University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Latinx principal belonging and mattering

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Latinx principal belonging and mattering

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Content Latinx Principal Belonging and Mattering
Sabrina Silverman
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Sabrina Silverman 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Sabrina Silverman certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Darline Robles
Gregory Franklin
Christina Kishimoto, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
The objective of this dissertation was to provide a framework that increases the recruitment and
retention of Latinx principals. The research questions focus on the support Latinx principals have
received, the impact of their identity on their leadership journey, and the bias they have
overcome. Through individual and group interviews and surveys, the research determined that
Latinx principals must feel like they belong and matter in the district and school site, have
culturally relevant leadership development, including networking and mentoring opportunities,
and have the support of the superintendent and district personnel. Additionally, women
experienced more bias than men, which showed an additional layer of support needed for Latina
principals. These findings are summarized in the Latinx principal culturally relevant leadership
design, which centers mattering and belonging at the center of recruitment and retention. With
that center in mind, recommendations entail three levels of support: school board, school district,
and external. By addressing the recommendations for each level, the school boards' and districts'
actions will show that there is value in the training and support of Latinx principals prior to and
during principalship. The school board and district must also value the connection to external
and internal support for these principals. Implications from this study show the need for a change
in districts’ traditional recruitment and retention strategies to increase the number of Latinx
principals and retain them so that they succeed and have a long-lasting impact at the district and
site.

v
Dedication
To all the Chingonas in the world who have faced adversity and persevered. As a Latina
educator, I know the world is different for Latina leaders and educators. I know you have faced
challenges, found joy, and continued forward despite any obstacles that were put in your way. I
see Chingona leaders who show me what greatness is and that the path is not smooth, but
adversity makes you stronger. To the past and future Latina doctorates, I stand on your shoulders
toward greatness and always aspire to do more.
To my mom for showing the way as a Chingona. For the precedent that you set in the family for
your siblings, nieces, and daughter, you have shown what it means to break the cycle of poverty.
You show your strength as a Chingona, and I am proud to stand on the generations of the past
that you showed through your own example. I continue to create a path for future generations to
follow.

vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my family, friends, and support network for their support along the
doctoral journey. These 3 years have been long and challenging but empowering personally and
professionally to continue as a Latina educator.
To my family, your unwavering support and commitment to make sure I keep going has
been needed. I appreciate you putting me first and making sure that I get my assignments and
writing done before any other distractions. You never stopped believing in me and saw the finish
line before I did.
To my Chingona crew (Zandra, Margarita, and Lori), I could not have completed this
without your support and inspiration. You have shown me the way as Latina leaders and I hope
to emulate the leadership and compassion you have shown. My friends have understood when I
said I need to focus on my work first and I appreciate your understanding. The ability to know
that friendships last beyond dissertation writing has been appreciated.
To my dissertation committee, and especially Dr. Kishimoto, I appreciate your support
with the dissertation journey. Dr. Kishimoto has led by example as my professor and dissertation
chair, and I am honored to work with her. As a professional, she has shown me the power of
leadership, and with her equity work, I know the U.S. education system will be a better place.
Seeing her in action has empowered me as a person and leader. Her guidance has been
instrumental to my success.
I also acknowledge my dissertation committee Dr. Robles and Dr. Franklin, who has
given me invaluable advice and guidance along this process. Through their guidance as
professors and leaders, I have grown as a professional in many ways. Their guidance has shown
me that I can be part of changing the future educational landscape for all.

vii
Lastly and most importantly, thank you to myself. I appreciate my Chingona
determination, advocacy, and power to be the person I want to be. I have pushed myself past
what I thought was possible and know a new level of strength. I am a proud Chingona. Si se
puede!

viii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Overview of the Study...............................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................2
Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................5
Research Questions..............................................................................................................5
Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................6
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study.........................................................................6
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................7
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................12
Latinx Teacher Leaders......................................................................................................12
Latinx Principal Recruitment.............................................................................................16
Latinx Principal Retention .................................................................................................19
Applied Critical Leadership...............................................................................................22
Cultural Social Identity......................................................................................................24
Conceptual Framework and Summary...............................................................................26
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................29
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................29
Research Questions............................................................................................................29

ix
Selection of the Population ................................................................................................30
Design Summary................................................................................................................30
Instrument and Protocols ...................................................................................................32
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................33
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................35
Validity and Reliability......................................................................................................36
Positionality .......................................................................................................................36
Summary............................................................................................................................36
Chapter Four: Results ....................................................................................................................37
Participants.........................................................................................................................37
Results................................................................................................................................39
Results Research Question 1..............................................................................................39
Results Research Question 2..............................................................................................54
Results Research Question 3..............................................................................................62
Summary............................................................................................................................74
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations..........................................................................75
Findings .............................................................................................................................79
Limitations.........................................................................................................................87
Implications for Practice ....................................................................................................88
Future Research .................................................................................................................91
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................93
References......................................................................................................................................94
Appendix A: Confidentiality Form..............................................................................................101
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................103
Introduction......................................................................................................................103

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Questions (With Transitions)...........................................................................................103
Closing .............................................................................................................................105
Appendix C: Focus Group Protocol.............................................................................................106
Introduction......................................................................................................................106
Questions..........................................................................................................................106
Closing .............................................................................................................................108
Introduction......................................................................................................................109
Closing .............................................................................................................................115

xi
List of Tables
Table 1 Survey Respondents 38
Table 2 Interviewees 38
Table 3 Prior to Being a Principal, What Professional Learning Opportunities Did You Take
Part in (Choose All That Apply)? 42
Table 4 Since Becoming a Principal, What Professional Learning Opportunities Have You
Participated in That Have Led to Your Success and Retention? (Choose All That Apply) 45
Table 5 In What Ways Do You Feel Your Latinx Identity Impacts the Leadership Decisions
You Make? (Choose All That Apply) 59
Table 6 Prior to, and Since Being a Principal, What, if Any, Were Some Challenges You
Have Faced and Overcome? (Choose All That Apply) 64
Table 7 Principals’ District Context (Size and Leadership Representation) 77
Table D1 Survey Part 1 110
Table D3 Survey Part 3 112
Table D4 Survey Part 4 114
Table D5 Survey Part 5 114

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 28
Figure 2: Triangulation of the Data 35
Figure 3: Responses Regarding Mentorship 48
Figure 4: Responses Regarding Identity Influence 56
Figure 5: Challenges Faced on Latinx Principal Leadership Journey 64
Figure 6: Latinx Principal Culturally Relevant Leadership Design 88

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
According to data from the education department, Latinx students will comprise nearly
30% of the school population by 2030, and White students will make up 43% (Jimenez, 2022).
USA Today’s analysis of 2021 U.S. census data on the country’s school-age population in
America found that New Mexico (61.1%) has the highest percentage of Latinx people ages 5 to
18, followed by California (52.2%), Texas (49.1%), Arizona (44.3%), Nevada (41.4%), Colorado
(31.7%), Florida (31.5%), New Jersey (27.4%), Rhode Island (26.3%) and Connecticut (25.3%)
(Jimenez, 2022). Given the number of Latinx students in the school system nationally and
locally, the number of Latinx leaders shows a wide discrepancy from that data.
According to national data, in 2017–18, 78% of school principals were White, 9% were
Latinx, 10% were African American, and 3% were of other races (National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], 2018). In the states with the highest Latinx student populations, Latinx school
leaders were 36% (New Mexico), 22% (California), 25% (Texas), 21% (Arizona) and 8%
(Nevada; NCES, 2018). This data shows that as the increase in Latinx students in the school
system occurs, the Latinx school leaders currently do not represent that same population in any
state or nationally. The lack of Latinx school leaders is a problem in the current leadership data,
which also impacts the future Latinx leader pipeline.
It is important to note the impact of school leaders on student achievement, attendance,
discipline, teacher retention, and school morale. Regardless of the race, gender, or ethnicity of a
principal, data shows that effective principals positively impact reading and math scores,
increase student attendance rates, and increase job morale for staff (Lindsay et al., 2021).
Similarly, “the presence of a principal of color appears to lead to more frequent hiring and
retention of teachers of color and better outcomes for students of color, including higher math

2
scores and higher likelihood of placement into gifted programs” (Lindsay et al., 2021). Latinx
students often see Latinx leaders as positive role models with whom they can connect and who
support them (Magdaleno, 2006). The difference between the number of Latinx school leaders
and leaders of other ethnicities has immense effects on student achievement, staff identities,
school stability, and morale. The Latinx leader pipeline is an issue that affects the future of
education in general as schools continue to try to address varying student and staff needs.
Background of the Problem
As the nation’s public schools grow more diverse, the lack of teachers and leaders of
color shows the discrepancy between the identities of students and school staff. In 2019, while
54% of students in public schools nationwide were nonwhite, nearly 80% of principals were
white (Superville, 2021). Teacher data shows that in 2017–18, 80% of public school teachers
were White, 6% were African American, 9% were Hispanic, 2% were Asian, and 3% were of
other races (NCES, 2018). In the Learning Policy Institute’s 2018 report, teachers of color move
schools or leave the profession at a higher annual rate than White teachers (19% versus 15%;
Carver-Thomas, 2018). The high turnover rate of the few teachers of color affects the number of
Latinx teachers available to become leaders.
In addition, the leadership advancement from teacher to administrator, referred to as the
leadership pipeline, is affected by multiple aspects such as self-initiation, tapping, passing over,
reassigning, and removing (Farley-Ripple et al., 2012). For example, school and district leaders,
often white males, are less likely to tap teachers of color to become leaders, and when they do,
they are even less likely than their white counterparts to be hired as principals (Fuller et al.,
2019). Even as assistant principals, Black leaders struggled with only being responsible for
discipline and had few opportunities as instructional leaders (Madsen et al., 2019). Women

3
leaders of color face the double jeopardy of gender and racial bias (Fuller et al., 2019). Although
multiple factors affect whether teachers will be selected to become leaders and given the
opportunities to grow as leaders, race, ethnicity, and gender all contribute to these factors. The
pipeline for leaders of color has been researched, and more research is needed for the Latinx
leadership pipeline, specifically given the increase in Latinx students.
The increased number of Latinx students and the decreased number of Latinx educators,
have led to increased attention to the recruitment and retention of Latinx leaders. For example, in
2021 in Kansas City, Latinx students made up nearly 28% of all public school kids, while Latinx
teachers made up 6%. The school district noted that while it used a mentorship program to focus
on increasing the number of Black educators, it is now working on doing the same for Latinx
educators (Jimenez, 2022). However, Latinx school administrators face the pressure of low
expectations and a “glass ceiling” that makes it difficult to become and sustain themselves as
school leaders with limited Latinx leadership role models (Magdaleno, 2006).
Thus, the issue of recruiting and retaining Latinx school leaders in the public school
system is necessary and urgent both nationally and locally. Latinx leaders bring their identity to
work, so the leadership pipeline and retention strategies must match their needs. Therefore, the
focus of the dissertation is to analyze the opportunities and barriers that affect Latinx leaders’
recruitment and retention. In doing so, there is a specific analysis of the impact of identity on
Latinx school leaders in their recruitment and retention in school leadership. The goal is to
identify strategies school districts can use to recruit and retain Latinx school leaders.
Statement of the Problem
Latinx school site leaders are underrepresented in school leadership across the nation. In
2017, the overwhelming majority of principals were White, and less than 10% were Latinx

4
(NCES, 2018); although that number seems to be increasing, it does not match the student
demographics. This leadership trend occurs at the same time as the rising number of Latinx
students in the nation’s public schools; by 2030, Latinx students will be 30% of the school
population, and in some states, such as California, Latinx are already the majority of the student
population (Jimenez, 2022). This discrepancy has effects on students across the nation. Leaders
of color bring their perspectives to promote social justice because they have felt or experienced
the inequities social justice efforts try to eradicate (Santamaría, 2014). Their identity directly
impacts their leadership style and affects schools as a whole.
To address the discrepancy between student and leader demographics, an analysis of the
leadership pipeline to recruit and retain Latinx leaders is important. For instance, research
findings suggest that Black principals’ entry routes to the principalship were characterized by
more preparation than Whites, taking longer for Black principals, and needing more experience
for principal positions than white counterparts (Berry & Reardon, 2022). Although this data is
reflective of Black leaders, it speaks to the barriers in the leadership pipeline for leaders of color
in comparison to their white counterparts.
Once a leader is in their role, it is then valuable to look at what keeps them in the role.
The Latinx version of society is based on a collective, people-centered view of Latinx leadership
that is different from that of other cultures (Bordas, 2001). For this reason, Latinx leadership
retention must be reflective of the Latinx culture. This includes how Latinx leaders develop their
ability to navigate their identity as leaders, their racial and equity concerns, and find positive role
models and mentors to support them (Magdaleno, 2006). This study will identify the impact of
identity and social cultural theory on Latinx leaders as they navigate the leadership pipeline

5
while examining the barriers and support needed for the recruitment and retention of Latinx
school leaders.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to provide insight into the formal and informal barriers and
support provided for Latinx school leaders in their recruitment and retention as leaders. In
explicitly addressing the Latino identity, the study attempts to identify the role of identity and
culturally responsive leadership in the recruitment and retention of Latinx leaders. Inquiry
focuses on the preparation for leadership, the professional experiences during leadership, and the
opportunities for leadership development for Latinx school leaders. Interviews, focus groups and
surveys will be conducted to understand the formal and informal leadership opportunities and
barriers for the recruitment and retention provided to male and female Latinx leaders as they
navigate the leadership pipeline and sustain themselves as leaders. The goal of the study is to
create a framework for Latinx principal recruitment and retention across districts.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What supports do Latinx principals experience that encourage them to pursue and
succeed in attaining a principal position?
2. What role does cultural social identity have in the leadership journey of Latinx
principals?
3. What role does institutional bias play in the leadership journey of Latinx principals?
This study explores the transition and trajectory of Latinx school leaders across the
United States. It examines the informal and formal barriers and opportunities for leadership
development and retention of Latinx leaders as they transition into their roles and stay in those

6
roles. In examining the barriers and opportunities for development, Latinx leaders will be asked
if and/or how their identity has impacted their recruitment and retention as leaders. Similarly,
Latinx leaders will be asked if and/or how bias and ethnicity impacted their retention as leaders.
It will also ask leaders to identify the leadership strategies they have used to support coping and
excelling in their leadership roles and what is still needed to support them. This
phenomenological study examined the leadership journeys of male and female Latinx leaders to
identify barriers and supports for their development.
Significance of the Study
This study sough to provide insight into the leadership journeys of Latinx site leaders to
identify the barriers and support they experienced in their ascension to their leadership roles. To
name the informal and formal barriers and support, the study gathered feedback for districts
interested in recruiting and retaining Latinx leaders. The results may encourage districts to use
this framework as a base as they create or refine recruitment and retention strategies specific to
their context.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study was limited to Latinx principals in the United States and their self-reported
personal narratives in their principal or district leader roles. Interview questions about identity
and leadership were limited to the participants’ personal experiences and were specific to their
local contexts.
The delimitations of this study pertained to the ethnicity of the participants (Latinx), the
leadership title and experience of the participants (principals with 3 to 11 years of experience),
and the number of interviewees.

