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Not a sign of weakness: civil discourse in an urban classical charter school

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Not a sign of weakness: civil discourse in an urban classical charter school

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Content Not a sign of Weakness: Civil Discourse in an Urban Classical Charter School
by
Philip Raul Consuegra
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Philip Raul Consuegra 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Philip Raul Consuegra certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Marcus Pritchard
Robert Filback
Monique Datta, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
The education landscape in the United States is ripe for disruption. Educational experts, parents,
teachers, administrators, and most of the United States citizenry agree that the current state of
education is insufficient for the world in which we live. The rapidly growing modern classical
approach offers one intriguing alternative that presents the possibility of increased student
outcomes due to a more thoughtful, inquisitive methodology. The paper adds to a growing
number of studies investigating the success of classical education, particularly in an urban
charter school environment. The study utilized Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory as a
framework to analyze the personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that contribute to the
success of a classical education approach and student outcomes in civil discourse in an urban
charter school. The study applied a qualitative approach to data collection through interviews
with 16 teachers and administrators at an urban classical charter school located in Washington,
DC. Participants consistently identified several themes that influenced the school’s success. The
study found that intentional focus on a shared humanity, character development, supportive
administration, high expectations, and a realistic view of challenges and weakness support the
success of classical education in an urban charter school. Seeking the conversation on difficult
topics, the utilization of the seminar style and discussion-based pedagogy, and trust in others in
the community contribute to student outcomes in civil discourse. The study findings support
three recommendations for urban classical charter schools. Recommendations include
establishing a formal leadership development program, a strategic planning process, and
exploring ways to expand the classical model in urban charter environments.

Dedication
With endless appreciation for my grandparents, Raul and Maria Estela Mendigutia, and
Sirio and Laura Consuegra, proud members of the Cuban exile community, who were made to
sacrifice everything they had and knew to come to this great country, rebuild their lives from
scratch, and provide for a better future for their children and grandchildren. Two generations
after they immigrated, their grandson has earned a doctorate from the University of Southern
California.

Acknowledgements
This project could not have been possible without the enthusiasm and help from the
faculty and staff of WLPCS, particularly Diana Smith, Jimmy Kelly, and Peter Anderson. I will
never forget the warmth and hospitality your community showed me before, during, and after my
data collection. Yours is a truly special place.
To my committee, especially my chair, Dr. Monique Datta, for her unwavering support,
beneficial (and prompt) feedback on multiple drafts, and patience through life and professional
interruption. You are a treasure to those students who are lucky enough to have you as their
guide through this process. To Dr. Marc Pritchard, whose good humor, common sense,
knowledge of APA, and “get real” attitude were refreshing elements of this program, and Dr.
Rob Filback, who pushed me to get in touch with my passion through this study. You both have
my eternal gratitude.
Special thanks to Memo Gutierrez and the Don Bosco Technical Institute, who gave me
the flexibility and financial support to complete this program at USC. I am forever grateful for
your trust in me and the support you all have given.
This journey would not have been possible without the lifelong encouragement of my
parents, George and Estela Consuegra, who taught their son the value of education.
Most of all, to my wife, Liz Consuegra. There are no words to describe how lucky a man
I am to have you in my life. Your love and support throughout this program are testament to your
patience and unconditional love for our family. Finally, to my son, Thomas. I have not stopped
smiling since you were born, and I know that will never change. I love you both so much.

Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study.......................................................................................... 1
Context and Background of the Problem............................................................................ 2
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions.................................................................. 4
Importance of the Study...................................................................................................... 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 5
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 6
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 10
Classical Education........................................................................................................... 10
Charter Schools................................................................................................................. 15
School Choice Movement................................................................................................. 18
Civil Discourse.................................................................................................................. 19
Teacher Professional Development .................................................................................. 31
Social Cognitive Theory ................................................................................................... 33
Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................... 35
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 37
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 39

Research Questions........................................................................................................... 39
Overview of Design .......................................................................................................... 39
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 40
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 40
Data Sources ..................................................................................................................... 41
Participants........................................................................................................................ 42
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 43
Data Collection Procedures............................................................................................... 44
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 44
Credibility and Trustworthiness........................................................................................ 45
Ethics ............................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter Four: Findings................................................................................................................. 47
Participants........................................................................................................................ 47
Findings Research Question 1 .......................................................................................... 48
Summary of Research Question 1..................................................................................... 71
Findings Research Question 2 .......................................................................................... 72
Summary Research Question 2......................................................................................... 83
Summary........................................................................................................................... 84
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations......................................................................... 86
Discussion Research Question 1....................................................................................... 86
Discussion Research Question 2....................................................................................... 87
Recommendations............................................................................................................. 88
Recommendation 1: Establish a Leadership Development Program................................ 89

Recommendation 2: Engage in a Strategic Planning Process........................................... 90
Recommendation 3: Explore Ways to Expand the Classical Model ................................ 92
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 93
Recommendations for Future Research............................................................................ 94
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 95
References..................................................................................................................................... 98
Appendix A: Interview Protocol................................................................................................. 130

x
List of Tables
Table 1 The Holistic View of Classical Education........................................................................ 12
Table 2 Participant Demographics................................................................................................ 48
Table A1 Interview Protocol ....................................................................................................... 130

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1 Key Behavioral, Personal, and Environmental Processes.............................................. 34
Figure 2 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 37

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
The development of civic virtue, with the concept of civility at the core, has traditionally
been the cornerstone of social studies curricula in United States elementary and secondary
schools (Chapin, 2007). Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C.E./1999) defined civility as a situation in which
“one citizen differs from another, but the salvation of the community is the common business of
them all” (p. 55). As a societal norm, civility is eroding in the United States, as evidenced by a
2019 Weber Shandwick poll in which 93% of U.S. citizens identify incivility as a problem, with
68% going as far as to call it “major” (p. 5). For political partisans, the trend is more pronounced.
Tracking data from the American National Election Studies (ANES) in 2018, Iyengar and
Krupenkin (2018) concluded that partisan animus has grown in the past 2 decades, with deep
seeded negativity growing more consistent and impactful on political activity. As political
discourse in the United States continues to evaporate, there is a renewed motivation to emphasize
civility in teaching, particularly in secondary schools (Moore, 2012; Rogers, 2022).
Since 2002, the objectives of K-12 education in the United States have consistently
shifted away from preparing a responsible citizenry to passable performance on standardized
testing, career preparation, and economic success (Giroux, 2016; Rogers, 2022; Westheimer,
2020). As a corollary, standardized test scores in math and reading increased in the period
between 1996 and 2018, while civics test scores have stagnated (Hansen et al., 2018). At the
same time, confidence in U.S. public schools among adult citizens has decreased to 28% (Gallup,
2022), while enrollment remains 1.3 million students less than pre-pandemic levels (Sparks,
2022). Further, a rapid increase in enrollment in classical schools (Graham, 2021) and the rise of
charter schools (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2023) in the United States has

2
presented alternative approaches to parents seeking a different classroom experience for their
children.
Taken together, the rise of classical and charter schools represents a shift in parental
focus from the ease of selecting the government-provided option to a more active choice in their
child’s education (Veney & Jacobs, 2021). Beyond enrollment data, this shift allows the
opportunity to study various elements of a classical or charter school that may differ from
traditional public schools. Because the learning environment enjoys tremendous influence over
student outcomes, it behooves researchers to study how students interact with their school
community (Bonem et al., 2019; Byers et al., 2018; Wang & Degol, 2016) The focus of this
study is to explores how an urban classical charter school achieves high levels of student success,
and how its unique model promotes student learning outcomes in civil discourse.
Context and Background of the Problem
Substantial evidence shows that the quality of the humanities and civic education in
United States secondary education, which develops critical thinking, respect for differing
opinions, and an understanding of the institutions and practices of citizenship has consistently
declined since 2000. The National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES] (2010) assessment
of civic educational progress shows an overall decline in Grade 12 proficiency of civics from
1998-2010, with consistent decline in each area of civics topics discussed during the school year.
The study, titled The Nation’s Report Card, assesses by multiple choice and short answer
examination the level of proficiency in 12th graders based on three categories: Civic Knowledge,
Intellectual and Participatory Skills, and Civic Dispositions. Since 1998, the percentage of
students at or above proficiency has declined 2%, while the percentage of students below basic
civic knowledge has increased 3%. Additionally, the study identified that Black and Hispanic

3
students score almost 20% lower than White students on the same exam. Civic education lacks
emphasis in areas with more disadvantaged families and youth, a key demographic for future
citizenship, shown by the disparity in proficiency among White students and their Black and
Hispanic classmates identified by NCES (2010). In 2022, the NCES found that eighth grade
scores in United States History have consistently declined since 2014, and eighth grade civics
scores declined for the first time since 1998. What is more, public schools have fallen behind
private schools, particularly private schools with religious affiliation, in civic outcomes for
students. Shakeel et al. (2024) performed a meta-analysis of studies which concluded that
religious schools were more effective than their secular counterparts, public or private, at
training students in political tolerance, political participation, civic knowledge and skills,
voluntarism, and social capital.
In 2012, the U.S. Department of Education published a report titled A Crucible Moment:
College Learning and Democracy’s Future, which analyzed the nation’s civic health in K-20
education, giving special attention to the college preparatory K-12 environment. The report
identifies K-12 education as the critical foundation for civic learning, with teacher professional
development for civil discourse and discussion of current events and issues across the curriculum
as an explicit recommendation for improvement. To increase the practice of civil discourse and
equip students with the tools needed to think critically in a sound democracy, classical
education’s focus on the historical underpinnings of western civilization provides the knowledge
and self-efficacy for faculty members to encourage discourse and discuss history and current
events in a respectful and civil manner (Barr et al., 2015).
This study analyzes the factors that contribute to the success of classical education in an
urban charter school, as well as in civil discourse across academic disciplines at Hamilton and

4
Madison Prep ([HM Prep], a pseudonym), a grades 5-12 free public charter school in a densely
populated urban area with one of the highest poverty rates in the United States, focusing on the
classical model of education. Founded in 2006, HM Prep emphasizes civility in a program that
features Socratic seminar, writing, public speaking, and debate throughout the curriculum. The
HM Prep model prove to be an effective model for encouraging civil discourse not only in the
social studies or language arts departments, but across the entire academic program.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
This study examines how HM Prep achieves high levels of student success, and how its
unique model promotes student learning outcomes in civil discourse. This research further
studies the programmatic elements, documentation, and strategic design of an urban charter
school that offers a contemporary classical education model. The strategy of inquiry is a singlecase methodology, as described by Creswell and Creswell (2022) as “an in-depth analysis of a
case, often a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals” (p. 14). The study of
the school’s programmatic approach and process of several individuals is in alignment with the
description of a single-case methodology. The study focuses on two main questions:
1. What factors support the success of the classical education model in a highperforming urban classical charter school?
2. To what extent and how does a classical education curriculum promote student
learning outcomes in civil discourse?
Importance of the Study
To reverse the vitriolic trend in political discourse, emphasis on civility and discourse at
the high school level needs to be a priority for schools and faculty (Crosby, 2018; Lauka et al.,
2018; Seemiller, 2018). Alas, teacher training in civil discourse and civic engagement continues

5
to falter (Winthrop, 2020), while school district leaders identify teaching for civil discourse to be
increasingly challenging (Gallup, 2018). The resulting gap in civil discourse education manifests
itself most in communities of color, with Black and Latino students overrepresented in the 29%
of teens who believe their civic education is either school-based and moderately engaging or
completely neglected (Medina et al., 2022). Investigating specifically the success of modern
classical education in an urban charter school and how the program enhances civil discourse
across the curriculum can contribute to the greater goal of reestablishing civility in the United
States’ political discourse.
Charter schools have experienced steady growth since 2004, having more than doubled
enrollment between 2009 and 2019 (NCES, 2022). Additionally, classical schools have recently
claimed a significant presence in the educational markets in the United States (Williams, 2022).
Rare, however, is a classical charter school located within a densely populated urban area that
experiences high poverty rates among its citizens. Research in this school could serve to inform
others interested in establishing such a model in other urban areas.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Established by Bandura in 1986, social cognitive theory (SCT) emphasizes the
relationship between environmental, behavior, and personal factors in learning. Utilizing
concepts such as self-efficacy, modeling, and agency, SCT focuses on the factors in regulating
and changing behavior. This focus, using the concepts outlined, presents an ideal framework for
studying how civil discourse manifests its presence across a curriculum in an urban classical
charter school.
Previous research on civility using social cognitive theory can be instructive.
Highlighting modeling behavior, Han and Brazeal (2015), and Molina and Jennings (2017) used

6
SCT to research the effect of modeling civic behavior and discussion on political discourse
online, finding that participants with exposure to civil discussion demonstrated a higher
propensity to engage in more civil discourse in their comments. Merging the roles of observation
and modeling, Lenzi et al. (2014) examined the role of perceived democratic school culture in
forming civic engagement among adolescents, using observation and modeling as the framework
for explanation. Focusing on environmental factors, Campbell et al. (2017) investigated how a
nurturing learning environment and a belief in personal efficacy in a classroom setting resulted in
the development of servant leadership among college students.
SCT is most prevalent in research pertaining to teacher professional development. Eun
(2019) and Lumpe et al. (2014) analyzed the effectiveness of self-efficacy on teacher
professional development within the SCT framework. Additionally, Smith and Robinson (2020)
included SCT in a framework to investigate adult learners’ self-efficacy in providing literacy
instruction within the common core framework.
Beginning with the selection of the school, the case design uses document analysis to
inform interview questions for teachers and school administrators. Responses offered during the
semi-structured interviews allow for probing questions and guide the need to explore themes
further. Data includes 16 in-person interviews with full-time employed teachers and
administrators at HM Prep, with at least 1 year of classroom teaching experience at HM Prep.
After the interview, participants can review the transcript to ensure accuracy and contextual
consistency. This strategy is in line with the recommendations for Interview Transcript Review
by Hagens et al. (2009).
Definition of Terms
The following section provides clarity and definitions for key terms found in the study.

7
Agency
The theory that emphasizes the intentional influence of individuals on one’s own life
circumstances; focused on four core properties: intentionality, forethought, selfreactiveness, and self-reflectiveness (Bandura, 2006).
Character Education
Education that prepares students to explore who they are and who they wish to become,
as well as engage with their associations and communities, emphasizing virtues such as
honesty, compassion, empathy, and open-mindedness (Peterson, 2019).
Civil Discourse
Transparent and honest discussion and dialogue between citizens whose foundation is the
advancement of the public interest (Brosseau, 2011).
Civility
“Choosing to authentically engage in respectful, welcoming, and inclusive ways to foster
equity, belonging, community, and connection, including instances when opposing views
are expressed” (Clark et al., 2021, p. 266).
Classical School
An educational institution that emphasizes transcendent ideas, the concept of shared
humanity, a commitment to inquiry, and moral development (Williams, 2022).
Discussion-based Pedagogy
A style of pedagogy that emphasizes enhanced student learning through decentralized,
active conversation that emphasizes inclusivity of varied perspectives and willingness to
change what a student believes if convinced by others (Kaplan, 2018).
Modeling

8
“Learning by example” (Bandura, 1971, p. 1). The process by which deliberate or
inadvertent observation of social models transmits behavior (Bandura, 1971).
Quadrivium
Four subjects in the Liberal Arts, traditionally Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and
Astronomy (Martineau, 2020).
Self-efficacy
“People's sense of personal efficacy to produce and to regulate events in their lives; how
well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations”
(Bandura, 1982, p. 122).
Seminar
A dialogic pedagogical approach in which students practice forms of academic discourse
conventionally held by an instructor (Poore, 2021).
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
SCT emphasizes the triatic relationship between personal beliefs, actions, and the
environment as the primary influences in human behavior (Bandura, 1988).
Transcendence
The suspension of one’s sense of self simultaneously with the psychological captivation
in something greater than themselves (Gorelik & Shackelford, 2016).
Trivium
A sequence of education with primary emphasis on logic, grammar, and rhetoric (Joseph
& McGlinn, 2006).
Trust

9
A relationship based, conscientiously fostered virtue featuring a lack of anxiety or worry
existing in a state of interdependence, in which accomplishment of valued results are impossible
without the involvement of others (Tschannen-Moran, 2017).
Organization of the Study
The study follows a traditional five-chapter model. Chapter One provides background of
the study, identified the theoretical framework, and defined terms relevant to the study. Chapter
Two highlights the relevant literature, introduces the conceptual framework, and discusses the
ideas that influenced the selection of the methodology. Chapter Three details the research
methodology and the selection of the organization and participants studied within the theoretical
framework. Chapter Four presents data analysis and findings. Chapter Five concludes the study
with a discussion of recommendations for organizations aspiring to emphasize civil discourse as
well as thoughts regarding subsequent research.

10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two investigates current literature regarding classical education, charter schools,
the school choice movement, civil discourse, and teacher professional development. The review
begins with an examination of recent and historical literature on classical education and how the
contemporary classical movement frames the study. The chapter then focuses on an evaluation of
the literature surrounding charter schools, including their growth, criticism of the model, and the
effectiveness of charter schools in urban areas before outlining literature on the rapidly
expanding school choice movement. Then, the chapter highlights the importance of civil
discourse to a functioning democracy and an effective education. The review then delves further
into civil discourse by discussing how the decline in dialogue between citizens affects the future
of the United States as a republic and society, the use of technology in civil discourse, as well as
the attitudes of younger generations toward the future of the nation. Lastly, the review examines
teacher professional development, outlining what effective programming may look like in a
school environment before concluding thoughts and presenting research methodology and
details.
Classical Education
Contemporary classical education is based on the traditional study of the liberal arts,
natural science, great works of literature, fine arts, and history of civilization as the foundation of
learning. Perrin (2004) underscored the use of the term classical education to mean an education
practiced by the ancient Greeks and Romans; one that is equal parts authoritative and enduring.
A vital purpose of the classical framework is to illuminate the concepts, symbols, ideas,
accomplishments, and failings of Western civilization to form a whole person (Fennell &
Simpson, 2023).

