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Perceptions of Army leaders and recruitment challenges: a qualitative grounded theory

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Perceptions of Army leaders and recruitment challenges: a qualitative grounded theory

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Content Perceptions of Army Leaders and Recruitment Challenges:
A Qualitative Grounded Theory
Bumjin Park
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Bumjin Park 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Bumjin Park certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Maria Gutierrez Ott
Michael J. Colarusso
Douglas Lynch, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to provide an original qualitative grounded theory approach to
explore the lived experiences of Army leaders who have been in service for over 10 years
regarding recruitment challenges and causes. The context of the problem that was addressed
through the purpose included how the U.S. Army continues to struggle to recruit new personnel,
which requires strategies to support an informed understanding of the causes of this issue to
support strategies to address the shortfall. The theoretical framework used was the military
recruitment model. After analysis of the data, four themes that directly address the study’s
guiding research questions emerged: (a) internal perspectives; (b) Army responses; (c) labor
market changes; and (d) responses and strategies. The findings from this research provided
valuable insights into factors influencing recruitment strategies for the U.S. Army. This
information may help inform policy changes and initiatives addressing recruitment challenges in
the Army. By understanding the specific factors that affect recruitment, the study can contribute
to developing targeted strategies to improve recruitment rates. These strategies can focus on
addressing the identified challenges and improving the overall experience of service members. A
thorough exploration of Army leader perceptions can illuminate the strategies that may address
recruitment challenges most salient to a potential solution. The findings prompted that future
recommendations for research should focus on viable solutions to the shortages found in military
personnel and provide a means to overcome the current struggle in recruiting new personnel.

v
Dedication
To my beloved family and the esteemed mentors who have illuminated my path, my journey as a
lieutenant colonel in the Army National Guard, striving to serve our nation while delving into the
critical issue of Army recruiting shortfalls, has been challenging and rewarding. This significant
concern, which resonates deeply with leaders and threatens our national security, demanded my
utmost dedication and effort. This endeavor would not have been possible without the generous
participation of Army leaders who shared their invaluable insights and experiences during
extensive interviews. Their willingness to contribute has been a cornerstone of my research,
offering profound perspectives that have enriched my understanding and analysis of the subject.
To my wife, Ms. Jae Young Park, whose unwavering support has been my anchor throughout
this demanding journey. Her steadfast presence, coupled with her emotional and physical
support, has fortified me against the challenges faced on the home front and in my academic
pursuits. Jae, your resilience and dedication have been a source of endless inspiration and
strength.
To my children, Shane, Soul, and Lyric, your love and moral support have been the beacons that
guided me through the darkest nights and into the light of achievement. Your joy, laughter, and
unconditional love have replenished my spirit, empowering me to persevere and succeed. I am
profoundly grateful for your patience, understanding, and encouragement, which have been
pivotal in reaching this milestone. Without the collective support of my family and the esteemed
Army leaders who participated in this study, this achievement would remain an unfulfilled
dream. Your love, support, and contributions have been the bedrock of my success.

vi
Acknowledgements
This document reflects the culmination of a rigorous academic endeavor and the
collective support and guidance of numerous individuals whose contributions have been
invaluable. As the author of this study, I extend my deepest gratitude to the faculty members,
friends, and cohorts who have played a pivotal role in realizing this research. Their formal
assistance, be it through intellectual discourse, technical support, or critical feedback, has been
indispensable. I am particularly grateful to my dissertation committee, led by Dr. Douglas
Lynch, whose expertise and mentorship have profoundly shaped this study’s direction and
outcome. Dr. Michael Colarusso and Dr. Maria Ott, committee members, have also provided
essential insights and support that significantly enhanced the quality and depth of my research.
Their collective guidance has been a cornerstone of this academic journey. This study was
completed through various forms of support, including receiving agreements from the Army
Human Research Protection Office, approval from the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board, and institutional resources. I acknowledge that no financial or
material support has facilitated my research, adhering to all study registration requirements, and
ensuring a transparent and ethical research process. Details regarding these aspects, including
any disclaimers or statements regarding conflicts of interest, are noted to maintain the integrity
of this work. As the author, I also wish to highlight the importance of open communication and
collaboration in academic research. I am open to inquiries and further discussions regarding this
study, welcoming contact from interested readers and scholars who wish to delve deeper into the
findings or methodology. My commitment to data sharing and collaboration is aimed at fostering
continued research and dialogue within the academic community.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .............................................................................................. 1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 3
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 5
Overview of the Theoretical Framework ............................................................................ 5
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 7
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 7
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .......................................................................................... 9
Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 10
U.S. Army Recruitment .................................................................................................... 12
Factors That Influence Recruitment.................................................................................. 19
The Role of Recruitment With Attrition ........................................................................... 33
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 35
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 38
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 39
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 39
The Role of the Researcher ............................................................................................... 40
Participants ........................................................................................................................ 40

viii
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 42
Recruitment ....................................................................................................................... 44
Document Analysis ........................................................................................................... 44
Interviews .......................................................................................................................... 44
Trustworthiness ................................................................................................................. 45
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 46
Reflexive Thematic Analysis ............................................................................................ 47
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 48
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 49
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter Four: Results ................................................................................................................... 51
Demographics ................................................................................................................... 52
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 53
Final Themes ..................................................................................................................... 60
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 69
Findings............................................................................................................................. 70
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................... 78
Military Recruiting Objective Theory .............................................................................. 79
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 81
Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 81
References ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Appendix A: Interview Guide ....................................................................................................... 96
Appendix B: Document Analysis Form ........................................................................................ 98
Appendix C: Recruitment Flyer .................................................................................................... 99

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Military Recruitment Model Factors 11
Table 2: Participant Demographics 52
Table 3: Codes and Descriptions 54
Table 4: Categories 58
Table 5: Final Themes 60

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Increase in DoD Recruiting Budget to Address Shortfalls 18
Figure 2: Increase in Army Recruiters 19
Figure 3: Construct of Military Recruiting Objective Theory 79

xi
List of Abbreviations
ASVAB Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
DACES Department of the Army Career Engagement Survey
LROC Longitudinal Research on Officer Careers
MOS Military occupational skill
NDAA National Defense Authorization Act
NCOs Non-commissioned officers
ROTC Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
SSMP Sample Survey of Military Personnel
DoD U.S. Department of Defense

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
At the start of 2023, military recruiting experienced a severe decline, with each branch
falling short of its recruitment needs by more than 25% (Barno & Bensahel, 2023). Recruitment
issues ultimately presented a substantial concern for national security threats, protection of local
security, and the support of enlisted military personnel. However, data showed a continued issue
with falling recruitment numbers (Asch, 2023). The challenge is not only recruitment but also
reflects a deeper issue, such as labor market changes and socio-political shifts (Dexter, 2020).
The study examined this topic by exploring U.S. Army leaders’ perspectives on modern
recruiting and conducting a review of available empirical literature and document analysis by
applying the military recruitment model using a grounded theory approach (Usiak et al., 2018).
These leaders, who were selected for their relevant experience in recruitment and years of
service (10+ years), offered expertise and unique perspectives on recruitment.
By exploring the military recruitment model and applying it to a modern recruiting
setting of the U.S. Army, the study used a grounded theory approach that incorporates Army
leaders’ perspectives. The findings of this study were used to develop an original grounded
theory predicated on using the military recruitment model as a foundation. This theory is called
the military recruiting objective theory, and it is constructed from the themes established through
the interview responses and document analysis.
Chapter One is the introductory chapter of the dissertation. Chapter One includes a
description of the problem of the study and the background characteristics associated with the
problem. The purpose of the study and research questions are further elaborated in Chapter One
of the study. The chapter concludes by defining key terms and the limitations and delimitations
of the study.

2
Context and Background of the Problem
The U.S. Army’s recruitment challenges are multifaceted and require a nuanced
understanding to develop effective strategies. While Asch’s (2019) research at RAND
Corporation provides valuable insights, with less than 10% of surveyed young adults expressing
interest in active duty Army positions, it is crucial to consult various sources. For instance, the
Army’s recruitment shortfall in 2022 was 15,000 military personnel, representing a 75% shortfall
of the goal (Asch, 2023). However, the Department of Defense (DoD) Strategic Guidance
documents (DoD, 2022) and the National Defense Strategy (NDS, 2022) provide context for
these challenges, emphasizing the shift in focus towards preparing for future conflicts, which
includes the expansion of specialized forces such as the Space Force and Cyber Command.
The reduction in the size of the Armed Forces since 1968 was a strategic decision, with
the active duty force structure nearly halved after the Cold War to create a more agile and
technologically advanced military. This reshaping is evident in the budget allocations, with the
Space Force’s budget increasing to $24.5 billion in 2022—a 40% increase—(DoD Budget, 2022)
and the U.S. Cyber Command’s budget to $10.4 billion (Cyber Command Budget, 2022). These
investments reflect the military’s strategic pivot to address emerging threats in space and
cyberspace.
The Army has implemented various initiatives to address the recruitment shortfall, such
as the Army Marketing and Advertising Program, which received $200 million in funding in
2022 (Army Budget, 2022). Additionally, the “Future Soldier Preparatory Course” aims to
expand the pool of eligible recruits by providing academic and fitness preparation (Army News
Service, 2022). These efforts, coupled with a comprehensive analysis of recruitment challenges
and strategic investments in future capabilities, are crucial for the Army’s adaptation to the

3
evolving security landscape. A reduced pool of skilled and qualified recruits challenges the
efficacy of national security missions (Jung et al., 2023; Marble et al., 2020). Failing to address
this problem also has ramifications for enlisted military members (McGee, 2021; Tchitchinadze
& Ovsyannikova, 2022). Data indicated that the difficulties of recruitment represent a
challenging organizational issue that requires strategic approaches for improvement. Information
is required to achieve a deeper understanding of recruitment challenges. According to Asch
(2023), strategic approaches must consider information related to socio-political effects on the
labor market, the competitiveness of recruitment strategies, Army responses, and perceptions
towards targeting a renewed perspective towards recruitment shortfalls. Thus, the problem
identified requires a nuanced examination of the topic to build toward a conceptual model that
identifies the theoretical underpinnings of recruitment while acknowledging potential strategies
for change.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative grounded theory approach is to explore the lived
experiences of Army leaders who have been in service for over 10 years regarding recruitment
challenges and causes. A grounded theory approach was used to examine one service branch
specifically, the Army, to explore factors contributing to the recruitment challenges from the
lived experiences of Army leaders. A grounded theory qualitative research was used to create an
inductive theory (e.g., the Army) to develop a conceptual theory that explored (a) labor market
changes, (b) Army responses, (c) perceptions of the challenges to develop a potential framework
of recommendations to this issue.
The scope of the study was focused on recruitment, specifically toward labor market
changes (empirical literature), Army responses (document analysis), and perceptions of the

4
challenges identified by leadership (interview data). A purposive sample was used to select
Army leaders with the following criteria: (a) must be an Army leader with 10 or more years in
service and (b) must be able to discuss factors associated with recruitment challenges. Data
collection included document analysis, semi-structured interviews with 10 participants, and a
thorough literature review. The analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic
approach using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software. Information from the
interviews, document analysis, and review literature was triangulated to examine the available
data better. The obtained data contributed to a grounded theory approach.
Execution of the study can hold some potential for a positive social impact as the findings
could result in understanding a preliminary conceptual model to support solutions to recruiting
military members in the Army branch. The practical social impact could be that military
leadership can understand the causes and potential solutions associated with recruitment
challenges based on a complex understanding of factors, solutions, and perspectives by Army
leaders. This is explained well by Roy Suddaby (2023), who said, “grounded theory is more
appropriate for understanding how a group or person subjectively perceives a process, or to study
how a reality is understood rather than to generate knowledge regarding objective reality.” When
designing a grounded theory research question, the key is to keep it “broad, open-ended, and
action-oriented” (McLeod, 2011, p. 120). Four research questions guided this study:
1. What are Army leaders’ perceptions of recruitment challenges in the current labor
market?
2. What are Army responses to changes associated with recruitment shortfalls?
3. How has the labor market affected recruitment shortfalls?

5
4. What are potential recommendations for addressing the Army recruitment
challenges?
Importance of the Study
The research can hold practical significance to several stakeholders. The dissertation can
provide valuable insights into the factors influencing recruitment strategies for the U.S. Army.
This information may help inform policy changes and initiatives addressing recruitment
challenges in the Army. By understanding the specific factors that affect recruitment, the study
can contribute to developing targeted strategies to improve recruitment rates. These strategies
can focus on addressing the identified challenges and improving the overall experience of service
members. A thorough exploration of Army leader perceptions can illuminate the strategies that
may address recruitment challenges most salient to a potential solution (Winkie, 2023). This
knowledge can aid in refining recruitment efforts and attracting individuals who are more likely
to continue serving (Bartone & Bowles, 2020; Dexter, 2020). The study’s findings may
contribute to valuable strategies for the Army to enhance recruitment. The dissertation can serve
as a robust source of evidence for policymakers, military leaders, and scholars. Additionally, the
findings can be used to make informed decisions and develop evidence-based interventions to
improve recruitment.
Overview of the Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework used is the military recruitment model created by Schreurs and
Syed (2004, 2007). The model of military recruitment provided additional information that
supported the relationship between the literature review and other data collection analyses
providing insights into the complexities of the recruitment challenges as perceived by Army

6
leaders. In this section, information relevant to the key constructs of the theory is presented. In
Chapter Two, a detailed overview of the theoretical model is presented.
The recruitment model, created by Schreurs and Syed (2004, 2007), is an expanded
version of an initial retention military mode, which was adapted to include recruitment factors
and outcomes. Multiple factors are included within the recruitment model, such as perceived fit,
job and organizational attractiveness, social influence, perceived alternatives, hiring
expectancies, job pursuit, practices and perceptions, and employer knowledge (Schreurs & Syed,
2004, 2007). Together, each of these factors influences enlistment decisions (characterized as
either yes or no).
Concerning the study, the military recruitment model provided context towards factors
elucidated through document analysis, interviews, and the literature review. Each of these
constructs identified by Schreurs and Syed (2007) proposes a range of factors associated with the
individual, the organization, and the outcome, ideally enlistment for the purpose of Army goals
and purposes. Furthermore, when using the military recruitment factor, the specific factors
related to organization, job, and individual may be factors that arise during the literature review
and data collection. Thus, the theory is ideal and aligns with the grounded theory approach while
considering complexities within the Army’s recruitment challenge. When developing the
grounded theory, the theoretical framework contributed information contextualizing the findings
and providing potential implications based upon the interpretation in relation to the military
recruitment model.
Furthermore, the model is effective as a component of this study as it supplies a review of
organizational and individual factors that may play a role in developing recruitment strategies. In
alignment with gathering the lived experiences of Army leaders who have been in service for

7
over 10 years regarding recruitment challenges and causes—the use of the military recruitment
model provided a model to assess internal and external factors that may influence recruitment
shortfalls. As such, the grounded theory developed in this study may supply knowledge to
address the gap in the recruitment model by supplying perspectives from Army leaders.
Definition of Terms
Recruitment of military personnel is similar to these facets in the civilian world; however,
the terms have a somewhat different meaning within the context and stricture of the terms. These
are defined in this section.
Attrition rates are considered the pace at which people leave a company (Hope et al.,
2021).
Military commitment is when an individual commits to serve as an active military
member by signing a legally binding document (Dexter, 2020).
Military commitment phobia refers to the fear of committing to a specified time for
service within the military (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Military recruitment refers to the process that encourages or attracts civilian persons to
participate in military services, training, and other activities within a military branch (Dexter,
2020).
Organization of the Study
The need to examine U.S. military branches’ recruitment and retention methods could
have long-term outcomes with improved strategies for encouraging more individuals to serve in
the U.S. military. This research provides a means to observe findings for such strategies. Chapter
One included an introduction to the research, a description of the problem, and a study
background. The chapter contained research questions associated with the problem and purpose,

8
as well as the potential value and significance of the findings. The chapter concluded with a
definition of key terms for the study. Chapter Two follows and includes a synthesis of literature
related to the problem of attrition and retention, focusing on the military. The literature review
includes the findings and discussion from prior research on military attrition and retention.
Chapter Two also includes a description of the framework for the study. Chapter Three discusses
the research as a qualitative, descriptive examination of the recruitment problem in the U.S.
Army based on interviews with Army leaders. The chapter discusses the population, sampling
strategy, and sample size. The sampling strategy entailed the use of purposive sampling. The
chapter also includes a description of the data collection and analysis plans. Data was collected
using semi-structured interviews. Data was analyzed using Braun & Clarke’s (2006) reflexive
data analysis. Chapter Four presents the findings from the data analysis process, illuminating the
themes found and how they were found. Chapter Five closes this study, discussing the findings
and implications of these results on practice for the Armed Forces and future research.