7
Definition of Terms
Applied critical leadership (ACL): The application of critical race theory to school
leadership for leaders of color, which is critical to the way leaders act, support, and engage with
educational partners and describes leadership skills, including critical conversations, critical race
theory lens, group consensus, stereotype threat, academic discourse, honoring constituents,
leading by example, trust with mainstream, and servant leadership (Santamaría, 2014).
Convenience sampling: A non-probability sample method where those included in the
sample are due to the ease of access to the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Contest mobility: Upward mobility of teachers to administrators based on credentials and
administrative experiences that affect leadership trajectory (Berry & Reardon, 2022).
Cultural social identity: Cultural social identity focuses on the impact of cultural identity,
such as race and ethnicity, on a person’s choices (Hogg et al., 1995). In regard to the Latinx
identity, this theory acknowledges that the Latinx culture impacts a person’s choices and actions.
Double jeopardy: Refers to the dual identity of Latinas as females and Latina. The
intersection leads to Latina leaders being judged and discriminated against for both aspects of
their identity (Harts, 2019).
Focus groups: Interview groups composed of 5 to 8 participants with similar
characteristics that meet the needs of the study. The groups allow for asking open-ended
interview questions in a comfortable environment where participants can build (agree or
disagree) on each other’s thoughts (Krueger & Casey, 2015).
Identity: In general, identity includes factors such as race, gender, ethnicity, language,
class, and sexuality. It also consists of positionality (how one views the intersection of power and

8
politics of race, culture, language, etc) and epistemology (how one knows their reality from their
experiences; Douglas & Nganga, 2015).
Institutional Bias: The discriminatory practices that occur at the institutional level and
that go beyond individual-level prejudice and discrimination (Henry, 2010). The ways in which
the districts practice bias in recruitment and retention strategies, such as determining who is an
organizational fit, not recruiting leaders of color, or questioning the abilities of leaders of color.
Intersectionality: The connection of race, ethnicity, and gender in the identity of a person.
The person’s self-identity and identity, as perceived by others, is based on the intersection
between multiple identities. For example, being a woman and Latina is intersectional (Fuller et
al., 2019).
Latinx: According to the U.S. Census Bureau (n.d.),
people who identify with the terms “Hispanic,” “Latino,” or “Spanish” are those who
classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish categories listed
on the questionnaire (“Mexican, Mexican Am., or Chicano,” “Puerto Rican,” or “Cuban”)
as well as those who indicate that they are “another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin.
(p. 1)
The U.S. government adopted the term latino officially in 1997 to complement the English word
“Hispanic” and refers to people who come from Latin America or descend from people of Latin
America (Fernandez-Morera, 2010). Since the term is self-identified, people can use the term to
refer to their heritage or culture. Latinx refers to both males and females.
Leadership pipeline: The leadership advancement from teacher to administrator is
referred to as the leadership pipeline. This includes the factors that influence administrators’
career decisions, including entry, movement within, and exit from the profession (Farley-Ripple

9
et al., 2012). The pipeline can include internal and external factors and formal and informal
mechanisms, which this study explored.
Mentorship: People with experience who can give advice to those with less experience to
navigate the needs of the job and provide support. For Latinx people, mentorship from those who
share common identities is powerful to support the growth of the mentee (Magdaleno, 2006).
Microaggression: Microaggressions are the everyday verbal, nonverbal, and
environmental slights, snubs, or insults, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate
hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to target persons based solely on their marginalized
group membership (National Equity Project, n.d.)
Mixed-methods study: A study that includes qualitative and quantitative components to
gather and verify evidence (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Data collection includes qualitative
methods such as interviews, focus groups, or shadowing and quantitative methods such as
surveys.
Principal recruitment: Specific recruitment strategies used to bring Latinx teacher leaders
into the path of principalship. This includes the ways teacher leaders are identified, the support
and barriers they face, and how they are recruited to administration before becoming principals.
Purposeful sampling: A non-probability sample method where those included in the
sample meet the criteria of the study, such as job title, years of experience, or other focus areas
of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Racial battle fatigue: Battle that people of color face on a constant basis through the
impact of microaggressions and battling racial issues, focusing on the emotional and
psychological fatigue associated with it (Pizarro & Kohli, 2020). For example, when Latinx

10
teachers are assigned discipline roles only or address bias regarding students of color on a
constant basis.
Self-efficacy: One’s personal beliefs about their capabilities to learn or perform actions at
designated levels (Schunk, 2020). This is specific to beliefs about one’s ability to complete an
action or achieve an outcome regardless of whether they know how to do it. This theory is based
on Bandura’s social cognitive theory that although someone may know that certain achievements
result in desired outcomes, this information becomes virtually useless when they lack the belief
that they have the ability to produce such actions (Zee & Koomen, 2016).
Social identity theory: Acknowledges the impact of social identity on a person’s actions
and choices. A person’s social identity impacts their self-perceptions as well as their view of
their own identity (Hogg et al., 1995).
Sponsored mobility/tapping: Term associated with the purposeful promotion of personnel
into leadership roles based on references and recommendations, formally and informally, that
affect leadership trajectory (Myung et al., 2011).
Organization of the Study
A phenomenological study that looks at how Latinx leaders are recruited and retained in
school leadership is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the study
and introduces data to show the magnitude of the issue of the lack of Latinx principals in the
nation’s public schools. It also introduces aspects of the leadership pipeline that reflect issues of
recruitment and retention of Latinx leaders. Chapter Two presents a literature review on the
following areas: formal and informal aspects of the leadership pipeline, recruitment of Latinx
principals, and retention of Latinx principals. The conceptual framework is also introduced
through the theories of applied critical leadership (ACL) and cultural social identity theory.

11
Chapter Three describes the methodology selected for this study and includes sample selection,
interview questions, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four is a report of research
findings. Chapter Five includes a summary of the findings, implications for practices,
conclusions, and recommendations. References and appendices are included at the conclusion of
the study.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The number of Latinx principals in the nation’s public schools is far below that of the
Latinx student population, which is fast growing in this nation. The lack of Latinx principals is a
social justice issue that affects all students, schools, and communities. Therefore, it is important
to study the reasons for this issue and provide a framework for districts to critically reflect upon
institutional designs that may hinder leadership diversification as they create or refine
recruitment and retention strategies for Latinx leaders specific to their context. In this chapter, I
will first review teacher-leader support and challenges to introduce the leadership pipeline. I will
then review principal recruitment strategies with a specific focus on multicultural and Latinx
leaders to discuss institutional structures and informal structures in the recruitment process. This
will be followed by a review of principal retention practices regarding Latinx leaders to
determine both the formal and informal support provided to principals. Additionally, I will
present the conceptual framework of ACL and cultural social identity to reflect on the impact of
identity in a Latinx principal’s leadership, which informs their recruitment and retention.
Together, this literature review will address Latinx principal recruitment and retention through
an identity-based lens.
Latinx Teacher Leaders
The beginning of the Latinx principal pipeline starts with the leadership roles given or
assigned to Latinx teacher leaders so that they have the experiences to prepare for school
leadership. Research has shown that Latinx teacher leaders experience challenges to growth
through their experience with microaggressions, being compartmentalized into certain categories
of expertise, and having less access to administrators who will tap them into leadership roles. To

13
combat these challenges, professional development that supports multiple facets of leadership
and positioning Latinx teachers as assets supports their development as leaders.
Challenges to Growth
Teachers of color often face microaggressions in their workspace that prevent them from
feeling emotional security to sustain themselves in the profession. In a study on the interaction
between Latina teachers and their white colleagues, Latina teachers described the feeling of
jealousy and fear displayed by white colleagues when they showed their competence, from
demeaning comments about a Latina’s unfair advantage for speaking Spanish to outright hostility
(Amos, 2020). When Latina teachers did ask for help, they felt little support from colleagues and
were ignored or not provided the resources they needed while having hypervigilance on them
(Amos, 2020). They also shared that their advocacy for Latino students led to more conflicts
with colleagues. Given all of these aspects, Latia teachers noted feeling isolated and treated as
competitors rather than collaborators with their colleagues (Amos, 2020). Other studies also
mirrored the feeling of isolation and hostility, describing the long-lasting impact of those
feelings. Racial battle fatigue describes the constant battle of racial issues and microaggressions
teachers of color face (Pizarro & Kohli, 2020). In their study, the authors noted that the constant
battle led to teachers of color leaving the profession entirely or changing schools (Pizarro &
Kohli, 2020). Racial battle fatigue describes a phenomenon that is all too common and has
devastating effects on teachers of color. As noted earlier, when teachers leave the profession or
the school, this significantly impacts their ability to develop their leadership skills or be tapped
for the next position.
Leadership development is necessary for teachers of color to have the skills to become
principals and for others to see them as capable of the role. Teachers of color describe their white

14
colleagues forcing them into roles of “multicultural experts” by having them chair multicultural
committees and relying on them to solve their racial problems in their classes (Madsen et al.,
2019). African American teachers, in particular, were asked to speak to African American
parents and give their expertise on discipline (Madsen et al., 2019). In pigeonholing their skillset
as “multicultural experts,” teachers of color are not allowed to grow in other areas of school
leadership that they need to be successful school leaders. At the same time, the roles teachers of
color are placed impact how leaders see them. Research shows that sponsored mobility, such as
tapping to a leadership role, is used to recruit teacher leaders to become administrators (Myung
et al., 2011). Tapping is most likely to involve male teachers and if the principal is a similar
race/ethnicity to the teacher leader (Myung et al., 2011). Given that the majority of teachers are
female and there are few principals of color, the impact on Latinx teachers of not developing a
wide breadth of leadership skills is detrimental to their growth, especially if they are female.
Latinx teacher leaders need to develop their leadership skills and be recognized as leaders to
enter the principalship. When given the chance to grow, Latinx teacher leaders can develop into
great future principals.
Opportunities for Growth
As noted in the challenges to leadership development, Latinx teacher leaders need a space
where they can support each other and develop their leadership skills. Critical professional
development space, where educators of color support each other with purpose, has led to the
development of leadership skills for leaders of color (Kohli et al., 2021). In that space, teachers
of color noted the need for three types of support- curricular, schoolwide leadership
development, and district advocacy support (Kohli et al., 2021). For Latinx leaders, development
is about being a good teacher and knowing how to lead in the school site and the district. By

15
developing multiple skill sets, Latinx teacher leaders can gain the confidence and ability to show
leadership beyond any pigeonholing. Research on retaining teachers of color echoes that
sentiment and found that leadership opportunities for growth retain teachers of color (CarverThomas, 2018). Research also shows that retaining teachers of color is affected by general
leadership support (Carver-Thomas, 2018). School principals have an immense impact on what
support and development opportunities are provided to teachers of color, and their retention
depends on that support.
Programs that are purposeful in developing teachers of color have strong track records in
preparing them for leadership. For example, the Compton Male Teacher of Color Network in
Compton, California, provided a community of practice to discuss challenges and needs. The
group treated teachers of color as experts, and each person grew as a teacher and leader (The
Education Trust-West, 2020). Through the process, a significant number of participants applied
to administrative programs to become school leaders (The Education Trust-West, 2020).
Programs like this show the impact of collaboration and support to develop skills and a desire to
become a leader. Research notes that for Latinx teachers, in particular, the sense of support and
alignment between family and culture through trusting relationships is key to success (Villarreal,
2011). Direct support and guidance that demonstrate the principal supports and values teachers
are key (Villarreal, 2011). Mentoring Latinx colleagues to connect socially, emotionally, and
professionally is critical to seeing themselves as part of a community of educators (Villarreal,
2011). These examples demonstrate positive development strategies. Purposeful professional
development and treating Latinx teachers as valued leaders and contributors leads to their
development into the next generation of principals.

16
Latinx Principal Recruitment
Principal recruitment includes formal systems, such as development programs, and
informal systems, such as mentoring, tapping, and guidance from current principals. Regarding
both formal and informal systems, research shows Latinx leaders need specific tools for
recruitment to lead to increased attainment of principal positions. Institutional bias shapes the
effects of gender and ethnicity on their support and selection to the principalship. Thus, leaders
must identify and use tools to overcome these biases.
Principal recruitment generally falls into two categories: formal and informal systems.
Formal systems include development programs led by school districts, universities, and
leadership programs, as well as district-wide leadership committees or school-site leadership
opportunities for teachers and leaders. Informal systems include general mentorship, tapping
teachers for leadership opportunities, or other mechanisms to support leadership development.
Sponsored mobility, the support of mentors and sponsors who encourage and support leadership
development, and contest mobility, leadership trajectory through credentials and administrative
experiences, both influence hiring to the principal seat (Berry & Reardon, 2022). These types of
mobility show that formal and informal systems are important. Self-efficacy and critical
feedback on growth areas are essential to the leadership pipeline (Morgan, 2018). However, there
is no simple formula for leadership development since leaders move through the pathway
through a variety of methods, including self-initiation, recruiting/tapping, passing over, and
having chosen or assigned movements (Farley-Ripple et al., 2012). For this reason, research that
specifically identifies the needs and challenges of Latinx leaders is essential in the discussion of
their recruitment for the principalship.

17
Latinx Principal Pipeline
A study of the obstacles and support for Latinx principals found that they want to be role
models and identify the significant impact of mentors on their leadership development (Carrillo,
2008). Latinx principals stated that their greatest recruitment tool was mentors and other Latinx
leaders of influence who convinced them they could be principals (Carrillo, 2008). Mentors
taught them leadership skills and how to leverage their own experiences while also teaching
them how to network to market their skills and abilities (Carrillo, 2008). In this research,
principals noted the importance of like mentors, other Latinx leaders, who could provide
individualized support and guidance. The importance of mentorship also emerged through the
California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators (CALSA) mentorship
program, which partners proteges with mentors for 2 years with individualized guidance and
support. This program provides proteges with a mentor to support them in navigating the
leadership process, learning about themselves, and preparing for the principalship (Magdaleno,
2006). This program, which is statewide and unaffiliated with any school district, has included
decades of cohorts to support the Latinx leadership pipeline to principalship and beyond. For
Latinx principals, individualized mentorship and support before becoming a principal is essential
to their development and success.
Latinx principals have strongly identified the importance of mentorship and guidance in
their development, but this guidance does not have to be by Latinx leaders only. Leaders of color
have noted that district leadership development programs that support them with curriculum
development experiences are essential to their work as school leaders (Superville, 2022).
Principals of color need guidance, specifically mentoring and coaching, from other successful
principals with an equity focus to support their development and success (Superville, 2022).

18
Additionally, programs such as ‘grow your own’ partnerships with universities and specific
leadership development programs aimed to increase principal diversity are needed (Symonds &
Hansen, 2022). To increase the Latinx principal pipeline, the strategies highlighted to support
their development must be intentional and pervasive throughout a district. Through these means
of support, Latinx principal candidates can overcome the challenges that await them in the
selection and recruitment process toward principalship.
Institutional Bias in Principal Recruitment
Data shows that, in general, there has been an increase in the number of Latinx assistant
principals, and in Texas, they are rising to the assistant principal seat faster than their White
counterparts (Crawford & Fuller, 2017). However, they also stay longer in the assistant principal
position than their white counterparts, who are promoted to principalship at a faster rate
(Crawford & Fuller, 2017). This shows that although Latinx leaders are being promoted to
assistant principals, they stay in that role longer than their White counterparts. When looking at
gender, data also shows that women of any race are less likely to be employed as a principals
compared to white men and men of color (Fuller et al., 2019). Outside of the principal position,
Black and Latinx men are more likely to be assistant principals than women of color (Fuller et
al., 2019). For women of color, there is a double edge sword in the rise to principalship- they
face both gender and racial discrimination. For Latinx leaders, the rise to assistant principalship
may seem promising; however, that is a steppingstone toward principalship. Identifying what
may be happening to lead to this phenomenon requires understanding the mechanisms of bias
that affect these outcomes.
Latinx leaders have identified multiple means of discrimination in the rise to
principalship. For example, Latinx principals have noted unequal access to principalships since

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they are not part of the dominant White group that controls hiring and tends to promote its own
(Carrillo, 2008). In addition, Latinx principals have described scrutiny over their credentials,
from subtle challenges to outright racism, as well as being consistently overlooked for positions
with prejudice as being judged incapable of principalship (Carrillo, 2008). This comes on top of
the gender stereotypes for Latina women leaders, being placed at the hardest schools with the
most needs, and consistent pressure as the Latinx administrator (Carrillo, 2008). All of these
forms of bias affect the confidence of leaders and the constant battle Latinx leaders have to fight
when it comes to racism. As noted earlier, Latinx principals noted the impact of mentorship in
guiding them toward principalship. The road to principalship for a Latinx leader includes many
battles, and the more prepared Latinx leaders are to overcome these battles, the more successful
they will be as they navigate the path toward principalship.
Latinx Principal Retention
Once Latinx principals have the position of principalship, retaining them in those
positions becomes the next step in the leadership pipeline. They need specific support and
guidance to stay in those positions. The main aspect of principal retention is showing Latinx
principals that they are valued and supported to stay in leadership. Latinx principals face
challenges specific to their ethnicity and gender, and support includes helping leaders navigate
these biases and the politics of the position. Latinx principals want to feel that their ethnicity is
valuable and seen as a strength to stay in the position and district. In providing these supports,
districts can increase the retention of Latinx principals.
Leadership Support
In a study of suburban Latinx principals, researchers describe two important aspects of
Latinx principal retention: external and internal drivers and barriers. Internal drivers include

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passion, drive, and determination, while internal barriers include career doubt and questioning
leadership capacity through internalized biases (Fernandez et al., 2015). External drivers include
family support, mentors, and coaches, while external barriers include gender discrimination and
district resistance to hiring for diversity. (Fernandez et al., 2015). For Latinx principals to fight
internal and external barriers, they rely on mentoring programs, networking support, and
reassurances of organizational fit (Fernandez et al., 2015). Identifying drivers and addressing
barriers requires strategic recruitment and retention strategies of Latinx principals to ensure their
ability to stay in the principalship does not require them to change their ‘organizational fit.’ For
example, Latinx principals face double jeopardy of biases, stereotypes, and microaggressions
based on ethnicity/race and gender. For Latina principals, addressing external barriers, such as
the politics associated with those challenges, requires different strategies than it does for me
(Harts, 2019). Supporting the retention of Latinx principals requires a nuanced understanding of
their needs by gender and ethnicity.
Other studies on the impact of district support addressing the retention of principals of
color presented successful strategies already in use. Latinx principals identified the impact of
strategic development with meaningful learning assessments, such as peer support groups,
professional learning communities, and supportive directors (Mabry, 2021). Principal academies
that identify and support a leader’s personal and professional goals, as well as a mentoring
program for novice principals with more experienced principals, are impactful to principal
retention (Mabry, 2021). Access to resources and people for support provides the individual and
systemic support needed in a district system.
However, this support cannot be a general statement or dependent on the individual but
must be a systemwide program. Principals of color identify that when districts commit to

21
diversity, they must implement programs to address bias and create district goals with
development targets (Superville, 2021). This can include affinity groups for teachers/leaders of
color and school site opportunities for development and leadership, such as matching with
mentors of color and access to development opportunities inside and outside the district
(Superville, 2021). As described, Latinx principal retention is nuanced and must be seen as a
district-wide commitment with specific programs and opportunities that show a commitment to
recruiting and retaining diversity in leadership. The district’s actions must match the principals’
needs, and the first step in doing so is an understanding and commitment to meet their needs.
Mattering and Belonging
For Latinx principals, the sense of mattering and belonging in the organization, whether
at the school site or district, is critical to their retention in the position. In a national study on
Latinx principals, participants stated that their ethnic identity had a significant impact on their
identity as principals. About half of all participants reported that their identity created barriers as
leaders, such as facing bias and questioning their ability, independent of the gender of the Latinx
principal (Murakami et al., 2016). Most principals also shared that they bring a sense of
advocacy to their work, and the impact of that advocacy on students of color is one of their most
significant successes (Murakami et al., 2016). The impact of Latinx principals affects how they
lead and how they are seen and treated. Therefore, honoring the Latinx identity is key to their
success. As noted in the rationale for the creation and impact of the CALSA mentorship
academy, the ability of veteran Latinx leaders to give back to their community and younger
leaders is crucial for their sense of belonging and retention (Magdaleno, 2006). For leaders,
honoring and maintaining the sense of family, a large piece of the Latinx culture, helps to retain
them and make them feel valued.