11
The historical underpinnings of classical education are that of classical Athens,
specifically Plato’s Academy, which emphasized acknowledgement of human nature, cultivation
of virtue, and active citizenship (Veith & Kern, 2015). The ancient Greeks grounded education in
the study of grammar, logic, rhetoric, and mathematics, yet some Greek thinkers favored
philosophy over rhetoric to enable pupils to ponder truth, charity, and justice (Perrin, 2004). The
Greeks believed the study of classical literature improved the character and leadership of
students, preparing the coming generations with context and models which prioritize the good of
society in conversations and decisions of leadership (Hankins, 2023). This preparation and
prioritization manifest themselves in the holistic approach to education that emphasizes not
simply test preparation, but also quality of life and wholeness of humanity (Williams, 2022).
The contemporary classical framework emphasizes what Sayers (1947) phrased as the
trivium, an approach that features a pedagogical focus on grammar, dialectic, and rhetoric. These
three areas of emphasis train students to communicate effectively by underscoring the
importance of reading, reasoning, and speaking well. By anchoring student learning in the
trivium, communication in various forms become essential elements of education that require
levels of mastery to move forward (Williams, 2022). Following the trivium, the quadrivium
offers students a sequence of learning focused on arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy;
the study of quadrivium inspires imagination and directs students to the exploration of the
existence and results of truth (Lehman, 2022). Together, the seven subjects of the trivium and
quadrivium create the artes liberales, linked abstractly since antiquity by Roman author
Martianus Capella, who characterized their fusion as a marriage between Linguistics and the
Roman god Mercury (Stahl, 1977). The educational value of holistic learning gives students and
educators alike a framework not just for seeking knowledge and truth, but for a full life in

12
various aspects. Classical education seeks to place students and educators on a quest for
transcendent goods, or “the true, good, beautiful, and holy” (p. 3), and immanent goods, or the
“healthy, beneficial, and neighborly” (Williams, 2022, p. 3).
Williams (2022) showed the areas of formation in classical education in Figure 1.
Governing questions for each area guide students and teachers in the pursuit of transcendent and
immanent goods. Items include the goals, means to acquire, deficits to overcome, and the risks of
exclusive pursuit of a single area. The seven areas derived directly from the classical Athenian
approach of leading a child to mature adulthood, known as paideia, or to the Romans, humanitas.
Table 1
The Holistic View of Classical Education
Area of
Formation
Governing
Question
End of Goal Means or
Virtue to
Acquire
Deficit or
Vice to
Overcome
Danger if
Pursued
Exclusively
Intellectual What should
we know?
The True Wonder and
Intellectual
Virtue
Ignorance Curiositas
Moral What should
we love or
how should
we act?
The Good Ordered
Loves and
Moral Virtue
Vice Moralism
Aesthetic What should
we create or
enjoy?
The Beautiful Skill and
Taste
Ugliness Aestheticism
Spiritual Who or what
should we
worship?
The Holy Piety Acedia Pietism
Physical How should
we use our
bodies?
The Healthy Discipline Malady Narcissism
Practical What work
should we
perform?
The
Beneficial
Skills Uselessness Pragmatism
Social How should
we relate to
community?
The
Neighborly
Service and
Civic Virtue
Individualism Tribalism

13
Note. Areas of formation in contemporary classical education, aligned with goals, means of
acquisition, deficits to overcome, and danger of exclusive pursuit of a single area. From
“Editorial: Introducing Principia and classical education.” By B. Williams, 2022, Principia: A
Journal of Classical Education, 1(1), p. 3. Used with permission.
Writing on behalf of the Paideia Group, now called the National Paideia Center,
Mortimer J. Adler (1982) emphasized the relationship between didactic instruction, scholarly
training, and seminar conversation in modern education. Through this approach, Adler claimed,
academic rigor would naturally promote educational equity with the purpose of strengthening
democracy by training students in citizenship and collaboration. In emphasizing equity, Adler
posits that at the heart of it, students are “human beings and their human equality consists in the
fact that no child is more or less human than the other” (p. 42). Further, Adler advocates
adjusting, but not watering down, the modern classical approach for students who may have
individual differences. Differences, he argues, could be more the fault of previous educational
experiences than of the student or family.
Polanyi (1974) and Broudy (1972) both used the concept of the educated mind to
describe the product of a classical education. Polanyi utilizes a framework proposed by Piaget
(1936) that through assimilation, an individual understands events through categories and
concepts learned earlier in life, and adaptation through novel lived experience alters those
categories and concepts. This process enriches the mind to evaluate what is both unique to the
individual and their character as well as the understanding of how the world around them may
see events through the lens of history. According to Polanyi, a classical education empowers an
individual to interact effectively with the world around them. Broudy (1972, 1988) explained the
educated mind further by observing what he characterizes as the educated imagination that leads

14
to an enlightened cherishing. According to Broudy (1972), an educated imagination and
enlightened cherishing leads a human to “imagine what might be and ought to be” (p. 28).
Classical sociologist and educator W.E.B. DuBois (1903) shared a similar vision for
education in his work The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches, stating that education
should not produce single-skilled workers or limited skill employees, but instead well-rounded
and prepared humans. DuBois stated in his curriculum at Atlanta University that students would
gather to delve for truth, seek out the beauty of life, and learn the goodness of living. This style
of education, DuBois added, would emphasize the broadest and deepest of knowledge,
nourishing the roots of the tree, rather than the leaves. To narrow the scope of education, DuBois
and other Black classical educators believed, was to narrow the scope of man. This emphasis on
humanism and preparation for the breadth of life begins, primarily, with a focus on reading,
writing, and speaking. Should education continue to merely act toward a solely economic ends,
society can and will suffer, hence the growing interest in classical education in the United States.
Growth of Classical Education
Contemporary classical education is experiencing exponential growth since 2018-2019.
Krom et al. (2023) conducted a survey that observed classical school enrollment across the
country increasing nearly 60% from 2018-2022. Classical charter schools in Washington D.C.,
the South Bronx in New York City, Baltimore maintain significant waitlists, from just below 300
to over 700 students (Classical Charter Schools, 2023; Frederick Classical Charter School, Inc.,
2022; My School DC, 2023). As both the charter and classical school models grow, it is
necessary to engage in further study as to the possible effects and benefits of a classical
education offering to both students and educators. One possible framework to the study of

15
classical education and the elements within such a community is Bandura’s social cognitive
theory.
Charter Schools
Charter schools are tuition-free, publicly funded, yet independently operated, elementary
or secondary educational institutions of choice. Typically, state-level legislation permits the
establishment of charter schools, determining funding and procedures for chartering a school at
local levels (Epple et al., 2016). Governance of charter schools is autonomous from school
districts; as private organizations, parent groups, or educators assume responsibility for the
operations, curriculum, and policies of the school. Charter schools are, however, still held
accountable to state and federal standards in education that require testing and performance
metrics over time (Berends, 2015). Different from traditional public schools, students attend a
charter school based on parental choice, not residential location (Zimmer et al., 2009). Because
of the autonomous nature of the charter school systems, there are several possibilities for a
charter school structure and operation.
Charter schools utilize a wide range of flexibility that allows for a diversity of financial
and educational approaches, sizes, and methods (Cohodes, 2018; Yatsko et al., 2009). Originally
intended to serve as testing grounds for new educational methods and research, charter schools
have grown into a driving force in the school choice movement, appealing to families dissatisfied
with their assigned public school or unable to afford private schools (Cohodes, 2018). Since the
advent of the charter school concept in the early 1990s, families seeking an alternative to
traditional public schools have driven remarkable growth of the charter school model.

16
Growth of Charter Schools
Since the creation of the first charter school in Minnesota in 1993, the model has grown
exponentially. In school year (SY) 2021-2022, there were 7,800 charter schools in operation
across the United States. Enrollment in charter schools has steadily increased, doubling in size
from 1.8 million in SY 2010-2011 to 3.7 million in 2021-2022. By comparison, in the same time
frame, traditional public-school enrollment declined 4% (NCES, 2023). Notably, in the 2020-
2021 school year, while public schools lost over 1.4 million students, charter schools gained
nearly 240,000 students because of district response to the COVID-19 pandemic (Veney &
Jacobs, 2021). In 2021, the NCES found that approximately 70% of students at charter schools
across the country identify as students of color, and nearly 60% of charter schools are in an urban
area (Xu, 2022). However, the growth of charter schools has continued despite criticism of the
model leveled by both scholars and practitioners, specifically concerned with equity and
accountability.
Criticism of Charter Schools
Critics of charter schools maintain that charter school policies and procedures perpetuate
segregation and siphon resources from traditional public schools. Frankenberg et al. (2010)
analyzed data relating to increased racial isolation in charter schools, as Black and Latino
students tend to face more segregated environments in charter schools than in traditional public
schools. However, more recently Monarrez et al. (2022) concluded that charter schools in urban
and metropolitan areas reduce segregation between catchments and school districts. Ladd (2019)
presented data that suggested traditional public-school districts are largely unable to cover the
fiscal gap left by departing charter school students, resources usually needed for students whom
charters are unable to accommodate. Nelson (2017) claimed that unelected school boards that

17
operate charter schools, such as for-profit corporations and nonprofits who use selectivity to gain
recognition are antithetical to democracy and present a civic challenge to the responsibilities of
local governments. Even with these varied angles of criticism, charter schools continue to grow,
especially in urban areas as student outcomes continue to improve and familial interest
experiences consistent growth.
Charter Schools in Urban Areas
By certain metrics, charter schools in urban areas produce greater student achievement
outcomes than traditional public schools in the same district. Consistently, charter schools
located in urban areas increase student achievement and test scores, most notably for Black,
Latino, and lower-income students (Betts & Tang, 2018; Cohodes & Parham, 2021). An analysis
by Shakeel and Peterson (2021) yielded results that showed Black and low-income students
attending charter schools gained nearly an additional half-year of learning. Research comparing
charter and traditional public schools in wealthier, suburban localities shows student
achievement as equal to or lower than the traditional school; similar comparisons in urban areas
display a substantial increase in both student achievement and behavioral and attainment
outcomes in charter schools (Clark et al., 2014; Epple et al., 2016; Gulosino & Liebert, 2020).
Further, students at certain charter schools endorsing a no-excuses approach, which emphasize
college matriculation and utilize strict discipline policies, experience higher levels of selfefficacy in navigating and challenging environments where racism and class inequity are
prevalent (Ellison & Iqtadar, 2020; Seider et al., 2016). Classical charter schools, which
emphasize the study of rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, dialogue, and the fine arts, offer a
unique opportunity to study an unconventional approach to education in U.S. urban centers.

18
School Choice Movement
School choice is the concept that families have options available to educate their children.
Options could include a different public school district, public charter schools, private and
parochial schools, or homeschooling. Examples of school choice policies abound, such as the
establishment of charter schools, scholarships, school vouchers to attend private schools, and tax
credits to individuals and corporations to fund choice scholarships (Berends, 2021). School
choice programs in the public school system have increased in the United States, as NCES
(2019) reported that 42% of families had a degree of choice in the public school system. In the
same report, over 21% of parents responded that they moved into their neighborhood for the
assigned public school, a sign that parents made significant changes to their lives to place their
children in the school they felt best.
There is wide acceptance that education provides the most reliable gateway to social
mobility and increased economic prosperity in the face of rapid globalization in a capitalist
society. Since the 1980s, presidential administrations of both parties have advocated for marketbased approaches to increase accountability in education and improve outcomes, also dubbed by
Schneider (2011) as excellence for all in education. Reports such as the 1983 A Nation at Risk,
1989 Governors Education Summit as well as such legislation as the 1994 Improving
American’s Schools Act, 2001 No Child Left Behind, and 2009 Race to the Top aimed to increase
accountability at the individual school and district level (Grant 2022; Mitani 2019; Watkins &
Anthony, 2020). The notion that market forces can improve student outcomes is not a recent
idea. Friedman (1955) introduced the concept that competition in the education sector would not
only result in higher quality education, but also decrease the number of non-public schools. The
advancement of the excellence for all objective has resulted in higher levels of school autonomy,

19
a market-driven educational landscape, and the promise of liberating students from lowperforming schools (Singer, 2021).
Market theory and institutional theory are two competing theories of the impact of school
choice on learning outcomes and pedagogy. Advocates of school choice argue that market
competition and incentives for improvement naturally increase educational quality, innovation,
and creativity in pedagogy that results in improved student outcomes across the spectrum of
education (Berends, 2021; Chubb & Moe, 1990; Walberg & Bast, 2011). Proponents of
institutional theory question the assumption of supply and demand in education markets, and
view schools as institutions of social good that the public takes for granted (Berends, 2021;
Mayer, 1977; Schumpeter, 1942; Scott & Davis, 2007; Scott & Meyer, 1994). The modern
primary conduit of school choice in the United States, a hybrid of public and private schooling
known as charter schools, can support both theories on the impact of school choice policy.
Civil Discourse
Civil discourse is a dialogue about societal issues characterized by the participants’
mutual respect, dignity, and acknowledgement of the value of the opinions of others, including in
disagreement. Lee et al. (2021) of the National Academy of Education define civil discourse as
the ability to “communicate with one another around the challenges of public issues in order to
enhance both individual and group understanding” (p. 1). Real discourse requires patience,
honesty, and humility in civil discussion, especially in disagreement (Davis, 2010). On an
individual level, civil discourse incorporates an understanding of one’s identity and beliefs while
valuing others’ experiences and viewpoints in the process (Institute for Civility in Government,
2021).

20
The foundations of civil discourse dwell in the centuries-old debate regarding the
relationship between the government and the governed. An honest dialogue requires a struggle
with civic identity, namely the tension between the values of individualism and
communitarianism (Shaffer, 2020). Engaging with this dichotomy is a significant element of
citizenship; how citizens interact through varying perspectives shapes interaction and behavior
with others (Charland, 1987). Meaningful interaction regarding the tension between values will
lead to a more well-defined civic purpose, or a commitment to serve beyond themselves through
civic participation (Malin et al., 2015). Civic purpose in the citizenry requires implementing
practice in honest dialogue and collaboration, as citizenship is an ongoing commitment to society
at large.
For effective civil discourse to take place, citizens employ several conscious or
subconscious practices. According to Leskes (2013), characteristics of civil discourse include
honest and frank exchange, active listening, an emphasis on issues instead of individuals, seeking
common ground, and open-mindedness in the spirit of the public’s best interest. Additionally,
Elias (2014) identifies such essential competencies for discourse as exploration, deliberation,
problem solving, conflict resolution, and cultural competency by social-emotional learning. The
ability to discuss and engage on varying public beliefs as to the role of government is an
essential element of good citizenship.
Importance of Civil Discourse
The practice of civil discourse is vital to the effective functioning of a democratic society.
In his 1961 inaugural address, President John F. Kennedy stated, “Let us begin anew,
remembering on both sides that civility is not a sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject
to proof. Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems that

21
divide us.” In 1916, Dewey’s contention that democracy is “primarily a mode of associated
living, of conjoint communicated experience” (p. 50) stressed the importance of acknowledging
a shared public purpose and dialoguing freely as a part of the constant renegotiation of the public
good (Crosby, 2018).
A foundational element of civil discourse is the understanding that disagreement and
intersectionality are conquerable obstacles on the path to unity in society. At its core, civil
discourse goes against the prevailing ideology that classifications and intersectionality that
divide citizens (race, gender, sexuality, political affiliation, religion) are too insurmountable to
reach mutual understanding when engaging on contentious political issues (Peirce, 2016).
Instead, effective discourse considers varied lived experiences valuable elements that inform
conversation and dialogue in unique and substantive ways (Crosby, 2018).
Citizens would be incorrect, however, to assume that civil discourse in the public sphere
has always been an inclusive feature of society; in fact, exclusion has historically been a
pervasive characteristic in the discussion of societal issues (Van Wart et al., 2023). Participatory
citizens must acknowledge the agency of others, work through past exclusion in the process, and
change the understanding of who participates in civil discourse now and in the future (Stitzlein,
2021). Moving past and through cultural barriers make possible the negotiation of experiences
and perspectives that lead to individual contributions, which influences the community and, as a
result, other individuals (Crosby, 2018). The value of others’ lived experience and contribution
to civil discourse is part of the evolution of communication in democratic society.
Civil Discourse and Communication
Communication is the bedrock of civil society’s ability to function and evolve. As such,
civil discourse is the essential trait of communication at the heart of democratic society (Escobar,

22
2011). Civil discourse encompasses more than political speech, as effective dialogue is rooted in
respect for both oneself and those citizens who disagree (Waisanen, 2014). More than simply a
constructive dialogue, civil discourse is a moral virtue with an established foundation that
acknowledges the humanity, dignity, and worth of every individual and their ideals (Laverty,
2010: Moore, 2012). Pelser and West (2019) contend that respect is the single most significant
intellectual quality contributing to civil discourse.
Skills associated with civil discourse go together with effective communication.
Empathy, critical thinking, and communication with people who disagree are all valuable skills
that enhance one’s ability to persuade and see the validity of other viewpoints (Baker et al.,
2021). Increasing emphasis on civil discourse can focus a student’s attention on how they listen
thoughtfully, creating better communicators in reading, writing, and speaking (Schwartz &
Ritter, 2019). As a result, not only are individual conversations made to be productive and
valuable, but public policy at every level of government can form in the spirit of cooperation and
good faith.
Civil Discourse and Public Policy
Responsible public policy depends on civil discourse to make progress on behalf of the
public. Peirce (2016) suggested that civility and discourse contribute to a more sound and
trustworthy public policy that is, theoretically, rooted in the best interest of society at large. Civil
discourse provides a center-ground in discussion of contentious political issues that lies between
avoidance and fighting (Schmidt & Pinkney, 2022). A required element for the functioning of a
strong, effective democracy is the ability of its citizens to listen to opposing views and to
communicate in a way that regards fellow citizens as colleagues rather than enemies (Crosby,
2018).