9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The U.S. Army is facing significant challenges in recruiting new personnel, necessitating
a deeper understanding of the underlying causes and the development of effective strategies to
address the shortfall (Asch, 2023). This chapter employs a qualitative grounded theory approach
to explore the lived experiences of Army senior leaders, specifically lieutenant colonels (O5) and
colonels (O6), who have served for over 10 years and are instrumental in policy formulation and
recommendation to three- and four-star generals. The focus on these senior leaders is crucial as
they are at the forefront of shaping recruitment policies and strategies. The literature review
provides a comprehensive examination of the U.S. Army’s challenges in recruiting troops. A
historical perspective is offered to provide context regarding the evolution of these challenges,
highlighting how past events and decisions have shaped the current recruitment landscape. The
strategic decision to reduce the size of the armed forces since 1968 and the subsequent shift in
focus toward specialized forces such as the Space Force, Cyber Command, guerrilla forces, and
missile defense systems have had implications for recruitment (Department of Defense, 2022;
National Defense Strategy, 2022).
The recruitment process is discussed in detail, including the various criteria and hurdles
potential recruits must navigate. This section delves into the socio-political issues and the
complexity of recruitment, examining how factors such as public perception, economic
conditions, and educational requirements impact the Army’s ability to attract new personnel
(Kapp, 2019; Griffith, 2020). Furthermore, the chapter explores the implications of recruitment
challenges, such as the potential impact on military readiness and national security. The literature
review also identifies potential strategies to address these challenges, drawing on insights from
various sources, including academic research, government reports, and military publications.

10
It is significant to discuss the impact of changing demographics on military recruitment
(Kapp, 2019) while examining the role of social media in attracting young recruits (Griffith,
2020). Including these diverse sources provides a more comprehensive understanding of the
recruitment challenges faced by the U.S. Army and potential pathways for addressing these
issues. By examining the experiences and perspectives of Army senior leaders, this chapter aims
to provide a nuanced understanding of the recruitment challenges faced by the U.S. Army and to
identify potential pathways for addressing these issues. The insights gained from this review
informed the development of recommendations for improving recruitment strategies and
policies.
Information presented in this chapter focuses first on an overview of the issues
surrounding U.S. Army recruitment. First, the theoretical model that grounds the study efforts is
reviewed. Information that aligns with the Army’s current responses to the recruitment
challenges is supplied, focusing on available data and military statistics. Additional information
focuses on factors that may influence recruitment, such as global factors, organizational and
institutional factors, job satisfaction, human capital, and organizational commitment. A summary
concludes Chapter Two.
Theoretical Framework
The military recruitment model was chosen for the theoretical framework chosen for the
grounded study (Schreurs & Syed, 2004, 2007). The recruitment model includes a variety of
internal and external factors that may contribute to the complexities of military recruitment:
perceived fit, job and organizational attractiveness, social influence, perceived alternatives,
hiring expectancies, job pursuit, and employer knowledge (Schreurs & Syed, 2004, 2007). Table
1 demonstrates each of these factors and their associated definitions.

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Table 1
Military Recruitment Model Factors
Construct Definitions
Perceived fit “Compatibility between a person’s characteristics, such as
knowledge, skills, abilities, and needs, and the job
requirements or tasks performed at work” (Schreurs & Syed,
2004, para. 2).
Job attractiveness “The key role of potential applicants’ impressions of
organizations as employers early in the recruitment process”
(Schreurs & Syed, 2004, para. 7).
Hiring expectancies “An individual’s motivation to apply is predicted by the
evaluation of the likelihood that the job has specific
attributes, the attractiveness of those attributes, and the
individual’s belief that they would be successful in obtaining
the job offer” (Schreurs & Syed, 2007, p. 7).
Employer knowledge “The content of beliefs that potential applicants hold about the
organization as an employer” (Schreurs & Syed, 2004, para.
4).
Organizational attractiveness “Organizational attractiveness can be reliably distinguished:
attractiveness, prestige, and behavioral intentions” (Schreurs
& Syed, 2007, p. 10).
Social influence The “affective or emotional reaction—good or bad, weak or
strong, of … the general public to the company’s name”
(Fombrun, 1996, p. 37).
Perceived alternatives “Applicants’ perception of their employment alternatives”
(Schreurs & Syed, 2004, para. 5).

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According to Schreurs and Syed (2004, 2007), there are two levels of recruitment
predictors: organizational level and individual-level predictors. Organizational levels include the
actual job environment, policies, and practices. Individual factors are subjective and related to
hiring expectancies, perceived fit, and organizational attractiveness. Thus, the factors of
perceived fit, job and organizational attractiveness, social influence, perceived alternatives,
hiring expectancies, job pursuit, and employer knowledge play a vital role as the factors of
individual and organizational level predictors that lead to the choice to enlist (either yes or no).
The aim of including the model is to supply an overview of past and current recruitment
strategies and practices. As this study aimed to explore the lived experiences of Army leaders
who have been in service for over 10 years regarding recruitment challenges and causes, the
military recruitment model serves as a baseline of past efforts, which appear ineffective
considering the recruitment shortfalls. The model also supplied a framework to view the external
and internal factors that play a role in recruitment strategies. Using the model was appropriate for
framing the data collection, analysis, and interpretation of results. The findings of this study were
used to develop an original grounded theory to help fill in the gaps present in the current military
recruitment model.
U.S. Army Recruitment
In this section, literature relevant to the current state of affairs, as well as relevant to the
recruitment challenges faced by the U.S. Army, is reviewed. Information specific to recent
reports from private and public sectors supply evidence of the current issues facing the U.S.
military. The Department of Defense (DOD) reported in 2019 that military readiness had waned
due to the reduced ability to recruit armed forces members (Pendleton, 2019). In 2018, Secretary
of Defense General James Mattis stated that the “armed forces are emerging from a period of

13
strategic atrophy” and that “our competitive advantage has been eroding” (Mattis, 2018, p. 1).
The 2023 President’s Budget Highlights further suggested the need for additional recruits for
national security, thereby increasing the authorized number of active duty members
(Wormworth, 2023). The most recent request called for an increase in the number of service
members followed the enactment of the National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), wherein
President Donald Trump 2018 bolstered end strength by 25,900 active service duty members
(Bender, 2018; Kamarck et al., 2017; McMahon & Bernard, 2019).
At the time of publication, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) remained the most
significant employer worldwide (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2019e; Sapolsky et al., 2017;
Stimage, 2018). As of June 2019, the DoD reported 2.9 million military and civilian personnel,
with 2.7 million in the United States (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2019f). However, as of
2019, the total number of active duty service members stood at 1.1 million, representing a 69%
decrease from the 3.5 million reported in 1968, though it is of note that the significant reduction
in active duty force after 1968 was a result of post-Cold War military strategies (Abney, 2019;
Defense Manpower Data Center, 2019a).
Recruitment Process
The recruitment process for the U.S. Army begins with a U.S. citizen (or Green Card
holder) entering a recruiting office to inquire about enlisting. Requirements for enlistment
include the following criteria: (a) age (17 to 34 years old), (b) must be a U.S. citizen or a legal
permanent resident with a green card, (c) must have a high school diploma (i.e., GED) or 15
college credits, (d) pass a medical exam, (e) have no criminal record, (f) disclose marital status
and divorces, and (g) complete the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) to
determine which military occupational skill (MOS) the individual qualifies for. The ASVAB

14
provides the recruiter with a list of potential MOSs that the individual is qualified for, and based
on the government’s needs for certain positions, that individual is then assigned an MOS to fill
the need (Army, 2023).
Recruitment Challenges
The Armed Services are experiencing challenges in recruiting because many Americans
do not meet the eligibility requirements associated with weight, have a criminal background, or
have financial problems that prohibit them from being eligible to enlist (Kube & Boigon, 2022;
Marble et al., 2020). Other challenges include a general lack of awareness of the benefits
enlisting in the service can provide, distrust of the government and fear that enlisting would
result in either emotional or physical disability (Kube & Boigon, 2022; Wallenius et al., 2020).
Data from Asch (2019) further emphasized the growing difficulties in military recruitment.
According to data from the DoD, the Army successfully recruited approximately 75,000 to
80,000 new recruits in 2008; the number of new recruits declined in 2014 to 57,000 (Asch,
2019). The decrease has continued in recruitment goals and overall recruitment practices. In
2005, the Army again struggled to meet recruitment needs due to challenges in obtaining quality
enlistees (who also adhered to regulations) as an added challenge.
Army Response to Recruitment Challenges
Challenges in recruitment are vital to address because it impacts the national security
protection of citizens and support of well-being among currently enlisted military members
(Abney, 2019; Defense Manpower Data Center, 2019a; Kosiak, 2017). In 2022, the U.S. Army,
with the DoD, released a statement regarding a current call to address recruitment by first
considering the recruitment market and factors associated with the labor shortfall. These reasons
included three critical factors of concern:

15
1. Knowledge gap. The Army’s story is not reaching enough Americans, most of whom
have limited exposure to currently serving soldiers or veterans.
2. Identity gap. Potential recruits cannot see themselves in the Army, often due to
assumptions about Army life and culture.
3. Trust gap. Younger Americans are losing trust and confidence in many American
institutions, including the military.
The identified gaps in (a) knowledge, (b) identity, and (c) trust are factors in the reduction of
recruitment, according to the DoD (2022). In response to the challenges associated with
recruitment, a series of potential suggestions were offered:
● Establish the Future Soldier Preparatory Course (FSPC) pilot program to prepare
recruits better physically and academically to meet accession standards, investing in
those who want to serve so they can enlist in the Army without lowering quality, and
expand and scale the FSPC based on the pilot’s results.
● Extend over 420 of the Army’s best military recruiters across nationwide markets to
help increase the number of potential recruits.
● Increase funding for targeted enlistment bonuses (up to $50K), including incentives
for critical Military Occupational Skill (MOS) career fields.
● Provide quick-ship bonuses ($5K for recruits willing to ship within 45 days).
● Expand station-of-choice options for recruits to provide additional opportunities to
serve across the nation.
● Implement the former Department of the Army Selected Recruiter (DASR)
Mentorship Program to support current DASRs.

16
● Provide additional funding for national, regional, and local marketing in key priority
population centers, including funding for recruiting events to engage with youth.
● Establish six Regional Marketing Offices to support regional and local recruiting
efforts better.
● Continue implementing Know Your Army and Passions marketing campaigns while
improving the conversion of leads to appointments and appointments to contracts.
● Implement the revised tattoo policy, in line with other military services, that enables
more of our youth to serve. (DoD, 2022, pp. 2–3)
The proposed reformations provided by the changes suggested adhering to a policy that
addresses the needs of the younger population, which will ideally improve upon the potential for
addressing the recruitment challenges (DoD, 2022). In addition to the proposed short-term
assessments, a call to action for long-term changes was also recommended by the Army:
● identifying, assessing, and selecting the best Battalion Commanders for the
Recruiting Battalions through established talent management initiatives
● applying talent management principles to recruiter selection
● better incentivizing and rewarding increased recruiter productivity
● applying digital age technology to recruiting operations
● reviewing current recruiting facilities/stationing practices and policies to ensure they
enable a 21st-century approach to recruiting
● launching a brand refresh to connect the opportunities and benefits of Army service to
what matters most to American young people
● leveraging the influence of the local communities and community leaders, including
our Civilian Aide to the Secretary of the Army (CASA) program

17
● reevaluating retention and reenlistment models ensure the Army provides
opportunities to retain our best Soldiers (U.S. Army Public Affairs, 2022, para. 9)
The proposed long-term approaches aim to address the need to improve opportunities to
align with American youth while assessing incentivization and rewards for potential recruits. The
DoD (2022) also reported that such long- and short-term reformations can improve the National
Defense Strategy, improve the well-being of soldiers, and bolster mission readiness. Alongside
these proposed changes was an increase to the FY23 budget, from $890 million to $1.2 billion,
which went towards the needed enlistment bonuses and changes to incentive recruitment and
address shortfalls.
Figure 1 demonstrates the increase in DoD recruiting from 2013 to 2019 regarding
recruitment and advertising.
As a means of addressing shortfalls in recruitment, the U.S. Army budget has also
increased substantially. In 2016, the Army Audit Agency reported a need for improving
budgetary needs, which was addressed through congressional funding adaptations over the past 6
years (DoD, 2022). See Figure 2.

18
Figure 1
Increase in DoD Recruiting Budget to Address Shortfalls
Note. This figure was drawn from a widely read publication popular among military members.
From “To draw more soldiers, the Army wants more recruiters, bigger budgets, and a better
slogan,” by M. Myers, Army Times, 2018. Copyright by Army Times.