22
The sense of value and community is part of Latinx leadership but is also unique for
Latina principals due to their gendered needs. They face the challenges of confronting society’s
gender roles and expectations of family roles, such as motherhood. They need support
confronting racism, sexism, and the idea of strong-man leadership (Martinez et al., 2020). They
need mentors who understand culture, family needs, and the demands of the job (Martinez et al.,
2020). Through this support, Latina principals feel less isolated. Those who want to challenge
the status quo must do so while facing biases against Latina women’s leadership (Méndez-Morse
et al., 2015). Therefore, retention practices must address their struggle (Méndez-Morse et al.,
2015). These principals want to feel that their presence matters, that they are not alone, and that
they will be supported in their struggles.
Applied Critical Leadership
Applied critical leadership (ACL) is one of the conceptual frameworks that serve as a
basis for studies in Latinx principal recruitment and retention due to its focus on the integration
of identity and educational leadership. Critical race theory (CRT) acknowledges the impact of
race, ethnicity, gender, and other forms of identity on education and educational leadership. This
serves as the basis for ACL, which is the application of CRT to school leadership and
acknowledges that leaders of color inherently lead differently from their White counterparts due
to the intersection of their identity, which impacts the ways leaders act, support, and engage with
educational partners.
Critical Race Theory
As CRT notes, there is no such thing as race-neutral and color-blind since race affects
every aspect of society. In education, CRT’s notable impact is the focus on equal opportunity for
all (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Curriculum maintains White supremacy, instruction posits students

23
of color as deficient in knowledge, and assessments are written with monolingual White students
in mind. In addressing educational inequities, White students are considered the highest
performing, and everyone else must do better, without acknowledging the impact of school
funding and desegregation in the school communities (Ladson-Billings, 1998). Using this lens in
studying educational leadership, CRT also notes the importance of counter-storytelling by those
most marginalized to share their perspectives in their own words (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). To
analyze the impact of race and ethnicity on Latinx leaders, research around this topic must
include the voices of the leaders to share their successes and challenges if a roadmap for change
is going to be created to support Latinx principals.
Applied Critical Leadership Theory
Research has shown that principal leadership is important for school stability as well as
impacts teacher recruitment and retention. Data shows that having a principal of color leads to
more teachers of color being hired and retained, as well as higher job satisfaction (Lindsay et al.,
2021). Also, male teachers are more likely to leave schools with a female principal (Lindsay et
al., 2021). This data leads to the question of why this data exists; does having a principal of color
impact representation, leadership style, or both?
The answer to this question starts with culturally responsive school leadership and
branches into ACL. Culturally responsive school leadership includes the following
characteristics: critical self-reflection on leadership practices, developing culturally responsive
teachers, promoting a culturally responsive school environment, and engaging
students/parents/indigenous communities (Khalifa et al., 2016). These leadership characteristics
focus on the principal self-reflecting, identifying, acknowledging, and collaborating with others
to create a culturally responsive environment. Studies on principals of color show that they focus

24
on trust and relationship building, modeling social justice through empowered leadership, and
recognizing the needs of teachers of color, which leads to higher retention rates (Sun & Miller,
2020). Through these practices, principals of color bring their identity to their work, which is
essential to their success and leadership style.
For Latinx principals, ACL includes critical conversations with a CRT lens, group
consensus, honoring constituents, leading by example, and servant leadership (Santamaría,
2014). These terms mean that the principal is not just aware of injustice but actively willing to
address it. They lead by example and include all voices in leadership decisions because they feel
their role is to serve the students and the community. This is embedded in how they lead and
know. The Latinx identity is seen as an asset to their leadership (Santamaría et al., 2014). For
them, the characteristics of ACL are commonly seen in their leadership (Santamaría et al., 2014).
Given the common characteristics seen in Latinx leadership, acknowledging these characteristics
and assets is impactful to the support needed through recruitment and retention.
Cultural Social Identity
Social identity theory is a conceptual framework that serves as a foundation for Latinx
principal recruitment and retention due to the focus on the impact of social identity on a leader’s
choices. Social identity theory acknowledges the impact of social identity on a person’s choices,
and cultural social identity theory focuses on the impact of cultural identity, such as race and
ethnicity, on a person’s choices. Identity affects how and where a person leads, what keeps them
in the job or district, and what aspects of their identity need to be honored. Therefore,
recruitment and retention practices that do not acknowledge the impact of a leader’s cultural
identity on their actions are missing key components in their effectiveness.

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Social Identity Theory
As a Latinx principal, one’s cultural identity impacts one’s identity and needs as people.
One’s social identity affects identity and self-perception, and identity as a part of a social group
becomes prominent in settings where one feels one’s cultural identity is important (Hogg et al.,
1995). Cultural identity gives an identity to a person and enhances the sense of belonging in their
group, thus leading to in-group behaviors and organizing others into other categories (Hogg et
al., 1995). For Latinx principals, this means they are cognizant of the cultural associations and
perceptions of Latinos and act in ways that embody or reject these notions as needed. This sense
of identity affects their sense of belonging in that group and outside of the group. Community
cultural wealth is often discussed as one positive association with cultural identity. Community
cultural wealth includes familial, social, linguistic, and cultural wealth (Yosso, 2005). Latinx
principals bring multiple aspects of cultural wealth into their leadership, from their connection to
the Latino culture and ways of being, linguistic wealth, and generational knowledge (Yosso,
2005). Recognizing and honoring their cultural identity is important to their sense of belonging
and impacts their ways of being.
Leaders of Color and Social Identity Theory
Latinx communities identify the need for Latinx principals to bridge the connection
between the community and schools. When looking at graduates’ workforce choices, Latinx
graduates acknowledge that their cultural identity impacts their future career choices- they want
to work somewhere where their culture is honored (Haley et al., 2014). This includes the values,
beliefs, and perspectives that represent their cultural community and being treated like their
identity brings value to an organization (Haley et al., 2014). Latinx community members
themselvess mimic this mentality. As the Latinx student population increases, Latinx parents and

26
students say they want to see teachers and school leaders who look like them (Jimenez, 2022).
The Latinx representation at the school site is also connected to the desire to have material
translated into multiple languages and include parent education on navigating the education
system (Jimenez, 2022). For school districts that are listening to the desires and needs of their
communities, this means that school districts need to create a pipeline that increases Latinx
representation.
For principals of color, the need for cultural connection to the community also means that
leaders have to honor their own identity in their leadership. For African Americans, there is a
long history of African American leaders leading the way for struggle and justice. This unheard
narrative is part of the African American leader identity (Murtadha & Watts, 2005). Women of
color have their leadership identity, and they need allies who can provide them with steps to
succeed and navigate threats to success while advocating for systemic change (Wardell, 2020).
Women of color need to network with other leaders of color and power players, as well as
transformative allies who can leverage their capital to correct injustices (Wardell, 2020). As
shown, a principal of color has particular needs because their identity is unique to their gender
and culture. For Latinx principals, honoring one’s identity as a leader is imperative to their
success as they navigate the leadership pipeline.
Conceptual Framework and Summary
In summary, the literature review shows that Latinx principal recruitment begins at the
teacher-leader level and must be supported throughout the leadership pipeline. Latinx teachers
are often pushed out of education as they deal with racial battle fatigue and alienation (Amos,
2020; Pizarro & Kohli, 2020). For teacher-leaders who can sustain themselves, recruitment for
the principalship is bound by inequity and bias (Carrillo, 2008; Fuller et al., 2019). Latinx

27
leaders have identified that mentoring and other forms of support helped them navigate the
leadership pipeline (Magdaleno, 2006; Martinez et al., 2020).
Retention must be tailored to meet specific needs. For example, Latinx principals still
navigate the same biases that they addressed as teachers (Fernandez et al., 2015). The lack of
mentoring by Latinx leaders means they are not supported and mentored by someone who can
identify with and help them navigate their context (Magdaleno, 2006; Méndez-Morse et al.,
2015).
Therefore, the theoretical framework (Figure 1) incorporates ACL and cultural social
identity with principal recruitment and retention. Latinx principals’ leadership is an asset and
unique to their identity (Santamaría et al., 2014). In this way, their retention depends on how
leaders are honored so that they can have a significant impact on the school community (Sun &
Miller, 2020). They stay in districts that honor their identity (Haley et al., 2014). The informal
and formal recruitment and retention systems are intermixed with these theoretical frameworks
to enhance a sense of mattering and belonging. If individuals feel seen, appreciated, and valued
for their identities and leadership and receive support to thrive, they can be recruited and retained
at higher levels. Districts and schools can turn mattering and belonging into action that creates a
sustainable Latinx leadership pipeline. For this reason, the framework in Figure 1 incorporates
all aspects of recruitment and retention that are critical to a sense of mattering and belonging.

28
Figure
1
Conceptual Framework

29
Chapter Three: Methodology
While the nation has an increasing rate of Latinx students, Latinx school principals are
rare across the nation, with data showing that 10% were Latinx in 2017 (NCES, 2018). By 2030,
Latinx students will be 30% of the school population and in some states, such as California,
Latinx are already the majority of the student population (Jimenez, 2022). The school principal
greatly influences student and staff success, including teacher retention, instructional quality, and
positive school culture (Lindsay et al., 2021). In addition, Latinx principals bring their
perspectives to social justice action because they have felt or experienced the inequities that
social justice movements aim to eradicate (Santamaría, 2014). Given the importance of Latinx
leaders in addressing school inequalities, it is important to understand how they are supported
and the barriers they face as they rise to principalship and serve as impactful leaders in the
principal seat.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study on belonging and mattering for Latinx principals was to
identify the informal and formal barriers and support these leaders experience on their way to the
principal seat. Identifying aspects of retention and recruitment that support and hinder success
will help to develop effective strategies for districts and schools to tailor their recruitment and
retention approaches to supporting Latinx candidates’ and leaders’ needs.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What supports do Latinx principals experience that encourage them to pursue and
succeed in attaining a principal position?

30
2. What role does cultural social identity have in the leadership journey of Latinx
principals?
3. What role does institutional bias play in the leadership journey of Latinx principals?
Selection of the Population
I used interviews, focus groups, and surveys to better understand what led to the
participants’ success and what barriers they encountered and overcame to remain in their roles.
Their experiences provide insight into formal and informal supports that mattered to them and
the barriers hindering progress and success.
Participants were Latinx principals serving in public schools across the United States
during the 2023–24 school year. The participants had between 3 and 10 years of experience as
principals. Information used for their selection came from state leadership networks, professional
platforms like LinkedIn, and other state databases. The participants served in schools that ranged
in size.
To conduct this study, I used convenience sampling. Convenience sampling is supported
due to the small number of individuals who meet the study criteria (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Therefore, I also used purposeful sampling to recruit participants whose attributes I needed for
the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This allowed for a focused sample population who met the
conditions defined for the study and led to more reliable analysis based on a scope of time within
the participants’ careers.
Design Summary
This phenomenological study was a qualitative study that utilized some quantitative data
to learn how the participants interpreted their supports and obstacles in becoming and remaining
public school principals. Quantitative survey questions, qualitative interviews, and focus groups

31
allow researchers to gather results and evidence from differing sample sizes and methods to
verify the research questions (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). This study’s research methods
allowed for interacting with participants in their natural settings and interpreting how they saw
the world and their experiences.
This study focused on the research problem and purpose of the study in Chapter One,
followed by a review of literature in Chapter Two that examines two themes. Chapter Three
addressed how the study was conducted, including how participants were selected, and Chapters
Four and Five are focused on analyzing, interpreting, and reporting on the data.
Methodology
The methodology includes quantitative data from surveys using a questionnaire and
qualitative data from open-ended interviews and focus groups with Latinx male and female
principals in public schools. When developing the interview protocol, I used a base set of semistructured questions related to the research questions and conceptual framework while allowing
for flexibility in follow-up questions (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). In addition, I used focus
groups to allow participants an environment where those with similar backgrounds could
influence and be influenced by others in an open conversation (Krueger & Casey, 2015).
Interviews, focus groups, and surveys allowed for a more in-depth analysis of the support and
obstacles the participants faced and overcame in their own words. This also allowed for
triangulation of responses to understand and analyze trends in their experiences. The three
protocols helped to address the three research questions.
Qualitative Research Method
To ensure the study’s validity, I used a mixed triangulation approach to check for
consistency in findings from the interview, focus group, and survey data. In addition to these

32
three data sources, I used the two theories of ACL and social cultural identity theory to analyze
the findings within these theoretical constructs.
Instrument and Protocols
Qualitative Instrument
I gathered the qualitative data through individual and focus group interviews. The
interview protocol consists of 15 interview questions (see Appendix B). It includes follow-up
questions to dive deeper into the participants’ beliefs and experiences to gather as much data as
possible. I used probes or follow-up questions to clarify information. I used in-person and virtual
interviews to ensure I reached as many participants as possible. The interview questions were
open-ended, and the interviews themselves were semi-structured. I took notes during the
interviews and recorded each interview with the participants’ consent.
The other qualitative data source was focus group interviews. The study included three
focus groups wherein I asked six questions (see Appendix C). These questions were open-ended
to allow for discussion among participants when sharing their experiences and comparison with
the experiences of others. In highlighting the participants’ authentic narrative, focus groups
allowed me to gather different data from interviews as participants engaged with each other’s
experiences and thoughts. I used virtual focus groups to reach a range of participants across a
variety of locations. The interview questions were open-ended, and I took notes. For ease of
transcription, I recorded the focus groups with the participants’ consent.
Quantitative Instrument
I gathered the quantitative data through a survey consisting of 13 questions (see
Appendix D). All questions focused on addressing the research questions. Part 1 of the protocol
asked about demographic information, Part 2 centered on pre-principal experiences, Part 3

33
centered on principal experiences, and Part 4 centered on the ideal Latinx principal pipeline. Part
5 asked for additional demographic data to recruit other respondents. All but the last few
questions are closed-ended. The last question was open-ended and asked for additional
qualitative data. The majority of the survey responses are multiple-choice, with the last two
including a Likert scale of 1 to 5 to represent strongly disagree to strongly agree with an option
of not applicable. I surveyed 23 respondents in the United States via Google Forms.
The purpose of the survey was to gather data from a variety of respondents to reach
additional participants. To increase the number of participants, I designed the survey to be
completed quickly for those with limited time or availability and allow for deeper data analysis.
The survey was intended to find commonalities and differences among participants by
determining the frequency of their experiences and opinions about support and barriers.
Data Collection
I used the following data collection steps for this study: (a) identify networks or
organizations with access to individuals applicable to the study criteria, (b) identify individuals
who meet the study criteria, (c) gain access and create a relationship, (d) purposeful sampling, (e)
collect the data and record the information, (f) solve any field issues that occur, (g) store the data
securely. The data collection started with surveys and continued with interviews and focus
groups.
I sent a survey to professional organizations for administrators and other ethnicity-based
organizations. These associations include the Association of California School Administrators
(ACSA), CALSA, the Association of Latino Administrators and Superintendents (ALAS), and
the Principal Leadership Institute. In addition, I used my professional network through LinkedIn
to share my survey and gather additional responses. The goal was to use the survey data to

34
answer the research questions and verify interview and focus group data. To collect the
quantitative data, I sent the surveys to my networks using the previously mentioned criteria, with
the goal of no less than 20 completed and returned surveys. I sent out the survey twice per
network through a period of 2 months and only sent to individuals when they reached out
specifically. After individual interviews, I also shared the survey in hopes that they would send it
to people they knew. The survey questions at the end asked for information on potential
participants to identify further interviewees, focus group participants, and survey respondents.
To collect the qualitative data, I conducted individual interviews. I asked potential
participants if they could participate in individual interviews, focus groups, or both. I then
determined the participants for each of the study’s components and whether more participants
were needed. To gather additional survey participants, I asked each interviewee if they would
connect me with one additional person who met the criteria and reached out to them for an
interview as well. As mentioned before, I used purposeful sampling to select interview and focus
group participants who meet the study’s criteria to best answer the research questions and
address the study’s purpose. The participants provided consent prior to their interviews to ensure
confidentiality.
I scheduled the interviews and focus groups ahead of time to allow for sufficient time to
clarify questions and best accommodate the participants’ schedules. This allowed the participants
to feel comfortable as they prepared for their interviews. I informed them that they would be
recorded and that I would take notes. I also informed them of data security measures (Appendix
A), including how data would be securely maintained and destroyed and the use of pseudonyms
and unidentifiable coding in place of their names and those of their schools and districts. I
transcribed and reviewed the interviews.