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Practicing civil discourse is not just a foundational element for the discussion of political
issues, but a necessity to developing a generation inclined to empathy, openness, and cultural
proficiency toward an increasingly diverse population (Halteman Zwart, 2021). Recent research
suggests that openly discussing political issues and dialoguing with others who may disagree
helps to refine views and find empathy toward the views of others (Harrison et al., 2022).
Appropriate training from an early age ensures that ongoing civil discourse is a consistent trait of
a healthy democratic society.
Schools and Civil Discourse
Schools are the most significant institution for the establishment and practice of civil
discourse in society. Higher education scholar and University of Chicago president Robert M.
Hutchins (1956) claimed that the United States approach of education for all is the greatest
contribution to free society and democracy. Traditionally, schools are the principal locations for
fostering the attitudes, values, and behaviors that prepare citizens for participation in a
democratic and civil society (Flanagan, 2013; Qvarnstrom, 2020). The National Council for
Social Studies (NCSS) distinguishes civic understanding as a vital portion of education for
citizenship, and the main purpose of social studies in schools (NCSS, 2017). Tocqueville
(1831/2000) and Dewey (1916) posited that in a democratic republic, each generation must
receive training in elementary and secondary school to enter civil society and government. As
older generations begin to transition out of civic life, younger generations assume responsibility
of government and policy that will affect their future and generations to come (Youniss, 2011).
For this transition to take place successfully, young people need to be prepared to participate in
democracy, develop a sense of agency and meaning in civic life, and shape and improve their
communities through collaboration and involvement (Malin et al., 2015). Through civics

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education, students develop socially as they may participate in character education or servicelearning programs that develop attitudes and tendencies of active citizens (Westheimer, 2015).
As Lukianoff and Haidt (2018) emphasized, citizenship is not a trait that simply appears on a
person’s 18th birthday; they learn valuable skills that build effective citizenship in and out of the
classroom during childhood.
By design, schools have played an outsized role in citizenship education. Throughout
most of its history, the United States has trusted its schools both public and private to educate
upcoming generations of the responsibility of keeping a democracy. Historians maintain that in
the early days of the republic, there was an expectation that a school’s purpose was to equip
students with the skill necessary to meet the obligations of a self-governing democracy (DarlingHammond & Ancess, 1996). This ideology is wholly consistent with Benjamin Franklin’s (1751)
vision that schools would provide a means of “laying such a foundation of knowledge and ability
as, properly improved, may qualify individuals to pass through and execute the several offices of
civil life, with advantage and reputation to themselves and country” (p. 8). As the United States
has grown in both population and economic power over the past two and a half centuries, the
goals of public schooling are continually evolving.
Purpose of Public Schools in the United States
The purpose of United States public schooling remains a subject of debate. Labaree
(1997) claimed that conflict in education has its roots in the struggle between three major forces,
namely democratic equality and citizenship, social efficiency and economy, and social and class
mobility. Advocates for a utilitarian education system informed by economic necessity contrast
with those who favor a more humanitarian, citizenship focused approach with the goal of
maintaining a vibrant democracy and creating social opportunity for students (Byrners & Hillis,

25
2018). As advocacy for national education standards increased in the 1980s, the National
Governors’ Association agreed to aggressively pursue standards for math and science, fueled by
the desire for continued growth and prosperity in response to increased economic competition
abroad, particularly in technology and innovation (National Governors’ Association, 1989). The
NCSS (2017) and Gutmann (1993, 2021), however, contend that a primary focus of schooling
should be preparation for participation in democracy, most especially by training in deliberative
decision making. Friedman (1955) connected the stability of a democratic society with a
minimum degree of literacy and knowledge for the explicit purpose of citizenship.
Legislation at all levels of government has pointed toward policies emphasizing
economic growth over democratic vitality. As early as the mid-1950s, Hutchins (1956) lamented
the influence of industrialists and business interests as unduly influencing curriculums in
schools, pushing education as a path to job preparation rather than the exploration of ideas and
methods. In a study of policy since the 1970s. Carpenter (2019) concluded that the two most
influential elements of educational policy were the prospect of economic instability because of
global interconnectedness, and the institutionalization of economic policy with the objective of
United States economic dominance in the 21st century. In the early 2000s, the No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) Act placed an increased emphasis on language arts, mathematics, and science; a
shift in focus seen by many as an attempt to shift the purpose of education to what would benefit
the nation economically (Jamieson, 2013). While scores in all three areas of the NCLB increased
over the period between 2010-2020, proficiency scores in civics and history have recently fallen
to all-time lows after remaining stagnant for a decade (NCES, 2022). Still, school remains the
only institution where all students can nurture democratic practices as well as experience
conversations regarding democratic philosophies and procedures (Edelstein, 2011). Schools are

26
in the unique position to train students in civil discourse within the framework of socialemotional learning through empathy and understanding.
The Role of Trust in Civil Discourse and Schools
Trust plays a vital role in the functioning of an effective school. Trust relates directly to
faculty performance, confidence in leadership and organizational direction, and the ability for
administrators and teachers to foster student learning (Tschannen-Moran & Gareis, 2015;
Tschannen-Moran, 2017). Among other instructional goals, schools assist in character building
so that students develop trust in their peers, institutions, and themselves with the goal of
achieving higher levels of citizenship formation for adulthood (D’Olimpio, 2020). Additionally,
increased student outcomes are directly related to higher trust-based learning environments
(Tschannen-Moran, 2014).
Trust is an essential element in the practice of civil discourse, especially in schools.
Exercises in civil discourse in the classroom often center around teachers helping to build trust
between students who hold differing positions, viewpoints, and values in a society that advocates
suspicion and vitriol toward those colleagues who may disagree (Halteman-Zwart, 2021; SweetCushman, 2020). Further, Lukensmeyer and Hasselblad-Torres (2020) characterized the
relationship between civil discourse and trust as currency upon which relationships are built, and
a lack of either can be detrimental to a society’s sense of purpose.
Taken together, trust is a foundational aspect of both effective schools and effective civil
discourse. The role of trust in discussing differing views, reflecting upon identities, and engaging
in civil discussion leads to increased student academic and social outcomes (Seemiller, 2018).
Further, an emphasis on character development and education with a basis of trust as a virtue
allows students to explore a more holistic experience in regulating emotional disposition, acting

27
with context as a factor in relationships and situation, and collaborating with others from
differing backgrounds and viewpoints by exercising empathy and compassion (D’Olimpio,
2020).
Civil Discourse, Empathy, and Social-Emotional Learning
The degree of empathy that civil discourse requires is related to current emphasis on
social-emotional learning in early and middle grades. Described by McIntosh and Youniss
(2010) as a socialization process rather than a behavior modification process, civil discourse
effectively employs the skills developed in social-emotional learning. In outlining various
competencies for teaching empathy, Borba (2018) suggested that civility can be synonymous
with social and emotional learning. Seen now as an essential skill for success in leadership and
career performance, students’ constant effective practice of empathy can improve
communication skills, decrease aggression in critical conversations, reduce bullying, increase
prosocial behavior, and even curtail racism and misogyny (Eisenberg et al., 2010; Goleman,
2014; Santos et al., 2011). Components of effective social and emotional learning, specifically
moral identity, perspective taking, moral imagination, self-regulation, collaboration, and moral
courage align seamlessly with fundamental elements of effective civil discourse (Borba, 2018).
Personal relationships and conversations, however, go beyond the physical presence of a
classroom or workplace. In current technological reality, the practice of civil discourse
necessitates leveraging and training in its relationship to technology and innovation.
Technology and Civil Discourse
Technology plays a significant role in modern civil discourse. The internet presents the
opportunity to engage in informal political discussion, and furthers citizens’ ability to learn about
political issues, public policy concerns, form opinions, and refine their political positions

28
(Rossini, 2019). Further, the proliferation of social media introduces the probability that
strangers from multiple locations can interact in conversation on political issues, much like a
large town square that makes borders and distance irrelevant for involvement (Sweet-Cushman,
2019). However, platforms used most to discuss contentious political issues lack social
accountability to maintain a level of productive discourse (Sweet-Cushman, 2019).
The term digital citizenship blends citizens’ use of critical thinking, political
participation, exercised rights, societal and cultural values, and democratic processes with access
and use of the internet (Al-Zahrani, 2015). As the internet has become ubiquitous in daily life,
citizenship is now a part of the daily interactions that occur online (Panke & Stephens, 2018).
The digital world has allowed traditional civic activities such as petition signing and issue
advocacy to expand, while introducing new civic behaviors to the citizenry (Mattson, 2016).
Examples of new online citizenship opportunities include interaction with public officials
through social media, accessibility of open data such as candidate and organizational fundraising
sources, and volunteer-powered online encyclopedia Wikipedia (Gordon & Midhalidis, 2016).
While the internet introduced the ability for increased political participation and practice
of civil discourse across borders and geographic constraints, cynicism quickly replaced the
optimism that online interactions would transform citizenship for the better. Scholars learned
through assessment of online political engagement that the standards of civil discourse that
include respectful debate were largely absent, undermined by uncivil discourse (Coleman &
Moss, 2012). The elevated use of profanity, ad hominem attacks, doxing, and trolling in political
argumentation suggested an environment unconducive to democratic norms and civil discourse
(Coe et al., 2014; Reagle Jr., 2015; Santana 2014). Additionally, the ability for social influencers
to craft unsubstantiated narratives on social media has damaged trust in institutions and, in some

29
cases, democracy itself (Center for Information and Research, 2019; McGrew et al., 2018).
Rather than increase meaningful political discussion, the rise of the internet has contributed to a
decline in civil discourse, especially in the United States.
Civil Discourse Eroding in the United States
Civil discourse is rapidly declining in the United States. Sharp differences between
ideological groups manifest themselves in bitter personal attacks and partisanship that infect the
public dialogue and set poor examples for young people (Moore, 2012). Trust in government is
near an historic low among United States voters, with 16% of the population believing that
government does what is right just about always or most of the time (Pew, 2023). According to a
2023 Survey of Civic Literacy by the American Bar Association, 85% of citizens believe that
civility today is worse than in 2013, with 53% laying the blame for the decline on social media
and media.
The erosion of civil discourse in the United States is a result of several factors. Political
actors use fear, anger, and manipulation to polarize the citizenry and undermine public
confidence in institutions, political opposition, and elections (Somer & McCoy, 2018).
Polarization is the result of a reductionist approach of political issues, removing nuance and
thereby forcing citizens to choose one answer or policy position over another, creating an usversus-them environment that curtails the ability to discuss issues in a respectful manner (McCoy
et al., 2018). Further, Conner (2018) posits that the proliferation of the internet has caused the
cost of entry into the media landscape to plummet, contributing to a shift away from objective
reporting in favor of subjective analysis of the news. Individuals and interest groups can create
publications that emphasize a certain point of view without regard to facts or nuance. The
increase in popularity of non-traditional media has caused media outlets once focused on events

30
and context in the news to present more opinion content to keep viewership or distribution
(Conner, 2018). This shift in format highlights argumentative and emotional reactions to the
events of the day that undermine civil discourse in favor of advocacy for one viewpoint of
another (Kavanagh et al., 2019).
Because civil discourse relies on mutual respect and trust in fellow citizens to act in the
best interest of the public, it is essential that respect and trust exist among partisans. According to
Pew (2019) in a survey of 10,000 voters, Republicans and Democrats held more negative views
of the other party’s members than in 2016, with a majority of each using such terms as “closedminded” and “immoral” to describe the opposing party (p.1). The same poll indicated that
overwhelming majorities of both parties believe that divisions between Democrats and
Republicans are increasing (Pew, 2019). This type and level of polarization is distinct from
simply disagreement in politics, creating a permission structure to trade democratic principles for
partisan victory (Svolik, 2019). The escalation in discord between partisans has led to
accusations that call into question their political opponent’s patriotism, acknowledgement of
basic facts, and commitment to the idea of democracy (Pew, 2019). An analysis by Graham and
Svolik (2020) concluded that while partisans from both sides claim to value democracy, they
each readily employ double standards to almost punish the opposing party exclusively over their
own for undemocratic behavior.
While civil discourse may be eroding, most citizens agree that it is important to increase
the level of confidence in institutions. Moreover, a large majority of citizens believe it is possible
to reverse the United States downward trend of trust in institutions and each other (Rainie et al.,
2019). In the Survey of Civic Literacy (2023) referenced earlier, 79% of respondents indicated
that they would like to see public officials work together toward compromise, as opposed to 13%

31
who prefer their side to hold their ground until they win. An obstacle to progress is the wide
belief among younger citizens (18-29) who have the lowest level of trust in others, deep
uncertainty about the state of democracy, and the least confidence in the possibility of reversal
(Center for Information and Research [CIR], 2019). However, while younger citizens seem more
distrustful of democracy and pessimistic about the future, youth electoral turnout has increased
substantially over the past three election cycles (CIR, 2019, 2021, 2023). Increased electoral
turnout among the young indicate that teachers in the United States secondary education
environment have a unique opportunity to reverse the trend of pessimism in younger generation;
it is imperative that school leaders work to prepare teachers in this undertaking.
Teacher Professional Development
Teacher professional development (PD) is the process by which teachers keep current on
best practices, learn to learn, and learn to apply their learning in their classroom community.
Historically, research recognized the continuing learning and development of teachers as a major
element of improving education in the United States (Carnegie Task Force, 1986; DarlingHammond, 1993, 1997; Jacquith et al., 2010; Thompson & Zeuli, 1999). Additionally, teacher
development acts as an essential guidepost in the effectiveness of policy, teaching practice, and
student success (Desimone, 2009; Smith, 2005).
Traditionally seen as the main tool in developing and perpetuating teacher knowledge,
PD equips teachers with skills and updates to skills to improve student outcomes while
simultaneously enhancing a teacher’s commitment to the profession (Fairman et al., 2020;
Galaczi et al., 2018). The motivation for PD lies in resulting enhanced student outcomes, which
manifest themselves in more rewarding education experiences, increased happiness, higher
incomes post-education, and improved mental health (Hanushek 2011; Lochner, 2011). Ideally,

32
improved teacher quality because of a change in behavior should improve student outcomes,
which will increase a country’s economic competitiveness (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;
Kennedy, 2014). Further, teacher participation in PD activities results in increased teacher
knowledge, changes in beliefs, and modified classroom instruction and environments (Desimone,
2009).
The need for PD goes beyond classroom outcomes. The expectations of teachers now far
exceed those responsibilities for which education schools and traditional teacher training
programs prepare graduates (Gupta & Lee, 2020). The obligations teachers face continue to
increase, specifically in workload and parent communication because of the COVID-19
pandemic (Pressley & Ha, 2021). Teachers are increasingly experiencing anxiety and burnout
due to changing classroom environments, job expectations, government mandates and standards
for different pedagogy, and increased scrutiny by parents and caregivers (Pressley, 2021). As a
result of the higher levels of anxiety and burnout, teachers are leaving the profession at alarming
rates, causing shortages in several key subjects (Chang et al., 2022).
The most effective PD programs feature localized or subject-specific content and
empower teachers to drive learning. Antiquated PD programs that involve outsiders presenting to
entire faculties have proven to be increasingly ineffective, as such programming typically lacks
in-depth understanding of school curriculum and culture, geographic contexts, and value
structures of the community (Gupta & Lee, 2020). Elements proven to be essential to effective
PD include localization and context-specific programming which places the learner as the driver,
a growth mindset among teachers, relevance to the subject area and time, collaboration inside a
learning community of teachers, consistent practice, and measurable and realistic outcomes for
teachers (Desimone & Garet, 2015; Galaczi et al., 2018). Effective and customized PD contains

33
at least most of the elements not only ultimately result in improved student outcomes, but also in
increased retention of high-performing teachers (Gupta & Lee, 2020; Krasnoff, 2015). Schools
of all models, including charter and private schools, are under pressure to retain exceptional
teachers as market competition increases across the United States because of increased school
choice policies and parental activism.
Social Cognitive Theory
The theory used for addressing this problem of practice is social cognitive theory (SCT),
as established by Bandura (1986, 1997, 2001). SCT is most concerned with the attainment of a
person’s knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors regarding the social environment (Bandura, 1986).
Further, the foundational idea of SCT is that the cognitive process that is learning is not separate
from the context in which it occurs. This theory is ideal because the study purpose calls for an
analysis of the cognitive and behavioral differences in the models of learning for civil discourse,
namely teachers and professional development. Among its assertions, SCT proposes a triadic
model, as three factors influence each other to influence learning, specifically behavioral,
environmental, and personal factors (Bandura, 1986). Behavioral factors can include choice of
activity, effort, and persistence; environmental processes include social models, feedback, and
rewards; personal processes include goal setting, self-efficacy, and expectations (Schunk &
DiBenedetto, 2020). Figure 2 illustrates key processes in each of the three interconnected factors
influencing learning.