19
Figure 2
Increase in Army Recruiters
Note. This figure was drawn from a widely read publication popular among military members.
From “To draw more soldiers, the Army wants more recruiters, bigger budgets, and a better
slogan,” by M. Myers, Army Times, 2018. Copyright by Army Times.
Factors That Influence Recruitment
Numerous factors may influence recruitment, of which many are based on economic
theory, and others relate to individual factors (Chetri, 2021). Human capital strategies are one
area of military research that reflects on the importance of recruitment through viewing the effect
on military personnel and operational effectiveness (Sánchez-Polo et al., 2019). Bureaucratic

20
procedures, opposition to change, a lack of resources, and a lack of awareness of the potential
advantages can all contribute to difficulties in managing human capital, such as recruiting the
appropriate enlistees for military purposes (Sánchez-Polo et al., 2019). Examining causes
associated with human capital is crucial to pinpoint problem areas and advance the military’s
human resource management procedures (Qalsh et al., 2023).
Implementation of human capital initiatives can address recruitment issues. Specifically,
the ramifications of not implementing specific human capital initiatives might be extensive
(Chetri, 2021). For instance, a lack of representation and inclusivity among the workforce may
result from weak diversity and inclusion programs. This can limit innovation, problem-solving
skills, and teamwork, reducing the military’s capacity to adapt to and succeed in various
challenging environments (McAleavy et al., 2021). Additionally, focusing on talent management
initiatives can make finding, training, and keeping high-performing employees more
manageable, resulting in the loss of vital knowledge and abilities (Carpenter & Silberman, 2020).
The same issues may present concern when assessing military recruitment challenges.
Several suggestions can be considered to incorporate these tactics into the military’s
current human capital plan (McAleavy et al., 2021). According to Carpenter and Silberman
(2020), there needs to be a cultural transformation that embraces innovation and change. This
can be accomplished by building a climate prioritizing continual improvement plan, encouraging
staff to share ideas, and encouraging growth. Leadership at all levels must be trained and
educated on the value of human capital strategies to have the information and resources
necessary to support these initiatives (Osiobe, 2019). For successful implementation of human
capital strategies, it is essential to allot enough resources. The military would need to invest in
the workforce, training initiatives, and technological infrastructure to support implementing

21
human capital objectives (Osiobe, 2019). In addition to allowing for the successful
implementation and maintenance of these policies, adequate resources show a commitment to the
growth and welfare of the workforce (Calkins & Asch, 2019). Addressing effective changes,
improving leadership, and investing in the workplace may address some facets of the military
recruitment challenge.
Among many suggested methods for improving issues within an organization, such as
recruitment, are collaboration and relationships with outside groups, which can yield insightful
information and best practices (Fosher et al., 2020). Engaging with academic institutions,
business professionals, and other military organizations can lead to the development of novel
viewpoints and innovative methods for managing human resources (Allen, 2020). These
partnerships make it easier to find tactics that have worked well in comparable situations and
modify them to suit the requirements of the military. Mechanisms for regular evaluation and
feedback are essential for determining how well-adopted tactics are working. By establishing
quantifiable measurements and performance indicators, one may track success and spot areas for
development. The continuous assessment ensures that the human capital plan remains pertinent
and adaptable to changing organizational needs and difficulties (Allen, 2020; Fosher et al.,
2020). Thus, allocating energy to factors associated with planning, development, and
collaboration may also support military recruitment strategies.
Another factor that fosters improved organizational outcomes that can address critical
challenges, such as recruitment, is open communication. Potential service members can better
comprehend the benefits and purpose of these initiatives when there are open lines of
communication (Baran & Woznyj, 2020). To foster a sense of ownership and alignment with the
company goals, it is essential to involve employees in decision-making processes, solicit their

22
opinions, and engage them in these activities (Baran & Woznyj, 2020). It will take a deliberate
effort to encourage a culture of change, allot sufficient resources, encourage collaboration,
conduct routine evaluations, and maintain open communication to overcome the difficulties in
implementing human capital plans (Douglas et al., 2019). By incorporating these methods into its
human resources plan, the military may improve its capacity to attract, nurture, and keep a
skilled and diverse workforce. This enhances organizational effectiveness, develops operational
capabilities, and places the military in a successful long-term position (Elnitsky et al., 2017). For
military recruitment, communication and transparency with future recruits may be vital strategies
for success (Baran & Woznyj, 2020).
By focusing on initiatives that promote employee satisfaction, career growth, and worklife balance, it may be possible to attract high-performing individuals with essential knowledge
and skills for the U.S. military (Donley, 2021). Economic and human capital models provide a
structured approach to identifying and addressing factors contributing to aversion to the military,
such as limited opportunities or mismatched incentives (Elnitsky et al., 2017). By implementing
such models, the military may address recruitment challenges and attract valuable talent to
ensure the continuity of critical capabilities within its workforce (Donley, 2021; Elnitsky et al.,
2017).
Global Factors
Recruitment can be significantly impacted by several global factors, such as the
perception of the military and the need for improved national security or end strength. End
strength is “the authorized strength of a specified military branch at the end of a given fiscal
year” (Kamarck et al., 2017, p. 1). The Secretary of Defense shared a report with Congress
recommending increasing the strength of military and non-military personnel for the DoD.

23
Because of global politics, the American people’s perceived security and the necessary
workforce heavily influence these recommended numbers to sustain current operations (Defense
for Manpower and Reserve Affairs, 2019; Kamarck et al., 2017). For example, after the terrorist
attacks of 9/11, the military grew. Still, following the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq in
2011, Congress reduced end strength numbers, resulting in a steady reduction of 298,513 active
duty service members until 2017 (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c). As
illustrated, global events can prove to be important factors that influence recruitment and
challenge current strategies to address shortfalls.
Organizational and Institutional Factors
Several research studies have explored factors associated with Army service members
regarding understanding factors that affect members in the military and may lead to challenges in
recruitment (Marrone et al., 2021). More specifically, Marrone et al. (2021) conducted a
qualitative study with a sample of Army enlisted members who suggested that junior noncommissioned officers (NCOs) significantly influenced their daily lives. Other factors regarding
leadership that influenced soldiers’ attrition rates included the presence or absence of effective
leadership and the level at which NCOs were familiar with the enlisted members in their unit
(Marrone et al., 2021). In addition, research suggested that battalion-level factors such as
battalion leadership are associated with first-year Army service member attrition rates (Marrone
et al., 2021). Organizational factors such as command culture, development cycle, and peer
characteristics may influence attrition rates; thus, addressing such institutional factors may also
be crucial to recruitment challenges (Marrone et al., 2021).

24
Individual Factors
Individual characteristics (Marrone, 2020), such as medical attrition rates, job
satisfaction, and occupational motivation, are all factors noted in the research literature to
significantly affect recruitment intention. Poor or incomplete screening measures significantly
affect medical attrition rates, accounting for 13.7% of service members separated in 2011
(Farrell et al., 2017). Level of job satisfaction is suggested to influence organizational
commitment, and both are suggested to have a direct and significant effect on attrition and
reenlistment behavior (Alvinius et al., 2017; Bokti & Talib, 2009; Gade, 2003; Gade et al., 2003;
Godlewski & Kline, 2012; Heffner & Gade, 2003; Hom & Hulin, 1981; Kim et al., 1996;
Meadows et al., 2016; Osterberg et al., 2017; Teplitzky, 1991; Tremble et al., 2003).
Job Satisfaction
For some individuals, a significant attractor to a job or employer is the potential to be
satisfied in a specific career. In military contexts, individuals who perceive themselves as “fit” or
potentially happy in their role may be more likely to enlist in the U.S. Army (DoD, 2022). In
discussing human capital and economic theory, it is essential to consider job satisfaction. Job
satisfaction is defined as “the satisfaction with aspects of the military (e.g., compensation) and
overall satisfaction with the military way of life” (Defense Manpower Data Center, 2014, p. 1).
Researchers have indicated that potential job satisfaction plays a role in the desire to
enlist in the military (Bokti & Talib, 2009; Helmus et al., 2018; Osterberg et al., 2017). Job
satisfaction as it relates to expectations is best explained by two theories: the discrepancy theory
of job satisfaction (Castillo & Cano, 2004; Locke, 1969) and the met expectations theory (Porter
& Steers, 1973). The discrepancy theory of job satisfaction, first posited by Locke (1969) and
further developed by Castillo and Cano (2004), defines job satisfaction as either the congruence

25
or incongruence between expected and actual outcome expectations. Namely, if an individual’s
expected outcome is higher than the actual outcome, then they would experience dissatisfaction
with their job (Castillo & Cano, 2004; Locke, 1969). This theory posits that an individual’s level
of job satisfaction is subjective and dictated by what they perceive to be necessary, not whether
their needs are fulfilled.
Similarly, the met expectation theory posits that if an individual’s expectations are not
met, they would also experience dissatisfaction with their job or low job satisfaction and
withdrawal (Porter & Steers, 1973). The met expectations hypothesis is derived from a modified
version of Vroom’s (2005) expectancy theory. Considering these theories may be vital to
acknowledging recruitment challenges with a holistic consideration of the role of economic and
individual factors in developing potential strategies.
Factors related to stress and job satisfaction have been researched in the reviewed
literature in the context of the U.S. military. Bokti and Talib (2009) conducted a study to explore
the relationship between levels of occupational stress and job satisfaction in the Malaysian
military. The sample population consisted of male Navy personnel from a naval support unit in
the Royal Malaysian Navy. Research findings suggested that job satisfaction is significantly
linked to the nature of the work, relationships with co-workers, and communication. Conversely,
demanding and constant operating procedures corresponded with the lowest job satisfaction
level. Regarding occupational stress, respondents reported high stress levels when a supervisor’s
evaluation of the respondent was unknown due to a heavy workload. Occupational stress is
related to eight facets of job satisfaction. Namely, elevated levels of occupational stress will
reduce satisfaction regarding pay, nature of work, supervisors, fringe benefits, contingent
rewards, operating procedures, communication, and promotions (Bokti & Talib, 2009). Bokti and

26
Talib (2009) suggested that military organizations should focus on reducing occupational stress
to increase job satisfaction. The same may be true when presenting opportunities to future
recruits. However, more research is required.
Another factor that may deter recruits is the length and stress of deployment. A
qualitative longitudinal study by Meadows et al. (2016) explored the effects of military
deployment on service members and their families. One major factor explored was job
satisfaction concerning military deployment among service members and their families. The
sample population consisted of Army, Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps service members and
their families. Data was collected over 3 years. The research findings suggested that service
members’ level of job satisfaction is significantly affected by their family’s ability to integrate
into the military (family military integration). A family’s military integration consisted of three
variables: job satisfaction, commitment, and retention intention. Ultimately, the family’s military
integration (either negatively or positively) affected the service members’ job satisfaction,
thereby affecting retention intention. Key research findings included that service members’
retention intentions increased when family members communicated with other military families
when the service member was deployed.
Conversely, the retention intention of the service member decreased: (a) when the family
had low military satisfaction levels, (b) when the service member had high psychological trauma
from the deployment, and (c) when the service member experienced higher collective trauma
during deployment. Finally, for families that did not deploy, relocation was a significant
predictor of job satisfaction and retention intention among service members (Meadows et al.,
2016). For some potential recruits, the relationship with deployment may deter their potential

27
enlistment. When considering this data, retention may further the need for recruitment efforts to
replace the loss of qualified service members with recruits.
Individual factors can also influence how military service members perceive their job
satisfaction. Similarly, a study was conducted by Osterberg et al. (2017) to explore the
relationship between two separate groups of variables: (a) personality and performance
orientation and (b) job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Performance orientation is the degree
to which an organization encourages ambitious standards and excellent employee performance.
The sample population consisted of newly recruited Swedish soldiers. Statistical analysis
revealed a strong association between (a) performance orientation and job satisfaction and (b)
job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Military service members with elevated levels of job
satisfaction reported the lowest turnover intentions and vice versa. Furthermore, Applebaum et
al. (2010) and Bedeian and Armenakis (1981) found a relationship between job satisfaction and
stress. Thus, when considering these results regarding recruitment, it may be possible that job
satisfaction, perceived stress, and performance orientation play a role in potential enlistees’
decisions. However, this requires further research.
A qualitative study using grounded theory design and convenience sampling explored the
relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction among high-ranking
service members (Bridges, 2020). Participants were service members of the Navy, Army, and
Swedish Defense University. The results suggested an association between establishing and
balancing organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Namely, two overarching categories
of organizational commitment exist in maintaining the organization’s image and responding to
organizational greediness (Alvinius et al., 2017). Namely, service members show their
commitment to the organization by upholding its image and meeting its high demands to be a

28
part of the organization. The study results suggested several major conclusions to draw from the
results. First, job satisfaction is an extension of organizational commitment because it reflects an
individual’s positive attitude toward the organization, not necessarily their position (Ćulibrk et
al., 2018). Second, participants’ elevated levels of job satisfaction and organizational
commitment indicate their belief that being a part of the organization is worth it, regardless of
the military’s level of organizational greediness (Alvinius et al., 2017). The military is suggested
to be a greedy organization because it demands service members to place the organization’s
needs above the needs of themselves and their families and even calls on them to be willing to
sacrifice their own lives if necessary (Coser, 1974; Soeters, 2000; Vuga & Juvan, 2013). Finally,
participants believed that being a part of the military was their calling, which was suggested to
influence service members’ experience of organizational commitment significantly (Alvinius et
al., 2017). Ultimately, when viewed within the context of recruitment, organizational
commitment and perceived stress may align with a potential enlistee’s decision. Further research
is required to ground organizational contexts within the model of military recruitment strategies.
Organizational Commitment
Meyer and Allen’s (1997) three-component model was extensively used within military
research literature (Meyer et al., 2013). According to Allen (2003), military research has
enormous potential to address other substantive gaps in our knowledge of work commitment,
thereby warranting further research using military samples to explore organizational commitment
(Allen, 2003). The three-component model of organizational commitment was developed by
Allen and Meyer (1990) as a framework to better explain and understand employee’s
organizational retention behaviors over time. Specifically, Allen and Meyer (1990) suggested

29
that organizational commitment is defined by a combination of affective, continuance, and
normative components.
Affective commitment is an emotional attachment to the organization and is a component
wherein the individual identifies with and finds satisfaction in being involved and associated
with the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Individuals with strong affective commitment stay
within their organization because they want to stay. Affective commitment is formed through
work experience and personal characteristics. Continuance commitment refers to the cost
individuals associate with leaving their organization. Hence, these individuals stay with an
organization out of the belief that they need to stay. Continuance commitment has cognitive
formation through personal investments (e.g., time, money, energy) and available alternatives.
Finally, normative commitment is an individual’s obligation to the organization. Hence, these
individuals believe they should stay with their organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Finally,
normative commitment is influenced by social norms and organizational investments (Allen &
Meyer, 1990). Each component has a different antecedent and has a different effect on an
employee’s on-the-job behavior.
Due to the social nature of the military (i.e., it requires teamwork and leadership), general
psychology theories can apply to commitment behaviors within the military organization.
Research on organizational commitment among members of the military (that used the Allen and
Meyer [1997] three-component model) agreed that more than one dimension or component of
the model correlates to the overall commitment construct (Gade, 2003; Gade et al., 2003;
Godlewski & Kline, 2012; Heffner & Gade, 2003; Hom & Hulin, 1981; Kim et al., 1996;
Teplitzky, 1991; Tremble et al., 2003). However, affective commitment is the most significantly
correlated construct with predicting retention intention and behavior (Gade et al., 2003; Kim et

