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Perceptions of early childhood educators on how reflective supervision influences instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing

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Perceptions of early childhood educators on how reflective supervision influences instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing

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Content 1
Perceptions of Early Childhood Educators on How Reflective Supervision Influences
Instructional Effectiveness and Teacher Wellbeing
by
Jennifer Anne Bopp Litz
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

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© Copyright by Jennifer Anne Bopp Litz 2023
All Rights Reserved

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The Committee for Jennifer Anne Bopp Litz certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Alison Keller Muraszewski
Taqueena Quintana
Don Trahan
Marsha Boveja Riggio, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

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Abstract
Teachers in early childhood education (ECE) have an array of expectations set forth to educate
young learners and work with their families. Along with being a recommended method to
evaluate the quality of teacher preparation programs, reflective supervision is advised to be an
intentional and regular practice to assist teachers in making informed decisions based on daily
experiences and feedback from colleagues. Additionally, early childhood educators are expected
to take responsibility for their wellbeing to enhance their effectiveness and foster empathetic
interactions with children and families. Understanding the experiences of teachers with reflective
supervision in their teacher preparation programs and in their current roles is crucial to
evaluating the utility of this practice as the field of ECE continues to grow. The purpose of this
qualitative study was to gain insight into the perceptions of ECE teachers on how reflective
supervision supports their instructional effectiveness and wellbeing. This study also identified
emergent challenges faced by ECE teachers that may lead to burnout. Enlisting the voices of
ECE teachers, this study sought to evaluate whether reflective supervision was important to their
professional development. Coding and analyses identified six emergent themes: reflective
practice/supervision; professional development; child development/learning in context;
experience of burnout/overworking; personal factors; and career experience/motivation.
Implications for reflective supervision practices, teacher preparation, professional development,
and considerations to support teacher wellbeing are discussed.
Keywords: reflective supervision, reflective practice, early childhood education,
well-being, wellbeing, instructional effectiveness, teacher preparation, professional development,
burnout, parallel process, sociocultural learning theory, case study, early childhood special
educators, California.

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Dedication
To all early childhood professionals who regularly extend compassionate care to educate young
children and empower parents to support learning at home. I admire your deep understanding of
child development, abilities to set realistic expectations for children’s growth, and steadfast
advocacy to create appropriate opportunities for children to develop social-emotional
competencies and communication skills. The passion you have maintained through the
challenges you have faced is commendable. You have inspired me to continue helping parents
understand their rights and responsibilities within the educational system and actively work so
children have a strong foundation for lifelong learning and success.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to those who have been instrumental in the
successful completion of this academic endeavor, which marks a significant milestone in my
journey. Particular appreciation is extended to my dissertation committee chair, Dr. Marsha
Riggio, and committee members, Dr. Alison Keller Muraszewski, Dr. Taqueena Quintana, and
Dr. Don Trahan. Their guidance, constructive feedback, and encouragement have shaped the
course of my research and professional growth.
Special thanks are due to the early childhood educators who generously lent their voices
to this research. Your willingness to openly share your experiences with reflective supervision
has provided valuable insights. In addition, I am thankful to the local educational agency
administrators who helped with participant recruitment. This study would not have been possible
without your dedication to advancing the profession and belief in the importance of investigating
reflective supervision in the context of early childhood.
I am indebted to my colleagues and Ed.D. cohort members who have been constant
pillars of support. Your invaluable discussions and shared experiences have been enriching and I
am grateful for the collaborative spirit that has characterized our interactions. Finally, through
the moments when the path seemed daunting, I was fortunate to have had my beloved family and
friends cheering me on, making all the difference.

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Table of Contents
Abstract 4
Dedication 5
Acknowledgements 6
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 12
Background of the Problem 12
The ECE System 12
ECE Teacher Preparation and Instructional Standards 13
ECE Teacher Workforce 14
Statement of the Problem 14
The ECE System 14
ECE Teacher Preparation and Instructional Standards 15
ECE Teacher Workforce 16
Purpose of the Study 17
Research Questions 17
Significance of Study 17
The ECE System 17
ECE Teacher Preparation and Instructional Standards 18
ECE Teacher Workforce 18
Definition of Terms 19
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations 22
Researcher Positionality 22
Ethics 23
Conclusion 25
Organization of the Study 25
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 27
Introduction 27
Early Childhood Education 28
Demographics 28
Standards and Expectations of ECE Teacher Preparation 29
Instructional Effectiveness 32
Contextual Considerations 33
Interactions and Relationships 34
Educational Atmosphere: Equity, Inclusivity and Implicit Bias 36
Learning Differences and Commonalities 38
Teacher Wellbeing 39
Workplace Climate 40

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Emotion Regulation and Self-Efficacy 42
Reflective Practice, Supervision, and Consultation 43
Reflective Supervision in Professional Development 46
Theoretical Framework 48
Conclusion 50
Chapter Three: Methodology 53
Research Design 53
Research Questions 54
Setting 54
Participants 54 Target and Accessible Population 54
Sampling Method 55
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 55
Criterion
1 55
Criterion
2 55
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale 55
Recruitment 56
Data Collection 56
Demographic Survey 57
Interview Protocol 57
Procedures 57
Confidentiality Parameters 58
Data Management 59
Dissemination of Findings 59
Data Analysis 60
Reliability 61
Dependability 61
Confirmability 62
Validity 62
Credibility 62 Transferability 63
Chapter Four: Findings 65
Participants 68
Analysis of Research Question One 70
Reflective Practice/Supervision 71
Family–Teacher Partnership 75
Professional Development 79
Professional Challenges/Barriers 81

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Child Development/Learning in Context 83
Assessment and Outcomes 85
Analysis of Research Question Two 88
Reflective Practice/Supervision 88
Collaboration/Connection 94
Professional Development and Wellbeing 96
Experience Of Burnout/Overworking 99
Personal Factors 103
Career Experience/Motivation 106
Summary 107
Chapter Five: Discussion 108
Research Question One Discussion 109
Research Question Two Discussion 111
Discussion 112
RP/S and Instructional Effectiveness 113
RP/S and Wellbeing 114
Parallel Process and Deliberate Pause 117
Conclusions 118
Suggestions for Future Research 119
Recommendations 120
ECE System 120
ECE Program Administrators 121
ECE Supervisors 122
ECE Teachers 123
ECE Teacher Preparation in Higher Education 124
Call to Action 125
References 127
Appendix A: Study Information Sheet 143
Appendix B: District IRB Approval 145
Appendix C: Email Request to Administrators/Principals 146
Appendix D: Recruitment Email 147
Appendix E: Informed Consent 148
Appendix F: Qualtrics® Demographic Survey 152
Appendix G: Interview Protocol 154

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List of Tables
Table 1: NAEYC Accreditation Standards 31
Table 2: NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies 32
Table 3: Theme Development 64
Table 4: Demographic Survey Results 68
Table 5: Teacher-Estimated Student Race/Ethnicity 68

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Parallel Process 50

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Chapter One: Overview of the Study
After parents and caregivers, teachers in early childhood education (ECE) are among the
first to set the stage for children’s social-emotional, language, and cognitive development. Thus,
it is important that ECE teachers are effective. In addition to introducing foundational academic
and functional skills, ECE teachers are charged with meeting the physical and emotional needs of
young children from various backgrounds in their community context. This essential work
requires teachers to be cognitively and emotionally available, so their wellbeing is important as
well. One promising method of managing instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing is
called reflective supervision. The ECE workforce experiences high levels of burnout, stress, and
depression (Jennings et al., 2020); therefore, it is worthy to delve into reflective supervision and
understand teachers’ experiences with the practice.
Background of the Problem
There are three systems that will be considered here to understand how reflective
supervision relates to the instructional effectiveness and wellbeing of ECE teachers. The three
components of interest here are the ECE system of which the teacher is a part, teacher
preparation and standards which guide instruction, and the teacher. These layers will be
discussed in the context of working with culturally diverse children as each has been related to
instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing.
The ECE System
Around the world, early childhood education and care is viewed as a necessary
investment in human capital by economists with exponential benefits including increases in
productivity, the promotion of gender equality/equity, and the prevention of poverty and
educational disadvantage (OECD, 2006). In the United States (US), the sentiment of the value of

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ECE is similar as the objective of America for Early Ed™ (2021) is “…that our nation’s policies
and practices catch up with…research and science about the…benefits that accrue when children
have access to high-quality early learning settings with supported, skilled, and knowledgeable
teachers” (p. 3). One aim of California’s Master Plan for Early Learning and Care (Alcalá et al.,
2020) is:
…that the early learning and care workforce builds on foundational knowledge of health,
safety, and child development (including the development of social-emotional skills and
language, literacy, and math skills) and an understanding of how to support dual language
learners, children with disabilities, and trauma-informed practices. (p. 80)
Clearly, there is a lot riding on the success of educators within this ambitious system.
ECE Teacher Preparation and Instructional Standards
The Higher Education Accreditation Standards of the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC; 2021) relevant to the topic of this study, advise the use
of reflective supervision, among other means, to evaluate the quality of teacher preparation
programs, while there is no specific guidance on the practice. Addressing professionalism, the
NAEYC (2020b) Professional Standards and Competencies for Early Childhood Educators states
that educators “…know how to participate in reflective and supportive supervision…” (p. 55,
emphasis added) and “…develop and sustain the habit of reflective and intentional practice…”
(p. 54) to make daily, knowledge-based professional judgments using colleagues’ feedback while
considering their own cultural context and implicit biases. Furthermore, the NAEYC expects
educators to manage their own stress and take responsibility for their own wellbeing, which is
critical to teachers’ effectiveness and empathetic interactions with children and families.

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Self-care, examining teaching practices and personal biases, and participating in reflective
supervision are outlined in the standards.
ECE Teacher Workforce
The NAEYC (2021) describes ECE teachers as “reflective practitioners” (p. 55) who are
obligated to engage in reciprocal relationships with parents, children, and community affiliates.
Work in ECE epitomizes the ethics of care, community, and compassion summarized by
Stefkovich and Begley (2007). In this relational work, there is a need for ECE teachers to
balance their reactions to the often-intense work and shift their perspectives to support parents
and co-teachers (Bernstein & Edwards 2012). Perspective shifting requires continual reflection
so teachers can discover culturally responsive methods to engage with students (Colton et al.,
2016) and their families. Treating parents as partners, early childhood educators encourage
parents to take an active role as their child’s primary teacher(s) and work to implement
behavioral interventions as needed (Hemmeter et al., 2006). Also, there can be immense
paperwork obligations and organizational demands (Frosh et al., 2018; Schaack et al., 2020) that
accompany the low status and low wages afforded to those teaching young children (Austin et
al., 2019). All the while, it is assumed, teachers are managing their own daily stressors, family
experiences, personal (possibly traumatic) life histories, and emotional needs.
Statement of the Problem
The ECE System
The ECE system is a historically under-resourced field and experienced adverse effects
from the COVID-19 pandemic (NAEYC, 2020). Before the pandemic, many children in the
system were already placed at a disadvantage because of various stress-related disruptions rooted
in environmental differences, exposure to trauma, lack of parental availability, and/or a

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developmental delay of the child (Bernstein & Edwards, 2012). While the COVID-19 pandemic
exacerbated stress-related disruptions universally, the impact of the pandemic disproportionately
affected individuals and communities experiencing historically inequitable access to health
services, particularly many racial and ethnic minority groups (Center for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2022). Furthermore, the pandemic has “...exposed existing cracks in the
system and supports for early childhood education” (Eadie, 2021, p. 911, emphasis in original).
ECE Teacher Preparation and Instructional Standards
Although the NAEYC (2020b; 2021) standards codify the use of reflective supervision,
consideration of personal biases, examination of teaching practices, and self-care, teacher
preparation programs may not adequately prepare ECE teachers for work in the field. Teachers
may not have the time or space to intentionally build reflective habits, for instance. When an
ECE program or school places exponential demands upon teachers and provides few resources,
pressure may build and lead to burnout and turnover, negatively impacting outcomes for children
(Schaack et al., 2020). Turnover rates have been reported to be as high as 30% in ECE (Grant et
al., 2019; Caven et al., 2021), nearly twice that of K-12 educators, which is around 16%
(Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017). Public school teacher attrition rates for the school
year 2008-2009 cost California an estimated average of $130 million and the U.S. around $1.6
billion (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2014).
Teacher burnout and turnover, especially prevalent in schools serving low-income
families or students of color, and the consequential hiring of inexperienced teachers does not
permit necessary teacher collaboration for effective teaching or professional development to
build capacity and places children at a disadvantage (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond,
2019). If teachers are not permitted time to observe, analyze, and respond to student learning and

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rather seek prescriptive or reactive advice, teachers may become “...chained to a lesson plan that
may or may not fit the learning” (Rodgers, 2002, p. 234). Without the use of reflection in
education, instructional practices and the capacity of professionals to teach would never evolve
and, with a limited understanding of reflection, inequities are perpetuated (York-Barr, 2006).
ECE Teacher Workforce
Early childhood educators also suffered from the compounding impacts of the
COVID-19 pandemic on their livelihoods because of financial fears associated with center
closure (NAEYC, 2020). Under stressful circumstances, being an ECE teacher can take its toll
on teachers’ emotional wellbeing and feelings of effectiveness as teachers continually foster
meaningful connections, manage crucial relationships, and serve as a model and instrument of
reflection for parents on how to nurture their child’s development. Research has shown the
social-emotional wellbeing of our teachers has an impact on the social-emotional wellbeing (e.g.,
Harding et al., 2019; Jeon et al., 2014) and learning of our children (e.g., Jones, Bouffard, &
Weissbourd, 2013; Sandilos et al., 2015). Sandilos and associates (2020) explain that high levels
of stress experienced by ECE teachers leads to burnout, decreases quality interactions, and does
not encourage the maintenance of the positive relationships necessary to benefit children’s
outcomes.
To improve ECE teacher effectiveness and prevent burnout and turnover, which harms
our most vulnerable learners, there is a dire need to explore and understand what may improve
ECE teachers’ wellbeing so they are able to deliver on the expectations of the system and those
laid out by the standards. Prevention of burnout requires intentional supports built into the
organizational culture that address collaborative supervisory and peer relationships (Holland et
al., 2022) and reflective supervision is one such support.

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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand how teachers evaluate reflective supervision
based on their experiences and to make recommendations based on teacher feedback. I will
inquire how teachers believe reflective supervision may or may not affect their wellbeing and
instructional effectiveness in order to identify ways to improve the professional lives of ECE
teachers. Supporting ECE teacher wellbeing is vital for children’s social-emotional and cognitive
development (Eadie, 2021) and enhances teacher effectiveness, prevents burnout and turnover,
and benefits the learners in the ECE system. While not the primary purpose of this study, some
discussion may occur about the impact of stress-related disruptions, including those exacerbated
by the COVID-19 pandemic, on ECE teachers and the quality of interactions they have with
children. By examining the challenges and successes faced by ECE teachers and identifying
strategies to enhance their wellbeing, this study aims to contribute to the improvement of the
ECE system and support positive outcomes for children.
Research Questions
1. How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their
instructional effectiveness?
2. How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their
wellbeing?
Significance of Study
The ECE System
Examining methods to retain high quality educators is important, particularly those who
serve high-need, marginalized populations. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
(HHS; 2021) and the California Department of Education (CDE; 2011) promote the use of

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reflective practices to guide early childhood educators to ultimately improve outcomes for
children. While recommended as part of ECE professional development (Schaack, Le, &
Stedron, 2020; Watson & Gatti, 2012), the extent to which teachers feel reflective practices
improve instructional effectiveness and promote teacher wellbeing is not completely known.
Understanding teachers’ perceptions regarding reflective supervision and how teachers perceive
it influences effective engagement with children and families along with teachers’ sense of
wellbeing will provide the ECE system insights for developing systemic support for preservice
and credentialed teachers.
ECE Teacher Preparation and Instructional Standards
In early childhood education, it is considered best practice to engage in reflective
practices (CDE, 2011; HHS, 2021) and collaboration is key to improving instructional
effectiveness, cultural proficiency and equitable responsiveness (Colton et al.,, 2016). Because it
is through safe and trusting spaces of collaboration teachers nurture their expertise to improve
student learning (Hattie, 2015), do teachers feel reflective supervision satisfies this need? Do
teachers feel reflective supervision ensures more effective and equitable teaching practices?
Through real world examples, understanding whether or not reflective supervision benefits early
childhood educators’ feelings of effectiveness will provide insight on the face value of any
investment in reflective practices and supervision.
ECE Teacher Workforce
It is known that teachers’ wellbeing impacts the wellbeing of their students (e.g., Harding
et al., 2018). Is reflective supervision worth the time and investment if it is not benefiting
teachers’ social-emotional wellbeing? Understanding whether teachers feel reflective supervision
improves their wellbeing or what might be done differently to support their wellbeing can

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provide supervisors with direction on how to support their ECE teachers and mitigate burnout.
This study may inform recommendations for improving the reflective supervision process for
teachers if teachers do not see the utility of the practice. If teachers do see the utility of the
practice, hearing their perspectives may help mold a wellness framework and/or shape
curriculum development in teacher preparation programs.
Definition of Terms
Burnout
Holland and associates (2022) posit ineffective coping with job-related stressors results in
burnout, which includes feelings of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy, and may lead to a
higher likelihood of adverse psychological, physical, and organizational consequences.
Credentialed Teacher
For the purposes of this study, a credentialed teacher will be one that holds an Early
Childhood Specialist Credential and/or a specialist credential in Early Childhood Special
Education (ECSE). These teachers are permitted to “develop and coordinate curriculum, develop
programs, and deliver staff development including age-appropriate teaching methodologies
for…grades three and below” (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing [CTC], 2022,
n.p.). ECSE teachers may additionally “...provide special education services in the area of
mild/moderate or moderate/severe disabilities, and traumatic brain injury for students ages birth
to pre-K” (CTC, n.p.). While the CTC authorizes some credentialed preschool teaching positions
to be held by those with an associate degree, teachers in this study will hold a baccalaureate or
advanced degree. Pertinent to this study, is that some ECE teachers work in the classroom setting
while others work in home or community settings (i.e., the natural environment).
Early Childhood Education (ECE)

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ECE is the education of children ages birth to eight years of age and may be funded at the
federal or state level, or privately.
Instructional Effectiveness
In this study, instructional effectiveness is a subjective concept based on teacher
perceptions of improved student learning, which may have been measured through ongoing or
summative assessment, and/or progress on goals (Mayer, 2011). Examples of improved student
learning may be noted through a change in knowledge through experience (Mayer, 2011),
self-regulation and/or strategy use (Schunk, 2020).
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
To summarize content from naeyc.org, NAEYC is a professional association committed
to high-quality early learning for children from birth to 8 years of age. Advocating for young
children and ECE professionals, the association provides a roadmap for program accreditation
and research-based resources for early childhood educators related to diversity, equity, inclusivity
and developmentally appropriate practice. Also based on research, the organization creates
resources for families, position statements, and public policy recommendations. NAEYC’s vision
is that “All young children thrive and learn in a society dedicated to ensuring they reach their full
potential” (NAEYC, 2022b, n.p.). Relevant to the current study, one of NAEYC’s core values is
reflection, that is, to “...consider multiple sources of evidence and diverse perspectives to review
past performance, note progress and successes, and engage in continuous quality improvement”
(n.p.).
Reflective Practices
Embedded in the Five Awarenesses of Teaching domains as outlined by Rodriguez and
colleagues (2020), are elements of reflective practice; specifically, exploring one’s private, public

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and perceived identities in relationship with the learner, mutual effects of interactions, and the
teachers’ understanding of their decision-making processes in the context of the system in which
they work. Rodriguez and associates describe a developmental, cognitive model of reflection that
progressively leads a teacher to explore how student behavior may be interpreted through the
lens of the teacher’s identity. In the context of infant mental health, Watson and associates (2016)
define reflective practice as “...the application of a reflective stance and principles in day-to-day
work with families” (p. 643). In early childhood settings, Watson and colleagues (2014) illustrate
that practitioners are supported in dealing with challenges because reflection increases
“awareness, knowledge, and understanding of relationship dynamics and…allows [one] to
consider a broader and deeper range of approaches and strategies” (p. 3).
Reflective Supervision
For the purpose of this research, reflective supervision is considered one type of
reflective practice in which teachers participate in groups led by a reflective practice facilitator,
or individually with a supervisor. During reflective supervision sessions, participants gather
insight using a holistic lens by integrating knowledge, experiences, and feelings and
acknowledge the strengths and areas of growth of the practitioner to effectively support the
children and families with whom they work and manage teacher wellbeing (Watson et al., 2014).
Wellbeing
Wellbeing is a state in which one has a sense of self-concept, a sense of control over
oneself and one’s environment, general feelings of contentment, a healthy capacity to cope with
stress and can understand, regulate, and express one’s emotions, and exercise empathy
(American Psychological Association [APA], 2015).

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Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
Limitations are matters or occurrences in a study beyond the control of the researcher
(Simon & Goes, 2013). Because this research is qualitative, one limitation is that it will not be
possible to generalize the findings as it focuses on certain individuals within a particular context,
rather than gathering data that may be considered representative of a larger population
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). This study will use a purposeful sampling method to select early
childhood educators who participate in reflective practice and/or reflective supervision in child
development centers or early intervention programs located in a large urban area of central
California. Delimited to teachers who have participated in reflective practice/supervision, this
study will not be able to compare experiences with those who have not participated in reflective
supervision. Assumptions I make as a researcher may be influenced by my positionality while I
will intentionally work not to exploit, misinterpret, or misrepresent participants (Maxwell, 2013;
Milner, 2007).
Researcher Positionality
I identify as a white, middle class, cisgender, monolingual female who was brought up in
an intact family residing in ethnically diverse neighborhoods in California’s Central Valley. I
spent 15 years as a military spouse and am a divorced mother of two boys and daughter of a
Dutch immigrant mother and civil service working father. Even with life experiences pertaining
to and professional training on how cultural, linguistic, and environmental factors influence
learning and people’s perspectives, and knowledge of implicit biases, my possible “Eurocentric
gaze” (Dei, 2005, p. 8) may bias my perceptions of reflective supervision and understanding of
this research, which is likely to include a diverse array of early childhood educators.