35
Data Analysis
This qualitative study utilized a mixed-methods data collection approach, incorporating
the quantitative data from surveys and the qualitative data from interviews and focus groups. All
survey and interview questions connected to the research questions and conceptual framework
that guided the data analysis.
After the collection of the quantitative and qualitative data, I wrote separate reports
documenting the findings from each data source. I transcribed and coded all responses using the
NVIVO system. To triangulate the data (see Figure 2), I compared the quantitative and
qualitative data to the findings of the literature review to identify similarities and differences
among the findings. Social cultural identity theory and ACL theory provided a structure for
contextual analysis.
Figure 2
Triangulation of the Data
Data
triangulation
Theories: cultural
social identity theory
& applied critical
leadership
Qualitative data:
interviews & focus
groups
Quantitative data:
surveys

36
Validity and Reliability
Throughout this study, I made every attempt to ensure validity and reliability. Efforts
included multiple aspects of ensuring validity and reliability, such as data triangulation,
researcher self-reflection on assumptions, peer review and editing of survey and interview
questions, adequate time collecting and reviewing data, and purposefully seeking variation in the
sample selection.
Positionality
I identify as a biracial Latina woman. Being biracial, I am mixed Caucasian and Mexican
American. I identify with my Latina roots both culturally, linguistically, and physically. I am
also a novice high school principal. As a Latina teacher, I never believed I would become a
principal, but I have had mentors and support networks along my leadership journey who guided
me to my principalship. I am also a California native who currently works in California. I work
in the general area where I grew up and identify with the roots of the community where I work.
Summary
This phenomenological study uses a mixed-methods data collection approach, using
quantitative data from surveys and qualitative data from interviews and focus groups. The data
collection from Latinx principals will be analyzed to address the research questions about
informal and formal support as well as barriers to success in the recruitment and retention of
Latinx principals. Major themes derived from the data will be presented in Chapter Four, with a
deeper analysis and discussion of findings in Chapter Five, where I will present a framework for
Latinx principal support.

37
Chapter Four: Results
The purpose of this study was to understand the most salient factors affecting the
recruitment and retention of Latinx principals in K–12 districts across the country. Through this
study, aspects of support and obstacles are identified to gain a deeper understanding of the
participants’ needs. The research questions focus on recruitment from teacher-leader to
principalship and retention from the early years of principalship to current experiences. These
focus areas aided in drafting a plan to support and retain Latinx principals to share with districts
and schools.
Participants
All participants met the criteria of being Latinx and currently serving as principals in K–
12 schools with 3 to 11 years of experience. There were 23 survey respondents, as shown in
Table 1. Although some served as principals at multiple sites, for the purposes of this analysis,
the site level count is based on the principal’s highest. For example, if they worked at elementary
and middle schools, I listed them in the middle school category. These respondents were 12
elementary principals, six middle school principals, and five high school principals. In terms of
years of experience, 11 respondents had 3 to 6 years, three had 7 to 8 years, and nine had 9 to 11
years of experience. Eight respondents were male, 13 were female, and two did not respond
about their gender.

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Table 1
Survey Respondents
Years of principal experience Gender
3–6 7–8 9–11 male female n/a
Elementary 5 2 5 5 6 1
Middle 3 0 3 1 4 1
High 3 1 1 2 3 0
Total 11 3 9 8 13 2
All respondents were invited to participate in an individual or group interview. Seven
interviewees were also survey respondents, but the other six did not complete the survey (see
Table 2). Interviewees were eight elementary principals, four middle school principals, and one
high school principal. There were four male and nine female interviewees. Nine of these
interviews were conducted individually, and two consisted of two principals. In addition, the
interviewees lived in California, New York, Nevada, Illinois, and Colorado.
Table 2
Interviewees
Years of principal experience Gender
3–6 7–8 9–11 male female
Elementary 2 2 4 2 6
Middle 3 0 1 2 2
High 1 0 0 0 1
Total 6 2 5 4 9

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Results
The following sections present the research findings, organized by research question. For
each question, there is a review of relevant literature and a preview of the results. The results are
then presented in themes that came from each question. Finally, summaries of the results for
each question are presented with a final summary. Below are the research questions:
1. What supports do Latinx principals experience that encourage them to pursue and
succeed in attaining a principal position?
2. What role does cultural social identity have in the leadership journey of Latinx
principals?
3. What role does institutional bias play in the leadership journey of Latinx principals?
Results Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked about the supports that the participants experienced that
encouraged them to pursue and attain a principal position. For aspiring Latinx principals, their
development as leaders leads to access to the principal position and depends on the support they
receive on their leadership journey. For example, teachers of color describe their White
colleagues forcing them into roles of “multicultural experts” by having them chair multicultural
committees and relying on them to solve the racial problems in their classes (Madsen et al.,
2019). To address these concerns, Latinx leaders must move beyond these labels. Research on
retaining teachers of color noted the benefits of leadership opportunities for growth and general
leadership support (Carver-Thomas, 2018). This leadership support includes mentoring and
guidance for aspiring Latinx principals. Research found that Latinx leaders want to be role
models and identify the significant impact of mentors on their own leadership development

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(Carrillo, 2008). Aspiring Latinx principals are supported by the professional development they
receive, the leadership opportunities they have, and the guidance they receive along the way.
Once in their principalship, Latinx principals are supported by professional development,
mentoring and networking, and support in addressing issues they face. For instance, principal
academies that identify and support a leader’s personal and professional goals, as well as a
mentoring program for novice principals with more experienced principals, are impactful to
principal retention (Mabry, 2021). In both addressing their development and goals, Latinx
principals are supported to stay in the principalship. Latinx principals often face challenges based
on both their identity and the complexities of the principalship; therefore, support from the
district to sustain them is needed. Principals of color identify that when districts commit to
diversity, they must implement programs to address bias and create district goals with
development targets (Superville, 2021). Once a district recruits a Latinx principal, it must
provide the support to retain them so that they can succeed and stay in the principalship.
Building on this research basis, this study revealed six key findings.
Principal Ascension: Targeted and Representative Recruitment Practices for Latinx
Principals Lead to More Latinx Leaders Within the District
Many participants stated that their districts engaged in recruitment programs but
identified that there was a lack of representation of Latinx leaders in these efforts. For example,
Jasmine shared that her district attends hiring fairs, but there is a lack of representation of Latinx
staff in those pools to become teachers and future leaders. She noted that in order to address
representation, “you have to have people who are advocates for Latinos and minority groups.
That they are also making sure that our people are being represented in these [hiring] pools.”

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This same sentiment was echoed in regard to representation in districts’ training
programs for incoming leaders. Patricia was part of a cohort of rising principals and stated that
her cohort was representative because “with the [cohort] acceptance rate, I know that that’s one
of the big things that they do look at. I would say we’ve never had as many superintendents of
color and principals that are Latinx, and they’re very intentional with it.” This intentionality of
representation helped her feel included as a leader. In addition, she received financial support to
complete the program, which showed district-level commitment to diversity. Marco shared about
the support needed to become a principal:
Getting both financial support and subsidies in order to make sure that there’s a point of
entry into the graduate level programming [is needed]. And then to make sure that those
recruitment efforts are happening across the board and not just because there’s a Latinx
majority Latinx school and we need a Latinx leader.
As supported by 81% of the principals (survey and interview data), recruitment efforts must
include the targeted recruitment of Latinx leaders in the pool itself and the availability of district
leadership development programs that include clear intentional support.
Principal Ascension- Latinx Principals Highlight the Importance of School Leadership
Development and Culturally Relevant Professional Development on Their Leadership
Journey
Regarding district-offered and self-selected professional development opportunities preprincipalship, the participants spoke to differences that allude to a greater need for culturally
based development. When asked what professional learning opportunities their work site or
district provided them before they became principals, the highest responses were site
committees, out-of-district training and conferences, and district-level initiatives (Table 3).

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While the majority of leaders had an opportunity for leadership roles in the district and at the
worksite, as well as outside professional development, very few had the opportunity to engage
with affinity groups, mentoring, or leadership-specific training.
Table 3
Prior to Being a Principal, What Professional Learning Opportunities Did You Take Part in
(Choose All That Apply)?
District provided Self-selected
Response n % n %
Site or district-level initiatives 16 70 – –
Site committees 21 91 – –
School leadership development (shadow, etc) 9 39 21 91
Affinity groups 3 13 – –
Mentoring 6 26 6 26
Cultural identity-based learning opportunities – – 10 44
Membership to culturally based organizations – – 3 13
Out-of-district training 19 83 – –
Networking – – 9 39
Other 2 8 5 20
Note. Cells without data results indicate questions not asked in that specific survey.

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When asked what self-selected professional learning opportunities they took part in
before becoming principals, the highest response was school leadership learning opportunities,
although that was one of the lowest opportunities offered (Table 3). While mentoring stayed
constant in both what was offered by the district and self-selected, there was a high percentage of
respondents who chose cultural identity-based learning opportunities and networking. Given that
the question of district and site committees was not asked in the self-selected survey question,
this data cannot be compared to see if it would yield a similar response. Although the responses
do not match exactly, the survey shows Latinx principals place high importance on school
leadership development and culturally based supports pre-principalship.
In addition to the survey data, interview data showed a similar trend on the importance of
school leadership development through leadership opportunities with the school and district. As
Yolanda stated, her variety of teacher leadership roles helped her learn how to advocate for
students and work with colleagues and parents. This propelled her to feel confident applying to
leadership roles and alleviated her fears of the next step. “I was too afraid of how I was gonna
accomplish it? How was I gonna do it? It was just really, I just had to go for it.” Given similar
experiences, Clara looks for teacher leaders and hopes to foster their leadership by “giving them
opportunities to empower them by encouraging and giving them all the training, motivational
support and knowledge that I have.”
Outside of informal development, Latinx principals identified supportive district
leadership development they have experienced. One example is an aspiring principal cohort
focused on professional development and training, such as the one Priscilla was part of. She
described the experience as creating a tribe of support: “the connections within that cohort, the
blessing for that was the connection. It was having a tribe that’s going through the same stuff you

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were at the same time.” Patricia, who was part of a similar program, noted that “having built-in
shadowing and mentoring support was essential because sometimes you can get a degree in
something, but if you’ve never worked it, you don’t really know what you’re getting into.” This
desire for professional development continued into the principalship as well. Romeo mentioned
wanting to be supported by the district in doing school visits with teachers to learn from other
leaders and sites. As he mentioned, “yes, we can do outside professional development, but the
district office needs to learn how to do more site-based management stuff [as well].” Data show
that Latinx principals place value on site and district development when possible.
Aligned with the survey data, interview data also shows Latinx principals placed a high
value on professional development outside of the district. Yolanda shared that her district pays
for all principals’ ACSA membership. In addition, they give principals one thousand dollars for
them to do extra training, whether it be with ACSA or another organization. Other principals
shared that their districts paid for them to attend professional development conferences outside
of the district as well. Marco described the conferences as “revitalizing because he came back
full of ideas to benefit the school.” Jasmine said that attending CALSA conferences helped and
inspired her:
I need that inspirational piece and that like-minded community so that I can continue to
do what I do. I get burned out by the day-to-day. I can keep that fire going ’cause every
time I’m going down, it [conferences] picks me up.
The participants noted the importance of leadership development opportunities inside and
outside the district so that they can grow and learn as professionals.

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Principal Ascension and Retention- Latinx Principals Identify the Impact of Networking on
Their Ability to Become Successful Principals
When asked about the professional development learning opportunities they have
participated in since becoming principals that led to their success and retention, 74% responded
that school leadership training led to their success, while 61% responded that networking led to
their success (Table 4). The same number of respondents noted that cultural identity-based
training, membership to culturally based programs, and mentorship impacted them.
Table 4
Since Becoming a Principal, What Professional Learning Opportunities Have You Participated
in That Have Led to Your Success and Retention? (Choose All That Apply)
Responses n %
School leadership training (programs, etc) 17 74
Networking 14 61
Cultural identity-based training 10 44
Membership to culturally based programs 10 44
Mentorship programs 10 44
None 1 4

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In alignment with survey data about the impact of networking prior to the principalship,
the interviewees stated that networking should start early and require explicit instruction. For
example, Jaime is a part of the CALSA organization and sends teacher leaders to CALSA “to
give them that opportunity to become part of CALSA and get motivated by talking to other
people and having a network.” Networking allows people to see themselves differently and form
bonds with others because, as Jasmine shared, “Nos hacemos menos [we make ourselves smaller
and smaller]. So, it’s picking up those people and saying, you have what it takes. We’re tapping
on the shoulders of others and moving them up.” However, Yolanda shared that although she
learned to network over time, it is not easy for some: “I think that’s one area that I think we don’t
know how to do [network].” For networking to be effective, networking is a skill that can be
taught over time.
The survey and interview data revealed that the participants value networking more while
in the principal seat, and in addition, they indicate that cultural-based networking is critical to
their growth. As Yolanda said, “At CALSA, I’m able to connect with other district leaders
without fearing that I’m not being politically correct. That has helped me to broaden my
horizons.” Similarly, Juana stated that her district connected her with other Latinx leaders
through a university partnership and found that she was not alone. She shared,
I found that connection with other [leaders of color] and knew that we’re not alone in the
struggle and how challenging it is to lead a school. But besides that, how the challenges
of being someone of color and a female leader makes it much more challenging.
For these principals, culturally based networking was important for their growth. However, when
cultural-based networking is not available, other forms of networking take center stage. As
Marco noted, his development was shaped by other forms of networking. He shared, “I’d go to

47
one conference, and they’d say, come to this, and then it’s been kind of interconnected, but I’ve
had a lot of opportunity to develop as an educational leader and educator in a lot of different
ways.”
The participants noted specific aspects of what is most impactful about networking in
contributing to retention. Interview data revealed that they felt they benefited from networking
because they gained different perspectives to sustain them. Betty stated, “You really do need
those kinds of opportunities [networking] because you need to be able to bounce ideas off of
others. You really need to have that because it does get hard.” Romeo agreed that his networks
support him so that “sometimes they talk me off the ledge, and sometimes I talk to them off the
ledge. It’s good to be able to get different perspectives.” Juana also saw the benefit of learning
from others’ successes so that leaders could “share different ideas of what amazing programs are
happening. Why is your school thriving so well in reading, math, or your social-emotional
program? Having that network and being able to come together.” Networking helps develop the
skills needed to do well and thrive.
Principal Ascension and Retention- Latinx Principals Emphasize Need for Mentors Using
Both in-District and External Designs
According to survey data (see Figure 3), mentorship had a significant impact on the
majority of Latinx principals. Respondents were asked to rank their agreement with the
following statement: Mentorship impacted my leadership journey and is an integral part of my
success as a leader. While 44% strongly agreed, 30% somewhat agreed, and 13% were neutral,
only 4% somewhat disagreed, and 9% strongly disagreed. In total, 74% of respondents have been
impacted by mentoring (somewhat or strongly agree).

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Figure 3
Responses Regarding Mentorship
Interview data shows that district internal mentoring/coaching is critical to Latinx
principal development. Priscilla shared that her mentors pushed her into leadership roles and
guided her on what steps to take at what times. For Clara, she has four coaches as a principal.
She feels supported with this team coaching model because
It’s four different supports that I have that I can reach out to at all times for different
reasons. So, I really feel like, it’s just knowing that I’m not just stuck with one person. I
can go to many people and get many different perspectives.
In this model, a principal can hear multiple perspectives to navigate any challenges they may
have. Other principals referenced a single coach model they found to be beneficial. Jaime had a
principal coach using a roving design. He felt that it eased his isolation when he had someone to
call for any reason. In addition, Priscilla was also assigned a mentor for her 1st year as principal.
Carlos shared that he currently mentors new principals in the district, and he supports them in
decision making. As he said, “I can tell you, Hey, watch out for that, because that’s gonna help

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you in the long run. This is gonna keep you in the seat longer.” Internal district mentorship
provides guidance for Latinx principals to do well.
Interview data also showed that Latinx principals who did not have district mentors found
value in external mentorship. Jaime was part of the CALSA mentorship program for 2 years and
described the cohort mentorship experience as transformative. He and his mentor met weekly,
and “in the cohort experience, a bond was created between colleagues who are understanding
and supportive in ways others cannot be.” This external mentor guided his development. Jasmine
was assigned an internal mentor in her 1st year of principalship who ended up sharing details of
her struggles with district leadership. When this happened, a district leader told her “not to speak
candidly” because of what was being said. In response, Jasmine turned to CALSA and entered
the mentorship program. When reflecting on this experience, she shared,
I think not having the right mentor who can show you the politics of the school is crucial.
That district was huge and I made a lot of missteps when I first started because of it. I
honestly do 100% believe without a doubt that because I trusted my mentor, there was a
different perception about me after that, and it delayed my ascension.
Her story is an example of the perils of internal mentorship but was not an experience that was
common with other respondents. Instead, interview data reflected that having both internal and
external mentor programs can be useful to address any biases that may happen with mentors and
provide additional support.
Although interview data emphasized culturally aligned mentors, principals also
recognized the impact of a lack of Latinx mentors. Juana shared that she is looking for a coach
who mirrors her, who “understands what it is to walk in your shoes. An experienced coach who
is hopefully someone of color and is able to understand your struggle and is able to support you

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with the input and tools that you need.” Given the limited number of Latinx principals and
superintendents, Marco expressed that relying on only Latinx leaders to mentor Latinx principals
is not realistic. As he shared, “Opportunities for mentorship need to come from not just from
other Latinx leaders, but from every single leader.” As Jasmine said,
Mentorship improves your pay power [how much you get paid], how fast you move up,
your soft skills, and your political awareness. Just by the fact that you have a mentor who
knows the system and who can guide you through it.
Principal Retention- Latinx Principals Need Relational Trust and Support in Decision
Making
Interview data revealed that district support of Latinx principal decision making was
more important as a principal. Denica, who has been a principal in multiple districts, shared,
If you know that you’re gonna be supported at the district office, you can make decisions
freer than when you have to guess, are they gonna support me? If the superintendent is on
your side, at least you know they will support you. When you are unsupported, you’re on
an island. Second-guessing what you know is right. You can’t be expected to move a
school without support. It’s an impossible job.
As Denica shared, principals need district support to lead effectively. While this may look
different depending on the district, multiple principals stated it was critical. For Betty, support
from the district came in the ability to hire consultants to support her school’s PLC development.
For Carlos, that looks like advocating for what the school needs. As he shared, there are times
when he “needs to advocate for the school and remind the district that it is what he was hired for;
being able to know and advocate for the needs of the community without fear of repercussions.”