30
al., 1996; Teplitzky, 1991), but it loses its predictive strength over time (Tremble et al., 2003). In
the scope of recruitment, these factors may play a role in further motivating recruits if
organizational characteristics are improved within the U.S. Army.
Hom and Hulin (1981) conducted a longitudinal quantitative case study on the first-term
reenlistment of National Guardsmen. The sample population was derived from twenty-nine
National Guard units located in the Midwest. Survey data was collected over 3 months.
Participants were predominantly white males in their late twenties with a high school diploma.
Participants completed scales measuring job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and reenlistment behaviors, including attitude, effect, and intention toward the act. Regression analysis
showed organizational commitment predicted reenlistment intentions and behavior (Hom &
Hulin, 1981). Srivastava and Tang (2015) found a relationship between organizational
commitment and retention intentions. In addition, Gupta and Beehr (1979) and Jackson et al.
(1985) found a relationship between organizational commitment, stress, and retention intentions.
Previous studies have identified organizational commitment as a predictor of retention intentions.
However, few have addressed organizational commitment within the military (Hom & Hulin,
1981; Porter & Smith, 1970; Rosen & Martin, 1996).
A quantitative secondary analysis study was conducted by Teplitzky (1991) using survey
data collected from the Longitudinal Research on Officer Careers (LROC) survey study that used
seven scale measures from Meyer and Allen’s (1997) affective commitment survey measures.
The sample of married men who were Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) and United
States Military Academy officers was commissioned between 1984 and 1987. Research findings
suggested that affective commitment was positively associated with career prospects and
reenlistment, and negatively associated with anticipated work-family conflict. A positive

31
association between years of military service and affective commitment was also found
(Teplitzky, 1991). Similarly, a study by Kim et al. (1996) further supported Teplitzky’s (1991)
research findings. Kim et al. (1996) explored the retention intentions of U.S. Air Force
physicians by administering several surveys measuring organizational commitment, job
satisfaction, and intent to stay. Research findings suggested a strong association between
retention intention among this sample population and seven key variables. Specifically,
“organizational commitment, job satisfaction, search behavior, opportunity, met expectations,
positive affectivity, and promotional chances” (Kim et al., 1996, p. 947). Regarding
organizational commitment, the research findings suggested that affective commitment is
productive of retention (Teplitzky, 1991). In tandem, the recruitment efforts of the U.S. military
are affected by these retention rates due to the need to replace service members leaving their
positions.
A study by Gade et al. (2003) used an active duty sample population from the biannually
administered Sample Survey of Military Personnel (SSMP) to assess the structure and reliability
of abbreviated scales used to assess reserve service members’ affective and continuance
organizational commitment. Data was collected from the 1997 SSMP, resulting in a sample
population of officers and enlisted soldiers. The researchers found that the three-component
model of organizational commitment theory (Meyer & Allen, 1997) effectively predicted
affective and continuance commitment behavioral outcomes.
A study on organizational commitment within the military was conducted by Heffner and
Gade (2003). The study explored the associations between affective and continuance
commitment and between affective commitment, job satisfaction, and career intentions. The
sample consisted of service members from special operations forces and the general military.

32
The research findings suggested that a statistically significant relationship existed between
military affective commitment, job satisfaction, and career intentions.
Tremble et al. (2003) conducted a quantitative secondary study to develop and validate
analog scales of organizational commitment for use with Army archive data. Results were
consistent with Allen and Meyer’s (1997) previous findings. The measurement of affective and
continuance commitment was not distinguishable from one another. Tremble et al. (2003)
provided implications for expanding the literature on organizational commitment and research in
the military. Affective commitment has a more substantial influence on a member’s decision to
continue at an organization than continuance commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997).
Research suggests that the association between affection, continuance commitment, and career
intent has weakened. Namely, affective and continuance commitment predict career intent earlier
in a service member’s career than later (Tremble et al., 2003). The available research indicates
that considering organizational commitment, morale, and individual well-being is critical when
strategizing organizational programs (Tremble et al., 2003). The same may be true for the U.S.
Army but requires grounded exploration within available data.
Leadership
Effective leadership is essential for encouraging the recruitment of new employees. Job
satisfaction and morale can be considerably increased by leaders who promote a happy
environment, show genuine concern for their team’s well-being, and offer clear communication
and leadership (Donley, 2021). On the other hand, weak leadership can result in unhappiness,
stress, and ultimately attrition. Leadership development programs and training are crucial
elements of recruitment to ensure that leaders at all levels can support and inspire potential
recruits (Marrone, 2020; Patterson et al., 2020).

33
The Role of Recruitment With Attrition
The inability to effectively recruit for the U.S. Army has a variety of critical effects on
both currently enlisted members and national security (Calkins & Asch, 2019; Marble et al.,
2020; Walsh et al., 2023). One is the continued issue of attrition, which demands continued
recruitment to prevent adverse outcomes (Walsh et al., 2023). Attrition rates influence general
military outcomes and stress the remaining armed forces, thus requesting a continued need to
meet Army recruitment goals (Calkins & Asch, 2019; Marble et al., 2020; Walsh et al., 2023).
High attrition rates can hurt the military organization’s readiness, morale, and capabilities
(Walsh et al., 2023). Because it might be difficult to swiftly replace experienced personnel’s
skills and expertise, doing so can reduce operating capabilities (Calkins & Asch, 2019). Morale
and unit cohesiveness may suffer as a result, as may unit effectiveness gaps and an increased
workload for the remaining military members. High attrition rates can also affect how prepared
the military is to respond to crises because it takes time to train recruits to the same standard as
the ones they replace (Marble et al., 2020). Addressing recruitment challenges can ease the effect
of attrition rates on armed members while supporting a balanced workload for remaining military
members (Abioudun et al., 2020; Marble et al., 2020).
For military organizations like the U.S. Army, attrition rates, or the decrease in
employees owing to retirement, discharge, or other causes, are a crucial indicator of the need for
continued recruitment of military members (Jung et al., 2023). High attrition rates present a
fundamental problem that affects operational preparedness and increases financial costs
(Wallenius et al., 2020). High attrition rates can have a wide range of root causes, from
individual factors like family demands or job changes to more systemic ones like institutional
culture, working conditions, or a lack of promotion possibilities (Marufu et al., 2021). It is

34
crucial to address these factors adequately to keep a solid and successful military force (McGee,
2021). High attrition rates mean a declining military force, bolstering the importance of
addressing recruitment challenges (Jung et al., 2023).
From a historical perspective, retention issues are often readdressed through continued
recruitment. For example, following the Korean War 1955, the U.S. military experienced a surge
in active duty personnel, reaching 2.9 million service members. This number further increased by
1968 due to the draft for the Vietnam War, resulting in a combined total of 3.5 million active
duty personnel (Abney, 2019). However, with the end of the draft in 1973, the number of service
members declined significantly, dropping to 2.1 million by 1975 (Defense Manpower Data
Center, 2019a; Kosiak, 2017). By the end of the Vietnam War, American society in the U.S. was
not supportive of military recruiting efforts. Studies showed inherent tension between recruiting
soldiers for immediate readiness in combat arms and recruiting and retaining soldiers with
essential technical and administrative skills to sustain the force. By the end of 1972, recruitment
often had to secure the former by promising access to preparation for the latter (Linn, 2023).
Other experts claimed that military recruitment was poor after Vietnam due to society’s lack of
familiarity and poor perception of military service due to much of the propaganda distributed
during this conflict (Lupton, 2022).
Although there was a small influx of service members from 1982 to 1990 due to conflicts
in Lebanon, Grenada, and Panama, overall retention rates continued to decrease. The armed
services reached an all-time low of 1.1 million active duty service members in 2017 (Defense
Manpower Data Center, 2019d). Historically, the U.S. military addressed retention issues
through recruitment, which is now an issue that is further challenged by the difficulties of
recruitment.

35
Recruitment to replace attrition rates can also improve the preparation for mission
readiness and well-being of serving military members (Dandeker, 2021; Smith-MacDonald et al.,
2020). According to Dandeker (2021), attrition negatively impacts the well-being of military
members, which Shields (2020) argued can increase the instability of the remaining military
members. It is crucial to consider the various tasks, duties, and difficulties each of these
organizations encounters when contrasting the attrition rates in the U.S. Army with those of other
military branches or foreign armed forces (Dandeker, 2021). Addressing recruitment can
improve challenges associated with military attrition rates and widespread effects on operational
preparedness, financial resources, and employee well-being (Abiodun et al., 2020; Watterton,
2023).
Military organizations, including the U.S. Army, can have high attrition rates. High
attrition rates require continuous recruitment to replace leaving military members. Maintaining a
strong, capable, and resilient military force requires a comprehensive approach to managing
attrition through recruitment strategies (Patterson et al., 2020). Furthermore, high attrition rates
have significant implications for maintaining a strong, capable, and resilient military force
(Osiobe, 2019). To effectively address attrition, adopting a comprehensive approach aligned with
recruitment is crucial to support the mission readiness and well-being of armed military
personnel (Osiobe, 2019; Patterson et al., 2020).
Summary
The Army’s recruitment efforts heavily rely on incentives and individual motivation
(Marufu et al., 2021). Opportunities for career growth can give military personnel a direct path
toward success, boosting their commitment to the Army and work satisfaction (Kapp, 2019).
Benefits like healthcare, housing, and retirement plans may raise the perceived value of military

36
service. Additionally, by demonstrating the Army’s commitment to the growth and health of its
soldiers, programs that aid in the personal and professional development of service members can
be helpful to recruitment (Fosher et al., 2020). Due to differing job demands, dangers, and
pressures, several MOSs within the Army confront recruitment issues (Fosher et al., 2020).
Therefore, the military must consider the needs and experiences of service members in these
professions when developing recruitment tactics. This can provide extra assistance, materials, or
incentives for people in high-risk or high-stress MOSs (Fosher et al., 2020). Understanding and
overcoming these difficulties may help the Army increase its recruitment rates (Inhofe & Reed,
2019).
Military service is uncompromising; it frequently entails long hours, frequent moves, and
times abroad due to deployments (Inhofe & Reed, 2019). The Army’s family support and worklife balance philosophy significantly impacts recruitment (Fosher et al., 2020). Programs and
resources to support military members and their families can lessen these difficulties, increasing
job satisfaction and dedication to duty. Initiatives to enhance work-life balance can also boost
service members’ morale and general wellness, which will help them attract more recruits
(Inhofe & Reed, 2019). Opportunities for professional development, training, and mentoring are
crucial for attracting Army soldiers. Effective mentoring programs offer direction and support,
assisting potential service personnel envisioning their military careers (Goldberg, 2001).
Potential recruits may be incentivized if they are equipped with the knowledge and abilities
needed to excel in their jobs. Finally, continual professional development opportunities show the
Army’s dedication to its soldiers’ growth and improvement, which supports job satisfaction and
the decision to engage in a military career (Grayham, 2023).

37
Recruitment is essential for the Army to continue to have a trained and experienced force.
The Army may create successful recruitment plans by comprehending and addressing the
variables affecting the current strategies (Douglas et al., 2019). These tactics include a variety of
components, such as monetary rewards, benefits, chances for professional progression,
opportunities for leadership development, considerations unique to MOS, work-life balance,
parental assistance, and mentorship/training programs (Douglas et al., 2019). The Army can
establish an environment that encourages loyalty, job satisfaction, and commitment among its
military personnel by implementing these ideas and continually assessing their efficacy. A strong
and resilient workforce helps the Army be operationally ready and complete missions. The Army
maintains the talent and knowledge required to address future challenges thanks to a continuing
commitment to recruitment (Wallenius et al., 2020).
The U.S. Army has aggressively addressed recruitment shortfalls (Marble et al., 2020).
The Army seeks to establish a friendly atmosphere that attracts individuals who will thrive
within the organization through targeted measures, including financial incentives and career
development programs. However, recruitment shortfalls continue (Jung et al., 2023). For the past
5 years, the military has struggled with utilizing its human resources and implementing
comprehensive strategies that consider the entire organization and encourage recruitment
(Tchitchinadze & Ovsyannikova, 2022). The disparity between organizational-level and
individual-level efforts highlights the urgent need for a more comprehensive approach to
recruiting that considers the specifics of the military’s organizational structure and fosters a
culture of excellence by optimally exploiting the human capital. Due to the potential impact on
military personnel and operational performance, assessing specific strategies that target the
complexity of the recruitment challenge is needed (Marble et al., 2020; Wallenius et al., 2020).

38
Chapter Three: Methodology
Chapter Three presents the research method for the proposed study. This qualitative
grounded theory approach aimed to understand the social processes and implicit belief systems
of U.S. Army leaders who have been in service for over 10 years regarding recruitment
challenges and causes. Grounded theory research questions seek to understand and clarify the
social processes and implicit belief systems that underlie behavior in the phenomena under
observation (Moghaddam, 2006; McLeod, 2011). The grounded theory process considers
integrating known data, experiences, and perceptions of individuals to construct information that
can guide effective change.
A purposive sample was selected from individuals who are Army leaders with the
following criteria: (a) must be an Army leader with 10 or more years in service, and (b) must be
able to discuss factors associated with recruitment challenges. The sample was constrained to the
specific population of individuals serving in the U.S. Army military branches. Semi-structured
interviews were used to collect data from 10 research participants. Braun and Clarke’s (2006)
reflexive thematic analysis for data analysis using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis
software was used in this study. Document analysis occurred through consideration of public
reports regarding recruitment strategies. The following sections discuss the methods proposed for
collecting and analyzing data. First, the research questions guiding this study are reiterated. The
study examined this topic by exploring the military recruitment model in today’s modern
recruiting setting for the U.S. Army using a grounded theory approach to gather U.S. Army
leaders’ perspectives, paired alongside a deep consideration of available empirical literature and
document analysis.