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As a licensed educational psychologist who has worked with an early intervention team, I
participated in reflective practice groups for six years. In my 15 years as a school psychologist, I
led group counseling sessions, so I initially felt out of place as a participant in the reflective
supervision group until I saw the value in it. As a consultant and non-teacher, I came to
understand the highly relational dynamics between early intervention teachers and the children
and families they serve and how those relationships affect teachers and professionals like myself
on personal and professional levels, which in turn affect how we engage in the work and make
educational decisions on behalf of children. Being someone who grew to benefit from reflective
supervision, this positive viewpoint might shape the design and interpretation of this study. After
experiencing the utility of reflective practices, I have come to imagine it should expand beyond
early childhood education into the K-12 realm.
Because of my positionality, it is important for me to engage in continual reflection as
described by Atkins and Duckworth (2019) so I am aware of how my work and relationships
may color any judgements or conclusions to which I may arrive and to evaluate whether I am
giving voice to the interests and concerns of participants. In hearing participants, my intention is
to ultimately improve outcomes for children by learning how reflective practice/supervision may
support teachers and what barriers teachers may face that impede their capacity to teach
effectively.
Ethics
When thinking about ethical issues that may arise, it is important to start with the end in
mind and ask if you would be comfortable acting on the implications of the study or informing
policy based on the findings (Lincoln et al., 2011 as cited in Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Keeping
the goals of the study at the forefront and only collecting the necessary data will not only keep

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the study on topic, doing so will also respect the time of participants (Robinson & Firth Leonard,
2019). To avoid the appearance of any deceit, it will be important to reference some guidelines
offered by Rubin and Rubin (2012), which include reminding participants they are being
recorded, differentiating between comments made on and off the record, asking permission to
use direct quotes, demonstrating care by avoiding sarcasm, and offering to share the results of the
study. Rubin and Rubin also recommend reporting results as completely and honestly as
possible; however, it is vital to consider the impact of reporting certain details. For instance,
discretion will be exercised when deciding whether to include direct quotes that may identify a
participant to a familiar person, such as a colleague or supervisor, and place the participant in an
uncomfortable situation at work. When reporting results, I will be careful of imposing external,
dominant theories onto the voices of participants because doing so might exploit, dismiss,
marginalize or oppress them (Maxwell, 2013). A token of appreciation inconsequential in cost
that will benefit the participants will be offered regardless of whether they choose to withdraw
from the study.
Being situated as the researcher puts me in an influential position, so intentional
reflection will be required for ethical practice. When designing study questions, along with
considering the positionality of the researcher, Agee (2009) recommends reflecting on possible
short- and long-term effects of questions posed and to consider participant comfort and culture
and how the questions might alter their lives. Contemplating the effects of participation builds a
more collaborative and reciprocal study, which is especially important when working with
marginalized populations because it helps to understand the interplay between researcher and
participant positionalities (Agee, 2009). At this point, it is unclear how similar participants will
be to me in background; nonetheless, I would like to create a shared rapport and authentic

25
exchange (Seidman, 2013) that will hopefully result in a genuine portrayal of the participants’
experiences
Conclusion
In this overview of the study, the use of reflective supervision as a practice to support
teacher wellbeing and instructional effectiveness was discussed. Teachers in early childhood
education experience pressures from the ECE system, instructional standards, and professional
and personal demands. Despite the NAEYC (2021) promoting the use of reflective supervision to
support ECE teachers, there is a considerable amount of turnover in the field compromising the
learning of young children. To advance effective teaching practices and support ECE teacher
wellbeing, it will be helpful to understand ECE teachers’ perspectives on reflective supervision.
It is during reflective supervision when teachers have the opportunity to develop an
understanding of how their relationships with families and children impact their work and
ultimate effectiveness (Watson & Gatti, 2012). Given the supportive context of reflective
supervision the teacher can mindfully plan future interactions and methods of instruction to
improve effectiveness. By increasing teacher effectiveness and expertise to maximize impact,
equity may be enhanced (Hattie, 2015). Staff mental health necessary for pupil success
(Immordino-Yang et al., 2018) is intentionally addressed through reflective supervision and
when regularly practiced, I believe the sense of wellbeing felt by teachers is improved along with
their effectiveness.
Organization of the Study
This study consists of five chapters. The first chapter has provided the context and
outlined the purpose of the study, the problem statement, the research questions, and described
the study’s assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. Chapter two will consist of a review of

26
literature relating to the study’s topics of interest, that is, the field of early childhood education
(ECE) and the use of reflective practice and supervision in ECE settings and how it may or may
not influence teachers’ perceived effectiveness and feelings of wellbeing. The third chapter will
provide an overview of the methods used by the researcher. Research findings will be reviewed
in the fourth chapter by identifying themes that emerge from participants’ responses. Chapter
five will consider teacher perceptions of reflective supervision and how the practice may be
enhanced to improve equity for our youngest learners. Approval from the institutional review
board (IRB) was obtained November 2022.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Introduction
Early Childhood Education (ECE) has gained recognition as a critical component for
improving learning outcomes, opportunities, and lifelong success. In recent years, there has been
a significant increase in ECE program enrollment; however, experts emphasize that the quality of
interactions within the ECE system is equally as important as attendance. ECE teachers play a
vital role in providing high-quality interactions and instruction, requiring not only pedagogical
knowledge and skill but also the ability to navigate diverse backgrounds and build meaningful
relationships. Given the emphasis on interactions shaping children’s learning outcomes and
opportunities, it is critical to address teacher wellbeing. Reflective practice is a widely
recommended practice in ECE, resting on the premise that intentional reflection can promote
teacher wellbeing and instructional effectiveness; however, gaps exist in the inclusion of
teachers' views in the literature on and the implementation of reflective practices in teacher
preparation and practice.
This chapter describes features of ECE, noting the demographics of ECE teachers and
students, the standards and expectations of ECE teacher preparation, instructional effectiveness
and its contextual considerations, the importance of teacher wellbeing, and the promising
practice of reflective supervision. The end of this chapter outlines the theoretical framework on
which this study is based. By understanding these aspects, we can gain insights into the
challenges and opportunities in early childhood education and work towards creating a more
equitable and effective learning environment for young children.

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Early Childhood Education
Seen as a critical component for improving learning outcomes, opportunity, and success
throughout the lifespan (Alcalá, 2020; OECD, 2006), global enrollment in early childhood
programming has nearly doubled in the last 15 years (UIS, 2023). Recently, experts have
emphasized that high-quality ECE programming matters beyond program enrollment and
includes quality interactions within the system on a daily basis (OECD, 2021; Pushparatnam et
al., 2021). For ECE teachers to provide quality interactions and instruction, they not only need
adequate pedagogical knowledge and skill to implement curriculum, they need the abilities to
navigate and build reciprocal relationships and contemplate the multiple contexts from which
their students come (NAEYC, 2020b). Establishing meaningful relationships among those from
varying backgrounds may require intentional practice and skill development. In the spirit of
building relationships and understanding context I describe the ECE landscape below.
Demographics
Data show that most often teachers in the US do not come from the same ethnic or
socioeconomic background as their students. In 2012, based on a national survey, at least 63
percent of the ECE workforce identified as non-Hispanic White and about 80–90% of the ECE
workforce spoke only English to children, while approximately half of children under the age of
five years were of color and/or Hispanic and 22 percent spoke a language other than English
(Paschall et al., 2021). This trend was similar in public schools during the 2017-2018 school year
when 79 percent of teachers were non-Hispanic White, 7 percent non-Hispanic Black, and 9
percent Hispanic of any race (National Center for Education Statistics [NECS], 2020). Also in
2017-2018, with the exception of schools with over half of the student population identified as
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, in schools that were categorized with a student population of

29
over 50 percent Hispanic, Black or Asian, an average of 57 percent of the teachers were White
(NECS, 2020). The racial/ethnic breakdown of teachers in California in 2018-2019 was 61
percent White and 21 percent Hispanic, while the student makeup was 23 percent White and 55
percent Hispanic (Ed-Data, 2023). According to the latest data available from Ed-Data (2023),
for 2018-2019, teachers in Fresno, California were 62 percent White, 26 percent Hispanic, and 6
percent Asian and students were 65 percent Hispanic, 17 percent White, and 9 percent Asian.
According to Jones and Lesaux (2019), among children under six years of age, about 45% live in
low-income households. The rate of ECE teachers in California living in poverty is 17% and
nationally, rates range from 10.9% to 34.4% (McLean et al., 2021). Based on the aforementioned
data, in the ECE and public school systems, teachers’ racial and ethnic characteristics and
economic backgrounds do not coincide with those of their students. Therefore, there are
campaigns to recruit teachers of diverse backgrounds (NAEYC, 2019; Sandstrom & Schilder,
2021) and standards outlined to prepare teachers for work in this field.
Standards and Expectations of ECE Teacher Preparation
To begin advancing equity and diversity, the most recent accreditation standards
(NAEYC, 2021) discussed below, have included an indicator requiring ongoing review of how
similar or dissimilar the characteristics of teacher candidates are to the population they serve.
Teacher preparation programs may then modify recruitment goals according to the unique
characteristics of ECE students and/or U.S. demographics. Furthermore, first-generation and/or
English language learner (ELL) teacher candidates may be provided with additional support to
prepare them for competency to meet the diverse needs of a particular community’s ECE student
population. Faculty educating teacher candidates are to be effective and, if not reflective of the

30
diversity present in the candidate pool, must provide opportunities for their students to learn
from a varied array of professionals (NAEYC, 2021).
The NAEYC Accreditation Standards (2021) and ECE Professional Standards and
Competencies (NAEYC, 2020b) each promote the use of reflective practices. There are six
standards for higher education programs charged with training ECE teacher candidates outlined
by the NAEYC (2021; see Table 1). The accreditation standards require faculty in teacher
preparation programs to have access to professional development and resources to prepare
teacher candidates for field experiences that build candidate proficiency in the ECE Professional
Standards and Competencies (NAEYC, 2021). Along with having content knowledge of early
development and education, faculty are required to apply adult learning theories and use
culturally responsive practices to educate diverse teacher candidates. Teacher candidates may be
supported through implementation of a cohort model, in which students learn together through
the entirety of their program, mentoring, and advising. Standards B and C each contain an
element of reflection in that reflection is utilized for quality improvement when faculty review
teaching and learning practices and when program effectiveness is evaluated. To be accredited by
the NAEYC, preservice teachers and their supervisors are advised to use reflective supervision as
one tool to monitor the quality of teacher preparation programs (NAEYC, 2021). Other tools
include peer review, self-reflection, and teacher candidate feedback, which along with faculty,
community and stakeholder input, assist teacher preparation programs to address areas for
improvement.
All six of the ECE Professional Standards and Competencies (see Table 2) necessitate
reflection. After entering the ECE field, teachers are encouraged to sustain a daily practice of
reflection by integrating professional knowledge with feedback from colleagues and supervisors

31
while taking multiple cultural contexts into account (NAEYC, 2020b). Specifically outlined in
the standards are self-care, examining teaching practices and personal biases, and participating in
reflective supervision so that ECE professionals can fully prepare for their responsibilities, which
are “...to care for and promote the learning, development, and well-being of children birth
through age 8 to establish a foundation for lifelong learning and development” (Power to the
Profession National Task Force, 2020, p. 10).
Table 1
NAEYC Accreditation Standards (NAEYC, 2021)
Standard A Program Identity, Candidates, Organization, and Resources
Standard B Faculty Characteristics and Quality, Professional Responsibilities, and
Professional Development
Standard C Program Design and Evaluation
Standard D Developing Candidate Proficiency in the Professional Standards and
Competencies
Standard E Ensuring Candidate Proficiency in the Professional Standards and Competencies
Standard F Field Experience Quality
Briefly, to plan for teaching young children, ECE teachers must contemplate the
multidimensional aspects encompassing each child’s unique relational background, strengths,
challenges, and developmental variations experienced in five domains (i.e., physical, cognitive,
linguistic, social and emotional) (NAEYC, 2020b). Beyond having subject matter content
knowledge, understanding how young children learn, and being able to conduct assessment of
abilities to guide developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate instruction, it is
necessary for ECE professionals to establish reciprocal and collaborative relationships with

32
families and community entities (NAEYC, 2020b). Finally, ethical and professional guidelines
are to be continuously considered by ECE teachers through communication, supportive
relationships, and sustaining “...the habit of reflective and intentional practice in…daily work
with young children” (NAEYC, 2020b, p. 10) that includes teachers reflecting on their own
needs and encouraging self-care.
Table 2
NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies (NAEYC, 2020b)
Standard 1 Child Development and Learning in Context
Standard 2 Family–Teacher Partnerships and Community Connections
Standard 3 Child Observation, Documentation, and Assessment
Standard 4 Developmentally, Culturally, and Linguistically Appropriate Teaching Practices
Standard 5 Knowledge, Application, and Integration of Academic Content in the Early
Childhood Curriculum
Standard 6 Professionalism as an Early Childhood Educator
Instructional Effectiveness
The pursuit of instructional effectiveness stands as a cornerstone to improved student
learning and overall developmental progress. Assessment of instructional effectiveness finds its
roots in a diverse range of methodologies, encompassing ongoing evaluation, summative
assessment, and the measured progression of knowledge through experiential learning (Mayer,
2011), self-regulation and strategy utilization (Schunk, 2020). In order to meet learning goals,
teachers need to provide an engaging and meaningful learning environment, foster autonomy,
and capitalize on children’s assets (APA, 2015; Kumar et al., 2018; Linnenbrink-Garcia et al.,
2016; NAEYC, 2019; Zee & Koomen, 2016). Developing meaningfulness is a highly contextual

33
process and essential to motivate student learning (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Kumar et al., 2018;
Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2016; Schunk, 2020) and therefore promoting instructional
effectiveness. As the confluence of theory and practice, instructional effectiveness embodies a
dynamic interplay of strategies and philosophies that ultimately drive the trajectory of education.
Characteristics that build instructional mastery span a spectrum of traits that extend
beyond conventional pedagogy. From the perspective of ECE teachers who have felt called to the
profession, besides having organizational and instructional planning skills, characteristics that
have made them effective include passion, perseverance, risk taking, pragmatism, patience,
flexibility, respect, creativity, authenticity, love of learning, high energy, and a sense of humor
(Colker, 2008). According to Colker’s interviews with 43 early childhood educators, behaviors
that signify some of these traits may look like staying apprised of ongoing research, exercising
self-awareness to check one’s integrity and conviction, advocating for children, going against the
norm to figure out what will best serve children, compromising towards small wins, exercising
patience with children as well as with the ECE system, and respecting and appreciating diversity
in ways that enrich the self-concepts of children. Towards educational excellence, the concept of
instructional effectiveness is a central aspiration of educators and an ongoing journey that
resonates with laughter, love of learning, and the unwavering commitment to nurturing young
minds.
Contextual Considerations
While instructional effectiveness in this study is a subjective measure based on teacher
perceptions, it is important to discuss three components of context that ECE teachers may
leverage in shared collaboration with parents to stimulate the learning of young children. These
basic components include interactions and relationships, atmosphere, and learning differences

34
and commonalities. Considering contextual factors is necessary for promoting effective early
childhood education.
Interactions and Relationships
Relational interactions are at the core of early childhood development and education,
impacting cognitive, emotional, and social growth (Alcalá et al., 2020; NAEYC, 2020c; OECD,
2021; Power to the Profession National Task Force, 2020). In addition to meeting physical and
nutritional needs, healthy human development requires receiving attentive caregiving paired with
exposure to language and opportunities for safe exploration through play (Immordino-Yang et
al., 2018). Humans’ physiological wiring for social connections makes learning possible because
of its effects on emotion regulation, memory, and other cognitive functions (Immordino-Yang et
al., 2018; Mandelbaum, 2020). It is within social relationships that children exercise curiosity,
learn to become innovative, deep thinkers, and develop autonomy (Ostroff, 2023). On an
individual level, learning advances through co-regulation, that is, “the coordination of
self-regulation competencies among people in social contexts” (Schunk, 2020, p. 419). In the
classroom, the reciprocal relationship of the teacher-child dyad is influenced by a larger “web of
relationships” (Albin-Clark et al., 2018, p. 98) not limited to individual, family, professional,
cultural, and community connections. Early childhood education is therefore equally shaped by
the child’s social relationships inside and outside of the classroom.
Teachers are included among the caregivers meeting children’s needs. Interactions and
collaborative efforts contribute to enhanced learning outcomes. Some researchers postulate a
relational pedagogy, which involves the co-construction of knowledge on a foundation of mutual
respect (Brownlee & Berthelsen, 2006) through reciprocal and communicative interactions
(Papatheodorou, 2008). Interactions between teachers and students can motivate academic

35
achievement, communication, cooperation, collaboration, interest in learning, and
social-emotional development (APA, 2015; Schunk, 2020). High-quality interactions and
discussion between teachers and children provide language modeling and promote higher-order
thinking, both important for early literacy, language, and math development (Frausel et al.,
2020). Higher-order thinking, according to Resnick (1987), is the ability to elaborate on
information, make inferences beyond what is made explicit, build representations, and analyze
and construct relationships. Frausel and colleagues (2020), found that preschoolers’ spontaneous
talk about and with relations predicted higher-order thinking skills (i.e., analogical reasoning and
inferencing) when measured around age 10. An effective ECE teacher creates opportunities for
and models appropriate language development within the pupil-teacher relationship.
The other relationship ECE teachers must nurture to foster higher-order thinking skills in
children crucial to academic success is that of the parent and teacher. “Parent,” here, may be any
caregiver(s) or family member(s) responsible for the primary care of the child. Teachers can
communicate and collaborate with parents on ways to communicate with their children to
support their language and cognitive development, which will prime them for better outcomes.
Teacher-parent communication to promote family engagement may be school-, home- or
community-based and collaboration methods are innumerable (e.g., written communications,
individual conferences, family meetings, structured curriculums, public library programs) (See
Richards et al., 2016; Sutterby, 2016). The content of the communications includes and is not
limited to individual student assets and challenges, general developmental information, the role
of the parent in education, availability of community resources, cultural or linguistic topics, and
parent-child interactions. ECE teachers work with parents as partners through guidance,
affirmation, and co-created problem-solving strategies.

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Through the influence of ECE teachers, parent-child relationships can be enriched and
parents empowered given access to various tools and perspectives. Swick and associates (2001)
emphasize “...it is critical that parents gain perspectives and strategies for guiding their own
personal, parental, and family growth” (p. 71), which can be accomplished by the ECE
professional through the modeling of caring inquiry and offering affirmation, perspective, and
problem-solving strategies. In turn, parents become models to their children on how to be
adaptive, inquisitive, caring, and in responsive and supportive relationships with others.
Children’s academic achievement has been predicted by parent social and resource capital,
according to Schlee and researchers (2009); therefore, the effectiveness of ECE teachers may
depend on their capacity to be available to parents as a resource and invest in parents’ social
capital (e.g., cultivating parental involvement; creating opportunities for parent networking). As
ECE teachers invest in parents' social capital and foster an environment of collaboration, they
play a pivotal role in shaping not only individual families but also the broader landscape of
children's development and academic achievement.
Educational Atmosphere: Equity, Inclusivity and Implicit Bias
The role of teachers in shaping the climate of educational experiences, whether delivered
by teachers in-home or in the classroom, has a profound impact on family engagement and
students' motivation for learning, with the potential to foster inclusivity or exclusion. An
inclusive educational environment prioritizes the emotional well-being of students, honors
students’ linguistic capital, and is asset focused, color conscious, and culturally responsive
(Kennedy, 2019). Teachers may establish whether students and families feel welcome in the
educational environment be it in a building or home-based setting. Kennedy (2019) maintains
that an equity-oriented leadership collectively involves parents, students, and community

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members to address non-academic barriers to education and creates policies to counteract
institutional and structural biases that drive inequitable outcomes.
In addition to encouraging family engagement, discipline approaches used by teachers
also impact the educational atmosphere. The manner in which discipline approaches are
employed possess the potential to either fortify or disrupt equitable educational opportunities.
The use of exclusionary discipline methods, in particular, can detrimentally affect both students
and family participation within the education system (Neitzel, 2018). Exclusionary discipline
methods include in-school and out-of-school suspensions and expulsions. The U.S. Government
Accountability Office (2017) found that preschool-aged Black children are suspended or
expelled up to four times more frequently than their White counterparts. Neitzel (2018)
maintains that these disproportionate exclusionary discipline practices are likely a result of
implicit bias.
Implicit Bias. Another driver of inequitable outcomes is when possible implicit biases of
teachers are not explored. Implicit biases refer to the “unconscious and automatic attitudes or
stereotypes” (Neitzel, 2018, p. 233) that impact our comprehension, behaviors, and choices in
our everyday experiences. Biases may result in teachers having differing behavioral expectations
and disciplinary actions for preschoolers based on race and gender, for instance (Gilliam et al.,
2016; Neitzel, 2018). These biases may encompass both positive and negative traits and are
amenable to change through learning.
The NAEYC (2020b) advises teachers to continually evaluate their own cultural context
and implicit biases to address inequitable outcomes and foster an inclusive and equitable
atmosphere. Among understanding child development, individuality, and sociocultural context,
the fourth edition of the Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) in Early Childhood

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Programs book promotes inclusive practices and places a new emphasis on social, historical, and
cultural factors to ensure every child feels a sense of belonging within their learning community
(Moses, 2021). Alongside teacher education on social justice (Ngounou & Gutierrez, 2017),
restorative practices, multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), and positive behavior intervention
supports (PBIS) (Kendziora & Yoder, 2016), addressing the role of implicit biases through
mechanisms like RP and/or RS is may also cultivate a learning environment marked by equitable
opportunities and meaningful engagement.
Learning Differences and Commonalities
Culture plays a significant role in shaping individuals' motivations and approaches to
learning within the context of the implicit rules and values embedded in Western research
(Smith, 2002). In education, Western individualistic norms can impact motivation and learning,
emphasizing individual achievement and competition, while cultural norms rooted in
collectivism may foster different motivations (Schunk, 2020; Smith, 2002). Schunk (2020)
acknowledges that researchers have not found robust differences between cultures with respect to
learning and motivation; however, the author holds that cultural variables can affect motivation
and advises against assuming the Western cultural lens applies to everyone. Specifically, there
are differences between cultures in certain aspects of learning and motivation (e.g., goal
orientation, autonomy, self-efficacy). Schunk discussed that, in addition to there being a lot of
variability within a single culture, students can identify with “overlapping groups” (p. 494) as
well, so it is better advised to consider varied “experiences, settings, and ecological
conditions…” (p. 496).
Since cultural factors influence motivation and learning experiences, sensitivity to
diverse perspectives is required. This includes taking into consideration the life and learning

39
experiences of English language learners and other diverse student groups (e.g., children with
disabilities, underrepresented and low income populations) (LaFors, 2014). Students’ uncertainty
about belonging due to stigmatization can be addressed through culturally relevant pedagogy,
fostering racial identity exploration and promoting diverse cultural values, creating a sense of
connection and pride (Gray et al., 2018). School belonging, marked by acceptance, respect,
inclusion, and support, benefits academic and psychological well being (Gray et al., 2018;
Kumar et al., 2018). By recognizing and leveraging interactions, relationships, atmosphere,
cultural and linguistic considerations, early childhood educators can create a conducive learning
environment that fosters holistic development and academic success for young children.
Teacher Wellbeing
In general, wellbeing is when one has a sense of self-concept; a sense of control over
oneself and one’s environment; general feelings of contentment; a healthy capacity to cope with
stress; the ability to understand, regulate, and express one’s emotions; and the ability to exercise
empathy (APA, 2015). Teacher wellbeing refers to the overall state of physical, mental, and
emotional health and satisfaction of teachers in their personal and professional lives and
encompasses various aspects such as work-life balance, job satisfaction, stress levels, mental
health, and quality of life (Berlin et al., 2020; Cumming, 2016; Harding et al., 2019). The
wellbeing of teachers directly influences the effectiveness of teaching and learning in the
classroom, as well as the overall quality of education provided to children (Berlin et al., 2020;
Frosch et al., 2019; Harding et al., 2019; McMullen et al., 2020). Given opportunities to
cognitively process emotionally laden work-related matters, early childhood professionals have a
greater sense of wellbeing, more job satisfaction, and are more likely to stay in the profession or

40
field (McMullen et al., 2020). Schaack and colleagues (2020) point out that attending to the
wellbeing of ECE teachers can foster organizational health as well.
From a human resources frame (Bolman & Deal, 2017), tending to employee needs and
feelings facilitates motivation, productivity, job satisfaction, interpersonal communication, and
skill development, all of which empower employee performance. When teachers experience
positive wellbeing, they are more likely to be engaged, motivated, and committed to their
profession (Berlin et al., 2020; Cumming, 2016; Frosch et al., 2019). This leads to better student
outcomes, improved classroom management, increased job satisfaction, and reduced teacher
burnout (Berlin et al., 2020; Frosch et al., 2019; Harding et al., 2019). For example, research has
shown that teachers' mental health and wellbeing are associated with students' mental health and
wellbeing (Harding et al., 2019). Thus, investing in teacher wellbeing not only benefits teachers
themselves but also has a positive impact on the overall school environment and student
outcomes (Berlin et al., 2020; Cumming, 2016; Harding et al., 2019).
Various factors influence teacher wellbeing. Additionally, research has highlighted
associations between teacher wellbeing and factors such as classroom interactions, student
mental health, job satisfaction, workplace conditions, and turnover intentions (Sandilos et al.,
2020; Schaack et al., 2020; Silver & Zinsser, 2020; Tebben et al., 2021). Next, I will review
some impediments to teacher wellbeing; specifically, workplace climate and stressors that
contribute to burnout. Then I will discuss the benefits of teacher resilience and self-efficacy.
Workplace Climate
Workplace climate plays a pivotal role in influencing various aspects of employee
wellbeing, including burnout, wages, and retention. Organizational climate, characterized by the
adaptability of its atmosphere (Northouse, 2019), policies, and overall culture, impacts employee

41
(Bolman & Deal, 2017) and student experiences (Fraise & Brooks, 2015; Marzano et al., 2005).
Weiss and Weiss (2001) highlight that new teachers benefit from a school culture that values
mentoring, collaboration, and involvement in decision-making. When a positive work
environment is fostered, teachers' sense of self-efficacy is enhanced, leading to increased
satisfaction and improved retention (Kraft & Falken, 2020). However, the presence of stressors
within the workplace, particularly in ECE settings, can undermine these positive effects.
Stress within the ECE classroom is a multifaceted challenge that can stem from various
sources. Inadequate support from families and the demanding task of addressing children's
behavioral issues have been identified as significant contributors to teacher burnout and elevated
stress levels (Jeon & Anderson, 2020). In a study conducted by Sandilos and colleagues (2015),
diminished instructional support and lower classroom organization quality were connected to
depressive symptoms among teachers. Stressors are compounded by the difficulties posed by
other challenging classroom situations, creating a pervasive atmosphere of strain for educators.
Low wages, an inherent stressor, additionally exacerbates challenges, leading to issues like
teacher retention problems (Austin et al., 2019; Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2019),
which precipitate negative student outcomes. The link between stress and low wages illuminates
a detrimental strain on teachers' overall wellbeing and job retention.
Amidst challenges, the influence of positive work climates emerges as a counterforce to
the pervasive stressors experienced by ECE teachers. Environments characterized by favorable
work-related situations and robust support from families have been revealed as catalysts for
lower stress levels and enhanced wellbeing among educators (Jeon & Ardeleanu, 2020). A
nurturing climate shields against the onslaught of stress, fostering an atmosphere in which
teachers can thrive despite the challenges inherent to their roles. Educational administrators can

42
take actions to promote a collaborative climate of trusting relationships in which teachers feel
safe, valued and supported (Grissom et al., 2021); however, the onus relies on teacher
participation in strategic interventions that cultivate a supportive workplace, which may mitigate
the adverse effects of stress on educators.
Emotion Regulation and Self-Efficacy
Moreover, the ability of teachers to master their emotions emerges as a source of
empowerment within the contours of positive work environments. Emotional regulation is an
essential skill that enables teachers to internally cope with perceived stressful events (Jeon &
Ardeleanu, 2020). Jeon and Ardeleanu, suggested that teachers who possess adept emotional
regulation skills, particularly through the art of reappraisal as opposed to suppression, exhibit a
remarkable capacity to manage stress, even in the presence of challenging environments. Other
contributors to stress-buffering for teachers include their perceived confidence in their abilities,
supplementary education, and training in implementing social-emotional learning interventions,
all of which aid teachers’ aptitude to navigate challenging situations (Stein et al., 2022; Sandilos
et al., 2020). Effective emotion regulation not only enhances teaching effectiveness but also
contributes to better mental health outcomes for teachers (Sutton, 2004; Biglan et al., 2013). The
capacity for emotional mastery equips educators with an aid for resilience, enabling them to
maintain their equilibrium and effectiveness in the face of adversity. Importantly, this skill is not
confined to the absence of stressors; rather, it thrives within the context of positive work
environments, further underscoring its pivotal role in shaping outcomes for teachers.
Teacher self-efficacy, or the belief in one's ability to help students learn, positively
influences teachers' activities, effort, and persistence in the educational environment. Teachers
with high self-efficacy are more likely to create challenging activities, help students succeed, and

43
persevere with those who face learning difficulties, ultimately enhancing student achievement
and fostering a positive classroom environment (Schunk, 2020). Teachers' social-emotional
competence also enables them to effectively manage and address disruptive behavior in students
(Silver & Zinsser, 2020). Teachers with strong self-efficacy are more successful in teaching
students with disabilities, have more positive attitudes towards inclusive education, are less
likely to perceive students as problematic or refer them for special education, are more willing to
accept interventions (Zee & Koomen (2016), and demonstrate more resilience to setbacks
(Schunk, 2020). In sum, teacher self-efficacy and social-emotional competence enhance the
teaching environment, foster student success, and promote inclusivity, all while equipping
educators with the resilience needed to overcome obstacles.
Acknowledging and addressing the impact of stressors, nurturing positive work
environments, and cultivating emotional resilience collectively stand as essential pillars in the
pursuit of a thriving educational ecosystem. It is evident that in addition to encouraging family
participation in the ECE environment, training on creating a positive work climate and emotional
regulation, and facilitating access to mental health resources are vital steps to support teacher
wellbeing and stress management.
Reflective Practice, Supervision, and Consultation
Reflective practice (RP) is a broad concept that refers to the ongoing process of reflecting
on one's own professional practice that can be done individually or in collaboration with others,
and it may take many different forms, such as journaling, peer review, or supervision (Boud et
al., 2013). RP is a versatile approach that is used to support ongoing learning and development in
many industries including business (Shoen, 1991/2016), creative arts (Candy, 2019), nursing
(Bulman, & Schutz, 2013), and social work (Pawar & Anscombe, 2014). Arguably one of the

44
most influential philosophers on education, Dewey (1933/2011) believed in the importance of
critical examination of one's own thoughts and actions and perceiving relationships and
connections between the parts of an experience, allowing for effective problem-solving and
improving learning effectiveness. The philosopher later noted the necessity of learning in
community and from diverse perspectives (Dewey, 1938/1997). York-Barr (2006) offers
concisely that RP “...is a deliberate pause to assume an open perspective, to allow for
higher-level thinking processes” (p. 6).
Reflective supervision (RS) is one type of RP designed to support professionals’ work
with the people with whom they work (i.e., clients, patients, or students). In RS, a supervisor and
supervisee engage in a reflective dialogue focused on helping the supervisee develop greater
insight into their work, understand their clients better, and improve their professional skills
(Supplee & Meagher, 2003). Sometimes, RS is referred to as reflective consultation and while
some authors may distinguish between the two, for the purpose of this paper, the terms are used
interchangeably. The Center of Excellence for Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health
Consultation (2023) explains that RS is a supportive process that fosters empathy,
self-awareness, and reflective practices among consultants, helping them explore reactions to
their work, manage stress, and understand the influence of culture on consultation relationships.
An RS approach encourages the examination of personal and professional beliefs, cultural
dynamics, and power structures within consultative and supervisory relationships. Both
individual and group RS with ECE staff assists them in the navigation of cultural differences and
improving services for culturally diverse children and families.
Reflective approaches are considered to be less bureaucratic and more humane than
traditional top-down methods of knowledge generation and although there is no uniform

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approach to reflective practice, it does not “...mean anything anybody wants it to mean” (Smyth,
1993, p. 12). Smyth (1993) emphasized that reflection should not only be an individual endeavor
limited to evaluating one’s technical skills, but also a collective and collaborative process to
examine ethical, social and political contexts, challenge dominant assumptions, and continually
improve educational practice through “...describing, informing, confronting, and
re-constructing…theories of practice” (p. 16, emphasis in original). The Alliance for the
Advancement of Infant Mental Health (2018) delineated similar features necessary for reflective
supervision/consultation: describing (e.g., What do we know?); responding (e.g., How do we and
others think and feel about this?); exploring (e.g., What might this mean?); linking (e.g., Why
does this matter?); and integrating (e.g., What have we learned?). These tenets guide the use of
RP and reflective supervision (RS) in early childhood settings.
In education, elements of reflective practice involve exploring one’s private, public and
perceived identities in relationship with the learner, mutual effects of interactions, and the
teachers’ understanding of their decision-making processes in the context of the system in which
they work (Rodriguez et al., 2020). Rodriguez and colleagues (2020) describe a developmental,
cognitive model of reflection that progressively leads a teacher to explore how student behavior
may be interpreted through the lens of the teacher’s identity. In the context of infant mental
health, RP is defined as “...the application of a reflective stance and principles in day-to-day
work with families” (Watson et al., 2016, p. 643).
In early childhood settings, Watson and colleagues (2014) illustrate that practitioners are
supported in dealing with challenges because RS increases “…awareness, knowledge, and
understanding of relationship dynamics and…allows [one] to consider a broader and deeper
range of approaches and strategies…” (p. 3). Furthermore, from the perspective of supervisors,

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RS benefits the wellbeing of ECE professionals by enhancing their self-awareness, problem
solving skills, and ability to handle stressful situations and, given a space to process challenging
situations, their job satisfaction and confidence improves (Susman-Stillman et al., 2020).
For the purpose of this research, reflective supervision is considered one type of
reflective practice in which teachers participate in groups led by a reflective practice facilitator,
or supervisor. During reflective supervision sessions, participants gather insight using a holistic
lens by integrating knowledge, experiences, and feelings and acknowledge the strengths and
areas of growth of the practitioner to effectively support the children and families with whom
they work and manage teacher wellbeing (Watson et al., 2014).
Reflective Supervision in Professional Development
Reflective supervision is a pivotal component of professional development in ECE,
providing valuable support for practitioners in their field (Paradis et al., 2021). It involves a
process of self-reflection and collaborative exploration of experiences and challenges, intending
to boost practitioners' understanding and competencies (Barron et al., 2022b). According to
Barron and colleagues (2022a), a theoretical model of reflective supervision underscores the
promotion of growth and learning by establishing a secure space for supervisees to articulate
their thoughts, emotions, and perspectives. This model underscores the importance of cultivating
a strong supervisor-supervisee relationship, promoting self-awareness and self-regulation, and
stimulating critical thinking and creativity (Barron et al., 2022a). Through RS, early childhood
practitioners can gain valuable insights, enhance their practice, and improve outcomes for
children and families.
Professional development and formal education have a positive impact on ECE work
with young children (Egert et al., 2018; Stein et al., 2022). College-level mental health courses

47
provide teachers with greater confidence in managing their mental health needs compared to
professional development, primarily due to the depth and breadth of knowledge imparted (Stein
et al., 2022). This in-depth knowledge equips teachers to address their own mental health and
that of the children they work with. In the context of social work practice, with the goal of
mitigating stress to the benefit of practitioner and client growth, Glassburn and associates (2019)
describe how RS can be used as a tool to “facilitate professional self-care” (p. 693) when used
with experiential learning. Given the reciprocal relationship between teacher wellbeing and
young children's challenges (Jeon et al., 2019), a focus on comprehensive education and
relationally-based support is advocated (Stein et al., 2022), rather than narrowly-focused
professional development. Although on-the-job training has been a widely adopted method for
ECE teacher preparation (Rucker et al., 2022), it is deemed insufficient, given the high demand
for ECE teachers and diverse pathways to entry (Stein, 2022). Job-embedded support and
professional development continue to be essential in ECE teacher training.
In the spirit of improving teacher education, training policies are continually aligned to
current theory. Susman-Stillman et al. (2020) describe RS as professional development grounded
in attachment theory and interpersonal neurobiology that permits teachers “to consider a broader
and deeper range of approaches and strategies for their practice” (p. 1153). Student teaching
experiences can be adapted to individual needs to foster meaningful reflection and inquiry (Weiss
& Weiss, 2001). Weiss and Weiss propose a framework for implementing RS with student
teachers, emphasizing the significance of cognitive inquiry in addressing complex situations.
This approach involves building a comprehensive knowledge base, self-examination of teaching
methodologies, informed decision-making, collaboration with peers, and a commitment to

48
continuous professional development. RS, as a foundational aspect of professional development,
contributes significantly to enhancing the skills and expertise of ECE teachers.
Theoretical Framework
The present study is grounded in two theoretical frameworks. The first is sociocultural
learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978), which assumes people in their cultural environments form a
social system through which communication and actions make competence possible (Schunk,
2020). As people participate in community among people of varying skill levels, interpersonal
interactions create a context that affects cognition, how people think and learn (American
Psychological Association, 2015). Learning occurs when information about language, emotions,
relationships and identities are discussed, especially when there are notable differences in
opinion and practice (Liera, 2018). Through a constructivist, sociocultural lens, “...people form
implicit theories about themselves, others, and how to best manage demands” (Schunk, p. 444).
Partially defining culture as a collective of people using their resources to achieve, Kumar and
colleagues (2018) emphasize that culture, containing each person’s unique traits and behaviors, is
“...regulated by political, legal, and social systems…and is an abstraction of people’s knowledge
and beliefs about themselves, other people, and the world” (p. 79). Each learning community, in
essence, has its own culture.
Rueda (2011) emphasizes that social and cultural aspects mediate learning through
tangible and abstract tools, such as particular technologies or language, available to the learner.
In the context of this study, the learner is the ECE teacher and reflective supervision (RS) is a
tool used for the teacher’s professional development (e.g., Bernstein & Edwards, 2012). RS
involves engaging in a relational dyad that is safe, supportive and collaborative, with the goals of

49
supporting children and families, lessening stress, improving teacher effectiveness, and
preventing burnout.
At the core of RS is the second theoretical framework on which this study is grounded:
the parallel process. The parallel process is simply how relationships influence one another
(Davis et al., 2020) and is used to develop a sense of mutual competence (Goldberg, 1977).
Goldberg (1977) used this term to explain how parents and children dyadically maintain one
another’s feelings of efficacy. In RS, the parallel process is extended to multiple dyads (i.e.,
teacher-child, teacher-parent, and teacher-supervisor) (See Figure 1). Bernstein and Edwards
(2012) describe the parallel process that occurs among the dyads as how “…experiences in the
relationship between a supervisor and practitioner often parallel the experiences in the
practitioner-parent and parent-child relationships” (p. 288). It is during RS when teachers have
the opportunity to develop an understanding of how their relationships with the family and child
impact their work and ultimate effectiveness (Watson & Gatti, 2012). Given the use of the
parallel process in the context of RS, teachers may pull from this resource to mindfully plan
future interactions and methods of instruction to improve teaching effectiveness.
By adopting the tenets of sociocultural learning theory, the researcher acknowledges that
learning is influenced by social interactions, language, emotions, relationships, and identities and
believes that by exploring these aspects within a learning community, insights can be gained into
how individuals think and learn. This framework also considers the role of culture in shaping
people's knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors, emphasizing that each learning community has its
own unique culture. The parallel process concept is incorporated into this study because it is at
the core of reflective supervision (RS), which is at the center of this research. Understanding the

50
parallel process can help the researcher to shed light on how the teacher's interactions with
families and children impact their wellbeing and effectiveness.
Overall, the choice of these two theoretical frameworks allows the researcher to explore
the social and cultural aspects of learning within a specific context (sociocultural learning
theory) and understand the interplay of relationships and their influence on professional
development (the parallel process). These frameworks provide a theoretical foundation for the
study and offer insights into the complex dynamics involved in teaching and learning processes.
Figure 1
Parallel Process
Conclusion
ECE is a crucial component for improving learning outcomes and opportunities for young
children. While there has been a significant increase in ECE enrollment, it is key to recognize
that quality interactions within the ECE system are just as important as having children in
attendance. It is incumbent upon ECE teachers to provide high-quality interactions and

51
instruction and to educate young children from diverse backgrounds and build meaningful
relationships. Relationships and interactions are important for young learners to thrive and, while
it can be time consuming, reflective supervision is a widely recommended practice in ECE and
rests on the premise that intentional reflection can promote teacher wellbeing and instructional
effectiveness. Efforts are being made to address the demographic disparity between teachers and
students by emphasizing diversity and cultural responsiveness in ECE teacher preparation
programs.
Reflective practices, such as reflective supervision, can enhance the quality of teacher
preparation programs and assist teachers in creating engaging and meaningful learning
opportunities. The context in which teaching and learning take place greatly impacts
instructional effectiveness as does teacher wellbeing, personally and professionally. Supporting
teacher wellbeing is essential for creating a positive and effective learning environment for both
teachers and students. Understanding the various aspects of ECE provides valuable insights into
the possibilities and complications in this field. By addressing these factors and working towards
creating a more equitable and effective learning environment, we can ensure that young children
receive the high-quality education they deserve and lay the foundation for their lifelong success.
Finally, this research draws on two theoretical frameworks to explore the process of
learning and professional development in ECE settings. The first framework, sociocultural
learning theory, recognizes that learning is not an isolated process but rather occurs within a
broader social and cultural environment. The second theoretical framework, the parallel process,
focuses on the interplay and mutual influence of relationships and is foundational to reflective
supervision, which provides space for teachers to examine and understand how their
relationships with families and children impact their effectiveness as educators. In turn, teachers

52
can enhance their teaching practices accordingly. By combining sociocultural learning theory and
the parallel process, this research sheds light on the complex dynamics within ECE settings and
underscores the significance of creating supportive and collaborative environments that foster
learning and wellbeing for both teachers and children. Additionally, notable voids in the
incorporation of teachers' perspectives within the existing literature regarding the integration of
reflective practices into teacher training and real-world teaching may begin to be filled in
through this research. Inexperienced educators find value in an environment that prioritizes
mentorship, teamwork, and participation in decision-making, aspects that are frequently absent in
conventional student teaching programs (Weiss & Weiss, 2001). Ultimately, this knowledge may
inform the design of effective interventions and practices to support ECE teachers.

53
Chapter Three: Methodology
To prevent burnout, help retain, and improve the instructional capabilities of early
childhood educators, exploring and understanding the professional and emotional needs of ECE
teachers is necessary. With an interview protocol (see Appendix A) and demographic survey
(see Appendix B), this study particularly looks at teachers’ perceptions of the utility of reflective
supervision as a tool with the potential to provide instructional support and enhance teacher
wellbeing. This chapter outlines the methods through which the research questions listed below
will be answered so readers may expand their pedagogical acumen from teachers’ points of view
on whether reflective supervision is a promising practice to boost teacher wellbeing and
effectiveness so the needs of our youngest learners are met.
Research Design
This is a qualitative case study, which will use semi-structured interviews to address the
research questions. Accounting for the subjectivity of the researcher, the intent of qualitative
research is to gather more intimate knowledge in context from those experiencing the
phenomena in question (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Gathering, describing, and analyzing the
data of several individuals experiencing and participating in the same activities makes this
research a case study (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Capturing teachers’ perspectives in their own
words may add meaning beyond the intent of the research, which lends to the emergent and
flexible nature of qualitative research design (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). With the goals of more
deeply understanding the perceived utility of and learning how teachers navigate their work
through reflective supervision, this design is the most appropriate to identify shared or differing
experiences and possibly discover common themes.

54
Research Questions
1. How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their
instructional effectiveness?
2. How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their
wellbeing?
Setting
To engage participants comfortably, minimize distractions and interruptions, and give the
researcher the opportunity to read nonverbal cues, interviews for this study took place in-person
in a private office setting with the use of an electronic recording device. This setting was the
most appropriate to gather the qualitative information shared by the interviewees as it is situated
in an organizational, intellectual, and relational context (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). If a
participant preferred or if scheduling conflicts arose, interviews were conducted through
web-based video conferencing. Demographic surveys were completed through an online survey
because that was considered most efficient for the participants and the researcher.
Participants
Target and Accessible Population
The target population for this study was credentialed ECE teachers in the US while the
accessible population was credentialed ECE teachers in Fresno County, California. A sample of
eight credentialed ECE teachers were obtained from ECE programs located in Fresno County
who have regularly participated in reflective supervision for at least three years.

55
Sampling Method
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Accessible participants from Fresno County were chosen based on their close proximity
to the researcher. This convenience sampling method saved the researcher time and was the most
affordable option (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Purposeful sampling, informed by a review of the
literature and researcher interest (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017) was used to select interview
participants. The nonrandom, quota-based sample of teachers were invited to participate based
on the following criteria.
Criterion 1
Teachers must be currently employed as a credentialed early childhood educator. The
rationale for being a credentialed teacher working in an early childhood setting is that the
teachers will have some experience teaching children and working with families in the context
relevant to this study.
Criterion 2
Teachers participating will have participated regularly in reflective supervision for at least
three years. The rationale for regular participation in reflective supervision for at least three years
is twofold. One, sustaining a habit of intentional reflection is part of the ECE standards (Early
Childhood Personnel Center, 2020) and two, participating in reflective supervision is viewed a
developmental process (Barron et al., 2022a); at least three years of experience is estimated to be
adequate for teachers to have developed knowledge and understanding of reflective supervision.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
Purposive sampling was used for this study because respondents will need to have the
knowledge and an understanding of the phenomenon being studied so as to meaningfully

56
contribute to the inquiries of the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). If the desired number of
participants are not acquired, chain referral sampling (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017) may be used.
Chain referral sampling, soliciting recommendations from participants to identify other possible
respondents, poses a risk to confidentiality and diminishes researcher control of the final sample.
If necessary, teachers will be asked if they could suggest another ECE teacher that meets the
study criteria to participate in the interviews. To account for possible attrition, the first 15
respondents will be selected.
Recruitment
Teachers from ECE programs located in Fresno County were invited to participate in this
study via email (Appendix D) after this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board
(IRB; Appendix A) and the school district(s) IRB processes (Appendix B), if required. Program
administrators or principals were contacted and asked to share information about the study to
potential participants (i.e., credentialed teachers who have participated in reflective supervision
for at least three years) (Appendix C). Participation in this study was voluntary. Showing interest
by completing the demographic survey (Appendix F) did not obligate any teacher to participate.
Participants were free to withdraw at any time as specified in the informed consent document
(Appendix E).
Data Collection
Quantitative data was compiled from demographic surveys. Descriptive and qualitative
data were collected from semi-structured interviews. The demographic survey provided
background information on participant characteristics and those of the student population with
whom they work. Conducting interviews with teachers allowed the researcher to gain a deeper
understanding of teachers’ perceptions of how reflective supervision may affect their

57
instructional effectiveness and wellbeing. A sample of eight interviews was gathered. Data was
collected from June through August 2023 and included any necessary follow-up interviews.
Demographic Survey
The demographic survey (Appendix F) provided background information on participant
characteristics including years of experience teaching children under five years of age, years of
participation in reflective supervision, race, ethnicity, income, and the racial and ethnic
breakdown of the teacher’s student population. The purpose of gathering demographics was to
enable the researcher to describe the study context, so readers may evaluate the applicability of
findings to different settings (Alkin, 2011). Contact information was collected for possible
follow-up questions and distribution of thank you notes containing a token of appreciation.
Interview Protocol
The semi-structured qualitative interview protocol (Appendix G) consisted of
open-ended questions that may have been simply answered, while the interviewer may have
exercised the option to probe for clarification or further insight. For each interview, a 25-question
protocol was used in addition to any discretionary or follow-up questions. Each question was
coded according to the variables of interest in the research questions. Coding specified the intent
of each question through labels (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017) that were later synthesized to search
for patterns in responses (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Procedures
In January 2023, participants were recruited by sending an email to ECE program
principals or administrators to request they share with teachers meeting the sampling criteria
outlined above the opportunity available to participate in this research. The Study Information
Sheet (see Appendix A) was attached to all recruitment email communications. Once contacted

58
by interested teachers, I sent each teacher an email containing the informed consent form
(Appendix E) and offered to discuss what participation entailed and answer any questions. The
voluntary nature of and option to withdraw without consequence from the research at any time
was provided to participants in writing on the informed consent form and verbally through the
entirety of this project. The informed consent form was shared and signed electronically through
DocuSign® (2022) or printed, signed by hand, scanned, and emailed to me. The teachers who
responded were contacted and sent a link to complete the Qualtrics® (2022) demographic
survey. After informed consent was received, I contacted each participant to schedule a time to
meet for the interview.
Interviews were scheduled at the convenience of participants to increase the likelihood of
being able to conduct interviews face-to-face. If preferred by the participant for comfort or
scheduling ease, web conferencing, with or without video, was available via Zoom; however, no
participants chose this option. Interviews lasted 45 to 75 minutes. The total time participating
fell between 60 and 90 minutes including the time taken to complete the demographic survey and
any follow-up communication. Interviews were recorded and recordings destroyed once
transcribed by a private third party. Transcripts were stored on a password protected computer
accessible only by me. For accuracy and representation, participants had the opportunity to
verify any direct quotes chosen to be included in the reporting of study results. There were eight
teacher participants interviewed. Upon interview completion, participants received a $25 gift
card.
Confidentiality Parameters
For this study, confidentiality was ensured by removing identifying information from
demographic surveys and assigning each participant a letter (e.g., Teacher A). For transcribed

59
interviews, participant names were replaced with their new label, so they were not identifiable if
any direct quotes were used when reporting findings. If participants used the names of others
during interviews, the person’s label (e.g., parent) or job title was used instead. Specific
programs or districts named were also replaced by general labels (e.g., the district, this program).
In addition to protecting participant identity, the right to decline to answer questions was
emphasized several times throughout the interview process whether or not hesitancy surfaced to
ensure participant comfort and continued consent. The right to withdrawal was explained in
informed consent documentation before participation began. I honored the ethical guidelines as
outlined by Rubin and Rubin (2012), which include showing respect, honoring promises, doing
no harm, and not pressuring participants to respond. The confidentiality parameters pertaining to
this research were outlined in the Study Information Sheet (see Appendix A) provided to
potential participants for review before any consent was imparted by participants.
Data Management
Following the guidelines noted in the Study Information Sheet (Appendix A) and as
directed by USC, all data was stored on an encrypted Google platform and in a password
protected computer and will be destroyed after three years. To process data, cursory notes were
taken during and additional notes were taken after each interview, which will be audio recorded
and transcribed verbatim (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Dissemination of Findings
Once completed, I provided participants a copy of the study findings upon request.
Findings are publicly available to those interested in teachers' perspectives of reflective
supervision. Interested parties may be administrators directly supervising early childhood
educators, reflective practice practitioners, or university faculty preparing teachers to work in

60
early childhood education. Recommendations constructed from his study may be disseminated to
inform accreditation or credentialing bodies and advise on the practice of reflective supervision
among early childhood educators.
Data Analysis
Two types of data were collected. First, descriptive data was collected from the
demographic surveys. Second, qualitative data was analyzed after each interview by reviewing
notes taken during the interview and taking post-interview notes of any points of analysis to
consider or possible connections noticed. After the interviews were transcribed by a third party, a
thematic approach was taken.
Descriptive Analysis
Descriptive data provided information on participant characteristics to understand the
context from which participants came (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Salkind, 2017). Demographic
data describing participants included experience teaching children under five years of age,
participation in reflective supervision, race, ethnicity, income, and an estimated racial and ethnic
breakdown of the teacher’s student population. This categorical data was nominal and ordinal
(Salkind, 2017) and reported in table format. Participant comments were included in descriptive
analyses. Participants’ interview responses were described to support study findings and
exemplify participants’ words to provide a level of understanding that numbers could not capture
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Direct quotes were derived from interviews and theme exemplars
reported in narrative form. This descriptive data illustrated underlying thought processes and/or
behaviors of participants (National Research Council, 2002).
Thematic Analysis

61
After transcription, qualitative interview data was entered into NVivo (QSR International
Pty Ltd., 2020) software to define common themes and code data that specifically addressed the
research questions. Inductive coding was used to allow codes to emerge via interviewees' lived
experiences, perceptions, beliefs and ways of knowing and offered a deeper understanding of
subjective experiences (Maxwell, 2013). Specifically, a combination of structural, values, and in
vivo coding was utilized. Structural coding used the research and interview questions to guide
the development of some codes. Values coding involved coding that related to the participants'
worldviews, which is useful for research exploring cultural values and intrapersonal experiences
and actions. Making use of the participants' own words, in vivo codes were included to stay as
close as possible to participants' meaningful, subjective and personal experiences..
Recognizing patterns within the data assisted the researcher to categorize emerging
themes (Bowen, 2009) and “...assign meaning about their relationships, differences, similarities,
or interactions” (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017, p. 289). Analyses sought trends and/or consistencies
in the data that coincided with reviewed literature and revealed new data to add further insight
into teachers’ perceptions of how reflective supervision impacts their instructional effectiveness
and wellbeing.
Reliability
Dependability
To ensure this research was dependable, interviews were recorded and transcribed for
accuracy. The results were consistent with the collected data, meaning an outsider would see
alignment between the data and the results (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As recommended by
Merriam and Tisdell, a running record was kept during the study and included how categories
were derived along with thoughts and questions about the research.

62
Confirmability
Keeping adequate data that can be traced back to sources aids confirmability. Included in
the running record, I journaled field notes that were used to back up results (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The interview protocol for each interview was the same and process notes were taken
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985) on each interview form.
Validity
Credibility
From the initial to final phases of this research, specific actions were taken to maximize
the credibility and trustworthiness of the research. For this study, a base of rich data from various
points of view were collected and participant responses were validated. Capturing participant
perspectives thoroughly lessens observer bias and respondent duplicity and thereby increases the
validity of conclusions drawn from the data (Maxwell, 2013). To rule out misinterpretations,
identify biases, and confirm accuracy, I used respondent validation, or member checking
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) by systematically seeking feedback from participants
regarding the data collected and conclusions made. Soliciting respondent feedback to validate
my understanding of and authenticate participant responses was a key step in managing my
subjectivities.
Asking others for feedback on my conclusions by providing transcripts and materials was
necessary to check for data for accuracy (Seidman, 2013). Another approach used to encourage
credibility was to look for patterns and engage in discrepant case analysis (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016), which can challenge or disconfirm researcher expectations. Advised by Merriam and
Tisdell, I believe it was crucial to spend adequate time collecting and contemplating data derived

63
from the interviews to the point of saturation and to gather data that was varied and rich enough
to form a whole perspective of the realities being measured.
In chapter one, I mentioned that I see reflective supervision as a hopeful practice in a
positive light, which is one researcher bias I will address. This bias reflects my values and
expectations and may have influenced how I conducted the study and what conclusions I may
have drawn (Maxwell, 2013). In addition, being a researcher conducting interviews placed me in
a position of power that if not appropriately handled had the potential to obscure the interests of
the participants with my own as a researcher (Milner, 2007). Ways to lessen the impact of my
bias, in addition to defining my role as a researcher with transparency, were to be clear about the
research methods, explain why the topic is important (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and check for
flaws in my logic (Maxwell, 2013). As advised by Seidman (2013), I was explicit about
participant rights before interviews and worked to establish an equitable relationship in which I
considered who controlled the distance in the relationship.
Transferability
Because the purpose of analyzing qualitative data is to find plausible explanations and
not the absolute truth (Maxwell, 2013), whether this research may transfer is contextual. The
design of this study did not allow for maximum variation in sampling as suggested by Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) to grant greater diversity and a range of findings and, although 75% of the
participants in this study were White females, there was variation in their background and
perspectives. What I was able to do as a researcher was thoroughly contextualize the study with
enough description so consumers may “...determine the extent to which their situations match the
research context, hence, whether the findings can be transferred” (Merriam & Tisdell, p. 259).
Conclusion

64
The data from this qualitative case study helped to yield a clearer picture of how teachers
see reflective supervision and how the practice may or may not be associated with teacher
wellbeing and instructional effectiveness. Eight credentialed ECE teachers employed in Fresno
County who have participated in reflective supervision were interviewed for approximately 60
minutes and provided demographic information. Data was descriptively and thematically
analyzed. The expectation of the semi-structured interviews was to encourage an authentic,
equitable exchange. The intimate knowledge gathered of teachers’ varied experiences, which
was recorded, shed light on differences and commonalities in teachers’ opinions of reflective
supervision, teacher wellbeing, and instructional effectiveness.

65
Chapter Four: Findings
Through the lens of sociocultural learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and the concept of
parallel process (Davis et al., 2020; Goldberg, 1977), this qualitative study sought to understand
and examine how ECE teachers perceive the practice of reflective supervision affects their
instructional effectiveness and wellbeing. One aim of this study was to identify ways to improve
the professional lives of ECE teachers as their wellbeing is important for children’s
social-emotional and cognitive development. Other objectives were to hear from ECE teachers
what challenges they feel may contribute to burnout or turnover and feelings of ineffectiveness
and to understand what ECE teachers believe contributes to feelings of effectiveness. The
ultimate goal was to hear ECE teachers’ perspectives on the utility of reflective practice and its
contribution to the ECE system in supporting positive outcomes for children. The data collected
addressed two research questions: (1) How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective
supervision has, if any, on their instructional effectiveness? And (2) How do ECE teachers
explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their wellbeing?
Following the transcription and coding of each interview, themes were created that
aligned with the theoretical framework, reviewed literature, and the study’s objectives. The
initial codes and final themes (see Table 1) instrumental in answering the research questions are
presented in this chapter and include: reflective practice/supervision; family–teacher partnership;
professional development; professional challenges/barriers; child development/learning in
context; assessment and outcomes; collaboration/connection; experience of
burnout/overworking; personal factors; career experience/motivation.

66
Table 3
Theme Development
To better understand teachers’ perceptions of reflective supervision, the semi-structured
interviews were analyzed to seek answers to the research questions using inductive coding
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Inductive coding allowed the perceptions of participants to emerge in
context (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Perceptions included interviewees’ lived experiences,
beliefs and ways of knowing. Inductive coding enabled a deeper awareness of participants’
subjective experiences, such as each interviewee's interpretations of supervision and how
reflective practice may affect their instructional effectiveness and wellbeing. A combination of
structural, values, and in vivo coding was utilized (Miles et al., 2020). Structural coding used
Initial Code Identification
Assessment and outcomes
Auxiliary resources/referrals
Buy-in for RP/RS
Career trajectory/work experience
Child development/learning in context
Collaboration/connection
Documentation/paperwork
Educational background
Educational/professional training
Experience of burnout/overworking
Family–teacher partnership
Increased workload
Language and communication
Motivation for career in ECE
Organization/planning
Parent Buy-In
Peer mentoring
Personal factors
Professional challenges/barriers
Professional influences/role models
Professional support
Reflective practice
Reflective supervision
Teacher mental health/wellbeing
Final Themes and Subthemes
Factors Related to Effectiveness Factors Related to Wellbeing
Reflective Practice/Supervision
Family–Teacher Partnership
Professional Development
Professional Challenges/Barriers
Child Development/Learning In Context
Assessment And Outcomes
Reflective Practice/Supervision
Collaboration/Connection
Professional Development
Experience Of Burnout/Overworking
Personal Factors
Career Experience/Motivation

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research and interview questions to guide some code development. Values coding was related to
the participants' worldviews, focusing on excerpts that reflected the participants' values,
attitudes, and beliefs, which is useful to explore cultural values and intrapersonal experiences
and actions. In vivo codes were included to stay as close as possible to participants' meaningful,
subjective and personal experiences, making use of the participants' own words and original
phrases. Throughout coding and thematic analysis, I reflected on my assumptions and
positionality as the researcher (Atkins & Duckworth, 2019) and kept ethical considerations at the
forefront (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Maxwell, 2013).
After defining codes from the interview responses, I categorized emerging themes from
the data by reviewing notations I made during interviews. When categorizing data, I appraised
the relevance (or credibility) of the content to consumers of this research and made note of
frequently mentioned terms or concepts and the revelation of unique ideas that differed from
typical responses or literature reviewed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Reflective supervision was
combined with reflective practice, because although defined differently in the literature,
interviewee knowledge did not generally differentiate between the two concepts. It is reasonable
to note that several themes may directly or indirectly impact each research question; however,
themes more directly associated with each question, based on the reviewed literature and
interviewee responses, were used to answer the research questions. For example, while reflective
practice/supervision (RP/S) and collaboration/connection outside of RP/S were each discussed at
high rates, teachers mentioned RP/S more often in the context of its impact on their effectiveness
than on their wellbeing and collaboration/connection outside of RP/S was mentioned more in the
context of how it affected teacher wellbeing than their effectiveness. Collaboration/connection
included accessing auxiliary resources/referrals. Professional development, mentioned more

68
often in the context of teacher wellbeing than their effectiveness, was the term chosen to
encompass: professional support, peer mentoring, and educational/professional training.
Initial coding uncovered 24 codes based on interviewee responses. Six final themes and
four subthemes were developed to address the research questions (see Table 1). The quantitative
demographic findings are presented in narrative and table format (see Tables 2 and 3) and the
qualitative interview findings are in a narrative format, focusing on how each research question
is addressed.
Participants
Several early childhood program administrators located in the central valley of California
were contacted when seeking participants for this study. Four responding administrators, each
from different early intervention programs located in Fresno County, provided information about
this study to their teachers who met the criteria for participation. Of nine interested teachers
currently employed full-time in ECE, eight were interviewed for this research. Seven worked in
an early intervention program and one, who previously worked in an early intervention program,
had started a new position at the beginning of the school year with another educational agency. It
is important to note that these teachers communicated their experiences through the lens of early
intervention, or ECE special education, which occurs in the home setting with individual
children and their families. Each teacher carried a caseload of approximately 17 to 25 students.
All participants held an Education Specialist Instruction Credential, two also had a
Multiple Subjects Credential, and one had an additional Specialist Instruction Credential in
Special Education. Five participants were authorized in Early Childhood Special Education, one
held a Mild/Moderate Disabilities authorization, and another held a General Subjects
authorization. Participants’ years of experience as a credentialed ECE teacher ranged from 5 to

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37 years (M = 17; Mdn = 11.5). Four participants earned their degrees at a public university,
three a private university, and two attended a combination of private and public higher education
programming for which transfer credit was granted. Each participant was awarded their degree in
California. Six participants held Master’s degrees and of the two holding Bachelor’s degrees, one
was enrolled in coursework towards a Master’s degree and the other in an administrative
credential program. Sixty-three percent of the participants reported attending a higher education
program that was accredited or recognized by the NAEYC.
There were six demographic survey questions that each participant was asked to complete
to gather insight into the population being studied. The questions were used to determine years of
experience as an ECE teacher and with reflective supervision/practice, educational level, age,
race and ethnicity (see Table 2). To get an idea of how teachers’ racial and ethnic characteristics
compared to those of the children being taught, there were two additional survey questions
asking for an estimate of their students’ racial and ethnic makeup (see Table 3). The data showed
that 75% of the participants identified as White and not of Hispanic/Latino/a/x, or Spanish
origin, 12.5% as White and Some Other race and of Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano/a/x
origin, and 12.5% as Some Other race and of Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano/a/x and
Another Hispanic, Latino/a/x or Spanish origin. Seven of the eight participants gave estimates of
their students’ race and all participants estimated their students’ ethnicity. While the majority of
teachers identified as White and non-Hispanic, an overwhelming majority of students served
were categorized as being an Other ethnicity or of Hispanic, Latino/a/x or Spanish origin. This
finding was consistent with the literature indicating that ECE teachers and students often differ in
their race and/or ethnicities (Ed-Data, 2023; NECS, 2020).

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Table 4
Demographic Survey Results
Participant
Pseudonyms
Age
Range
Years as
an ECE
Teacher
Years of
RS/RP
Race;
Hispanic/Latino/a/x,
Spanish Origin
NAEYC
Accredited
Teacher Prep
Grace
Paula
Danielle
Valerie
Nancy
Janice
Heidi
Eleanor
31-40
51-60
51-60
31-40
31-40
41-50
61-70
41-50
10-14
>20
3-5
6-9
6-9
>20
>20
6-9
7-10
7-10
4-6
4-6
3
4-6
>10
7-10
White; No
White; No
White; No
White; No
White, Some Other; Yes
White; No
White; No
Some Other; Yes
Yes
Yes
Unsure
Unsure
Yes
Unsure
Yes
Yes
Table 5
Teacher-Estimated Student Race/Ethnicity
Race Percent Ethnicity Percent
American Indian/Alaska Native
Asian
Black/African American
Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander
White
Some other race/ethnicity/origin
1.4
5.3
7.9
1.4
31.1
53.0
Not Hispanic, Latino/a/x, or Spanish
Hispanic, Latino/a/x or Spanish
Other ethnicity or origin
Prefer not to say
9.4
60.1
23.6
6.9
Analysis of Research Question One
This section summarizes the findings of the first research question: How do ECE teachers
explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their instructional effectiveness? The first
theme that emerged in relation to teachers’ perceptions of what impacted their effectiveness was
reflective practice/supervision (RP/S) with the subtheme of family–teacher partnership. The
second theme was professional development along with the subtheme of professional

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challenges/barriers and the third theme related to teachers’ feelings of effectiveness was child
development/learning in context with assessment and outcomes being an important subtheme.
Reflective Practice/Supervision
For most of the teachers interviewed, in early childhood special education, reflective
practices were reported as pivotal for student growth, while not the only nor always the first
method used. As stated above, the teachers did not differentiate between reflective practice and
reflective supervision, so the concepts were combined as reflective practice/supervision (RP/S)
to represent each. During RP/S, teachers develop relationships with the family and child and
contemplate how best to work with the family and child so their teaching is effective (Watson &
Gatti, 2012).
Danielle explained how she uses reflection at the beginning and end of her visits:
I usually try to check in with the family first, just see how the week went, and something
I like to ask is [about] any celebrations or any challenges this week, so we can talk about
the good, the bad, the ugly, whatever. Then usually I just watch what the child's doing and
we go from there…It's directed somewhat by what [the] response is [from] the family,
like, "Oh, he's having a hard time with this,"…then that's usually what we're going to
work on, unless there's something we've really been focused on. We're really big on
trying to get the parent-child bond strong. So I try to not be the person interacting with
the child. I'm trying to get the family to [interact]. I'm really just…more so…passively
coaching, not directing like, "Okay, this is how I want it to look.” I'm just trying to make
it more successful, if possible. Then we try to do a little reflection at the end of it, like,
"What felt good? What did you notice today about Johnny?" or whatever, "And was there
anything that was difficult or anything you'd want to do differently or try differently?" So

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we try to incorporate a little reflective practice with the family then, at the end of the
visit, and then get their feedback of, "What do you want to work on this week? What do
you want to focus on while I'm not here, or until I see you next week?"
Paula gave the opinion that adapting to families' current circumstances needed to take
place before reflection and discussed some challenges with RP/S, saying,
I think it's a really effective strategy, and is helpful in certain situations. It's just not for
me. And I could be wrong about this, but it seems like families and people need to be
really self-aware. I need to be really present. There's just a whole bunch of things that
have to be just right for it to really feel like it flows. So I value it, but I have to say that
not always am I able to reach into my toolbox and remember it, given some of the
circumstances we come across.
Later, Paula continues,
For me, I can think of some times when [RP/S] wasn't helpful to me, but I think
it's because nothing was going to be helpful. It was fundamentally not going to be
successful. Does that make sense? [Like if it’s a situation where] I think we have
to call [child protective services]. You know what I mean? That kind of a thing.
Or…times when…[the family is] worried about diapers and food. So just that
whole disconnect of not meeting people where they are…that's when [RP/S]
wasn't helpful.
Valerie, now teaching preschoolers, discussed how RP/S has helped her appreciate the
importance of understanding the whole child given each child’s different circumstances:
…we always talk about the whole child approach, but the whole child approach is not just
the child at school, it's the child at home. And so…dissecting it has helped me. Okay,

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what else is going on? Or what else do I need to know? So I try to find out the missing
pieces or…talk to parents, and that goes back to reflective supervision because it's helped
me to reflect on that whole situation. Because we have all of these assumptions about
parents and families… But then it's like, "Okay, why is this child missing so much, or
why does this child now have these behaviors?" And [then it] comes out that the parents
separated, and so that's a huge thing at home that happened. I think early intervention in
itself has just taught me to take a step back for myself to not be so judgmental. What is
the whole story for this whole child?
Mindful planning for future interactions and methods of instruction occurs through the
parallel process in the context of RP/S (Davis et al., 2020; Goldberg, 1977). A few teachers
understood that part of the parallel process was a way to consult with families, team members,
and/or their supervisor about a child’s progress and/or teachers’ personal reactions to experiences
in the field. When asked about the parallel process, Danielle shared:
I feel like I've understood parallel process to be that, if I am working with a family and
they're struggling with something and I'm struggling with something, it's important for
me to look into myself and see how that mirrors, like am I ... is something in my past
triggering or being triggered by what's happening in the family. So that parallel process
that maybe they're stuck because I'm stuck, and that kind of thing.
Heidi explained that RP/S has assisted her and her colleagues in acknowledging personal
biases in the context of home visits that may impact their effectiveness:
…we understand, as a coach or teacher going into that home, what might be some
triggers that I'm going in [with]? For instance…[another early interventionist had a]
passion for animals and going in and seeing the mistreatment of animals [made her

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realize] how stressful it was for this family to have them...so…[she] found new homes for
them, but I don't want to take on that responsibility. But I think that just understanding, in
this home environment, what's triggering… You have to mentally prepare yourself to go
in. My [reflective supervisor] is helping us identify what our triggers are, how we can get
around that, and to be able to be effective in that home. Knowing your biases maybe, or
yeah, so I'm going to say that's the helpfulness there.
Janice also touched upon the importance of understanding biases and how
sometimes there is a family-teacher mismatch, sharing:
I think another part of reflective practice is definitely being aware of your own
biases and thinking about those and how those affect your approach to different
families. Sometimes that's how we match our families a little bit and sometimes
we get fired. Sometimes they just need something new…I think it is important to
be aware of biases going in so that you can consciously think…and leave that out
of where you're at to make sure that you're being an appropriate teacher for them.
Later, Janice gave another example of a parent-teacher pairing that was not ideal because
the teacher also had a child with the same diagnosis as the child whom she was serving and the
parent knew.
It was a situation where that parent was feeling very disconnected from their child, and
so she wasn't able to celebrate every little thing. I think she felt like she couldn't complain
or be upset about things with that teacher because here she has a child [similarly
diagnosed] and has gone through it all. You would think oh, what a great experience. You
can advocate for that person, but when you're in that world, it wasn't the best fit for that
parent. It might be for another parent with a child [similarly diagnosed].

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A final component of RP/S discussed here is the deliberate pause (e.g., York-Barr, 2006),
which is meant to stop long enough to evaluate perspectives of what is going on in the moment.
Shifting perspective is often necessary to support parents (Bernstein & Edwards 2012) and to
engage in culturally responsive teaching (Colton et al., 2016). Danielle said,
Deliberate pause is putting a, I understand it to be, putting a question out there, and if
nothing's said or ... you give the family time to respond. You don't fill the gap, which is
an uncomfortable thing when there's nothing happening for a little bit, but it's actually
giving the family time to think and pause and reflect.
Paula stated, “That is something I try really hard to use. And it's my thinking time, for me, it's
with parents or with kids, it's just taking a breath and waiting.” Grace reported, “We haven't used
that terminology, but we've spoken a lot about those uncomfortable pauses, but they're really
beneficial for processing. And so we do practice it…” Eleanor said,
We do take pauses in our work to allow families, suggest maybe, [to] sit in silence.
Maybe they'll initiate something. So I don't know if that's what that means, because I've
not heard [that term], but I know we practice the pausing sometimes just to be present
because, sometimes, things happen when we're not talking or discussing.
Not all of the teachers interviewed understood the function or meaning of this term when asked,
but it seemed to be a common practice that teachers felt impacted their effectiveness with very
young children.
Family–Teacher Partnership
The ECE teachers interviewed discussed the importance of the family-teacher partnership
when working with young children and that this partnership helps them to be more effective in

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several ways. Collaboration with families is a vital aspect of working in ECE. When meeting
parents for the first time, Nancy explains,
…I use the family service coaching model, so meaning I coach you on how to implement
things when I'm not there…to continue on with their learning when I'm not there. So a lot
of it's going to look like play, and some of it can look more [focused], but all in all, it's all
play and it's early learning.
Grace mentioned,
I think it's the collaboration between, I mean everybody, but with the parent and... I mean,
it could be [between] other parents when they come to classes, it's relationships. It's
relationships. So not just collaboration, but helping the parents form relationships with
people because then they feel safe to be with their child, and confident in working with
their child, and feel like they're not alone when they meet the parents in the playgroups.
And yeah, everything's about relationships. It really is.
Teachers discussed working hand-in-hand with families to support the child's learning and
development, which involves open communication, goal setting, and working together to create a
plan that best meets the child's needs. Heidi articulated,
I love to see a parent's joy when [an] outcome has been met. It means two things, that I've
gotten really good at writing my outcomes, but [also] listening to the parents' concerns
with that outcome. It's successful and joyful, but it really falls on that parent who was
willing to step out of their comfort zone sometimes and be playful with their child. That's
not always easy…
Heidi goes on to talk about a family who was fearful to go outside for a walk during the
pandemic, she thought,

77
They need to be outside, they need to, but [with] everything that the child touched…it's
like, "Oh, he needs his hands washed." It's just that fear that happened with COVID, but I
really feel you have to navigate each family differently and you have to find within their
comfort what they are going to try…I feel like I am honing in on those best practices for
me that really get the parent to try some ideas. Then when they try it [after I model
it]...you see that spark in a parent's eyes that we just had success here, then you've
empowered them with a beautiful tool and how they can find other ways…So, I wonder
with them today, “I wonder where you can try this or another way." Then when they start
coming up with those ideas, I love it, because then I know that there's going to be more
success, which then becomes that they accomplish the outcome.
Building trust and a strong rapport with families was stressed as an important facet of
developing family-teacher partnerships. The teachers exercise care that the support they provide
parents is not judgemental. A couple of teachers shared instances of asking parents questions
like, “Are you okay?” or, “How are you feeling?” to which parents sometimes disclose instances
of physical or mental illness, domestic violence, and/or food insecurities, for example. When
learning a young mother had cancer, Heidi expressed worry and inquired about what support that
mother might need. She said, “The focus definitely was not on the child that day. It was on this
mom.” Several teachers shared that creating a safe and supportive space for families is key to
assuring their teaching is effective. When considering the list of strategies for effectiveness
provided in the interview, Valerie pointed out, “...one [idea] that's not in here…it's just pure
compassion for the kids...I feel like I teach them, but I just treat them like my own kids. I think
with that, I could teach them anything if they feel safe…”

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Grace discussed that following the child’s lead and modeling interaction skills for parents
as critical to effectiveness:
…everything is with the parent and the child…in a perfect intervention session. But
following the child's lead…if they need to take a break and walk around and regulate and
then come back, then we're okay with that. [There’s] modeling for parents, how to
interact…with their child, but then also having them practice it if they're comfortable. So
a lot of it is...that triad with the parent.
Eleanor explained that along with coaching families on teaching strategies, “...encouraging that
the parent-child dyad is healthy and strong…is what is going to make strategies more effective.”
The teachers acknowledged that it is not always easy to maintain the family-teacher
partnership. Some parents have misconceptions about the teachers' role. Janice noted,
…some families…have the perception that we're going to just come in and fix their
kid…I'm not a babysitter for an hour…this is a partnership. "No, you really can't go do
your dishes right now," but I play that by ear…sometimes you walk in through the door,
the parent's in crisis…so I might allow that, but then [say], "Okay. Why don't you go do
that really quick and then come back?"
Later, Janice described working with highly educated, professional parents, saying,
…sometimes they're hard to connect with for some reason…and then I have to use all the
big words…and…they also expect you to just do [the work]. They don't really have any
concepts…of child development…so [we have] to break this down…developmentally...I
think the communication is very key. We model…and then see if they can do it…and
then [ask], "What do you want to see for your child? What is your goal for your child?

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Okay, then how can we meet it?" That's how we build their outcomes…it's…very
routine-based, very family-friendly and oriented.
Most not wanting to place blame, six of the eight teachers interviewed reluctantly mentioned
parent buy-in as a factor that impedes their ability to be effective because very young children
(i.e., ages birth to 3 years) are with their parents most of the time. As one example, Heidi shared,
If I don't have a parent that is buying in to... I don't want to say they have to use my ideas
and suggestions or my coaching strategies, because it's up to them. What fits into their
routine? What's going to work for them? Because it's not one size fits all and their family
dynamics are very different.
Similarly, other teachers concluded that it is easier to feel effective when the parents want the
support. Simultaneously, the teachers described actions they take to remedy or build the
partnership. Sometimes, per parent request or through RP/S, teachers are reassigned with the
hope of finding a better match for the family.
Professional Development
While there was not a lot of dialogue about specific professional development (PD)
activities that ECE teachers valued, the topic frequently came up when teachers were asked
about what helps them to be more effective. Professional development included, educational
training on promising teaching methods, peer mentoring, and receiving logistical support (e.g.,
organization/planning, documentation, time management).
When asked about professional development, Heidi appreciated
…opportunities to have trainings that are specific to Early Start. I think it's a combination
of that and then having conversations, which is…reflective practice on how we are each
implementing or doing these things, because we all have a different teaching style.

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Grace commented,
So we collaborate during reflective practice, and different teachers have different
teaching methods and just intervention strategies that they use. And it's helpful to hear
how they would approach a situation if we're kind of stuck, what to do. And so we're able
to draw from others' experiences to grow in the profession.
Eleanor shared,
And then, just also having a team. We have consultants and specialists on our team that
we can come to and have brief discussions or even invite them out on a visit. That's very
helpful. The trainings that we go through are very helpful, and reflective practice is
incredibly helpful. I can tell you that a lot happens in those meetings. We meet once a
week. So it's very, very helpful, very supportive.
Nancy expressed preferring hands-on professional development, suggesting being able to have
opportunities to observe and collaborate with teachers from other programs and also having
differing experiences between supervisors. saying,
It's also how you do [reflective supervision], too. If the supervisor does it and they're very
condescending…or kind of finger pointing…just telling you but not supporting you, I
think [that] is the big part of it…something like, “Do as I say, not as I do.” I'd rather them
show me best practices, how can I change it, give me ideas; set me up with somebody
that can help me in this area. Let me see it in action so I know what I'm doing wrong so I
can tweak it.
Teachers newer to the field seemed to value PD over RP/S, which makes sense as
they are developing their pedagogies; this is consistent with a couple of veteran teachers
who shared they did not know what to think of RP/S when they were initially introduced

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to it. In general, most of the ECE teachers interviewed saw professional development as
adding significantly to their ability to be effective.
Professional Challenges/Barriers
During interviews, teachers acknowledged several professional challenges and barriers
they believed to hamper their effectiveness. Besides the occasional difficult family dynamics,
already mentioned above, and some parents having unrealistic expectations for their children's
progress, the lack of time was teachers’ most mentioned obstacle to their feelings of
effectiveness. Scheduling conflicts are not unusual, according to the teachers. It can take a lot of
time to arrange home visits, especially when coordinating with multiple family members,
working parents, and/or consultants. Given their demanding schedules, some teachers struggled
to find the time they felt some children needed to progress and faced challenges due to limited
availability. Janice explained one scenario:
We were trying to schedule a child and we have to do these things on our timelines. This
child's transition [for preschool planning] was missed because the family was sick, and so
we had to reschedule. So I was like, "I can come back on a day that I don't work. That's
fine. Just tell me. I will add that day or to [my duty calendar for] next year or whatever..."
But we're just trying to meet those needs.
Grace said, “For me, time is a big limitation. Oftentimes, after sessions, there's just follow-up
that needs to be done. Like scheduling with providers, [physical therapist, occupational
therapist], speech, the increased caseload, it's challenging to fit it all in sometimes.” Nancy
similarly mentioned, “...trying to collaborate…for sessions. Yeah, sometimes scheduling can be
difficult… We need to make sure that we see the families, so scheduling can be hard.” Eleanor
spoke of the scheduling challenges that occur when both parents work, adding,

82
Sometimes, their living circumstances. I'm thinking of a family in particular where it was
incredibly hard to even just breathe in their home because of…infestation of lots of
things...and so, that makes it hard to do the work because you're anxious or you're
distracted by either your own health, your safety, that sort of thing. So it makes it hard to
do the work, or it makes it hard to work with families.
High caseloads were cited by teachers as limiting their ability to make time for RP/S,
which they felt was necessary for them to be effective. Paula shared she had not been attending
because she had “just been so stretched.” Valerie explained,
...the caseloads were becoming so high and all of us felt like we couldn't breathe, and so
to carve out time for that, because there was, "You guys need to do all of this, but also
take time for yourself, so do reflective supervision." We felt overwhelmed to take the
time, and I found that a lot of us were skipping…it was just too much to do. And I'm
speaking for others, but for myself, I felt like, "I don't have time for this today."
Citing the importance of RP/S while acknowledging barriers, Danielle reiterated Valerie’s point,
I mean, it's helpful to me to just have that time set apart on a regular basis to meet with
colleagues, because I think if [RP/S] wasn't required or wasn't a part of our program, I
don't know that I'd take the time to do it, just because of all the other demands on us.
With paperwork and caseloads, it would be really easy to not bring in collaboration, and
it creates a structure for us to do so on a regular basis.
In addition to perceiving a lack of time and not being able to reflect, teachers divulged
complications from more external sources. There was mention of changes in program and State
regulations, including a shift towards conducting early intervention in the child’s natural
environment (i.e., primarily the home), which conflicted with playgroups previously held. Janice

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shared how her program faced difficulties implementing changes as consultants are also “spread
thin.” She continued by pointing out the discrepancies between recommended practices and what
is actually available, using speech therapy as an example:
…we just don't have enough. They don't have time because [the therapists] are also in the
home. So best practice, great, speech therapy in the home. That's what [the State] wanted.
We used to have speech therapy only at the center, but the State [says], "We're going to
make this rule," but they don't give us the materials or support to be able to implement it,
so we're playing catch up with that stuff…working the best we can…
Programming dilemmas were evident, according to a couple of teachers (each from
different programs) as were staffing shortages, leading to overworked staff. Changes in staffing
and service delivery methods caused divisions within teams, making it challenging to maintain
cohesion. Having to play catch up after the pause in referrals during the COVID-19 pandemic
forced a delay in services for many children, according to a few teachers. Overall, these teachers
faced a range of challenges to which they adapted, although adversely impacting their perceived
effectiveness.
Child Development/Learning in Context
Participants mentioned that they must adapt their models to comply with state regulations
and funding requirements and the necessity to consider the context in which each child is
learning. The multiple contexts from which children come need to be contemplated by teachers
in order for them to be effective (NAEYC, 2020b). The teachers acknowledged that every family
is unique, and tailor their approaches to specific needs and circumstances. There was a general
recognition among the participants that education for parents on child development and guidance
on effective strategies positively supported children’s progress.

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Valerie talked about one behaviorally dysregulated child who had
…academic goals, but he wasn't available to learn those goals. So it was, how do we set
up the environment to help him be successful and then to follow through? [I said], “First,
we're going to do this, and then you can have your time.” I try to go back to basics if we
need to, so what I can do to make them feel comfortable and provide those supports so
that they can be available for learning.
Heidi discussed how sometimes parents expect their toddler to sit with their teacher to
receive a lesson, while she reiterates with parents that she is a coach to provide them with
support. After observing one child with motor delays, Heidi said, “I’ll…go back and reflect [with
the parent]: ‘What have you been able to work on, if you can, because…I understand you have
five kids’.” The teacher compassionately considered the context, the mother was able to report
that she found time to practice what had been recommended, and shared how her child was now
able to move between two pieces of furniture. This individualized approach recognized family
dynamics and challenges they may be facing. In another case, a family was in a reunification
process and the teacher provided suggestions and modeled behavior to help the parents be more
successful in their interactions with their children. Teachers were also confronted with other
circumstances, such as parental incarceration, homelessness, or family tragedy, under which they
needed to find the best way to be effective for the children with whom they worked.
As coaches, the teachers felt their role was to empower parents, so their children could
achieve developmental goals. Valerie, now working with ages three to five years, sends materials
home and when she feels the need to know more about a child’s learning, requests a home visit,
saying, “Working zero-to-three completely changed the way that I work.” Along with aiming to
provide parents with knowledge and tools to actively participate in their child’s progress, the

85
teachers pointed out the importance of meeting children where they are developmentally and
adapting their approach to the individual needs and abilities. They practice routine and
play-based learning to engage children in natural and enjoyable ways and emphasize the
importance of in-person interaction. Learning in context helps to develop meaningfulness and
further motivates learning (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Kumar et al., 2018; Linnenbrink-Garcia et
al., 2016; Schunk, 2020). These practices help children transition to school and prepare them for
the next steps in their education.
The teachers interviewed provided insights on how considering the context of children’s
learning environments can make them more effective. They recognized the need for flexibility in
their approaches and reported to adapt their strategies based on the family's response and
feedback obtained through reflection as well. Reflection helps teachers to better understand the
context in which the child is learning and at a deeper level, broaden the array of possible
approaches they can use with children (Watson, 2014) to make teachers more effective. Janice
reported beginning visits with open ended questions to involve parents and guide her with her
next steps:
The big word here is flexibility. In early intervention…you got to be flexible. You might
have a whole lesson plan of what you're going to do with that child, you walk in and
mom's in crisis. Then that's what we're reflecting on, if that makes sense. And then it's
like the same thing [if] I have this big plan for the child, but they aren't having it that day.
So I am very child-led and family-led as far as that goes.
Assessment and Outcomes
Within child development and learning in context, the teachers noted that formally
assessing children’s needs and creating and monitoring outcomes are critical to their

86
effectiveness. When starting to work with a child, Nancy first references a developmental
measure completed by an intake team as “…a jumping off point, and then getting to know the
child…their likes and dislikes, and the family's concerns. [Those] usually are pretty consistent.”
Valerie underscored that in addition to making students feel comfortable and providing necessary
support for learning, data collection is required to track progress, reporting that when she has a
child progressing she says,
...now let's keep bumping up these goals. Or…they're talking this much. Now let's make
it into two- to three-word sentences and upping that. But I think seeing when they're calm
or happy or excited, I think that's what's for me, when I see [progress].
As teachers spoke about the roles of formal and formative assessment, they also shared that their
effectiveness can be influenced by informal measures of success.
Janice pointed out the significance of documentation and collaboration with families to
create developmentally appropriate outcomes:
Sometimes that's hard. Sometimes it is just the child developmentally, that they're stuck
in something or maybe they've met their ceiling for some things, but you do always
review the outcomes. Say, "We've tried this. Is there a way we can modify this goal?" Or
if they've met it, then…"We need to bump this up and do something new," or, "Are you
satisfied that that area of development is good?” …we have to guide the goals on what
[parents] want, but then we also have to bring them back to what's developmentally
appropriate. It's like, "That's a good goal to have. That is what a typically developing
child does. They're not there yet. We need to do all these things first."
Eleanor shared,

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When a child's not progressing…first, I want to know if [the parents are] even noticing
that their child's not progressing as they should, because, sometimes, if a parent feels like
maybe there is small progress and the parent thinks that's good enough, I like getting their
understanding of, and where do you see your child?
After exploring where the parent wants their child to be and asking what is or is not working,
Eleanor may then do some assessing of her own.
Maybe, there's something holding that parent in a place where they might feel stuck,
where they might not be able to fully be consistent with interacting with their child every
day on an ongoing basis or in a positive way or whatever it is… Sometimes, our parents
are just surviving. So it just depends on where they're at and…exploring what that is.
Teachers brought their unique perspectives and practices to the table, explaining the
diverse and holistic approaches employed in supporting children’s growth and progress.
Although regular assessment and adjustments in intervention plans are valuable, Heidi talked
about the importance of utilizing materials available in the home to support outcomes, respecting
parents' resources, and focusing on positive aspects of a child's development rather than just
formal assessment scores. Grace highlighted the need to be flexible and responsive to the current
concerns and goals of the family, saying,
I might have a plan in my head based on the [assessment measure]…and their goals. We
[think]…what should be next in their development? But then somebody talks about
concerns and [the plan] goes out the window, and you talk about what's current.
Nancy uses reflection and the child’s successes as a starting point and considers various factors
like attendance, intellectual abilities, and family changes when assessing progress. The teachers
will change outcomes if they are not congruent with family concerns or not appropriate to the

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child’s developmental level. Nancy commented that sometimes an initial assessment done by
another entity “isn’t always accurate,” so she uses “…the family as [a] main resource because
they know their child best.” The diverse and flexible approaches discussed by the teachers noted
how a holistic perspective and adapting strategies to unique needs and circumstances is key to
effectively supporting children's growth and progress.
Analysis of Research Question Two
This section summarizes the findings of the second research question: How do ECE
teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their wellbeing? The primary
themes that emerged in relation to teachers’ wellbeing were reflective practice/supervision
(RP/S), professional development, experience of burnout/overworking, personal factors, and
career experience/motivation.
Reflective Practice/Supervision
When responding to questions about their work, ECE teachers shared the importance of
RP/S to their wellbeing. One participant, Heidi, said, “I think I couldn't do this job without
reflective practice." The role RP/S played in the mental health of participants was evident in the
way they described how RP/S helps them process difficult emotions and challenges in their
work, making it easier to cope. Danielle explained her program’s RP/S,
…the way ours is set up, we really can create a bond with five colleagues that maybe we
wouldn't otherwise, and when you meet with the same group of people, a small group
[regularly each] month for a whole year, there's a lot that comes…life happens, and so
sometimes some of that time is used just to go, "Okay, I'm really tired because this is
going on, this is going on." I mean, you really create a safe place to talk about those

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things, if it's the right group. It doesn't happen in every group, but I've been lucky…I've
seen other groups that haven't [bonded], so…I've been able to share things and be safe.
Grace reported how RP/S created a supportive work environment because the teachers talk a lot
about job-related stress:
I mean, we all talk and process together. We're in different groups, so there's four or five
of us in a session. And it's nice to know that it's confidential, so you can really be open
about things. Relationships with coworkers…so sometimes there's things going on in the
office that affect work, and we talk and process about those things and come up with
ideas. So that's really helpful.
RP/S creates a safe space for teachers to self-reflect, collaborate, think critically, and build a
strong supervisor-supervisee relationship (Barron et al., 2022a; Barron et al., 2022b; Supplee &
Meagher, 2003). A few participants mentioned how changes in the practitioners/clinicians or
supervisors leading RP/S affected them. Valerie noted how RP/S was hard to engage in at one
time because of staffing changes and how it got easier once a relationship with a new supervisor
was established, saying,
But the new [supervisor], she's wonderful and helpful, I think. Yeah. And it wasn't like it
had anything to do with the new [one]…versus the other one…but she just had a different
way. And maybe that was just me feeling the change, but it worked…how we had it, and
we weren't ready to have it leave…the clinician seemed to have a plan.
Grace, from another program, related,
So in the past, with our previous [practitioner], job satisfaction was, I love what I do, but
it just felt a lot more supported. I felt supported at work…she was available to, if we
needed to chat with her about a situation... It was really nice to have her perspective. I

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don't feel as supported now. I feel like the content that we speak about is different. The
clinician…was more in depth, I think, in diving deep into how we can really support [a]
family at the ground level… Sometimes it was really hard to process what was going on,
really challenging. The new provider…it's sometimes almost like a lesson instead of
going and just reflecting on what's going on. Sometimes it's a lesson which is useful, so
we have tools to use, but it's just not as in-depth… So [RP/S is] not like a few years
ago… We knew we could just go and decompress. I mean, now it's good we're learning,
but we still can have the mental load on our shoulders.
Paula conveyed the importance of RP/S facilitator education: “...[We] can all be positively
affected by a reflective supervisor who is good…who…has been well-trained.
Many participants emphasized the role of supervisors and colleagues in providing
support, validation, and guidance during challenging situations and helping teachers navigate
difficult relationships and work-related stress. Eleanor articulated,
I definitely believe that [RP/S] plays a huge part in all of [those aspects of wellbeing],
simply because through reflective supervision or practice, we're able to come together,
hear each other out, provide feedback and support. So it only allows us to feel that there's
a value there for the work that we do and for the role that we play in the families that we
serve. And so, it adds value to our position and our work. It also provides relief… And I
think that relief helps us to still continue to know that there's no perfect way to do this.
But we can find and explore next steps or new ideas or new perspectives. And then, that
helps us to cope with some of the stress that comes from it and I think leads to better
performance, as well as, I think even more than, just satisfaction; it helps us to also stay.

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RP/S has helped teachers face challenges and adapt to changing circumstances in their
work, such as transitioning to remote teaching and RP/S meetings during the pandemic. Heidi
gained access to free webinars and many online resources for parents to use to work with their
children. Collaboration about teaching methods and ways to coach parents were shared in
reflective sessions. Janice said, “We had to really get into the coaching model through COVID
because that's about all we had. When you're meeting on [a web-based platform] with a
two-year-old, you're like, ‘I got about five minutes and then it's going to be real unnatural…’”
Some talked about dealing with staff shortages, children not attending sessions, and
post-pandemic catch up work. Janice believed, “...as far as best practice goes…we were
struggling on how to meet the needs of families during that time.”
Danielle gave her perspective on the overwhelm felt in her program:
…there was a point this year that our supervisor was trying to bring in something new,
and we all had very large caseloads…so we were all feeling a little overwhelmed anyway,
and then we were getting this stuff pushed on us that we had to do. I think everybody was
feeling very overwhelmed and…just struggling with why are we doing all this new stuff?
I think that's the one thing...the big picture isn't always shared. Show me the big picture
so I can see why we're doing all this stuff…and then I usually can understand it, [but if] I
don't see…what the purpose is, that's really a frustrating thing for me.
RP/S encourages self-reflection, personal growth, and the development of new perspectives and
strategies. Paula described doing case conferencing during RP/S: “It's bringing children we're
struggling with, ‘Look, here's their age, here's their abilities. Here's what I've tried.’ And it's
really helpful.” Valerie reported getting suggestions from other teachers,

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I know [this particular teacher], she was always so good, [saying], “This is how I
would…” And so I would take that to heart, [while] there were some that…I [didn’t] feel
comfortable with…but there were so many outside of my box ideas, so I would definitely
use that in my instruction, because why not?
Janice spoke of how she and her colleagues conferred about how many children who were
assessed during the pandemic “looked autistic” and explained the thought processes that kept
some social groups going, despite encouragement from the State for home-based learning:
I'm telling you, they come in with a speech only thing, and there's just so many little [on
the] fence kids… Is this just such an unnatural thing that they've experienced? Or they're
all speech delayed, but they're not autistic? So…some of them [did have autism],
but…we would place these kids and [after] a month…they didn't look [like they had
autism] anymore, they just had a speech problem. You are like, "Okay. They were just in
an unnatural world where they didn't have those experiences and parents didn't have those
experiences with them because we couldn't." So I think coming off of that has been
interesting.
Equating addressing her own social-emotional needs with the whole-child approach used
in ECE that takes into account environmental circumstances, Valerie explained that through
RP/S, teachers have been encouraged to be cognizant of when they may need to exercise
self-care: “...so many years of reflecting [on children’s] situations, has taught me to take a step
back for myself, to not be so judgmental.” Although a welcome level of support to the majority
of those interviewed, a couple teachers expressed the need to balance being open to sharing their
thoughts and feelings with the group while ensuring they are emotionally ready to do so.
Sometimes, teachers take the time to sit with their thoughts before sharing them.

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To summarize Danielle’s thoughts that included how the relationships generated by RP/S
created a positive and supportive work environment, she got to know colleagues that she would
not have gotten to know otherwise (i.e., without RP/S) because of the mandatory two-hour, once
a week RP/S sessions her program holds despite having “so much stuff…to do.” RP/S improves
relationships with colleagues and supervisors by providing a structured way to communicate and
collaborate effectively (Alliance for the Advancement of Infant Mental Health, 2018; Boud et al.,
2013; Susman-Stillman et al., 2020; Watson, 2014). Danielle added, “You feel validated that
maybe this is stressful for everyone. It helps with job satisfaction because you create
relationships and it's not just a job; you have other people you're in it with, and…you feel like
you are a team rather than just an island.” Danielle shared that the camaraderie formed by RP/S
helps her job performance “...because even if I don't bring [issues] to the group, I question
myself, so [reflective practice] probably makes me a better teacher…it’s in my head; it's part of
the process.” Janice agreed that RP/S “...should be part of your brain [and] just be an embedded
part of your practice.” RP/S leads to self-reflection and questioning, which ultimately improves
job performance by encouraging individuals to continually learn and adapt (Barron et al., 2022b;
NAEYC, 2021; Weiss & Weiss, 2001). Other teachers also mentioned that the team building that
occurs in RP/S helps teachers feel like part of a supportive community rather than isolated
individuals. In summary, RP/S was viewed by participants as a valuable tool for personal and
professional growth and supports their wellbeing. RP/S facilitates self-reflection,
problem-solving, and emotional processing, ultimately enhancing job satisfaction and
performance.

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Collaboration/Connection
The collaboration and connection inherent in RP/S extends beyond reflective sessions.
This subtheme relates to the collaboration and connection teachers felt contributed to their
wellbeing that was not directly related to organized RP/S sessions. These aspects of collaboration
and connection included accessing auxiliary resources such as consulting with other
professionals or referring to outside agencies or to other teachers, connecting with parents, and
maintaining a sense of common team values. The interview responses emphasized the
significance of trust, support, and a shared philosophy. As Paula noted,
…I think…it's really important who's facilitating. There has to be trust. There has to be
kindness…and…maybe a shared philosophy even going into [RP/S], because we're all
different little creatures. We all have different reactions, or thoughts and feelings, and I
think sometimes in a large group…people…think differently...
Most of the teachers interviewed mentioned that having access to auxiliary resources to
which they can refer children or families for support is important to their own wellbeing. The
teachers reported having discussions with consultants and specialists (e.g., occupational or
physical therapists, school psychologists, speech language pathologists, mental health clinicians)
who also may observe the children, support educational planning, and thereby support the
teachers. Heidi mentioned getting a family connected with pediatric palliative care as the child
had life threatening health issues: “The [family] has never been ready, but let me get them
connected… That’s a success for me and for the [family]…I feel great that this [family] is in
good hands… I've accepted and the [family] accepted…just giving…that…yeah.” Teachers’
wellbeing appears to be positively influenced by having access to supportive resources, the

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ability to connect families with essential services, and a sense of accomplishment and fulfillment
in making a positive impact.
Trust was considered a crucial element of RP/S that enables teachers to open up and
honestly share their thoughts and feelings outside of RP/S sessions. When asked about her
wellbeing, Heidi’s response exemplified what has occurred for her within trusting relationships:
…some days could be a little bit more emotionally draining, but…if I have a challenge, I
know I can go to my colleagues and reflect with them. I think that that's a critical
component. I can go to [my supervisor] and reflect with her…”
and she then shared an analogy of how she uses reflection with parents, which is also an example
of the parallel process:
“...it's like having a backpack and that parent's backpack is overflowing. When I think we
have that relationship, which is key, and I'm able to reflect with them, I'm able to support
them and value what they're having to share with me. [I say], I'm honored and thank you.
It's now in my backpack and I hope that helps…”
Eleanor discussed the courage and trust it takes to seek help and the importance of
acknowledging the need for support: “...asking for help is really the biggest strength as a parent.”
A few participants agreed that the reflective practitioner or supervisor models trust and how to
create a safe space among team members to freely discuss challenges and receive support, which
in turn is used by teachers with children and families.
Besides trust, the teachers asserted other shared values that contributed to their wellbeing.
More than one teacher shared their job satisfaction was enhanced by a sense of belonging being
fostered among the team. It seems the promotion of a sense of belonging and inclusive practices
used to enhance child development (Moses, 2021) also applies to teachers. Celebrating

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achievements and milestones was one activity Janice mentioned built team cohesiveness. “We try
to celebrate each other in everything, trying to make sure everybody feels appreciated and a part
of the team.” Flexibility was another common value among teachers interviewed. The teachers
continually adapt to the changing needs of children and priorities of diverse families, focus on
open-ended questions to involve families in their children’s learning, and prioritize child-led
interventions. Finally, honoring confidentiality was described by half of the participants as a
value integral to team collaboration so as to maintain student and family privacy while garnering
needed support and services. Shared understandings help to ensure productivity, respect for
differing perspectives, and job satisfaction, which are important to teacher wellbeing.
Professional Development and Wellbeing
Professional development (PD) spans from student teaching through in-service teacher
training and, as mentioned earlier from the perspectives of the teachers interviewed, included
professional support, peer mentoring, and educational/professional training. PD also includes
reflective inquiry (Weiss & Weiss, 2001). The participating teachers in this study discussed how
PD within and outside of RP/S impacted their wellbeing.
The teachers particularly expressed that PD helped with their job satisfaction, ability to
cope with job related stress, and created a supportive work environment, all of which are
associated with better wellbeing (e.g., Cumming, 2017). Several teachers indicated that
professional support fostered through RP/S, contributed to job satisfaction through creating a
support system and fostering positive relationships with coworkers. Most of the teachers reported
feeling like they are part of a team, rather than working in isolation, and appreciated the
understanding and validation they receive during reflective sessions. A couple of teachers shared
that they go to their mentor or supervisor outside of RP/S to discuss, as Valerie exemplified,

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“This is what happened. What would you have done in this situation?” and, “…this is what I
did,” to garner professional feedback along with emotional support.
By sharing their experiences with one another and discussing challenges they face in the
field, they find strategies and support related to coping with job-related stress. Eleanor said,
“…not only is [sharing] a release, but maybe someone [has] a constructive way or a positive way
of introducing [an idea]…beneficial to the family…”. To condense Nancy’s words, “…the
supervisor should be able to provide…[positivity] and support” and suggesting as a couple of
other teachers also implied, that while not all interactions with co-workers are positive, “...they
should, depending on how you work cohesively together, help [us] cope with job-related stress.”
Nancy reiterterated the professional support she gets from her team:
I take everything to heart, and so anytime I'm told something that I need to change, I'll do
it, but I feel like…maybe I'm not the right person for this job. No one at [this program]
has ever told me that, and the way that our supervisor does it…supportively and she
provides examples and she doesn't single [me] out. And she does very well with positive
reinforcement. So, "This is what you're doing good, let's work on this a little bit more,
and then we'll come back to the table if you need more support."
When the teachers were able to openly discuss their concerns and receive empathetic support for
their feelings and experiences, they perceived their work environment to be supportive.
Getting professional support from available consultants and peer mentors was
advantageous to several of the teachers. Paula mentioned how “…when you get that collective
brain power, I really feel like it's also helping children...” Eleanor said that coming together
“adds value to our position and our work.” A few teachers shared how the different approaches
taken by various supervisors, mentors, and/or clinicians made a difference in the level of support

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for their wellbeing they felt, conveying that better support came from those with a more clinical
rather than a primarily educational background. Grace shared one particular supervisor “…really
knew how to peel back the layers of what was going on,” so she was able to process her feelings
in a way that likely paralleled what a family may have been feeling about their child’s progress,
or lack thereof, and was subsequently better able to support the family. Grace also spoke of
getting support for her wellbeing regarding a child on her caseload who had passed away:
I was very close with the family, and had this little one since birth…she passed right
before her third birthday, and it was very sudden, not expected…that was really hard. But
in processing that with the practitioner, the psychologist, she…really made it okay to…be
with the family. You don't have to have the words to talk to them about it. Just being there
[for support]...that really helped by just taking the pressure off of [thinking], “I have to do
something, I have to help them.” But I didn't…just being there was the support and [it]
kind of naturally unfolded. Yeah, that was very helpful, the grief process.
Much of the professional support and peer mentoring received by the teachers interviewed
appeared to have had an impact on their self-efficacy in a way that they felt improved their
wellbeing.
PD in the form of collaborative learning with colleagues and attending trainings and
workshops were touched on by some participants, but not a lot since RP/S was the focus of this
study. When asking about whether teachers should learn about RP/S in teacher preparation
programs, most agreed that the practice should at least be mentioned as a tool to gather peer
support and learn self-care, while some thought the value of it as it related to their professional
development and wellbeing should be in a course format. Nancy gave the opinion that,

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[RP/S] needs to be from the very beginning because you're always going to be supervised
by somebody, right? Any job you do. But I think in teaching, you're supervised a little bit
more because you have a principal and then you have higher admin that are watching
you. And the state of California standards are just insane. And so being able to know
what those are and [reflect with your supervisor]: This is how it should happen, this is
where I think you need…work, and this is how we're going to get you there.
Danielle disclosed her dislike for group activities,
I always struggle with that, because…oh, gosh, this is always hard, but I hate group
activities in teacher preparation. I mean, any kind of preparation classes, because people
are just at such different places in the process… I guess you could do [RP/S], where if
you incorporated it into a class where…you just have reflective practice once a
week…and it was just part of the assignments or whatever.
Another preferred that timing and convenience of PD needs to be considered, and another gave
the opinion that managing your wellbeing comes with time and experience. Participants provided
insights on how support, collaboration, self-reflection, and reflection with others ensured the
wellbeing of teachers within ECE and special education. Having a strong support system and the
ability to reach out can be crucial for maintaining teacher wellbeing.
Experience Of Burnout/Overworking
The teachers expressed various thoughts and experiences when asked about burnout.
Names and certain details were omitted here to assure participant privacy in this section that may
contain sensitive information. There was a general consensus among the teachers that there is an
issue with burnout in ECE special education due to managing large caseloads and the lack of

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support. One veteran teacher said, “When I can do my job, I really like my job.” Another
seasoned teacher indicated having just received a new child on her caseload, saying,
I have to talk to [my supervisor] about it because this is where we get stuck in this fiscal
year, so there's no place for me to take another day off because I'm off. So I either have to
just eat it or see if she'll let me build it into [next year]. So on my calendar it'll say I'm
working, but I'm not.
When asked if she ever had any reasons for wanting out of the profession, a teacher with less
than nine years of experience divulged that she once had a supervisor “micromanaging” her and
who “questioned [everything],” making her feel “not worthy.” She continued, “...if I had a
supportive supervisor…I could have pushed through…because I loved my job.”
The teachers have experienced burnout due to various factors, including the aftermath of
the pandemic. One relayed feeling burned out and discussing job expectations with colleagues
post pandemic,
I think it's a lot of different things. I think we're coming out of a pandemic, I think we
have really high caseloads. I think maybe the expectation of how to do a job well has
changed, but I don't know what it is. What I'm trying to do is set some boundaries about
how long, how often I see children, and…keep the why [at the] forefront…
For another teacher, increased work demands spilled over into her home life and led to burnout.
She shared, “The demands…the paperwork, the caseload, the frequency that we see kiddos. The
community events, the different committees we're on. Just all, it's a lot..the balancing that with
home life is a lot.” A couple of teachers acknowledged that they are challenged to find time for
the individual reflection they feel is needed, one teacher sharing, “And we all miss [individual

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reflection], but we can't... I think it's just a timing issue. There's just not enough time in
everyone's schedule.” A teacher from another program noted,
One year, we had [a facilitator] that…could do home visits with us…and she would take
time to do the individual [RP/S]. And that was like a therapy session, but strictly for
work. And so I think it made me feel seen and understood and just not alone, I think. So
it's definitely impacted my mental health in a positive way.
The participants collectively highlighted that burnout was a prevalent issue impacted by
pandemic-related stress and work demands that adversely affected their wellbeing.
Another teacher, newer to the field, discussed stress but mentioned she was not yet burned out,
partly due to requirements and demands that she considered to be manageable, saying,
Yeah, I haven't really had burnout. I think I was burnt out at my other jobs, so it was a job
change…I wanted to come back to teaching, but, yeah, no, this is the best job I've ever
had, actually. That's how I feel. So I haven't had burnout yet.
Several teachers revealed actions they took to prevent burnout since it has been a
problem. More seasoned teachers emphasized the importance of taking breaks and maintaining a
work-life balance, one sharing,
So there is burnout in a sense because, particularly for a yes person…because you don't
know how to say no when you need to… That's something that I reflect on and I need to
be okay with saying no, but then also getting [the] job done. It's like refocus, reorganize.
That's what I usually do in these…times. [The work] has to happen at some point, but I
also need to honor that I need a break because if you keep on going…the whole time,
you're going to be bitter…

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Another explained her past experiences with burnout and the value of passing on lessons about
self-care to new teachers,
…[I] just can't emphasize enough about self-care. That…I pass on to the new teachers. I
pass on to student teachers, because I've mentored a lot of student teachers and how
important it is, especially in the special education field, because…they keep piling it up.
[I say], "You're one person…It's important to know your self-care.” I have an advantage
because…I go to the mountains or…even further away. I don't care if I'm painting walls
or doing anything, because…I'm away.
A relatively newer teacher spoke of taking time for herself when a home visit might not have
gone well,
I needed that extra break or kind of resetting, because [our supervisor] would talk about if
you're having that icky feeling…sit with it and be with it and [do] not just dismiss it…so
that's helped me reflect on different situations, then I…incorporate it back into [my]
practice.
In addition to practicing self-care, a few shared how setting boundaries helps to prevent burnout
for them. Some of the teachers choose to maintain a sense of purpose and passion, focusing on
the reasons why their work is essential, and look forward to weekends and vacations.
Organization strategies the teachers reviewed they used to prevent burnout included using
communication tools with office hours, time management, and balancing personal and
professional tasks. The teachers collectively stressed the significance of recognizing and
addressing burnout and gave examples of their coping strategies.
Astutely, one teacher with at least six years of experience in ECE disclosed her point of
view on addressing burnout:

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I believe a piece of that has been reflective practice along with just a good team and a
good leader, of being able to voice the heavy workload or being able to voice the stress,
the frustration, without it having to be negative or seen negatively. Just being able to,
again, say it, say it, and it be understood and heard. And then even though that doesn't
change anything, it may not change anything, but I always say, "It's always great to go to
a meeting," even if your voice doesn't have any change and result, but just the fact that
you got to say something is already going to make accepting the result a lot better. So I
feel like that has helped with burnout or the prevention of burnout.
Personal Factors
Another theme that often surfaced when interviewing participants was the influence of
personal characteristics and life circumstances that teachers felt contributed to their wellbeing.
Teachers' sense of purpose, their past experiences, the support they receive from colleagues and
external resources, and their coping strategies all play roles in shaping their wellbeing. Below are
the significant factors that contributed to teacher wellbeing as expressed by the educators
themselves.
When asked how she rallies support, or what she does that benefits her if she starts
feeling overwhelmed, Valerie said,
I guess it depends. I do reach out. I always talk usually with my husband first, just
because that's my support system. I do have [an] individual therapist, so I'll talk to them
also. I try to reach out to other colleagues, professionals. My job's… so I'm kind of on my
own, but I go back to my mentor…and I talk to her a lot. And then if I need to, I talk to
my supervisor and let her know if I need anything.

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A strong sense of purpose and fulfillment was seen to positively impact teacher
wellbeing. Eleanor loves working with families and finds personal value in her work, which
impacts her overall wellbeing. Valerie mentioned her capacity to change her perspective when
working with children in different circumstances has positively influenced her wellbeing as it
helps her approach her work with more understanding and empathy. Danielle described herself as
a naturally reflective person, which helps her make well-considered decisions and manage her
wellbeing. Grace shared to be “an open book” and to enjoy processing events. This approach
may help her cope with stress and challenges in her teaching role, as it allows her to address
issues and seek support more openly.
Past personal and professional experiences impacted teachers' sense of wellbeing. One
teacher shared how a previous job may have negatively affected her sense of security and
wellbeing in her new position, while another teacher shared how her past experience with RP/S
positively affected her wellbeing in her new position. Both fairly new teachers to the field, the
teacher with the positive experience has carried that asset into her new role, while the one with
the negative experience is waiting to feel more comfortable and permanent in her new role
before sharing difficulties with anyone. Other teachers attributed their wellbeing to maturity (i.e.,
age and life experience), having had children of their own, or previously having other careers.
There was a general consensus that these experiences influenced the teachers’ wellbeing and
decision-making.
A few teachers communicated an understanding that individual and collective efforts
contribute to a positive work environment and overall wellbeing. Heidi acknowledged that
learning how to support children and families has personally affected her ability to connect with
and support colleagues, which she feels contributes to her wellbeing. A couple of teachers talked

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about navigating feelings of vulnerability when deciding whether to share their problems with
colleagues, which can affect their wellbeing and willingness to engage in RP/S. Heidi disclosed,
“Yeah, I don't like to miss [RP/S], but it's different for everybody, because I think there's people
in our office, and it makes me sad, because it's harder for them to open up.” Valerie admitted she
starts “shutting down” when faced with challenging situations and would at times prefer strategic
support over reflection. Danielle noted an important aspect to her wellbeing is learning to
manage her expectations and adapt to the process of RP/S, expressing,
I see [RP/S] as valuable when it's executed well. I think it can be...I'm a very type A
person, so it can be...sessions can get off track, I think, and that is frustrating for me as a
waste of time, but the people who do it well, and I have been in groups that do it really
well and I've been in groups that don't, when it's done well, I think it's valuable.
Nancy reported that being “...able to connect and reflect together as coworkers” or “having a
venting session” helps maintain positive relationships
Teachers explained using a variety of coping strategies that impact their wellbeing. These
included keeping busy or distracting themselves, disconnecting, exercising self-care, and having
a peaceful environment away from work. The ability to disconnect and engage in enjoyable
activities can positively impact teacher wellbeing. A few teachers reported that being able to
seek support from resources outside of work, such as from spouses, other family members,
friends, or private therapists, is crucial for maintaining their wellbeing.
The wellbeing of teachers is an intricate and multi-faceted concept, impacted by personal
characteristics, life experiences, and the strategies they employ to navigate the challenges of their
profession. The educators emphasized the value of purpose and fulfillment in their work, the
resonance of their past experiences, the significance of support networks, and the efficacy of

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various coping mechanisms. It became evident that fostering wellbeing among teachers involves
recognizing the interplay of these factors and taking steps to support and nurture them. By doing
so, we not only enhance the lives of our educators but also contribute to a more thriving
educational environment.
Career Experience/Motivation
Remembering that all respondents were currently working in an early intervention or
preschool special education teaching role, participants shared their career experiences and
motivations related to working in early childhood special education. Below is a summary of the
teachers’ professional backgrounds and motivations for doing work in ECE.
Heidi initially started as a Special Day Class preschool teacher, then transitioned to an
Early Start teacher; she highlighted the importance of professional growth and adaptability in her
career. Grace expressed a deep love for working within the ECE field and mentioned her desire
to explore different roles, including possibly going into administration, in the future. With a
background in psychology and social work, Eleanor emphasized the value of her diverse career
experiences in contributing to her role as a teacher in ECE special education. Paula did not have
prior teaching experience but entered the field with a passion for working with young children,
particularly those with special needs. Valerie's career motivation stemmed from her experience
working with a challenging preschool student and finding inspiration in a supportive team in a
previous role. Danielle returned to teaching after a break and found her niche in ECE special
education, citing the attraction of working with young children and the flexibility it offers. Nancy
shared her enthusiasm for ECE special education, emphasizing the importance of working
closely with families in her role. Janice's career path was influenced by her early passion for
teaching and her family's involvement in education.

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Common threads among participating teachers included a passion for working with
young children, a desire to make a positive impact, and a commitment to early childhood special
education. Several of them had diverse backgrounds and experiences that led them to this field,
showcasing the importance of adaptability and different pathways to a career in early childhood
special education.
Summary
The themes that emerged from ECE teacher interviews highlighted the complex and
multifaceted role of ECE special education teachers. The discussion highlighted the intricate
interplay of various factors that the teachers’ perceived impacted their instructional effectiveness
and wellbeing. RP/S, strong family-teacher partnerships, ongoing PD, and flexibility in adapting
teaching strategies were key factors the teachers noted as affecting their ability to be effective.
RP/S and collaboration, each offering support and a safe space for teachers to process their
experiences and emotions, were said to be crucial components of teacher wellbeing.
Additionally, teachers reported that professional development, personal characteristics, coping
strategies, and a strong sense of purpose all contributed to their wellbeing. Understanding these
findings can help policymakers, educational institutions, and ECE programs develop strategies
and support systems to enhance the effectiveness and wellbeing of ECE teachers, which is
essential not only for the teachers themselves but also for creating a more thriving educational
environment for young children. In the following chapter, I will discuss the implications of these
findings and recommend practical applications that may be utilized in the field.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
ECE teachers are integral to setting the foundation for young learners’ engagement and
family involvement in the educational system. Through the lenses of sociocultural learning
theory and the parallel process, this study was intended to insert teachers’ voices into the
conversation in the literature about the utility of RP/S, specifically to see whether teachers
perceived it had any impact on their effectiveness as teachers and wellbeing. Teachers identified
what they valued about RP/S and other elements they felt contributed to their effectiveness and
wellbeing. The teachers also provided recommendations on the importance of reflection in
teacher training and within their roles in ECE, particularly as related to receiving supportive
supervision and professional development for promoting children’s developmental progress and
teachers’ mental health. This chapter will present a discussion of the major findings and
conclusions and offer recommendations for practice, curriculum development, and policy.
This research used case study methodology to collect qualitative data through participant
interviews in addition to quantitative data to capture participant demographic characteristics as
well as estimate the racial/ethnic backgrounds of the student population with whom the teachers
worked. As a methodology, case study seeks to gather, describe, and analyze the data of several
individuals experiencing and participating in the same activities (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Using
a case study approach along with a theoretical framework grounded in sociocultural learning
theory (Vygotsky, 1978) and the parallel process (Davis et al., 2020; Goldberg, 1977), I gained
further insight and awareness of each participant’s distinctive professional experience. The
participants in this study were eight credentialed early childhood special educators who had at
least three years of experience receiving RP/S and had been employed in one of four early
intervention programs located in Fresno County, California. Data were coded, analyzed, and

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outlined according to the research questions. The interviews with the research participants
contributed to the analyses, conclusions, and recommendations. Two research questions guided
this study:
1. How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their
instructional effectiveness?
2. How do ECE teachers explain the effect reflective supervision has, if any, on their
wellbeing?
Research Question One Discussion
The findings on the first research question provided valuable insights into how the ECE
teachers interviewed perceived the impact of RP/S on their instructional effectiveness. The
teachers discussed other factors, some related to RP/S, that they felt impacted their instructional
effectiveness. Those factors included family-teacher partnerships, professional development,
professional challenges/barriers, and child development/learning in context along with
assessment and outcomes. The implications of each of these themes are discussed below.
RP/S appears to be a cornerstone of the teachers' perception of effectiveness, fostering
self-awareness and the ability to tailor teaching strategies to meet children’s unique needs and
goals. Teachers emphasized the importance of reflecting on their interactions with families and
children, which leads to improved relationships and more effective teaching methods. The
concept of the deliberate pause and shifting perspectives during RP/S is crucial for supporting
parents and engaging in culturally responsive teaching. It allows teachers to be present and adapt
to the unique needs of each child and family. This theme highlights the importance of ongoing
professional development, particularly in the form of RP/S, in helping teachers identify and
overcome challenges and biases, making them more effective educators.

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The family-teacher partnership was considered fundamental to the effectiveness of ECE
teachers. It involves collaboration, open communication, and establishing trust and rapport with
families. The teachers interviewed believed that creating a safe and supportive space for families
with children in ECE is key to ensuring effective teaching. Teachers reported navigating
challenges such as misconceptions about their roles, varying levels of parent buy-in, and
differing family dynamics. While these challenges exist, the teachers conveyed a commitment to
the building and maintenance of strong partnerships with families. A child-centered approach
and encouraging parents to engage with their children were seen as essential for fostering a
strong parent-child bond, which in turn, according to the teachers, enhances the effectiveness of
teaching strategies.
PD, including training in promising teaching methods and peer mentoring, was seen as a
valuable resource for ECE teachers and plays a significant role in their ability to be effective.
The teachers also communicated that ongoing training and mentorship are essential for both new
and experienced educators. Teachers face numerous professional challenges and barriers that can
hinder their effectiveness. These challenges include scheduling conflicts, high caseloads, and
factors like changes in program and State regulations. Overcoming these challenges requires
adaptability, resilience, and continuous PD. Teachers reported to work diligently to find ways to
work within constraints while trying to maintain their effectiveness in serving children.
Recognizing the unique contexts from which children come is foundational for effective
teaching. Teachers must tailor their approaches to accommodate diverse family practices,
routines, and expectations. The ability to adapt strategies based on the family's response and
feedback, as well as the use of reflection, plays a significant role in making teachers more
effective. It allows them to consider the context in which children are learning and adjust their

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methods accordingly. The participants noted that formal assessment and outcome monitoring are
essential for tracking children's progress and setting developmentally appropriate goals; however,
teachers also emphasized the value of informal measures and flexibility in their approaches.
Emphasizing positive aspects of a child's development and respecting parents' resources and
perspectives are vital for effectiveness, according to the teachers interviewed. Teachers expressed
the need to be open to changing outcomes when they do not align with family concerns or the
child's developmental level.
Research Question Two Discussion
The findings related to the second research question imparted valuable perspectives from
the ECE teachers into the complex relationship between RP/S, PD, burnout, personal factors, and
career experience on their wellbeing. The teachers conveyed that RP/S is an important
component in maintaining their wellbeing, describing it as a valuable tool for processing
challenging emotions and work-related stress. According to the participants, RP/S creates a safe
space for self-reflection, collaboration, and critical thinking, and improves the
supervisor-supervisee relationship. It was reported to help the teachers adapt to changing
circumstances, especially during the pandemic. The camaraderie they viewed as essential for job
satisfaction and performance was formed through RP/S for those who had time to dedicate to the
practice.
The collaboration and connection fostered by RP/S extended beyond reflective sessions.
The teachers valued access to auxiliary resources, such as consulting with other professionals,
connecting with parents, and maintaining a sense of shared team values. Trust was considered a
crucial element, enabling teachers to open up and honestly share their thoughts and feelings. This
trust, along with shared values, created a sense of belonging and team cohesiveness. PD, both

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within and outside RP/S, was seen as crucial for job satisfaction, coping with work-related stress,
and creating a supportive work environment. Professional support, peer mentoring, and
educational training contributed to positive relationships with colleagues and improved
self-efficacy, per interviewee responses.
The teachers interviewed attributed burnout to managing large caseloads and a lack of
support. They discussed strategies to prevent burnout, such as maintaining a work-life balance,
setting boundaries, and practicing self-care. Addressing burnout was seen as vital to maintaining
teacher wellbeing. Personal characteristics, life experiences, and coping strategies played
significant roles in shaping teacher wellbeing. The teachers communicated that past experiences,
a strong sense of purpose, support from colleagues and external resources, and knowledge of
various coping mechanisms all influenced their wellbeing. Teachers also shared their career
experiences and motivations for working in early childhood special education, which drove
them. Common threads included a passion for working with young children, a desire to make a
positive impact, and a commitment to the field. The teachers’ diverse backgrounds and
experiences demonstrated the importance of adaptability and different pathways to a career in
ECE.
Discussion
The results of this study helped to better understand the experiences of ECE teachers and
their perceptions of RP/S as it relates to their instructional effectiveness and wellbeing. The
findings obtained from ECE teachers, specifically early childhood special educators in central
California, will guide the three points of discussion that follow. This section will highlight
connections to the two theoretical frameworks on which this study is based: sociocultural
learning theory and the parallel process. Sociocultural learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978), suggests

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that people in their cultural environments form a social system through which communication
and actions make competence possible (Schunk, 2020). The parallel process, a principle often
referenced in RP/S, describes the influences multiple dyadic relationships have upon one
another, which may be used to develop a sense of mutual competence among those involved
(Davis et al., 2020; Goldberg, 1977).
RP/S and Instructional Effectiveness
Throughout the interviews, teachers discussed varying aspects of their ECE profession
and activities that help them to be more effective. The participants placed the most emphasis on
RP/S as integral to their work and feelings of effectiveness. Even when teachers prioritized other
activities they depend on to increase their effectiveness, such as professional development,
parent education, and monitoring assessment and outcomes, they pointed out that RP/S was
interwoven with all of their professional activities. Nearly all of the ECE teachers gave the
impression that RP/S is something they should actively engage in on a regular basis to assure
teaching practices are tailored to student needs. Sadly, some teachers acknowledged that making
time for RP/S was difficult given their currently high caseloads. The collaboration among
teachers and with supervisors inherent in RP/S is crucial for effective teaching and professional
development, as it builds teachers’ competence and self-efficacy.
Children are placed at a disadvantage when teachers do not collaborate (Carver-Thomas
& Darling-Hammond, 2019). Several teachers acknowledged that they are less effective when
they lack the time to reflect and respond to children’s learning, which can lead to teaching that
does not suit the child in context. Considering child development and learning in context is the
first standard of the NAEYC Professional Standards and Competencies (NAEYC, 2020b), it is
worrisome that some do not feel they have time for necessary reflection. Without the practice of

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reflection embedded into ECE programming, teaching methods and professional growth may
stagnate, potentially reinforcing inequities due to a lack of understanding (York-Barr, 2006).
Respondents indicated that teacher collaboration, reflection, and responsive teaching practices
enhance their effectiveness and thereby play a part in reducing educational disparities.
When an ECE program imposes significant demands on teachers without offering
adequate resources, it can become challenging for teachers to cultivate reflective habits,
ultimately having adverse effects on children's outcomes (Schaack et al., 2020). Additional
pressure upon teachers was evident when the participants discussed the challenges they faced
during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, including the need to adapt to continually changing
circumstances and delays in educational services. The teachers noted how RP/S helped them
professionally, with examples of how they dealt with staffing changes, parental involvement, and
post-pandemic catch-up work. At the same time, a few admitted to not having the time to
adequately reflect with parents, colleagues, and supervisors as is essential to effective
instructional planning because of unmanageable, increased caseloads. In relation to challenging
periods like the aftermath of the pandemic, feedback from the teachers interviewed advised for
periodic evaluation and adaptation of RP/S to ensure continued effectiveness.
RP/S and Wellbeing
Study participants provided insight into the importance of RP/S in promoting teacher
well-being. Encouraging active participation in RP/S was said to help teachers process
challenging emotions, develop critical thinking skills, and build strong relationships. The
professional background and/or training of the supervisor or practitioner leading reflective
sessions was mentioned by several teachers as making a difference in how supported they felt,
saying that while different approaches were not necessarily deficient, clinicians as opposed to

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educators trained in RP/S were more skilled in addressing teacher wellbeing in the context of
teachers’ professional roles. Specifically, clinicians highlighted relational dynamics within the
family-teacher partnership or among the ECE team when teachers were feeling overwhelmed,
whereas educators offered more practical guidance to situations presented. Offering strategies the
teachers could apply to situations may assist with self-efficacy and competency, but not address
the underlying factors present in the highly relational work environment, which are key to
teacher wellbeing.
In stressful circumstances, ECE teachers' emotional wellbeing may suffer as they work to
connect with children and families, manage those relationships, and serve as models and
advocates for parents. The teachers indicated that supervisory and peer support helped to manage
their stress, particularly during the pandemic and when confronting a challenging situation with a
child’s family. One observation I made was that the teachers from programs either implementing
RP/S on a mandatory, regular basis or gradually introducing the practice and providing reflection
with a supervisor with a psychological background appeared to fare better with their feelings of
wellbeing and being supported, while those unable to participate or haphazardly engaging in
RP/S seemed unhappy in their current role. Not addressing the high levels of stress ECE teachers
feel may lead to burnout, reduced quality interactions, and compromised relationships, all
negatively impacting children's outcomes (Sandilos et al., 2020). This necessitates incorporating
intentional support, such as collaborative and reflective supervision, into the organizational
culture (Holland et al., 2022).
Teacher’s shared that nurturing a collaborative and interconnected culture among
teachers, facilitating the sharing of resources, consultations with professionals, and the
preservation of trust and common values all contributed to better perceived wellbeing. Through

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the mechanism of sociocultural learning (Vygotsky, 1978) the teachers created a system of
communication and actions to support one another’s wellbeing and did so in the context of RP/S.
Within RP/S, trust and inclusivity was prioritized within their teaching community and they
fostered a safe environment for open discussions about challenges and the exchange of support,
promoted transparent communication, and respected diverse perspectives. Additionally,
celebrating accomplishments and significant milestones with the professionals in their programs
bolstered team unity and enhanced teacher wellbeing. The shared experiences of the teachers
interviewed, underscored the importance of fostering a collaborative and interconnected culture
as an effective strategy for enhancing teacher wellbeing and professional growth.
Most of the teachers interviewed shared how their wellbeing was dependent on their
abilities to seek external support and prioritize self-care, each encouraged during RP/S. During
the interviews, it was evident that teacher wellbeing was closely linked to personal factors, such
as individual characteristics and life experiences. Teachers interviewed who had been in the ECE
field longer or had prior careers appeared to have a better grasp on what they needed to do to
manage their wellbeing and some felt compelled to share this knowledge with newer teachers.
While mentorship on self-care and stress management may occur through RP/S, competency
with those abilities may be more of a function of age and experience rather than of RP/S alone.
With the goal of preventing burnout, not only was stress management seen as important, teachers
also claimed that learning how to effectively manage work demands and maintaining a work-life
balance positively impacted their wellbeing.
Interestingly, several teachers connected professional development (PD) opportunities to
improving their wellbeing. Activities such as peer mentoring and reflective inquiry, which occur
in RP/S, appeared to be vital for helping teachers cope with stress, feel part of a team, and

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improve job satisfaction. This may point to the role PD plays in improving self-efficacy, which in
turn drives teachers’ motivation and actions, equipping teachers with social-emotional
competence and resilience. Supporting career growth and diversification within the ECE sector
seemed important to the wellbeing of teachers interviewed as well. Fostering a sense of
accomplishment, satisfaction, and confidence in their abilities appeared to benefit their
wellbeing. Not all teachers agreed the extent to which RP/S should be integrated into teacher
preparation; however, practicing and/or learning about RP/S may help aspiring teachers build a
foundation for providing and asking for peer support and utilizing self-care strategies from the
early stages of their professional training.
Parallel Process and Deliberate Pause
Of final note, the teachers' experiences with RP/S revealed the need for a better
understanding of and training in the underpinnings of reflective practice, such as the concepts of
the parallel process and deliberate pause. While many teachers demonstrated some understanding
of these concepts through examples from their professional practice, inconsistencies emerged in
their comprehension. For instance, some teachers were unfamiliar with the term deliberate
pause; while others associated it primarily with interactions involving families and children and
instructional effectiveness, one teacher offered a more comprehensive perspective, linking it
additionally to RP/S and its impact on wellbeing. Notably, teachers who engaged in frequent and
structured RP/S sessions exhibited a clearer understanding of these concepts. These insights from
teacher interviews emphasize the need for a more standardized approach to teaching RP/S
fundamentals to ensure both supervisors and teachers can fully capitalize on the benefits of RP/S,
fostering effective and consistent implementation in the field.

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Moreover, understanding of the parallel process was varied among the interviewed
teachers. While they provided examples of its application in parent-child and teacher-child
dyads, there was limited acknowledgment of its relevance in the teacher-supervisor relationship.
The parallel process was primarily discussed in the context of enhancing instructional
effectiveness, overlooking its potential impact on teacher wellbeing. It was mentioned that the
parallel process could aid in identifying personal biases and promoting self-awareness during
RP/S, although a comprehensive understanding of the concept was lacking, particularly with the
potential for it to conceptually build mutual competence. This indicates a clear need for explicit
instruction and in-depth discussions on the parallel process within RP/S, recognizing its core role
in reflective practice. The limitation in the interview questions may have hindered participants
from fully demonstrating their comprehension of the concept, suggesting the necessity for more
probing inquiries. In light of these findings, it becomes evident that a more comprehensive
exploration and explicit teaching of the parallel process within RP/S and/or in teacher
preparation programs is warranted to fully harness its potential benefits for teachers and their
practice.
Conclusions
While there was some variation in the participants’ professional experiences and their
interpretation of those experiences, unique, overlapping themes emerged from the interview data.
The themes were derived from teachers’ opinions based on their own observations, values, and
work-related relationships including those with parents. When describing their experiences with
RP/S, most acknowledged its usefulness to their profession, especially the more experience they
had with the practice. The majority of the teachers interviewed reported that RP/S positively

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impacted their effectiveness and wellbeing despite variations in backgrounds and interpretations
of the practice.
All participants in this study offered recommendations for how and whether to include
RP/S in teacher preparation and professional practice. Most participants felt that curricular
programming in teacher preparation institutions should include some element of RP/S with a
couple of teachers describing RP/S as a tool to learn, possibly presented as a unit within the
coursework, and some desiring more of a course format to learn the foundation of the practice. A
couple of teachers thought utilizing RP/S throughout their programming would be beneficial,
while it seemed overwhelming to two others to have to add more to their coursework. This study
highlighted the perspectives among participants regarding the integration of RP/S in teacher
preparation, underscoring the need for thoughtful consideration and flexibility in implementing
the practice in education.
Suggestions for Future Research
This study sought to add ECE teachers’ perspectives to the research on reflective
practices and supervision (RP/S) to consider the utility of the practice, whether teachers feel
RP/S improves their effectiveness and wellbeing, and determine how teacher preparation and
professional development experiences may be improved. These questions are worth
contemplating as ECE program resources are invested in RP/S. Evaluating the influence of RP/S
on teacher wellbeing and effectiveness through cost-benefit or value-added analyses could offer
valuable insights on whether the practice is worth the investment.
There is also room for exploring the awareness and utilization of reflective practices
within ECE programs. Although the NAEYC recommends reflective practices, when seeking
participants for this study, some ECE administrators had not heard of reflective supervision and

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were interested in learning more. Because of administrator unfamiliarity with RP/S, there may be
a need to survey ECE programs to gauge the extent and variations in the implementation of
reflective practices. Such variations were evident even within this small-scale study.
Furthermore, investigating differences in effectiveness and wellbeing between ECE programs
that either implement or do not implement RP/S is another avenue for exploration.
While this study provided a snapshot of RP/S based on the perspectives of eight teachers
from one of four different early intervention programs, future research could delve into the
evaluation of specific RP/S techniques and their adherence to treatment integrity. Expanding the
scope of this study to encompass a more diverse ECE teacher population and incorporating more
objective measures to quantify teachers' experiences would offer a more comprehensive
understanding of the use of RP/S. Investigating the alignment between the training experiences
of teachers who have received RP/S in their teacher preparation and those who have not can be a
valuable aspect of future research. Finally, a longitudinal study tracking the evolution and
development of teachers' reflective abilities throughout their careers in ECE could provide
illuminating insights into the long-term impact of reflective practices.
Recommendations
The practical implications arising from the research findings and conclusions are
presented here for the consideration of stakeholders in the ECE field. The guidance below may
inform programmatic and teaching practices, professional development, curriculum
development, and policy related to improving the effectiveness and wellbeing of ECE teachers.
The recommendations are outlined as they apply to the following stakeholders: The ECE system,
program administrators, supervisors, teachers, and teacher preparation institutions in higher
education.

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ECE System
It is recommended that the ECE system establish a standardized or systematic approach
for teaching the fundamentals of RP/S, which would entail developing comprehensive training
programs and workshops for those facilitating RP/S. This training should focus on equipping
supervisors and clinicians with the necessary skills to facilitate effective RP/S sessions, ensuring
a consistent understanding and application of reflective practices across the ECE system.
Moreover, to continually improve and refine RP/S methods, it is essential to encourage ongoing
research and evaluation, involving the regular collection of feedback from ECE teachers through
surveys and/or interviews, for instance. The findings should be used to inform adjustments to
teaching practices and enhance the RP/S framework, ensuring it remains responsive to the
evolving needs and challenges within the ECE system.
Fostering the emotional and mental wellbeing of teachers is crucial for maintaining a
healthy and supportive ECE environment. The development and implementation of wellness
programs, including access to counseling services, stress management workshops, and
community-building activities, can contribute significantly to this objective. By prioritizing
teacher wellbeing, institutions can create a positive atmosphere that enhances the overall quality
of education provided in the ECE system. Furthermore, advocating for policy changes at the
local, state, and national levels is crucial to empower the ECE system to strategically support
teachers in implementing new programming regulations. By influencing policy, the ECE system
can create an environment that not only encourages the adoption of reflective practices but also
provides the necessary resources and support for their successful integration.
ECE Program Administrators
For ECE program administrators aiming to improve or implement RP/S within their

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institutions, prioritizing and investing in RP/S is paramount. Allocating dedicated time and
resources for teachers to engage in reflective practices separate from skill-based inservice
training is recommended to ensure focused attention on this aspect of their professional
development. Additionally, providing organizational support and resources to manage high
caseloads would enable teachers to actively participate in RP/S without feeling overwhelmed by
other responsibilities.
To maintain the effectiveness of RP/S, administrators, supervisors, and/or clinicians
should periodically evaluate and adapt their practices, particularly during challenging periods.
Regular meetings between supervisors and RP/S facilitators are essential for effective
communication regarding programming needs, fostering collaboration and addressing issues
promptly. Creating an environment that encourages career growth and diversification within ECE
is equally important. Recognizing and appreciating teachers' varied career backgrounds, passion,
and sustained commitment during challenging circumstances can contribute to a positive and
motivated teaching workforce.
Implementing strategies to reduce paperwork obligations, organizational demands, and
other stressors that contribute to teacher burnout is a practical step towards sustaining a healthy
work environment. Program administrators should consider partnering with community
organizations, businesses, and local authorities to address workforce challenges, including
staffing shortages. This involves advocating for increased funding and managing resource
allocation effectively to ensure that teachers have the support they need to deliver high-quality
education in the face of external challenges. By taking these recommendations into account, ECE
program administrators can contribute to a thriving and resilient ECE system.

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ECE Supervisors
Creating a positive and supportive work environment is foundational to fostering teacher
wellbeing. For ECE Supervisors, recognizing the challenging nature of teachers' work and
implementing mechanisms for peer support and collaboration can contribute to a culture where
educators feel valued and appreciated. It is essential for supervisors to understand the impact of
personal characteristics and life experiences on teacher wellbeing, acknowledging the
importance of a sense of purpose, past experiences, and individual coping strategies. In terms of
professional development (PD), supervisors should recognize its positive impact on teacher
wellbeing and effectiveness. Ensuring ongoing PD opportunities, particularly for newer teachers,
and incorporating training in reflective inquiry, effective teaching methods, and peer mentoring
into structured PD programs can enhance the professional growth of educators.
Fostering a collaborative and interconnected culture within ECE programs, supported by
RP/S, is crucial for both teacher wellbeing and professional development. Acknowledging the
prevalence of burnout and taking proactive measures to manage work demands, promote
work-life balance, and assist teachers in finding solutions to common challenges like scheduling
conflicts and high caseloads are essential. Supervisors can further cultivate a culture of
collaboration among teachers by promoting trust, inclusivity, and creating a safe space for open
communication. Acknowledging and celebrating accomplishments within the teaching
community contributes to team cohesiveness and enhances teacher wellbeing. Additionally,
providing workshops on building trust with families and offering resources for parent education
on child development and effective support strategies aligns with creating a holistic support
system within ECE programming. By implementing these recommendations, ECE supervisors
can create a positive and nurturing environment that supports teacher wellbeing, professional

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growth, and overall program success.
ECE Teachers
Active engagement in RP/S is key for ECE teachers to cultivate self-awareness and tailor
teaching strategies. Embracing child-centered, contextual learning, and monitoring progress
allows teachers to adapt their approaches to accommodate diverse family practices and contexts,
emphasizing an understanding of cultural nuances and addressing implicit biases. Collaboration
with peers, sharing best practices, and learning from one another enhance teacher effectiveness
by fostering a supportive professional community. In times of challenges, effective
communication and problem-solving with peers and supervisors are essential to finding solutions
and maintaining a positive and productive teaching environment. Taking advantage of PD
opportunities can play a key role in helping teachers cope with stress, foster a sense of belonging
within a team, and improve job satisfaction. Additionally, recognizing the importance of seeking
support outside of work and engaging in self-care is vital for teachers' overall wellbeing.
Teachers should exercise flexibility, reflection, and the use of informal measures of
growth to respond effectively to the unique needs of each child and family. Utilizing formal
assessments and outcome monitoring is also recommended for tracking progress and setting
appropriate goals, with a consideration for family concerns and perspectives in the assessment
process. Participating in or leading workshops on building trust with families and offering
resources for parent education on child development and effective support strategies can
strengthen the home-educator connection. By implementing these recommendations, ECE
teachers can create enriching learning experiences, build strong connections with families, and
foster their own professional growth and wellbeing.

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ECE Teacher Preparation in Higher Education
Regarding ECE teacher preparation in higher education, it is important to emphasize the
significance of RP/S in supporting both instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing.
Instructional standards should incorporate comprehensive training on RP/S, extending beyond
theoretical knowledge to include practical, hands-on experiences. Explicitly teaching RP/S
concepts, such as the parallel process and deliberate pause, is essential for effective
implementation and understanding. Providing training and resources on implementing deliberate
pauses and shifting perspectives during RP/S and teaching can enhance instructional
effectiveness as teachers develop their pedagogical knowledge.
RP/S should be integrated as a fundamental component of teacher preparation programs,
with a focus on highlighting its value in gathering peer support, learning self-care strategies, and
pondering implicit bias. Guidance on managing wellbeing should be embedded from the early
stages of teacher training to instill healthy practices from the beginning of their careers.
Recognizing varied preferences for the format and frequency of RP/S, teacher preparation
curricula should be flexible to accommodate the diverse needs of aspiring teachers. In addition,
collaboration with ECE programs to create teaching practicum or student teaching opportunities
is essential. Pre-service teachers should have the chance to observe and actively engage in RP/S
under the guidance of experienced teachers. This practical experience can significantly
contribute to the development of their RP/S capabilities and understanding. Augmenting ECE
teacher preparation instructional standards to include RP/S can ensure that future educators are
well-equipped with the knowledge and skills needed to integrate reflective practices effectively
into their teaching, fostering both instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing.

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Call to Action
Taking into account the literature reviewed and information shared with me by the eight
ECE teachers interviewed for this study, I believe establishing a systematic or standardized
approach for teaching reflective practices/supervision (RP/S) would benefit those working in
ECE and therefore, children as well. This involves the introduction of RP/S to pre-service
teachers and the creation of comprehensive training for RP/S facilitators and/or supervisors, with
a focus on providing essential skills for leading constructive RP/S sessions. Knowledge gleaned
from reflective supervision done with intention has the potential to refine teaching practices,
address implicit bias, and prevent burnout.
The Alliance for the Advancement of Infant Mental Health (2018) called to reexamine
their Best Practice Guidelines for Reflective Supervision/Consultation to construct a model more
inclusive of nondominant cultural knowledge to “combat racism” (Paradis et al., 2021, n.p.)
although, their focus is on those working with ages birth to three. With a charge of promoting
anti-bias education (e.g., Derman-Sparks et al., 2020) for children from birth through age eight, it
would be incumbent upon the NAEYC to develop a more systematic approach to ensure the
reflective supervision and practices as outlined in the Professional Standards and Competencies
and Higher Education Accreditation Standards are being implemented to fully support teachers
throughout their careers. Using these insights, it is my hope that educators and policymakers stay
responsive to the evolving needs and challenges within the ECE system and collectively take the
steps necessary to contribute to a positive, resilient, and supportive environment for both
teachers and supervisors to the ultimate benefit of children’s learning and development.

127
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Appendix A: Study Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Perceptions of Early Childhood Educators on How Reflective Supervision Influences
Instructional Effectiveness and Teacher Wellbeing
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to explore the unique experiences of early childhood educators
(teachers) who have participated in reflective supervision. This study aims to understand
teacher’s views on reflective supervision, instructional effectiveness, and wellbeing. You are
invited to participate because you are an early childhood educator currently involved in reflective
supervision.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60-minute
semi-structured one-on-one interview. Interviews will be conducted in person or via video
conferencing. Participants will be able to verify direct quotes for accuracy and representation.
You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to during the interview. Interviews will
be recorded and transcribed. Once transcribed and verified, audio recordings will be deleted. The
participant can choose not to be recorded and still participate in the study.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is not to participate.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Jennifer Bopp Litz will be the Principal Investigator of this study. Any identifiable information
obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your interview responses will be
given a code (e.g., Teacher A, B, C, etc.) and maintained separately. You will have the right to
review and edit transcripts of the one-on-one interviews. All recordings related to this study will
be destroyed once transcribed. The transcripts will be stored on a password-protected computer,
which only the Principal Investigator can access.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

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INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following individuals:
Principal Investigator
Jennifer Bopp Litz
bopplitz@usc.edu
Faculty Advisor
Marsha Boveja Riggio, PhD
mriggio@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

145
Appendix B: District IRB Approval

146
Appendix C: Email Request to Administrators/Principals
Hello. My name is Jennifer Bopp Litz and I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California. I am looking for early childhood educators (teachers) located in Fresno County to participate
in a research study about reflective supervision, instructional effectiveness, and wellbeing. I plan to
conduct confidential interviews with individual teachers.
To participate, teachers must be credentialed early childhood educators and have participated in reflective
supervision for at least three years. A detailed Study Information Sheet is attached to this email.
I am requesting that you please provide me with teacher contact information, preferably email addresses,
so I may seek out potential participants. Showing interest does not obligate anyone to participate. The first
15 respondents will be selected. Participants will receive a $25 gift card. They may opt out at any time.
Please contact me by email or phone with any questions or for additional information.
Mobile: (559) 392-4500.
Thank you for considering this research opportunity.
~Jennifer Bopp Litz
Attachment: Study Information Sheet

147
Appendix D: Recruitment Email
Hello. My name is Jennifer Bopp Litz and I am writing to let you know about an opportunity to
participate in a research study about how early childhood educators view reflective supervision,
instructional effectiveness, and wellbeing. I am conducting this study as a doctoral candidate at the
University of Southern California. This study will involve gathering information through an interview
about how teachers feel about reflective supervision, instructional effectiveness, and wellbeing.
I obtained your contact information from your administrator/principal as a potential participant in my
study and have not received any private information about you. To participate in this research, you
must be a credentialed early childhood educator and have participated in reflective supervision for
at least three years. A detailed Study Information Sheet is attached to this email.
If you are interested in participating, please reply to this email and I will contact you. Showing interest
and agreeing to be contacted does not obligate you to participate. The first 15 respondents will be
selected. Participants will receive a $25 gift card. You may opt out at any time.
Please contact me by email or phone with any questions or for additional information.
Mobile: (559) 392-4500.
Thank you for considering this research opportunity.
~Jennifer Bopp Litz
Attachment: Study Information Sheet

148
Appendix E: Informed Consent
CONSENT TO TAKE PART IN A RESEARCH STUDY
TITLE: Perceptions of Early Childhood Educators on How Reflective Supervision Influences
Instructional Effectiveness and Teacher Wellbeing
INVESTIGATOR (RESEARCHER): Jennifer A.
This consent form contains important information to help you decide whether to take part in a
research study. The investigator will explain this study to you. Ask questions about anything that
is not clear at any time.
You may take home an unsigned copy of this consent form to think about and discuss with
family or friends. Please keep in mind:
● Being in a study is voluntary – your choice.
● If you join this study, you can still stop at any time.
● No one can promise that participation will help you.
● Do not join this study unless all of your questions are answered.
After reading and discussing the information in this consent form you should know why this
research is being done, what will happen during the study, any possible benefits and risks to you,
how your personal information will be treated during and after the study, and what to do if you
have any problems during the study or questions about this study. Please read this consent form
carefully.
WHAT IS INFORMED CONSENT?
You are being asked to take part in a research study that will study teacher’s opinions on
reflective supervision, instructional effectiveness, and wellbeing. The research is being
conducted by Jennifer Bopp Litz, a doctoral candidate with the Rossier School of Education at
the University of Southern California (USC) in Los Angeles.
Before you can decide whether to take part in the research, you should be told about the possible
risks and benefits with this study. This process is known as informed consent. This consent form
will give you information about this study and your rights as a research participant. Being in this
study is voluntary.
The role of the researcher is to use a specific protocol with all participants to obtain general
knowledge that may or may not benefit you. You may ask questions at any time to help you
understand the process.

149
WHY IS THIS RESEARCH BEING DONE?
The purpose of this research is to obtain a deeper understanding of how teachers view the
relationship of reflective supervision with instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing.
There will be 10 to 15 local teachers taking part in this study. The total amount of time you can
expect to participate is between 60 and 90 minutes, which includes a 45 to 60 minute interview,
pre-interview form completion, and follow-up questions.
WHAT WILL HAPPEN IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY?
While reflective practices are part of standards for early childhood educators, the researcher
hopes to collect a deeper understanding of how teachers might use it to improve instruction and
teacher wellbeing. For this reason, teachers in early childhood education are being purposefully
sought by the researcher. Purposeful sampling means the investigator is seeking people with the
experiences relevant to the study and selection is not random. If not enough participants are
gathered, the investigator may ask participants to identify other possible respondents and share
the study information and investigator’s contact information with them.
If you decide to take part, you will first be asked to provide some background and demographic
information so the researcher can explain the context of the study to consumers of the research.
Providing background and demographic information will be done using an electronic form that
should take about 5 minutes. Then you will be contacted to schedule a convenient time to be
interviewed in person or through web conferencing, if preferred. Interviews will be audio
recorded. You are free to decline to answer any background/demographic or interview questions.
You may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
If necessary, you might be contacted for brief follow-up questions. Your responses are for the
purposes of this research only and will not be shared outside of the research team. The
investigator might contact you to ensure clarity and accuracy of interpretation, if necessary.
WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF BEING IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY?
The risks of this study are minimal and can be compared to those ordinarily encountered in daily
life or during routine dialogue about working conditions, instructional planning, and emotional
states.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF BEING IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY?
The questions being asked in this study are to better understand the utility of reflective
supervision for instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing. Whether reflective supervision
is actually helpful has not been proven. Although you may not personally benefit from taking
part in this study, the knowledge gained may benefit others.

150
WILL I RECEIVE INFORMATION ABOUT THIS RESEARCH STUDY?
The investigator will share research results upon request and it will be publicly available.
WHAT ABOUT CONFIDENTIALITY?
Electronic questionnaires will be completed under the privacy conditions comfortable for the
participant. The completed questionnaires will be stored electronically on a secure server and
coded with pseudonyms. Your name will be linked to a pseudonym on a master list kept separate
from the questionnaires and stored in a locked filing cabinet. This master list will only be used
by the researcher. Your identity will not be used in any sort of published report.
Electronically collected data and research records will be kept private on protected USC shared
drives. All research data will be coded with your unique pseudonym. Your identity will not be
used in any sort of published report. Your information may not be accessed by anyone not
connected with the research except, if there is a federal, state, or local law that requires
disclosure (such as to report child or elder abuse or danger to self or others).
You should understand that confidentiality does not prevent you from voluntarily releasing
information about yourself or your involvement in this research. If you want your research
information released to any person not connected with the research, you must provide consent to
allow the researcher to release it.
WHAT WILL TAKING PART IN THIS RESEARCH STUDY COST OR PAY?
It does not cost anything to take part in this research study. Participants will be provided with a
token “thank you” gift, a $25 gift card.
WHAT WILL HAPPEN IF I HAVE CONCERNS ABOUT THIS RESEARCH STUDY?
The Office for the Protection of Research Subjects (OPRS) at USC has reviewed and approved
this study. If you have any questions or concerns you may call OPRS at (213) 821-1154 or email
oprs@usc.edu.
WHAT IF I WANT TO STOP BEING IN THE STUDY BEFORE IT IS FINISHED?
Being in this research is voluntary. You may refuse to take part or you may withdraw at any time.
Your decision not to take part or your decision to withdraw will not affect your employment,
your ECE program, or future relations with USC. The researcher may take you out of the
research study for any reason, without your consent, if it is felt to be in your best interest. The
reason for any exclusion will be explained to you.
ARE RESEARCHERS BEING PAID TO DO THIS STUDY?

151
This study is part of the investigator’s partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education through the Rossier School of Education at USC. The investigator is not
being paid for doing this research.
WHO ARE THE CONTACT PERSONS?
If you encounter any problems or have any questions about the study, you may call the
researcher, Jennifer Bopp Litz, at (559) 392-4500 or the dissertation chair, Marsha Riggio, Ph.D.
at (301) 275-4025. If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, you may
contact staff of the USC IRB at (213) 821-1154 or oprs@usc.edu.
CONSENT
RESEARCH PARTICIPANT: The research study described in this consent form, including the
risks and benefits, has been explained to me and all of my questions have been answered. I
consent to take part in this research study. My consent is given willingly and voluntarily. I may
withdraw my consent at any time. I will receive a signed copy of this consent form.
______________________ _________ _______________________
Participant Name (Printed) Date Participant Signature
_______________________
Signature of Investigator

152
Appendix F: Qualtrics® Demographic Survey
1. How many years have you been a credentialed early childhood educator teaching children
under the age of 5?
○ 3 to 5 years
○ 6 to 9 years
○ 10 to 14 years
○ 15 to 20 years
○ More than 20 years
2. Indicate how many years you have participated in reflective supervision:
○ 3 years
○ 4 to 6 years
○ 7 to 10 years
○ More than 10 years
3. What is the highest degree or level of school you have completed?
○ Bachelor's degree (e.g. BA, BS)
○ Master's degree (e.g. MA, MS, MEd)
○ Doctorate or professional degree (e.g. MD, DDS, PhD)
4. What is your age?
○ 21 - 30
○ 31 - 40
○ 41 - 50
○ 51 - 60
○ 61 - 70
5. To help understand whose opinions are being represented in this survey, please indicate
your racial background. Check any that apply.
○ American Indian or Alaska Native
○ Asian
○ Black or African American
○ Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
○ White
○ Some other race, ethnicity, or origin
○ Prefer to self-describe
○ Prefer not to say
6. Are you of Hispanic, Latino/a/x, or of Spanish origin? One or more categories may be
selected.

153
○ No, not of Hispanic, Latino/a/x, or Spanish origin
○ Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano/a/x
○ Yes, Puerto Rican
○ Yes, Cuban
○ Yes, Another Hispanic, Latino/a/x or Spanish origin
○ Some other race, ethnicity, or origin
○ Prefer to self-describe ________________________
○ Prefer not to say
7. Make your best guess as to the racial makeup of your student population. The total should
equal 100%.
American Indian or Alaska Native : _______
Asian : _______
Black or African American : _______
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander : _______
White : _______
Some other race, ethnicity, or origin : _______
Prefer to self-describe: _______
Prefer not to say (Input 100) : _______
Total : _______
8. Make your best guess as to the Hispanic, Latino/a/x, or Spanish origin of your student
population. The total should equal 100%.
No, not of Hispanic, Latino/a/x, or Spanish origin : _______
Yes, Hispanic, Latino/a/x or Spanish origin : _______
Some other race, ethnicity, or origin : _______
Prefer to self-describe : _______
Prefer not to say (Input 100) : _______
Total : _______
Contact Information
Your contact information will only be used for the purposes of this study and will not be shared
with anyone unless required by law.
Form fields for: Name, Address, City, State, Postal Code, Phone number, and Email Address.
Thank you for responding! If you have any questions, concerns, or comments about this
survey you may contact Jennifer Bopp Litz at bopplitz@usc.edu. Further contact information
is available in the survey invitation email/letter you received.

154
Appendix G: Interview Protocol
Introduction:
Hello. Thank you for taking the time to meet with me. Does the hour or so timeline still work for
you? Before we start, do you have any questions or concerns about participating that came up
regarding the Study Information Sheet you received with the consent form?
As you know, I am a doctoral candidate with USC conducting a study on early childhood
educators’ feelings about their work. I am interested in how reflective supervision may or may
not influence your feelings about your job and instruction.
I will be talking to several teachers to learn about this. My goal is to understand more. I am only
interested in your perspective and not here to evaluate you or judge your responses in any way.
This interview is confidential, which means that your name will not be shared with anyone
outside of the research team, including other teachers, parents, or administration. The data for
this study will be compiled into a report and while I may use some direct quotes from the
interviews, none of the data I collect will be attributed to you. I will use an identifier, such as,
“Teacher A” or an acronym to protect your confidentiality and try my best to de-identify any
information you share. If you are interested, I will be happy to provide you with a copy of the
finished research.
As a reminder, I will keep the data in a password protected computer and all data will be
destroyed after 3 years. Do you have any questions before we get started?
I would like to record the interview so I can be sure not to miss anything. The recording will be
only for my use and not shared. May I have your permission to record our conversation?
Questions:
I’d like to start by asking some questions about yourself. I see from your questionnaire that you
have been an early childhood educator for about ____ years, is that right?
1. Will you tell me about what drew you to work in early childhood education?
a. Probe: Previous teaching experience? Another career?
2. Where did you attend your teacher preparation program?
a. Do you recall if the program was accredited by the National Association for
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)?
3. Was reflective practice or reflective supervision (RS) part of your teacher
preparation program, or did you learn about it later?
a. If yes, what did it look like? (E.g., journaling, 1:1 consultation, group)

155
4. Since you have been a credentialed teacher, tell me your overall impression of
reflective supervision.
a. Probe: Are there any specific pros and cons you can share?
b. Probe: What format is used? (E.g., group, 1:1, combination)
5. How do you incorporate feedback from reflective supervision into your daily
practice?
a. Probe: What specific changes have you made as a result?
b. Probe: Is there anything you value about reflective supervision?
Now, I’m going to ask you about some terminology you may or may not be familiar with. Just
tell me what you know as best as you can.
6. What, if anything, does “parallel process” mean to you?
7. What about “deliberate pause”?
Thank you. Now we’ll talk more specifically about your work.
8. How would you describe to others (friends/family) what you do for a living?
a. Probe: If someone were to watch you work, what would they see you doing with
the child(ren)? What would they hear you saying?
b. Probe: And what about with the parent? What would you do or say?
9. In your role as a teacher, what, if anything, limits your ability to support the
children and families with whom you work?
10. What supports your ability to teach and support children?
a. Probe: As you prepare lessons and activities for children, what helps?
11.Thinking of a child you have worked with for at least 4 to 6 months, and you see
they are progressing on their outcomes (Birth to 3), or the preschool learning
foundations (ages 3-5), to what might you attribute to this success?
a. Probe: What did you do that helped?
b. Probe: Did anyone else help?
12. Sometimes when working with children we see them progress and other times we do
not. Thinking of a specific child not progressing as expected and assuming regular
attendance, can you walk me through what steps you took next?
a. Probe: Was there anyone with whom you spoke to or consulted?
b. Did you bring this child up in a reflective supervision session?

156
c. Define term, if needed: Part of reflective supervision is spending time reflecting
and analyzing your work to improve outcomes for children and considering
personal biases that might be interfering with their progress.
d. Probe: How, if at all, did the RS support what you did next?
13. How, if at all, does reflective supervision influence your instructional decisions?
a. Probe: Do you feel it makes you more effective?
i. If yes, tell me about a specific time when you received reflective
supervision that had a positive impact on your teaching effectiveness
ii. If not, what do you feel would make you more effective?
14. Some people say reflective supervision is great but doesn’t really support
instructional effectiveness. What are your thoughts on that?
There is a lot involved when working with young children and their parents or caregivers, not to
mention the paperwork and compliance demands. Plus, participating in reflective supervision.
I’d like to talk about that now and how you manage it all.
15. Can you give me an example of how reflective supervision may or may not help you
better understand the needs of your students and their families?
16. How do you feel reflective supervision has impacted your mental health or
wellbeing, if at all?
a. Do you have an example of when it had a positive impact on your wellbeing?
b. Do you have an example of when it was not helpful? If so, can you explain?
17. Sometimes, it’s necessary to hold back emotions or thoughts while teaching during
difficult situations. Have you ever brought up these situations during RS?
a. If yes: What’s done, if anything, to address your experience?
b. If no: What prevents you from sharing those experiences?
c. Probe: Is there another way you prefer to handle moments like that?
i. If yes: Are you able to describe what you do?
18. In your opinion, what role does reflective supervision play in:
a. creating a positive and supportive work environment?
b. your ability to form and maintain positive relationships with coworkers?
c. helping you cope with job-related stress?
d. job satisfaction?
e. job performance?

157
19. Earlier, you mentioned what drew you to early childhood education. Now I am
curious, what has your experience, if any, been, with burnout?
a. Probe: If there were ever a time you wanted out of the profession, what were the
reasons?
b. Probe: What prevented you from leaving?
c. Probe: How do you rally support or what do you do that’s beneficial to you if you
ever start to feel that way again?
20. How do you think reflective supervision can be used to promote professional
development and growth?
21. Considering your work-related activities, such as lesson planning, professional
development, collaboration with other teachers and specialists, reflective
supervision, parent education, or something I might not have mentioned, in your
experience, which do you think benefits children the most?
a. What are your top three go-to strategies?
22. Overall, how satisfied have you been with your reflective supervision experience?
a. Probe: How satisfied are you with your reflective supervisor or practitioner?
23. What do you think could be improved about reflective supervision if anything?
a. Probe: changes you would like to see on how it supports you as an individual.
b. To what extent, if at all, should it be used in teacher preparation programs?
c. What, if anything, could the ECE system do to promote the use of reflective
supervision?
24. Is there anything you would like to add about reflective supervision that you did not
get a chance to share?
25. Is there anything you would like to add about your work or wellbeing that you did
not get a chance to share?
Closing: Thank you! I really appreciate you sharing your thoughts and feelings with me today.
You have given me really good insight. After reviewing our conversation, if I have any follow-up
questions or need clarification, may I contact you? Again, thanks so much for participating. I
will send you a $25 gift card as a token of my appreciation when the study is completed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bopp Litz, Jennifer Anne (author)

Core Title Perceptions of early childhood educators on how reflective supervision influences instructional effectiveness and teacher wellbeing

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 01/04/2024

Defense Date 11/20/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Burnout,California.,case study,Early Childhood Education,early childhood special educators,instructional effectiveness,OAI-PMH Harvest,parallel process,professional development,reflective practice,reflective supervision,sociocultural learning theory,teacher preparation,wellbeing,well-being

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Boveja Riggio, Marsha (committee chair), Keller Muraszewski, Alison (committee member), Quintana, Taqueena (committee member), Trahan, Don (committee member)

Creator Email bopplitz@usc.edu,jablitz@icloud.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113800513

Unique identifier UC113800513

Identifier etd-BoppLitzJe-12589.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-BoppLitzJe-12589

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Bopp Litz, Jennifer Anne

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240105-usctheses-batch-1118 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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