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Figure 1
Key Behavioral, Personal, and Environmental Processes
Fig. 2. Key behavioral, environmental, and personal processes. From “Motivation and Social
Cognitive Theory.” By D. Williams & M. DiBenedetto, 2020, Contemporary Educational
Psychology 1(1), p. 3.
The concept of learning in SCT revolves around learners’ observation of models. Within
the context of a social basis for learning and development, Bandura (2012) asserts that parents,
teachers, peers, and others within a community act as social models for individual learning and
self-regulated competency. These social models influence learning as the individual student
observes the models’ behavior in relation to the environment, building the individual’s sense of
efficacy, prior experience, beliefs, and values that influence behavior in the long-term (Bandura,

35
1997; Bembenutty et al., 2016). Teachers’ social modeling allow students to apply context, learn
how to think about varying approaches to problems, and visualize what behaviors are acceptable
and unacceptable in specific situations (Dorn & Soffos, 2001). Self-regulation, an element of
social cognitive theory that has gained traction in the previous 4 decades, is especially prevalent
in in education, where teachers assume the role of social model and students assume a proactive
role in the learning process (Bembenutty et al., 2016). The roles of social modeling and selfregulation in learning make SCT an ideal framework on which to base a study on civil discourse
in schools.
Social Cognitive Theory and Civil Discourse in Schools
SCT is an effective theory to utilize in education specifically because of its emphasis on
the various influences on the learning process. Key to social cognitive theory is the human desire
for agency, and effective civil discourse in any community requires agency on the part of citizens
to choose to participate in democracy (Bandura, 2001; Owen & Phillips, 2023). Actions of civic
participation about discourse, such as civic education, critical thinking about political issues,
informed discussion, and listening to opposing viewpoints.
Conceptual Framework
A study uses a conceptual framework to provide a blueprint for problem evaluation and
definitions between variables (Grant & Osanloo, 2015). Using SCT as the theoretical framework,
this study will analyze how faculty cognition in an urban classical charter school interacts with
their environment and behavior in terms of civil discourse. Specifically, the study will emphasize
elements of social modeling and self-regulation to examine the approach of faculty professional
development on civil discourse in the community.

36
Utilizing SCT will allow the researcher to assess faculty professional development in
civil discourse while incorporating a social context. SCT places emphasis on the interactive
relationships between the cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence civil
discourse learning in teacher professional development programming. SCT also emphasizes the
motivational and experiential contributions to learning and behavior. Various factors could
contribute to faculty implementation of civil discourse in the community, such as a sense of
satisfaction, personal achievement, and student achievement (Bandura, 2001).
Figure 3 presents a conceptual framework that links the cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental factors regarding the determination of human behavior and learning within the
realm of modern classical education. For example, cognitive factors such as expectations for the
community and attitudes toward classical education interact with environmental factors such as
social norms, a school culture of openness and diversity, and access to resources such as primary
texts and historical lessons, which also interact with behavioral factors such as engaged
conversations based on mutual respect, tolerance of differing ideas, and personal accountability
to determine both instructor and student behavior and learning within a classical context.

37
Figure 2
Conceptual Framework
Note. Cognitive, environmental, and behavioral factors interact to determine human
behavior/learning.
Conclusion
Civil discourse and respectful discussion of significant societal issues is eroding in the
United States. Elementary and secondary education offer an opportunity to practice civil
discourse at a young and influential age in human development, preparing students not only to
participate in important societal discussions, but to act as leaders in the future. For instruction
and practice of civil discourse to be most effective, teachers must be prepared to not only
facilitate respectful discussion among students, but to model behavior that values discourse and
collaboration on difficult issues facing the community. Specifically, this study examined a

38
promising practice in an urban classical charter school that emphasizes civil discourse in the
context of a community pursuing questions of truth, goodness, and beauty. SCT is an ideal
framework to use as the foundation of a study that analyzes the social context of teacher
professional development in civil discourse, considering teacher self-efficacy and agency
throughout the learning process.

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Chapter Three: Methodology
This study seeks to investigate the success of the classical education approach at an urban
charter school. Additionally, this study seeks to learn about student outcomes in civil discourse,
and the ways classical education approaches the discussion of polarizing political topics,
differences in ideology, and the teaching of Western civilization and philosophy in contentious
times. The goal is to inform schools of all models about a practice dedicated to strengthening
civil society through conversation rooted in mutual respect and honesty. This chapter outlines the
research questions, methodology for data collection, researcher positionality, and data collection
procedures.
Research Questions
To investigate the success of classical education and student outcomes in civil discourse
at an urban charter school, two research questions guide this study:
1. What factors support the success of the classical education model in a highperforming urban classical charter school?
2. To what extent and how does a classical education curriculum promote student
learning outcomes in civil discourse?
Overview of Design
This section highlights the methodology used for the study. Crotty (1998) connected
methodology to the strategy used by research. Bailey (2008) described methodology as the
compelling idea, justification for analysis, and standards for examination. To properly collect
data concerning the lived experiences of the study participants, the study utilizes interviews.
Interviews use questioning to center the stories and experiences of the study participants,
resulting in rich data that helps understand the problem of practice.

40
Researchers utilize interviews with the expressed purpose of understanding a study
participant’s unique viewpoint, thoughts, and opinions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews
assist the researcher in aligning the problem with a frame of perspective from a group or
individual directly affected by the problem of practice (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). Interviews
offer the best research for this study because they provide a method to best understand both the
factors that influence the success of classical education, the lived experiences of participants, and
student outcomes in civil discourse in an urban classical charter school.
Research Setting
The research setting is a key element in ensuring the research is trustworthy and credible
(Shenton, 2004). This study utilizes in-person interviews on the campus of HM Prep in
Washington, DC where participants are employed as faculty, in a quiet, modest office space
furnished by school leadership. This setting assures that the participants are comfortable, and
provides the space needed to conduct interviews and reflect on each session.
The Researcher
The positionality of the researcher is an important aspect in structuring the study. The
term positionality refers to how the researcher views the world and the factors that contribute to
reality (Merrian & Tisdell, 2016). I am a Latino male of Cuban heritage, working toward an
advanced credential, who has built a career in education over the past 17 years. My career began
as an Advanced Placement U.S. Government and Politics instructor at an exclusive, high-priced
independent school in South Florida. Currently, I serve as an administrator in a Catholic STEM
high school that serves a diverse community in East Los Angeles. As an administrator in a
unique model of alternative education, conversations regarding the future of education after the
COVID-19 pandemic piqued my interest in classical education. As an administrator in a school

41
located in an urban area with most students coming from marginalized communities, I am
particularly interested in how the school pursues a classical education model in a cultural
environment like mine.
Ergun and Erdemir (2010) and Liamputtong (2010) asserted a benefit for researchers who
may possess similar backgrounds and characteristics to the participants. As a high school civics
educator, I share a major characteristic with participants, having gone through a career in
education both inside and outside the classroom. My background presents an opportunity to
connect with participants and create a welcoming space where participants feel safe to give open
and honest answers.
One concern that could affect the interview process is the power dynamic that could be
associated with my role as a researcher. To mitigate any potential negative issues that could arise
from this power dynamic, I emphasized that the participants’ honest insights are essential to my
study. I have no history, contact with, or other interest in the school I am studying.
I mitigated bias by applying critical reflexivity, which Pillow (2003) used in response to
power dynamics in research. Rice and Ezzy (1999) used the term reflexivity to assert that the
researcher should scrutinize themselves and their influence as much as the research itself.
Carolan (2003) and Mays and Pope (2000) posited that reflexivity can also refer to the impact the
researcher can have on the research. As the researcher, it was imperative that I applied selfreflection and mindfulness to how I collect data and relate to participants.
Data Sources
Data collection for this study utilized interviews. An analysis of a sequence of interviews
will determine trends or consistencies among participants. For this study, interviews served as a

42
mechanism to collect qualitative data, before coding, to find consistencies in the stories and
responses of participants to add depth and understanding to the promising practice.
The study included 16 semi-structured interviews (SSI). Participants shared their own
experiences, positive and negative, with classical education and civil discourse in the
community, and answered questions related to how the school emphasizes classical education
and fosters civil discourse in the community. Morse and Field (2015) claimed that SSI is a
beneficial means of inquiry, allowing the researcher to analyze subjective information in addition
to objective knowledge. The SSI format gives participants the opportunity to respond freely to
open-ended questions, with probing questions from the researcher when needed (Johnson &
Christiensen, 2019).
Participants
This study focused on faculty and administrators at HM Prep. Participants represented a
diversity in age, gender, race, professional experience, and subject matter expertise. The study
used a purposeful sampling approach to select 12-16 participants. Patton (2002) described
purposeful sampling as recognizing and choosing information-rich cases to maximize limited
resources. Purposeful sampling involves identifying and selecting participants who are
particularly informed on an area of relevance (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Further, it was
crucial in a purposeful sample that participants were available and willing to participate, can
effectively articulate their experiences and opinions (Bernard 2018; Spradley 1979). Criteria for
selection to this study includes full-time employment at HM Prep, a minimum of 1 year of
professional in-classroom teaching experience and prior or current participation in professional
development programs offered by HM Prep. Researcher identified interview participants through
approved Institutional Research Board (IRB) techniques, particularly direct referral from the

43
Chief Classical Officer of HM Prep and word of mouth within HM Prep. Prospective participants
received the criteria for participation through email prior to selection.
Instrumentation
Creswell and Creswell (2022) posited that qualitative interviews allow researchers to
learn about the unique lived experiences of participants through their own words. Semistructured one-on-one interviews employ conversational techniques that blend closed- and openended questions and probing, follow-up questions when the researcher deems necessary (Adams,
2015). Further, semi-structured interviews afford the researcher the opportunity for discovery
and the ability to follow relevant paths that the conversation may uncover (Magaldi & Berler,
2020). Brinkmann (2014) claimed that semi-structured interviews are most effective at utilizing
the potential for knowledge-sharing dialogues to allow the participant to provide context and
follow-up on responses, as well as the interviewer themselves becoming an active part of the
conversation.
The semi-structured interviews included a set of 15 predetermined questions, as well as
possible supplemental questions that allow for further discussion. Interviews followed a
constructed interview guide (Appendix A) as defined by Merriam and Tisdell (2016), which
provided consistency between the 12-16 interviews as well as aligned the interview with the
research questions. Formulation of the interview questions included considerations for the
interconnected relationships between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors as
identified by SCT. Pilot interviews are a useful exercise to assist in the minimizing of bias,
practice the flow of the interview, highlight possible gaps in data collection, and identify
potential misguided questions (Sampson, 2004; Weiss, 1995). Pilot interviews with colleagues
took place prior to data collection.

44
Data Collection Procedures
Interviews lasted 45-60 minutes, took place in-person in a quiet office on the campus of
HM Prep, and utilized Sony UX Series Digital Voice micro recorder for recording with the
participants’ knowledge and consent, with the voice memo feature on the Apple iPhone 15 as a
backup so to avoid technological malfunction as identified by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). The
interviewer utilized reflexive notes for re-examination and added depth (Montgomery & Bailey,
2007). Both the participant and interviewer reviewed transcripts for accuracy, as suggested by
the interviewee transcript review (ITR) methodology outlined by Hagens et al. (2009).
Interviewer assured participants that the location of the interview is safe and welcomed honest
responses to interview questions. Interviewer assured participants that they can end the interview
at any time if they become uncomfortable, and any data collected discarded. These collection
procedures supported the transition of the interviews into data.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is vital to understanding the information gathered in interviews. As there
exists no universally accepted method to analyze qualitative research (Gilbert et al., 2014; James,
2013), this study employed data coding. Gibbs (2018) defined coding as “a way of indexing or
categorizing the text in order to establish a framework of thematic ideas about it” (p. 54). Coding
enables the researcher to combine separate data that relate to an explanation of a phenomenon,
and to analyze relationships between data sets (Gibbs, 2018). Interviewer coded data in the
ATLAS.ti software platform, with preliminary coding of key terms and common phrases done by
hand prior to inputting into the software. Using software to code enables the researcher to
analyze data in simpler, easier methods and improves the quality of research (Bazeley, 2013).

45
Narrative and thematic analysis are useful tools in qualitative analysis to increase
understanding of lived experience and find common themes between responses in the data set
(Braun & Clarke, 2006; Weatherhead, 2011). Weatherhead (2011) described narrative analysis as
a consideration of a person’s story vis a vis the research topic. Thematic analysis, as defined by
Braun and Clarke (2006) is simply finding patterns and commonalities within data. This study
employed both narrative and thematic analysis to enhance understanding of participants’ lived
experiences and identify trends and common themes in the data collected.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Ensuring trustworthiness and credibility is vital to any research study involving
qualitative data. To prove credibility, a clear and consistent audit trail is a common practice that
allows for authentication of findings by following the path of the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The researcher maintains all data collected, including interview transcripts, recordings,
and field notes for the time required by IRB. The researcher utilized ITR to ensure
trustworthiness. ITR involves providing participants with the transcripts of their interviews with
the objective of verifying accuracy, correcting inaccuracies, and providing further context or
clarification (Hagens et al., 2009). Data collection ended when the study reached saturation, as
the researcher was no longer able to find new information after uncovering all germane
information to the study focus (Fusch & Ness, 2015).
Ethics
The purpose of this dissertation is to gain an understanding of the factors that influence
the success of an urban classical charter school and its ability to engage in civil discourse
throughout the community. The researcher conducted individual interviews of school faculty and
administrators to collect data directly from the demographic described. All participants provided

46
informed consent. Informed consent involves clear communication by the researcher of the risks
and benefits of participation in the study so the potential participants can decide whether to
participate or not (Nusbaum et al., 2017). Interviewer reminded participants of the voluntary
nature of the study, and that all responses and information will remain secure and confidential.
Researcher submitted the study to the University of Southern California (USC) IRB and
did not begin research until receipt of approval. Researcher adhered to all guidelines and
standards set by IRB to keep participants safe and protect their rights, and all data collected will
remain secure and confidential. Researcher did not intimidate, or harm participants to ensure that
respect is central to all interactions (Rubin & Rubin, 2011). Researcher did not offer incentives
or compensation for participation, mitigating any suspicion of coercion.
During interviews, participants recount personal stories and negative experiences. If a
response or lived experience uncovers illegal activity, it has the potential to cause an ethical
predicament to report or continue with an interview in the spirit of gathering data for the study. It
is the researcher’s responsibility to leave undisturbed the participant’s space and story (Terrell,
2012). In some cases, the inclusion of sensitive information or admission regarding a
participant’s workplace must remain confidential, and the participant reminded of
confidentiality, to ensure a safe and honest environment (Terrell, 2012).

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Chapter Four: Findings
This study assessed the personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence the
success of an urban classical charter school and its ability to engage in civil discourse throughout
the community. Utilizing Bandura’s SCT as the theoretical framework, qualitative interviews
provided the data used in development of shaping the research and recommendations. Chapter
Four introduces the research participants, offers the interview results, and presents the findings.
The study addressed the following research questions:
1. What factors support the success of the classical education model in a highperforming urban classical charter school?
2. To what extent and how does a classical education curriculum promote student
learning outcomes in civil discourse?
Participants
The study involved 16 members of the faculty and administration at HM Prep, all of
whom teach at least one class in the academic program. The study included current teachers and
administrators, as well as one recently retired administrator, all of whom had at least 2 years of
teaching experience at HM Prep, specifically. The interviewees represented diversity in race,
gender, age, teaching experience in education, subject area of expertise, and grade levels taught
in the academic program. Chapter Four contains interviewees’ thoughts and beliefs about the
contributing personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that contribute to the success of an
urban classical charter school. Table 1 provides the participants’ pseudonyms, number of years at
HM Prep, and the subject area or expertise in the school. Note that one participant indicated that
she retired in 2019.

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Table 2
Participant Demographics
Participant Years at HM Prep Subject area
Jeff 3 Language
Tom 5 Classics
Sally 3 Counseling
Sarah 17 History
Carrie 17 English
Joanne 15 Administration
David 7 Administration
Colleen 3 English
Mitchell 6 History
Deborah 16 Mathematics
Darryl 8 Administration
Rachel 3 English
Paul 13 Language
Nicole 8 Mathematics
Mary Ann 10 Administration (Retired)
Michael 10 Science
Findings Research Question 1
The study assessed the personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence the
success of classical education in an urban charter school. Participants consistently provided
several themes, described in the subsequent sections. First, the school community, both as
individuals and in social and professional groups, emphasizes the humanity of others in both
curricular and extracurricular environments. The process of discipline in the school is based on a
spirit of restorative justice, allowing reflection and conversation to take precedence over punitive
measures for misbehavior by students. By design, the school places intentional focus on
character development of students and faculty. Moreover, there is widespread agreement that a
supportive administration, who provides a great amount of autonomy for its teachers, adds a
tremendous amount to the success of such an institution. Administrators also all teach classes
and facilitate several intellectual opportunities for faculty to engage with one another.

49
Interviewees also communicated a varied definition of classical education, which allows the
community the flexibility to understand the model of education most effectively for their
individual needs and circumstances. The community also holds high expectations for all
members, both students and faculty. Lastly, participants indicated a high level of
acknowledgement of challenges and weaknesses in the community that signified opportunities
for further progress.
Emphasis on the Humanity of Others
The emphasis on the humanity of others is paramount to the success of the school and is a
shared value that many of the interviewees identified as foundational. “We talk a lot about
human flourishing and how we help students on a path toward a fuller humanity,” Sarah
explained. Students’ humanity is often an afterthought in secondary education, with institutions
placing a greater emphasis on test scores and district benchmarks. Many students and faculty
members have a learning curve as to what they experience at HM Prep, causing belief and
behavioral change for individuals in both groups. Sally indicated that students have a greater
degree of freedom in their school environment. “The freedom students have to take breaks
wherever they want, go grab a snack at the cafeteria, that goes to seeing the humanity, seeing our
students as just people,” she said. Nicole expressed, “the heart of it is about beliefs about the
student and humanity, who we are as humans. That really resonates for me in terms of human
dignity.”
Darryl often thinks about how classical education contributes to a diverse community’s
outlook on the meaning of humanity, and how the environment molds in response. He stated that
classical education has “something to say about being human, what it means to be self-critical
and reflective, what it means to think about thriving and human flourishing in a very different

50
way than our narrow sense of success leads us to believe.” He said that while the school is
diverse, “it’s not about diversity as an end, but diversity for us as a means to a higher end about
our humanity. The model doesn’t really work without diversity.”
Mitchell views the acknowledgement of humanity as the top priority in his teaching. He
explained, “the number one priority for me as an educator is around the question of dignity. How
do I help students to feel that they are worthy of recognition, that they are worthy of being loved,
of being cared for?” For Mitchell, the genuine care the teachers and administrators have for
students is what drew him to the school. “I saw teachers truly loving the students. And I think
that a lot of that stemmed from leadership, doing a great job of modeling that.”
David posited that a focus on shared humanity allows for deeper, more meaningful
conversations that begin from a position of what he terms “fundamental things that bind us.”
David indicated that, “by centering humanity, both in the people that exist in the space and then
the topic that we’re confronting, I think it allows us to start the conversation even with
disagreement from a tempered, neutral space.” The centering of humanity in all areas of
curriculum and school life allows for interactions and conversations that are based in deeper
elements than exterior commonalities, creating an environment that inspires more courageous
discussion and collaboration. David continued:
If we’re pushing people to challenge themselves, if we’re pushing people to find
something in themselves that they don’t yet see themselves, being in an environment
where you feel seen, you feel valued, you feel heard, you feel loved. Those things are
important entry points into the dialogue. And I think it allows us to go further.
Clear evidence of personal beliefs and behaviors focused on shared humanity exists even
on a student-to-teacher basis. Carrie discussed a consistent feature of the HM Prep classical

51
model as “a sense of community in classical education that I’ve never seen before. If I’m out sick
for a day, I’ll get emails from students asking if I’m okay. I would have never done that when I
was in school.” Students know the faculty and staff and can identify adults they trust. A common
goal for the school is to ensure that each student has one adult they can go to for support. Carrie
stated, “the truth is, they probably have about 10 adults in this building that that's their go-to. So,
I think it's that consistency in what we do, what we say, and also being human. We're humans
too.”
Humanity is a natural element of classical education, particularly when considering the
root term of the core curriculum, the humanities. HM Prep’s concentration on the commonality
of humanity in the community presents an approach to education that transcends statistics, test
scores, or externalities that divide or classify students and faculty based on ability,
socioeconomic background, or race. The emphasis on shared humanity grounds a core belief in
the community, influences behaviors toward one another, and molds the environment to value
the dignity and inherent worth in each individual. In a more practical sense, HM Prep’s
discussion-based pedagogy and seminar-style learning relies on agreement on key fundamental
truths to enter meaningful conversation. A baseline that acknowledges the humanity of others
both in history and the present day provides an opportunity for fundamental agreement that acts
as the basis for conversation, debate, and civil disagreement that is essential in classical
education.
Discipline in the Spirit of Restorative Justice
At HM Prep, the approach to discipline features a model of restorative justice rather than
retributive justice. By challenging students to reflect on their behavior rather than immediate
punishment, administrators and faculty believe that the entire community ultimately benefits.

52
Joanne offered the statistic that “we have the highest percentage of mental health professionals
per student of any school in the city.” The school’s commitment to ensuring a safe environment
where students’ mistakes are learning opportunities rather than marks against conduct is
apparent. Tom said, “they make it about a conversation rather than a punitive system.” Sally
explained that the restorative approach is based on “facilitating conversations with students and
staff when there’s an issue in the classroom.” Joanne believes that “the whole notion of talk
being a way into your self-awareness, I think that is at the heart of moral behavior.” Peer
mediators, trained by Sally, continuously build their skills around conflict resolution. Tom thinks
that they are “trying to do this with a consciousness that what they’re doing is teaching students
justice. Other schools’ disciplinary structures are kind of punitive and heavy handed.” There is a
commitment to allowing students and teachers the opportunity to explain the situation prior to
reflection. Sally explained further, stating that the school uniquely “pushes and teaches students
to have conversations when something happens or allow the voice of the other person to be heard
in that way.” Joanne posited that “there isn’t a disciplinary issue that will happen where the first
question isn’t, ‘tell me what happened’ either with the faculty or with the kids. So, in other
words, talk as a way of explaining yourself has been normalized.”
The concept of restorative justice continues to be a major focus for school culture
specialists, members of the faculty and administration who serve on a committee to discuss such
issues. When it comes to defining discipline in the school, Jeff explained, “some of the school
leaders would say a very relational way of trying to interact with students to get them to be
reflective about why they’re maybe not quite going down the middle.” Tom acknowledged that
the school culture specialists “are the ones who are really teaching justice at this school in the

53
ways student discipline works. These are the people who are helping meaningfully construct and
implement discipline. And they’ve been so good at it.”
In her position, Sally attempts to empathize with the realities that many students live
with. She offered that “maybe in their neighborhoods it’s you fight, you hit someone who does
you wrong, that’s it. And then you come into the school where, no, that’s not how we do things.
We have conversation and apologize, and there’s accountability.” Faculty acknowledge that the
unique approach to discipline at times catches students by surprise. Bridging the emphasis on
humanity with the restorative approach, Sally explained that several students “are not used to the
way their humanity is called into the classes.” The preference for conversations with adults and
reflective exercises over punitive approaches such as detentions or suspensions is unique to
students who have vastly different experiences with discipline.
Mitchell views reflective time as an opportunity for students to connect with how their
actions affect themselves and others. Mitchell remarked, “I think the value is the empowerment
of being able to notice and have awareness of the consequences of my actions. So, when I do this
thing, can I notice that it actually makes me feel more alienated?” Tom considers that the
individual school specialists’ lived experiences in the community have contributed to the success
of the restorative approach in discipline. Tom explained that the specialists are “conscious about
making it a dialogue. We have people in those roles who have lived in the community, who get
D.C., who have children, who themselves may have had a more challenging school experience.”
Restorative justice in high school creates space for students to be more contemplative
about their reasons for violating rules or social norms. Allowing for reflection in the face of
conflict presents learning opportunities that can occur outside the classroom, as students work
through personal challenges or identify factors that contribute to misbehavior or conflict. The

54
element for discussion gives faculty and school administration the opportunity to gain context
and knowledge of how students coexist with elements of the social or environmental
surroundings that could be sources of conflict or disagreement. Participants readily indicated that
this unique approach to discipline contributes to the school’s success in classical education.
Intentional Focus on Community and Character Development
As a pillar of their community agreements and classical model of education, HM Prep
emphasizes an intentional focus on community and character development across the
community. When developing the curriculum, Joanne offered that the school has “always been
interested in how schooling teaches character, but not as some standalone program or virtue of
the month but does it within the context of the curriculum itself.” Michael views character
development at HM Prep in a far different way than in his previous communities. He stated,
“when it comes to character building, we want students to be empowered to ask questions and to
communicate their ideas and questions in a way that's different than every learning environment
I've been in.” Mitchell experiences a cultural commitment to human growth at the school. He
said, “I think there’s fidelity to what is going to help the students actually grow as human
beings.”
The classical approach fosters an environment that relates character development as a
journey to find middle ground, take the time to seek the center, and reflect on how personal
beliefs and behavior can adapt. Jeff discussed that “the lack of a very prescribed set of rules and
expectations, and almost a sort of Aristotelian seeking of virtue by a golden mean, navigating
your way between two extremes” presents a distinctive element of the classical approach. Tom
considers that classical education provides a methodology that “teaches students to slow down

55
and think carefully and deliberately in a context where they would otherwise be encouraged to
think or express themselves in 140 or 280 characters.”
Darryl explained that the classical model at HM Prep that brings together different voices
“catalyzes character to be able to listen carefully to a perspective that might be different than
your own.” David recognized, “we are acutely focused on first, in our classrooms, creating
spaces where there is a sense for empathy.” A sense of empathy, he maintained, that goes beyond
simply getting to know each other, but also branches out to the lessons of history. David added,
“empathy exists for the individuals in this community, but also we have them encounter texts,
ideas, lessons that allow them to develop a sense that very rarely, when we look at history, are
things just simply Black and White.”
Carrie observes that HM Prep’s approach to classical education features a consistency of
care shown by adults for students. This consistency acts as a model, as Carrie added, “we’ve
created an environment where it’s ok to be curious, ok to be kind. It’s ok to stick up for one
another.” Michael stated, “our mission here is to produce not just scholars, but well-rounded
humans.” Mitchell reflected, “there’s a Cicero quote outside of my classroom, which says we are
not born for ourselves alone. And I think that’s a really big thing that we try to get kids to think
about and grapple with.” David also described the element of community in character formation.
He said, “I think another big component is this focus on the development of the character, the
focus on the community as opposed to just the individual, which I think are tensions that exist in
our society right now in education.”
Mitchell’s approach to character education finds its basis in student curiosity. He
described, “curiosity fundamentally makes you more resilient. It makes the world so much more
interesting. So, the question is how to expose them to the questions that engage with that

56
curiosity. It’s important that they never stop asking great questions.” The fostering of curiosity is
a natural result of the discussion-based pedagogy emphasized at HM Prep. Faculty find ways to
practice allowing student-led discussion through meaningful questions that encourage more than
a yes-or-no answer.
Secondary educational institutions typically promote character education through isolated
programs or posters found peppered throughout campuses, offering slogans or quotes from
notable leaders about integrity, community, or respect. Traditionally, extracurricular activities
such as athletics, the arts, or clubs have been the main drivers of character education in
secondary school. While those elements are also alive and well at HM Prep, the school presents
character as a human virtue absorbed throughout the curricular program, acting as a main object
of discussions students have around ancient and modern texts, ideas, and events. As the
environment influences beliefs and behaviors, the individuals who underwent such a change
begin to evolve the environment as times change.
Supportive Administration
A supportive administration has been vital to the success of classical education at HM
Prep. Whether it be faculty or students questioning decisions or the fostering of new, innovative
ideas, interviewees consistently credited the administrative leadership of the school with a sense
of unwavering support, and respect for multiple opinions. Michael stated, “I’ve taught for years
in several schools, and I’ve never had such a supportive administration, a community where
people genuinely want to be here, where people were willing to put in time to support the
students and staff equally.” Mitchell echoed those sentiments. “The admin is very, very, very
open to always actively listening to students and listening to teachers. I don’t feel like I’ll bring
something up, and then it goes into a dark room. The opinion is treated with respect,” he said.

57
Three elements of supportive administration were regularly offered by interviewees.
First, the commitment by administration to allow faculty to be autonomous in their classroom;
second, the requirement that all administrators teach a class; and third, the emphasis on
intellectual opportunities for faculty to engage their minds. These three elements are not
exclusive, but were three consistent themes interviewees recognized when asked about the
success at HM Prep. The elements also contribute to building a foundation in individuals’
personal beliefs and behaviors, allowing individual members of the community the opportunity
to engage with the environment to respond to changing times and issue evolution in a
responsible, less immediate way.
Teacher Autonomy
Teacher autonomy at HM Prep was a theme regularly mentioned in interviews.
According to Joanne, “we believe deeply in the agency of the young, but also the agency of the
faculty.” “One thing about our school is that teachers have autonomy. We’re not a school that
says all English teachers have to be doing this at this time,” Sally explained. “I technically
oversee the academic program, but I feel like that’s an interesting thing to say here, because we
really value autonomy.” School leadership tasks teachers with the responsibility to develop their
classroom curriculum in a way that can reflect their interests while balancing the commitment to
excellence by the school.
Paul identifies teacher autonomy as a major factor in how the school helps faculty and
students engage in meaningful dialogue and discuss contentious issues without acrimony or
antagonism. “We tout and believe and defend really strongly this idea of teacher autonomy. And
I think having that autonomy is the thing that allows teachers to go to those controversial places
to try to provoke civil discourse,” He claimed that everything he needs “is built in that autonomy

58
that allows content experts to mold the curriculum. I know I have the support of the school as
long as I’m coming from an intellectually defensible place that centers students’ academic and
personal growth.”
One of the most powerful results of school’s emphasis on autonomy is the level of trust
faculty feel from administration and each other. Sally explained, “I think because of teacher
autonomy, there’s such trust in our teachers that I think is beautiful here. We hire you in your
expertise, so we trust what you’re doing.” According to participants, the element of trust is
crucial to teachers’ job satisfaction, contributing to low faculty turnover rates.
Joanne indicated that trusting faculty implicitly sets HM Prep apart from other
educational institutions. She contends that “many in education think the only way to develop
curriculum is to strip them (faculty) of anything creative that is theirs.” She continued, “we will
never have lesson plans created by other people.” Participants consistently identified the ability
for teachers to create their own lesson plans, to engage students in conversation they see a
stimulating and guiding, and the building of trust over time between faculty and leadership as a
key element in the school’s success. Allowing teachers the ability to mold their own curriculum
and classrooms presents an example of how personal beliefs and behaviors contribute to an
evolving environment.
All Faculty and Administrators Teach a Class
A unique feature of HM Prep’s model is the requirement for each administrator, in
addition to their administrative duties, to teach a class in the school. Administration taking an
active role in the classroom contributes to an environment that feels less hierarchical, allows
administrators to connect more with students, and shows teaching faculty that administrators also
engage with day-to-day classroom successes and challenges. Both faculty and administrator

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interviewees responded that administrators teaching classes is an essential element of the
school’s success.
Throughout her hiring process, Rachel noticed the administration’s commitment to
students through their teaching. She recollected that she witnessed “our leadership, our
administration teaching students, they aren’t locked away in their offices. They’re teaching
classes, they’re in the halls, they’re hugging students. When they’re present, you can see they’re
dealing with children humanely and with dignity.” Administrators taking on teaching
responsibilities allows for more distribution of responsibility, creating more empathy between
both teachers and administrators. Mitchell explained, “I think an important piece of this school is
that admin have to teach a class, too. That naturally means some responsibility is disseminated to
teachers. So, there’s not as clear a divide, or an us-versus-them type of mentality.”
Faculty who are new to the environment at times feel that administrators teaching feels
strange, but quickly understand the role the added responsibility plays in the culture of the
school. Sally recalled that when she first arrived on campus, “I was just like, is this strange?
Because I came from a space that was very hierarchical, so there was a certain barrier of distance
from the leader to teachers. And here, as leaders, we all teach.” The importance of the
administration actively preparing their own classroom environments surfaced multiple times in
conversations with participants.
Intellectual Opportunities for Faculty
The concept of intellectual opportunities for faculty surfaced in several interviews.
Described by many as the school community’s commitment to caring for the minds of the
faculty, these opportunities range from intimate gatherings focused on one major topic to large
book clubs based on faculty shared interests. Paul, himself a graduate of elite private schools and

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universities, stated that “this is the richest intellectual community I’ve ever been in.” He offered
that he and his colleagues are unique in education because “every one of the practitioners in
these rooms believe that their topic can change lives. It’s about that potential, so that leads to a
really rich community.” Paul’s comments indicate a community that welcomes how individual
beliefs and behaviors, sometimes molded by the school’s structure, but often inherent to teachers
at HM Prep, can influence the learning environment.
David offered, “We read together every summer. We often have, during different
moments of professional development, folks reading a common text.” Paul explained that the
school invites the faculty to participate in soirees, open discussions that happen monthly that
encourage civil discourse exchanges based around a timely topic. He said that at a recent event,
participants discussed the achievement gap, “where the adults get together and just, we’re going
to talk about this issue. We all read a text, then someone who has spent time preparing, learning,
and writing prompts gives background, and then facilitates a discussion.” Darryl said, “We try to
nurture our faculty’s intellectual life through their own seminars, soirees, or book clubs.” David
appreciates the intellectually inclusive nature of the faculty’s activities. He said, “we have
reading groups at the school, and the idea is that you don’t have to know a whole cannon to enter
the conversation.” Paul suggested that the origin of such events was based on the idea that the
school’s leadership “wanted to make sure that faculty have an opportunity to really flex their
intellect and really have at it with each other, to get to know each other.”
Joanne posited that the intellectual opportunities for faculty are part of how the school
cares for their community. She stated, “when you have such intellect in your faculty at the high
school level, you have to take care of their minds, too.” Paul echoed these sentiments.
“Something that’s been happening in practice is how do you take care of the mind of the

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practitioner?” From his vantage point, Paul saw school leadership using the terminology “adult
flourishing,” but struggling with its meaning. “How am I going to make sure that Bill C., his
mind is taken care of? Because we know he’s brilliant, but he’ll leave here if his mind isn’t being
taken care of, if his soul isn’t being taken care of,” Paul said. This approach allows not only for
opportunities for faculty to interact with one another, but for faculty to teach challenging courses
that allow them to engage at higher levels with students. Paul used an example of a teacher who
felt overloaded with teaching assignments but did not want to lose her highest-level class. As
they discussed it, Paul explained, “you can’t mold the minds of young people if your mind isn’t
taken care of, right? She’s an English 9 and 10 teacher, and she’s great at it, but she also needs
that higher level to help her mind flourish.” Nicole recalled that in opening meetings for the
school year, “how wonderful it is to sit around with your colleagues and talk about ideas that are
important, to go into the school year that way?” Colleen mentioned a consistent feature of one of
the professional development programs as a catalyst for faculty learning. She said, “the classical
reading group at the end of every discussion always turns to, ‘and how should this inform the
culture of our school, our teaching?”
School leadership also utilizes the knowledge base of their faculty to develop content for
professional development. The school also relies heavily on faculty to produce professional
development content. For example, Tom has created several professional development curricula,
including a program “on Erasmus as an educator. The idea was that we read excerpts from the
educational works of Erasmus to try and figure out what it means to provide classical education
in a modern world.” Later this year, he hopes to present professional development program on
Quintillion, who he characterizes as “one of Rome’s most noted educators.” Tom described the

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program as featuring “excerpts from that work, which we’ll read and discuss with the same aim.
What does this mean for us? How can this inform best practices here?”
Beyond salaries and benefits in the education workforce, often overlooked are
opportunities to engage intellectually with peers in an intentional program or assign classes that
challenge the teacher to operate at higher levels. Because schools tend to market the idea that
students come first, to provide faculty with this type of approach to both professional
development and intellectual interaction makes for a unique feature of HM Prep in the secondary
school environment and contributes to student success in an environment buttressed by classical
education.
Varied Definitions of Classical Education
An interesting characteristic of the classical model at HM Prep is the varied response
among interviewees when asked to define classical education. Many participants indicated an
expectation that responses should be varied, and believed it was a strength of the organization
that so many definitions could exist in one community. Paul conceded, “you should get a
different answer to that question whenever you ask it, right? If it’s being done right, I think you
shouldn’t have a canned answer.” Sarah offered that the organization consistently grapples with
the question of what a classical education means. She said, “that’s the question we talk about all
the time now, as we should.” Tom, whose background is as a classicist, fully engages with the
question; he said, “there are as many definitions as there are people for classical education.”
While there is widespread agreement that classical education has a myriad of definitions, there
arose several themes that were consistent around what classical education means in the modern
world. Again, responses indicate varying personal beliefs regarding classical education, and the

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high amount of value placed on how individual ideals of classical education can help structure
the environment at the school.
The Intersection of Intellectual and Moral Virtue Tied to the Ancients
Several interviewees identified a merging of the intellectual and moral virtues, tied to the
ancients, as a significant feature of classical education. From Joanne’s point of view, the first
feature of classical education is the ancient ideal of education that is “the intersection of the
intellectual and the moral that was deeply, deeply ingrained in the more Greek than Roman.”
Colleen identified that “the concern with moral education is part and parcel of teaching in the
classroom, and that the school, the culture, the class and everything is a very intellectual place as
opposed to purely academic.” Rachel agrees, as she indicated that classical education included “a
moral or a fully well-rounded human education as opposed to checking boxes or getting grades
or taking APs.”
Joanne relates back to the ancients as the guide for this merger between the intellectual
and moral. She stated, “The aesthetic, the moral, and the intellectual are deeply united in a
classical tradition.” These definitions are consistent with the descriptions of classical education
identified in Chapter Two, as the merging of the intellectual and moral are foundational to the
formation of classical education, in a traditional sense.
Beauty and the Transcendent
HM Prep emphasizes beauty as a form of transcendence, and an element of education that
adds to the school’s unique approach. Joanne said, “The Greeks, certainly Plato, were deeply
imbued with the idea that to fall in love with the beautiful was part of the end goal of an
education.” Mitchell thinks “the emphasis on beauty is a really important one, because if you see
things in the world, and if you’re able to recognize the beauty in the world, then it makes you

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more resilient.” Deborah explained, “For me, in math, it really comes down to the idea of beauty.
Math is not just numbers on a page that I have to do that’s gruesome, but there’s a beauty to
math.” Paul offered, “Classical education is a reference to the transcendent.” His approach
includes challenging his students to explore “what are the things that have endured, so we can
talk about enduring ideas. And by enduring ideas, we mean something that’s been around for
millennia.” Paul stated that exposing students to enduring ideas is paramount to the mission of
the school, to challenge modern thinking with ideas rich in context, yet accessible to high
schoolers. While he doesn’t claim to know, for certain, what those enduring ideas are, he stated,
“I certainly think that a good proxy is, ‘do we see multiple civilizations coming up with the same
idea?’ If so, then it’s probably at least close to something transcendent, right?”
Joanne discussed that because of the nature of a charter school to be secular, HM Prep
struggles with a way to phrase the transcendent without using terminology with a basis in faith.
The transcendent, to her, is the cultural differentiating factor that defines HM Prep and its
success in delivering student outcomes. She experiences no ridicule of her regular use of the
phrase “holy work” by community members, which is a positive, “because you need a sense of
transcendence. That is what I think separates this school that the classical tradition has. And that
is a sense of ideas beyond yourself, beyond your time.”
In defining classical education, Paul continues to search for what role the modern world
plays in such a unique approach. He fuses both the ancient and modern as he said, “so classical
education in its most simple form as a non-trained classicist, is that interrogation of the reality
around us in search of those transcendent ideas.” Mitchell identified an “undercurrent of
spirituality” that he views as pivotal to the culture of the school. He explained, “spirituality, not

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in terms of religion, but more in terms of responsibility as members of society. I am responsible
to others.”
The dilemma to focus on transcendence without an element of religiosity is complex. To
be sure, Joanne’s use of the term “holy work” does run a risk of an element of faith entering the
discourse in a government-regulated, secular institution, but there is no question that faculty at
HM Prep do find their work transcendent. There is a palpable, real feeling of work for something
bigger than oneself, as a quote from Cicero adorns one of the hallways: “Non nobis solum nati
sumus.” Not for ourselves alone are we born.
The Seminar and Discussion Approach
Participants consistently pointed to the seminar and discussion approach of the school
that acts as the main catalyst for success in the classical tradition. Joanne describes the seminar
as the main feature of HM Prep’s success. “It is the through the seminar that you teach the
intellectual and moral.” She stated that the way HM Prep approaches the seminar is not one of
simply Socratic method or discussion-based pedagogy, but one that is “related to a Socratic
seminar that has the ability to question the underpinnings of the tradition itself. If you’re not
including a challenge to yourself in the school, you’re not living out classical.” Faculty and
administration not only encourage questioning of their beliefs or policies, but they also actually
enjoy it.
Michael emphasized that “we really empower students to have a voice in the classroom.
Most of our classrooms are discussion based; there are plenty of opportunities for students to
share their opinions and to sort of work through things on their own.” While teaching a more
advanced world language class, Jeff found that the seminar style “was a very powerful teaching
tool, and I really like the challenge that it provided for the students and for myself to try and

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structure the class and create an environment where it is possible.” Nicole has discovered that the
seminar approach is especially helpful for some students in math. She stated, “I think one nice
thing about a seminar or discussion is that you actually can talk about ideas, you can still actually
engage on the idea level, even about math, so I think that opens things up for students.”
Characteristic of the discussion and seminar approach at HM Prep is the introduction of
differing ideas to the dialogue, tasking students with the work of understanding context and
contrasting narratives. Michael offered that “we intentionally set up scenarios where students
have to struggle. We’ll present texts that are contradictory to each other and have students read
several different opinions, and then ask questions that intentionally challenge their views on a
topic.”
Such trust in the seminar approach is characteristic of a community able to process a
diversity of viewpoints from a variety of backgrounds. Further, the seminar method illustrates a
tremendous degree of trust in both the faculty and the students; intentionally creating challenges
to modern narratives runs the risk of elevated conflict and acrimonious confrontation. However,
the efficacy of both school leadership and faculty for leading conversations and engaging the
students effectively through differing opinion is obvious. As a cornerstone element of the HM
Prep experience, there exists widespread agreement that the seminar remains one of the crown
jewels of the school’s success and makes room for personal beliefs and behaviors to affect the
learning environment.
High Expectations for All Members of the Community
At HM Prep, expectations are consistently high. Expectations are not necessarily for the
grades a student earns, but instead for their ability to thrive in the unique curricular model to
become a more inquisitive and engaged student through their time at school. There is no question

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that while the rigor practiced at HM Prep is rooted in the ancients, a modern approach evolves.
From his perspective as a classicist, Tom explained his philosophy on classical education is
based on a radical departure from antiquity. He stated:
In antiquity, as we find in the words of [Greek Sophist publicist and teacher] Libanius, he
says that a muse appears to him. And the muse says to him that the path to Mount
Parnassus is a steep and strict one, and only few will make it. So, it [education] is an
exclusive enterprise in antiquity. I think the best definition of classical education in a
modern world is to radically depart from that idea, not the toughness or difficulty or rigor
behind it, but instead of exclusivity as the end, it’s inclusivity, trying to get as many
students as possible to Mount Parnassus.
Michael offered an example of the higher standards that the students themselves demand.
Alumni “come back and say that they are better prepared for college than others. But they do
critique us. I remember two things they’ve come back and said: they need to write more, and
they need to be failed more.” He indicated that the school “set a higher standard once we started
getting that feedback.”
Nicole stated that the approach to math in the school is to keep expectations high,
because “we believe your student is capable of thinking this way at this level of rigor, and we
believe that it’s their right. Every student has both the capability and the right to experience math
this way.” Tom agreed and stated, “There’s this element of equitable expectations for all
students.” Sarah added, “we are trying to find a way to make it more equitable and ensure that
everyone has a chance to have a rigorous and challenging education.” She continued, “an issue
we continue to struggle with is how to track students so that gaps are not exacerbated, but
everybody is still getting challenged the way they need to be challenged.”

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Rigorous standards are rarely, if ever, discussed in terms of a facet of equity or as rights.
It is apparent that the approach of HM Prep is not to apply rigorous standards in a plan to make
its program exclusive or accessible only to a few. Instead, the approach has as its foundation a
confidence in the students to reach the rigor, to see their ability to meet a challenging program,
and to trust the community to support them through the rigor, as shown by the alumni feedback
requesting that students experience more writing and failure.
Acknowledgement of Weaknesses and Shortcomings
A successful organization is not perfect; it is instead aiming for a higher goal and not
shying away from its weaknesses or shortcomings. A common theme throughout the interview
process was a broad acknowledgment of weaknesses, areas that need attention to become the
best version of the school. Interviewees were not shy about discussing these shortcomings,
particularly in the areas of achievement gaps, inclusivity, the national conversation around
classical education, and the increasing challenges of maintaining a charter school in the district’s
ecosystem. This acknowledgement allows for administration and faculty beliefs to influence how
the school approaches challenges.
Darryl admitted, “we’ve got a diverse community and an uneven result within that
community.” Compared to the rest of the city, the school appears to be doing much better than
the average. However, by its own standard, the school could be doing better. Darryl conceded
that the profile of student in higher level, AP or honors classes remain homogenous within
certain socioeconomic or racial groups, and while the school is performing at a higher level than
that of the city, “when compared to ourselves, there’s work that needs to be done. There are gaps
that need to be closed.”

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Sarah agrees that achievement gaps are an ongoing focus area for the community,
particularly among racial groups, at-risk, and special education students. “I think continuing to
figure out how we address those achievement gaps in a way that is meaningful, that closes them
is huge. We have not really figured that out,” she said. According to Sarah, one unique strength
is the ability to track progress within one school. In other district charter schools who serve a
more homogenous group of students, she explained, “you’re closing gaps between the district
and your population or the suburban district next door.” Still, her focus remains on more realistic
expectations rather than a “magic bullet.” Sarah continued, “I think what is realistic is that we’re
making progress, but those gaps are deep, and they exist for reasons that are beyond the scope of
the school.”
Carrie is also aware of shortcomings in the school environment, but she views the
community as a reflection of society at large. She characterizes the school as “a direct
representation of society. So, until the world changes, we won’t change much. We’re not in a
bubble as much as we think we are.” Joanne conceded that “we are diverse, but not integrated.
That’s the difference.” Identifying challenges with diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging
work, Joanne admitted that the school has “had misstep after misstep with our diversity, equity,
inclusion and belonging [DEIB] work because we don’t like ever focusing just on the modern
and not the classical.”
Sally acknowledges weaknesses, but also is sure to credit the school community with the
effort to engage. She shared that with a predominantly White staff, “a lot of our discourse, or
tension, is around diversity. And when you teach kids who don’t look like you, that’s where a lot
of our work needs to be done.” While the school does not “have it nailed down,” she appreciates
that “the school is willing to sit in the tension. We don’t shy away from it or try to pretend that it

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doesn’t exist. We don’t move too fast. Some people like that, some people don’t.” For the school
culture specialists, Sally identified a priority for the diversity and equity initiatives are to “get
some teachers at a space of vulnerability and comfort to say, to feel safe, to work that out in a
way that’s not offensive or defensive or punitive.”
Tom and David are both concerned about the trending portrayal of classical education in
the modern political climate, particularly by groups on the political right. David phrased this
trend as “an obstacle,” as classical education can “sometimes be associated with ideas of a
monoculture or anything like that. So, we have to struggle to really define ourselves because
people come to the idea with preconceived notions about what it means to be a classical school.”
Tom agreed, stating that he laments “an increasing movement trying to define classical education
as ‘anti-woke.’ And I find that tragic, not so much for its political stance, but for the fact that it
unabashedly embraces a political ideology as an educational program.” He worries that this
national definition can be harmful to HM Prep, as the political undercurrents of the city would
turn hostile to the school. He stated that should this trend continue, “if we’re seen as a classical
school in DC, our narratives, as powerful and compelling as they might be, will count for
nothing.”
Sarah’s primary concern is what she terms as “the fragility” of the school’s ethos in the
ecosystem of the district. “It constantly feels a little fragile,” she said. “It’s not systems based;
it’s not structured. And I think what has been created here has been really beautiful and
important and unique, but it feels really fragile and exists in a fragile ecosystem.” She explained
that “charter schools in DC have lost a lot of autonomy in the last 15 years. They’re under attack
in many ways, in a way that I find pretty scary for our future.” The openness with which

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participants were willing to engage on the weaknesses of the school shows genuine concern, but
also a commitment to improvement and a shared optimism for progress within the community.
Summary of Research Question 1
Several differentiating factors distinguish HM Prep and contribute to the success of
classical education in an urban charter school. In addition to the empathy promoted for students
and faculty, finding the humanity in others both throughout history and in modern relationships
provides a foundational agreement from which meaningful discussion and respectful debate can
operate. With the acknowledgement of a shared humanity as the cornerstone of the community,
the environment becomes one that influences the personal beliefs and behaviors individuals
practice toward each other in the school. Intentional focus on character development, a virtue
weaved throughout the core curriculum, helps students apply character-based qualities to their
behavior, work, and study; forming a value structure that builds on personal beliefs. A unique
approach to discipline, emphasizing restorative justice over punitive consequences, stimulates
reflection and shapes patience in a profound way. The intentionality of these elements, reflected
in the consistency of the themes presented by participants, represents an example of how the
triatic relationship between personal beliefs, behaviors, and the environment builds an effective
approach to classical education.
Supportive leadership is a significant element in the success of classical education in an
urban charter school environment. An administration that promotes teacher autonomy, takes
active roles in classroom preparation, and intentionally provides for intellectual opportunities for
faculty to engage with each other and the students is essential for sustaining a community based
on trust and social norms that value discussion in classical education. Trust between faculty and

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administration is a precious component of a healthy school, and further signifies the connection
all elements of SCT in the success of classical education in an urban charter school environment.
Varied definitions of classical education, particularly in the fusion of the intellectual and
moral, an acknowledgement of beauty and the transcendent, and the seminar approach promote
diversity of thought and signify an accessibility to classical education that opens the possibilities
for meaning in instruction. Uniquely phrased as an element of equity, inclusivity, and the rights
of students, high expectations in a rigorous environment are a characteristic that acts as a
differentiating approach not only in classical, but in secondary education, as well. There is no
better example of how an educational curriculum can influence the scaffolding of personal
beliefs and behavior than the classical approach in an environment that promotes elevated
standards as a right, not as a limiting or exclusive principle. Nevertheless, this is a community
that is aware of many of its shortcomings and weaknesses. The school does not have a collective
head in the sand when it comes to challenges around inclusivity, achievement gaps, outside
perception of classical education, or the increasingly threatened position of charter schools
within the district. When viewed through the lens of social cognitive theory, these personal,
behavioral, and environmental factors identified by participants contribute to the success of
classical education in an urban charter school.
Findings Research Question 2
The study assessed the personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence
student outcomes in civil discourse at an urban classical charter school. Participants consistently
identified themes that included seeking the conversation on controversial issues; the seminar
approach in core curriculum; and trust in others in the community that is omnipresent throughout
the HM Prep experience as key elements for civil discourse in the school.

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Seeking the Conversation
While the school recently highlighted the phrase “seeking the conversation” in its
external and internal marketing, many participants admitted that a spirit of conversation
regarding difficult topics has been omnipresent throughout its history and is foundational to the
practice of civil discourse. Darryl said, “We believe in seeking the conversation. It’s one of our
core principles. But even before we had articulated those principles in the way we have now,
we’d always encouraged people to lean into conflict.” David explained that the curricular
approach of engaging with texts and ideas both classical and modern lends itself to critical
thinking and civil discourse. That engagement reinforces the convolution of history; “we try not
to operate in some sort of bimodal duality. We spend time leaning into the complexity, and I
think that can turn down the temperature.” By intentionally engaging in discussion, the school
maintains an environment that continuously influences the personal beliefs and behaviors of
students and faculty in terms of how to engage in meaningful and civil discourse.
David proposed that the school’s identity requires the community to have active and
engaged discussions about controversial issues. He said, “I don’t think you could go into our
classrooms and say we’re not confronting challenging topics. I do think that we have a culture
where teachers are encouraged to lean into the challenge.” In speaking with participants, there
was wide agreement that faculty and students do not shy away from conversation or dialogue on
critical issues, but instead hold themselves to standards that require them to engage with peers
who may disagree and ground their opinions on fact or logic. Sarah describes leadership as a
model for civil discourse in the school. “I’m a firm believer in leadership setting the tone for
everything that happens in a building.” There exists widespread agreement that leadership at the
school sets a tone of discourse and open discussion about a wide variety of issues.

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Michael discussed that even though his area of expertise is science, he is cognizant that
teachers in other classrooms are engaging students through significant events and controversy.
“Every major social issue that’s happened over the last 12 years I’ve been here has had a place at
HM Prep. Teachers are encouraged to discuss both sides of it in the classroom” he said. “And
although it’s difficult for me to incorporate these things into a science classroom, it’s comforting
to know that they are being discussed in other classrooms around the school.” Paul stated that
“this is a community that is truly unique in that sense of the word,” in that while teachers at other
schools are at risk of consequences for speaking about hot-button issues, “because not only are
we able to do have conversations about difficult topics like the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
without risk of our job, but we are also encouraged to do so by our administrators.”
Mitchell describes the leadership as effective at setting the tone of seeking the
conversation. “I think so much of it comes down to good leadership,” he said. He recalled a
conversation with an administrator who, against popular opinion, encouraged him to reveal his
leanings on a particular issue. He remembered her advising him that as a teacher, it is important
that students know where he stands on an issue, “but it’s really important, also, to say, ‘this is
what I believe. This is how I arrived at that conclusion. But that doesn’t mean you need to
believe in this thing, too.’” That conversation is one example of how experienced educators in
the environment train more inexperienced teachers in allowing students to draw their own
conclusions from a foundation of reason. “That’s really important because then you’re modeling
the logical thinking, but then you’re leaving the door open for them to create their own opinion,
giving them agency in the conversation,” Mitchell added.
School leadership and faculty take opportunities to turn difficult or hurtful conversations
among students into learning opportunities. Collen used an example in the middle school when

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faculty noticed an uptick in hate speech, particularly having to do with the migrant crisis at the
United States’ southern border. Collen recalled that the division head’s approach "was that we
are not just going to say ‘no,’ we want to talk about this. We want to talk about what those words
mean.” After a division-wide meeting with students where the faculty explained the intricacies of
the migrant crisis, Colleen noticed a distinct change in the students’ words. In fact, one of her
students stated in class that the conversation changed their frame of mind toward the terms
previously used, and acknowledged the hurt those terms can cause.
Participants who had experience in other school environments recognized the
community’s commitment to engaging in conversation on difficult issues. When it comes to civil
discourse, Jeff described that “the openness to discussing ideas is the highest here that other
places I’ve been. The world of education generally isn’t as open to discussion, but this is the best
place I’ve been.” Colleen characterized the approach as “active,” and that “every teacher at some
point has a conversation with their class about what makes the classroom, what are the guidelines
and the norms for classroom discussion.” In preparation for a study on the writing of Frederick
Douglass, she “talked about a brave space in our classroom, and how that was different from a
safe space, and how we had to constantly respect each other, and also not be afraid to ask
questions.”
Darryl identifies the broad diversity of the school as, by design, a critical element of the
dialogue approach in seeking the conversation. He said that “even within our community, which
embraces people of difference, it encourages dialogue across difference.” Adults may encounter
microaggressions or unconscious bias, but both the adults and students are willing to struggle
with the conversations to address the challenges. An environment teeming with diversity in all
aspects provides fertile ground for growth of beliefs and behaviors conducive to openness,

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empathy, and understanding. While certainly not a utopia, the encouragement of such traits is a
tremendous element in influencing the approach of civil discourse in the school.
Seminar Approach in Core Curriculum
Participants widely indicated that the seminar approach across the curriculum is essential
when relating to civil discourse. Darryl identified the seminar as “the primary way that we
address civil discourse with our students and with faculty, because we have seminars for our
faculty as well.” He believes that “teaching controversial and moral issues lend themselves very
easily to the seminar because you’re not all coming from the same perspective. You’re not going
to all have the same take on that issue.”
The fusion of character education and the seminar approach to discussing controversial
issues is important, Darryl stated that it exercises character to be able to listen carefully to a
different perspective, to have to defend beliefs, or to reflect on where those beliefs come from.
According to Darryl, the school asks students to ponder questions about beliefs such as, “have
those ideas been informed? Have they been supported by evidence, or is it just what someone
told you and you decided to accept that? Or is it something you’ve questioned critically?”
The seminar also creates the opportunity for students and faculty to invest in the
conversation beyond their opinion. Joanne explained, “Not only does the seminar deepen an idea,
so if I have a conversation about whether or not we should have dropped the bomb, I’m investing
at both my moral level and at the intellectual level.” Mary Ann agrees with the essence of the
seminar as a key element. She credits the seminars with providing the structure for disagreement,
saying that “they learn early on how to listen others, listen to other opinions, to be respectful of
those opinions, and to express their own points of view.”

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Colleen referenced process when committing to a seminar style of learning vis a vis civil
discourse. “When seminars are an important part of your classroom, you have to set parameters
because you don’t want kids to just agree, and you don’t want them to get into a fight. So, you
have to set those parameters as early as possible,” she said. Colleen continued, “when I
introduced it this year in my classroom, the students had already heard it and repeated what they
had learned before, which was to disagree with the point, not the person.”
Participants regularly stated that the seminar is the primary conduit for the practice of
civil discourse in the school community. Much like the essential nature of the seminar as
indicated in the findings for Research Question One, interviewees indicated widespread
agreement that the seminar enjoys an elevated position in the encouragement of civil discourse
among individuals and the community. The seminar develops the muscle to support the practice
and execution of civil discourse and compels individuals in the community to implement
behaviors that promote civility and decorum while concurrently refining personal beliefs.
Discussion-based Pedagogy
Discussion-based pedagogy presents a differentiating factor in building an environment
conducive to influencing personal beliefs and behavior relating to civil discourse. At HM Prep,
the approach is foundational to the experience. Jeff found himself especially attracted to HM
Prep because he “saw that they valued not only discussion but conflict as a pedagogical model or
tool, and I thought there’s very few schools that put that on the webpage.”
Michael explained that “interpretations of text, the discussion-based curriculum, the focus
on students being able to form a reasonable and informed opinion on something that really takes
place in many of the classrooms.” Mitchell expressed confidence in the discussion-based
pedagogy in terms of students forming opinions rooted in critical thinking, influencing personal

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beliefs that value the conversation. In providing a scaffold for forming opinions, students
practice the behavior for civil discourse. He stated that “ultimately, I think if we want to develop
the kids into becoming more articulate and you want them to think critically about their own
opinions, then there is no better way than discussion-based learning.”
Paul explained that training faculty on civil discourse may backfire in taking away
autonomy from faculty; allowing faculty to facilitate conversation could be the most nonintrusive way of practicum. He said, “so our best approximation of a standardized approach
without taking over the autonomy of a teacher is to introduce Socratic seminar and discussionbased pedagogy as ways to tackle controversial issues.” Acting in concert with the seminar
model, discussion-based pedagogy goes together with the school’s commitment to seek the
conversation. After all, one cannot seek an absent conversation. Discussion-based pedagogy
plays an integral role in sustaining an environment of dialogue and trust, while fostering a
behavioral structure that respectfully questions personal beliefs.
Faculty Professional Development
Participants consistently identified a theme of faculty professional development focused
on supporting civil discourse. While leadership challenges faculty to implement discussion-based
models in their classrooms from the start of their tenure at the school; there is no mandate that
vanishes over time or goes uncoached. Many participants agreed that the school prioritizes civil
discourse in its faculty professional development initiatives. Jeff recollected that in a new teacher
training prior to the school year, school leadership was clear about modeling their vision of good
teaching practice. “Part of that included an emphasis on a discussion-based pedagogy, real
personal feedback, developing relationships, knowing people’s names, caring enough to talk with

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them,” Jeff recalled. “That training was almost always followed by a kind of seminar
discussion.”
Sarah recognizes opportunities for faculty as paramount to the school’s success in civil
discourse. First, “is creating opportunities for faculty to engage in discourse with each other,”
she said. There remains a sense that a pillar of school identity includes “very structured
opportunities once a month or so to engage with other faculty members about a text, a
controversial topic, or where we are in society and how the school fits in.” In Sarah’s opinion,
structured professional development is a key factor, as well. “Reading discussion groups about
different texts, and PD around how to do it with students. How to run or what we look for in a
seminar. Teachers opt into that but it’s an important part of the school,” she said.
While professional development focuses on civil discourse, Jeff acknowledged that the
school does not implement top-down edicts or mandates from a singular viewpoint. He said,
“leadership has been emphasizing some of the skills in terms of trying to structure dialogue and
conversation in such a way that the interpersonal is centered as opposed to the ideas at the
expense of the individual.”
Discussion-based learning was not a method Mitchell was familiar with prior to his
arrival at HM Prep, and “they [the school] invested in my professional development by sending
me to the Exeter Humanities Institute, which was really transformational for my teaching.” The
Exeter Humanities Institute is a summer professional development opportunity for teachers to
gain experience in student-centered, discussion-based pedagogy. The cost is nearly $2000 per
teacher, not including travel to and from the campus in Exeter, New Hampshire.
When there are gaps identified by faculty, school leadership is responsive to the
professional development needs communicated by both academic departments and individual

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teachers. Michael recalled that when the science faculty voiced concern over the heavy liberal
arts focus of faculty professional development programs, “they listened to us and started
incorporating scientists and scientific thinking from the classical tradition into the PD programs
to include us. That made me feel connected and invested, and I wanted to learn more.”
Professional development is a tried-and-true approach to facilitating growth in personal
beliefs and behaviors among faculty and staff. During the research site visit, the school hosted a
professional development half-day program featuring Dr. Anika Prather of Johns Hopkins
University, who discussed the bridge between classical education and the African American
tradition, followed by a small group discussion on the work Whistling Vivaldi: How Stereotypes
Affect Us and What We Can Do by Claude M. Steele. While there was disagreement present
among attendees, a respectful and collegial tone characterized the event. The subject matter of
the program engaged the faculty and challenged the notion that classical education and the Black
community are incompatible, with examples given by Dr. Prather that included contrasting Anna
Julia Cooper’s and WEB DuBois’ advocacy of classical learning in the Black community with
Booker T. Washington’s focus on vocational work over the classical liberal arts education. Prior
to the event, interviewees offered differing opinions of the effectiveness of the program, with one
participant stating that they “still go, and still participate, but don’t always feel a connection,”
and that this program was “a box-check.” Still, another participant maintained that the program
was necessary to “honor the diversity that exists within our space while also searching for our
shared humanity.” Such opinions and the comfort of expressing both points of view indicate an
environment that encourages honesty while recognizing the difference in values individuals
maintain. By and large, participants agreed that the school prioritizes faculty professional

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development in civil discourse not only through one-off conversations and trainings, but in
investment of time and resources.
Trust in Others
HM Prep has emblazoned the phrase “Trust Courageously” as a cornerstone element of
its educational methodology. The importance of relationships is a foundational element of the
school, consistent with the ideal of teacher autonomy identified in Research Question 1. The
faculty and administration at HM Prep works to establish trust between each other, the students,
and the community at large to practice civil discourse in the spirit of meaningful conversation.
Trust has become a consistent feature of the HM Prep experience and is a social norm that helps
create an environment where civil discourse can thrive. Jeff recalled a recent event among
faculty members on campus regarding the recent conflict between Israel and Hamas, and how a
high level of trust contributed to a successful event based on dialogue. Jeff credited his
colleagues with providing the structure in what he phrased as “such a careful and considerate
way” to present both points of view as coming from a place of wanting to educate. Trust, Jeff
reinforced, was the catalyst for such a meaningful conversation.
Paul, who participated in the event, recalled, “It can happen in feeling now, okay, I’ve
heard you talk thoughtfully on this topic, and now I trust you enough to tell you this other
controversial thing that’s happening. I think that’s done quite well at the school.” David stated
that the goal of the event “was not to necessarily stake out a viewpoint. The goal of that was to
create a space for people to listen, to understand.” While Sarah did not indicate whether she
attended the event, she did identify the recent Israel/Palestine October 7, 2023, attack as an
example of how faculty relate with one another in the open spaces of the school, outside of class.
She remembered, “watching teachers engage with each other about what had happened and why

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it was happening, but doing it in a way that was civil, that was open to other perspectives, that
was empathetic.”
A culture that recognizes trust as a central theme is essential to the ethos of the school.
Mitchell identified the need for trust embedded in the culture to have meaningful conversations
about difficult issues. He offered:
I think a lot of schools maybe stray away from those conversations because they’re afraid
of them. But I think fundamentally, you need to have created a culture of trust where
people say, I know where this person is coming from, I know this person, I have a
relationship with this person, and this person cares for me. This person loves me, and
only once that’s been created can you have those difficult conversations. The school does
a lot in terms of creating those relationships and structures to create those relationships.
Interviewees consistently engaged on the aspect of trust among individual community
members, groups, and the institution itself as a cornerstone of the civil discourse approach of the
school. Paul discussed the role of care for others, and the knowledge of that care, in meaningful
dialogue. He often reminds his students of the transcendence of sharing in conversation. He tells
students that when they express elements of themselves, “that’s a holy act because you’re taking
a part of yourself, and you are sharing it out. So, for me, you’ve given me a piece of your soul
and I need to take care of that.” The characterization of trust in its many forms indicates that the
school places a great deal of emphasis on maintaining an environment with intentional objectives
of influencing beliefs and behaviors in a relational approach. The building of relationships inside
such an environment provides another example of the foundational nature of how the school
scaffolds individual beliefs and behaviors toward more civil attitudes.

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Summary Research Question 2
Several personal, behavioral, and environmental factors play into the success of student
outcomes in civil discourse at an urban classical charter school. Participants consistently
identified the collective aim of seeking the conversation as a cornerstone element of how civil
discourse intertwines with both curricular and extracurricular initiatives. According to
interviewees, the seminar approach in the curriculum commands a significant place in the ability
for faculty and students to maintain substantive, meaningful, and civil conversation around major
issues. Discussion-based pedagogy that allows for student agency in the classroom environment,
as well as faculty professional development that addresses timely and important challenges both
inside and outside the school, play significant roles in the success of the seminar approach.
Finally, one cannot overstate the role of trust when examining personal, behavioral, or
environmental factors that contribute to civil discourse among students and faculty.
Several themes were consistent between Research Question 1 and Research Question 2.
The seminar, for example, is a consistent feature of both the success of the classical approach in
an urban charter school environment and in student outcomes in civil discourse. Exemplified by
the element of trust between students, faculty, and administration, a commitment to protecting
faculty autonomy, maintaining high expectations, and allowing for open and honest dialogue in
professional development and discussion-based pedagogy. The intentionality behind how the
environment influences the personal beliefs and behaviors of individuals in the community
shows how the triatic relationship between the elements of SCT leads to success in student
outcomes in civil discourse.
Further, the interaction between the seminar approach, discussion-based pedagogy, and
intentional faculty professional development foundationally united in trust presents a

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differentiated method that results in an effective environment conducive to inspiring the beliefs
and behaviors of individual community members. To be sure, the methodology of classical
education at HM Prep is not meant to control beliefs in and of themselves, but instead to frame
personal beliefs in the context of civil discourse and openness to other perspectives. This
methodology is an important element of how the school views itself, not as a training center for a
certain viewpoint, but as an incubator for civility, empathy, and respect for differing viewpoints
and lived experiences.
Summary
Interaction between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors shapes the success of
classical education in an urban charter school, as well as promotes successful student outcomes
in civil discourse. A recurring element of each participant’s interview unveiled a collective care
for not only student growth as scholars and human beings, but for their own growth as educators,
and for the mission of the school community. While no participant expressed agreement with
every decision made or philosophical element of school leadership, all could agree that HM Prep
is the most unique learning environment they had ever encountered. Every participant shared
their own journey as to how they had interacted and continue to interact with the environment of
the school community, and how that environment shapes their own personal beliefs and
behaviors. Evolved thinking around classical education and civil discourse was evident from
each interviewees’ perspective, and participants consistently articulated an acknowledgement of
how their contributions to the community affect the environment and those around them.
Classical education can mean many things to many people. Varying definitions may
exist, and there will probably never be one singular, overarching description for what the term
“classical” means. But what is evident is that there exists a free public charter school in northern

85
Washington, DC that takes their role as a classical school seriously. The school has formed its
identity around the notion that regardless of socioeconomic, racial, or identity-related challenges,
students deserve the opportunity to engage with the ideals that undergird civilization. The
community has attracted faculty who genuinely care about the mission, its students, and, most
importantly, each other in this experiment. Faculty and students alike embrace the opportunity to
interact on a different level with great texts, big ideas, and the complexities that existed in history
and persist in the present. Challenges endure, as they do in every institution or community of
effort. The community does not deny or ignore struggles with inclusivity or with achievement
gaps. And while the school community is not a perfect one, there is widespread
acknowledgement that the journey to a better version of itself is an important one to always
travel.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
One of the challenges in capturing the essence of a school community in academic text is
the risk of leaving important contextual elements out of the work. Every school differs in various
elements that make each unique, and HM Prep is no outlier in that regard. That said, this chapter
will attempt to capture said elements accurately while simultaneously doing the school
community justice in description and understanding, framed by the research questions.
Discussion Research Question 1
Two primary factors contribute to the success of classical education at HM Prep. The first
is a strong foundation in the recognition of humanity in others. Apart from the natural empathy
within the community itself, acknowledging humanity leads to understanding and
contextualizing the cultural and ideological underpinnings of western society while still
identifying and working toward the need for systemic change in areas that lack justice and proper
societal attention. These two elements need not be mutually exclusive. The ideas and texts upon
which rest the western social contract can be fundamentally valuable while the authors of those
ideas can be personally flawed. Moreover, the recognition of a basic humanity in others both in
the present and in history leads to a more civil community based in commonality that values
differences and creates an environment rich in learning and conversation.
The second primary factor contributing to the success of classical education at HM Prep
is trust. Throughout data collection, it was obvious that the school’s ethos revolved around a
great deal of trust, built over several years, between administration, faculty, students, and
parents. To the degree achieved at HM Prep, this level of trust shared between all segments of
the community is difficult to earn and challenging to keep. Interviewees were not shy to point
out weaknesses of the community, expand upon challenges that they perceive, or share honest

87
opinions about the future of the school and in education inside the school’s walls, in the district,
or across the country. Internal issues regarding race, achievement gaps based in deep-rooted
inequities relating to racial and socioeconomic differences, or the struggle with which faculty in
classical education present varying and conflicting ideas to a diverse population are not light
topics to openly discuss with just anyone. For faculty members to speak so honestly to a relative
stranger to the school exhibits an extraordinary amount of trust between the community’s
leadership, their positions as employees, and the student whom they serve. Participants were also
open regarding what they consider is a high level of trust they feel among themselves, toward the
administration, and their students.
Discussion Research Question 2
Effective civil discourse requires the presence of trust to function inside a community of
learning. Much like trust supports classical education at HM Prep, trust within the community is
a vital element contributing to student outcomes in civil discourse. Present society appears to
value a culture steeped in distrust and suspicion of those who may disagree or have had differing
experiences in life. At HM Prep, the faculty and administration offer a different perspective, one
that elevates trust and care for others, and differences in opinion or life experience as
opportunities for learning and further growth in how their community views the humanity in
others. This element of trust is not merely counter-cultural, it is the foundation upon which each
school day, class, or activity revolves. It is attractive to consider the ideal to trust courageously
as the first among equals in the school’s cultural ethos.
A second vital element to elevated student outcomes in civil discourse is the omnipresent
seminar- and discussion-based learning at the school. Participants consistently identified the
discussion-based pedagogy as an essential characteristic of the HM Prep experience, for both

88
students and faculty alike. Through discussion and seminar protocol, students and faculty interact
with their peers and the community in a different way than traditional lecture-based pedagogy,
opening the door for personal experience and differing points of view to animate conversation,
and creating more memorable classroom experience. The social interaction provided by this style
scaffolds a natural civic curiosity and mutual respect for others, as students must talk facing
others, acknowledging humanity as foundational in the other person. While discussion or the
seminar are essential for learning, the social training students gain from school days filled with
conversational, in-person interaction is paramount to elevated student outcomes in civil
discourse.
Recommendations
The study assessed the personal beliefs, behavior, and environmental factors that
contribute to the success of an urban charter school utilizing a classical education model. Further,
the study focused on how classical curriculum supports student outcomes in civil discourse in an
urban classical charter school. Utilizing Bandura’s social cognitive theory as a framework, the
study evaluated the knowledge, observations, and thoughts of 16 individuals who are employed
full-time in various capacities by HM Prep, a charter school in the Washington, DC school
district offering the classical model of education. Interviewees consistently acknowledged a
similar values structure based on seeing the humanity in others, the importance of the seminar
approach in a classical education environment and identified actionable weaknesses which the
school can improve upon. Participants indicated a high level of trust among administration and
faculty, a supportive administrative group, and a culture of discussion that provides community
members with a high level of investment and a feeling of value. Three recommendations arose

89
from the study’s findings for the school to deepen and broaden its mission within its own walls,
in the DC school district, and beyond.
The final chapter of this study suggests three recommendations, along with suggestions
for future research. Recommendations begin with the establishment of a formalized leadership
development program within the school community that will provide continuity of leadership in
the established culture. Next, recommendations encourage the school to embark on an
organizationally appropriate strategic planning process with the goal of expanding the recently
established culture-focused document and broadening its scope to include financial goals,
capacity building, and facility needs. Finally, the recommendations include exploring ways to
expand classical education across the urban charter school landscape. The following section
presents a thorough discussion of those recommendations.
Recommendation 1: Establish a Leadership Development Program
The first recommendation encourages the school to establish a leadership development
program for employees who show promise and demonstrate enthusiasm for the mission and
unique program at HM Prep. One challenge that participants identified was the feeling of
fragility of the school’s ethos, particularly due to external forces. While the school community
cannot control the external factors that may infringe upon the school’s autonomy, the school
itself can help to bolster its leadership and internal systems by identifying and preparing future
school leaders in its unique approach and environment. Continuity of leadership is essential for
the culture and climate of the school to remain in place through what could be tumultuous times.
Daniels et al. (2019) identified that leadership in schools is not exclusive to named
administrators or principals, but instead is a process spread throughout the community.
Specifically, effective school leadership programs help refine employees’ skills in the areas of

90
human resources, executive leadership, school culture, and strategic operations (Tingle et al.,
2017). An impactful leadership development program considers the context in which individual
schools operate; one size does not fit all (Bush, 2017; Hallinger, 2017). Because of the
uniqueness of the HM Prep culture and approach, the school must establish an internal leadership
development program designed to keep the vital cultural elements of the community intact,
including hiring, accountability processes, and commitment to teacher autonomy and intellectual
activity. Leadership development programs can start organically, with material and focus areas
agreed upon by representatives of senior faculty and administration. Mentor faculty and
administrators would observe teachers and staff throughout the year to identify and gauge
promising employees’ interest in growth opportunities. Participants should meet regularly with
tier mentor faculty, as well as together in a larger group setting. Leadership development is a
long-term process, as such, the school needs to structure the program over several years, adding
participants and mentors over time. While the cultural aspects are significant, the program should
also focus on the school’s engagement with an evolving external environment. The direction of
leadership development to a more collective approach (Turner et al., 2018) fits with HM Prep’s
lack of hierarchical norms, as presented in the findings.
Recommendation 2: Engage in a Strategic Planning Process
The second recommendation encourages the school to engage in a strategic planning
process with a goal of sustainability of mission and market presence. As referenced, the school
recently underwent a focused assessment that resulted in the identification of four pillars to
define school culture, curriculum, and pedagogy. This work was both noble and fruitful; it is now
time to build upon that work to emphasize how that culture will inform processes and future
growth. A strategic planning process will provide HM Prep with a framework and actionable

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plan to meet an uncertain future with focused objectives. Findings of this study showed
satisfaction, confidence, and pride in the current landscape of HM Prep, but also found broad
uncertainty for the future of the school. A strategic planning process, when done effectively, is a
key tool for organizations that wish to take a degree of control over the future and establish a
guide to achievement.
Strategic planning provides a useful framework that can inform how an organization
meets its future. As defined by Thomas (2021), strategic planning is “a formal, ongoing process
for developing goals and implementing actions for positioning the organization in the market
while matching available resources with market opportunities” (p. 215). According to Bryson
(2018), strategic planning allows management to successfully tackle major issues facing an
organization, while Immordino et al. (2016) stated that strategic planning presents an opportunity
to define strategy and plot out direction regarding forthcoming decisions.
Camillus (2003) outlined trends in strategic planning that provide normative guidelines
that continue to prove helpful to organizational designers and planners. Organizations that prove
to be most effective in strategic planning tend to value issues, vision, and future over time, the
market, and the past (Camillus, 2003). Being an independent charter school unencumbered by a
national bureaucratic structure, HM Prep can position its values in its environment at the top of
the planning process. Additionally, successful strategic organizations emphasize micro-level
strategies, detailed action plans, wide transparency to both internal and external stakeholders of
the strategic planning process as well as the plan itself, and multi-faceted communication that
includes a high degree of value on face-to-face communication, educational process, and
feedback to managers and from stakeholders (Camillus, 2003). It is possible to conduct effective

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strategic planning at HM Prep, especially given the level of trust maintained by both
administration and faculty.
Several principles should guide the strategic planning process at HM Prep. First, the
school’s planning committee establishes a vision for the future direction of the school. Second,
having established a vision, the committee should engage the various stakeholder groups of the
school community to prioritize different strategies in the spirit of achieving the vision. It is
important that these goals are ambitious yet attainable, measurable, and scaled to the school’s
ability. Third, the committee outlines the tactics and micro strategies to contribute to the
achievement of each goal. Lastly, school leadership should constantly review the established
goals to ensure continued relevance and progress toward the vision.
Recommendation 3: Explore Ways to Expand the Classical Model
HM Prep’s success shows the possibilities that exist in urban school districts. The
recommendations encourage the school to explore avenues to expand the mission and open the
possibilities for building schools with a similar approach across the United States. The school’s
recent assessment of culture and approach provides an opportunity to proliferate the model and
present other educators with a scaffold for how best to build a community of learning
foundationally present in classical education. The school’s relationships with various charter
school incubators could serve as a launching point for other educators to explore bringing
classical education to urban areas where it has yet to flourish. As a promising practice, this
model could be replicable in similar communities across the United States.
A major factor in the expansion of any organization, particularly in education, is
financial. Teresa and Good (2017) outlined the burden of debt on charter schools and the effect
of speculative borrowing on the industry at large. School leaders would do well to construct a

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guide of the most essential elements of creating a classical school model within the charter
school framework of an urban environment. Utilizing interviews and the collective experiences
of those faculty and administration responsible for the established values and operations that
catalyzed growth at HM Prep, a guidebook outlining strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats experienced at HM Prep can prepare future school founders and leaders to take on the
difficult but rewarding work of establishing classical education in an urban charter school.
Topics could include areas of cultural emphasis including character education and autonomy of
faculty, processes of hiring, norms of decision-making, and financial stewardship. The guide
should not assume that every community will follow the process of HM Prep exactly, an aspect
worthy of celebration. Communities differ in needs and values; what has worked well in one may
fail in another. Still, the educational landscape of the United States needs innovative approaches
that disrupt a struggling system; educators should welcome a guide to charter education in urban
environments that offer the classical approach.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study added to the research on classical education and charter schools. However, the
study does result in limitations and delimitations. Scholars define limitations as weaknesses in a
study outside the researcher’s control, such as external factors at play during the interview that
could affect the interviewee’s responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2022; Theofandis & Fountouki,
2018). Tavory (2020) found that interviews are complex events that necessitate varying “modes
of inference” (p. 462) at different times. In identifying the limitations of the study, the research
depends on the information reported by interviewees at the time of the interview. External
factors such as a sleepless night; a spouse, partner, or child who is ill; a problematic meeting
with a colleague or student, or an influential conversation just before the interview could have

94
affected the interviewees. Finally, the study’s exclusive focus on one environment in the realm of
urban, charter, and classical education represents a limitation.
While limitations represent those factors that are outside of the researcher’s control,
delimitations reflect the decisions made by the researcher (Newman et al., 1997; Simon & Goes,
2013; Theofandis & Fountouki, 2019). The school itself represents a delimitation, as do the
processes that exist in the school environment, and the participants in the study. A further
example of a delimitation is the purposeful sampling method. Purposeful sampling allows the
researcher to identify subjects who can provide descriptive details and highly informed responses
(Patton, 2002). However, purposeful sampling could omit less energetic subjects as participants.
Other delimitations could include bias or positionality among the participants (Coker, 2022).
Additionally, the study of contemporary classical education remains a new and evolving domain
within educational research (Williams, 2022). Consequently, the decision to focus on an urban
charter school offering classical education represents a delimitation. Finally, the decision to
utilize SCT represents a delimitation. Other theoretical frameworks could result in different
findings. To mitigate limitations and delimitations, the study utilized member checking with the
expressed goal of identifying themes, trends, behaviors, and the environment experienced by
participants to better understand the success of classical education and civil discourse in such an
organization.
Recommendations for Future Research
Presently, the study of contemporary classical education is rare in the field of educational
research and presents a wide range of opportunities for future research. The limited amount of
classical education and the environments in which it thrives prompts questions as to how best to
structure a classical education approach in various communities across the United States. The

95
obvious proliferation of classical schools at the elementary and secondary levels presents an
opportunity to study a burgeoning movement with the ability to transform education options and
outcomes for families of all backgrounds. Researchers should continue to investigate these
stories and schools and allow the market for classical education to flourish as an established
educational approach rooted in the liberal arts and great works of literature and thought. This
study showed possible ingredients for success in building the scaffold for other educators to
emulate in their communities in the United States.
The study’s findings on weaknesses and shortcomings of the classical approach merit
consideration. While many studies focus on the positive characteristics of classical education, it
is equally important to pay special attention to possible weaknesses. Additional studies can be
instructive as to how to approach discussions on issues of race, socioeconomic diversity, and
achievement gaps in a classical framework. Institutions offering classical education can improve
by encouraging scholarship within their communities to strategize on building collegial yet
resilient organizations that foster open dialogue, mutual respect, and emphasis on enduring ideas
that span millennia. Finally, research on contemporary classical education can utilize existing
theoretical frameworks to further investigate how a style of education founded over 2000 years
ago can still maintain a high degree of relevance in the modern world.
Conclusion
The education landscape in the United States is ripe for disruption. With an alarming
level of learning loss evident because of the COVID-19 lockdowns that shuttered schools in
some states for nearly 2 years, as well as an increase in parental concern over curricula in
schools, the time has never been more right to explore different approaches to education.
Educational experts, parents, teachers, administrators, and most of the United States citizenry

96
agree that the current state of education is insufficient for the world in which we live. Merely
offering basic instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic is no longer pertinent to the
mounting challenges facing the United States and the world in the current state. The modern
classical approach offers one intriguing alternative that presents the possibility of increased
student outcomes due to a more thoughtful, inquisitive methodology that engages students with
ideas and lessons that have stood the test of time through millennia, dating back to the
philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome.
Classical schools have gained in popularity across the United States since 2015, however,
proliferation has occurred mainly in homogenous, suburban environments and features a faith
component to complement the academic program. Access to classical education should not limit
itself to certain neighborhoods or faith groups; every family should have the opportunity to
pursue a classical approach based on inquiry, personal responsibility, and the dignity of others.
Engaging with enduring ideas and texts, understanding humanity in oneself and others, and
seeking out opportunities to discuss beliefs and ideologies in an environment established in trust
gives students the ability and agency to go deeper in their learning, in their relationships, and
their lives.
To be sure, like any educational approach, the classical methodology is not for every
student. However, educators and parents should relentlessly pursue the style of education that is
best for individual students, and the classical approach provides a unique method rooted in the
pursuit of truth, beauty, and goodness. In a time when modern society so often considers civility
and discourse with differing points of view as signs of weakness, classical education offers a
counter-cultural approach that values discussion, deliberation, and intentionality in how our
community and society will meet current and future challenges. Most importantly, the modern

97
classical approach in this study allows students to encounter something transcendent, an
acknowledgment that every human being has dignity and purpose beyond the individual, and that
we are here for something far more significant. The recognition of students’ right to explore
lifelong education as a constant pursuit of that which is greater than oneself has the power to
change the course of history.

98
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Introduction to the Interview:
Hello! Thank you for your participation in this interview today as we research the civil discourse
in teacher professional development. I have several questions that will contribute to this research.
With your consent, I will record this interview; rest assured the writing of the findings will list
you with a pseudonym or anonymous, and I will use the recording solely for the purpose of this
research. I will be the only person to listen to the recording. Do you have any questions before
we begin?
Table A1
Interview Protocol
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
1. Could you share with me
a bit about your
background?
Questions about
specific items in
background.
2 Lived experience
2. Could you share with me
the reasons you chose to
teach at this HM Prep?
Questions to expand
on specific parts of
the interviewee
response
2 Lived experience
3. How would you define the
term, “civil discourse?”
Do you feel civil
discourse is a vital
element of school
culture? How does
that specific
definition manifest
itself in your dayto-day work?
2, 3 Knowledge of civil
discourse
4. How does the school
administration present
expectations for the
community regarding civil
discourse?
Do you feel the
administration is
effective in
presenting these
expectations? Are
they clear? Are you
confident they are
realistic?
1, 3 Expectations for the
community

131
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
5. In your opinion, what are
the consistent attitudes
toward civil discourse
among your peers and
community members?
How do the students
react or behave
toward this
attitude?
1, 2, 3
Cognitive factor –
attitude toward civil
discourse
6. How would you describe
your own practice of civil
discourse? Are there
successes? Struggles?
How intense do you
feel the struggles
are?
2 Personal behavioral
factors
7. Would you say that this
community respects
opposing views on
controversial issues?
Do you feel your
colleagues would
respond similarly?
3
Environmental
factors, attitude
toward civil
discourse
8. Are you confident in
practicing civil discourse
with your colleagues and
students? What are the
most significant barriers?
Has the school’s PD
programming
helped increase
your confidence in
practicing civil
discourse? What
would you say are
the root causes of
these barriers?
1, 2
Self-efficacy,
environmental,
cognitive, and
behavioral factors
9. How would you
characterize the civic
resources to which this
community has access?
What other resources
can the community
access that may
have an impact on
civil discourse?
2, 3
Environmental
factors/access to
civic resources
10. What social norms exist in
this community regarding
civil discourse?
How do these social
norms exist across
environments? At
home? In social
settings?
1, 2, 3 Environmental
factors
11. How would you describe
the level of support or
resistance from students
and their families for the
school’s approach to civil
discourse?
How have you
experienced or
witnessed this
support/resistance?
3
Environmental
factors, cognitive
factors, lived
experience
12. How able are you, as a
teacher, to change the
civic environment (such
as attitudes, involvement,
awareness) of this
community?
In what ways has the
community
changed vis a vis
civil discourse?
2, 3 Environmental
factors

132
Interview questions Potential probes RQ
addressed
Key concept
addressed
13. What would you say is the
most helpful factor in
practicing civil discourse
in this community?
How is this factor
present in the
community?
1, 3 All factors
14. What is the biggest
obstacle you see to
practicing civil discourse
in this community?
Have these obstacles
gotten larger over
time? Are they
relatively new?
1, 3 All factors
15. Are there any factors or
elements of the practicing
of civil discourse in this
community that we have
perhaps missed in this
interview?
1, 2, 3 All factors
Conclusion to the interview:
Thank you for your participation in this study today. If there is anything you think of after our
interview, please do not hesitate to reach out to me, you have my contact information. I very
much appreciate your time and willingness to speak with me today!

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Consuegra, Philip Raul (author)

Core Title Not a sign of weakness: civil discourse in an urban classical charter school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/30/2024

Defense Date 04/15/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag civil discourse,classical education,Classics,High School,Latin,OAI-PMH Harvest,Secondary Education

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Filback, Robert (committee member), Pritchard, Marcus (committee member)

Creator Email pconsueg@usc.edu,philip.consuegra@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113912117

Unique identifier UC113912117

Identifier etd-ConsuegraP-12876.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-ConsuegraP-12876

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Consuegra, Philip Raul

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240503-usctheses-batch-1147 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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