39
Research Questions
Four research questions guided this study:
1. What are Army leaders’ perceptions of recruitment challenges in the current labor
market?
2. What are Army responses to changes associated with recruitment shortfalls?
3. How has the labor market affected recruitment shortfalls?
4. What are potential recommendations for addressing the Army recruitment
challenges?
Overview of Design
Qualitative descriptive research is an approach used to explore and understand complex
phenomena through an in-depth examination of participants’ perspectives, experiences, and
social contexts. It involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews,
observations, and textual materials, to generate rich, detailed, and nuanced insights (Doyle et al.,
2020). Qualitative descriptive research is particularly appropriate for military attrition and
retention research for several reasons.
Through qualitative methods, researchers can explore the complex interplay of personal,
social, and organizational factors that impact attrition and retention (Grayham, 2023). Qualitative
research enables researchers to capture military personnel’s lived experiences and narratives,
providing a humanistic perspective that quantitative approaches may not fully capture. This
study’s qualitative methodology allowed for exploring Army leaders’ subjective experiences and
motivations, offering a deeper understanding of the factors influencing recruitment challenges.
The chosen research design for the study was a grounded theory approach. Grounded
theory allows for the construction of a theoretical model using available empirical literature and

40
data collected from textual sources (Khan, 2014), document analysis, and interviews with Army
leaders in this study. The grounded theory approach was appropriate for understanding the
factors related to (a) labor market changes, (b) Army responses, and (c) perceptions of the
challenges to develop a potential framework of recommendations to this issue through gathering
data embedded in the perceptions of the participants and through data collection specific to
interviews and document analysis.
The Role of the Researcher
In qualitative research using semi-structured interviews, the researcher plays a crucial
role as the primary instrument for data collection. The researcher serves as the interviewer and
facilitator, responsible for conducting the interviews and guiding the conversation (Stenfors et
al., 2020). As the instrument, the researcher brings their knowledge, expertise, and interpersonal
skills to create a comfortable and trusting environment for participants (Nassaji, 2020). They
designed the interview guide with open-ended questions or topics to explore while remaining
flexible in adapting the questions based on participants’ responses. The researcher actively
listens, probes for deeper insights, and manages the interview flow to meet the research
objectives. Their role involves establishing rapport, actively engaging with participants, and
balancing neutrality with empathy to encourage rich and meaningful participant responses
(Nassaji, 2020). The researcher’s skills in active listening, effective communication, and
maintaining a non-judgmental stance are essential for gathering comprehensive and valuable data
during semi-structured interviews.
Participants
The population considered for this study is current leaders from the U.S. Army military
branch. According to the U.S. Department of Defense (2023), the Army has over 990,000

41
enlisted personnel. The Army National Guard and Army Reserve combined have over 500,000
members on active duty (Garamone, 2023). The target sample included 10 individuals adhering
to the following inclusion criteria: (a) must be an Army leader with 10 or more years in service,
and (b) must be able to discuss factors associated with recruitment challenges. Purposive
sampling was used for recruiting study participants. The purposive sampling strategy consists of
participant selection based on each individual’s experiences and expertise with the study’s
phenomenon (Berndt, 2020). Purposive sampling should provide the necessary details for
recruiting the number of participants required for this study, which was met by data saturation.
Data saturation is a concept in qualitative research that indicates that new data no longer
provides additional insights or information to the research questions or themes being explored
(Guest et al., 2020). For this purpose, the researcher ideally gathered sufficient data to
comprehensively understand the phenomenon under investigation. The saturation point is also
determined based on the study design chosen and the sampling methods employed. For this
study, a grounded approach was chosen. According to Baker et al. (1992), a grounded study
should ideally include a minimum of 15 participants. However, Starks et al. (2007) suggested 10
or more participants to ensure appropriate data saturation. Thus, 10 participants were recruited to
address data saturation and the potential for individuals to leave the study voluntarily.
Whether the data saturation had been reached was determined based on iterative coding
and the determination that further data collection would result in redundant data (Guest et al.,
2020). Iterative coding entailed coding text from transcribed semi-structured interviews
following each interview. Codes from the most recent interview were compared with prior
interviews to determine if the saturation point had been reached based on the achievement of
redundancy in the data. Once saturation was achieved, no further data was collected. Data

42
saturation enhances the credibility and trustworthiness of the research findings, indicating that
the research has reached a point of theoretical saturation, and that further data collection may
yield insignificant new insights (Guest et al., 2020).
Instrumentation
This study utilized two forms of document analysis. The first method was semi-structured
interviews (see Appendix A) and document analysis (see Appendix B). The following sections
review the instrumentation for these methods. There is also a discussion of the methods used for
these approaches.
Semi-Structured Interviews
The study used semi-structured interviews to collect data from participants. In qualitative
research using semi-structured interviews, the interview protocol (see Appendix A) serves as a
guide for conducting interviews. It includes an opening and introduction to establish rapport with
participants; core questions and topics for exploration; and a closing and debriefing section
(Siedlecki, 2022). Information obtained from the interviews corresponded with Research
Questions 3 and 4. The interviews began with an introduction to the purpose of the study and
obtaining informed consent, followed by a series of open-ended questions or topics that allowed
participants to share their perspectives and experiences (Taylor et al., 2015). Probes and followup questions were used to encourage elaboration and clarification. The interview concluded with
an opportunity for participants to add additional thoughts or experiences, followed by a thank
you to the participant and an assurance of confidentiality (Taylor et al., 2015). The interview
protocol struck a balance between structure and flexibility, allowing for in-depth exploration of
the research questions while capturing the unique narratives of participants.

43
The interview questions were reviewed and assessed by a panel of three experts. These
three experts were selected based on their expertise in recruiting military personnel. A panel of
experts evaluated the interview questions, ensuring they were articulated appropriately so the
participants understood their context. Each expert evaluated the questions and made notes to see
if changes were necessary to clarify and make the questions more understandable. After sharing
their recommendations for changes, they were reviewed and updated to reflect feedback for
improvement.
Document Analysis
The second method that was used to collect data was document analysis. Document
analysis included a document analysis guide (see Appendix B). Specifically, the document
analysis was central to addressing Research Question 2 regarding Army responses to changes
associated with recruitment shortfalls. The document analysis guide was appropriate for allowing
me to assess the findings in a clear and transparent format for analysis. The documents analyzed
were marked on the document analysis sheet and aligned with the purpose of the study and the
research questions. A longitudinal survey, the Department of the Army Career Engagement
Survey (DACES), provided information that supported the conceptual framework developed for
the grounded approach.
Data Collection
Once the recruiting process was completed, data collection was conducted using semistructured interviews and a demographic questionnaire. Data collection until data saturation was
reached. Once data saturation was achieved, data analysis was conducted.

44
Recruitment
DoD and university institutional review board (IRB) approval were required before
recruitment. The DoD IRB approval was sought first. After DoD approval, the university IRB
approval was sought. Recruitment began when these methods were approved. Potential
participants were identified using social media. Advertisements were purchased through
Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn to advertise the study focusing on military veterans. The
sponsored posts (Appendix C) included the study description and my contact information. Once
an individual responded to an advertisement, they were sent questions concerning their interest
and determined whether the participant conformed to the eligibility criteria involved with the
purposive sampling criteria. Potential participants who met the eligibility criteria received a link
to the informed consent form. The informed consent form was located on the website Docusign.
Once signed, an interview over Zoom was scheduled. All signed consent forms were saved to an
encrypted flash drive. The flash drive only contained consent forms and not data.
Document Analysis
The first method of data collection included document analysis. Using the developed
document analysis sheet, the longitudinal surveys presented by the Department of the Army
Career Engagement Survey (DACES) were reviewed. These surveys were examined to assess a
general understanding of the sentiments of the Army’s past efforts to address recruitment
challenges. Only after document analysis was completed did the process of semi-structured
interviews commence.
Interviews
The second stage of data collection was semi-structured interviews. A demographic
survey was completed once the participant arrived at the Zoom interview. Once the demographic

45
survey was completed, responses were recorded and saved on an encrypted hard drive. The
interviews occurred on their scheduled day and time, using semi-structured interview questions.
Semi-structured interviews are a qualitative research method combining elements of structured
and unstructured interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). In a semi-structured interview, the
researcher uses a predetermined set of open-ended questions as a guide but also allows flexibility
to explore emerging topics and delve deeper into participants’ responses (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). This approach provides a balance between standardized data collection and the
opportunity for participants to share their perspectives and experiences in their own words. The
interview format was adapted to each participant, encouraging a more in-depth understanding of
their unique viewpoints while ensuring consistency across interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015).
Trustworthiness
The trustworthiness of the data collection instrument was examined to determine its
validity and reliability. In qualitative research, trustworthiness is akin to quantitative research’s
validity and reliability (Stahl & King, 2020). Trustworthiness is the “degree of confidence in
data, interpretation, and methods used to ensure the quality of a study” (Connelly, 2016, p. 435).
This trustworthiness comprises four areas of concern: credibility, transferability, dependability,
and confirmability. Credibility is used to confirm that any collected data is credible and plausible
(Stahl & King, 2020). Credibility is assessed by observing if the data collected is accurate and if
it represents the study’s phenomenon (Johnson et al., 2020). Member checking and peer review
were employed checking credibility. Member checking consists of asking the participants to
review their transcribed interviews, ensuring the content is accurate and represents the context of
their answers (Candela, 2019). As a practice of peer review, peers and colleagues not involved

46
with the study were asked to review the recorded interview against the transcribed data to ensure
its conversion accuracy.
Transferability refers to external validity and examines whether the data process can be
transferred into another setting or with another population and have the same outcome (Stahl &
King, 2020). For transferability, the researcher provided thick and wordy descriptions to enable
other researchers with necessary details for them to fully comprehend and recreate the process.
Dependability means determining whether the findings are reliable and consistent (Nyirenda et
al., 2020). The researcher establishes dependability by implementing an inquiry audit. This audit
occurs during the research process, and the researcher reviews it after all data collection and
analysis processes have been completed.
The final facet, confirmability, is the “neutrality of the researcher in interpreting findings,
having the findings free from bias, including social-desirability bias, which can be inherent since
researchers design and execute tools” (Nyirenda et al., 2020, p. 2). This objectivity is ensured
through the sample’s responses to the interview questions. The researcher must show that such
responses are unbiased and protected from bias. A reflexive journal was kept by the researcher in
order to aid in the mitigation of bias. Researchers use the reflexivity journal to record their
opinions and feelings during data collection and analysis. A reflexive journal can be an outlet to
document any prejudices or negative feelings towards any part of the research process (Adler,
2022).
Data Analysis
The plan for data analysis involves the data collected from interviews, document analysis,
and empirical literature. First, a reflexive thematic analysis was conducted on the semi-structured
interviews. Then, the textual data from semi-structured interviews was transcribed. The

47
CAQDAS used for the study was NVivo version 12. The textual data was in .txt file form and
exported into NVivo version 12. The NVivo project to code data per the protocol Braun and
Clarke (2006) described in reflexive thematic analysis was created. After the interview coding,
the coding of the document analysis was created. Following the document analysis, the three data
sources were triangulated. Then, the information from the empirical literature (see Chapter Two),
interview data, and document analysis were compared. Once the data analysis was completed,
the findings and coding, categorization, and themes were elucidated further through tables (see
Chapter Four).
Reflexive Thematic Analysis
Reflexive thematic analysis is a six-phase qualitative data analysis described by Braun
and Clarke (2006). Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase reflexive thematic analysis is a widely
used qualitative research approach that allows researchers to analyze and interpret rich and
detailed data. This methodological framework consists of six interconnected phases, providing a
systematic and rigorous process for uncovering themes and patterns within qualitative data. The
first phase involves familiarizing oneself with the data and actively immersing oneself in the
material to gain a comprehensive understanding. The second phase focuses on generating initial
codes and extracting meaningful data units that capture essential aspects of the research topic. In
the third phase, codes are organized into potential themes, identifying patterns and connections
across the data set. These themes are then refined and reviewed in the fourth phase, ensuring they
accurately represent the dataset and reflect the research aims. The themes are named and defined
in the fifth phase, creating a coherent and concise thematic map. Finally, in the sixth phase, the
researcher produces a detailed analysis report, highlighting the main themes, their relationships,
and their relevance to the research questions. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic

48
analysis offer researchers a flexible and iterative approach to analyzing qualitative data,
providing a comprehensive and rigorous method for generating rich insights and understanding
the complexity of human experiences and phenomena.
Ethics
A critical stage of ethical considerations is addressing the access to participants via
proper channels. First, the proposal of study was submitted to the DoD for consent for an IRB
study. After the DoD consented to an IRB study, the study underwent an IRB approval process
via the university. Only after these ethical procedures were completed did any form of
recruitment or data collection occur.
The Belmont Report, a foundational document in research ethics, includes three ethical
principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. In the semi-structured interview
research, respect for persons was protected by obtaining informed consent, ensuring
confidentiality, and allowing participants the right to withdraw. Confidentiality is discussed
further below. Beneficence was upheld by minimizing potential harm, maximizing benefits, and
ensuring the well-being of participants. This was achieved by ensuring that the semi-structured
interview protocol involved questions that did not cause undue stress or emotional damage to the
participants. Lastly, the principle of justice can be safeguarded by ensuring equitable participant
selection, addressing power imbalances, and providing fair access to the benefits of the research.
This was achieved by all participants being required to answer the same questions.
In addition to the ethical principles described in the Belmont Report, data privacy and
confidentiality are critical for human subject protection. In qualitative research, privacy and
confidentiality are two distinct concepts for protecting participants’ data. Privacy refers to the
right of individuals to control access to their personal information, which includes their thoughts,

49
beliefs, and experiences. It involves creating a safe and comfortable environment where
participants can freely share sensitive or confidential information without fear of judgment or
exposure to others. Respecting privacy means ensuring that participants’ personal information is
not disclosed to unauthorized individuals or entities.
On the other hand, confidentiality pertains to the researcher’s responsibility to protect
participants’ data by keeping it secure and anonymous. It involves safeguarding participants’
identities and personal details, such as their names, addresses, and other identifiable information,
by assigning pseudonyms or removing identifying information from the data. Confidentiality
ensures that the participants’ information is kept confidential and that only authorized
individuals, typically the research team, can access the data. It also means the data is stored
securely and protected from unauthorized access or breaches. The collected data was kept secure
on an encrypted hard drive. The data will be destroyed 2 years in the future from the date of the
last interview.
Limitations
The researcher of any study must show the limitations and discuss how such were
addressed within the study to strengthen the trustworthiness of the findings (Hennink & Kaiser,
2022). The first limitation is having a small sample size, which reduces the study’s
generalizability. A small sample size is necessary to promptly complete the research and engage
the researcher in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting rich, contextual, explanatory data and
findings, fulfilling the study’s purpose.
Additionally, this research is limited due to subjective interpretation, meaning that
descriptive studies rely on the researcher’s interpretation of the responses from a sample. Thus,
the findings may be subject to researcher bias. To mitigate bias, a reflexive journal was kept.

50
This journal was an outlet to document all potential biases, allowing the researcher to become
consciously aware of biases and thus minimize such influence. The final limitation entails a
potential for recall bias, meaning that because the accuracy of findings relied on the samples’
remembrance and recall of such experiences, a possibility exists that participants may not recall
their experiences accurately or entirely, which could minimize the accuracy of data and thus
findings. Hence, to reduce the potential recall bias, probing questions were used to clarify details
(Bergen & Labonte, 2020).
Summary
Chapter Three included a description of the research method and design for the study.
Following an introduction to the study, which included a description of the research method and
design, the chapter proceeded with a population description. The population was U.S. military
leaders in service for over 10 years. This chapter also included a discussion of instrumentation,
and the researcher was the primary instrument for the study. The instrumentation section also
acknowledged the semi-structured interview protocol, document analysis, and literature review
(see Chapter Two). The plans for data collection and analysis concluded the chapter. The data
analysis plan uses Braun and Clarke’s (2006) reflexive thematic analysis. Chapter Three was the
last chapter of the dissertation proposal. Following acceptance of the dissertation proposal by the
dissertation committee and the IRB of the university, data collection commenced. Chapter Four
conveys the tables describing the codes, categories, and themes for the data collected. Chapter
Five conveys findings and conclusions based on the thematic findings.