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Other principals shared that it was the ability to call anyone in the district office and receive
consistent guidance.
Specifically, interview data revealed that the district support starts from the
superintendent and goes through the district office. Carlos shared that “when the board is
questioning your academics, the superintendent can say they’re currently working on school
culture, and these are the changes they put in place. Now he or she is your voice.” Betty shared
that when she has concerns or sees potential trouble, she always goes to the superintendent, and
“they’re very open with me, and they say like, yes, do this. No, don’t do that. And then they’ll
tell me [solutions], but I do have to come up with my own solutions, too.” As interview data
shows, Latinx principals desire the support of the superintendent and cabinet when making
decisions.
Principal Retention: Principal Well-being Relies on a District Investment on Principal’s
Needs As People
Interview data also focused on how the participants were cared for as people over
business when needed. Megan shared that after an incident at her school, she felt the district did
not prioritize her needs as a person. She described the district’s reaction to the situation and said,
“the part that really took my confidence away was knowing that my district was prioritizing the
student’s seat above my ability to work in a protected space in my building.” This incident took
away her trust in the district and if this was the place for her. Romeo shared a similar sentiment
about the district prioritizing the outside perception over his needs,
I think the district office is more interested in keeping the status quo and not ruffling
feathers but outwardly having those conversations that we’re all about equity. I’ve had
different things happen at my school, and it’s really about them and their convenience.”

52
His experiences with the district showed him that the convenience and perception of situations
were more important than him as a leader and person. For the participants, honoring their needs
as people and leaders is essential to their feeling of care by the district.
Latinx principals shared that they value professional development and social gatherings
for district leaders. Patricia attended a well-being workshop and felt that the half-hour released
all her tension, even while it was through Zoom:
I think that there should be some kind of workshops, like yoga wellness for leaders. If
there was some kind of professional development of that sort for us, or even just talk
about things like time management, life balance, or how to do self-care, that would help.”
Outside of this space, Clara and Jaime both attended social events for leaders in their area and
felt supported by them. Clara shared that the social piece is important because it allows people to
share and understand each other. She noted, “The world is a tough place. It’s not always gonna
be great. There’s gonna be challenges, and so you need others that have had similar situations.”
Being seen is a priority.
Finally, interview data showed that the participants’ resilience depends on their wellbeing. Betty shared that one of her strengths is resilience:
You get beat up, and then you just gotta get up and do it again. So, it’s maintaining the
strength in order to continue. There’s days you just gotta like, dust off your knees and,
like, let’s do it again.
Romeo mentioned that it’s not just about the ability to get up again but the ability to never lose
faith in himself as a leader:
I call it struggle. We try, and we keep trying, you know? And for some people, the trying
has led them to negative paths. And for some of us, we’re trying to engage the system

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because we want to change the system, right? Some people are fed up with that, and the
system pushes them down. For me, the struggle is always what part of the system do we
keep and what part do we push out? And, of course, there are systems that are keeping
me in place because I have to be a certain thing, right? I have to act a certain way.
Given these challenges, burnout is easy. Jaime recognized this early on in his principalship and
admits he used to work 12-hour days. As he has stayed in the principal position, he found that he
became more ineffective, and he now makes sure to leave at a reasonable time and take care of
himself to thrive. The participants honored their resilience and acknowledged the impact of the
system on themselves but recognized the importance of their well-being as principals.
Discussion Research Question 1
Survey and interview data showed that the participants’ needs varied from preprincipalship to current principalship, but there were constant themes. For aspiring principals to
move past perceptions of their skills based on race and gender, teachers of color need to move
past roles as multicultural experts, focused on racial issues and no other aspects of leadership
(Madsen et al., 2019). To support their recruitment and retention, Latinx leaders need to be
represented in leadership development programs that teach them leadership skills so that they
have the skills and self-efficacy to move beyond any label.
In summary, the participants identified five components of an effective leadership
support design:
1. Impactful school leadership learning opportunities, such as
a. teachers leading site or district-wide professional development
b. cohort-based principal development
c. built-in shadowing and mentoring

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2. Financial support to attend conferences and/or pay for association memberships
3. Networking and mentoring
a. Networking skills need to be taught, and when someone knows how to use
their network, it supports their retention
b. Cultural (Latinx-based) and non-cultural (general professional) networking
and mentorship are both needed.
c. Mentorship programs that include district mentors, as well as external mentor
programs to offset the positives and negatives with both types of mentorship
4. Trust between the district and principal
a. Latinx principals noted that feeling trusted and supported by district
personnel, including the superintendent, was critical to their success.
5. Principal well-being support
a. Latinx principals want to feel the district prioritizes their well-being to support
them during their principalship.
Results Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked about the role of cultural social identity in the participants’
leadership journeys. Social cultural identity is the idea that one’s social identity impacts one’s
identity and self-perception, and identity as a part of a social group becomes prominent in
settings where one feels their cultural identity is important (Hogg et al., 1995). Cultural identity
gives an identity to a person and enhances the sense of belonging in that group, thus leading to
in-group behaviors, and organizing others into other categories (Hogg et al., 1995). As Latinx
principals, their cultural identity affects how they feel they are perceived and accepted in a
district and community and helps their leadership style.

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Research shows that Latinx principals stay in districts and communities where their
identity is valued. Latinx leaders want to work where the values, beliefs, and perspectives that
represent their cultural community and their identity bring value to an organization (Haley et al.,
2014). Latinx principals also stay in districts where their identity is honored (Haley et al., 2014).
For this reason, being accepted and supported is important for Latinx principals. For Latinx
leaders, the characteristics of ACL are commonly seen in their leadership (Santamaría et al.,
2014). For example, the majority of principals shared that they bring a sense of advocacy to their
work and that the impact of that advocacy on students of color is one of their largest successes
(Murakami et al., 2016). Latinx parents want Latinx leaders so that material can be translated
into multiple languages and parents can learn how to navigate the education system (Jimenez,
2022). For Latinx principals, their cultural social identity impacts where they work and how they
lead. Four research findings provide a more detailed look at how cultural social identity matters
relative to the Latinx principal experience.
Latinx Principals’ Identities Are Integral to the Support They Need in a District
As shown in Figure 4, 44% of respondents strongly agreed that their identity influences
the professional development opportunities they seek, and 30% somewhat agree. Only 13%
responded neutrally or strongly or somewhat disagreed. Therefore, given that 74% strongly or
somewhat agreed with the statement, the data shows a connection between identity and the
support sought.

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Figure 4
Responses Regarding Identity Influence
Interview data mirrors the survey data in the sense that the participants looked for ways
to support their Latinx identity. Marco identifies as the only Latino principal and the only one
from a low-income background, single-mother household, immigrant, and previously
undocumented. Given this context, he shared, “I don’t have within this district the kind of
support system that I would need. And so, it’s really neat that I’m able to go out and find that
elsewhere because I feel that I need it.” As Marco highlighted, without a sense of belonging, the
district’s willingness to provide support through external opportunities became critically
important to his retention. Similarly, Priscilla’s school district has a Latino superintendent who
“does a lot of work with equity and finding people of color to be in leadership positions. So, [my
Latinx identity] was probably more of an advantage for me than a disadvantage when moving
through the system.” In these instances, the participants found ways to belong in the district,
which sustains them.

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Latinx Principals’ Sense of Belonging in the School Community Is Needed for Success
The interviewees described a need to feel they matter and belong in the community.
Megan’s description of her first school community is one of care and resilience. She described
how that community influences her leadership today,
It was a deep community level of belonging that I experienced, and I saw very much how
the moves that the principal there was making at the time. He was planting the seeds so
that we could have this community belonging and know each other. And it was inspiring
to me and very impactful.
She said that being surrounded by this community and Latinx teachers, families, and students
made her feel pride in being Latinx. Similarly, Patricia expressed her pride in working in a
community with a high population of Latinx students and families:
I love having that representation, when I speak Spanish, or being able to understand that
struggle of first generation. And I think that the school community embraces that. And I
just love being able to help the families and create opportunities for the parents and
students that weren’t there before. And I think I just bring a different perspective than
administrators in the past [non-Latinx].
Both of their perspectives brought unique contributions that their school communities
appreciated. Other principals spoke about increasing student leadership opportunities as part of
their way of giving back to the community that parents and students appreciated. Another
described that his experience in the education system also helped him place himself in the seat of
his Latinx students and made him a better instructional leader. A sense of belonging in the
community is needed.

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When the principal does not feel a sense of belonging in the community, interview data
shows this is detrimental to the principal. As Romeo put it,
“I think that retaining principals is really about this idea of identity and belonging. You
know, your identity has to match up with what is happening in your context. And you
have to feel like you belong. Because if you don’t, then you don’t wanna stay. You
wanna move on to something else because whatever it is that you’re doing isn’t fulfilling
yourself. Let me tell you, there have been many moments in my principalship where I’m
kind of like, really? Am I selling myself out? I take those moments to question myself
and ask myself, am I belonging here? You know, I’m getting a lot of turbulence. Do I
belong? Do people really see me belonging here?”
As the study data shows, a sense of belonging will empower a Latinx principal. Without a sense
of belonging as a Latinx principal, the principal struggles to find fulfillment.
Latinx Principals Identify “Empowering the Community” as One of Their Biggest
Strengths
As shown in Table 5, the survey question asked about identity: In what ways do you feel
your Latinx identity impacts the leadership decisions you make? (choose all that apply). The
results were that 91% of respondents noted that promoting teachers of color to leadership roles,
addressing school culture through an asset based mindset, and focusing on community
connection were all aspects of their leadership. The lowest percent, 87%, believed that their
Latinx identity impacts their positive refrain of multilingualism, whereas 96% believe that
addressing racial/cultural biases that occur at the school site is impacted by their Latinx identity.
As the survey data shows, the Latinx identity shapes actions in multiple ways.

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Table 5
In What Ways Do You Feel Your Latinx Identity Impacts the Leadership Decisions You Make?
(Choose All That Apply)
Responses N %
Address cultural/racial biases that occur at the school site 22 96
Promote teachers of color to leadership roles 21 91
Address school culture through an asset based mindset 21 91
Focus on community connection as part of school community 21 91
Positive reframing of multilingualism 20 87
Interview and survey data aligned with a focus on community involvement. Community
cultural wealth includes the belief that a cultural group has familial, social, linguistic, and
cultural wealth (Yosso, 2005). Latinx principals bring multiple aspects of cultural wealth into
their leadership, from their connection to their culture and ways of being, linguistic wealth, and
generational knowledge (Yosso, 2005). Romeo shared that he comes “from a community
perspective. I’m not coming in this as an individualistic, put your bootstraps on kind of thing.
My race, my ethnicity have contributed to my understanding of the principalship.” He said his
Latinx identity defines his view of the principalship. Clara agreed with that perspective and
shared that she listens to what parents want so that she can “embrace opportunities to really make
those connections with our families and find leaders within our community and give them
opportunities to be present, to be visible, also to be heard.” Carlos shared this same sentiment,
with a focus on elevating parent voices. He said,
When you’ve got the community on your side, and you’re trying to do something, the
district doesn’t want it done. Parents are going to the board meeting like, “Hey, how
come our school’s not getting this?” They become vocal, and they work for the

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community. I can leave, and the community’s still gonna band together and ask for what
they want.
As Latinx principals, they identify that uplifting the voices of the community to support students
is part of their identity as Latinx leaders, as well as teaching families to navigate the education
system. Juana shared that her reason for staying in the principalship is working with “the kids
that don’t have the voice and the parents who also need the support and might not feel
comfortable in navigating our public education system.” Survey and interview data show that a
Latinx principal’s leadership style supports and engages communities for empowerment.
Latinx Principals Identify Making Equity-Based Decisions As Critical to Their Success
As survey data shows in Table 5, 96% of Latinx principal respondents believe that
addressing racial/cultural biases that occur at the school site is impacted by their Latinx identity.
Patricia shared that “I think it [Latinx identity] impacts you tremendously. It’s your culture. It’s
who you are in your life. I think it affects the way you view systems and structures and policy.”
As she highlighted, a Latinx principal’s identity impacts how they view the education system and
what inequities they look to impact. Romeo shared that he sees educational inequities at his
school. For example, “all the indicators should be pointing to this population [Latinx] should be
at least 50% at grade level. They should be about the same as their white peers, but what’s going
on?” In sharing this perspective, he makes a direct connection to his identity as a Latinx principal
responsible for identifying an inequity event in his school’s data and trying to find solutions to
the issues at the site.
Interview data shows that participants see and address inequities by making equity-based
decisions. Patricia noted that her actions come in two forms: intentionally hiring teachers of
color and erasing roadblocks for Latinx families and students. In hiring Lainx teachers, she

61
admits, “It is a struggle because it is such a difficult process in recruiting and interviewing to find
qualified teachers and to really intentionally think about what you want that to look like in your
building.” Similarly, eradicating roadblocks, such as the lengthy registration process for families
new to the country, is another battle. She shared, “I revamped the whole registration system. We
register them, and that child is coming to school. And I had to have difficult conversations where
I said, ‘you see that kid sitting there? That kid is me. That family is me.’” As Patricia shared, she
addresses inequities by eradicating roadblocks. For Romeo, addressing equities comes with
countering narratives in his primarily White teaching staff about how classrooms should be -
from “kids sitting at their desks all the time with their hands up” to “Why aren’t they up and
about talking and engaging each other and collaborating, building things together?” As this data
shows, addressing inequity is part of the Latinx principal identity, and the work that they
perceive needs to be done and prioritized.
Interview data shows that for Latinx principals, leading this way comes with challenges.
Betty shared that making equity-based decisions is challenging but necessary. She shared,
“Holding onto your priorities and really being sure as to what you stand for, right? If
you’re doing something for the benefit of the students, what’s right for kids, that’s
number one. We wanna support our staff, but not if it goes against the number one. And
it’s hard. Sometimes, you get placed in that situation where it’s gonna be the adult being
happy or the needs of the kids. And so, as long as you’re being consistent and doing
things for the benefit of the kids, I think that you can kinda stay strong.”
As Betty emphasized, making equity-based decisions is not easy and comes with push back and
challenges. As Latinx principals, they share that focus and resilience are key to staying strong.

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Discussion Research Question 2
Survey and interview data show that Latinx principals’ cultural identity has a significant
impact on what they need to succeed in their jobs and how they lead their school sites. Latinx
principals need to feel a sense of belonging and mattering within the school district and in the
community. This starts with acknowledging their needs and choice of professional development.
When districts do not have cultural support, individuals seek support from other spaces. They
need to feel that their identity is appreciated by the community because when a principal does
not feel a sense of belonging, they will leave to go to another district or school where they can
have that.
Survey and interview data also show that the Latinx identity impacts how leaders act.
Through the culturally responsive school leadership model, identity affects multiple aspects of
leadership. However, the interviewees highlighted community engagement and equity-based
decisions. Their ability to listen to the community’s needs and empower them to advocate for
their needs yielded a sense of pride. They also used equity-based leadership to identify and
address inequities. Specific approaches they cited included hiring more Latinx teachers,
addressing teacher biases, and erasing roadblocks in place that harmed students and families.
While being equity-focused was challenging, they did so by being student-centered at all times.
Results Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked about the role of institutional bias in the participants’
leadership journeys. They stated that they faced discrimination and microaggressions from
individuals and on a systemic level. Individually, racial battle fatigue describes the constant
battle of racial issues and microaggressions that teachers of color face (Pizarro & Kohli, 2020).
Systematically, prior research uncovered scrutiny over credentials, from subtle challenges to

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outright racism and being consistently overlooked for positions due to being judged incapable
(Carrillo, 2008). In addition, these leaders are often placed at the hardest schools with the most
needs and have consistent pressure stemming from being Latinx administrators (Carrillo, 2008).
In addition, females face discrimination for their ethnicity and gender. When looking at
gender, data shows that women of any race are less likely to be employed as principals compared
to White men and men of color (Fuller et al., 2019). Latina principals need support confronting
racism and the idea of strong-man leadership (Martinez et al., 2020). They face gendered
expectations as they deal with challenges to their leadership. Since women of color have a
unique leadership identity, they need allies who can provide them with strategies to succeed and
proven steps to navigate threats to their success when they advocate for system-wide change
(Wardell, 2020). They need support to address the ethnic and intersectional biases they face as
well as sustain themselves in the principalship. Five key findings emerged in this study.
Pre- and Post-principal Comparison of Challenges Show Microaggressions and a Lack of
Leadership Development Opportunities
Survey questions asked about challenges before and during principalship. The survey
questions asked about challenges faced in becoming principals and once in the role (Table 6).
Figure 5 shows the comparison in a graph.

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Table 6
Prior to, and Since Being a Principal, What, if Any, Were Some Challenges You Have Faced and
Overcome? (Choose All That Apply)
Responses
%
(pre-principal)
%
(current principal)
Lack of role models or mentors that I could relate to 56 39
Lack of culturally based opportunities for collaboration 52 44
Not being made aware of different professional
development available 48 52
Microaggressions/culturally based aggressions at work 44 44
Lack of opportunities for leadership development in
site/district 39 39
Not encouraged to apply to leadership positions 35 26
Lack of funding to attend conferences 26 35
None 4 13
Leaders of color lack of support in leaders of color space 0 4
Figure 5
Challenges Faced on Latinx Principal Leadership Journey

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The survey data revealed that, before and during the principalship, the respondents faced
consistent and sustained challenges in the areas of lack of opportunities for leadership
development and microaggressions at work. Prior to the principalship, there was a higher
percentage of respondents not encouraged to apply to leadership positions, a lack of culturally
based collaboration opportunities, and a lack of role models to whom they could relate. During
the principalship, other challenges arose, such as a lack of funding to attend conferences and not
being made aware of professional development opportunities.
Institutional Bias Starts With the Superintendent and Cabinet
Interview data showed that institutional bias from the superintendent and cabinet
inhibited the participants from being effective in a district. Denica shared that she faced two
different district responses to her Latinx identity. In one district,
I was not accepted there, and it made my job very, very difficult. The superintendent
brought me in. She was Anglo, but I just didn’t feel the support. And so, I left pretty
quickly because if you don’t [have support], the job is too hard.
After that experience, she went to another district led by a Latina superintendent:
She hires pretty much all females, and she hires strong women. We know the
accountability that she puts on us, and I knew coming in what I was getting into.
Whereas, in the [other district], I was hired by a female, but I guess I wasn’t the right
shade.
Denica’s experiences show that a superintendent’s bias impacts a Latinx principal’s ability to do
well. Carlos agreed with her and said that in some districts, “you wouldn’t get a job as a principal
unless you really connected with the people at the cabinet level. And the cabinet-level never
looked like me.” For Juana, this extends to incidents of bias and disrespect: “That’s the message

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[not tolerating disrespect] that should be coming from higher management. [Equity and respect]
is the vision and the mission and should not just be some logo that is put out there.” Institutional
bias starts at the top and continues through the district.
Bias Against Latinx Principals Comes From All Community Members and Is Constant
Interview data shed light on how the participants faced bias from colleagues that left
them feeling unseen. Romeo described an instance when the union president claimed that he was
yelling in classrooms, saying “structure,” and human resources asked him about it. In his
reflection on that conversation, he shared, “I think one of the biggest pieces that as an
administrator I want; I want people to believe what I’m saying because, why would I do
something so strange, that doesn’t fit my character?” He expressed concern that his identity
impacted who district personnel believed him to be, contrary to his character. For Marco, his
identity leads him to be dismissed by colleagues. He shared,
Whenever they need this non-White perspective, they always think that I’m the voice for
everything. That gets frustrating being the only voice in a room full of decision makers
that has my perspective. When I believe that it’s time to advocate, people dismiss it as
this personal qualm that I have rather than something we need to do better.
As interview data shows, the Latinx identity is used to alienate and dismiss Latinx principals.
Interview data also highlighted microaggressions from teachers and other staff. Romeo
described teachers questioning his instructional leadership and asking, “How does he know
that?” This type of questioning leaves him feeling a “ginormous imposter syndrome,” and his
reply was that he taught for a long time before going into administration. Yolanda explained that
this type of microaggression happened to her as well. When she was an assistant principal,

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teachers constantly went to other administrators before her. She reflected on the impact of her
identity as a Latina on how staff responded to her:
There have been some challenges in the sense of do I have enough credibility? I have to
show my credibility first. I have to first show that I know what I’m doing before some
people believe or understand that I know what I’m talking about.
Principals at bilingual schools also mentioned that staff assumed they worked only for
“Latinx students” and not for every student. In directly challenging a Latinx principal’s ability to
lead because of their identity, interview data shows how microaggressions come out as
challenges to authority and credibility for a Latinx principal.
In addition, interview data shows that Latinx principals face bias from community
members. Carlos described having faced outright discrimination from parents in certain districts.
He shared that in one district,
It’s really hard being a person of color because of the barriers that they have. When they
do hire a [Latinx] leader, the parents from that community don’t feel that you know what
you’re talking about because of your skin color. And they’re very open about it. They say
to you, “What do you know about university? Because you know, my kid is White, and
you’re not, and we have different methods.”
Juana described a similar incident:
One of the associate superintendents pulled me to the side ’cause some of the Caucasian
parents were having some input, and she said to me directly, “It is too bad that they don’t
see who you are inside. They only see what you look like on the outside.” And that, to
me, confirmed that that’s really what it is. It’s what I look like. And it’s very
heartbreaking.

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When Juana moved to another district, she heard and saw comments on social media about a new
“Mexican” principal leading the school. Juana is Latina but not Mexican. She felt “very
disheartened and discouraged to hear those kinds of comments. It confirms how I feel that I’m
not always respected because of who I am.” As both principals shared, they have had
experiences where parents and community members were outright racist and disrespectful,
focusing on the Latinx principals’ identity and not their knowledge or character.
Jaime described how the negative views of others become internalized for Latinx
principals. Jaime, an immigrant from Central America, shared,
Having my accent and being an English learner has been a problem for me. I am a strong
advocate for English learners because when you have an accent like I do, people see you
as less. So, I have to overcome that as a professional to prove that I am good in spite of
my accent and being an English learner. I have to prove myself every day; that my accent
doesn’t determine who I am.
Interview data shows that microaggressions come in multiple forms across organizational levels,
and this bias impacts a person’s view of themselves and their ability to lead.
Latinx Principals Need Support Systems When They Struggle With Bias
Interview data shows that when Latinx principals see their Latinx colleagues leave the
district, they become disheartened and feel more isolated. Juana described watching colleagues
leave and felt disheartened because the message of wanting teachers and leaders of color did not
match what was happening in the district. She said, “There’s no system of support or partnership
with local universities. So, there’s really no opportunity for us to come together and support each
other in any way.” When facing challenges, not having a support system within the district leads
people to go elsewhere. Megan shared,

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I think affinity spaces are really important. And having an opportunity for people to see
themselves and their peers. So, when making principal networks, being thoughtful about
who’s in the network and who’s supervising, so that it’s not putting only one Latinx
principal in a group that’s filled with a bunch of White principals.
Both principals mentioned that retaining Latinx leaders through Latinx networks of support was
critical to what they wanted to see. Interview data also highlight that district support comes in the
form of district-led equity work. Romeo noted his district has equity initiatives but expects
principals to implement them without their guidance. In doing this, he feels
I’m trying to do something that the district isn’t willing to do, but yet is telling me that I
have to, but not giving me the tools, the network, the bandwidth to manage all of that.
Because now it’s like I’m responsible for all the change, and I have all of these White
teachers who were telling me, why are we doing this?
As the data highlight, the participants were asking for thoughtful support in how they are
connected, supervised, and supported within a district so they are not isolated as they face bias.
Latinx Principals Are Targeted to Serve in Low Income, Predominantly Latinx Schools
Interview data reflects that Latinx principals feel that they are outwardly valued for their
identity and bilingualism but have limited principal opportunities because of it. As Marco
described, there are multiple pigeonholes that Latinx principals are put into. One pigeonhole is
only being allowed to lead in high-Latinx, low-income schools. This means that,
Latinx leaders do not get to show the value add that they can bring to any school
community, as allies to kids of all different backgrounds. Or saying, “You’d be great at
every school, but the school that really needs you is the one that’s majority Latino.”
Marco described another limitation placed on Latinx principals:

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Leading from the cliff, where school leaders of color are charged to lead historically
underperforming schools that have significantly high staff turnover, are under-resourced
and under-supported. And then, when things don’t go well, then people say, “There’s
probably something wrong with having this type of leader.”
As Marco noted, Latinx principals are often pigeonholed into specific types of schools, which
affects their leadership trajectory.
Furthermore, when Latinx principals work at non-majority Latinx schools, they are
placed under different expectations than their White peers. For example, Romeo said the staff at
his school asked for different safety and playground protocols that they have never had in the
school’s 50 years. Given that the last principal was a White female, he shared,
I literally said out loud, in the 50 years that this school has been in existence, no principal
has ever created a safety plan for the school. I think this is a really interesting expectation
that you’re placing on me, given that you never asked this from my predecessor. And in
the back of my mind, I was thinking, who happens to be a White woman. I always get
stuck in those moments, where I think, what part of this is really because you’re trying to
see if I am able to do this or because you want clarity?
These experiences, in which there are different expectations from him as a Latinx principal, lead
him to question if they were only asking to test him. He shared his thoughts with me and said,
Do they see me as the token? Am I just the person they hired because I fill the quota?
There’s only so much push back that you could do externally that doesn’t hurt you
internally because there’s a lot of self-doubt in me about that. Is this really the place that I
need to be, or do I really need to go to where I belong, with students like me?

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As interview data shows, Latinx principals get pigeonholed into certain types of roles and
constitutions of schools because of their identity and are asked to do more than their White
counterparts.
Gender Bias Against Latina Principals Requires Different Support Than Latino Principals
Interview data shows that Latina principals have their competency questioned by teachers
and district colleagues. Yolanda noted that staff members respond differently to her:
A lot of doors shut before they open as a Latina. Sometimes, people don’t take you
seriously, or people devalue what you’re saying. And those challenges whether it be
teachers, when they see that I’m young or Latina, they’re like, but you don’t have the
experience. But they wouldn’t question it if there was a male or a Caucasian female.
This bias is substantiated by men as well. Carlos shared that he “has seen women struggle a little
bit more because they question their judgment more than they do men.” Marco also sees this and
stated that his female assistant principal’s “tone and the way she approaches things is questioned
even more so than males sometimes. Or, if staff need help with discipline, they will go around
her to come to one of the two of us because the perception is that we’re gonna handle it and be
tough.” As male leaders, he acknowledged that Latina leaders are questioned more, especially
when the topic, like discipline, is associated with gendered notions of leadership where men are
considered tougher.
Interview data also shows that female leaders are treated and talked about differently than
male principals. Marco explained,
I think that, sadly, Latinas sometimes come out as too passionate for things that, as a
Latino male, we can say or do in similar ways, but not be looked down upon as much.

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There’s definitely racial disparities, but I think that sometimes gender disparities are
worse.
Females receive more criticism for the same actions than their male counterparts. Carlos
saw it as well: “When the Latino male principals are loud and aggressive, we have a presence,
right? And when the females speak, they’re outspoken. If a woman’s very loud, they say
different words, and that’s harder.” Other male participants witnessed the bias as well and
believed that it was unfair to Latina principals.
As one female interviewee noted, women are more likely to be told to become quieter
and watch their tone. Megan has received feedback on how to talk and act as a principal:
I would get feedback from the community, but mostly from teachers, district folks,
principal supervisors. The feedback was around communicating too directly or people
reading my emotions on my face. To me, that kind of feedback feels stereotypical. I am
who I am, and why do I need to act in this more reserved way? It felt like I was being told
to not be connected with my Latina side in a certain way or that I was being assumed to
be very emotional because of being Latina.
Due to this feedback, Megan shared that she now is “very mindful of my emotions, especially if
I’m in a room with men, and with white men, I’m very conscious of how my face is. How’s my
body language? More modifying it and trying to soften it.” She shared that she has internalized
this feedback so that her leadership journey is not negatively affected by these gendered
expectations.
Finally, interview data shows that Latina principals face cultural expectations outside and
within the Latino culture that affect their leadership. These expectations include how to dress and
act. For instance, Jasmine explained that as a teacher, she was taught by a female administrator

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that she has to “dress for the next job that you want. She always said that how you dress is how
people will perceive you.” For this reason, she feels that she has to “dress a certain way so they
know that I’m the principal.” In addition to these expectations, expectations within the Latino
culture negatively affect Latina principals. Betty described that cultural expectations prevent
women leaders from stepping into and maintaining leadership positions. As she shared, “the
machismo from the home and the pressures that the culture puts on Latina women as well as
expectations as to what a female should do” make it challenging for Latina principals. When
Jaime talks to Latinas about being principals, he shared that “they think it’s impossible …that
they are abandoning the family and raising their kids. And they think becoming an admin could
be something too challenging for them.” Latina principals must navigate societal expectations of
women and cultural expectations that are challenging to overcome.
Discussion Research Question 3
Survey and interview data show that the participants reported constant experiences with
cultural and gender biases throughout their leadership journey. They face microaggressions, and
their leadership is minimized by district supervisors and colleagues, staff, and community
members. The bias they experience centers around their knowledge, their ability to maintain
authority, and their credibility. Because of this experience with workplace discrimination, they
note their need for affinity groups, thoughtful principal coaching, networking, and the ability to
lead district equity leadership work to change conditions for all. Latinx principals also tend to get
stereotyped and pigeonholed as leaders, especially if they are women. This includes being
assigned principalships in majority Latinx schools only or being assigned schools that do not
have the support they need to do well. When they are not at majority Latinx schools, they
describe facing different expectations than past principals, who often were White.

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This study focused on the Latinx principal experience, with key findings across the three
research questions. While analyzing results, the issue of gender bias became evident, which
raises additional research questions about the intersectionality of school principals of Latinx
cultural backgrounds.
Summary
Research Question 1 focused on support for Latinx principal recruitment and retention.
The focus was on structures of support that can be created or are needed to support Latinx
principals. The findings indicate that Latinx principals need school leadership development
opportunities, networking and mentoring opportunities, and a focus on principal well-being. This
is consistent with the literature related to the importance of mentoring and leadership
development needed to recruit and retain leaders. However, the research did not highlight the
impact of networking, which was identified heavily in this study relative to the role it plays in
principal retention.
Research Questions 2 and 3 focused on identity and bias within a district. In both
questions, the Latinx identity became a center piece of connection within the district and the
implicit and explicit biases that Latinx principals face in their leadership journey. The findings
indicate that Latinx principals need to feel a sense of belonging in the district and school, which
includes embracing how their cultural identity shows up in their leadership style. When Latinx
principals face bias, it is at every level of the district and community, and even more so for
females. This is consistent with the literature related to institutional and culturally based bias at
the school sites and district, but more robust research is still needed around the added gender bias
that Latina principals must overcome.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
Chapter Five summarizes findings that can have implications for practice for the
educational community. Key research findings are discussed with the intention of informing
district and site leaders of the obstacles Latinx principals face and the support they need in their
ascension to and retention in the principalship. Additionally, recommendations for future
research are made in the context of the study.
This study focused on the Latinx principal pipeline to address the significant lack of
Latinx principals across the nation. According to national data in 2017-18, 78% of school
principals were White, 9% were Latinx, 10% were African American, and 3% were of other
races (NCES, 2018). In addition, data shows that effective principals positively impact reading
and math scores, increase student attendance rates, and increase job morale for staff (Lindsay et
al., 2021). Similarly, “the presence of a principal of color appears to lead to more frequent hiring
and retention of teachers of color and better outcomes for students of color, including higher
math scores and higher likelihood of placement into gifted programs” (Lindsay et al., 2021).
Given the low rate of Latinx principals and the significant impact of the principal, research to
understand impacts on the Latinx principal pipeline is critical. The purpose of the study was to
better understand the factors that impact Latinx principal ascension and retention to create a
framework for districts and sites alike to better support incoming Latinx principals and retain
them once they are in the principalship. The following research questions guided this study:
1. What supports do Latinx principals experience that encourage them to pursue and
succeed in attaining a principal position?
2. What role does cultural social identity have in the leadership journey of Latinx
principals?

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3. What role does institutional bias play in the leadership journey of Latinx principals?
This phenomenological study is a qualitative study that utilized some quantitative data in
its analysis to learn how the participants interpret their supports and obstacles in becoming and
staying a public school principal. The study involved 23 survey respondents, of whom seven
participated in interviews. In total, there were 13 interviewees, some who took part in individual
sessions and some in group interviews. They ranged in experience from elementary to high
school, with 3 to 11 years as principals. Participants were males and females and resided in
California, New York, Nevada, Illinois, and Colorado. This method allowed comparisons among
survey responses, which were collected first, and interview responses. In individual and group
interviews, participants dove deeper into detailing their experiences. The range of locations also
allowed the study to find similarities and differences among participants across the nation. I
conducted a qualitative analysis of interview findings alongside quantitative findings to
triangulate data results with prior research.
The principals interviewed came from a variety of locations and district contexts. While
some had been principals in one district, others had worked in multiple districts before their
current district. This table represents the variety of contexts for each principal.

