time.” He further proposed his plan to work on things like “setting up a better curriculum” and “slowing down the teaching pace” to better motivate students for the second year and to “make every lesson count,” showing a growth mindset toward students’ learning ability in music: I'm really trying to do this year that I didn't do last year, as I'm really trying to start the year off really, really, really slow and keep my curriculum map really, really, really setting that up nicely for the students. And make sure that they really know and talk about it. I think especially with elementary kids just getting them to put it in action. Last year I moved too fast, and there were a few kids I think got lost halfway through. (Alex, interview) He strongly believed that the level of student engagement is related to how much the teacher paid attention to them to a large extent: I think it is important to engage the class as a whole and understand how fast you need to move. Because it's not that they don't want to pay attention, you just need to move at their pace. They want to play the whole time and that's why they're in your class. (Alex, interview) His assessment also focused on “what they can do” and expected students to achieve “the things that are totally in their control:” Participation is a big one. Other things I don't necessarily grade. Like if they're submitting playing assignments, to me, the biggest thing I want to see is that they know what the fingerings are and how to hold their instruments, because that's something that they can learn. So, I really, really, really tried to give every kid an A in my class. I think for me, as long as they're excited, and they want to do music, and understand the very 128 basics of it, that's enough to be successful in the elementary music class. (Alex, interview) He further shared his teaching strategies that demonstrate his scaffolding for student music learning. For students who made mistakes in his class, he believed that “these would be good lessons” for them to practice more. “I just go by repetition. if they make a mistake, you know, 95% of the time, it's not really that they can't do it, it's just that they just need to practice it.” For kids who struggled with his class, he used a variety of approaches and accommodations, such as “extending the deadline” and “offering extra time for one-on-one.” He was open to “switching it up” when the lesson was not working for the kids. “I never felt that changing is a bad thing.” Teaching Artifact. Alex sent me two YouTube videos that he made to showcase the reflections of his students in the elementary wind ensembles on their experiences with his class in fall 2021. One from the fifth grade and another from the sixth grade. Due to the COVID pandemic, the music class was moved online. Alex asked students to videotape themselves and answer a few questions about their virtual music learning. The questions were: (1) what was your favorite thing you learned this semester, (2) recall a fun memory you have from this trimester’s music class, (3) what do you like about music or music class, (4) what are you looking forward to learning next trimester. According to students’ responses, they talked about their favorite things in music class like the songs they learned, the musical notes they learned, the instruments they learned, and the playing assignments they had. Some kids also played a little bit in their videos. One student said that she enjoyed the classroom environment as “a place to share knowledge.” Some of the kids 129 pointed that they were impressed by “the first day when we were all learning how to put together our instruments.” They mentioned about their exciting moments in music class: When he played a highest sound he could make on the trumpet, it’s really loud but it’s pretty funny too! I always look forward to you and music on Wednesdays and Fridays! I like that we can all get together to do fun things with our music and we have different instruments to play. They also expressed how music enriched their life: The favorite I’ve learned from music class so far is Hot Cross Buns and Mary Had a Little Lamb since I heard them so much when I was little and wondered what would be like playing them, and now I get to! Mary Had a Little Lamb is my favorite and I just play it randomly when I want to play. I taught my dad how to make embouchure! It took us a long time but when we finally did it, it was a fun celebration! I get to like listening to music! Music goes into my brain and heart, and it goes around. I like about music because it makes me happy and calm. (from a student who cannot speak) They looked forward to continuing work with Alex to “learn more notes,” “try other songs,” “master their instruments,” and “play more” in 2022. These student comments can be seen that there is more of a growth mindset music classroom culture that is established due to Alex’s efforts. This positiveness is displayed in their expressions. They experience the joy of making 130 music and they desire to know about it. Therefore, Alex’s submitted teaching evidence aligns with his growth mindset as revealed in the mindset analysis. Bella Identification of Mindsets and Key Quotations. From Survey Teacher: Fixed View of Student - Mixed From Interview Teacher: Fixed —> Growth* View of Student - Growth Note. *Use of the “—>” symbol represents change in mindset from beginning teaching to end of first year It was a very humbling experience of overall positive, very good learning for me. And it was a good reminder of why I decided to go into education is because I don't get to stop learning either. (Bella, interview) Anybody could learn a musical instrument or something musically inclined, no matter what level they're at. (Bella, interview) Background and Teaching Context. My interview with Bella took place on an evening in August 2022 through an online meeting. Throughout our two-hour conversation, Bella shared a lot of moments in her growth up to this point. A self-determined and seasoned teacher for students was my initial impression of her which I sensed from her expression. Bella is a music teacher in a rural town with an economically diverse community in the Midwestern United States. In 2021, she graduated from a master-level program that prepares teacher candidates for initial licensure in the same state and then received her teaching credential in Spring. In August, she started her first year of full-time teaching as an orchestra director for two age levels at a public school: fifth through seventh grades in middle school, and eighth through twelve grades in high school. 131 In terms of her musical background, she identified herself as a violinist. She was raised in a music-rich environment. Her mother as an elementary music teacher trained her and her siblings in the Suzuki method for string playing. Unlike her siblings, she decided to keep taking weekly basis private lessons through her family after sixth grade. “I want to stick with it and see what happens and not really thinking beyond that.” By participating in different music ensembles at school and various performance opportunities in the local community orchestras, her ability in string playing was recognized. As a high school student, she was hired to play in the university orchestra. “We were always involved in some musical capacity, like I'm a junior in high school and I'm trying to get free credits for college. That was kind of my catalyst to doing that.” By the time she graduated, her heavy involvement in music led her to look for a collegiate program that supported the ideas of using music in some capacity: I never felt like music performance was necessarily for me, even though I was right up there with people that opted to perform. I always felt like I needed a plan B and I always leaned towards being more in a business and marketing environment. (Bella, interview) She chose to major in music business rather than music education since “it just didn't seem to inspire me to go down that path initially.” Until she had a family, she started thinking about “what do I want to do long term beyond what I've already done.” She considered teaching music in a public school to be a good decision for her children and began to apply for master’s programs in music education with licensure: I would say the number one component to helping me decide that this is the path for me was because of my current standing as a family member like I'm a mom of three kids. I enjoy working with kids and I couldn't have said that 20 years ago when I graduated with my undergrad. It didn't feel right, it didn't feel the same. And now having children, it 132 makes more sense to me. And I feel like I had a lot more perspective on how to communicate with kids. It made a big difference, and certainly an advantage, and played a major role even in my interviews and speaking with other people. (Bella, interview) By negotiating with the university for credit based on her prior experience, she was able to have a customized list of courses that accommodated her needs to study across disciplines through the music department and the education department. Even though it was a lot of credit hours she needed to complete the program for licensure, she “didn't want to give up and not feel equipped.” She also had a very good experience with her student teaching. Soon after graduating from the program and receiving her licensure, she entered the public school system as a first-year music teacher. Mindset Analysis. Data from the interview transcript seemed to suggest that Bella’s rich musical experience “didn’t result in as much recognition, praise, and approval at school” as she had expected, which significantly “reduced” her interest in teaching at the beginning. When she later reflected on her first year of teaching, however, she commented that “it was a good lesson” for her to never stop learning new ideas. Bella was categorized as having more of a growth mindset toward her teaching ability and students’ learning ability after her first year of teaching. It was different from the prediction based on the result of the preliminary survey. Compared to the beginning of her first year of teaching, she had more firm expectations for her second year of teaching. More details are described below. At the Beginning of the First Year of Teaching. Bella had firm expectations about music teaching and learning except for some wonderments with “the non-teaching aspect” of her role, such as “the licensure requirements imposed on teachers.” According to her words, she was 133 confident about her ability in music teaching. She said that her experience in “private studio teaching” and “educating three children who are all at the age in which I currently teach” shaped the way she thought about music teaching and learning. Her speaking demonstrated more of a fixed mindset as she believed that there is no need to change anything about her teaching: I had been teaching for 15 years and I knew fully well like how I was going to be with students. I was very comfortable with how I am, and I was already there for a couple of decades. And that was a benefit for the people that I worked with that were younger than me. (Bella, interview) She enjoyed working with her students, but they were really “intimidated” by her as she found out later. She introduced “terms and concepts for the orchestral side of playing that are in some ways foreign” to her students and assessed them in different exams. As she said, she wanted to help students build the confidence in majoring in music after they graduated: I have rubrics for playing exams to see what level they are at. And I also have written exams, I want to make sure that they're fluent in the language of music. So, it's not just being able to read music, but also being able to play it, write it, audit it, and regurgitate, you know, there are several components that would be measurable, and I assess them in all of those ways. Since I feel like if I haven't addressed some of those fundamental components about music, they're not going to be inclined to feel brave enough to major in it. And I'm not even saying that they need to major in anything, but if they want to, they'd feel they are able to. (Bella, interview) Her fixed mindset was also displayed in her struggle with her function as a co-teacher with a lead teacher who “is entering her 43rd year of teaching” at the middle school level. Working in this setting made her feel defensive: 134 So, she's got an established way of doing things. And even though I'm a little bit older than what an incoming teacher would be, I'm not able to comprehend all of the ways. There are some ways that may not work as well as maybe they've been redefined over the last couple of decades. So, it's very difficult to work with people that don't want to be worked with. And that played into the struggle of the pace in which the students grew. (Bella, Interview) Furthermore, when commenting on her students’ learning ability in music, she believed that “anybody could learn a musical instrument or something musically inclined, no matter what level they're at.” She continued emphasizing the attitude to learn and the time to spend, demonstrating a growth mindset: I think a lot of that has to do with not just their aptitude and learning music, but their willingness. And they’re willing overall to learn, some of them are just more likely to increase their speed of learning simply because they apply more time and willingness than others. And I'd say more than anything, it's a time thing. The more contact time I have with them the more results I see. (Bella, interview) She also mentioned the age effect on the ability to learn: In my private studio for years, I taught a gentleman who was a doctor in his 70s, and he just wanted to learn the violin. And there were some things that he really struggled with, but he put some time in. It kind of made me think about if I had ever wanted to play or learn something as I was older, would I even think that it was worth it. I mean, there's always some value associated with learning something new. And I agree that anybody could learn something within enough time. The younger they are, the better off they'll be with it. But still, they would be able to if they were older. (Bella, interview) 135 At the End of the First Year of Teaching. Bella had more firm expectations for her second year of teaching. “I have more thorough questions to ask the administration and I know most of the incoming students and their abilities. I can design classes with less reliance on others.” She felt very satisfied with her first year of teaching, with the exception of her coworking experience at the middle school level. Compared to her co-teacher at the high school who was very “supportive” and “receptive” and they “contributed to the classroom culture together,” the lead teacher at the middle school almost deflated her interest in teaching to “not consider returning for the second year:” In general, I guess I was technically a first-year teacher, but because I came in older, had experience operating a studio to teach privately for many years, and seasoned in other life areas, I felt like that should have given me a little bit more, you know, street credit. And I was disappointed when it didn't work in that way. (Bella, interview) However, she reflected on “the pros and cons to what it would have been had I not continued” after asking a lot of advice from folks that have been working in the field for many years. At the same time, the compliment from her high school coworker and students’ improvements in “opening up,” “producing sound better,” and “learning faster” were good positive reinforcements to her to believe in her teaching ability. Even though this unpleasant coworking experience heavily affected her confidence as a skilled violinist, an experienced private studio teacher, and other successful identities in other life areas, she became humble about the learning process and brave to rebuild herself as a new teacher. Therefore, she accepted the negative attitude and convinced herself to give it another year, which indicated a positive step toward adopting a growth mindset in teaching: 136 I think ultimately, teaching music like teaching anything really requires a lot of perseverance, and willingness to assess and reflect and all the components that any lasting teacher would probably have to go through at least once in their life. So, there's been a lot of shifts in the perspective. It's settling well with me now. Because I am okay with failing and picking back up from that. And I don't know if I was before. And it's a very difficult thing to acknowledge earlier in a career when it's so performance based that failure has to be part of the process (laughter). But it really does. And I would really love to see education morph into a path that promotes that process for teachers as much as it does for students. Because it is a process. (Bella, interview) She continued to talk about her desire to work in a supportive environment: So, our art department put on a high school faculty recital, and we're all participating in it, and it's at a high level. And that directly impacts our students not only attending and then seeing what we do, but also knowing what we’re expecting from them, and this is how you would get there. And I'm grateful that the school totally supports that, and I’d love to have more parental involvement to recognize that this is a long-term commitment. And I'd say that the positive interaction and the relationship that I forged with the person that I student taught with was something that I longed for and want to furnish in the relationships that I have with my coworkers even now. And I've wanted to continuously promote this team teaching mentality, because that directly reflects on our effectiveness as a department to our students, and the kind of the mission that we stand for in in promoting music into our classrooms. (Bella, interview) Her developing growth mindset was also exhibited in her other reflections in teaching. For example, she realized that it was important to remind herself of “why” to teach: 137 Knowing my why, really considering the specifics of why I go into doing what I do and being clear about it. It's really been a good question to ask myself over and over, and that answer changes, it's not set in stone. So, it's always good to be kept in check. (Bella, interview) Her first-year experience with a socioeconomically diverse group of students helped her realized that her experience with music was not the same as what her students had and the way she understood music was not applicable to her students: We have a very mixed group of students. I'd say about 50% of the students are of one type of demographic and other students are a very different than them. So, there's it's split down the middle with what is available to them. I think that impacts their learning to a point. Like some students that they're willing to practice and put in 110%, and then some students that are there because it's just a breather for them, and they just want to have fun, and it'd be a social event for them. And in some cases, it makes it tricky to transcend thoughts that will really reach all of those different types of environments. But it's helped me to realize that the one way that I learned when I was growing up with individual lessons where I was poured into just by me, that's not how everybody will benefit. And that's certainly not how everybody's going to show what they know, with whatever's going on in their lives. And it's been a very humbling process to recognize that too, because, you know, I'm figuring out that's how I expect it, but it doesn't necessarily translate as such. (Bella, interview) She continued to talk about how she became more aware of student diversity and developed a habit of self-questioning about finding the balanced standard: 138 I feel like all the time I could do better. I am perpetually questioning how (laughter) I could have done something better. And I think part of my desire to teach stems from that constant, intrinsic, what can I work on? It goes in tandem with teaching. Because once I've arrived, then what? And It's a new wave of students every year, even though I've had some of them from last year, it's a very different ensemble, because there are new players and different abilities. I set up high standards for them, and for some students, it overwhelms them. And for some, they're like, let's do it. So, I have to find ways to work with them through all the things that are happening. And (laughter) it's a process of elimination, like, how do I work these things? And I feel like I'm part of that process to how am “I” going to do better? How am I going to do “them” better? It's something I asked daily. (Bella, interview) In terms of helping students in developing this similar idea to the growth mindset in music learning, she established the classroom culture as she talked with students the way she would want to be talked with and helped students they can “all grow from it.” As she mentioned, her previous music learning experience of “feeling the pains of nervousness” because she “didn’t have something prepared for the class” made her place herself in the position of students to understand their difficulty and encourage them to “be part of the class and enjoy themselves.” She was careful about praising students. “I do like to celebrate achievement and to overcome something that is challenging requires some kind of notice. But I don't want to highlight in a way that is for the wrong reasons.” Similarly, in response to the mistakes in student playing, she was “not concerned” with it and she did not “highlight much with the errors:” The perfection of playing something is not ultimately our goal. I would praise their effort, provide some examples, work on the problems, and check on that for next time, like the 139 compliment sandwich, to help them move forward. If the same mistake happens over and over, we’ll stop and address it, review it, isolate it, and take it apart in a way so that I'm showing them how to practice it properly. I am also constantly throwing tools for their own personal toolbox so that they can try to fix on their own. (Bella, interview) To deal with students who felt lost in her class, she usually paired them up with other students to work as a team. “Because often what'll end up happening is they'll have some sense of camaraderie. And they'll look out for each other.” She started to “not shy away from trying things” and experimented with students in “composition and improvisation” that she learned at the professional development session: To be honest, I am not conformable with doing these things, but I feel like it would really complement the overall goals of being really solid musicians. So, I implemented some of those techniques and there was some resistance (laughter). But it was also really cool to see how the students were utilizing senses that they weren't accustomed to using and I was getting responses that were not their typical responses. And the students recognized that I'm kind of going through that with them (laughter) since I don't really know what to expect. But it was an incredible process for both of us. It helped students to come out of their comfort zone and think differently, and it also helped me to recognize that I have to be very thorough about how they're implemented so that I can help navigate that process a little more readily for them and so that they could take that information and be a little more inclined to try it on their own. (Bella, interview) She continued explaining her idea about cultivating students’ ability to learn on their own. “I promote this, a lot of what I do is so that they will take it and do it on their own, since 140 this is how you have to be thinking about if you want to get it better.” She expected to help students figure out their individual meaning of learning music: My definition of success isn't someone that is the greatest, the best at playing something. I want to grow musicians, whether they are just lovers and supporters of music, or they're people that are committed to making a positive impact in their community, and they utilize music to help them navigate their path. And there are a lot of students that never really think about what it is that they're using music for. And I hope that they recognize it, at least at some point when they're with me. (Bella, interview) As she reflected on how well her teacher preparation program prepared her for the first year of teaching, she felt that knowing how to build a relationship with students was missing, but it was more important than learning a lot of forward-thinking ideas in music teaching: To become a contemporary teacher, I think if we're too full in our heads, that it's very difficult to do anything that would be worthwhile for the kids, the true priority. My why is for the kids, it's not because I feel like I'm going to teach them 15 things that are going to impact them for the rest of their lives just because of the music. It's because of who I am as their teacher, as my relationship with them. And my bonding and that trust with them is what's really going to make something memorable to them. And I think that needs to be harnessed a little bit better at the collegiate level. (Bella, interview) She continued expressing her deficient experience in the teacher preparation program and suggested to “minimize redundant courses,” “give a little more autonomy to the students,” and “relate to the reality of teaching” to improve the departmental development. Teaching Artifact. Bella emailed me her two high school orchestra classes’ responses to the Google classroom assignment of the final concert reflection to describe their experience in 141 preparing up until that concert at the end of the 21-22 school year. Forty-nine of her students submitted this short paper which was completed by May 2022. As she described in the assignment, the student needed to answer three required prompts, including “(1) Discuss a musical/technical skill that you developed while participating in the orchestra this year. Describe how this was helpful to you in your own playing, (2) Discuss a musical or technical skill that you would like to develop. Explain how this will help you as a musician, and (3) What is ONE word that best describes your thoughts and/or experience playing in orchestra for the 21-22 school year?” According to her words, she tried to pull information from students to plan out her next year curriculum: If someone keeps telling me over and over, I want to know this, and if I keep denying them, that's on me. So, I'm finding ways that if there is repetition to what it is that they're saying as an individual, but then also if there's a repetition that multiple students really want to know how to do something, that I'm accommodating that for that particular class. (Bella, interview) To explore something related to my study, I focused on the question 3 in which students chose a single key word to describe their yearlong experiences in Bella’s class. After reading 49 words, I categorized them by analyzing whether they indicated a fixed, mixed, or growth mindset. In general, positive words displayed more than negative words. Twelve students expressed negative words included “fear,” “choppy,” “challenging (4 times),” “many,” “questions,” “fierce (2 times),” “complex,” and “unsure.” This finding implies that Bella’s mindset shift from more of a fixed mindset to more of a growth mindset in teaching may still need some time to complete as the growth mindset effect is not very obvious from students’ 142 feedback. Therefore, Bella’s submitted teaching evidence does not align with her growth mindset as revealed in the mindset analysis. Calvin Identification of Mindsets and Key Quotations. From Survey Teacher: Mixed View of Student - Growth From Interview Teacher: Mixed —> Growth* View of Student - Growth Note. *Use of the “—>” symbol represents change in mindset from beginning teaching to end of first year I always say to them that practice makes better. With more time and effort, we made this better this time. And if it didn't work out this week, we're going to do it again next week and we're going to fix it. (Calvin, interview) Music is for anyone. The best thing that you can do is put your all into it. And you will see, after a few weeks, that music can be for you. And it can be for anyone who wants it to be for them. (Calvin, interview) Background and Teaching Context. My interview with Calvin took place on a late afternoon in August 2022 through an online meeting. During our hour-and-half conversation, Calvin shared his journey of becoming a music teacher. My initial impression was of an intriguing and bright teacher for students. Calvin is a music teacher in a suburban district with a culturally diverse community on the West Coast of the United States. In the year 2021, he graduated from an undergraduate music teacher training program near his current placement and focused on choral-vocal music and earned his teaching credential. In August, he started his first year of full-time teaching at a public elementary school where he taught general music to students in grades one through five. 143 In terms of his musical background, Calvin was raised in a musically rich environment. Influenced by his mother as a music teacher, he was motivated to sing “every single day” and dream of “being a music teacher.” Even though he “didn’t have general music” in elementary school, he was able to learn music at home, “play different instruments,” and “develop a good ear.” Until fifth grade, he auditioned for a reginal Catholic boys’ choir and started the formal music training. As he described, all choristers were required to attend every rehearsal and learn the new music every month. “We would sing once a month at a Mass, but we never learned the music, so they taught us Solfège and sight reading all of these things.” The “regimented,” “rigid,” and “intense” learning experience at this choir school made him “way ahead of what everything else was going on” when he went to middle and high school choirs and helped him to be clear about his goal. As he mentioned, one of the “formative” performing experiences reinforced his desire to pursue a career in music: When I was in seventh grade, we sang for the Pope. And that was kind of the thing I was like, oh my gosh, I'm 12 years old, we’ve got to do this, you know. And so, I think, I decided in like seventh grade, this is what I have to do, I want to teach music. (Calvin, interview) In his last year of high school, his choir teacher pushed for him to be allowed to audition and he got accepted into the coastal region’s honor choir program. “That was so cool, because it was like, you know, we're working with a college professor, we're doing music that's not for babies.” All these early music experiences led him applied for a bachelor’s degree in vocal music education following his graduation. “I had kind of already know what I wanted to be a music teacher when I got to college, and I was definitely inspired by my voice teacher and my mom.” 144 While continuing to get involved in different choirs as the leader, he learned concepts from his classes in teaching in college, such as “culturally responsive pedagogy” and “social emotional learning.” “Those are definitely the two big foundations that they wanted to bring to us all.” He also learned many ideas from an elementary music teacher with whom he did a lot of his observations: He has the elementary music down, like 3 million different procedures that all the kids can do. They all know it somehow even though they're only there once a week. He's such a good teacher. So, I've definitely taken a lot from him as like how I want to run my classes. (Calvin, interview) Soon after graduating from the program and receiving his licensure, he started his first year of teaching. Mindset Analysis. Data