51
Chapter Four: Results
Military recruitment has severely declined over the past 5 years (Barno & Bensahel,
2023). Researchers show that failure to address shortfalls can result in adverse outcomes for the
safety of enlisted personnel and national and local security (Asch, 2023). Issues pertinent to the
shortfalls are related to labor market changes and sociopolitical shifts (Dexter, 2020). The
purpose of this qualitative grounded theory approach is to explore the lived experiences of Army
leaders who have been in service for over 10 years regarding recruitment challenges and causes.
A grounded theory approach was used to examine one service branch, specifically the Army, to
explore factors contributing to the recruitment challenges from the lived experiences of Army
leaders. Four research questions guided this study:
1. What are Army leaders’ perceptions of recruitment challenges in the current labor
market?
2. What are Army responses to changes associated with recruitment shortfalls?
3. How has the labor market affected recruitment shortfalls?
4. What are potential recommendations for addressing the Army recruitment
challenges?
A conceptual framework approach was used to identify key elements about the following
conceptual topics: (a) labor market changes, (b) Army responses, and (c) perceptions of the
challenges to develop a potential framework of recommendations for this issue. The analysis
outcomes are documented and presented at length. Information specific to the participants’
demographics included in the study is reviewed. An overview of the coding, category, and
thematic development is provided. Each theme elucidated from the data analysis procedures is
discussed in correspondence with associated participant quotes. In addition, the results of the

52
document analysis procedures are also discussed at length. First, the demographic characteristics
of the study sample are reviewed.
Demographics
The study included 10 Army leaders who had been in service for over 10 years. The
demographics outlined in Table 2 represent each participant in the study and their associated
characteristics—age, sex, race, and title, and tenure within their respective position—which are
crucial to examine to have a more generalized understanding of the population and sample
representation.
Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant
number Age Sex Race Title Tenure
(months)
P1 55 M Hispanic Battalion commander 16
P2 57 F White Continuity communications chief 24
P3 48 M Asian Staff Officer 12
P4 51 M African Am. ARGN G8 6
P5 44 M White Assist Sec of the Army Manpower and
Reserve Affairs 8
P6 45 M White Strategic planner 16
P7 44 M Asian Commander GUARNG Recruiting and
Retention Battalion 7
P8 38 M Asian Soldier 18
P9 45 M Pacific Isl Deputy Div Chief G3-5-7 HQDA 3
P10 49 F Bi-racial Director of communications 2

53
The age range of participants was 38–57. Eight of the participants were male, and two
were female. The participants in the study’s race composition include Hispanic, White, African
American, Pacific Islander, and biracial. The titles of participants were explicitly related to their
prior experiences in recruitment. Years within such specific positions range from 2 months to 2
years.
Data Analysis
Document Analysis
The document analysis process begins with a review of the longitudinal data shared from
Document analysis occurred through consideration of public reports regarding recruitment
strategies. The first method of data collection included document analysis. Using the developed
document analysis sheet, the longitudinal surveys presented by the Department of the Army
Career Engagement Survey (DACES) were reviewed. These surveys were examined to assess a
general understanding of the sentiments of the Army’s past efforts to address recruitment
challenges. Only after document analysis was completed were semi-structured interviews
conducted.
After the initial data preparation, all transcripts were uploaded into NVivo version 12.
This version allows for clear organization and management of transcripts. However, all data
analysis procedures were conducted by the researcher, and the software assisted with
organization and management only. The first data analysis process for the semi-structured
interviews included code development (Clarke & Braun, 2019).
Code Development
Thematic analysis was initiated via code development (Clarke & Braun, 2019). The first
step involved reviewing each transcript twice to ensure familiarity with all participant responses.

54
Each transcript was read and reread to ensure full comprehension of all participant responses
before coding. Afterward, two decision rules were implemented to ensure a straightforward
method and transparent process of their code processes (Clark & Braun, 2019). The first was that
each transcript would be reviewed twice for initial codes. The second decision rule was that each
code would be relevant to face value topics. For example, if a participant commonly mentioned
the term recruitment, the term for the code would be recruitment. In Table 3, each of the themes
developed via the process mentioned above is discussed in relationship to direct quotations and
participant and frequency count.
Table 3
Codes and Descriptions
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Recruitment P1: “I’m not familiar with specific recruiting efforts. We
mustn’t lower our standards to meet the quotas. It is
imperative that when a new soldier completes basic
training and MOS training, he is ready to do his job.”
8 12
Shortfalls P9: “We also need to highlight the career development
and educational opportunities available within the
Army. These include specialized training programs
and scholarships that can be attractive to those who
are looking for both personal and professional
growth. By aligning our recruitment strategies with
the evolving expectations of the workforce, the Army
can position itself as a compelling and rewarding
career option.”
4 34

55
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Struggles P1: “I think recruiting is important and will always be a
challenge. The strategy will have to adjust as
technology and our population change. However, I
think the main effort should be on retaining the
soldiers that we know can do the job. We should use
as many resources as possible, including bonuses,
special pay, promotions, special ranks, choice of
assignment, et cetera. We cannot let industry take our
talent.”
2 53
Responses P7: “Between the civilian labor market and the military,
we are competing for the same talent pool. One area of
opportunity is the student loan crisis. The Army is
looking for educated individuals who can potentially
fill its officer ranks. Individuals with a degree likely
have student loans. Expanding the student loan
repayment program can entice talented and educated
individuals to service.”
7 12
Strategies P8: “More resources (bonuses) are offered based on
crisis and conflicts of the nation.”
5 45
Changes P6: “The Army will continue to adapt, although
expensive simulators and virtual reality may not be
any better than hands-on training. Less change in
training is probably best.”
3 34
Differences in
age
P4: “I think marketing is fine. There are a lot of great
commercials and shows of military support on TV and
in local communities. I like the use of the BE ALL
YOU CAN BE slogan. For some young folks, it will
be their first time hearing the slogan, and those five
words will resonate with them. As far as branding, we
need to do a better job. People know about the Army,
but they don’t quite understand what defines us. As I
stated previously, when folks hear ‘Army,’ they think
of combat forces. We are so much more than that.”
5 56

56
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Generational P10: “Today’s labor markets in Information Technology
(IT), Cyber Security, and other technical fields present
challenges for the military to retain trained personnel.
The civilian workforce often pays more in this labor
category and often offers other incentives for
employees who obtain accredited certifications and
training. Also, the competitive salaries of private
sector jobs often offer a better work/life balance and
higher pay.”
7 78
Experience P4: “I joined the Army because a recruiter came to my
high school and discussed options and benefits, and
the Veterans Education Assistance Program (VEAP) is
what sold me. I wanted to go to college, and that was
my ticket.”
9 23
Perspective P3: “I think marketing is fine. There are a lot of great
commercials and shows of military support on TV and
in local communities. I like the use of the BE ALL
YOU CAN BE slogan. For some young folks, it will
be their first time hearing the slogan, and those five
words will resonate with them. As far as branding is
concerned, we need to do a better job. People know
about the Army, but they don’t quite understand what
defines us. As I stated previously, when folks hear
‘Army,’ they think of combat forces. We are so much
more than that.”
5 43
Leadership P7: “From my limited perspective, I think the Army is
doing what it needs to do for the next generation of
Soldiers. The Army is a large organization, so change
comes slowly. I think that the leaders must focus on
the speed of change when it comes to implementing
anything, but particularly, training.”
8 76
Current
efforts
P2: “We are behind the power curve. The younger
soldiers are hungry for upskilling; however, it’s
difficult to keep up with technology and new skills,
especially when policies and regulations must be
updated to capture the changes. As far as training,
there is so much available online. So much so that
much of the onus is on the Soldier to complete on their
own time. For the next generation, I think the online
piece is familiar and convenient; however, carving out
time to complete it will be challenging.”
8 54

57
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Change P10: “Influence of society has also contributed to
recruiting shortfalls. The geopolitical environment
since 9/11 and the current conflict in Ukraine have
influenced attitudes towards military service. A
stronger economy has also offered alternative job
opportunities than military service.”
5 43
Need P4: “The diminishing concept of service in society is a
multifaceted issue that impacts military recruitment
significantly. This decline isn’t just a military
challenge; it’s reflective of broader societal trends and
attitudes toward service in any form, be it military,
civic, or community oriented.”
3 41
Response P1: “Our children spend 50% of their day at school, and
most of their opinions and sentiments are developed
from their interactions at school. If the school will
promote patriotism over inclusion, we could overcome
some of the issues we are experiencing in recruiting.”
6 54
A sum of 16 codes were developed based on the initial coding procedures. Each code
represented a topic developed based on the face value of participants’ reflections supplied during
interviews. For example, the code of need focused on participants’ understanding that change
must be enacted to address an urgent need for recruitment and shortfall failures (Clarke & Braun,
2019). Participants also reflected on various changes, responses, and more granular perspectives
pertaining to potential strategies that could support recruitment efforts. After initial code
development, category development was completed and discussed next.
Category Development
The next phase of thematic analysis involves category development (Clarke & Braun,
2019). Similar to code development, a series of two decision rules to ensure alignment with
rigorous and transparent processes for data analysis procedures were developed (Clark & Braun,

58
2019). The first decision rule ensured that each category held at least two codes (Clark & Braun,
2019). The decision rule ensured that each category represented sufficient information to reflect
a topic or theme. The second decision rule stipulated that the combination of categories was
based on conceptual value. For example, topics pertaining to strategies and approaches into
responses and strategies were combined, thus representing topics of similar value (Clark &
Braun, 2019). Table 4 reviews the categories identified for the study.
Table 4
Categories
Category Code Definition Participant
count
Frequency
count
Responses and
strategies
Responses
strategies
approaches
Various responses and strategies are
used by leaders to address
recruitment shortfalls. Approaches
can be seen as positive but often are
not guided by potentially outdated
approaches to recruitment strategies.
10 78
Recruitment
shortfalls
Shortfalls
recruitment
struggles
Recruitment struggles center upon
changing generational demographics
and variations within economic
trends. Participants focused upon
these specific challenges associated
with recruitment and the need to
urgently address such issues.
10 99
Generational
shifts
Changes
generational
difference in
age(s)
Leaders emphasize that changes in
generational preferences are a key
factor potentially influencing the
outcomes of recruitment strategies.
Some participants had positive
opinions. Others had negative
perceptions of such generational
changes.
10 45
Labor market
changes
Labor market
change in
labor
The labor market was considered a
significant factor affecting
recruitment outcomes for Army
leaders. Labor and market changes
10 66

59
Category Code Definition Participant
count
Frequency
count
were discussed at length by leaders.
Strategies of
leadership
Strategies in
leadership
Army leaders provided strategies
regarding addressing the need to
improve recruitment challenges.
Emphasis was placed on updating
other leaders’ approaches to improve
recruitment approaches.
10 78
Internal
perspectives
Perspective
experience
The internal perspectives supplied by
participants in this study provided an
understanding of their own
experiences, as well as a definitive
need for a change. Participants
explained recruitment from their
initial contract to their current status.
References were made towards the
general need for improved strategies
that truly meet what the Army
requires regarding defense.
10 32
A need for
action
Need change The need for change was a particular
emphasis by many participants in the
study.
10 88
Army
responses
Current efforts
response
Participants felt that strategies must be
updated. Furthermore, many
participants felt that current
approaches are either too lax or too
strict to encourage recruitment and
meet current shortfalls.
10 56
The final categories reflected the following topics: responses and strategies, recruitment
shortfalls, generational shifts, labor market changes, leadership strategies, internal perspectives, a
need for action, and Army responses. Each category reflected a larger conceptual topic,
representing previous reflections from participants developed via code processing (Clark &

60
Braun, 2019). The categories also represent the final foundation for theme identification, which
is discussed next.
Final Themes
The final process of data analysis involved the identification of emergent themes. Two
decision rules were enacted for this process. The first was regarding combining a minimum of
two categories representing one theme (Clark & Braun, 2019). The next decision rule referred to
the alignment and definition of each theme with corresponding names relevant to guiding
research questions and the topics explored to ensure alignment with the conceptual framework.
Table 5 reviews each theme, combined categories, and key definitions.
Table 5
Final Themes
Theme Categories Definition Participant
count
Frequency
count
Internal
perspectives
Strategies of
leaders;
internal
perspectives
Leaders reported various perspectives,
ranging from the changing
temperament of the new generation to
the need to provide more direct
recruitment marketing techniques that
target the needs of the changing
economy. Perspectives centered
around a socio-cultural shift that has
led to a weakened interest in the Army
but must be addressed by more
youthful approaches and techniques to
recruitment.
10 202

61
Theme Categories Definition Participant
count
Frequency
count
Army
responses
Need for
action;
Army
responses
Participants rapidly acknowledged the
need for change. Current responses
were considered useful, especially
considering the financial packages
offered. However, participants
recognized that changes in social,
political, and cultural landscapes are a
key challenge to the current marketing
approaches. Implementing a more
holistic approach, including
educational, economic, and socially
targeted approaches, was considered as
one potential technique to address
recruitment shortfalls.
10 241
Labor market
changes
Generational
shifts; labor
market
changes
Participants reported labor market
changes as an integral element of
recruitment shortfalls. Based on
experience and knowledge of
recruitment data, adapting to the new
generations’ perspectives from a
recruitment and policy-based approach
was considered integral to meeting
recruitment numbers.
10 191
Responses
and
strategies
Responses and
strategies;
recruitment
shortfalls
The responses and strategies presented
by participants focused on a need to
shift strategies to address recruitment
shortfalls through adaptive
approaches. The inclusion of
techniques targeting the growing
change of generations and the labor
market included the reported need to
address potential variations in
statistical shortfalls experienced within
the current recruitment data.
10 146
The data analysis procedures discussed in Chapter Four identified four themes: (a)
internal perspectives; (b) Army responses; (c) labor market changes; and (d) responses and
strategies. Each of the emergent themes was built upon the development of codes and

62
combinational categories, and the final combination of categories into themes reflected key
responses, changes, and potential strategies.
Each developed theme represented relationships with the identified research questions.
For example, theme one pertaining to recruitment shortfall responses and strategies, is related to
Research Question 4, thus providing direct alignment with the research questions to ensure each
of the responses is relevant to the development of the conceptual framework. The following
sections include a detailed review of each theme’s definition and respective participant quotes to
conduct reflexive thematic analysis, as recommended by prior methodological researchers (Clark
& Braun, 2019).
Internal Perspectives: The Strategies of Leaders
The first emergent theme, representative of leaders’ perspectives and proposed strategies,
provides information addressing research question one. Specifically, the participants within this
theme responded to the strategies employed, potential needs for shifting current approaches, and
a particular perception of the inclusive techniques often targeted to address difficulties in the
labor market. Participants supplied a unique understanding based on their prior experiences and
potential reflections regarding changes that may be effective and appropriate in improving
recruitment shortfalls. Amongst many strategies were the current marketing techniques which P1
addressed:
“Be all you can be” is a good slogan. That was the slogan when I signed up back in 1988.
I remember the commercials and everything I saw about becoming a badass. Airborne,
Air Assault, Ranger, Special Forces, Tanks, and shooting. That is no longer the case. I
think they are concentrating too much on inclusion. It needs to be about being the best,
being the strongest, and protecting our way of life.