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Table 7
Principals’ District Context (Size and Leadership Representation)
Participant District size
(original)
District size
(current)
Latinx cabinet
members
(% current)
District diversity change from
first and current principalship
Yolanda K–8
17,800
*same as
original
33% Consistent cabinet for last six
years, Latinx superintendent
Patricia K–12
41,400
*same as
original
14% Large turnover, increase in
diversity in cabinet, Black
superintendent
Romeo K–8
8,600
*same as
original
50% Diversity has remained
unchanged, Latinx
superintendent
Juana K–12
15,000
K–12
9,000
6% First district had high turnover,
current district has 1 Latinx
cabinet member, African
American superintendent
Priscilla K-12
309,800
*same as
original
15% Large turnover, increase in
diversity in cabinet, Latinx
superintendent
Megan K–12
88,200
*same as
original
24% Racial diversity increased, more
males, Latinx superintendent
Marco K–8
11,000
*same as
original
0% More white women in cabinet,
White superintendent
Betty K–8
14,200
*same as
original
56% Consistent cabinet in recent
years, Latinx superintendent
Jasmine K–12
19,000
*same as
original
24% White men replaced with more
diverse cabinet, Latinx
superintendent
Denica K–12
3,800
K–12
3,900
38% First district had 0 Latinx cabinet
members, current district has
more diversity, Latinx
superintendent
Carlos K-12
17,400
K–12
39,900
63% First district had 1 Latinx cabinet
member, current district has
more diversity, Latinx
superintendent
Jaime K–12
25,200
K–12
12,800
43% First district had 1 Latinx cabinet
member, current district has
more diversity, Latinx
superintendent

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Clara K–12
22,400
K–12
46,00
60% First district had 0 Latinx cabinet
members, current district has
more diversity, Latinx
superintendent

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Findings
Study findings suggest that Latinx principal recruitment is most supported by a clear
district leadership pipeline that includes designated school leadership development opportunities,
networking opportunities, and mentoring support. The participants also mentioned needing
preparation to address the bias that would be faced during principalship, such as providing
aspiring Latinx principals with multiple opportunities for growth at different sites, a district
commitment to equity, and preparing them to deal with microaggressions. Study findings also
show that Latinx principal retention is impacted by leadership development, networking,
mentoring, and district support for their well-being. They needed to feel empowered and
included while also addressing biases received from the top seat all the way down through
community members. Fifteen themes related to the study’s research questions emerged and are
summarized into seven subthemes in the following sections. This section presents a summary
and discussion of the study’s findings in connection with literature and current practice.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked about the supports that participants experienced to encourage
them to pursue and attain a principal position. The data analysis yielded three findings. The first
finding was the importance of school leadership development opportunities. The participants said
that focused leadership development programs that developed their leadership skills were
essential to their development. This aligns with research that shows that leaders of color need
critical professional development spaces, such as curricular development, schoolwide leadership
development, and district advocacy skills, to develop their leadership skills (Kohli et al., 2021).
Similarly, they regarded district investment in their development as imperative and aligned with
research that identifies the importance of strategic development with meaningful assessments of

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learning, such as peer support groups, professional learning communities, and supportive
directors (Mabry, 2021).
Survey and interview responses highlighted that increasing the representation of Latinx
principals depends on a leader’s knowledge and access to leadership development programs and
financial support to participate in these programs. The participants shared the types of leadership
development opportunities they found most effective: teacher-led schoolwide and district-wide
events and professional development and district principal development programs that included
cohorts, shadowing, and mentoring. In allowing teacher-leaders who become aspiring principals
to lead large events and professional development, the district supports them in developing their
skills and allows them to be seen as leaders with many skills. At the same time, those who
participated in cohorts, shadowing, and mentoring programs identified that they developed their
skills, increased their self-efficacy as leaders, and had support to navigate the leadership pipeline.
They also identified the importance of outside conferences and organizational memberships in
their leadership development before and during principalship. Financial assistance for these
opportunities was needed but became more imperative to their retention when the participants
felt the district was investing in their leadership development in this manner.
The second finding that emerged was the impact of networking, primarily as a retention
tool to succeed in the principalship. The participants found that the networks they created with
other leaders across the district and in other districts led to their success. Prior to the
principalship, they acknowledged that having access to a network was supportive but not utilized
in the same manner as during the principalship. Little research has touched on the impact of
networking on principal recruitment, but the findings are similar to research on the impact of
networking during principalship. Research shows principals of color need guidance, specifically

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mentoring and coaching, from other successful principals with an equity focus to support their
development and success (Superville, 2022). To fight internal and external barriers, Latinx
principals rely on mentoring programs, networking support, and reassurances of organizational
fit (Fernandez et al., 2015).
Survey and interview data showed that the participants believed that networking
supported their success because it provided them with colleagues who became a sounding board
when they needed guidance. Before becoming principals, some did not have effective
networking skills and wished that the skill and its importance had been taught to them prior to
principalship. Although some participants knew of networks available to them, many did not and
were unaware of networks like CALSA, ACSA, and others. They said that this became more
important as they rose in leadership, and the majority of them used their networks to sustain
themselves as principals. When networks were culturally based, the participants said they felt
more connected and inspired by their colleagues and felt that they were understood in ways
others could not. In this way, they highlighted a need to have more support with networking
since the impact was significant on their leadership.
The third finding that emerged was mentoring from Latinx leaders and others to guide the
participants’ leadership journeys and support them during the principalship. They leveraged
mentors to build their skills and support them and shared that they believe they would not be as
successful without them. The importance of mentors aligns with research that shows that Latinx
principals’ greatest recruitment tool was mentors and other Latinx leaders of influence who
convinced them they had the ability to be principals (Carrillo, 2008). Mentors taught them
leadership skills and how to leverage their own experiences while also teaching them how to
network to market their skills and abilities (Carrillo, 2008). The importance of mentorship was

82
also identified through the creation of the CALSA mentorship program, which provides proteges
with a mentor to support them in navigating the leadership process, learning about themselves,
and succeeding in leadership (Magdaleno, 2006).
Survey and interview data show that mentors supported the participants in navigating the
leadership pipeline so they could take the steps needed to become principals and help them
succeed once in the principalship. They highlighted district internal and external mentoring
programs that they found most effective. Internal programs focused on mentorship included
multiple district coaches, a specific district coach, and partnerships between new and veteran
principals. External mentorship focused on recruitment and retention included mentoring
programs like CALSA mentorship and other mentors that the participants found in their
leadership journeys. Although Latinx principals found support with both forms of mentorship, it
was also emphasized that both types of mentorship were needed. The mix allowed the
participants to create alliances and support within the district and to have external mentors guide
them through district politics. They also highlighted the impact of Latinx mentors on their
development. Those who did not have these mentors shared a desire to learn from those with
whom they had a cultural connection and who may have had similar experiences. While the
cultural impact of similar mentors was significant, the participants also noted that due to the lack
of Latinx leaders throughout the nation, mentorship from a leader, regardless of their identity,
was still needed.
Findings from Research Question 1 imply that if districts want to recruit and retain Latinx
principals, they must create comprehensive district-wide programs that focus on leadership
development and provide funding for professional memberships or conferences. Given the
impact of networking, leadership development also needs to include teaching skills on how to set

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up and engage with professional networks both before and during principalship. In addition to
networking support, districts also need to create culturally aligned mentor programs for
principals and support their finding mentors outside of the district.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked about the role of cultural social identity in the participants’
leadership journey. The data analysis produced two findings. The first finding that emerged was
honoring their identity through their leadership style. The participants shared that their identity
shapes their professional development needs and leadership style. This finding aligns with
research that states that principals of color focus on trust and relationship building, modeling
social justice through empowered leadership, and recognizing the needs of teachers of color,
which leads to higher retention rates (Sun & Miller, 2020). This is a reflection of culturally
responsive leadership, which the participants emulate. Culturally responsive school leadership
includes critically self-reflecting on leadership practices, developing culturally responsive
teachers, promoting a culturally responsive school environment, and engaging
students/parents/indigenous communities (Khalifa et al., 2016). The participants see the Latinx
identity as an asset to their leadership (Santamaría et al., 2014).
Survey and interview data showed that the participants noted the significant impact of
their identity on their professional development needs. They shared a need to engage in
culturally responsive professional development and networks that support their growth.
Community connection affected their sense of care at the school site, and when they did not have
that, they needed additional support. Many interviewees worked primarily in Latinx
communities and felt empowered by that. Those who did not work in such communities felt
more isolated by the lack of cultural connection and wondered if the school was right for them.

84
Given that need, they identified that professional development and networks outside of a district
or school site were needed for retention. They also identified that their leadership focused on
community, advocacy, equity-based decisions, and being student-centered. They were proud of
their leadership and identified that district and community support to lead in that way was
imperative to their success and retention.
The second finding that emerged was prioritizing well-being to support principal
retention. There is limited research on the intersection of principal well-being and the Latinx
identity; however, research shows that Latinx principals want to feel valued for their identity,
which includes the values, beliefs, and perspectives that represent their cultural community and
being treated like their identity brings value to an organization (Haley et al., 2014). As a whole,
the Latinx identity matters to their sense of belonging and support.
Survey and interview data show that the participants wanted to feel support from the
district by investing in their well-being and honoring their voice. They found the support of the
superintendent and cabinet members was essential to feeling trusted to do their job, whether it be
hiring consultants, pushing back on higher leaders, or calling district leaders for support. They
wanted to feel valued as a person when situations at the school site arose, and the lack of that
perceived care led some to feel that others were valued over them, which caused them to
question if they belonged in the district. Lastly, they would like to see district investment in
professional development for well-being as well as social gatherings so that they could practice
self-care. Given the resilience they need, explicit support from the district in their well-being
would better support their needs.
Findings from Research Question 2 imply that the Latinx cultural identity affects the
support the participants needed and how they led. To recruit and retain Latinx principals,

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districts’ professional development must be culturally relevant to create a sense of belonging and
support. Districts need to respectfully recognize that cultural identity affects leadership style.
Latinx principals need to feel district personnel value their identity and well-being, whether
through relational trust or professional development on well-being to support their retention.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked about the role of institutional bias in the participants’
leadership journey. The data analysis produced two findings. The first finding is that bias
becomes institutionalized through district leaders’ treatment of principals and interaction with
the school community. The participants reported discrimination from superintendents, cabinet
members, and the community as contributing to the bias they faced. This finding aligns with
prior research on principal recruitment that noted unequal access to principalships for those who
are not part of the dominant White group that controls hiring and tends to promote its own
(Carrillo, 2008). It also aligns with research about Latinx principal retention. In a national study,
about half of all participants reported that their identity created barriers as leaders, such as facing
bias and questions about their abilities, independent of gender (Murakami et al., 2016).
Survey and interview data shows that the participants faced bias from superintendents,
cabinet members, staff, and community members, and the lack of support in addressing biases
creates a discriminatory environment. They shared that the lack of support from a superintendent
and the lack of representation of Latinx cabinet members led them to feel unwelcome in the
district. These districts hired Latinx principals for majority-Latinx schools. The participants
reported being told they were best suited to those schools due to their identity. Those who did not
have that experience noted that they felt their identity was helpful to their careers because they
had Latinx superintendents or cabinet members. Once there was a lack of support from the

86
highest district levels, they reported that they faced racist and biased comments from community
members, and they were not supported through a clear antiracism process to address those
comments as unwelcome by the institution. Although the majority of participants stated that they
faced challenges to authority regardless of district, the combination of institutional bias from
school site assignments, superintendents, and cabinet members and racism from community
members ultimately led them to leave the school site and district.
The second finding is that gender bias is institutionalized through the way Latina
principals are treated and expected to act, causing Latina principals to face intersectional bias of
gender and ethnicity. This finding is supported by research, which shows that Latina principals
need support confronting racism, sexism, and the idea of strong-man leadership (Martinez et al.,
2020). They need mentors who understand culture and family needs and the demands of the job
to stay in leadership (Martinez et al., 2020). Those who want to challenge the status quo must do
so while facing biases against them in leadership (Méndez-Morse et al., 2015). Therefore,
retention practices must address the Latina struggle (Méndez-Morse et al., 2015).
Interview data shows that Latinas face bias from district leadership and colleagues, as
well as machismo within the Latino culture. Due to this, the need for support to address the bias
is different for them and requires support throughout their leadership journey. The participants
identified that Latinas are treated differently than their male counterparts. Males shared that they
saw their female colleagues being told they were aggressive for voicing their opinions, while
other males are described as direct for the same actions. Women shared stories of being told they
had to be quieter and softer so that others could hear them. The majority of these women noted
that this feedback was minimal prior to being a principal, although they noticed they were not
being asked about discipline or traditionally male aspects of leadership then. They shared that

87
once they were in the principalship, gender bias became more prominent and direct. They faced
machismo within the Latino culture, with assumptions made that they maintained primary
household responsibilities such as caring for their families. Many women shared that they had
conversations with Latina leaders who decided not to enter the principalship or who faced
gender-based challenges during principalship. In navigating institutional bias against them, few
Latina principals had the mentorship of women leaders, but those who did found it beneficial.
Findings from Research Question 3 imply that Latinx principals face bias from multiple
sources on a daily basis, and to retain them, districts must challenge this bias. Bias came in the
form of gender and ethnic bias, with consequences ranging from site placement, lack of support
with community bias, and more hostile treatment for female principals compared to their male
counterparts. Retaining these principals requires an intentionally designed anti-racist system of
support during recruitment and retention.
Limitations
Limitations of study findings relate to the number of study participants and the reliability
of self-reported data. Given that the study was limited to a small number of participants in a
limited number of geographical locations, there is a limitation to the generalizability of study
findings. In addition, since all data were gathered from the participants’ self-reported surveys
and interview responses, limitations must be considered in respondent validity. I triangulated
data to overcome this threat to validity. Since the purpose of the study was not to generalize but
to create a framework for Latinx principal recruitment and retention, the findings allow for
contextual inference and applicability to the framework due to the detail of participant responses
and study findings.

88
Implications for Practice
This study examined the leadership journey of Latinx principals in regard to the support
they received and the challenges they overcame to become and succeed as a principals. By
examining trends in their experiences, the study informs the ways districts and school boards can
support the Latinx principal pipeline to increase Latinx principal recruitment and retention.
Implications for leadership practices and policies have resulted in a culturally relevant leadership
design with recommendations for the school board, district leadership, and external supports
centering Latinx principal mattering and belonging (see Figure 6).
Figure 6
Latinx Principal Culturally Relevant Leadership Design

89
Using the Latinx principal culturally relevant leadership design, the first implication for
practice is centering Latinx principal mattering and belonging focused on relationships, identity,
and addressing bias. The participants found that relationships between themselves and the
superintendent and cabinet matter. They need to feel they are trusted to make decisions that best
support their site needs, they can advocate for what the site needs without fear of retaliation, and
they know that they have support from district personnel and cabinet members. In addition, they
are impacted by their identity, and study findings show that Latinx principals need to feel
supported in their culturally responsive leadership and their connection to, and advocacy for, the
school community. They also face bias from multiple sides, which is a constant psychological
and socioemotional battle. Study findings show that Latinx principals need to feel they belong
within the district and community, and support against institutional bias, both ethnicity- and
gender-based, must be provided to Latinx principals.
Using the Latinx principal culturally relevant leadership design, the second implication
for practice is the commitment of the school board to diversity in district leadership,
implementing an equity-based mission and vision, and culturally responsive training for all.
Study findings show that there is often a lack of Latinx leaders represented in cabinet and district
leadership positions, and without this commitment to representation at all levels of leadership,
Latinx principals felt more isolated and unsupported. School board members must be aware of
the number of Latinx leaders in the district and create mandates, such as ethnicity- and genderbased targets. This includes an analysis of site placements to determine if they show patterns or
reflect biases. In addition, the participants wanted to ensure that their districts had equity-based
vision and mission statements that were maintained in practice. Specifically, they stated that the
school board needed to communicate the value of diversity and inclusion and state the ways in

90
which it was upheld, such as addressing biases when needed. Lastly, some principals shared that
they experienced discrimination from the superintendent and district leaders. As a result,
mandating that all district leaders receive culturally responsive training to address intersectional
identities and biases would support Latinx principals and increase their recruitment and
retention.
Using the Latinx principal culturally relevant leadership design, the third implication for
practice is the district’s practice of leadership development, networks and mentors, and equity
initiatives to recruit and retain Latinx principals. Study findings showed that the participants
benefited from in-district leadership development programs and identified effective aspects such
as cohorts, shadowing, and mentoring. They also identified that these programs should include
training on leadership skills, like budget and professional development design, and explicitly
teach networking skills. District mentorship programs also supported their development and
retention and included multiple or single principal coaches as well as coaching between veteran
and new principals. Cultural-based connections were consistently named as essential to their
development, including providing them with Latinx mentors when possible.
Findings showed that intentionally designed district equity initiatives were needed for the
participants’ development. These initiatives included funding for principal conferences and
organization memberships, principal certification fees, and professional development on wellbeing and culturally relevant leadership. The participants also described the impact of affinity
groups within districts and the support needed for female Latinx principals within an affinity
space or through coaching and mentorship. When districts do not have this type of support
available, leaders should be aware of and guide Latinx principals to these kinds of support from
external professional organizations that can help fill that internal gap.

91
Using the Latinx principal culturally relevant leadership design, the fourth implication for
practice is an analysis of external support, which includes network, mentoring, and professional
development. When there is a lack of support networks in the district of other Latinx principals,
they use external support to remain in their principalship. External support was described as
affinity groups in local university programs that served the area or other networks, such as
ACSA and CALSA. The participants described finding networking opportunities or culturally
based mentorship programs as ideal, even when they had coaches in their district. Those without
district development programs needed support and reached out to external support for guidance.
In addition, those who had district development programs in place still used external support to
balance their needs for external perspectives outside of the district. In addition, the participants
found conferences supported their development and wanted their districts to provide financial
support for them to attend these conferences. External conferences provided Latinx principals
with new tools and perspectives that enabled them to do better at their sites.
Future Research
This review of literature noted a need for further research regarding Latinx principal
recruitment and retention in K–12 districts across the United States. While this study assisted in
providing more context to this population’s needs to form a leadership design framework, further
research is needed. Additional research is recommended to address three areas related to the
study.
The first recommendation for future research is to further identify the impact of
networking on the recruitment and retention processes. While research identified the impact of
networking once in the principalship, there is little research on networking Latinx principals
needed prior to principalship and how it supported them on their leadership journey. Findings

92
showed that networking was supportive prior to the principalship and even more so once in the
principalship. While the participants developed networking skills over time, its impact was
underestimated prior to the need and often not taught directly. Given the significant impact of
networking on Latinx principals, it would be beneficial to further investigate the correlation
between networking and their principal recritment and retention.
The second recommendation for future research is to investigate the relationship between
identity and well-being. The participants found the investment and focus on Latinx principal
well-being as essential to their retention in the district. Through a specific focus on well-being
and investment in their leadership, they felt a sense of care to continue their work. Since little
research could be found on this topic, it would be beneficial to determine if this correlation was
specific to Latinx principals so that districts could better support them. Strengthening this data
could lead to different retention strategies that increase retention.
The final recommendation for future research is to investigate the implications of
intersectional identities on the recruitment and retention of Latina principals. Findings show that
Latina principals have needs specific to the demands of the Latinx culture to raise the family
while being a professionals. Findings also show that they face bias that is specific to the
expectations of women leaders to be quieter and less vocal while also being questioned about
their leadership abilities in terms of discipline. While some research about the importance of
mentors specific to the needs and experiences of Latina principals was found, this was limited to
specific experiences and not systemic needs. Strengthening research on Latina principals’ needs
through the lens of intersectional identities could lead to different recruitment and retention
strategies for school districts.

93
Conclusion
This study confirmed that the study of Latinx principal recruitment and retention has
significant implications for educational leaders. Given the small number of Latinx principals in
the nation and the rapidly growing number of Latinx students in the nation’s public schools
(NCES, 2018), as well as the significant impact of principals on student outcomes (Lindsay et
al., 2021), the study of these leaders’ recruitment and retention is imperative to the nation’s
education system. Study findings suggest that these principals are significantly impacted by
leadership development training, networking, and mentoring, and credit these supports with their
entrance into principalship and success as principals. The Latinx identity impacts how they lead
and the support they need for long-term success as principals and in the district. It also impacts
the bias they face on a daily basis. The participants’ identity is a strength and the reason they
face bias and discrimination from colleagues, parents, and staff. For the women, their gender
leads to bias for their ethnicity and gender and therefore requires additional support to overcome
and replace institutionalized obstacles. Latinx principals play a significant role in the lives of the
community they serve, and attention to their needs is needed if they are to succeed at their site
and in the district.

94
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Appendix A: Confidentiality Form
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Latinx Principal Belonging and Mattering
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to provide insight into the formal and informal barriers and
support provided for Latinx school leaders in their recruitment and retention as leaders. In
explicitly addressing the Latinx identity, the study attempts to identify the role of identity and
culturally responsive leadership in the recruitment and retention of Latinx leaders. Inquiry
focuses on the preparation for leadership, the professional experiences during leadership, and the
opportunities for leadership development for Latinx school leaders. Interviews, focus groups and
surveys will be conducted to understand the formal and informal leadership opportunities and
barriers for the recruitment and retention provided to male and female Latinx leaders as they
navigate the leadership pipeline and sustain themselves as leaders. The goal of the study is to
create a framework for Latinx principal recruitment and retention across districts.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60-minute
semi-structured one-on-one interview, a 60-minute focus group interview, or a 15-minute survey.
All interviews will be audio-taped. You do not have to answer any questions you do
not want to during the interviews. If you do not want to be taped during the interview,
handwritten notes will be taken. You do not have to answer any questions that you do not want
to
answer, and your responses will be anonymous and confidential.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
whether you participate or not in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Sabrina Silverman will be the Principal Investigator of this study. Any identifiable information
obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your interview responses will be

102
coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. You will have the right to
review and edit the audio recordings or transcripts of the interviews. All audio-tapes related to
this study will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. The transcripts will be stored on a
password-protected computer, which only the Principal Investigator can access.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following individuals:
Principal Investigator: Sabrina Silverman
Faculty Advisor: Dr. Christina Kishimoto
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

103
Appendix B: Interview Protocol
The following sections present the interview protocol used in this study.
Introduction
Thank you for being a part of my study on Latinx principals. I am focusing on the support
provided for Latinx principals as well as the barriers they encounter in their ascension to the
principal seat and during their principalship. I am also focusing on the Latinx leader’s ethnic
identity to better understand the role of ethnicity in the opportunities and barriers provided for
Latinx principals. The goal of this study is to provide a framework for the support and
development of Latinx principals to increase their support and retention.
You were chosen for this study because you identify as a Latinx leader and are a current
principal. In addition, you have between 4–10 years of experience as a principal and can
reference your leadership development from the beginning of your principalship and into your
principalship. This interview will provide context from your experience to better understand the
experiences of Latino/a principals.
All interviews will be confidential and your personal information will not be shared. I
will record this interview for note-taking purposes and not share this data outside of this study.
You should have already received your signed consent form so that we can begin the interview.
If you do not consent to being recorded, please let me know. Also, please let me know if you
have additional questions before we start - your questions are important to me.
Questions (With Transitions)
I will start this interview by learning more about you and your goals as a principal. We
will then transition to your leadership development entering principalship, your experiences

104
during your principalship, and ideas you have for the recruitment and retention process of Latinx
principals.
This begins our introductory questions:
1. What made you want to be a principal?
2. What keeps you in your role as a principal?
Thank you for sharing your ‘why’ as a principal. I want us to go into your leadership
development now.
3. What experiences have shaped your development as a Latinx leader?
4. Of these experiences, what has been most supportive to you on your path to becoming a
principal?
5. What challenges, if any, have you experienced on your path to becoming a principal?
6. What tools have you used to address any challenges you have faced on your path to
becoming a principal?
As you reflect on your leadership development before becoming a principal, I ask that
you now reflect on your current leadership development as a principal.
7. How are you currently being supported as a principal?
8. What other types of support do you wish you have (outside of your current support)?
9. What, if any, challenges have you faced as a Latinx principal?
10. How have you overcome any challenges you have faced?
11. Many people believe that a Latinx leader’s identity has a significant impact on the
decisions they make as they advance in leadership. What would you say to this?

105
Now that you have reflected on your development before becoming a principal and as a
principal, I now want us to focus on the ideal state of development and retention. Please reflect
on your experiences in all aspects in regard to these questions.
12. In describing the challenges you have faced and overcome, in what ways, if any, have
you found that your experiences are similar to other Latinx principals?
13. Based on your discussions with colleagues, what support do you believe Latinx principals
need to overcome the challenges they experience?
14. If you were to create a program that increases the Latinx leadership pipeline, specifically
in regards to recruitment, what would it look like (personnel, structures, etc)?
15. If you were to create a program that increases the longevity of Latinx principals,
specifically in regards to retention, what would it look like (personnel, structures, etc)?
Closing
As we close this interview, I would like to invite you to share anything that you feel
applies to the study that I did not already ask. Also, if you have any other follow up questions,
please feel free to reach out.
Thank you for sharing your leadership experiences. Your insight is an important part of
amplifying the voice of Latinx principals to provide guidance for how the future of Latinx
principal recruitment and retention could look. I appreciate you giving your time and energy for
this study. I know how valuable these resources are and thank you again. In the future, please let
me know if I can contact you again.

106
Appendix C: Focus Group Protocol
The following sections present the focus group protocol used in this study.
Introduction
Thank you for being a part of my study on Latinx principals. I am focusing on the support
provided for Latinx principals as well as the barriers they encounter in their ascension to the
principal seat and during their principalship. I am also focusing on the Latinx leader’s ethnic
identity to better understand the role of ethnicity in the opportunities and barriers provided for
Latinx principals. The goal of this study is to provide a framework for the support and
development of Latinx principals to increase their support and retention.
You were chosen for this focus group because you identify as a Latinx leader and are a
current principal. In addition, you have between 4–10 years of experience as a principal and can
reference your leadership development from the beginning of your principalship and into your
principalship. In this focus group, Latinx principals will be asked to share experiences about their
leadership journey that may or may not be similar due to different geographical areas and school
levels. This will lead to a variety of data that builds upon individual interviews.
All focus group responses will be confidential and your personal information will not be
shared. I will record these responses for note-taking purposes and not share this data outside of
this study. You should have already received your signed consent form so that we can begin. If
you do not consent to being recorded, please let me know. Also, please let me know if you have
additional questions before we start.
Questions
Theme 1: Ascension to the principalship
1. What have been your biggest support and barriers as you entered administration?

107
Probing follow-ups: Who were your biggest supporters? Did they have any
commonalities? What structures/systems (school site, district, outside organization)
helped support your ascension? Did any barriers you experienced relate to your Latinx
identity? Were any barriers systemic or personnel-based?
2. Based on your experiences as a Latinx principal, what do you believe are the keys to the
successful recruitment of Latinx principals?
Probing follow-ups: Have you experienced formal and informal support
structures? Have various support systems been more impactful than others? How
can barriers to principalship be erased?
Theme 2: Principal retention
3. What support systems have you used to keep you engaged as a Latinx principal?
Probing follow-ups: What form of support from your district have you
experienced? If you have had to seek support outside of your district, what was
that, and why was it impactful?
4. What has helped you overcome barriers you experience as a Latinx principal?
Probing follow-ups: Have you experienced barriers related to your Latinx
identity? What internal and external support has helped you overcome barriers?
Recruitment and retention framework
5. If districts chose to recreate their recruitment and retention practices for Latinx
principals, what should they focus on to be most impactful?
Probing follow-ups: How can districts address institutional bias in recruitment?
What equity audits can districts do to identify gaps in their practices?

108
6. If you mentored novice Latinx principals, what skills would you help them develop to be
successful leaders?
Probing follow-ups: What internal skills do Latinx principals need to be
successful? How can their assets be used to identify and reach out to support?
Closing
As we close this focus group, I would like to invite you to share anything that you feel
applies to the study that I did not already ask. Also, if you have any other follow-up questions,
please feel free to reach out.
Thank you for sharing your leadership experiences. Your insight is an important part of
amplifying the voice of Latinx principals to provide guidance for how the future of Latinx
principal recruitment and retention could look. I appreciate you giving your time and energy for
this study. I know how valuable these resources are and thank you again. In the future, please let
me know if I can contact you again.

109
Appendix D: Survey Protocol
The following sections present the survey protocol used in this study.
Introduction
Thank you for being a part of my study on Latinx principals. I am focusing on the support
provided for Latinx principals as well as the barriers they encounter in their ascension to the
principal seat and during their principalship. I am also focusing on the Latinx leader’s ethnic
identity to better understand the role of ethnicity in the opportunities, barriers, and leadership of
Latinx principals. The goal of this study is to provide a framework for the support and
development of Latinx principals to increase their support to become a principal and retention as
a principal.
The criteria for the study responses include being a Latinx leader with 4–11 years of
experience as a sitting principal. Given this background, please reference your leadership
development from the beginning of your principalship and into your principalship. This survey
will be used to better understand the experiences of Latinx principals and explore opportunities
for support and development of Latinx principals.
All survey responses will be confidential and your personal information will not be
shared. Only those directly involved with this research will have access to the data. I will take all
reasonable steps to protect your identity.

110
Table D1
Survey Part 1
Survey question survey response options
Which school site level have you served as a
principal (choose all that apply)?
a. elementary school
b. middle school
c. high school
How many years have you served as a
principal?
a. 4–6 years
b. 7–8 years
c. 9–10 years
Table D2
Survey Part 2
Survey question survey response options
Prior to being a principal, what professional
learning opportunities were provided to you
at your work site and/or district (choose all
that apply)?
a. site or district-level initiatives (ex.
Project Based Learning, Universal
Design for learning, Restorative
Justice Practices, etc.)
b. site committees (Instructional
Leadership Team, School Culture
Committees, etc)
c. school leadership development (leader
shadowing, book studies, personal
leadership feedback, etc)
d. affinity groups (Latino, African
American, etc)
e. mentoring
f. opportunities to attend out-of-district
trainings/conferences
g. none of these
h. other (fill in)

111
Survey question survey response options
Prior to being a principal, what self-selected
professional learning opportunities did you
take part in (choose all that apply)?
a. school leadership learning
opportunities (leadership programs,
certificates, conferences, county
development programs, etc)
b. cultural identity-based learning
opportunities (Latino related
conferences, Latino related county
programs, etc)
c. membership to culturally based
professional organizations (California
Association of Latino Superintendents
and Administrators (CALSA),
Association of Latino Administrators
and Superintendents (ALAS))
d. mentorship programs
e. networking
f. none of these
g. other (fill in)
Prior to being a principal, what, if any, were
some challenges you faced to become a
principal? (choose all that apply)
a. lack of opportunities for leadership
development at the site and/or district
provided to me
b. not encouraged to apply to leadership
positions
c. lack of culturally based opportunities
for collaboration or communication
(affinity groups)
d. funding not provided to attend out-ofdistrict learning opportunities
e. lack of role models or mentors that I
could relate with
f. not being made aware of different
professional guidance or learning
available to me
g. microaggressions/culturally based
aggressions in the workplace
h. none of these
i. other (fill in)

112
Table D3
Survey Part 3
Survey question survey response options
Since becoming a principal, what professional
learning opportunities have you participated
in that have led to your success and
retention? (choose all that apply)
a. school leadership learning
opportunities (leadership programs,
certificates, conferences, county
development programs, etc)
b. cultural identity-based learning
opportunities (Latino related
conferences, Latino related county
programs, etc)
c. membership to professional
organizations (Association of
California School Administrators
(ACSA), etc)
d. membership to culturally based
professional organizations ( California
Association of Latino Superintendents
and Administrators (CALSA),
Association of Latino Administrators
and Superintendents (ALAS))
e. mentorship programs
f. networking
g. none of these
h. other (fill in)
Since becoming a principal, what, if any,
types of challenges have you overcome?
(choose all that apply)
a. lack of opportunities for leadership
development at the site and/or district
provided to me
b. not encouraged to apply to leadership
positions
c. lack of culturally based opportunities
for collaboration or communication
(affinity groups)
d. lack of role models or mentors that I
could relate with
e. not being made aware of different
professional guidance or learning
available to me
f. microaggressions/culturally based
aggressions in the workplace
g. none of these
h. other (fill in)

113
Survey question survey response options
In what ways do you feel your Latinx identity
impacts the leadership decisions you make?
(choose all that apply)
a. promote teachers of color to leadership
roles
b. address school culture through an asset
based mindset
c. focus on community connection as
part of the school community
d. positive reframing of multilingualism
e. address cultural/racial biases that
occur at the school site
f. none of these
g. other (fill in)
Rank your agreement with the following
statement: My Latinx identity influences the
professional development opportunities I
seek out
a. 1- strongly disagree
b. 2- somewhat disagree
c. 3- no preference
d. 4- somewhat agree
e. 5- strongly agree
f. N/A
Rank your agreement with the following
statement: Mentorship impacted my
leadership journey and is an integral part of
my success as a leader
a. 1- strongly disagree
b. 2- somewhat disagree
c. 3- no preference
d. 4- somewhat agree
e. 5- strongly agree
f. N/A

114
Table D4
Survey Part 4
Survey question survey response options
If you were to create a district-wide program
that increases the success of Latinx success
of Latinx principals, what would it look like
(personnel, structures, etc)?
Please reply here:
Table D5
Survey Part 5
Survey question survey response options
Would you be willing to participate in a 60
minute interview or focus group for this
study?
a) Yes
b) no
Can you provide references for any other
Latinx principals that fit the criteria of this
study? If so, please provide their names and
contact information.
Open ended

115
Closing
Thank you for sharing your leadership experiences through this survey. Your insight is an
important part of amplifying the voice of Latinx principals to provide guidance for how the
future of Latinx principal recruitment and retention could look. I appreciate you giving your time
and energy for this study. I know how valuable these resources are, and thank you again.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Silverman, Sabrina (author)

Core Title Latinx principal belonging and mattering

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 03/11/2024

Defense Date 02/12/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Latinx principals,leadership pipeline,OAI-PMH Harvest,principal ascension,principal retention

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kishimoto, Christina (committee chair), Franklin, Gregory (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email sasilver@usc.edu,sasilver22@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113848711

Unique identifier UC113848711

Identifier etd-SilvermanS-12689.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-SilvermanS-12689

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Silverman, Sabrina

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240311-usctheses-batch-1128 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

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