from the interview transcript seemed to suggest that different from his proud identity as a musician, Calvin was unsure of his ability to teach elementary music as he began his first year of teaching. He was “so scared going in” since he had to teach a different age group than his student teaching. With more and more challenges happened, he described it as “a daunting task” given that “everything is throwing at you unlike student teaching.” However, after “surviving” his first year within the elementary setting, he felt “much more positive” and realized that “it's not as hard as I thought I was” because of the significant results in students’ musical growth and the compliment from the school. Calvin was categorized as having more of a growth mindset toward his teaching ability and students’ learning ability after his first year of teaching. It was a slightly different from the prediction based on the result of the preliminary survey. Compared to the beginning of his first 145 year of teaching, he had more firm expectations but some wonderments as well for his second year of teaching. More details are described below. At the Beginning of the First Year of Teaching. Calvin had no special expectations about music teaching and teaching as he began his first year of teaching. He was a bit anxious after learning his placement was in an elementary school. “I student taught in middle school and high school. I was hoping I would get a high school. And when I got an elementary job, I was like, okay, I can do this, but I don't know about it.” As he said, everything was “different” from student teaching and that stressed him out. For example, he was not used to teaching in-person since “my student teaching was all or mostly online with middle school and high school choir.” Also, he felt that student teaching did not completely prepare him for solely teaching a class of 30 kids. “I mean, it didn’t feel like fully complete, because I wasn’t able to do most of the stuff in student teaching, but now everything is counting on me.” Furthermore, he was shocked by his students’ musical abilities as “they were definitely lacking musically” due to the issue of rotating music teachers: From what I had gathered from that school, there was a new music teacher there every single year. Always changing. The district was just too big, and so they would just be moving people all the time, all around, even people who were still in the district will just talk to them to other schools for no understandable reason. So, they never had a consistent teacher. And so when I got there, that combined with pandemic learning music, it was pretty rough. No one, not even the fifth graders could do a steady beat. (Calvin, interview) 146 Students’ unclear expectation for the music class, careless attitude toward learning music, and stagnant development in musical ability made Calvin frustrated about employing his knowledge learned from the teacher training program: It was a good learning for me that no education professor can truly know what’s going on in the classroom unless they are teaching kids as well. All of these music education professors haven't set foot in a classroom in 20 years, you know, so there's a disconnection between how they think that children are and how children actually are once you get into the room. Like our method class, we were basically teaching it to college kids, and there was no sort of pretend you’re teaching this to children. It would be like, okay, fourth graders sight read this music. No, that's not happening, no graders sight reading just any music. So, we're not really breaking it down more as we should be. (Calvin, interview) All of these circumstances created “a lot of fear” for him to deal with because of this “huge shift” in his first actual job. While complaining about what he encountered and doubting his ability in teaching elementary music, he tried to establish a positive attitude—“yes, I can do this”—and did a lot of modified stuff” week by week to “whip them into shape” as they progressed. A mixed mindset in teaching was demonstrated in his concern. “I had no idea how well I could do, I only gained some sense from my experiment with everyday teaching.” He implemented culturally responsive pedagogy to the material selection for his class as he had learned from his preparation program: If you take a look at the Kodály curriculum, half of those songs are extremely racist, like Ching-a-ring-chaw is one of them, which was a blackface minstrel song using fully fake Chinese language. And that's definitely not something that I want to teach the kids and 147 instill the idea that is okay to do, especially the school that I'm at, which is very diverse. Because they're at that age where, you know, they take all those ideas and they ingrained them. I want to provide them with the tools to be more successful and combat all those things in the future. (Calvin, interview) He decided to do Orff xylophones with the fourth and fifth graders and use pop music to engage their learning: As long as they're having an end product at the end of the class, they're invested in it. So, with the xylophone, you can get a product in 30 minutes, right? It is challenging but gives you a lot of satisfaction. That's kind of the big benefit that I wanted from that. And another thing is that they're not interested in these little folk songs since they don't know anything about, so we did pop songs on the xylophone instead, you know, through the game of guessing the song to learn the chord patterns and get them invested in it. I just wanted to incorporate stuff that they know, songs that they know, and show them that there is musical value to that. The stuff they're hearing on the radio is not different than what we're doing in this class. It is all part of the same thing. (Calvin, interview) In addition to that, he borrowed some ideas from his experience with choir training to “get the Solfège in the curriculum:” Solfège is invaluable and I always want to put a little bit of that into everything. But there needs to be a real connection to what they know to get them hooked on it. They don't know what TiTi TiTi TiTi Ta is, but they know what watermelon sugar high is. So, you can combine those together and engage the kids better that way. (Calvin, interview) These modifications, including employing xylophones to increase a sense of achievement, attracting students’ attention through pop music, and making rhythm syllables 148 understandable to them, demonstrated his aim to encourage the relevance of teaching and the motivation of learning: That was how I engaged them in the beginning through relating things that they know. And then eventually, we didn't have to relate it to current music. I would give them things to learn, and they wanted to learn them. So, it was a lot of the fun stuff before they were truly invested, like with the younger kids, you got a song game, you got them hooked. (Calvin, interview) Furthermore, he changed the way he teaches with a different persona: I was a little too reserved when I was student teaching and both my master teachers had to kind of push me up, like, you can be a little more open since you're going to engage them. And from what I observed in the elementary music class, the teacher was a very positive person. He wanted to keep that positivity with the kids and never wanted them to think poorly about anything. So, when I moved to elementary school, I knew I’d have to brighten that a lot and put on the persona for the kids. (Calvin, interview) When asking about his attitude toward his students’ musical abilities, Calvin agreed with the growth mindset statement that everyone can be successful with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others. He also made a connection to his own music learning experience as his achievement presently was greatly attributed to a lot of effort he invested in: I think a lot of people saying, oh, you're so musically talented, you were born to be a star, I just disagree with that so much, because that's not the way that I learned music. I learned music from this is do, this is re, this is me. And once you've learned these things, then you'll be able to accomplish greater musical feats, you know. (Calvin, interview) 149 He continued relating it to the language development and wondering if it also related to the music development: Music is just like language, you know, you’re not born learning the language, you're developing it over time. And I think people call kids musically talented because they start young. And just like a language, the younger you are, the earlier it is to learn such things. (Calvin, interview) To instill the same belief in his students, he created the classroom culture of “we're here to work, we're here to learn, we're here to have fun.” He tried to “mix fun with focus” in musical activities. He emphasized “repetition” as the first thing in every class to review the things that weren't successfully achieved before: I always say to them that practice makes better. With more time and effort, we made this better this time. And if it didn't work out this week, we're going to do it again next week and we're going to fix it. (Calvin, interview) “The group effort” as the main thing he learned from the choir setting also inspired him to “pair students up” to help different levels of ability learn music: First, I always have one part that's a little bit more difficult and one part that's a little bit easier. And second, I always put higher achieving students with students who need more help and let them learn the part together. I mean, the group effort is such a big part of music and that's a big thing that I want to enforce with them. (Calvin, interview) It was further mentioned when illustrating how he dealt with a student who made mistakes in his class: One of the things that I tried to bring from choir stuff into general music is the group sense. For example, when we do the poison rhythm game, I will clap a rhythm and they 150 will clap it back unless I say the poison rhythm like Ta TiTi Ta Ta. Since always there’s one person who accidentally does it and they want to point fingers at whoever didn't do the rhythm right, I'm very strict on that. I would do things like there's no blame, we're not pointing fingers at people say you didn't do that correctly. And it's alright that if you've made the mistake, using these three steps, stop, listen, and rejoin, to get yourself back on track. That’s the big three I always tell them. (Calvin, interview) At the End of the First Year of Teaching. Calvin had firm expectations but some wonderments as well for his second year of teaching. His negative attitude toward teaching elementary music improved. “I’ve come to love elementary music way more.” He was glad that his teaching ability was recognized by his school. “My school praised me so much, like, you're the best music teacher ever. And I was like, I am not sure about this, but that's nice you think that way (laughter).” His increasing confidence in his ability to teach this age group indicated a more of a growth mindset. He thought that his mother's teaching style had a big influence on his performance in his first year of teaching. “I definitely take a lot of ideas and teaching styles from my mom, just because I grew up with her and I know that her teaching style very well.” His success was further aided by the musical knowledge from the boys’ choir, as demonstrated by his ability to rehearse a choral piece without the need for a lesson plan. “I'm going off what I'm hearing in the moment what's happening right now. And I'm going to use what I know about music to make it happen in the moment.” Drawing from his first year of teaching experience, he planned to do “a little bit on note reading with the recorders” for his second year of teaching. He intended to develop the curriculum. “I've been kind of able to start organizing stuff. So, I am aiming to get into separate 151 curriculums that are similar, but noticeably different for each grade level.” He wanted to have more singing opportunities for the older kids: I was not happy about last year that fourth and fifth graders were so unwilling to sing. That’s been definitely my weakest spot to motivate the older kids that it is alright to sing. I hate feeling like I’m pulling teeth to do it. But what I want to achieve with this program is that even once you're in fifth grade, we're all singing because we all know that it's cool stuff. (Calvin, interview) He aimed to build a student choir, but he was “still a little nervous about it’ because he “has never done it yet.” A year of teaching and experimenting different approaches with students helped him set up a more realistic goal about what he should adjust for the next year. First, he found that teaching theory was too much to be understood by the elementary kids: That's just a factor of me all the time. I've been too hard on them where in the moment I think I know that they can do better. And as I reflected later, I realized that they were kind of at the limit at the time, they're not ready for that just yet. (Calvin, interview) He continued to talk about how this observation got him to consider the importance of making more students succeed instead of only a few through the assessment: If there's only one or two or three kids who are meeting the standard, I might be the problem that I've set the standard too high. I need to kind of reevaluate, take a look at what can these kids achieve and then start building from there. I never want to assign something that I don't think they could accomplish. If they do accomplish something, then it's time to raise the bar. (Calvin, interview) Second, he realized that his students were sometimes difficult to follow: 152 Sometimes I’ll just rethink about lessons that I've done and realized I could have done it so much easier. Like I tried to have the kids to spell their name all on the xylophone with a new system of playing 26 letters on CDEFGAB. It was just way too complicated. I could have just told them to pick up one letter in their name. (Calvin, interview) Third, he addressed a concern of “getting the last few kids engaged:” When you're teaching 100 Kids, there's always going to be stragglers, kids who won't fully get it, or kids who you'll never be able to get to turn them around from their behavior. Like I had one kid who was very dyslexic. And anytime he had difficulty with something, instead of expressing that he was having trouble, he would just lash out and say, this is stupid, I hate it. It kind of felt like he wasn't particularly proud that he was having trouble with it, but he didn't necessarily want to do anything to fix that if it was hard. So just a couple of stragglers like that, I wish that I could have cracked the code on and figured out how to how to engage them better. (Calvin, interview) In terms of his students’ learning ability, he felt successful after seeing the improved students’ musical growth. “Every time that they did their end product, which required a lot of musical skill and was perfectly put together with fun sounding, that's really when I'm like basking in like joy.” He excitedly shared his students’ progress by the end of the year: Fourth and fifth graders could play in four-part xylophones and teach themselves towards the end. With the younger kids, they could do beats and sing mi sol la do, all in tune. And my third graders could do all of that and distinguish pitches. Most of them could tell the difference between mi sol la. (Calvin, interview) He continued saying that their advancement encouraged them to “think differently about their musical abilities” and provided compelling evidence for his growth mindset statement of “music 153 is for everyone.” He continued discussing his long-term goal of having students become selflearners: It is music, and it is the 50-minute class, you're not losing a bunch of stuff if you're not getting this correct fully. You can still learn it the next time. So, ideally, I hope to get them to love music and at least have a basic understanding of how it works. If they can teach themselves something related to music in the future, that would be great. And if they're engaged enough to want to continue music after elementary school, that's like the high level of success for me if they've done that. (Calvin, interview) When talking about how he assessed students’ musical development, he said that he did not do a lot of formal assessments: I don’t like to do something like it is time to do your test now. Like I don’t want to force people to sing on their own since I don't want to be creating any of those traumatic instances in their head. Kids only sing by themselves if they want to. (Calvin, interview) He assessed students “in secret ways” and provided help for students who felt lost: Like the first graders, every week I'm asking the question of the day, and if they're singing, I'm hearing it. I'll also do things where I have the kids perform in groups of four where they don't feel like they can be heard individually, but I can hear that individually. And if I see one kid who has the problem, instead of calling that kid out, I'll usually find a way to do it on their own without everyone knowing. Like I'll go to that kid's instrument, sit by that kid, and demonstrate on that kid’s instrument for the whole class. And so, they all hear what the playing should be, and the kid who needs it, right there. (Calvin, interview) 154 He avoided criticizing students since “not every kid can handle the criticism, and some kids would cry if I told them they're doing it wrong.” Teaching Artifact. In terms of submitting teaching materials, Calvin did not provide a sample from his first year of teaching. He mentioned that he was going to request a copy of what he wrote for his induction plan, including a lot of his reflections about how the year went off and a couple of focus students. However, it seemed that he was having trouble getting them from his mentor. Table 4.1 Within-Case Mindset Analysis for Participants in the United States Alex Mindset trajectory Change in teaching What They Said or Believe What They Did or Plan to do Survey: Teaching (Growth) Learning (Growth) Interview: Teaching (Growth) Learning (Growth) Teaching Artifact: (Supported) Firm expectations but some wonderments as well - Firm expectations Music Teaching: “You always have to keep learning. You're always improving, and you have to keep adjusting.” Music Learning: “Every kid they had a potential to learn music well.” Music Teaching: - Self-learned the knowledge - Slowed down the pace of teaching - Implemented more informal assessment - Reflected on the curriculum - Had a strong work ethic Music Learning: - Gave every kid a shot - Paid close attention to every student - Stayed away from picking favorites - Focused on things that students can do - Talked about different musical cultures 155 Bella Mindset trajectory Change in teaching What They Said or Believe What They Did or Plan to do Survey: Teaching (Fixed) Learning (Mixed) Interview: Teaching (Fixed—> Growth)* Learning (Growth) Teaching Artifact: (Unsupported) Firm expectations but some wonderments as well - Firm expectations Music Teaching: “It was a very humbling experience of overall positive, very good learning for me. And it was a good reminder of why I decided to go into education is because I don't get to stop learning either.” Music Learning: “Anybody could learn a musical instrument or something musically inclined, no matter what level they're at.” Music Teaching: - Rebuilt herself with humility - Developed a habit of selfquestioning - Implemented composition and improvisation - Changed attitude in motivation - Accepted the failure Music Learning: - Offered the option to record at home - Placed herself in the positions of students - Avoid emphasizing praise - Provided useful strategies for mistakes - Helped students create their personal toolbox Calvin Mindset trajectory Change in teaching What They Said or Believe What They Did or Plan to do Survey: Teaching (Mixed) Learning (Growth) Interview: Teaching (Mixed —>Growth)* Learning (Growth) No special expectations - Firm expectations but some wonderments as well Music Teaching: “I always say to them that practice makes better. With more time and effort, we made this better this time. And if it didn't work out this week, we're going to do it again next week and we're going to fix it.” Music Learning: “Music is for anyone. The best thing that you can do is put your all into it. And you will see, Music Teaching: - Improved attitude toward teaching elementary music - Applied culturally responsive pedagogy - Modified stuff to engage student learning - Reflected on previous lessons - Aimed to develop the curriculum Music Learning: - Emphasized the group effort - Promoted that practice makes better - Provided extra help to students who felt lost 156 Teaching Artifact: (Unsubmitted) after a few weeks, that music can be for you. And it can be for anyone who wants it to be for them.” - Avoided criticism and formal assessment - Mixed fun with focus Note. *Use of the “—>” symbol represents change in mindset from beginning teaching to end of first year Ai Identification of Mindsets and Key Quotations. From Survey Teacher: Growth View of Student - Growth From Interview Teacher: Mixed —> Growth View of Student - Growth I think that it is important to keep learning, keep learning something new. You don’t have to fully agree with all these new ideas, but at least get a sense of it and give it a try. The meaning of learning will show up with the accumulation of practice. (Ai, interview) It’s like planting a seed, watering more, growing more. So, give yourself time, put your effort in, and come to me at any time you feel frustrated, and let’s wait and see. (Ai, interview) Background and Teaching Context. My interview with Ai took place on a Saturday morning in September 2022 through an online meeting. During our more than two-hour conversation, Ai shared with me the highs and lows of her first year of teaching. My initial impression of her was that is a gentle and thoughtful teacher for students. Ai is a music teacher in an urban private middle and high school located in a large city and capital of a province in central China. She earned both her bachelor’s and master’s degrees in music education from a well-known conservatory in the country. Right after graduation, she received her high school teaching credential in the year of 2021. In September 2021, she started 157 her first year of full-time teaching. She teaches general music and choral music to middle school students ages 12-14 and high school students ages 15 to 16. In terms of her musical background, Ai started taking piano lessons at the age of four. Like all other Chinese kids, she had everything planned out for her by her parents. When she got to the middle school, she was scheduled to study with a piano teacher who had a strong music performance background and would teach her ear training and music theory lessons in order to prepare her for a college degree in music composition. However, her mother changed her mind and decided to cultivate her as a music teacher in. “She thought that being a composer wasn’t a best career path for me as a girl, and that I had teacher-like personalities like I was calm and patient.” With the support of her parents, she started taking voice lessons as required by the entrance exam of the music education department. Guided by her voice teacher, she went to a local high school with a music emphasis. During her last year, she traveled to the city of a conservatory with the great music education department and attended the intense pre-exam training. As a result of her and her family collective effort, she got accepted by her dream school. As she reflected on what were some of the significant music experiences or individuals that played a role in her decision to be a music teacher, she believed that her parents influenced a great deal: I (laughter), actually, never thought I wanted to be a music teacher, even after I studied in that major in college. The first two years I just learned what I had to learn, you know, as a student, tried my best to learn the knowledge. But I never thought that teaching music is my thing. It didn’t resonate me until I started student teaching in my junior year to really teach children and apply the knowledge learned before. (Ai, interview) 158 By working as a student teacher in kindergarten, elementary, middle, and high schools from her bachelor’s to master’s degree—with increasing responsibilities from copying a small activity to creating a demonstration lesson for college teachers—Ai gradually promoted herself to believe that “I might be good at teaching” and consider “planning a career in it.” At the last year of her master’s program, she applied for the job where she was currently employed. Mindset Analysis. Data from the interview transcript seemed to suggest that Ai went through a hard time of fitting in the working environment at she started her first year of teaching. “The overwhelming stress” of not being recognized by the teacher community, lacking the skills to lead different ensembles, and being unaccustomed to handling administrative tasks caused her to reconsider this career path. However, after a year of “getting to know the environment,” a sense of belonging was increased by “receiving positive feedback from other teachers” and a sense of achievement was enhanced by “observing students’ musical growth,” which gave her “confidence to continue” the following year. Ai was categorized as having more of a growth mindset toward her teaching ability and students’ learning ability after her first year of teaching. It was the same as the prediction from the result of the preliminary survey. Compared to the beginning of her first year of teaching, she still had firm expectations for her second year of teaching. More details are described below. At the Beginning of the First Year of Teaching. Ai had firm expectations at the start of her first year of teaching. She believed that “the knowledge from the music teaching training program” largely shaped the development of her beliefs toward music teaching and learning.” She was confident about “creating a good music learning experience for students” as she had “a bunch of tools” as well as “years of concentrated learning in music education and years of student teaching with children of various ages.” However, soon after starting her job, a serious of 159 problems happened that caused her to doubt her ability to teach. Her responses revealed a mixed mindset. First, she found the depreciation of the music subject as its classes “can only be scheduled after the second class of the day” and the shortage of music teachers as “there is only one or two music teachers that are responsible for teaching the six modules including music appreciation, singing, instrument, music composition, music and movement, and music and drama.” She was frustrated about the feedback on her first demo class in terms of the innovative teaching ideas she had learned in her teacher preparation program were not fully recognized by her school: I thought what I learned from the program was the best because of, you know, the school’s reputation, the international music educational methods, and also my own learning experience which was great. But my teaching was not initially accepted by the school as they were not satisfied with my first demo class. They thought that I should go straight to the point and present the knowledge, instead of spending time just experiencing it. They believed that the learning outcome was more important than the learning process, you know, since they had been doing the traditional way of teaching for many many years. (Ai, interview) She struggled with this power issue to balance her teaching between the old and new music education systems. As a way out of this dilemma, she activated her growth mindset to step out of her comfort zone and familiarize herself with the surroundings. “I mean we are all familiar with the old music education system since we were more or less suffered from it, but I am now a new teacher, I have to survive at first (laughter), you know.” In order to fit in the environment, she opened 160 herself up to the traditional method of teaching music by “observing” other colleagues’ classes, “discussing” with them about the rationales in teaching middle and high school, and “incorporating” ideas into her own lessons: So, in order to be a part of the community, I took some time to overcome the difficulties. I tried to borrow some traditional ideas in my class, you know, follow their rules. So, my second demo class received much more good feedback. When they found that I shared their opinions, they began to listen to my thoughts and expressed an interest in knowing more about the experience-oriented way of teaching. As I recovered a little bit confidence to add some innovative ideas again in my class, I found that they began to see the value and even implement some of my ideas in their teaching. (Ai, interview) However, she believed that teaching is not an easy thing to learn as a reflection on her colleague who left the job because of the reality of the classroom, suggesting more of fixed mindset: Well, a lot of people say that teaching ability can be cultivated through practice and experience. But I had a colleague he graduated from the conducting program, he had no experience with teaching general music, and it took a very hard time for him to learn how to teach a big class. So, I mean, knowing how to teach is different from knowing how to teach well. (Ai, interview) Second, she felt that the music teacher training program only prepared her for a part of her actual duties—“teaching general music.” For example, she lacked the knowledge in leading a student choir or orchestra, but her school required it: The school places more value on whether you can lead an ensemble to attend the competition and build the school’s reputation. It sets a higher standard for both students 161 and teachers to not just sing, but to sing well. So, it has a totally different requirement from the class choir. I really didn’t know much about it since we didn’t have the instrumental conducting course in the program. And most of our students didn’t have a training in singing and reading music, so it was very hard to select which students would be in the advanced choir. (Ai, interview) In order to complete this task in a few months, she decided to teach herself while learning from her master teacher, as a sign of growth mindset: My master teacher who is a vocalist helped me a lot, so I learned a bunch of techniques from him. And I also searched for digital and printed materials on choral and instrumental conducting, rehearsal techniques, and other relevant knowledge to study on my own. Last year, we rehearsed a choral arrangement of “Song Bie” for the high school men’s choir. It was just really tough since they didn’t know how to sing and didn’t want to sing. So, I found different ways to help them sing from the first note to the entire piece of music with my master teacher’s support to adjust their singing voice. And the outcome was good. We took them to several competitions, and our performance was not that bad. (Ai, interview) Third, she nearly gave up in her first year of teaching since the administrative tasks took up a lot of her time and energy, which may be an indication of a fixed mindset: I didn’t know that music, art, and sport teachers actually had a lot of things to do that were not related to teaching, like supervising the after-school programs and managing the school social media account. I was too exhausted to pay attention to my teaching. I was not happy about the workload and really thought about not continue staying there. I think I could have set more realistic expectations if the program had invited in-service 162 teachers to talk about their daily schedules and any extra task they had to do, you know. I think getting some career advice from them would definitely help the preservice teachers. (Ai, interview) In terms of her students’ ability in music learning, she said that students were not active in music class. “No musical ability at all. And I would say that middle schoolers are more interested in music than high schoolers.” Based on this circumstance, she found ways to make her class accessible, such as paying attention to her teaching language to make it “less, simple, and easy to follow:” I avoided using professional language to teach music at the beginning, like major, minor, these sort of terminologies that threatened them to engage. For example, the way I introduced major and minor chords was through listening first, so everyone can join in and succeed, instead of through music theory that can only be understood by the kids who learned it before. So that’s why I think the experience-oriented way of teaching is good for all entry levels; just let them listen to different chords and express through their languages and their movements. I didn’t talk a lot in class, we focused more on doing things. They learned the knowledge while they participated in the musical abilities. Then they can connect this bodily experience to later more knowledge-based learning. (Ai, interview) She also introduced students to different musical cultures to engage student in music learning: My class is not just about Western music, you know, Mozart, Beethoven, these kinds of things that only speak to students who have previously studies the instrument. I take them to explore a variety of music, like Chinese folk songs, Peking Opera, Indian music, etc. 163 And I encourage them to share their experiences, what they know and what they don’t know, so they can always learn something new from my class and from each other. (Ai, interview) She intentionally avoided referring to musical talent as a special gift for a few people and praising students a lot on that. “I think it is important to deliver the idea of keep growing in the classroom.” She continued elaborating her ideas while touching upon the link between musical talent and musical ability: I mean, first, we were born with a musical pulse (laughter), and that is a sign of musical talent, in my opinion. And if this musical talent is given more attention and instruction, like the parents playing the music at home almost every day, then I would say this child may have better musical ability or musical foundation. Otherwise, his talent may not continue to expand. (Ai, interview) Her growth-oriented mindset in students’ learning ability was further displayed in her explanation of why she agreed with the statement that everyone can be successful with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others: I believe that anyone’s musical ability can be enhanced through hard work. I am not talking about having the ability to be a maestro. I think for my class, I am only expecting them to feel more confident through my class, like I can do music, I can do an instrument, I can read music, I can sing, I can understand some basics in music. So, I create an environment to support this can-do attitude to grow, like I can do well with music through time, practice, help from peers and the music teacher. (Ai, interview) At the End of the First Year of Teaching. Ai had firm expectations for her second year of teaching. She was very satisfied with her first year of teaching although “the start was a little 164 messy.” “I felt happy that I can do the job I love, and I am passionate about.” By observing “the engagement in singing” after class from students and “the action of videotaping” from other colleagues, she felt a sense of achievement from teaching music and promoting music at school as she was recognized by “more people at school:” I think that positivity outweighed negativity, especially when I saw the changes in students. It convinced me that they learned, enjoyed, and could put what I had taught them to use. Their greater desire in engaging in class and interest in trying new things are what motivated me to persist. (Ai, interview) She cared about students’ performance and feedback as “it is evidence of my teaching ability.” “I hope to be accepted by students since that means I am a good teacher.” She frequently reflected on her teaching based on students’ responses to improve. She shared her experience with combining the old and new music education systems in her lessons. As she observed, students were “bored” in the traditional music appreciation class: I think that the traditional music appreciation class has its value as it focuses on the music theory and the music culture. I can see why teachers are more willing to teach in that way as it directly serves for the standard exam, it has format to easily plan out, and saves time—especially there is a lot of administrative stuff for us to be done. But for students, they are losing interest in learning through this repetitive and monotonous way to appreciate music, since it is just like their other classes, sitting there, listening, and taking notes. They already know exactly what is going to happen in class, you know. There is nothing fresh in here to motivate them and increase their expectations for music learning. (Ai, interview) 165 She continued talking about why she believed that the experience-oriented way of teaching is better for students: I think that students will remember the experience more than the knowledge after a long time. I think it would be more precise if they could recall an activity, a word, an interaction, you know, any experience from your music class to start a connection with themselves later on, and if these musical experiences could motivate them to be curious about music, explore other music making, understand other music culture, and utilize in their lives to regulate emotions, and so on. It is important to think about how they can maximize the benefits from learning your class, you know, to practically use in their lives. (Ai, interview) She stressed the importance of “learning new things” for teachers, displaying a growth mindset toward teaching ability: I think that it is important to keep learning, keep learning something new. You don’t have to fully agree with all these new ideas, but at least get a sense of it and give it a try. The meaning of learning will show up with the accumulation of practice. I mean, during my first two years in the program, I had no idea what I had learned, but it did make a difference as I applied it to my teaching and talked to other music teachers. I was way ahead of them. I was glad that I had these preparations earlier. And when I started my job, I found that my colleagues had never learned these things, like Kodály, Orff, and Dalcroze. It is harder for people who had their own teaching systems, it takes a lot of time to learn and understand, and it definitely needs more effort and strong commitment, but it is worth to build that habit especially as a teacher, I think. (Ai, interview) 166 Furthermore, she was so glad to see the improvements in her students especially the high school students as they used to “do their homework” and “have no feeling” in music class. “The school expected them to achieve higher grades in the National College Entrance Examination to build the school’s reputation so that they had too much pressure from their academic courses to focus on music.” She had great empathy with these high school students since “they are really good kids,” but at the same time, she wanted to change their attitudes toward music learning: So, on the first day of class, I led them freely talk about why they think they still have music class and what they expect from the music class, and I was not surprised by their responses. They said directly to me that they didn’t like it, they didn’t understand it, and they didn’t see the meaning of it. So, I cited Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences to make them think about why music is important to them. (Ai, interview) She believed that “attitude affects success” as it was reflected in her assessment, indicating more of a growth mindset in students’ learning ability: I care more about whether they want to learn than how well they did in one class, you know, the learning attitude. As long as they have the desire to learn and do something for it, I think they can improve your musical ability for sure. And as I told them at the first class that there is no right or wrong in my class. I never failed a student just because they didn’t sing on pitch or whatever, because if you do that, then how can you expect them to like music more and learn it more? It is just a time thing, he just can’t sing on the pitch yet, it doesn’t mean he cannot do it later. (Ai, interview) She talked about how she worked with all kinds of “difficult” students in learning music. For example, she had an intractable middle school student who believed that “he cannot correct and control his behavior not talking with other classmates.” After having a one-on-one 167 conversation with him, she found that his behavior issue of escaping problem and fixed belief were caused by his earlier, painful music learning experience: He said he was never allowed to join in any performance since kindergarten because teachers believed that his voice would ruin the whole concert. So that caused a very bad effect on his interest in music, like he never listened to any music, not even pop songs. He just naturally avoided anything musical that may hurt him again. It’s very sad. I can’t believe how hard that is for him. So, I gave more patience to help him out. (Ai, interview) Another example was about a student who “felt embarrassed to be called on in class to sing individually:” I made a note on her preference, but at the same time, I encouraged her to step out of her comfort zone. I was like, hey, you know what the acting is, right? Then how about just acting as a singer in my class, exploring something different from who you are, and let’s see how that goes. (Ai, interview) For the upcoming year, she planned to start a ukulele class alternating with the music appreciation class in order to provide opportunities for students to “do the songs that they like:” I decide to engage students through their favorite playlists, such as arranging an English pop song for ukulele, especially if they are not interested in the music appreciation class due to the limited repertoire. I think that pop music has the same value as other music genres. I don’t see why not to use it as a hook to motivate them to learn music, you know. They may be more willing to learn how to play an instrument and how to analyze the chord progression by incorporating it, which provides them tools to do other songs on their own. (Ai, interview) She continued talking about her goal of teaching: 168 I think success for me is defined by discovering kids they start loving music, sharing music, listening to all kinds of music—pop, classical, folk, and so on—having an opinion about what makes good music, and interpreting the meaning contained in the music. (Ai, interview) Teaching Artifact. Ai submitted the video recording of her second demo class and told me to focus on one of the musical activities that was created by her and involved the innovative teaching strategy she learned from her teacher preparation program: Even though they were not satisfied with my first demo as it was fully based on the experience-oriented way of teaching, I decided to at least add one idea from what I feel more confident about this time and try again. And I think the music itself told me to do some movements with it. (Ai, interview) As the video clip showed, Ai applied body percussion to take students to experience the fourth movement From Bohemia's Woods and Fields of My Fatherland created by the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana. After a brief introduction implying that the upcoming theme was about people, music, and dancing, she demonstrated body percussion and invited students to copy her motions. As students became more familiar with the patterns, she added the music to the movements. Even though students were all seated on unmovable chairs, their excitement for this activity was evident from their facial expression and bodily engagement. She occasionally surprised them to find a nearest peer and try the motions together. As the music continued, she altered different body percussions, like clapping hands, snapping fingers, stomping feet, etc. Students followed with full concentration. After the movement part, she asked students how they felt about the music they just listened. Every single word, such as “joyful” and “festive,” from students was exactly in line with the emotion displayed in the music. She moved on to help 169 students figure out two of the rhythms they just clapped and explained them as the typical rhythms mixing sixteenth and eighth notes in Czech folk dance known as Polka. This video clip presented a sign of growth mindset in Ai’s classroom. She bravely tried the innovated idea of body percussion in teaching and intentionally challenged students with different rhythm patterns in movement. Also, students actively listened, watched, moved, and challenged as Ai was constantly throwing out new ideas. Therefore, Ai’s submitted teaching evidence aligns with her growth mindset as revealed in the mindset analysis. Bei Identification of Mindsets and Key Quotations. From Survey Teacher: Fixed View of Student - Fixed From Interview Teacher: Fixed View of Student - Fixed I mean, just like one of the old sayings, the master leads you to the door, the rest is up to you. So, students who have the desire to learn music will learn everything on their own without needing to be taught, while those who don’t want to learn, they won’t learn no matter what you do. (Bei, interview) I don’t believe that music is something that everyone can learn over training and help from others. I know it sounds cruel, but I believe that success in music requires 99% talent and 1% effort. (Bei, interview) Background and Teaching Context. My interview with Bei took place on an evening in September 2022 through an online meeting. In a two-and-a-half-hour conversation, Bei shared her first year of teaching music with a lot of emotion. My first impression of Bei was a confident and strict teacher for students. 170 Bei is a music teacher in an urban public elementary school located in a coastal city of a province in southeastern China. In 2021, She graduated from an undergraduate music teacher training program at a well-known conservatory in the country. Shortly after graduation, she received her high school teaching credential. In September 2021, she started her first year of fulltime teaching. She taught general music to students in first grade, ages 6-7, third grade, ages 8-9, and fifth grade, ages 10-11. In terms of her musical background, she attended an art-based kindergarten when she was little and began to play the piano since she was three and half. When she reached school age, she enrolled in a music school in which professional music training was a part of her study, including instrumental learning, music theory, ear training, and so on. She majored in piano performance during elementary and middle school. However, when she got to high school, her piano teacher advised her to consider majoring in a different program in college since her figure and hands were “relatively small” and her piano skills were “not enough to be a pianist in the future.” Based on the outcome from the conversation between her music teachers and her parents, music education became a choice for her as it was centered on “a comprehensive music ability” which she had no problem with because of years of training. She talked about her thoughts of being a teacher as her career path: My head teacher when I was in sixth grade said to me that I would be good teacher. And in middle school, my history teacher asked me to be her assistant since I excelled in that subject. Also, I liked being the host of every music salon from elementary to high school, you know, because it allowed me to pass on my knowledge to the audience and help them better understand music. And another big reason to consider being a teacher was being able to get some rest during the summer and winter vacations. (Bei, interview) 171 From that point, she changed her major from piano performance to music education. She took other lessons, including voice, in addition to her piano lesson, to help her get ready for the entrance exam of the music education department at a well-known conservatory in the country. After graduation, she got accepted by her target school. During her time in the music teacher preparatory program, she received a very intense curriculum. Over the first three years, she not only took classes to better her musicianship, but she also worked hard to develop her teaching ability. Since her third year, she started student teaching in the elementary level, from initially collaborating with her college classmates to later handling a whole class in general music and choir rehearsal. Her experience in the program helped her master the various ways and knowledge to teach and aware what the good music is and what the good state is to teach music. “It helped me know what the musical standard should be in the classroom and how can I help my students to get there.” After the graduation, she started her first year of teaching at her current school with the program’s recommendation. Mindset Analysis. Data from the interview transcript seemed to suggest that Bei was pleased with her placement in the elementary school at the beginning. Her rich experience with children throughout her student teaching gave her confident in this position. Also, the school principal as a former music teacher paid special attention to the art department: Our school is known for its art department since the principle has been working very hard on it. So, as a music teacher, I am fully supported and valued, like she came to my first demo class and gave me feedback. And the music classroom has everything in it. She also provided me a lot of opportunities to learn from other experienced music teachers in the district. (Bei, interview) 172 Yet, she ran into a number of issues in achieving her goals in teaching after engaging with the children and learning about the responsibilities assigned by the school. After working as a full-time music teacher for a year, she became less passionate about teaching music. “I believe I would only devote my energy to the classes that want to learn music next year.” Bei was categorized as having more of a fixed mindset toward her teaching ability and students’ learning ability after her first year of teaching. It was the same as the prediction based on the result of the preliminary survey. Same as the start of her first year, she had no special expectations for her second year of teaching. More details are described below. At the Beginning of the First Year of Teaching. Bei had no special expectations about music teaching and learning as she began her first year of teaching. “I just wanted to use what I learned to cultivate their basic musicianship.” She was in charge of teaching music to three different grade levels: first, third, and fifth. After some time spent getting to know the students, her subjective comment on students’ musicianship and performance, preference for teaching at a certain grade level, and her avoidance of continuing to use teaching strategies that she is unfamiliar with indicated a more of a fixed mindset in teaching. She stated that she enjoyed working with fifth graders: A lot of teachers can’t stand teaching in higher grade levels, but I don’t feel in that way. I am only 10 years older than them, and I know what they like, you know, things that are current and trendy. There are communication issues between us compared to the other two grade levels. (Bei, interview) She continued to explain how she worked with her two favorite fifth-grade groups with far more autonomy and flexibility: 173 Class 501 is good at singing, and I am impressed by their learning speed and singing voice, especially the boys. So, I focused on training their singing voices. And I asked the school if I could do some choral pieces that are different from the material book to prepare them for the competition. I also gave them choices to sing something that they like in the final exam. Similar to Class 506, I requested for doing an interdisciplinary experiment with literature in their class since they read a lot of great works as taught by their classroom teacher. They were able to handle a class with more difficult knowledge. So, I paid extra attention to the lyrics to help them explore the link between melody and text through they preferred Cantonese pop songs, and my school was well supported, even parents, and the students themselves were motivated a lot. (Bei, interview) She explained about how she engaged them in music learning through singing demonstrations, interesting videos, and challenging tasks: Since they didn’t like to move a lot at the age of puberty, I gave up on designing movement activities for them. Even though I still asked them to simply move to the music, I wasn't expecting much. I tried to use my singing demonstrations to attract them as they told me that they loved my voice so much and wanted to learn how to sing like me. I also motivated them to complete the goal of today’s class by preparing a lot of interesting videos that are related to the content at the end. In order to watch them all, they knew that they needed to fully concentrate on the class to do the work at first. And I provided them challenging things to learn, like Western music history. Even though my colleagues concerned that it would be too difficult for them to understand, they actually did well and expressed a desire to learn more in the following class. I mean, if they felt 174 overwhelmed, I would definitely make some adjustments, but at least give it a try. (Bei, interview) During her interactions with them, she changed her previous beliefs about children at this age. “I think that we need to see them differently now since these kids are much more physically and mentally precocious. They are extremely curious about things they don’t know, and they are able to learn more than we expected.” However, in terms of teaching the first and third grades, “there was no sense of achievement and presence,” she said: I would say two classes of the first grade are better in musicianship and they are smarter. And sometimes I didn’t feel that they understood what I was saying, which upset me a lot. And the third grade, they all had bad memories and disciplines. I spent too much time managing the class to be able to teach effectively. Also, since they didn’t learn much in first two years with the former teacher, we took a lot of time reviewing the basic concepts. (Bei, interview) Since she was having trouble putting some of the ideas taught by the teacher preparation program, she made the decision to run the class based on what she can do. She gave up, for instance, on learning how to create musical games for first graders: I don’t think that I teach the first grade well since I am bad at designing musical games. I didn’t have many ideas to engage them in music in more fun ways even though they were eager to play. So, instead I focused on training them to have a good singing habit and a listening habit. And I provided a lot of music for them to listen, not just reinforcing the music knowledge but also increasing their song bank. (Bei, interview) 175 Even though a sign of growth mindset was displayed as she talked about how she worked with fifth graders, her teaching in general indicated more of a fixed mindset as she was selective to treat different classes as well as demonstrated a behavior of escaping problems and turned to something she felt easy to handle in class. The obvious difference in students’ musical ability frustrated her attempts to balance her focus in teaching, as she found that her teaching “was not able to change anything:” My class is only valued by students who are learning instrument since they are willing to participate in my class, answer the questions, and seek knowledge even after class, like they would send me some singing videos and ask my comments. But other students, they are used to not paying attention to any of their classes, so music class doesn’t matter to them. They may only engage in activities that they like. So, I mean it is useless to help if they don’t want to learn. (Bei, interview) When talking about her students, she strongly disagreed with the statement that everyone can be successful with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others. A fixed-oriented belief toward students’ learning ability was displayed: I don’t believe that music is something that everyone can learn over training and help from others. I know it sounds cruel, but I believe that success in music requires 99% talent and 1% effort. Some students, you know (laughter), they just can’t sing on pitch no matter how much help they get from their peers or teachers. Like I had a student who tried to draw the melody line with singing and follow the piano note by note, but there was no improvement. And these students they were aware that they sounded different from others when they started singing, even though we didn’t point it out. It doesn’t like learning the language, you are bad at writing, but you can still read and speak like 176 others. I mean, it is not their fault, but they would feel a sense of failure to music. (Bei, interview) She shared her observation regarding her student demographics. “Our school is located between two affluent neighborhoods. So, one group of the kids is from rich families. But around 15 minutes walking from the school is the community of migrant families. Another group is from poor families there.” She noticed a gap between students’ musical ability at each grade level caused by the socioeconomic status of their families. When I asked her how she treated students with different levels of ability to learn music, she did not have any expectations or requirements for students from migrant families to develop music skills or master music theories: We had a lot of kids from migrant families. Since their families were still struggling to survive in this city, they didn’t have energy to pay attention to their children’s learning, let alone their musical development. And so, these kids are unlikely to do anything related to music in the future. So, my hope for them is that they would be able to know what to listen to, distinguish good music from bad music, you know, to have the ability in music aesthetics. No more requirements. (Bei, interview) When asked about her approach to class management, she defined her role as “having complete power.” “They knew that if one of them misbehaved after three reminders, everyone in the classroom would lose one point from their class participation scores. And I really mean it. I believe that teachers must have absolute authority, even dictatorship.” To deal with her intractable students, she gave them more responsibility instead: There was a boy who was talented in music but lacked a sense of collectivity, such as understanding how his misbehavior would affect the learning of others. So, I appointed 177 him as the music class representative and informed him that from now on, everyone will copy what you do. And he improved a lot. (Bei, interview) In her opinion, praise for students who performed well in class is a good way to encourage class participation. “Like when I pointed out a girl who was singing expressively, all of the other students immediately showed me how expressive their voices were too and their desire to be praised.” At the End of the First Year of Teaching. Bei had no special expectations about for her second year of teaching. She was satisfied with her first-year performance and did not notice any instances where she felt difficult as well as she could do better. She believed that her first-year teaching success was made of 90% talent plus 10% effort. “I think success can be observed from whether students like you and your class, whether they have some progress in learning music, and whether they still remember this music learning experience many years later.” She felt that the primary factor contributing to her success as a teacher was her innate teacher-like personality: Well, I think the main factor influencing this teacher better than that teacher is personality since there is no big difference in teaching ability in nowadays. Like when you have two teachers with similar teaching abilities, why do you favor one over the other? It is hard to say, but you feel the nuance when they teach. I would say that one big thing a good teacher has a different aura of presence and is more extroverted and willing to talk to students. (Bei, interview) Interestingly, she did note that being flexible and open-minded seemed like an important ability in teaching. She believed that not everyone can have these attributes since they are predetermined, suggesting more of a fixed mindset in teaching: 178 And another big thing a good teacher needs to be flexible with her knowledge and creative in her approaches to teaching it to different students. An open attitude toward learning new things is very important and always welcome students’ feedback and even criticism. Students’ voices are important in helping me grow, you know. These are the things I should keep in mind all the time since I saw a lot of experienced teachers had this issue. I think it is important to for me to constantly search for what newest ideas are out there, like what songs that current students like to listen to. Even though it is hard for me to like it, I show my respect and curiosity and effort to bring it to the class. I don’t want to build a bad relationship with them. So, things like that are difficult for someone to learn if they don’t have them at birth. They are just not fit for this job. For example, I noticed that one of my colleagues worked really hard, but he was disliked by his students since he was annoyed by students’ questions and perplexed about their behaviors. (Bei, interview) Just like in the start of her first year, she had classes that she really loved and ones that she did not like at all. Her achievement was based on her success in her favorite classes in the fifth grade. “They made significant progress in their singing.” At the same time, she realized that she put a lot of pressure on fifth graders to learn music well in a fast speed: For example, I did a choral piece with fifth graders, and I was confident to make that happen in one class, but I was not very satisfied with the end project since it was not their usual level. I wondered if I should give up on my highest standard for singing voice and give them more time and patience to try again the next time. But I mean, this is who I am, if you didn’t meet my expectations, we would not move on until we fixed it. (Bei, interview) 179 She allowed her fifth graders to take ownership of their grades: So, except for 10% for class participation, they can decide to give 70% for the final singing exam and 20% for the final written exam, or vice versa. They can also get bonus points for completing after-class tasks. (Bei, interview) In terms of students’ learning ability, she granted them complete leeway to “get out of the box” when it came to their engagement in music: I don’t want my class to be dull and uninspiring. I always encourage them to explore and release themselves in my class, like I had some boys that started dancing as they heard some music and that was great. I never say no to their free expression since I think it is fascinating to see how differently they react to music. And that’s the goal of doing music. So, when some students laughed at others, I was really strict on that. No matter how good their voices or their musical abilities are, I believe it is important to observe that they enjoy music and express themselves through it. (Bei, interview) She continued talking about how she assessed students’ music development in a multifaceted way: I would combine their performances from different aspects of music learning. I mean, if we only graded them through singing this single ability, it would be unfair to some students who had no talent in it. So, I paid attention to their abilities in capturing musical emotion, singing on pitch and with expression, reading speed, mastering music theory and music history. I think in this way, their grades would not be too bad. (Bei, interview) As she said, she never failed a student because of the issue of mental health: Actually, if I followed the grading standards, the majority would fail. This also happened in their other courses. And some of their parents didn’t care about it at all, but other 180 parents would complain teachers if their kids failed at school. So, our district forbade teachers to show the exact score to distinguish students since psychological problems among students have been widely reported. So, I got them all passed no matter how low their musical abilities were. (Bei, interview) Even though her actions in encouraging students to express, she assessed students from multiple aspects and gave students a better grade in order to make students feel good, not directly suggesting a growth mindset that she believed in students’ improvable learning ability. For the upcoming school year, she decided to use stratified teaching to treat classes differently, implying a sign of fixed mindset in teaching: Now that I have a general idea of which class is able to develop, I am more likely to pay more attention to cultivating them in music. For classes that don’t care about music and cooperate with me, I just do my work without putting out any more effort. I mean, first, it is impossible for me to evenly divide my attention across 16 classes while also doing the overwhelming non-teaching stuff required by the school. The school always want you to do more. And to be honest, I didn’t feel respected by some of the classes. So, I decided to treat them based on how they treated me. If they want to learn, I will do my best to help them. But if they don’t want to, then why am I forcing them and exhausting myself? (Bei, interview) For two favorite fifth grade classes, “I want to do musicals with them, like Les Misérables. Class 501 can focus on how to sing it while Class 506 can focus on the background of the piece.” Regarding the first grade, she planned to focus on the musical games and movement activities as she had given up on them last semester. “I hope to continue using the ideas I learned from the 181 program and make amends for taking away the enjoyment from their music learning.” She did not have any expectations for the third grade as their disciplines still gave her headaches. She mentioned several things that she wanted to have more support in her music instruction: First of all, I would like to have a master teacher to improve my teaching. Even though my colleagues are quite experienced in practice, I don’t believe they have outstanding musical skills. Second, having more freedom in selecting repertoire and choosing content to teach, as what I did with Class 501 and 506. Third, I’d want to have chances to interact with other school music teachers, you know, to get some inspirations. (Bei, interview) Teaching Artifact. Bei emailed her reflection on the first demo class to the whole school. The songs were about the Chinese New Year and the Christmas. She pointed out several things that she needed to improve: (1) figure out different ways to complete the main objective (2) use musical signals to manage the class (3) promote peer learning to inspire creative ideas (4) pay attention to students who are quiet and give them opportunities to present themselves. She also sent me two video clips from a music appreciation class for the fifth grade. In the first clip, students were all seated on less movable chairs and most of them had masks on. Bei played a R&B song from a Chinese pop singer while asked students to copy her movements on the strong beat, such as clapping and snapping fingers. In the second clip, she changed to another R&B song and invited a boy to sing in front of the class. Other students kept doing the same thing with her guidance. As I observed the two clips, it became clear that students were not that active in following her from their clapping sounds. The masks prevented me from observing 182 their facial expressions. As she explained, this music appreciation class on R&B was her own idea as an extension of the topic about African American music in the material book: I didn’t like the content about African American music in the material book, and they liked pop music. So, I decided to do R&B music with them. I found four songs from Chinese pop singers, and I created some movements to let them experience the strong beats on the second and fourth instead of the first and third. (Bei, interview) When asked to share about her students’ feedback, she said they liked so much: They had never heard of R&B before the lesson, but they fell in love with it. They told me they wanted to do this every class. Some children also told me that they began listening to R&B at home. And I had a student who did his final singing exam by singing one of the songs I played in this lesson. (Bei, interview) From these two teaching artifacts, Bei’s reflection, and her own descriptions on why she chose to do R&B and how her students felt about it were all suggesting the presence of a growth mindset in her teaching. However, I did not sense a growth mindset music classroom culture established in Bei’s class based on the students’ participations in these two video clips. The teaching showed more of a fixed mindset about students’ learning ability. Bei only invited one student to sing and expressed an impatience when students clapped incorrect rhythm. Therefore, Bei’s submitted teaching evidence aligns with her fixed mindset as revealed in the mindset analysis. 183 Chen Identification of Mindsets and Key Quotations. From Survey Teacher: Mixed View of Student - Mixed From Interview Teacher: Mixed View of Student - Mixed I didn’t do well, and I felt I am still a novice teacher. I admit that I am not a hardworking person, so, I don’t know whether I can put in more effort next year. (Chen, interview) Learning hand signs is not the same as learning to sing. They can easily comprehend it if I spend time with them after class and practice it over and again. But singing must rely on their talent. (Chen, interview) Background and Teaching Context. My interview with Chen took place on an evening in September 2022 through an online meeting. During a nearly two-hour talk, Chen shared a variety of moments in his first year of teaching that inspired him to become a better music teacher. My initial impression of him was of an ambitious teacher but still feeling his way for students. Chen is a music teacher in an urban public elementary school located in a large city and capital of a province in central China. He graduated from an undergraduate music teacher training program near his current placement in June 2021, and then he received his high school teaching credential in the same year. In September 2021, he started his first year of full-time teaching. He taught general music to students in the first and third grades ages 6-7 and 8-9, and choral music to students in the first and fifth grades ages 6-7 and 10-11. In terms of his musical background, Chen was born in a small village of a province in central China, where school education was far behind, let alone music education. When he was 184 in elementary school, the music class was taught by the language teacher and shared with another grade level. Despite a lack of resources for music learning, he felt that “music is very interesting thing” and came up with an idea to work on this poor situation in the future: My early school experience made me realize the importance of having a good music teacher. So, that’s why I want to be a music teacher who really specializes in music teaching and learning and teach more than the knowledge in the material book. I want to make a difference in school music education, at least to help children in my hometown. (Chen, interview) As he got to middle school, he increased his interest in music because of his young music teacher who focused on pop music rather than the material book. Until high school, he participated in the school chorus and his musical ability was recognized. “My music teacher said that I had a good voice and advised me to do music in college.” Therefore, he started professional music training in his senior year to learn music theory, music history, and other related knowledge for the art college admission exam. After graduation, he got an offer from a city teacher college and formally began a journey to his possible self—a music teacher. In his first two years in the city teacher college, he immersed himself in improving his musical skills and he achieved outstanding academic performance. “I was the best student in the program regarding musical ability, but I realized that I am different from students majoring in music performance, I need to also do well in the teaching ability.” In his junior year, he paid more attention to the courses in psychology and pedagogy and prepared for his teaching credential exam. He started student teaching in the middle school level until his final year. An unsatisfied outcome of his first class made him realize the difference between theory and practice. After being familiar with teaching in reality, he found his improvement as evidenced by 185 the student engagement in the last class and the first prize he won in the student teaching competition. Although many of his college classmates changed to different career paths after graduation, he kept reminding himself of what had brought him to this point: I mean, if you want to be successful in music, you need a long-time commitment to master your instrument, and you need to be really good at it. To be honest, I thought I could be a professional musician for a while, but I was too naïve to reach that level. But being a music teacher, I think I am capable. I have been working on this dream since I was a child, I think that I should keep going. (Chen, interview) After a hard time of job hunting, he started his first year of teaching at his current placement. Mindset Type. Data from the interview transcript seemed to suggest that Chen decided to provide a good music education for students that is different from what he had experienced in elementary and middle schools: I would avoid mechanizing the class by only singing the songs from the book like I had been taught in elementary school. I would also introduce students to different kinds of music, not just pop music because they like, as my middle school teacher did. (Chen, interview) However, as he started teaching elementary music, he found what he learned from student teaching was not applicable for this different age group. Throughout a yearlong experiment, he did not sound very satisfied with his performance. “I felt I didn’t do my best to improve their musical ability.” Chen was categorized as having more of a mixed mindset toward his teaching ability and students’ learning ability after his first year of teaching. It was same as the prediction from the 186 result of the preliminary survey. Compared to the beginning of his first year of teaching, he had firm expectations but some wonderments as well for his second year of teaching. More details are described below. At the Beginning of the First Year of Teaching. Chen had firm expectations about music teaching and learning as he began his first year of teaching. He intended to put everything he had learned so far into practice to improve the musical learning experience of his students even though he had no prior experience with teaching elementary music. Regarding his mindsets in both his teaching ability and students’ learning ability, he seemed to have more of a mixed mindset as he had firm beliefs about certain things and doubts about others. In terms of learning, he was impressed with his students’ strong abilities in music learning. “They learned so fast on the things that I gave to them, like doing the hand signs and singing the intervals.” As he said, he never embarrassed students with low ability to learn music. “I would pay more attention to them, like frequently calling them to do things that they are unfamiliar with and standing by them to offer quiet help.” He continued talking about how he modified his assessment on students’ music development: Well, I do want them to meet my expectations, you know, very basic, like singing accurately. But at the same time, I care more about their overall learning development than their final performance, since that would be more realistic in showing how much progress they have made. And also, I think art is very subjective. It is important that they like what they present in a musical way, you know, they enjoy their singing self. So, I would not grade them based on the standards and think about who is bad at singing. (Chen, interview) 187 When discussing how he would respond to a student who felt that “music is not my thing:” I mean, you can’t say that you don’t have musical talent just because you have been studying music for a while and you are currently facing a challenge. Because what you are learning now is only a part of the music, later on, you will discover that there is much more to learn about music. So, you can only figure it out after a long-time practice. Be patient, you will find a place for you in the musical world. (Chen, interview) In contrast to the opinions he expressed above, a sign of fixed mindset toward students’ learning ability was revealed in his response to the statement of everyone can be successful in music learning with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others: I think to be successful in music learning, you need some level of talent, especially if you want to be a musician or pursue a career in music. If you are tone-deaf from birth, then you can’t succeed even though you put in the time, effort and seek help. Like I had a college classmate, I believe he is the most diligent person I have ever seen, you know, working much harder than anyone else in our program. He literally spent every minute improving his singing ability, and asked us to help him find the pitch, but it didn’t work out in the end. So, I think that music is not something you want to do, then you can do it. Being a top music student requires a special talent that just can't be taught. (Chen, interview) In terms of teaching, he tried to do a practice in every class with first graders singing “scales” and with third graders singing “intervals.” He believed that “these basic techniques are useful for students learning new songs especially those with the same musical element.” When 188 his students asked him why they need to sing these different things from the material book at the beginning of each lesson, he patiently explained to them: So, my third graders were confused about singing like major third and minor third in every class. And I took them to look at a new song they would learn next month and search for these intervals in it. So, my reason is to isolate these small musical segments and practice them in advance in order to make them feel confident when learning a new song and easily find the connection to their prior musical knowledge. I don’t know if they can understand now, but I think it is a worthwhile to continue. One day they may realize this benefit when they discover they can self-learn a song they love. (Chen, interview) He created musical signals to manage the class and develop the active listening. “When I play the major third, my first graders can connect it to being quiet. When I play the C major scale, they can connect it to raising hands.” He used his modeling to help students pay attention in class. He mentioned the effect of peer learning as students were struggling with his comments: When we were doing the pickup, I tried different ways to make them feel the upbeat since it is not an easy concept to grasp. And they didn't finally understand—not because of my explanations—until a child expressed his feelings and said, "It's just like a hiccup.” I found that students can better get the idea from their peers. So, every time if someone figured out a challenging task, I would praise them and let them share their experience to motivate their peers to try. Even though not everyone can do it, the learning environment was impressive. (Chen, interview) At the same time, Chen was not confident about dealing with certain students, suggesting more of a fixed mindset. For example, he said that he was still trying to figure out how to work with students with special needs: 189 I had a kid with ADHD, and I had no experience with it. So, when he presented behavioral issues, I just tried to bring him back, you know, participating instead of doing his own things. And I didn’t know what the best way should be to help him. (Chen, interview) He also found that it was hard for male teachers to build a relationship with students: I thought I am friendly, you know, easy to interact with, but my students didn’t feel that way. They said I am serious. And I don’t know if that is the reason why my third graders were not active in my class. Or maybe they were just not used to doing something individually and musically in front of the class as their previous music classes were not taught by the music teacher. They didn’t know a lot about music. I tried to make some changes in my teaching, but it didn’t show any progress yet. (Chen, interview) Additionally, he was frustrated about how to improve students’ misbehaviors: I don’t know why some kids have so many things to talk to their peers during the class. And I am not happy about that. So, sometimes I called their names and asked them to sing what they wanted to say, and they just didn’t understand what he did wrong and why I asked them to stand and sing. (Chen, interview) At the End of the First Year of Teaching. Chen had firm expectations but some wonderments as well for his second year of teaching. “I’m wondering how I can make myself better and my students better.” As he reflected on how well he believed that the music teacher preparation program has prepared him to teach music, he believed that his musical ability was improved a lot, but he would be more competent in his teaching if the program “provided the educational courses early on and broke down the knowledge in every semester,” like “the courses in psychology and 190 pedagogy,” and other “practical courses related to the job description,” like “the courses in improvisation and accompaniment:” I felt that the knowledge I gained from the program did not align much with what I encountered in real teaching as I didn’t usually get the expected outcome from the students. Maybe I am clinging too much to the previous learning in the program and the student teaching experience. I don’t know if I am on the right track and doing the right teaching for my students, you know, to improve their musical abilities and engage them in music learning. I felt bad for having taught them material that they didn’t fully understand, and they might not even utilize in the future. (Chen, interview) He was not very satisfied with his performance throughout his first year of teaching: I am still muddled, even after I had one year experience. I am not sure I really know how to teach. There is still a lot more for me to learn. I think I am a little bit slack off in improving my teaching. (Chen, interview) After observing the class taught by other colleagues who had recently completed their first year of teaching like him, he felt that he was not working hard enough: I didn’t do well, and I felt I am still a novice teacher. I admit that I am not a hardworking person, so I don’t know whether I can put in more effort next year. If I put forth more effort, students may grow more in musical expression. (Chen, interview) He found that he lacked confidence in designing musical activities, and that was “a big challenge” for him: My children have frequently complained to me that we don’t like the game because it's the same as the one we played previously. I think I've ran out of ideas to say about it. I 191 doubt I could make anything more fun for them. Perhaps I'm not very good at it. (Chen, interview) In addition to the moments that made him doubt his ability in teaching, he gained some good energy from interacting with the students and the school, demonstrating more of a growth mindset in teaching. He was grateful to have the full support of the school, parents, and students during the experience of rehearsing a choral piece with the fifth graders. “I actually picked a really difficult piece for them to learn, but their performance exceeded my expectations as we only had time to rehearse after school.” He was glad about students’ improvement in singing. “My singing demonstration was helpful. They learned how to use their breath to sound beautifully, as opposed to pressing their throats as they did at the very beginning.” In addition to that, he was touched by the consideration from his students as they massaged his shoulders when they sensed his state of fatigue. This warm action made him refreshed after a long day of teaching. “It made me feel good about being a teacher no matter how hard it is.” He also noticed his own improvement after a year full time teaching compared to the student teaching: I started putting myself in the shoes of my students to think about how I can better help them learn, you know, make things easier for them to grasp, rather than only delivering the content in the material book for the sake of teaching. (Chen, interview) He continued addressing his decision to get rid of his teaching style developed from student teaching with middle school students. “I felt that I need to bring everything closer to the children’s world. Not only was my language too complex for them to follow, but my lesson plan was too sophisticated as well.” He emphasized that it is important for new teachers to establish their own ways to teach: 192 I think that as a first-year music teacher, first you need to have strong musicianship, including sight reading, instrumental playing, and so on. And another thing is you have to figure out who your students are and how you want to create a best music learning experience for them. You can go to the more experienced teachers and ask for advice, but don’t just copy and paste everything they say because their knowledge is based on the past, and you are going to have a totally different experience from them as things have changed, student groups have changed, and students are exposed to different things. It would be a dangerous teaching if you just followed the advice from the experienced teachers without having your own ideas. You need to adapt your teaching to the everchanging world. (Chen, interview) For the next school year, he intended to enhance his first-grade curriculum by “incorporating a new system to teaching music” that he learned during his professional development. He planned to “continue this training” the next semester in order to “gain more new ideas” for his teaching. “Keep learning helps me feel more confident in teaching. I don’t know how it would go, but I would give it a try.” Also, he wanted to “add some instruments to accompany singing” to his second-grade classes. Based on the first year of observation, he intended to work on a large project next year to “create a vortex structure for learning:” First, I would like to collect some repertoire from the students themselves by having them explore all kinds of music in their lives, as well as songs that are age appropriate, rather than only the pop songs found on TikTok or other social media platforms. Also, I plan to present my teaching focus a slightly different in each grade level as they will have different songs to learn, like fifth graders are more interested in knowing the background of the music, whereas first graders are more interested in playing different games about 193 the song. Maybe I can also find some repertoire that has many possibilities for each grade level to benefit from it and build up the content from less to more challenging based on the musical standard in each grade level. (Chen, interview) He continued explaining his opinion on this learning structure to help students succeed as a sign of growth mindset. “I think by showing them different aspects of music, they can gain a broad picture of the musical world and find his confident part in music learning.” However, his fixed-oriented belief toward students’ learning ability in pitch accuracy still existed: I tried to apply the strategies I learned from the program to this situation, like playing the melody on the piano in a slow tempo and asking them to follow without adding the lyrics. Most of them found it effective, but in certain cases—like one of my first graders—no matter how many ways you tried with him to find the first note, he just couldn’t sing on pitch. I still have no clue how else to help them, since it would not change the fact that they have no talent in music. (Chen, interview) Teaching Artifact. Chen emailed a video recording of one of his first-grade classes during his first year of teaching. The 30-minute class was designed to teach a canon song about rowing a boat. Students were all seated on movable stools line by line. Based on my observation, there were several moments that displayed a growth mindset in Chen’s teaching: (1) A lot of repetitive singing was conducted to reinforce this new song in students’ memory. Instead of only singing after teacher over and over again, Chen applied different ways to engage students in order to let them be familiar with it with fun, including adding movements, singing in the head, passing phrase between the teacher and students, and so on. 194 (2) When some students got out of control doing the rowing movement, Chen did not criticize them but helped them think about the related rules if they were rowing the boats on the river. He posted a few questions, such as “would it be safe for us to stand up while rowing the boats?” and “would it be dangerous if we row the boats very fast?” (3) When they got to do the canon, Chen divided the class into two groups. The first group started singing the song and the second group started imitating a few measures later. Since this was their first experience singing in canon, students seemed a little bit confused about what to do. Chen patiently helped them understand by explaining in the context of rowing the boats and having them pretend to be in a competition. “As second group we are on the second boat, and we go after the first group. As we start, every group member must try their best to sing out and work hard to get our team to the finish line.” However, from students’ participation, students who sat near the teacher were more engaged as they received more attention from Chen, whereas students who sat far from the teacher were less engaged as they received less attention from Chen. It seemed that Chen did not notice this issue and provide equal opportunities for all students to participate. Therefore, Chen’s submitted teaching evidence aligns with his mixed mindset as revealed in the mindset analysis. 195 Table 4.2 Within-case Mindset Analysis for Participant Cases in China Ai Mindset trajectory Change in teaching What They Said or Believe What They Did or Plan to do Survey: Teaching (Growth) Learning (Growth) Interview: Teaching (Mixed—> Growth)* Learning (Growth) Teaching Artifact: (Supported) Firm expectations - Firm expectations Music Teaching: “I think that it is important to keep learning, keep learning something new. You don’t have to fully agree with all these new ideas, but at least get a sense of it and give it a try. The meaning of learning will show up with the accumulation of practice.” Music Learning: “It’s like planting a seed, watering more, growing more. So, give yourself time, put your effort in, and come to me at any time you feel frustrated, and let’s wait and see.” Music Teaching: - Observed other colleagues’ classes - Searched for knowledge in conducting - Incorporated the science research - Avoided professional language - Promoted relevance in teaching Music Learning: - Empathized with students - Cared more about learning attitude - Planned to add ukulele - Intended to bring pop music - Created a classroom culture of keep growing Bei Mindset trajectory Change in teaching What They Said or Believe What They Did or Plan to do Survey: Teaching (Fixed) Learning (Fixed) No special expectations - No special expectations Music Teaching: “I mean, just like one of the old sayings, the master leads you to the door, the rest is up to you. So, students who have the desire to learn music will learn everything on their own without needing to be Music Teaching: - Held on to innate teacher-like personality - Gave up on trying unfamiliar strategies - Preferred to teach fifth graders - Refused to talk about the third grade - Persisted in setting high standard 196 Interview: Teaching (Fixed) Learning (Fixed) Teaching Artifact: (Supported) taught, while those who don’t want to learn, they won’t learn no matter what you do.” Music Learning: “I don’t believe that music is something that everyone can learn over training and help from others. I know it sounds cruel, but I believe that success in music requires 99% talent and 1% effort.” Music Learning: - Encouraged students to free express themselves in music - Assessed students in a multifaced way - Never failed a student - Praised students who performed well in class - Had no expectations for students from poor families Chen Mindset trajectory Change in teaching What They Said or Believe What They Did or Plan to do Survey: Teaching (Mixed) Learning (Mixed) Interview: Teaching (Mixed) Learning (Mixed) Teaching Artifact: (Supported) Firm expectations - Firm expectations but some wonderments as well Music Teaching: “I didn’t do well, and I felt I am still a novice teacher. I admit that I am not a hard-working person, so, I don’t know whether I can put in more effort next year.” Music Learning: “Learning hand signs is not the same as learning to sing. They can easily comprehend it if I spend time with them after class and practice it over and again. But singing must rely on their talent.” Music Teaching: - Changed the teaching language - Intended to add some instruments to accompany singing - Attended the professional development - Did not work hard enough - Clung to the previous ideas Music Learning: - Never embarrassed students with low ability to learn music - Modified his assessment on students’ music development - Planned to create a vortex structure for learning - Believed that singing on pitch requires talent - Motivated students through modeling Note. *Use of the “—>” symbol represents change in mindset from beginning teaching to end of first year 197 Cross-Case Analysis: Mindsets Viewed by Culture As noted in Chapter 3, the cross-case analysis was designed to help answer research question 3 and focused on the data from the six participant interviews from the United States and China cultures. Prior to the study of the data, the assumption was that main themes would be identified collectively across the two cultures and that within those themes, common and distinct topics would emerge. Questions and prompts about music teacher beliefs written for the interview (see Appendix C) were of a general nature and included music learning experience before and during college, first year of teaching experience, teaching philosophy, and other questions related to any memorable teaching experiences. From these questions, responses were studied for main themes collectively across cultures and for topics connected to main themes. As expected, the main themes identified were heavily influenced by the interview questions posed, but the associated topics that emerged within the main themes were not known and emerged after careful analysis of interview data. Below, each main theme is introduced and defined. The mindset interpretation across two cultures based on each main theme is presented. Common and distinct topics that were identified are described for each main theme. Quotations from the interviews are supplied as documentation for each topic. Figure 4.1 displays the main themes and their connections to other topics. Main Theme 1: Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic Description. The COVID-19 pandemic was a challenge to both music teachers and students as it has affected the traditional manner of delivery and reception of knowledge. The basic approach to formal teaching of all subject material in the vast majority of countries worldwide, including the United States and China, was changed to online instruction. In the present 198 study, six participants were asked to explain how the COVID-19 pandemic has changed their thinking about and practice of music education. Based on the findings, except for Alex, the other five participants had very little experience with online teaching. Three related topics were emerged in participants’ responses to this main theme of the COVID-19. In particular, two common topics were centered on assessment choice and empathy and one distinct topic was the online vs. face-to-face instruction (see Figure 4.1). Mindset Revealed. To interpret their mindsets in this main theme of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic and related topics, participants from the United States (8 entries) exhibited more mastery-oriented strategies to provide assessment choices, show empathy, and adapt online mode in teaching than participants from China (2 entries) during this hard time, suggesting that participants from the United States showed more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from China in terms of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 Common Topic 1: Assessment Choice. Calvin, Bei, Alex, and Bella provided choices for students to do their assessments, suggesting more of a growth mindset. Calvin said that the idea of “individual recorder testing” was developed during the pandemic: When they were ready to take their recorder tests, I gave the option doing a Flipgrid and send it in that way if they felt really uncomfortable with playing without a mask on in the classroom or whatever. And I think I'm going to definitely keep that one just because some kids they aren't particularly excited about playing in front of other people. (Calvin, interview) 199 Figure 4.1 The Cross-Case Mindset Analysis Themes and Topics Bei saw their embarrassment when she called on the fifth graders to sing during the online lesson and provided the option to record their singing: I tried to ask them to unmute themselves and sing on their own, but not everyone felt ok to individually sing in the online environment. I then allowed them to record and send to me after class as an option. (Bei, interview) Similarly, Alex added more “informal assessment” for virtual students as he learned from his mentor teacher: Since I can’t hear them, you know. So, I asked them to submit something at the end of each class by giving them the last 10 minutes of class to complete it. Then I can hear how they sound through their recordings and think about how I can better help. (Alex, interview) 200 Bella also talked about her philosophy of student choice. Same as Calvin, Bei, and Alex, she looked for ways to “accommodate those students where this is really for them, and something that was able to get something positive:” When they're performing in front of me, and I do make it so that they have the option of recording themselves and then submitting that, because for some students, it's overwhelming to perform live individually. So, I create that as an option every single time we have one of these live auditions so that for two reasons. One, it allows them the choice of what they'd prefer, so that it's really putting the onus on them, they're still going to have to do the work strategically, they'll still have to do it. And in some cases, it's actually more work for them to do the video, because they have to do the full excerpt. Regardless, I've often snipped it down significantly based on time needs or whatever when they're live. (Bella, interview) COVID-19 Common Topic 2: Empathy. Chen, Bella, and Alex showed empathy toward students’ emotional change and behavioral problems that emerged in the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting more of a growth mindset. Chen allowed students to write lyrics to the songs to express their emotions: The children were all familiar with the songs written for the COVID-19 pandemic that became popular in public. So, I brought these songs to the class and tried to let students say something about the pandemic and add the new lyrics to sing. It turned out that they had a lot of observations and feelings about it, especially for the kids whose were dealing with some serious circumstances at the time. I would say they wrote significantly better lyrics than the originals. (Chen, interview) 201 Bella found that “there are far more needs to address with mental health and correlation to making music than how I previously considered.” She mentioned how she provided help for students to talk about their feelings during this hard time: It's hard to say how much COVID has really impacted their willingness to open up. But in general, I find ways to connect with students at the individual level so that they know I'm there as a source of conversation, if there's something that needs to be stated. (Bella, interview) Regarding students’ behavioral problems, Bella pointed out her adjustments in class management as she became “more lenient and receptive to students needs that created more flexibility in their doing what was required of them in my class.” Alex also made a comment on his understanding of students’ behavioral issues during this period of time: I think, because of COVID and learning over zoom, there were a lot of behavioral issues that wouldn't have been there before. So that was one thing that I kind of wasn't prepared for is how much behavioral stuff I was going to have to deal with. And I think it's getting better. It's just the thing, like, you know, for kids, if they're in class on a computer, they can get up, they can go do kind of whatever they want, and they're not used to having that kind of structure back at school. It's not their fault. You know, it's just the way it was. (Alex, interview) COVID-19 Distinct Topic: Online Instruction vs. Face-to-Face Instruction. Bella, Ai, Bei, and Chen believed that online instruction was not as effective as face-to-face instruction. However, Alex presented a different opinion as he found the value of technology in education, suggesting more of a growth mindset. 202 Bella talked about her opinion about technology. She said that “the utilization of technology in teaching is important” such as “various programs that are implemented into the classroom,” but “they are far out fine by simply working with someone face to face.” First, she believed that online instruction is not “a permanent thing to work through” as “music is a sound art that has to be conducted in a face-to-face environment in order to be effective.” Second, she did not sound positive about online instruction caused by the COVID-19 pandemic since she observed its limits on educating her students as “so many kids do not have the ability to function with internet at home,” and even learning her online classes in her music teacher training program: I can't even measure how big of a difference it is to the point where I'm even speaking from a personal experience, my own education, the classes that I had online, shied in comparison, the quality, the outcome, the process, the content, my willingness to be receptive to the information. I felt like I lost out on certain skill sets in conducting which I use all the time for my classes. (Bella, interview) Third, these experiences made her “really capitalize on the benefits of seeing each other face to face moving forward:” I could safely say that the desire to teach face to face has never been stronger since experiencing COVID-19. And the impact of not seeing students face to face has been wildly apparent. And my desire to teach people of any age, face to face is really so important. That it's not because they can't learn on a screen, but there's something the human element, there's something about interacting with others face to face, that I think we were intrinsically designed to experience. And a lot of what we learn is not something 203 that you can just pull from a screen. And it's even harder to measure from the screen. (Bella, interview) Ai, Bei, and Chen shared the same idea as Bella. Ai regarded online teaching as inefficient as she mentioned that her school canceled the music class and instead played the asynchronous video recorded by the music teacher during the class break: I mean, if we can make it as a full lesson to teach online, it may work. But if only 10 minutes, there is no way to guarantee that students are learning and listening to your class, since there is no interaction, and they need a break between classes. (Ai, interview) From Bei’s two months experience with online instruction, she felt “a lot of obstacles” that prevented her from doing what she expected: I mean, it doesn’t make any sense unless you can make sure that everyone has access to internet with no latency. I need to avoid singing, movement, and I can’t see them and hear them. So, the only thing I can do is music appreciation for them to listen. It is a waste of time. (Bei, interview) Chen continued expressing his changing perspective regarding the online instruction: I actually thought about how to conduct the online music class before, but I soon realized a serious problem, the internet environment, since some students might not have that selfcontrol. So, I gave up on that. I think at least the elementary music class has to be in person, since that’s how we access to music, to listen, to see. (Chen, interview) However, Alex as the only participant who experienced a half of his first year of teaching in the online environment had a different opinion about online instruction and technology. He 204 understood the concerns about this new way of learning, but he noticed its benefits for some students: In some ways, it has been detrimental for the music education community. The teaching strategies are definitely different from that of a traditional music classroom. And there’s a lot of really cool things that you can do with technology. So, I think, it also kind of proved that a lot of kids don't learn well, virtually, but I think some really do, too. I think, you know, because they're in an environment that they're comfortable in. I think it just depends on the kid, too. I think for some kids, they do better. Like I know a girl she loves virtual learning, because she got to stay in her room. Her dog was there, and she did well actually. (Alex, interview) He insisted on his opinion since “from my experience with students, the rate of success for students in online learning was surprisingly higher than I was expecting.” He believed that the internet provided more opportunities for students to self-learn: And it's kind of one of those things where I think we don't give the internet that much credit, in terms of like, you can find out on the internet if you need to learn something, you could figure it out. So, they know how to do that. And I think that makes my job easier as well. (Alex, interview) He noticed that “educational technology can be a very powerful tool in creating engaging and meaningful lessons since “there’s a lot of great recourses,” such as “apps that you can get on your phone:” For example, I have an Amazing Slow Downer. And what it does is that I can upload an mp3 of something. And I can use it to slow down that mp3 without altering the pitch. And 205 I can loop it. So, if there's a tricky part, I can just make a cut that part only, you know. (Alex, interview) Main Theme 2: Level of Knowledge About Motivation Description. Motivation is an important topic in music teaching and learning and it is influenced by mindset which encourages people to accomplish what they want to do. In the present study, six participants were asked to share their knowledge about the concept of mindset, the motivational skill in teaching, and the approach to engage students who felt they did not belong to music. Based on the findings, five of the six participants (Calvin being the exception) had no understanding about the mindset concept. Calvin said that he learned this concept from his voice teacher who taught vocal development: I was making a little Venn diagram of it. Fixed is very much I can't do this. I'm not good enough. I can only do this much. And growth is more in the sense of, even if I haven't achieved what I want to. I'm working towards that. And I know that I will one day get there. (Calvin, interview) Three related topics were emerged in participants’ responses to this main theme of level of knowledge about motivation. In particular, two common topics were centered on modeling and relevance and one distinct topic was motivated by the teacher vs. motivated by the self (see Figure 4.1). Mindset Revealed. To interpret their mindsets in this main theme of level of knowledge about motivation and related topics, participants from China (11 entries) exhibited more masteryoriented strategies to provide demonstrations, promote relevance, and apply motivation in teaching than participants from the United States (7 entries) to engage students in music learning, suggesting that participants from China showed more of a growth mindset toward their teaching 206 ability and students’ learning ability than participants from the United States in terms of level of knowledge about motivation. Motivation Common Topic 1: Modeling. Alex, Bei, and Chen referred to modeling as the usual way they motivate students in learning music, suggesting more of a growth mindset. As Alex mentioned, he often engages students by providing an example of how to play an instrument. “Well, I try to do a lot of, I try to model as much as I can.” Bei talked about her modeling on singing to attract students’ attention: Their previous music teacher was a performance major, and he had no vocal training before. So, he rarely sang to them and only played the recordings for them to follow. And I know how bad their quality is. So, when I took over their class, I gave them demonstrations on every single song, and they fell in love with it and were interested in singing. A girl even sent me a note asking how she can sound like me. (Bei, interview) Chen motivated his students by doing the same activity with them. “If you want students to engage, then you need to also participate in the activity that you have requested them to do:” Like the song about the little frog, when I was acting like a frog and jumping around in the classroom with the frog head costume, they were watching to see if it was fun. Then they were excited to follow long and learn the song with me. So, I mean, the key to motivation is actually the teacher. If you can put yourself in the context and enjoy the activity, kids would be motivated to follow you. But if you can’t, how can they? (Chen, interview) Motivation Common Topic 2: Relevance. Ai, Chen, Calvin, and Bei shared the idea of making music teaching and learning relevant to the students, suggesting more of a growth mindset. First, Ai and Chen modified their teaching language to make it more understandable to 207 their students. Ai explained her thinking on avoiding using professional language to introduce a musical concept to students at the first time: When I first started teaching them about the chords, I refrained from using terms like major and minor. The reason is that students with prior musical learning experience were confident to quickly answer them, but those without prior musical experience were lost. So, what I would do is to present the chords to them through hearing at first, and let them discuss their feelings, like which chord they find more bright or darker. I think this way can pull more kids in, especially those who lacked musical ability. (Ai, interview) Chen tried to speak in less technical language to help the young kids engage: So, I made an effort to speak in a younger tone for the younger students, much like the language in their storybooks. For example, when we were doing the hand signs for mi and re, I asked them to think about the roof shape as they put two hands together to make the hand sign of re, to help them distinguish it from the hand sign of mi. And that worked much better for their memory than simply imitating the action. I think changing the way of speaking can help them better understand, and they are more willing to listen to me and take part in. (Chen, interview) Calvin, Ai, and Bei designed the class content that helped students connect to their lives. For example, Calvin brought pop music to the music class: I engage them through relating things that they know, so like bringing pop music into the class and showing them that this has musical value. I would do a guess the song game kind of thing, where I teach them chord patterns on the xylophone. And as we build the song, throughout the whole class, they know, this is a pop song, this is a song that you would hear on the radio. And as you're listening, try to see if you can guess what it is. 208 And usually at least one kid in the class would get to be like, oh, my god, I know that baseline, it's this song. So, it really took a lot of the fun stuff that you got to do to get them hooked on it. (Calvin, interview) To help students think about how music impacts their lives, Ai cited Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: So, I tried to build the connection between music learning and their development to make them see the value. I introduced the Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, you know, people do not just have on intellectual capacity but many kinds of intelligence, and musical intelligence is included as important as your linguistic intelligence, logical intelligence, and other intelligences. Learning music can enrich your overall learning. (Ai, interview) She also reflected on her previous teaching that ignored the relevance in teaching: One day I taught a song about soldiers to middle schoolers, and I planned the opening asking them to express the gratitude for this brave group of people who guard our country. But it didn’t go well. Then I wondered after the class whether it would be more meaningful by having students relate to the persons they love, respect, and desire to be, you know, and perhaps even create their own lyrics to convey their emotions. I mean, they may still remember this music class many years later when asked who they wanted to be while they were young. (Ai, interview) Bei provided tasks for students to activate their creativities and connect to their life experiences: They liked the creating activity a lot. For example, I would have them to write more lyrics for a song, then they could sing about their different family members and classmates. I would also let them create the movement for a song, like they can think about different 209 ways to row a boat, you know. I use this creating activity to engage them in sharing their own experiences in the classroom. (Bei, interview) Motivation Distinct Topic: Motivated by the Teacher vs. Motivated by the Self. When asked a hypothetical interview question, “what would be your response and action if a student says that I am not good at music, music is not my thing” (see Appendix C), different attitudes were noted in the replies from the six participants. In particular, Calvin, Ai, and Chen exhibited a positive attitude toward this question, suggesting more of a growth mindset. Alex, Bella, and Bei exhibited both positive and negative attitudes toward this question. Calvin, Ai, and Chen exhibited mastery-oriented strategies to engage students who felt they did not belong to music. They said that they would encourage this student to “think differently” and keep working: So, the best thing that you can do is put your all into it. And you will see, after a few weeks, that music can be for you. (Calvin, interview) How about you come and listen to my class at first, and if you still don’t understand what I am talking about, come to see me, I believe I can help you. (Ai, interview) You can’t say you don’t have the talent only based on this period of learning, since it needs a long time to get the result. What you learned now is only a small piece of music, it is not the whole world. So, you have to keep learning, there is a lot to learn, after a long time, you may find a place for you. (Chen, interview) Ai said that she would listen to this child’s concern and explain that it would not be an issue to continue learning music: Nobody said 100% that you learned it then you are good at it, and you didn’t learn it then you are not good at it. And I think many students in your class are not good at 210 music, but it doesn’t mean that they are ineligible to attend the music class. Everyone is here to learn. So, it is not a hindrance to continue learning music. (Ai, interview) However, Alex, Bella, and Bei exhibited both mastery-oriented and helpless-oriented strategies to engage students who felt they did not belong to music. On the one hand, Alex and Bella said that they would encourage this student to “think differently” and keep working: Just come back tomorrow, keep doing it, then you get better. (Alex, interview) Why don't you come and join us, and let's see what you can get involved in, and maybe you might find that you really like it. (Bella, interview) Additionally, Alex and Bella both expressed their understandings on why this student felt this way. As Alex interpreted, “I would tell them it is also a part of being a musician, like, man, I hate it, I don’t want to do this anymore.” Bei said that she would listen to this child’s concern and explain that it would not be an issue to continue learning music: I think that each of us has our own strengths and weaknesses, such as the fact that I am not good at math, which has caused some challenges in the learning process. But I mean, it is okay to be not good at something, there is no need to blame yourself, and it would not stop you from keep loving music and participating in class. Like I am not good at sport, but it doesn’t bother me to keep watching NBA. (Bei, interview) On the other hand, Alex, Bella, and Bei thought it is hard to motivate someone who do not have the desire to do music: But I also do think that there are kids that, you know, they just don't want to do music, I think that is the case. I don't think it's true for a lot. It's like sports, there's some kids that just don't want to do sports. I think music in general, I don't think that's the case. I think 211 everybody has the ability to do that. But as far as, traditional, like band and orchestra, and reading music, and things like that, I think that there's some kids, that they also just don't have an interest in it. (Alex, interview) To be honest, I don't know how to motivate everybody (laughter). I'll try my hardest, but I'm not going to motivate everybody. I think it is up to them. They need to consider what they want and why they think that music is good for them in order to be self-motivated. Motivation is tricky because some of them just aren't inclined to be interested in it. Or maybe they thought something would be interesting to them, and when they got down to it and actually had to work at it, they said this isn't for me. Like a lot of the kids that I'm working with at the middle school level are figuring out their stamina. And if they can’t get through something that is harder than what they're used to doing, putting forth effort on something that they can't see the benefit, it's very difficult to motivate. And that's, I think, why we integrate so many like personal cues that help them recognize that it can be fun even if it's difficult, having a little bit of grit never hurt. But I think that it's a delicate line on how far does one push to say, hey, you can achieve these things. So, I think positive reinforcement really helps, but it doesn't necessarily speak to everybody. There's something for everybody, it's just not always the same. And the bigger the class, the harder it is to pinpoint. (Bella, interview) It’s like the proverb that says the master leads you to the door, the rest is up to you. So, students who are interested in learning music will learn everything without assistance, whereas students who are not interested in learning it will never learn no matter what you do. (Bei, interview) 212 Main Theme 3: Understanding About Musical Talent Description. Musical talent is a sensitive topic that has an effect on music teaching and learning. How music teachers view musical talent reflects their beliefs about students’ learning ability and their subsequent behaviors to help students during the learning process. In the present study, six participants were challenged to talk about whether they can tell right away which students were musically talented and whether they see any tendencies suggesting a relationship between musical talent and a person’s gender, socioeconomic status, disability, and race based on their experiences. Based on the findings, three related topics were emerged in participants’ responses to this main theme of understanding about musical talent. In particular, three common topics were centered on hard to know, gender, and socioeconomic status and one distinct topic was opinions on disability, race, music family, and personality (see Figure 4.1). Mindset revealed. To interpret their mindsets in this main theme of understanding about musical talent and related topics, both participants from the United States (6 entries) and China (7 entries) exhibited a stereotype toward the link between musical talent and gender, the link between musical talent and socioeconomic status, and the link between musical talent and personality, suggesting that both participants from the United States and China showed more of a fixed mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability in terms of understanding about musical talent, even though all of them believed that they were not able to tell right away which students were musically talented and which were not. Musical Talent Common Topic 1: Hard to Know. Alex, Bella, Calvin, Ai, Bei, and Chen all believed that they were unable to identify the difference in students’ musical talent within a short amount of time. Specifically, Bella, Calvin, and Bei said that they may be able to figure out through student assessments and involvement in and after class: 213 I'd say some of the students that they were more forward or outwardly vocal about their interests, I could usually derive based off those characteristics if they actually meant that they liked being part of the ensemble and doing things doesn't always coincide with their skill set. But I wouldn't say that I instantly was able to derive, you know, some kind of assessment from them, I'd create assessments and say, okay, they have to meet these certain parameters for me to score them accordingly. But upon meeting them, you can hear who can make it and who can't, and something in tune. So, underwhelmed is the first one that comes to mind to your question since it really depends. It's really not consistent at all face value. (Bella, interview) With the younger kids, I test their singing every single class with a question of the day, like I sing to them what's your favorite snack, and they either sing back to me or just speak to me their answers. And I give them a little chime ring if they sing it out, just as a little bit of encouragement. So, I keep track of who is and who is not singing. For the older kids, I kind of see as we're doing the group work, because when you're doing group work on like xylophones, it's pretty easy to tell who's not playing at the same time. (Calvin, interview) I can tell the difference, if they approach me on their own after class or if they sing in front of me individually at the final singing exam. Some informal assessment that takes place in class to listen to their voices may also help. And if they show me a desire to sing in class like raising their hands. (Bei, interview) Alex, Ai, and Chen said that musical talent might change over time: It’s weird for me, I kind of don’t like to think that a kid is going to be good because you never know. Sometimes, you know, the kid might get in middle school, and then all of a 214 sudden, he really starts working and he gets a lot better. And I think there are kids that if they maybe give it another year that something might click. So, I think every kid they had had a potential to be to learn music well. I will say some kids just had better ability from the get-go, and then other kids understood concepts a lot easier from the get-go. Like I wanted a trombone player. And it was funny, because he was actually good physically in his instrument, but all the reading and all that kind of stuff, it was hard for him. And so, there was something where I had to tell him, like, you play well, but you have to know how to read music. And then I had one kid that wasn't physically super great on his instrument, but he knew the answers to everything. And so, I don't know, I think it just depends, but I think every kid had the ability to be advanced in in some musical aspect, whether it be understanding or performing. I think there were there were different categories that you can place them in. (Alex, interview) I believe that every kid has musical talent more or less. Like I had a boy he didn’t behave well in my first class, and he said that his singing was like reading a poem except for one song where he felt he had pitch. And it was true after I heard his singing. But I mean, he still has time to improve, and just because he’s singing off pitch for now doesn’t mean he lacks musical talent. (Ai, interview) I think I need to teach them for at least a month, then I can tell whether this kid has musical talent. And with more time involved, the kid may get better. (Chen, interview) Musical Talent Common Topic 2: Gender. Alex, Calvin, and Ai felt that girls have better musical talent than boys, suggesting more of a fixed mindset: Most of the time, girls in elementary school, they mature faster than boys, they just have a better work ethic. They're able to practice more. I think they're just generally better, 215 especially in elementary school. I think boys later on, you know, they have to start maturing, but I think especially at that age, girls are just better. You know, they have a more mature mindset to do it. (Alex, interview) With the older kids, you always see that the boys don't want to sing because they think number one, they're too cool for that, or it's not manly enough. And also, it's partially because some of them are starting their voice change, so it's physically uncomfortable for them to sing. With the little kids, there was pretty much no gap there. (Calvin, interview) When the boys start changing their voices in middle school, they feel the difference and decrease singing. But the girls don’t have that much issue, and they still feel confident in improving their singing ability. And when they get to high school, some boys may not be used to singing in a different way after the voice change, and they no longer like singing. But the girls are still doing well. (Ai, interview) Musical Talent Common Topic 3: Socioeconomic Status. Alex, Bella, Calvin, Ai, Bei, and Chen all agreed that children from rich families have greater musical talent than children from poor families, suggesting more of a fixed mindset: I work in a district that is socio economically well off. There are some kids that are moved from other poor districts, and I can tell that they are. It is harder for them. And that's because those districts don't have the funding or the resources to start music education in kindergarten. And so, these socioeconomic differences do affect how kids learn music, definitely. If every district had the same the same resources, it'd be a lot different, but they just don't, it's the way it is. (Alex, interview) The socioeconomic status is probably the number one discussion topic for our district, mostly because that's the split between student demographics. Some students they're 216 unable to attend the activities for any number of reasons, you know, even coming to concerts can be tricky. I've had students that especially at my middle school level, because they aren't at the driving age, so they really rely on their parents or guardians to get them to a concert. And there have been instances where the parent or guardian had said, I can't get the student there because we only had one bus pass left. There are a lot of reasons where they're just omitted from the process because of something that is out of their control. (Bella, interview) You could tell the kids who were doing well usually were already in piano lessons, or they were already taking little things on the side. And they are rich kids, their parents fund for that. (Calvin, interview) The kids raised in wealthy families have the funding to learn music and their musical talent may be stronger than that of others. (Ai, interview) I know it sounds a little bit discriminatory, but the fact is that students raised in middleclass families and above outperform those raised in migrant poor families regarding basic musicianship. I had some classes with more kids from middle-class families since their parents are allowed to choose the classroom teacher. And these kids’ musicianship is much better as their parents support their kids to learn music and learn instruments. (Bei, interview) I discovered that the relatively wealthy families are able to provide their children with a better education and the opportunity to learn music since the kindergarten, and these students’ musicianship is superior to that of others. (Chen, interview) Musical Talent Distinct Topic: Opinions on Disability, Race, Music Family, Personality. Six participants did not have any responses or find any relationships between 217 musical talent and disability or race, except for Calvin’s comment on his experience working with students with special needs: For disability, honestly, what I noticed is that music is the place where these kids with special needs are shining. They are just as good as the others in terms of their musical talent. I have two mild to moderate classes here. And they both are pretty much at a musical level equal to their respective grade levels. Classroom management, you know, it's harder with them, but they're able to keep steady beats, they're able to sing back with me. And these aren't moderate to severe kids. So, they're pretty capable. (Calvin, interview) Bella, Ai, Bei, and Chen raised two new observations on the link between music family and musical talent as well as the link between personality and musical talent, suggesting more of a fixed mindset. Ai and Bei found that students who grow up in a music family are more talented in music: I think if your parents loved listening to music and played different types of music at home, you may be relatively better than others in terms of musical talent because of the listening effect. (Ai, interview) I think family is another factor. If this kid was raised in a family where her parents even grandparents worked in the music area or just loved music so much, her musical talent would not be bad even if she had no instrument learning experience. Like I had a boy he knows a lot of pop music in the 80s since his father always plays these songs in the car during commute time. So, his listening preferences are affected by his father’s musical tastes. And another boy he has perfect pitch but has never learned to play an instrument, and he told me that his grandmother was an actor in the Cantonese Opera Company. 218 Then that made sense to me since usually it is hard to relate a basketball player with music. (Bei, interview) Bella and Chen noticed the relationship between students’ personality and musical talent: I've been pleasantly surprised with the quiet ones. That was evident in their auditions with me, they'd be very reserved, not have a whole lot to say. And I'd be very inquisitive, just verbally with them trying to find out, you know, so not asking them how long they've played, but really, so what do you like about what you play? And what are some of the things that you like to do with it? Have you ever played in front of someone before? And when they come across as not nervous, but just they don't have more than one word, or two words answers. I'm very curious what they can say with something that isn't verbal. And I am often pleasantly surprised. (Bella, interview) Based on my observations from last year, girls who are quiet and docile are better in music, whereas boys who behave in the opposite way are more talented as far as music. (Chen, interview) Chapter Summary This chapter included the within-case analysis and the cross-case analysis of Alex’s, Bella’s, Calvin’s, Ai’s, Bei’s, and Chen’s mindset beliefs regarding their teaching ability and their students’ learning ability based on their first year of teaching and cross-cultural similarities and differences within their mindsets. In terms of their teaching ability, three music teachers changed their mindsets and moved toward the growth end of the mindset spectrum at the end of their first year of teaching. In terms of students’ learning ability, there was no change in music teachers’ mindsets throughout the year. All six participants’ perspectives on the main themes of the COVID-19 pandemic, motivation, and musical talent as well as related topics further 219 revealed mindset differences in terms of different cultures. Chapter 5 will provide an analysis of these findings and provide implications for music education research and practice. 220 Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion This dissertation concludes with a summary and discussion of the findings, as well as the implications for practice, limitations of the study, suggestions for future research, and conclusion of the study. Answers to the following research questions are summarized. Research questions were: 1. What are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching? In addition, what influences might have contributed to these mindsets? 2. How are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching? In addition, what did they do to implement these mindsets, and did their submitted teaching materials support these mindsets? 3. What cross-cultural similarities and differences can be found between music teachers in China and the United States regarding their mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability? Chapter Overview The chapter begins with an overall summary of findings that highlight both the withincase and cross-case analyses. It is followed by a synthesis of findings for each research question, which is answered together with references to past literature. The implications for practice include reflections on the value of these research findings and how the mindset concept might improve music teaching and learning. The limitations of the study are noted and used as a basis for future research suggestions. A conclusion is offered that explores the careful implementation of the mindset concept for the future. 221 Overall Summary of Findings This case study explored mindset and its role among six first-year music teachers from the United States and China. In terms of within-case analysis, full-time teaching experiences via survey, interview, and teaching artifact analyses of the six novice music teachers’ mindsets about their teaching ability and students’ learning ability revealed differences between the start and the end of their first year of teaching practice. Compared to the prediction from the result of the preliminary survey, three participants’ mindsets (Bella, Calvin, and Ai) were refined based on the interview data. Regarding their mindsets for teaching ability, three music teachers (Bella, Calvin, and Ai) displayed a mindset change toward the growth end of the mindset spectrum. In addition, Alex displayed more of a growth mindset, Bei displayed more of a fixed mindset, and Chen displayed more of a mixed mindset. Regarding their mindsets for students’ learning ability, there were no changes in music teachers’ mindsets throughout the year. Alex, Bella, Calvin, and Ai displayed more of a growth mindset, Bei displayed more of a fixed mindset, and Chen displayed more of a mixed mindset. An analysis of teaching artifacts revealed that four music teachers (Alex, Ai, Bei, and Chen) were more likely to exhibit the same mindset in their artifacts as revealed in their interviews. In terms of cross-case analysis, six participants’ perspectives on the main themes of the COVID-19 pandemic effect, views on the role of motivation, and views on musical talent further revealed a complex pattern of mindset differences between differing cultures. In general, based on the within-case analysis, the findings suggest that participants from the United States showed more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from China. In particular, the findings suggest that participants from the United 222 States showed more of a growth mindset in terms of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic and less of a growth mindset in terms of level of knowledge about motivation toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from China. Both participants from the United States and China showed more of a fixed mindset in terms of understanding about musical talent toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability. Discussion of Findings Research Question #1 Overall Finding. In answering research question 1, “What are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching?”, Alex appeared to have more of a growth mindset, Bella and Bei appeared to have more of a fixed mindset, and Calvin, Ai, and Chen appeared to have more of a mixed mindset toward their teaching ability as they began their first year of teaching. Furthermore, Alex, Bella, Calvin, and Ai appeared to have more of a growth mindset, Bei appeared to have more of a fixed mindset, and Chen appeared to have more of a mixed mindset toward students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching. More detailed observations are provided below. Detailed Findings and Discussions. First, six music teachers’ mindsets about their teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching exhibited three mindset types: growth, fixed, and mixed. According to Dweck and Yeager (2019), the growth mindset is the belief that one’s human abilities can be developed over time through continuous effort, useful strategies, and help from others, and the fixed mindset is the belief that one’s human abilities cannot be developed because they are fixed and unchangeable. Based on the findings, (1) Alex was identified as having more of a growth mindset and (2) Bei was identified as having more of a fixed mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning 223 ability as they began their first year of teaching. In addition, the mixed mindset as a third mindset type found in a few research studies (Lee, 2021; Lou et al., 2022) is a hybrid of both the growth and fixed mindsets, meaning the mindset is part fixed and part growth depending on the situation. Based on the findings, (3) Chen was identified as having more of a mixed mindset toward his teaching ability and students’ learning ability as he began his first year of teaching. Second, Alex, Bei, and Chen appeared to have the same mindsets toward their teaching ability as their mindsets toward students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching. In contrast, the rest of the three music teachers’ mindsets had different mindsets toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching. Based on the findings, (1) Ai and Calvin were identified as having more of a mixed mindset toward their teaching ability and more of a growth mindset toward students’ learning ability and (2) Bella was identified as having more of a fixed mindset toward her teaching ability and more of a growth mindset toward students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching. This phenomenon will be revisited later in research question 2. The answer to the sub-question, “In addition, what influences might have contributed to these mindsets?” may be explained by past research. According to Murphy and Dweck (2010), the antecedents of mindsets are different cues from the environment. If people are in an environment that embraces the idea that abilities are fixed traits or qualities to be developed, their own mindsets would be influenced by “the group’s views through modeling, persuasion, cognitive dissonance, and self-perception processes” (p. 294). Based on the findings, the influences that might have contributed to six participants’ beliefs toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their careers may have been primarily formed in four settings: the families they were raised in, the general and music 224 educations they went through, the music teacher training programs they had completed, and the schools where they were employed at the time. In terms of the families, Bella, Calvin, Ai, and Bei referenced parental influences as a part of their decision making to becoming a music teacher. On the one hand, Bella and Calvin grew up in a music family and how they approached music from their mothers carried over into their actual teaching. In particular, even though music education did not inspire her to go down that path initially, Bella decided to major in music education when she had a family and three children. On the other hand, Ai and Bei’s family got involved in choosing their career path in music education. In particular, although she did not think about being a teacher in the future initially, Ai followed her parents’ suggestions. In terms of general and music education, Alex, Bella, Calvin, Ai, Bei, and Chen all referenced early learning experiences as a part of their decision making to becoming a music teacher and a reminder for their thinking and doing in their actual teaching. On the one hand, they all got access to music at a very young age. Their music teachers played a role in guiding them to enter the field of music education. In particular, Chen aimed to provide a different music education for his students from what he had gone through in the poor situation of elementary and middle schools. On the other hand, they all realized the detrimental effects of some teaching strategies used by their previous teachers and avoided applying them in their actual teaching, except for Bei still relied on her teachers’ comments on her innate teacher-like personality. Their strategies included staying away from picking favorites (Alex), relieving the pains of nervousness (Bella), setting the standard for the majority (Calvin), allowing every kid to participate in music (Ai), and introducing different kinds of music as well as fostering a deeper music understanding (Chen). 225 In terms of the music teacher training programs, Alex, Bella, Calvin, Ai, Bei, and Chen all referenced learning in the music teacher training programs that prepared them for the actual teaching in varying degrees. On the one hand, they all noted the useful aspects of the music teacher training programs, especially student teaching, including promoting self-directed learning, connecting to an expert for future help, inspiring ideas in teaching activities, interacting with students of various ages, understanding the standards in music education, and improving comprehensive musicianship. According to Conway (2002), student teaching, preservice fieldwork, and musicianship development were seen to be the most beneficial components of teacher training. On the other hand, they all noted the improvable aspects of the music teacher training programs, including minimizing redundant courses, increasing the effectiveness and relevance of courses, breaking down the important courses in every semester, and providing knowledge on how to build a relationship with students. In terms of the schools, Alex, Bella, Calvin, Ai, Bei, and Chen all referenced the working environment as an important factor influencing their teaching experiences. In particular, they all experienced praxis shock which was found to be a fixed mindset trigger in teaching. This phenomenon will be revisited later in research question 2. Research Question #2 Overall Findings. In answering research question 2, “How are music teachers’ mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching?”, Alex, Bei, and Chen did not change their mindsets toward their teaching ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching. However, Bella, Calvin, and Ai appeared to endorse more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching. Furthermore, six selected participants did not change their mindsets toward students’ 226 learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching. More detailed observations are provided below. Detailed Findings and Discussions. Six music teachers’ mindsets about their teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching exhibited three mindset types: growth, fixed, and mixed. According to Dweck and Yeager (2019), the growth mindset is the belief that one’s human abilities can be developed over time through continuous effort, useful strategies, and help from others, and the fixed mindset is the belief that one’s human abilities cannot be developed because they are fixed and unchangeable. Based on the findings, (1) Alex, Bella, Calvin, and Ai were identified as having more of a growth mindset and (2) Bei was identified as having more of a fixed mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability as they began their first year of teaching. In addition, the mixed mindset as a third mindset type found in a few research studies (Lee, 2021; Lou et al., 2022) is a hybrid of both the growth and fixed mindsets, meaning the mindset is part fixed and part growth depending on the situation. Based on the findings, (3) Chen was identified as having more of a mixed mindset toward his teaching ability and students’ learning ability as he reflected on their first year of teaching. Regarding the mindset change, some observations were interesting to look at. Six participants, especially Bella, Calvin, Ai, Bei, and Chen appeared to have more of a growth mindset before they started their first year of teaching, but praxis shock after they started their first year of teaching exerted a negative impact on sustaining their growth mindsets. According to Stringham and Snell (2019), early-career music teachers who encounter differences between their expectations of school life and the realities of teaching seem to frequently face praxis shock. As participants noted, factors including working with oppressive colleagues, having a 227 heavy workload outside of the classroom, and teaching students with a gap in their musical abilities triggered a fixed mindset and more or less affected their interest in staying in the music teaching field. Therefore, Bei and Chen showed less resilience in the face of praxis shock as their mindsets remained the same, but Bella, Calvin, and Ai showed more resilience in the face of praxis shock as their mindsets appeared to display a mindset change and show a movement toward the growth end of the mindset spectrum regarding their teaching ability as they reflected on their first year of teaching. Receiving positive feedback from others and seeing the students’ musical growth at the end of their first year of teaching also influenced their mindset shift. As Seligman (2011) suggested, receiving recognition for one’s achievements from others—such as parents, coworkers, students, and the school administration—helps one flourish by enhancing the ability to deal with setbacks and fostering resilience in the face of adversity. This observation suggests two important things. First, Bella, Calvin, and Ai provided evidence for the possibility of mindset change. According to Yeager and Dweck (2021), a child’s mindset can be changed and educated as they conducted a lot of growth mindset interventions that promoted a more growth mindset in students. The research by Murphy and Dweck (2010) with undergraduate students indicated that an adult’s mindset can be affected by the environment to which they were exposed. Second, it explained why Bella, Calvin, and Ai’s mindsets toward their teaching ability were not identical to their mindsets toward students’ learning ability at the beginning of their first year of teaching as their growth mindset toward teaching ability may have been temporarily threatened by the praxis shock. The first sub-question, “In addition, what did they do to implement these mindsets?” could be explained by past research. 228 Yeager et al. (2022) highlighted that teacher mindsets and practices played an important role in creating a growth mindset in classroom culture that helps sustain students’ growth mindsets. According to Hong et al. (1999), mindsets create the meaning framework to help understand motivation and behavior. Different variables include goals, attributions, helplessness, and effort beliefs. In particular, the following things are in line with the growth mindset behaviors that may create a growth mindset in music classroom culture: learning-oriented goal, positive effort belief, lack-of-effort attribution for setbacks, and mastery-oriented strategies after setbacks. The following things are in line with the fixed mindset behaviors that may create a fixed mindset in music classroom culture: performance-oriented goal, negative effort belief, lack-of-ability attribution for setbacks, and helpless-oriented strategies after setbacks. Based on the findings, six participants shared the actions they took and planned to take for their second year of teaching. In terms of growth mindset behaviors, (1) having a habit of reflective thinking, (2) showing empathy to place self in the position of students, (3) keeping improving teaching ability to establish own way to teach, (4) finding ways to motivate student learning, (5) fostering an environment of open communication and treating all students fairly, (6) assessing students based on what they can do like their learning attitudes instead of their final performances, (7) viewing mistakes as good lessons for students to grow, (8) accepting negative emotion and persevering in the face of failure with patience, (9) providing choices and accommodations to meet students’ needs, (10) setting the ultimate goal of cultivating self-learners, (11) humbly learning from others’ advice, (12) being flexible and positive with changes, criticism, and willing to try new things, and (13) enhancing relevance in teaching were mentioned across six participants. 229 In terms of fixed mindset behaviors, (1) preferring to teach classes and students with good musical ability and class management, (2) forming a teacher-centered environment that asks students to follow high standards, (3) giving up on strategies they were not familiar with and students who did not perform and behave well, (4) feeling defensive toward other people’s useful negative feedback, (6) working less hard, (7) attributing the difficulty to a lack of ability, and (8) focusing on musical talent were mentioned across six participants. The second sub-question, “Did their submitted teaching materials support these mindsets?” could be explained by past research. According to Murphy et al. (2021), students’ perceptions and experiences are critical in evaluating whether a strong growth mindset classroom culture has been established. Based on the findings, six music teachers were asked to submit teaching materials they created and/or used during their first year of teaching that reflected their current views toward music teaching and learning. Five of the six music teachers except for Calvin were able to submit a teaching artifact, such as a video clip of a lesson or a piece of class assessment. Analysis showed that Ai, Bei, Chen, and Alex were able to create or use material that paralleled the same mindset as revealed in their interviews. However, Bella’s growth mindset, as seen in her interview transcript, was not fully implemented in her classroom, as evidenced by reading her students’ reflections on her class. Research Question #3 Overall Finding. In answering research question 3, “What cross-cultural similarities and differences can be found between music teachers in China and the United States regarding their mindsets about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability?”, the mindset 230 comparison across two cultures was conducted by looking at how novice music teachers in China and the United States responded to the same interview questions. As a review of the findings in research questions 1 and 2, participants from the United States showed more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from China. It was aligned with the observations in the survey results as participants from the United States showed higher scores than participants from China in terms of mindset assessment. Three main themes were anticipated and framed based on specific questions asked during the interview: (1) experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, (2) level of knowledge about motivation, and (3) understanding about musical talent. Within each main theme, participants in China and the United States shared their perspectives toward music teaching and learning in which common and distinctive topics emerged as part of the data analysis as explained in Chapter 4. By interpreting the mindset similarities and differences across two cultures through these themes and subtopics, the findings suggest that participants from the United States showed more of a growth mindset in terms of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic and less of a growth mindset in terms of level of knowledge about motivation toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from China. Both participants from the United States and China showed more of a fixed mindset in terms of understanding about musical talent toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability. In the following sections, I present more details on three main themes and subtopics by connecting them to the literature and describing the underlying mindset in differing cultures. In each main theme, the first half was to review how participants commented on common and 231 distinctive topics, and the second half was to explain how the mindset is revealed across two cultures. Main Theme 1: Experiences During the COVID-19 Pandemic. In terms of the COVID-19 pandemic, it came as an unexpected difficulty to people from all over the world and provided a good opportunity to test everyone’s mindset in the face of this challenge (OECD, 2021). In the present study, six participants were asked to talk about any new thinking and doing they have developed for teaching music during the COVID-19 pandemic that are effective to be continued. Based on the findings, six participants shared their opinions on this main theme of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic by addressing three related topics: two common topics were centered on assessment choice and empathy and one distinct topic was online vs. face-to-face instruction (see Figure 4.1). COVID-19 Common Topic 1: Assessment Choice. According to Smith (2011), choice is an indicator of motivation to learn music as it is initiated and sustained by the individual to achieve the goal. Based on the findings in the present study, Calvin, Bei, Alex, and Bella all provided choices for students to do their singing or playing assessments as they noticed that some of the students were not comfortable performing in front of others. These students may have been unwilling to play in class without a mask on, and they may have felt nervous to play in front of the music teacher and embarrassed to have their classmates hear them play. Therefore, in addition to the live performance, they allowed students to have the option to record themselves in an environment where they felt more secure and submit the recording to the music teacher after class to complete the assessment. Furthermore, Bella’s thinking regarding students’ emotional responses to the choice itself was mentioned. She wanted to have students experience a positive 232 attitude toward music learning and take responsibility for their own musical growth by giving them the freedom to select how they preferred to do the assessment. COVID-19 Common Topic 2: Empathy. As an element of social and emotional skills, “empathy is feeling with other people because you understand their emotional state” and “caring relationships in classrooms that include empathy can increase students’ desire to learn (Laird, 2015, p. 57). Based on the findings in the present study, Chen, Bella, and Alex displayed empathy for the emotional changes and behavioral issues that the COVID-19 epidemic caused in the students. On the one hand, Bella and Chen paid attention to the mental health of the students during this hard time. In light of this unique situation, Bella presented herself as a source of conversation for students to find and talk after class. Chen provided the opportunity for students to express their thoughts about the COVID-19 pandemic by having them write the lyrics for the song. On the other hand, Bella and Alex shared their perspectives on the behavioral issues that arose among the students during this challenging time. Due to several uncontrollable factors that may prevent students from learning, they relaxed their tight policies about classroom management. Alex further described his observation during the online instruction and pointed out that the students’ behavioral issues were not intentional; rather, these were only a result of their unfamiliarity with the remote learning experience. COVID-19 Distinct Topic: Online Instruction vs. Face-to-Face Instruction. The COVID-19 pandemic shifted all face-to-face instruction including music classes to online. Through a multiple case study by Knapp (2022), thirteen music teachers in the United States shared perspectives toward their online teaching experiences during this hard time and viewed 233 technology as a barrier to achieving the quality of musical instruction. As they reported, “music is necessary for the human experience and is essential for the connection between people” (p. 66). Based on the findings in the present study, Bella, Ai, Bei, and Chen all agreed that online instruction was not as effective as face-to-face instruction in terms of music education. They believed that online instruction may not be a permanent way for music teaching and learning since the human element of making music is what matters most. Some of the students, Bella noted, did not have access to the Internet at home. Bei continued expressing the same idea and emphasizing how audio latency was a problem that kept students from participating in online classes. In a survey study involving 1,368 music educators in the United States (Shaw & Mayo, 2022), “lack of Internet access and lack of parent/guardian facilitation” (p. 147) were reported as reasons why students were not engaging in distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, Ai and Bei mentioned the constraints of conducting a lot of musical activities during online music instruction. In their individual interview study with secondary school music teachers in Turkey during the COVID-19 pandemic, Akarsu (2021) and Gül (2021) reported similar teachers’ comments on the failure of performing different activities in a confined space and interacting with students in distance education. Chen was also concerned about the unsupervised online environment, which may cause additional problems for students. As noted in the survey results by Aivaz and Teodorescu (2022) among 1,930 college students in Romania, “more than one-third of respondents used their devices during class for reasons unrelated to school” (p. 8) when classes were conducted online. It suggested that there may be distractions preventing students from learning in an online setting. 234 Therefore, Bella, Ai, Bei, and Chen said that their short-term experiences with online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic increased their desire to teach face-to-face as music can be delivered more effectively under this approach, ensuring both the teaching quality and the learning willingness. However, Alex presented a different opinion toward online instruction and technology. On the one hand, he found a lot of great phone apps that helped him create engaging and meaningful lessons. On the other hand, his students’ musical growth over the course of remote learning made him see the value of online instruction as it allowed his students to study in their comfortable environments. He also mentioned how children have more options to learn on their own because of the Internet. Biasutti et al. (2022) conducted an exploratory qualitative study and interviewed 15 conservatory-level music teachers in different European countries and the USA about their perspectives on giving lessons online during the COVID-19 pandemic. The benefits of virtual teaching were highlighted, including students performing well at home and teachers using helpful software to aid in their work. Also, the emphasis on self-learning in an online environment was addressed: In addition, the shift to online learning could strengthen the master-apprentice model, which is often criticized for the lack of autonomy afforded to the student. Students have to be more responsible for their learning while using new technological devices and teachers encourage this process when they ask students to collect additional information and to be independent. (p. 599) Mindset Revealed and Discussions. To interpret their mindsets in this main theme of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic and related topics, participants from the United States (8 entries) exhibited more mastery-oriented strategies to provide assessment choices, show 235 empathy, and adapt online mode in teaching than participants from China (2 entries) during this hard time, suggesting that participants from the United States showed more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from China in terms of experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. This mindset difference may be explained by past research. Two distinct independent vs. interdependent self-concepts between WEIRD and nonWEIRD groups were observed by Henrich et al. (2010). According to their summary, for instance, Westerners are less likely than non-Westerners to understand themselves in terms of roles and relationships and more likely to understand themselves in terms of personality traits and attitudes. They emphasized how this independent self-concept is strongly linked to three things: “(1) positively biased views of themselves; (2) a heightened valuation of personal choice; and (3) an increased motivation to ‘stand out’ rather than to ‘fit in’” (p. 71). Non-Westerners, especially those from East Asia, on the other hand, typically have a more interdependent selfconcept, which includes being modest and humble about their own abilities, depending on others for decision-making, and following social norms. As a result, the difference in self-concept may explain why, in comparison to participants from China, participants from the United States demonstrated more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability in terms of offering assessment options, showing empathy, and adapting to an online teaching environment during the COVID-19 pandemic, as they pay more attention to personal needs and personal development. Main Theme 2: Level of Knowledge About Motivation. In terms of motivation, mindsets underlie motivation, and the growth mindset enhances motivation and guides behavior to affect people’s success, independent of their starting ability (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). In the 236 present study, six participants were asked to talk about what they knew about the growth mindset concept, how they engaged students in their classes, and how they would respond to students who felt they did not belong to music. Based on the findings, six participants shared their opinions on this main theme of level of knowledge about motivation by addressing three related topics: two common topics were centered on modeling and relevance and one distinct topic was motivated by the teacher vs. motivated by the self (see Figure 4.1). Motivation Common Topic 1: Modeling. According to Sang (1987), “teachers who have stronger modeling skills and apply those skills in teaching are more likely to produce students who perform better than teachers who do not” (p. 158). Based on the findings in the present study, Alex, Bei, and Chen referred to modeling as the usual way they get students to participate, such as by demonstrating how to play an instrument, sing a song, and engage in a musical activity. They all agreed that how the music teacher presents in class determines how students participate in class. Motivation Common Topic 2: Relevance. According to Jorgensen (2008), music teachers need to “search for projects in which students will learn about the subject matter and themselves and which they will, insofar as possible, find to be immediately relevant to their life and work” and continue “looking ahead to what they might face in the future” to plan the curriculum and lesson plans that engage students in learning music (p. 68). Based on the findings in the present study, Ai, Chen, Calvin, and Bei shared the idea of making music teaching and learning relevant to the students. For example, Ai and Chen modified their teaching language, such as avoiding using professional language to introduce a musical concept, to make it more attractive, understandable, and memorable to their students as well as to encourage students who had no prior experience in music learning to join in the class. Furthermore, Calvin, Ai, and Bei designed 237 the class content that helped students connect to their real-world experiences to get them hooked on music, including incorporating pop music into the music class, discussing the benefits of music for personal growth, and encouraging students to create their own musical products. Motivation Distinct Topic: Motivated by the Teacher vs. Motivated by the Self. The PISA 2018—a large cross-national study of growth mindset—found that students’ growth mindset is highly associated with their teacher support. When their teachers assisted them with their learning, gave them extra help as needed, continued teaching until they understood, and showed an interest in the learning of all students, students were more likely to have a growth mindset. This group of effective teaching practices perceived by students across a wide range of countries might suggest a consistent global approach to cultivating a growth mindset in the classroom (OECD, 2021). Based on the findings of the present study, six participants presented a positive attitude when it came to motivating students who felt hopeless to learn music. They said they would encourage unsuccessful students to think differently, keep working, and accept their temporary upset as a normal reaction to the difficulties during music learning rather than using it as an excuse for giving up on their love of music and their participation in class. However, Alex and Bella presented a negative attitude at the same time, as did Bei. They believed that it is hard to motivate someone who does not have the desire to do music. In their opinions, it is the responsibility of the students to find their interests and motivate themselves to practice music diligently. If students are not interested in learning, they will never learn no matter what music teachers do. According to Hallam (1998), “the aim of the teacher should be to promote intrinsic motivation in students” (p. 99). Asmus (1994) emphasized that motivating students to success in 238 music learning needs to be a goal of music teaching. He stated that the music teacher is able to control motivation, which is the 20 percent of achievement. “The ability to alter the learning situation to account for a 20 percent increase in factors leading to achievement provides a powerful force in promoting music learning” (p. 6). In a review of the literature, West (2013) advised music teachers several effective practices to increase student motivation in music learning: (a) give students a voice in choosing literature and making musical decisions, (b) reward student growth rather than achievement, (c) let students see and hear you practicing your instrument, (d) allow and even require students to retake playing exams until they master them, (e) help students develop musical skills that can be applied to “outside-of-school” music such as ear-to-hand coordination, audiation, improvisation, song writing, and the ability to perform in small groups using social instruments (e.g., piano, guitar) in the absence of a conductor. (p. 17) In an article by Barry (2007), she addressed the issue of motivating the reluctant student and provided an explanation for why some students easily give up in the face of challenges. Although she acknowledged that it takes time to understand their thinking as “different students are motivated in different ways and for different reasons,” she believed that “by combining knowledge from psychological research with their own expertise, individual knowledge of the students, and intuition, teachers can develop teaching strategies to motivate even the most reluctant learner” (p. 27). Mindset Revealed and Discussions. To interpret their mindsets in this main theme of level of knowledge about motivation and related topics, participants from China (11 entries) exhibited more mastery-oriented strategies to provide demonstrations, promote relevance, and 239 apply motivational skills in teaching than participants from the United States (7 entries) to engage students in music learning, suggesting that participants from China showed more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability than participants from the United States in terms of level of knowledge about motivation. This mindset difference may be explained by past research. In Chinese culture, the teacher plays a key role in students’ development. One of the texts in Three Character Classis (san-zi-jing) [三字经], a traditional learning material for Chinese young students, documented that teachers should be criticized if they teach in a slack and lazy way. In other words, the teacher needs to take full responsibility for explaining why a child is not successful. This cultural impact on Chinese teachers makes them important characters in students’ learning, such as motivating and guiding students to acquire knowledge. As found in the OECD (2021), the correlation between teacher support and student growth mindset is the highest in several East Asian countries, which include China. “This association suggests that when educators not only teach, but also demonstrate an indefectible support to their students, it establishes a safe learning environment conducive to growth mindset development” (p. 34). The observation from Murphy et al. (2021) also suggests that collectivistic cultures in China place an emphasis on the connection between people: How teachers can effectively convey growth mindsets to students in these interdependent contexts is likely to differ from how teachers convey growth mindsets in more independent contexts. Teachers may, for example, focus on helping students in interdependent cultures adopt a collective identity as a class who believes that they can work together to grow as a group. Rather than focusing on the benefits to individuals, teachers may help students recognize how growth mindset beliefs and behaviors are beneficial to their family and 240 communities (e.g., by working hard to grow, you can set a good example for your younger siblings). (p. 10) Therefore, the role of teachers defined in Chinese society may explain why, in comparison to participants from the United States, participants from China demonstrated more of a growth mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability in terms of offering examples, promoting relevance, and applying motivational skills in teaching, as the culture shapes a belief that the teacher has a significant impact on students’ success. However, whether a power issue emerged from teacher modeling may need to be further discussed since the desire to behave well comes from significant persons in non-WEIRD environments (Markus, 2016). Main Theme 3: Understanding about Musical Talent. In terms of musical talent, mindsets may have a significant effect on how people judge others and how people treat others, both individuals and groups (Dweck & Yeager, 2019). Musical talent as a prejudiced notion has been widely used, which triggers a stereotype threat among students who do not show up with certain factors of being talented in music and further prevents them from participating in musicmaking. For example, one of Ai’s students mistakenly believed that she was ineligible to attend the music class since she had no prior experience in music learning and hence was not good at it. In the present study, six participants were challenged to confront their stereotypes toward the relationship between musical talent and a person’s multiple factors based on what they had noticed in their experiences. Based on the findings, they shared their opinions on this main theme of understanding about musical talent through addressing four related topics: three common topics were centered on hard to know, gender, and socioeconomic status, and one distinct topic was opinions on disability, race, music family, and personality (see Figure 4.1). 241 Musical Talent Common Topic 1: Hard to Know. According to Sloboda et al. (1994), the reason why musical ability is distributed unevenly in reality is mostly due to the mental capacities underlying musical ability. How music teachers view musical talent reflects their beliefs about students’ learning ability and their subsequent behaviors to help students during the learning process. Based on the findings in the present study, Calvin, Bella, Alex, Ai, Bei, and Chen all agreed that it is difficult to know the difference in students’ musical talent within a short period of time. In particular, Calvin, Bella, and Bei believed that student assessments and active participation in and after class might help them figure out students’ musical talent. Alex, Ai, and Chen further commented that musical talent is changeable as it evolves with time, so they are not able to predict students’ musical talent based on their current performances. Haroutounian (2002) addressed the fact that musical talent is both improvable and cultivable: A majority of performing musicians and music teachers probably agree that musical talent evolves from training and development. The basic sensory capacities are inherent, but musical talent is developmental rather than a “gift.” In the nature-nurture debate over the substance of musical talent, those involved in music education or performance would pose a strong argument for the “nurturing” of talent. A student may have a high music aptitude, but the development of musical talent relies on student commitment, physical capabilities, and teacher guidance. (p. 43) Musical Talent Common Topic 2: Gender. According to a survey study of 877 Chinese secondary school students, Ho (2001) investigated the musical learning of boys and girls and found a difference in their attitudes towards singing in music lessons. It suggested that girls were more likely than boys to enjoy singing. Based on the findings in the present study, Alex, Calvin, and Ai felt that girls are more talented in music than boys. For example, girls had no problems 242 continuing to sing, but boys refused to sing when they reached the age where their voices began to change, and this physical experience made them believe that singing was too feminine for them. In a mixed method study of 98 undergraduate music and non-music students in Australia, Harrison (2007) found that singing was perceived as a more feminine instrument option on a masculine-feminine continuum, and many male students encountered harassment inside and outside of school that impeded their singing. He stressed the issue of boys’ participation in music and the responsibilities of music teachers to “examine attitudes and beliefs of self, situation and students” (p. 279). He further stated the urgent need to challenge this gender-related stereotype and encourage boys to fully experience music through several strategies: 1. Role models: teacher, community, industry, and student 2. Engagement and training of suitable personnel 3. Producing music of a high standard that commands the respect of the community 4. Providing a variety of opportunities for boys and girls to participate in a range of music and non-music activities including the cautious use of sporting analogies for engagement and training of musicians. (p. 278) Musical Talent Common Topic 3: Socioeconomic Status. From Valencia’s book The Evolution of Deficit Thinking (1997), he pointed out that the low academic achievement of lowsocioeconomic status minority students was caused by the emphasis on differences in verbal and nonverbal communication between students and teachers that led to misunderstandings. “Such misunderstanding from these marked boundaries often result in students being labeled unmotivated to learn” (p. 1). Based on the findings in the present study, Calvin, Bella, Alex, Ai, Bei, and Chen all agreed that children from wealthy families have greater musical talent than children from impoverished families because their parents support their kids in learning music 243 and playing instruments to improve their musicianship. Robinson (2016) presented a professional development series on diversity and equity for preservice music teachers in the United States as he noted that they lack awareness of the perspectives of low-income students and depend on stereotypes while educating them. “Such stereotypes and beliefs may influence the way teachers evaluate students’ intelligence, knowledge, capacity, and future achievement” and “teachers’ expectations of students’ characteristics or behaviors shape the academic outcomes of such students” (p. 13). He suggested that music teacher preparation programs incorporate trainings on diversity and equity to provide preservice music teachers with a deeper understanding of social and cultural differences in their music classrooms. Musical Talent Distinct Topic: Opinions on Disability, Race, Music Family, and Personality. Based on the findings in the present study, all six participants saw no relationships between musical talent and disability or race, with the exception of Calvin’s statement on his positive experience working with students with special needs. Hoffman (2011) investigated the attitudes of 600 K-12 instrumental music educators’ perspectives in the United States toward students with special needs in their instrumental musical ensembles. Based on the survey results and other materials, music teachers reported that “overall, students with special needs were only moderately successful in the execution of musical and non-musical tasks associated with instrumental music study” (p. 121). Besides, Bella, Chen, Bei, and Ai brought up two new perspectives on the relationship between music family and musical talent as well as the relationship between personality and musical talent. Ai and Bei found that students who grow up in a music family tend to be more talented in music. However, according to Sloboda and Howe (1991), the results of their interview study with 42 elementary and secondary school students in a specialist music school in 244 England and their parents suggested that the more accomplished and exceptional children in music learning typically came from parents with lower musical activity levels. Bella and Chen noticed that quiet students were more likely to be musically talented. In a study of 28 music teachers’ perceptions of engaging students in music learning by Hallam et al. (2017) in the United Kingdom, some music teachers’ comments through their interviews indicated a different opinion toward quiet and shy students. One participant observed that “there are some students who are really shy and sort of sit in a corner and haven’t got much musical ability” (p. 267). Another participant noticed that “there are quite a number of instances of very quiet kids who are very good musically who often don't get a chance to shine in normal lessons” (p. 267). Mindset Revealed and Discussions. To interpret their mindsets in this main theme of understanding about musical talent and related topics, both participants from the United States and China exhibited a stereotype toward the link between musical talent and gender, the link between musical talent and socioeconomic status, and the link between musical talent and personality, suggesting that both participants from the United States (6 entries) and China (7 entries) showed more of a fixed mindset toward their teaching ability and students’ learning ability in terms of understanding about musical talent, even though all of them believed that they were not able to tell right away which students were musically talented and which were not. This mindset similarity revealed a serious problem with the pervasive stereotype of musical talent across two cultures. According to recent research, stigmatized individuals feel excluded, more anxious, and less interested in what they are doing when they anticipate being stereotyped by organizations with a fixed mindset (Emerson & Murphy, 2015; Bian et al., 2018). As a result, misconceptions 245 about musical talent may deter students who do not fit into these categories of gender, socioeconomic status, and personality from adopting a growth mindset when studying music. Thus, as teachers in music classrooms, how we interpret musical talent influences how we work with this idea when interacting with students. If we describe it as a common thing that everyone has, like Ai’s statement to regard the pulse as a sign of musical talent, it triggers the growth mindset. However, if we describe it as a special thing for only a few people, like Chen’s statement to regard singing off-pitch as a sign of a lack of musical talent, it triggers the fixed mindset. Implications for Practice This study had several implications that may inform practice in music teaching and learning. Mostly important, the findings suggest that music educators should gain a thorough understanding of the growth mindset and apply this concept to their teaching. To achieve this goal, it was recommended that teacher preparation programs in music teaching and learning establish a growth mindset culture as part of instruction. At the same time, higher education in music may establish a growth mindset culture on campus and districts and schools may assist novice music teachers to sustain a growth mindset in the face of challenges. More details are described below. First of all, the findings suggest that music educators should gain a thorough understanding of the growth mindset and apply this concept to their teaching. On the one hand, music teachers might take advantage of contemporary theory in learning and motivation and use the growth mindset as a psychological tool in the classroom to encourage students’ artistic expression and creative production in music making. On the other hand, music teachers, particularly first-year music teachers, might benefit from cultivating a growth mindset to help 246 them thrive in the praxis shock that results in a negative impression of teaching in reality and a decrease in their passion for teaching, as well as help them insist on improving their own teaching philosophy to direct the practice of pedagogy and the process of learning. As per the theoretical framework proposed in this study, the establishment of a growth mindset in music classroom culture is initiated by the intentions of music teachers and fulfilled by their subsequent implementations and their students’ experiences and feedback. The music teacher’s modeling becomes important. As Seaton (2018) claimed, “teachers are the bedrock of education” (p. 41). To induce a positive effect on students’ mindset and other allied beliefs, goals, and behaviors, the music teacher is encouraged to step out of the comfort zone and develop critical thinking to evaluate a fixed mindset towards music education that exists in society, the community, the school environment, and even the music teacher’s personal belief system. A fixed mindset in music teaching affects the understanding of how and why to teach music and the way to communicate these messages with students (Allsup, 2015). After a self-examination, the music teacher internalizes the growth mindset and externalizes it in teaching practices. Motivated by the music teacher’s culturally responsive growth mindset practices, students are motivated to work hard on solving musical problems, trying out alternative ways, and helping each other succeed in music learning. Their positive learning experiences in music promote them to introspect and believe in their malleable capacity to grow with a focus on effort and strategies. Students’ growth in music learning, in turn, stimulates the music teacher to acknowledge the power of a growth mindset and keep learning in the profession to scaffold students’ motivation in music-making. The music teacher is encouraged to view her teaching ability as 247 something that can be improved, hone her teaching skills, and experiment with new ideas to make a change. By doing so, a growth mindset in music classroom cultures is established, which continues to motivate the music teacher and students to produce better outcomes. Second, it was recommended that teacher preparation programs in music teaching and learning establish a growth mindset culture as part of instruction. Music teacher preparation programs may play a role in helping preservice music teachers endorse a growth mindset toward their upcoming teaching in reality as suggested by the findings. According to Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005), being “adaptive experts” was pointed out as an important goal for educating preservice teachers: The goal for teacher preservice preparation, then, is to provide teachers with the core ideas and broad understanding of teaching and learning that give the traction on their later development. . .to help teachers become “adaptive experts” who are prepared for effective lifelong learning that allows them to continuously add to the knowledge and skills. (p. 3) Their statement is in line with the idea of the growth mindset as it highlights the necessity of establishing a positive attitude among preservice teachers toward their capacity as “a source and creator of knowledge and skills needed for instruction” (Cohen & Ball, 1999, p. 6) and toward their identity as lifelong learners to maintain their knowledge storehouse stocked with relevant information and concepts. Therefore, music teacher preparation programs might consider integrating contemporary theory and study in learning and motivation, like the psychological concepts of fixed and growth mindsets, into the curriculum and teaching these ideas to preservice music teachers. 248 At the same time, music teacher preparation programs might consider inviting their recent graduates who are working as first-year music teachers to share their real-world experience of full-time teaching at school with preservice music teachers. By doing so, preservice music teachers may be better prepared with a growth mindset that their teaching ability and students’ learning ability are able to develop, a habit of self-motivated pursuit of knowledge, and a realistic expectation of what they may encounter during the transitioning year. To follow up on the second idea, higher education in music might establish a growth mindset culture on campus, such as by providing professional development for all teaching faculties, not just those working in music teacher preparation programs, to learn about the growth mindset effect and encourage them to weave this idea into their interactions with students. On the one hand, it creates a better environment for students to experiment with this notion in every class to catalyze learning. On the other hand, the growth mindset has a broader application than music teaching and learning. Faculty may find other benefits in their lives after having this positive belief. Third, the last step to help preservice music teachers successfully transition to in-service music teachers may require assistance from the districts and schools where they are working. As the findings suggested, first-year music teachers need community support when they are frustrated and exhausted. Facilitating a regular session for novice music teachers to share their ongoing moments may not only help them mentally relieve their pressure and get ideas from each other to try on, but it may also help district and school leaders, as well as other experienced music teachers, realize their needs and find ways to scaffold. This close communication may assist first-year music teachers in sustaining a growth mindset and therefore increasing teacher retention. 249 Limitations and Future Research Suggestions This study had a number of limitations, which were taken into consideration while making recommendations for further research in the sections that follow. In sum, the future researcher may recruit a larger sample of first-year music teachers, investigate what the music teacher actually does and how students perceive and experience the music classroom culture, and develop this research into a longitudinal study to trace these music teachers’ mindset development in the following years of music teaching. Future research might also consider going back to this data set and generating new perspectives based on the survey results as well as taking a closer look at the mindset causes and distinguishing a cultural impact or an individual event. In addition, the mixed mindset may need to be discussed in future research to investigate the necessity of categorizing it as the third mindset type and defining it in a better way. More details are described below. First, six interviewees were selected from among the small number of respondents in the preliminary survey. Even though three interviewees from China and three interviewees from the United States represented three mindset patterns (fixed, mixed, and growth), the findings may not be generalizable to the mindset state of the entire community of first-year music teachers. With more participants involved, the findings may be strengthened to better address the research questions. To replicate this study in the future, the researcher may contact the directors of music teacher training programs and build a relationship with their pre-service music teachers in advance. The researcher may keep in touch with them when they accept their first full-time teaching job at school and follow up with them on a regular basis throughout their first year of teaching to get a sense of how their teaching journey went. 250 Second, my knowledge of three mindset patterns (fixed, mixed, and growth) was limited to what I had learned during my short-term academic study in the educational psychology department and what I had read throughout this period of dissertation writing. Even though I am not a psychologist, I am contributing new discussions on the mindset concept to the field of music education, where there is very little understanding. I boldly proposed this interdisciplinary topic for my dissertation to interpret first-year music teachers’ experience through the lens of mindset because of my interest in enhancing music teacher quality and exploring ways to maximize students’ ability to grow in music. The deficiencies in this study were selfacknowledged and may be detected by experts in the field to help me further improve. For example, the mixed mindset may need to be discussed in future research to examine the necessity of categorizing it as the third mindset type and defining it in a better way. Third, data collection via classroom observation was restricted when this study was conducted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This study only examined what the teacher believes and plans to do. To generate a holistic picture of the growth mindset culture in the classroom, data from teachers’ intentions, teachers’ implementations, and students’ perceptions and experiences as presented in Murphy et al. (2021) are equally important to be gathered and analyzed. When replicating this study in the future, investigations into what the teacher actually does and how students perceive and experience the culture may be considered as additional steps to evaluate the classroom culture in the context of music and examine whether or not the growth mindset is put into effect to produce positive outcomes for both teachers and students. Fourth, this study largely focused on analyzing the interviews of six participants, who reflected on their experiences from music learning before college to music teaching after the first year, to explore the mindset development of each independent case. The rich information 251 gathered from the preliminary survey as a part of data collection, however, was not elaborated on that much in this study. Future research might consider going back to this data set and generating new perspectives about mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures. For instance, the link between imposter syndrome and growth mindset might be interesting to research. Fifth, this study only traced the mindset development of six participants to the end of the first year of teaching. In terms of the interview question of what are the things that you are likely to change or try next year, future research can follow up with these first-year music teachers as they begin their second year of teaching and repeat some of the interview questions conducted in this study to trace their mindset development until the end of the second year of teaching. This study laid the foundation for a future longitudinal investigation. It would be interesting to observe whether, in comparison to their first year of teaching, their developing mindsets about music teaching and learning remained the same or changed differently as a result of continued teaching practice, the working environment, mindset preferences in individualistic and collectivistic cultures, and other factors. Sixth, the development of a mindset is complicated to trace since the trigger may be hidden and not obvious at the moment, but it may develop later in the future to become the cause of a certain behavior. If we examine more closely, we may see that the mindset might be triggered by a cultural impact or by an individual event. For example, in the beginning narratives from Chapter 1, Max’s perspective on teaching as he was taught was shaped by his music learning experience, whereas the boys’ perception of their fixed ability to sing was influenced by a biased comment made by Mrs. Shen, their classroom teacher. The nuance of the mindset trigger, as it was not discussed in this study, might 252 have an impact on determining the source of the problem and the plan of action for subsequently cultivating a growth mindset. As a reflection on the mindset criticism posted by Paul Thomas (2018), critical thinking needs to be presented when a mindset is caused by a cultural impact, especially for students who don’t have environments that support growth mindset development because of systemic biases. Therefore, the researchers for future studies need to be clear when defining the mindset trigger in order to generate suggestions about the systemic forces that shape how students live and learn for better scaffolding through an equity lens. Dissertation Conclusion Through the six participants’ sharing of their first-year journeys as music teachers, this study found that their perceptions toward their first year of teaching ability and students’ learning ability indicated the effect of endorsing more of a growth, fixed, or mixed mindset. It was also found that their developing beliefs toward music teaching and learning reflected their trauma of being misguided in the past, and this may have affected their motivations to improve themselves in the future. The similar and different ideas toward the COVID-19 pandemic, motivation, and musical talent shared by six participants further revealed the nuance of music teachers’ mindsets in differing cultures. At the same time, the findings of six participants suggested a careful consideration that is needed before implementing a growth mindset in different individuals as well as a proper intervention that is needed after implementing a growth mindset in different individuals to ensure a positive effect at the end. As Dweck and Yeager (2019) underlined in their paper: The findings from correlational and experimental research that a growth mindset 253 can predict and promote more challenge-seeking, resilience, and positive outcomes do not mean that a growth mindset is always positive. Perhaps some personal attributes cannot or should not be changed. Perhaps a growth mindset can be used for negative ends (getting better at an ability that is used to inflict harm), and perhaps it is sometimes appropriate or wise to give up (persistence without progress should always be questioned). Our findings simply suggest that a growth mindset can form the core of a larger meaning system that can, under favorable conditions, help people engage in thoughts and actions that lead them closer to their goals. (p. 12) As the growth mindset effects are of different magnitudes in different contexts and for different populations, it is important to observe the strong relationship between culture and mindset as well as the cultural impact on variations in understanding and applying it to individuals’ lives. For example, a growth mindset in classroom culture in interdependent contexts may have different outcomes than a growth mindset in classroom culture in independent contexts. Therefore, to achieve the goal of endorsing a growth mindset to help everyone succeed, it is necessary to discuss the growth mindset effect case by case and make the appropriate adjustments based on the different circumstances of each individual. Furthermore, the growth mindset should never be used as a tool for social comparison that distorts its meaning. One day, I was shocked by reading a title that said, “Chinese Children Crush Americans in Math Thanks to a Mindset Americans Only Display in One Place: Sports” (Kane, 2017). On the one hand, the growth mindset was misinterpreted as a cultural thing as it was compared between two countries, which would cause a stereotype, like the Chinese children are good at math and taking tests because they are trained to have a growth mindset. On the other hand, the growth mindset was misinterpreted as a direct factor in success as it was described as a 254 synonym for effort, which would cause a false growth mindset, like having a growth mindset means to work hard and that will help you achieve a higher grade. Either way, the true benefit of cultivating a growth mindset would not be recognized. In fact, success is determined not just by a person’s mindset but also by other factors involved in the process. Having a growth mindset may only provide a good mental state as the first step to making a difference. Therefore, a comprehensive explanation of the growth mindset needs to be communicated to the public to improve the quality of application. This study explored mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures. Through reflecting on a variety of satisfied and unsatisfied events described by music teachers during their early careers, the importance of applying the psychological concepts of fixed and growth mindsets to promote a positive experience for their music teaching and their students’ music learning was highlighted. The findings supported a deeper understanding of why a person’s interpretations of social and academic adversity play a role in determining a person’s outcomes as the citation presented at the very beginning suggested. 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Psychological Science, 28(12), 1868–1870. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617721529 275 Appendix A: IRB Study Approval Letter 9/21/23, 10:27 AM University of Southern California Mail - Study Approval Notice Sent https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/?ik=a8ee4dbdc9&view=pt&search=all&permthid=thread-f:1727381628290842799&simpl=msg-f:1727381628290842799 1/2 Jialin Li <jli847@usc.edu> Study Approval Notice Sent 1 message istar-DoNotReply@usc.edu <istar-DoNotReply@usc.edu> Tue, Mar 15, 2022 at 11:51 AM Reply-To: istar-DoNotReply@usc.edu To: peterweb@usc.edu, jli847@usc.edu University of Southern California Institutional Review Board 3720 S. Flower Street, Suite 325 Los Angeles, CA 90089 Telephone: (323) 442-0114 Fax: (323) 224-8389 Email: irb@usc.edu Date: Mar 15, 2022, 08:50am Action Taken: Approve Principal Investigator: Jialin Li THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC Faculty Advisor: Peter Webster THORNTON SCHOOL OF MUSIC Co-Investigator(s): Project Title: Music Teacher Mindset Study ID: UP-22-00161 Funding: The University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) designee reviewed your iStar application and attachments on 3/15/2022. Based on the information submitted for review, this study is determined to be exempt from 45 CFR 46 according to §46.104(d) as category 2. As research which is considered exempt according to §46.104(d), this project is not subject to requirements for continuing review. You are authorized to conduct this research as approved. If there are significant changes that increase the risk to subjects or if the funding has changed, you must submit an amendment to the IRB for review and approval. For other revisions to the application, use the “Send Message to IRB” link. The materials submitted and considered for review of this project included: 1. iStar application dated 2/21/2022 2. Jialin LI - Social-Behavioral-Protocol, dated 2/21/2022 3. Jialin Li - Interview Protocol, dated 2/21/2022 4. Jialin Li – Survey, dated 2/21/2022 INFORMATION SHEET AND RECRUITMENT It is the responsibility of the principal investigator to follow the principles of the Belmont Report, which requires all potential participants to be informed of the research study, their rights as a participant, confidentiality of their data, etc. per USC IRB policy. Please utilize the attached Information Sheet For Exempt Research and Guidance for Recruitment materials. The documents should include information specific to your study. These documents will not be reviewed by the IRB; however, it is the responsibility of the researcher to make sure the documents are consistent with the study procedures listed in the IRB application. NOTE: In the event that this study is audited by the IRB, you are required to provide the Information Sheet and recruitment documents used for this study. SITE PERMISSIONS The principal investigator for this study is responsible for obtaining site permissions. IRB approval does not convey approval to commence research in the event that other requirements have not been satisfied. STUDY PERSONNEL Individuals who are knowledgeable about the protocol must obtain consent from subjects for participation in a study. Specifically, they must be able to describe the purpose, procedures, benefits, risks, and alternatives to participation in the study. They must be able to answer subjects’ questions about the protocol and about risks of 276 Appendix B: Survey Protocol Survey on First-Year K–12 Music Teachers' Beliefs Start of Block: Intro Intro Dear music teachers, Thanks for participating in this study. This survey is part of my doctoral dissertation on FirstYear K–12 Music Teachers' Beliefs. By answering the survey, you consent to participate in this study. This survey may take 30 minutes to complete. Your responses are voluntary and will be confidential. Your answers will help me report the real experience of first-year music teachers to improve the development of music education. If you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact me directly. Gratefully, Jialin Li, B. A., M. A., DMA Candidate in Music Teaching and Learning Thornton School of Music University of Southern California Email: jli847@usc.edu Cell: 646-322-3985 End of Block: Intro Start of Block: Demographic Intro Please write down your name and contact information. ________________________________________________________________ Q1 How do you describe yourself? o Male (1) oFemale (2) o Non-binary / third gender (3) oPrefer to self-describe (4) ________________________________________________ oPrefer not to say (5) 277 Q2 How old are you? Please write down your age. ________________________________________________________________ Q3 How do you identify your race/ethnicity? Please check ALL that apply. ▢ American Indian or Alaska Native (1) ▢ Asian (2) ▢ Black or African American (3) ▢ Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander (4) ▢ White (5) ▢ Prefer to self-describe (6) ________________________________________________ ▢ Prefer not to say (7) End of Block: Demographic Start of Block: Educational Background 278 Q4 What degree(s) had you earned, and you are studying now? Please check ALL that apply. ▢ Bachelor's (Please write down the name of your major(s), college(s)/university(ies), and the year you graduated) (1) ________________________________________________ ▢ Master's (Please write down the name of your major(s), college(s)/university(ies), and the year you graduated/are expected to graduate) (2) ________________________________________________ ▢ Other (3) ________________________________________________ Q5 Did you complete a program that aims to help you get the teaching credential in music? o Yes (1) o No (2) Q6 Please write down the name of your teaching credential in music, when you received it, and the grade level(s) you are credentialed to teach. ________________________________________________________________ End of Block: Educational Background Start of Block: Working Experience Q7 When did you first start a full-time position as a music teacher? Please write down the year and the month. ________________________________________________________________ 279 Q8 Where was your school location in the last school year 2021-2022? Please check ALL that apply and write down the state/province. ▢ State/Province (1) ________________________________________________ ▢ Urban (2) ▢ Suburban (3) ▢ Rural (4) Q9 What type of school did you teach in the last school year? oPublic school (1) oPrivate school (2) o Charter school (3) Q10 Which music subject(s) did you teach in the last school year? Please check ALL that apply and indicate the grade level(s). ▢ General (Please write down the grade level(s) you taught) (1) ________________________________________________ ▢ Choral (Please write down the grade level(s) you taught) (2) ________________________________________________ ▢ Instrumental (Please write down the grade level(s) you taught) (3) ________________________________________________ ▢ Other (4) ________________________________________________ 280 Q11 On average, how many students did you teach in the various class? Please write down the number of students. ________________________________________________________________ Q12 How much of your teaching was online? Please write down the number/percentage. ________________________________________________________________ Q13 Are you satisfied with your work as a music teacher so far? o Not at all satisfied (1) oSlightly satisfied (2) o Moderately satisfied (3) o Very satisfied (4) o Extremely satisfied (5) Q14 What would be the factors that made you most satisfied? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ Q15 What would be the factors that made you least satisfied? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ End of Block: Working Experience Start of Block: General Teaching Expectations 281 Q16 As you began your teaching last year, which of the following best describes your expectations about music teaching? oI had firm expectations. (Please give some examples) (1) ________________________________________________ oI had firm expectations but some wonderments as well. (Please describe) (2) ________________________________________________ oI had no special expectations. (3) Q17 Considering your answer to Q16, how have your expectations changed after your firstyear experience? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ Q18 What shaped the development of your beliefs towards music education at the start of your first-year experience? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ Q19 Have any of those beliefs changed after your first-year teaching? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ End of Block: General Teaching Expectations Start of Block: Specific Teaching Beliefs and Practices Q20 What percentage of talent vs effort do you think leads to your teaching success? Please estimate the percentage (sum = 100%). Talent : _______ (1) Effort : _______ (2) Total : ________ 282 Q21 To what extent do you agree with the following statements when you consider the ability of music teachers? 283 Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree or disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) The kind of teacher someone is, is something very basic about them and can't be changed very much. (1) o o o o o o o No matter how much natural ability teachers may have, they can always find important ways to improve. (2) o o o o o o o Some teachers will be ineffective no matter how hard they try to improve. (3) o o o o o o o 284 Teachers can change the way they teach in the classroom, but they can’t really change their true teaching ability. (4) o o o o o o o Every teacher, no matter who they are, can significantly improve their teaching ability. (5) o o o o o o o 285 Q22 To what extent do you agree with the following statements when you consider the ability of students? 286 Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat disagree (3) Neither agree or disagree (4) Somewhat agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly agree (7) If students find the work hard and get confused in music learning, it means they probably won’t succeed in class. (1) o o o o o o o Everyone can be successful in music learning with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others. (2) o o o o o o o Being a top music student requires a special talent that just can't be taught. (3) o o o o o o o 287 If students find the work hard and get confused in music learning, it means they are learning and improving, and growing their brains. (4) o o o o o o o Students have a certain amount of musical intelligence, and they really can't do much to change it. (5) o o o o o o o 288 Q23 How frequently did you engage in the following practices in your classroom in the last school year? 289 Never (1) Rarely (2) Sometimes (3) Often (4) Always (5) I give specific feedback about what students are doing correctly and incorrectly and offer different strategies to help students overcome difficulties. (1) o o o o o I say or do something to explicitly celebrate students’ mistakes and explain that they are opportunities for the class to learn more. (2) o o o o o I model different ways of approaching material/different perspectives and design lessons where students try using different approaches to the same material. (3) o o o o o 290 I care about whether my students truly learn the material so that my assessment focuses on their process and growth of music learning over time. (4) o o o o o I reflect on how my current practices do or don't orient students toward growth, progress, and mastery. (5) o o o o o I focus on identifying and nurturing students who have a real talent and natural ability for learning the course material. (6) o o o o o I praise students for being smart when they earn good scores and grades and do well in my class. (7) o o o o o I typically stick with the teaching methods and materials that I already know for sure how to use. (8) o o o o o 291 I care about whether my students get a high score on the assignments so that my assessment focuses on their perfect performance. (9) o o o o o I praise students for the process they engaged in—their effort, their strategies, their focus, or their persistence they employed to solve problems in music learning. (10) o o o o o I invite other teachers to visit my class and ask for feedback on my teaching. (11) o o o o o I encourage students to ask questions so that I can adjust my teaching to their needs. (12) o o o o o End of Block: Specific Teaching Beliefs and Practices Start of Block: Covid Impact Q24 How has the COVID-19 pandemic changed how you think about music education? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ 292 Q25 How has the COVID-19 pandemic changed how you teach music? Please describe. ________________________________________________________________ End Thank you for your time spent taking this survey! Please write down your name and contact information for a drawing and a potential follow-up interview. ________________________________________________________________ End of Block: Covid Impact 293 Appendix C: Interview Protocol Interview about First-Year K–12 Music Teachers' Beliefs Hi (the name of the interviewee), Thank you so much for taking the time to talk to me today. My name is Jialin Li and I am a doctoral student in the music education department at the University of Southern California. This interview is part of my doctoral dissertation on First-Year K–12 Music Teachers' Beliefs. The purpose is to learn more about you as a first-year music teacher, your beliefs, and your practices in music education by asking you a series of follow-up questions based on your survey responses. This interview is divided into four parts. The first part is about your music learning experience before and during the college. The second part is about what you did during your first year of teaching. The third part is about your general teaching philosophy. And the last part is some wrap-up questions. After the interview, we will go through your survey, talk about our last task, and see if you have any questions for me. The whole process may take 2 hours to complete. By answering the questions, you consent to participate in this study. Your responses are voluntary and will be confidential. There are no right or wrong answers to any of the questions. Please feel free to skip any questions that you are uncomfortable answering. You can stop the interview at any time. I will record this interview from the beginning. This recording will only be used to transcribe the data for research purposes and will be destroyed after the transcriptions. Any questions before we begin? Great. Let’s start. 1. Could you start by briefly telling me about your music learning experience before college? • Before you decided to study music teaching as a major, what were some of the significant music experiences or individuals that played a role in your decision to be a music teacher? • How did this affect your current teaching approach or developing philosophical thinking about teaching music? 2. Could you briefly tell me about your music learning experience during college? • During your formal study of music teaching and learning in college, were there any experiences or individuals that inspired you to consider music teaching as a career? • What were the things that you learned from the program that still influence your current teaching approach and developing philosophical thinking about teaching music? • How well did you believe the program have prepared you to teach music? In what ways could your program have better prepared you for contemporary music teaching? 294 3. Now, part 2. Let’s talk about your experience with your students and their learning during your 1st year of teaching. What were your students like? • How would you describe your students’ ability to learn music? • How did you treat students with different levels of ability to learn music (varying degrees of musical intelligence)? • Were you able to tell right away which students were musically talented and which were not? Did you see any tendencies suggesting a relationship between musical talent and a person’s gender, socioeconomic status, disability, and race? 4. Regarding your 1st year of teaching, could you briefly describe your classroom culture? For example, how do you define your role in your class? Can you describe your approach to class management? • How do you engage students in your class? • How do you assess students’ music development? • For the statement of “Everyone can be successful with time, practice, good strategies, and help from others”, you selected "___" to indicate your level of agreement. Could you please elaborate on your choice? For example, in what ways did you see this was implemented in your classroom? How do you motivate your students to have the same belief and be successful in music learning? 5. Now I have a few questions about some specific teaching examples. • Tell me an example of how you dealt with a student who made mistakes in your class. • Tell me an example of how you dealt with a student who failed (didn’t do well) in your class. • Tell me about an example of how you dealt with a student struggling to understand your class. • If a student says, “I am not good at music, music is not my thing”, what would be your response and action? • If a student or a teacher who observed your class says, “I don’t like the activity you have prepared for today’s class”, what would be your response and action? • If a student completes a challenging task in your class, what would be your response and action? 6. Overall, how did you feel about your first-year teaching? • Tell me a challenge or a problem you encountered in your first year of teaching. • In what ways did your school support and value your class and music education? • What are some areas where you would like to have more support in your music instruction? 7. Part 3. Now that you have experienced your 1st year, have you sensed any moments that you feel you can do better? • Were there any moments that gave you a sense of achievement to continue down this career? 295 • Have you found any interesting professional development during your first year that brought you any new ideas? • Compared to your student teaching experience, what changes or improvements have you noticed from your first year? • What are the things that you are likely to change or try next year? • To estimate how much percentage of talent and effort that leads your teaching success, you wrote that “__% talent plus ___% effort”, how do you define “success” in your teaching? What would be your goal of teaching? • What are the factors that make you believe that your teaching success is made of “__% talent plus ___% effort”? 8. Tell me a little bit more about your overall philosophy and approach to music teaching after your 1st year. 9. Part 4. During COVID-19, have you developed any new thinking and doing for teaching music that are effective to be continued in your following semester? 10. If I am going to teach music as a new teacher, what advice would you give me? 11. Have you ever heard of the concept of a “growth mindset”? What have you heard about it? 12. Is there anything else you would like to share with me about your beliefs and practices in music education? Note. After the interview, I will ask each interviewee to email me something they did for the last school year that reflects their current view towards music teaching and learning, and to describe why they choose this example and how it reflects their current thinking.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Fixed and growth mindsets describe the underlying beliefs people have about human capacity to grow (Dweck, 2006). The theoretical framework of growth mindset classroom cultures (Murphy et al., 2021) as interpreted in the context of music education provided a solid foundation. This qualitative multiple case study explored the mindset construct and its role in first-year music teachers from the United States and China. Three research questions were focused on their mindset development about their own teaching ability and students’ learning ability throughout their first year of teaching and any similarities and differences in their mindsets across two cultures. Through within-case and cross-case analyses of their experiences via interview and teaching material, six novice music teachers’ mindsets displayed differing results and varied after teaching practice. Three music teachers changed their mindsets and moved toward the growth end of the mindset spectrum in terms of their teaching ability, and there was no change in six music teachers’ mindsets toward students’ learning ability at the end of their first year of teaching. All six participants’ perspectives on the main themes of the COVID-19 pandemic, motivation, and musical talent further revealed mindset differences in terms of different cultures. The findings suggest that music educators should gain a thorough understanding of the growth mindset and apply this concept to their teaching. To achieve this goal, it was recommended that teacher preparation programs in music teaching and learning establish a growth mindset culture as part of instruction.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Li, Jialin (author)

Core Title Mindset and its role in first-year music teachers in differing cultures

School Thornton School of Music

Degree Doctor of Musical Arts

Degree Program Music Teaching and Learning

Degree Conferral Date 2023-12

Publication Date 12/19/2023

Defense Date 12/07/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag case study,COVID-19,cultural comparison,first-year music teacher,fixed and growth mindsets,motivation,music teacher mindset,music teacher perspective,music teacher training program,musical talent,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ilari, Beatriz (committee chair), Coppola, William (committee member), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Webster, Peter (committee member)

Creator Email jl7817@nyu.edu,jli847@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113797525

Unique identifier UC113797525

Identifier etd-LiJialin-12575.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-LiJialin-12575

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Li, Jialin

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Source 20231221-usctheses-batch-1117 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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