63
Other leaders reflected on the need to change standards in the Army, such as P4: “I am not
familiar with specific recruiting efforts … We must not lower our standards to meet the quotas. It
is imperative that when a new soldier completes basic training and MOS training, he is ready to
do his job.” P10 agreed that innovation is needed: “The Army is thinking outside the box with
new ways to recruit while using some old ways. They are realigning the recruiting command
structure and analyzing recruiting methods.” P6 agreed that incentivization can be a good
strategy: “I have seen new incentive programs to entice soldiers to recruit as well as the return of
the recruiting slogan.”
Other leaders felt a need to improve the task force approaches to improve incentivization
approaches, such as P8:
Lack of understanding in talent management, and the Army is doing something about it
with a new recruiting MOS, 42T—Talent Acquisition Specialist. About 5 years ago, the
Army started the Talent Management Task Force to assess talent within the ranks and
assign personnel based on their skills. Nearly 6 years later, we are trying to apply that
same mindset to future recruits. Potential recruits are mostly from high schools, and
recruiters are also looking to the workforce, especially the National Guard. Depending on
where you live and what you want to do, it can greatly impact which component—Army,
Guard, Reserve—you will join.
Some leaders felt that marketing tactics were appropriate, such as P4: “I think marketing
is fine. There are a lot of great commercials and shows of military support on TV and in local
communities.” However, P4 also felt that improving the transparency of the approaches is key to
recruitment: “People know about the Army but do not quite understand what defines us. As I
stated, when folks hear ‘Army,’ they think of combat forces. We are so much more than that.”

64
The responses provided by the U.S. Army leaders in this specific theme show the use of
firsthand experiences to foster renewed approaches to strategies for marketing. Participants
understood that there is a need to make the market further aware of differing needs and
generational changes to meet recruitment shortfalls currently experienced fully. Including Army
leaders’ perspectives may be one significant way of developing a conceptual framework that
guides improved recruitment approaches.
Army Responses: A Need for Action
The second theme, a need for action and Army responses, provides information
addressing Research Question 2 regarding the current responses by the Army leaders’
perspectives. Participants in theme two specifically focused on assessing prior and current
responses that can be useful for changes in the current economic and labor market landscape.
Leaders focused on challenges, the need for innovation, and the use of a holistic approach that
can target current failures and recruitment strategies. For example, P8 provided their experience
with recruitment challenges:
Lack of qualified recruits. I saw this first-hand when I was a Command Chief Warrant
Officer. I was surprised at the number of recruit packets that required waivers. For those
single parents who wanted to join to give their children a better life, I was more than
happy to endorse their opportunity. I think increased folks are not able to serve mostly
because of issues with health, drugs, obesity, and/or misconduct.
P7 felt that innovation is needed to address challenges: “The Army is thinking outside the box
with new ways to recruit while using some old ways.” P3 recognized the importance of using
transparent methods to advertise:

65
I see diversity in recruiting posters and pictures; however, I am unsure about inclusion.
An analogy I like is “diversity is being invited to the party, and inclusion is being asked
to dance.” The Army does a great job of showing the excitement of the force and some
cool things you can do; however, it really does not depict being included in a group.
Social status is important to young adults, and you do not see that in recruitment
strategies.
P1 reflected that the U.S. Army should accelerate the recruitment process to improve outcomes,
“Get folks in the Army quickly. It can take months to get a prospect to boot camp, giving them
time to find another job, especially if money is an issue/incentive.” The information gathered
around the second theme provided an overview of Army leaders’ perceptions of the need for
responses that can address considerable challenges in recruitment. Participants reflected on the
need to assess current strategic approaches, improve marketing, and develop more grounded and
effective recruitment methods to foster change.
Labor Market Changes: Generational Shifts
The third theme, labor market changes and generational shifts, addresses Research
Question 3, exploring the role of recruitment shortfalls within the context of generation labor
market shifts. Participants regarded generational shifts and labor market changes as integrally
related. Based on experience and perceptions, many participants felt that the current generation
lacked the motivation and confidence to join the military. However, some participants conversely
related that the younger generation only requires differing marketing techniques that foster
transparency concerning their role in the military after the signing. Such responses provided a
unique perspective regarding considering labor and generation changes within the context of
recruitment shortfalls. P2 contextualized their understanding of the available recruits:

66
It is very comparable; however, only the more mature recruits, more than likely from the
workforce, will understand and appreciate them. There is one change that I especially like
and one that I especially dislike. My likes: pay has increased to the point where Soldiers
do not have to apply for food stamps to support their families. My dislikes: retirement is
no longer just 20 years. Benefits such as health coverage, leave, life insurance, and
retirement, despite the change, are better in the military, and the Commissary and
OHA/COLA are by far the greater benefits of being assigned overseas. I tell my sons to
use benefits such as VA home loans, TSP, Tuition Assistance, and the GI Bill to better
their future for themselves and their families.
P4, however, felt that generational changes are a key challenge: “I do not think they align, and it
is going to take time. The younger generation is more in touch with digital platforms, and so
much information and misinformation are out there.” However, P5 reflected that key changes in
labor markets are also working in tandem with generational challenges present in recruitment:
The labor market changed quite significantly post-COVID, and customer service is
appalling. It is apparent folks became comfortable not working while receiving
government assistance. The drive to become a contributing member of society is
seriously lacking. Furthermore, there is a reason why we “serve in the Army” and not
“work in the Army.” Serving has a deeper meaning that most folks do not understand or
even experience. To serve means meeting the needs of someone else, an unselfish act. It
is about being willing to give of yourself to do whatever it takes to get something done.
So, with today’s lackadaisical society, it is no wonder there are challenges in finding
someone willing to serve and be prepared to give the ultimate sacrifice.

67
Leaders also reflected on challenges with the lack of available skills offered in the Army:
“Children whose parents serve are more likely to serve; however, in my case, the recruitment
was for other services. I wanted my sons to learn a skill that would benefit them for … life after
in the military.” P7 agreed with the sentiments of P4: “We are behind the power curve. The
younger soldiers are hungry for upskilling; however, it is difficult to keep up with technology
and new skills, especially when policies and regulations must be updated to capture the
changes.”
The participant responses regarding generational and labor market changes provide a
unique perspective regarding the need to understand how Army leaders’ perspectives of new
generations may influence their marketing strategies. A diverse set of opinions was supplied
concerning generation and labor market changes. However, the lack of cohesive perspectives
may lead to further difficulty among recruitment leaders.
Responses and Strategies: Recruitment Shortfalls
The final theme, responses, and strategies regarding recruitment shortfalls provided
information regarding Army leaders’ understanding and potential strategies to address
recruitment shortfalls. Participants’ reflections on the final theme understood a unique and
complicated history of military recruitment, which is viewed uniquely from newer generational
positions. Many responses focused upon the inherent challenge of recruitment, while others
reflected on a need to provide enticement to meet the needs of changing labor and economic
shifts. P8 emphasized the challenge of current responses:
I think recruiting is important and will always be a challenge. The strategy will have to
adjust as technology and our population change. However, I think the main effort should
be on retaining the soldiers that we know can do the job. We should use as many

68
resources as possible, including bonuses, special pay, promotions, special ranks, choice
of assignment, et cetera. We cannot let industry take our talent.
P4 also felt that fear was a key issue facing potential recruits: “It scares new recruits. The fear of
deployment is real to someone who does not understand how the Army functions. Families do
not want to see their child go away overseas and be put in danger by some other country.” P6
agreed with such sentiments: “The tragedies of 9/11 reignited American pride, but it has since
died down.” However, the Army’s move to multi-domain operations may trigger excitement and
new interest. However, P5 reflected that educational systems can be a vital solution to
recruitment:
With most of our recruits coming from high schools, hometown recruiters and college
programs must be at an all-time high. I joined the Army because a recruiter came to my
high school and discussed options and benefits, and the Veterans Education Assistance
Program is what sold me. I wanted to go to college, and that was my ticket. I had no
family members in the military, so it was important for me to understand the benefits.
P3 similarly agreed that “this new ‘evidence-based’ recruiting will have a positive effect as we
will better understand what will entice the labor force, as well as high school students, to become
recruits. Once we have that, the challenge will be funding to support it.” The final theme
provided a unique perspective regarding potential responses and strategies considered usable by
Army leaders. The response is supplied focused upon the varying changes experienced based
upon generational shifts, labor market changes, and strategies, which are not considered as
potentially useful based upon the responses of potential recruits. The participants’ reflections
elucidated the need for including such perspectives to foster a more cohesive marketing strategy
that can meet the needs of a new generation.

69
Chapter Five: Discussion
The purpose of applying the qualitative grounded theory approach in this study was to
explore the lived experiences of Army leaders who have been in service for over 10 years
regarding recruitment challenges and causes. This purpose addresses the problem of the U.S.
Army continuing to struggle to recruit new personnel, which requires strategies to support an
informed understanding of the causes of this issue to support strategies to address the shortfall
(Asch, 2023). The grounded theory approach was used to establish an inductive theory, to
develop a conceptual theory that explored (a) the socio-political changes impacting the labor
market changes, (b) sample responses, and (c) the adaptive marking techniques associated with
the challenges. All were influential in the development of this framework of recommendations.
The findings were evaluated and interpreted to answer the four research questions, which
informed the creation of a new theory:
Four research questions guided this study:
1. What are Army leaders’ perceptions of recruitment challenges in the current labor
market?
2. What are Army responses to changes associated with recruitment shortfalls?
3. How has the labor market affected recruitment shortfalls?
4. What are potential recommendations for addressing the Army recruitment
challenges?
The qualitative methodology provided the foundation for answering each research question with
the responses from the combined data collected. The semi-structured interviews and document
analysis were reviewed to determine these responses. This chapter links findings to the reviewed

70
literature discussed in Chapter Two. The overall discussion in this chapter is intended to present
implications for practice and offer recommendations for future research.
Findings
The data collected was analyzed to determine themes in response to the study’s purpose
and provided answers to the four research questions. These findings led to the development of a
theory and are discussed in the following section. Four themes, respective to each research
question, were extracted from the interviews and document analysis:
1. Internal perspectives
2. Army responses
3. Labor market changes
4. Responses and strategies to recruitment shortfalls
Internal Perspectives: The Strategies of Leaders (Research Question 1)
This first research question was an inquiry into Army leaders’ perceptions of recruitment
challenges in the current labor market. The analysis produced a response to understanding the
internal perspectives of Army leaders concerned about recruiting efforts. The analysis also
extracted the theme of understanding these leaders’ strategies and how to implement strategies
quickly. The interview responses from those in leadership positions combined with the collected
documentation suggested there is a need to understand the changing temperament of the new
generation. Additionally, based on the theme of internal perspectives and strategies associated
with military leadership, these findings recognized the need to provide more direct recruitment
marketing techniques that target the needs of the changing economy. The findings suggested a
socio-cultural shift that led to a weakened interest in the Army but could potentially be addressed
by more youthful approaches and techniques to recruitment. The strategic ideas Army leaders

71
provided regarding addressing the need to improve recruitment challenges emphasized updating
other leaders’ approaches to improve recruitment.
The responses were emphasized in the current literature. They prompted the exploration
of Army leader perceptions to illuminate strategies that may address recruitment challenges most
salient to a potential solution (Winkie, 2023). The reviewed literature suggested that
requirements for adapting strategies support an informed understanding of the causes of
recruiting problems, thus suggesting that supporting strategies address the shortfall of Army
recruits (Dexter, 2020). Much of the current scholarship focused on recruitment strategies and
was based on the military recruitment model factors. The factors shared in the literature included
perceived fit, job attractiveness, hiring expectations, employer knowledge, organizational
attractiveness, social influence, and perceived alternatives. These are encompassed in an Army
leader’s perception of recruitment challenges.
Strategic means for new recruiting plans are further considered successful when there is
compatibility between a person’s characteristics, such as knowledge, skills, abilities, and needs,
and the job requirements or tasks performed at work (Schreurs & Syed, 2004). Such leadership
strategies must account for this perceived fit of those being recruited. Thus, the internal
perspectives noted from the analysis process were vital to future leadership strategies within
Army recruiting efforts. The internal perspectives supplied by participants in this study provided
an understanding of their experiences and a definitive need for change. Participants explained
recruitment from their initial contract to their current status. References were made to the general
need for improved strategies that meet the Army’s requirements regarding defense.
The existing reviewed literature focusing on factors that influence recruitment was
discussed by researchers as they presented human capital strategies that reflected the importance

72
of recruitment by viewing the effect on military personnel and operational effectiveness
(Sánchez-Polo et al., 2019). Studies showed that bureaucratic procedures, opposition to change, a
lack of resources, and a lack of awareness of the potential advantages could all contribute to
difficulties in managing human capital who may be eligible for military recruitment (SánchezPolo et al., 2019). Examining causes associated with human capital is crucial to pinpoint problem
areas and advance the military’s human resource management procedures (Qalsh et al., 2023).
Researchers focused on specific human capital plans that were efficient in their variability for
changing organizational needs and difficulties (Allen, 2020; Fosher et al., 2020). Thus, allocating
energy to factors associated with planning, development, and collaboration may also support
military recruitment strategies.
This theme is associated with factors that foster improved organizational outcomes that
can address critical challenges impacting recruiting efforts. Studies have established how
potential service members can better comprehend the benefits and purpose of these initiatives
when there are open lines of communication (Baran & Woznyj, 2020; Osiobe, 2019). The
findings further support research that suggests military leaders use deliberate effort to encourage
a culture of change, allot sufficient resources, encourage collaboration, conduct routine
evaluations, and maintain open communication to overcome the difficulties in implementing
human capital plans (Douglas et al., 2019). By incorporating these methods into its human
resources plan, the military may improve its capacity to attract, nurture, and keep a skilled and
diverse workforce. This enhances organizational effectiveness, develops operational capabilities,
and places the military in a successful long-term position (Elnitsky et al., 2017). For military
recruitment, communication and transparency with future recruits may be vital strategies for
success (Baran & Woznyj, 2020).

73
Army Responses: A Need for Action (Research Question 2)
This second research question asks what Army responses to changes are associated with
recruitment shortfalls. The data found in response to this question was drawn from the interviews
and the documentation collected and analyzed. The longitudinal surveys conducted by the
Department of the Army Career Engagement Survey (DACES) were reviewed. These surveys
were examined to assess a general understanding of the sentiments of the Army’s past efforts to
address recruitment challenges. Only after document analysis is complete does the process of
semi-structured interviews commence.
The theme unearthed through the interviews and documentation was the Army’s
responses, understanding there was a specific need for action related to recruitment efforts. The
documentation shared several recruiting strategies currently used for such efforts. However,
these strategies were based on outdated details and could not keep up with the changes in certain
generational shifts (see Research Question 3 in this next section). Regarding the response to this
research question, the findings showed that participants rapidly acknowledged the need for
change. Current responses were considered useful, especially considering the financial packages
offered. However, participants recognized that changes in social, political, and cultural
landscapes are a crucial challenge to the current marketing approaches. Implementing a more
holistic approach, including educational, economic, and socially targeted approaches, was
considered one potential technique to address recruitment shortfalls. This documentation further
noted that the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure Subcommittee on Coast Guard
and Maritime Transportation United States House of Representatives reported how the desired
target was missed by 15,000 military personnel in 2022, representing a 75% shortfall of the

74
required goal by the Army. Though data is unavailable for 2023, interviews with the Army
Secretary reported a continued likelihood of recruitment-related challenges (Winkie, 2023).
The literature reviewed that supported this finding included reports from the DoD (2022),
which Asch (2019) explained in their publication. Asch (2019) further noted that the recruitment
goals for the Army were approximately 75,000 to 80,000 in 2008, with a decline in 2014 to
57,000. The decrease has continued in recruitment since 2014. In 2005, the Army again struggled
to meet recruitment, with challenges in obtaining quality enlistees (who also adhered to
regulations) as an added challenge. Recruitment struggles center upon changing generational
demographics and variations within economic trends. Participants focused on these specific
challenges associated with recruitment and the need to urgently address such issues
(Tchitchinadze & Ovsyannikova, 2022).
Additionally, researchers noted that the factors impacting recruitment efforts while
challenging current strategies to address shortfalls were considered influenced by certain factors.
Several research studies have explored features associated with Army service members regarding
understanding factors that affect members in the military and may lead to challenges in
recruitment (Marrone et al., 2021). The level of job satisfaction was also suggested as
influencing organizational commitment, with researchers suggesting a need for more focused
actions to supplement current attrition and reenlistment efforts (Alvinius et al., 2017; Bokti &
Talib, 2009; Gade, 2003; Gade et al., 2003; Godlewski & Kline, 2012; Heffner & Gade, 2003;
Hom & Hulin, 1981; Kim et al., 1996; Meadows et al., 2016; Osterberg et al., 2017; Teplitzky,
1991; Tremble et al., 2003). Finally, research showed that organizational factors such as

75
command culture, development cycle, and peer characteristics may influence attrition rates; thus,
addressing such institutional factors as Army norms and directives may also be crucial to
recruitment challenges (Farrell et al., 2017; Grayham, 2023; Marrone et al., 2021).
Labor Market Changes: Generational Shifts (Research Question 3)
The third research question is an inquiry into how the labor market has affected
recruitment shortfalls. The overriding theme for responses collected for Research Question 3 was
that generational shifts had the greatest impact on labor market changes. Participants reported
labor market changes as an integral element of recruitment shortfalls. Based on experience and
knowledge of recruitment data, adapting to the new generations’ perspectives from a recruitment
and policy-based approach was considered integral to meeting recruitment numbers. Such
generational shifts and labor market changes occur with every generation, and those involved in
factors to facilitate standards must recognize and adapt to such changes. For example, it is
prudent that leaders emphasize the need for adaptation due to the changes in generational
preferences. Such actions potentially influence the outcomes of recruitment strategies.
Generational shifts and labor market changes were noted as integrally related. The current
generation was thought to lack the motivation and confidence to join the military. However,
recruiting efforts toward a younger generation require differing marketing techniques that foster
transparency concerning their role in the military after the signing.
The literature noted similarities in this theme and these results. One of the main topics
found within the research showed the challenge alone is not only recruitment but also reflective
of a deeper issue, such as labor market changes and socio-political shifts (Bartone & Bowles,
2020; Dexter, 2020). Military leaders using strategic approaches must consider information
related to socio-political effects on the labor market, the competitiveness of recruitment

76
strategies, Army responses, and perceptions towards targeting a renewed perspective towards
recruitment shortfalls (Asch, 2023; Winkie, 2023). Thus, the problem identified requires a
nuanced examination of the topic to build toward a conceptual model that identifies the
theoretical underpinnings of recruitment while acknowledging potential strategies for change.
There are multiple ramifications of not implementing specific human capital initiatives
found in the existing scholarship, with a lack of representation and inclusivity among the
workforce that may result from weak diversity and inclusion programs. This can limit
innovation, problem-solving skills, and teamwork, reducing the military’s capacity to adapt to
and succeed in various challenging environments (Chetri, 2021; McAleavy et al., 2021).
Additionally, lacking focus on talent management initiatives can make finding, training, and
keeping high-performing employees difficult, resulting in a loss of vital knowledge and abilities
(Carpenter & Silberman, 2020). The same issues may be of concern when assessing military
recruitment challenges. Challenges the armed services are experiencing in recruiting include:
many Americans do not meet the eligibility requirements associated with weight, lack a criminal
background, and have financial problems that prohibit them from being eligible to enlist (Kube
& Boigon, 2022; Marble et al., 2020). Other challenges include a general lack of awareness of
the benefits enlisting in the service can provide, distrust of the government, and fear that
enlisting would result in either emotional or physical disability (Kube & Boigon, 2022;
Wallenius et al., 2020).
Responses and Strategies: Recruitment Shortfalls (Research Question 4)
The final research question asked the potential recommendations for addressing the Army
recruitment challenges. Drawing from the data, a theme was established that military leaders
must focus on responses and strategies consisting of recruitment shortfalls. The responses and

77
strategies presented by participants focused on a need to shift strategies to address recruitment
shortfalls through adaptive approaches. Techniques targeting the growing change of generations
and the labor market included the reported need to address potential variations in statistical
shortfalls experienced within the current recruitment data. Again, a focus regarding this theme
notes multiple recruitment shortfalls associated with current recruiting practices. It was noted
that Army leaders who are considering potential strategies to address recruitment shortfalls must
be open to change. The unique and complicated history of military recruitment, considered from
newer generational positions, required changes in recruiting practices. This creates an inherent
challenge of recruitment, from which the sample reflected a need to provide enticement to meet
the needs of changing labor and economic shifts.
Improvements in organizational outcomes from changes in recruiting strategies were a
central theme in the literature. Researchers noted that engaging with academic institutions,
business professionals, and other military organizations was a positive motion for developing
novel viewpoints and innovative methods to manage recruiting efforts through human resources
(Allen, 2020). Creating partnerships with other organizations provides a means to find tactics
that have worked well in comparable situations and modify them to suit the requirements of the
military (Allen, 2020; Fosher et al., 2020). Mechanisms for regular evaluation and feedback are
essential for determining how well-adopted tactics are working. By establishing quantifiable
measurements and performance indicators, one may track success and spot areas for
development. The continuous assessment ensures that the human capital plan remains pertinent
and adaptable to changing organizational needs and difficulties (Allen, 2020; Fosher et al.,
2020). Thus, allocating energy to factors associated with planning, development, and
collaboration may also support military recruitment strategies.

78
Researchers also noted that open communication applied appropriately would foster
improved organizational outcomes that can address critical challenges, such as recruitment
(Baran & Woznyj, 2020; Douglas et al., 2019; Elnitsky et al., 2017). For example, Baran and
Woznyj (2020) and Douglas et al. (2019) suggested that potential service members can better
comprehend the benefits and purpose of these initiatives when there are open lines of
communication. To foster a sense of ownership and alignment with the company goals, it is
essential to involve employees in decision-making processes, solicit their opinions, and engage
them in these activities (Baran & Woznyj, 2020). By incorporating these methods into its human
resources plan, the military may improve its capacity to attract, nurture, and keep a skilled and
diverse workforce. This enhances organizational effectiveness, develops operational capabilities,
and places the military in a successful long-term position (Elnitsky et al., 2017). For military
recruitment, communication and transparency with future recruits may be vital strategies for
success (Baran & Woznyj, 2020).
Implications for Practice
The results found through the data analysis process inform Army leaders to increase and
change their recruitment methods, thus encouraging the next generation of soldiers to join the
military. The interview results showed a continued need to increase, improve, and implement
robust recruiting plans. Due to falling recruitment numbers and challenges and an examination of
current recruiting practices, the problem with recruitment numbers reflected a deeper issue, such
as labor market changes and socio-political shifts (Dexter, 2020).
The implications can impact the recruiting practices for Army leaders and invest time and
funding in more substantial and more successful strategies for recruiting. The findings

79
established through the document analysis and interview responses were applied to develop a
grounded theory associated with this research.
Military Recruiting Objective Theory
Developing an original grounded theory was predicated on using the military recruitment
model as a foundation. This theory is called the military recruiting objective theory (see Figure
3), and it is constructed from the themes established through the interview responses and
document analysis. The theoretical construct developed for this grounded theory study has a
wide range of implications that could foster new strategies for military recruitment.
Figure 3
Construct of Military Recruiting Objective Theory

80
By exploring the military recruitment model and applying it to a modern recruiting
setting of the U.S. Army, the study used a grounded theory approach that incorporates Army
leaders’ perspectives. These perspectives were considered alongside empirical literature and
document analysis. The examination enabled the distillation of themes that were formulated into
constructs that unpin the military recruiting objective theory. The formulation of the constructs in
Figure 3 comprises the military recruiting objective theory.
The first construct, socio-political changes, functions on wavering trust in the
government, the perceived lack of transparency, and the notion that such will lead to the lack of
military trust and willingness to join. This theory’s lack of transparency is fundamental and must
be overcome for recruiting changes.
The second construct, generational responses, includes the demand for social justice and
the awareness of government failures, which thus leads to a lack of joining a military branch.
When relayed, these are functionary constructs that an individual wishing to improve recruiting
practices must consider.
Construct number three focuses on labor market shifts impacted by educational shifts, the
demand for fair pay, work-life balance, and a shift to new generational values. If these are not
recognized and overcome, they will lead to a lowered interest in military involvement regardless
of pay or benefits.
The final construct of this theory is adaptive marketing techniques. This construct applies
to financial stimulus, adaptation to generational needs, focusing on work-life balance, and
reviewing restrictions while maintaining recruits’ capabilities. The themes discussed based on
the data collection sources led to the result of this grounded theory and perpetuated a new theory
for military recruitment use. An example of this theory is one that a military leader can apply to

81
make changes or develop a new recruiting strategy. This theory focuses on different facets that,
when changed, could promote positive impacts on military recruiting strategies.
Future Research
Future research recommendations include applying the theory established in this study to
prove that such changes in recruiting strategies are beneficial and can be successful. Any future
studies should focus on the opinions of high school students regarding joining the military to
determine further and directly what the new generation of military recruits’ desires for future
military careers. Also, it would be beneficial to examine what military personnel at various levels
in their careers feel regarding methods for recruiting based on their perceptions and experiences.
Additionally, further research into the efficacy of ROTC programs in college and high school
should be considered when viewing the problem of low recruitment rates in the Armed Forces.
Finally, research on government policy could expand ideas for recruiting strategies that may
require funding or government exposure.
Conclusions
The findings and implications of this research could provide viable solutions to the
shortages found in military personnel and provide a means to overcome the current struggle in
recruiting new personnel. Issues with recruiting new military soldiers ultimately present a
significant concern for national security threats, protection of local security, and the support of
enlisted military personnel. While challenges with recruiting practices and strategies continue,
the outcomes from this grounded theory study present methods to overcome the factors that may
cause recruiting methods to fail. The findings further relayed an understanding that there is a
reduced pool of qualified applicants to fill the needs of military services. Recruiting strategies
and structures may need to change to overcome this barrier. There is a positive social impact, as

82
the findings could result in understanding a preliminary conceptual model to support solutions
for recruiting military members in the Army branch. A social impact implemented through
military leadership offers a means to overcome the causes of failed recruiting efforts and provide
potential solutions for recruitment challenges based on a complex understanding of factors,
solutions, and perspectives by Army leaders. The findings suggested that any solution for the
lack of new military recruits fundamentally must start with understanding what recruits require
from a military career and thus change how recruiting has occurred up to this point. Such a
change in recruiting strategies can potentially impact successful recruitment practices in the
future.

83
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Appendix A: Interview Guide
Thank you for joining me today.
I have a few questions I will go over, and please feel free to interrupt me at any point. As
I have previously stated, this interview is being audio recorded for my purposes of data analysis
and presenting the results of your statements accurately to your reflections. If you are still okay
with that, we will go ahead and proceed with the interview. If at any point you would like to
leave, you may do so without any consequences.
1. Could you please describe your perceptions of the ongoing recruitment challenges
faced within the Army?
2. The Army has made multiple attempts to improve upon recruitment challenges
through policy and research. Could you describe your perceptions or experiences with
these policies and actions to address the recruitment issues?
3. Do you have any particular experiences that stand out in your memory regarding
recruitment challenges?
4. Are there any particular policies or research actions that you feel have been effective?
If so, why, or why not?
5. One area that has been brought to academic attention is the change in labor markets,
which has left younger individuals less likely to join the military. Could you reflect
on your experiences with the changing labor markets and the relationship with
recruitment challenges?
6. Are there any additional factors that you have experienced that may contribute to the
recruitment shortfalls in the Army?

97
7. Do you have anything else you would like to add regarding your perceptions of
recruitment challenges?
8. Based on your experiences, can you describe to me how you feel that improvements
could be made to overcome recruitment challenges?
9. Considering the labor market changes, do you have any recommendations that could
effectively address the economic challenges associated with compounding
recruitment shortfalls in the Army?
10. Do you have anything else you would like to add regarding recommendations?
I would like to thank you again for contributing your experiences to my study. I hope the
information you have supplied will contribute new information that may generate effective
strategies for the recruitment challenges experienced. At any point, you may contact me for
questions at my personal phone number or e-mail address. I will now end the audio recording
and exit the interview.

98
Appendix B: Document Analysis Form
Information on the following was collected.
 type of document
 date(s) of document
 author of document (title position of author)
 intended audience
 document information
 most important details
 Why was the document made?
 What evidence was included?
 What does the document conclude?
 Are there any inconclusions or gaps in the document?

99
Appendix C: Recruitment Flyer
My name is Bumjin Park, and I am a doctoral student at National University. I am
conducting a research study to explore the lived experiences of Army leaders who have been in
service for over 10 years regarding recruitment challenges and causes.
I am recruiting individuals who meet these criteria:
1. Army leader with 10 or more years of service, and
2. able to discuss factors associated with recruitment challenges.
If you decide to participate in this study, I will ask you to complete one semi-structured
interview with the researcher that will last 60–90 minutes. During these activities, I will ask you
questions about
 knowledge regarding Army recruitment challenges,
 labor market changes and recruitment, and
 recommendations, if any, for addressing the Army recruitment challenges.
If you are interested in participating in this study or have questions, please contact me at
XX. Thank you for considering participating in this voluntary research!

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Park, Bumjin (author)

Core Title Perceptions of Army leaders and recruitment challenges: a qualitative grounded theory

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 05/15/2024

Defense Date 02/21/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Army leadership,Army recruitment shortfall,future research recommendations,grounded theory,internal perspectives,labor market changes,military recruitment model,OAI-PMH Harvest,policy initiatives,qualitative research,recruitment challenges,recruitment strategies,service member experience

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Lynch, Douglas (committee chair), Colarusso, Michael J. (committee member), Ott, Maria Gutierrez (committee member)

Creator Email bumjin.park1117@gmail.com,bumjinp@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113932611

Unique identifier UC113932611

Identifier etd-ParkBumjin-12911.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-ParkBumjin-12911

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Park, Bumjin

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240515-usctheses-batch-1150 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu