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Navigating political polarization: a group case study of community engagement in the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California K-12 school district

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Navigating political polarization: a group case study of community engagement in the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California K-12 school district

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Content Navigating Political Polarization: A Group Case Study of Community Engagement in the
Adoption of Intersectional Ethnic Studies in a Southern California K–12 School District
by
Ha (Jennifer) Huynh
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Ha (Jennifer) Huynh 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Ha (Jennifer) Huynh certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Christina Kishimoto
Paul Gothold
Greg Franklin, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

Abstract
This qualitative case study sought to examine the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies (IES)
and its process in one Southern California school district. During the adoption process, in the
post–George Floyd era and concurrent with the Trump administration, the political climate was
highly polarized. A magnifying glass was laid upon educational leaders, scrutinizing how they
could effectively engage different educational partners and voices in the adoption of the policy.
There was also an emphasis on studying various educational partners in the district and their
understanding of the stresses, demands and supports, and systems that led to early
implementation. The district is located in a majority-minority ethnic community that had recently
endured a global health pandemic and witnessed a rise in anti-Asian hate crimes at the time of
the study. Easton’s political systems framework and Kotter’s change model implied that the path
to adopting this curriculum in this community and school district would not be straightforward
and linear. A screening survey and interview approach were used to collect data from six
different stakeholder groups in the district. Transcripts of interviews conducted with teachers
were reviewed and analyzed to provide insight on and understanding of their perspectives and
experiences with the engagement process. Data were coded thematically using Easton’s political
systems framework and Kotter’s change model as guiding theoretical frameworks. The data
indicated that proactive community engagement, transparent communication, and trust-building
were pivotal in the successful adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in the school district, with
the engagement process effectively addressing diverse stakeholder perspectives and fostering
critical inquiry amid a politically charged environment. These findings may serve as a blueprint
for future efforts in policy adoption. By bridging theoretical insights with actionable
recommendations, the study may guide educational leaders toward fostering an educational
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landscape that is more inclusive, responsive, and reflective of the community’s diverse needs and
aspirations.
Keywords: intersectional ethnic studies, educational policy adoption, community
engagement in education, political polarization in education, Easton’s political systems
framework, Kotter’s change model
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Table of Contents
Abstract...........................................................................................................................................iv
List of Tables................................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures.................................................................................................................................xi
Chapter One: Background of the Problem...................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study............................................................................................................4
Research Questions..............................................................................................................5
Significance of the Study.....................................................................................................7
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................. 8
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................9
Organization of the Study..................................................................................................13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature......................................................................................... 15
History and Influence for Policy/Law............................................................................... 16
Opposition to Ethnic Studies............................................................................................. 22
Development of Educational Policy.................................................................................. 24
Culture Wars/Red vs. Blue................................................................................................ 25
Case Study: Other Districts Implementing Early.............................................................. 27
Community Engagement................................................................................................... 28
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy........................................................................................... 30
Theoretical Framework......................................................................................................32
Summary............................................................................................................................36
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................38
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Purpose of the Study..........................................................................................................40
Selection of the Population................................................................................................42
Design Summary............................................................................................................... 44
Instrumentation and Protocols........................................................................................... 46
Data Collection.................................................................................................................. 46
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................47
Validity and Reliability......................................................................................................47
Summary............................................................................................................................48
Chapter Four: Findings..................................................................................................................49
Participants........................................................................................................................ 49
Findings for Research Question 1..................................................................................... 50
Discussion for Research Question 1..................................................................................52
Findings for Research Question 2..................................................................................... 53
Discussion for Research Question 2..................................................................................56
Findings for Research Question 3..................................................................................... 57
Discussion for Research Question 3..................................................................................60
Summary............................................................................................................................61
Chapter Five: Discussion...............................................................................................................62
Summary of Findings........................................................................................................ 63
Implications for Practice....................................................................................................69
Future Research................................................................................................................. 71
Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter Six: Synthesis of Recommendations................................................................................74
School Board and Senior District Leaders........................................................................ 78
Community Organizers......................................................................................................79
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Consultants........................................................................................................................ 81
Teachers............................................................................................................................. 82
Site Administrators and Junior District Administrators.................................................... 84
Parents............................................................................................................................... 86
Summary............................................................................................................................87
References..................................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix A: Interview Protocol for Senior District Leaders and Board Members...................... 99
Research Question(s).........................................................................................................99
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 99
Questions......................................................................................................................... 100
Closing.............................................................................................................................102
Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Community Organizers and Religious Group Members... 104
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 104
Main Interview Questions............................................................................................... 105
Demographic Questions.................................................................................................. 106
Closing Question............................................................................................................. 106
Closing Comments.......................................................................................................... 107
Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Consultants........................................................................ 108
Research Questions..........................................................................................................108
Concepts From Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview............ 108
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 108
Questions With Transitions..............................................................................................109
Closing.............................................................................................................................110
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Teachers............................................................................. 111
Research Questions..........................................................................................................111
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Introduction......................................................................................................................111
Questions (With Transitions)........................................................................................... 112
Closing.............................................................................................................................113
Appendix E: Interview Protocol for District and Site Administrators.........................................114
Setting the Stage Questions............................................................................................. 114
Closing Questions............................................................................................................116
Appendix F: Interview Protocol for Parents................................................................................117
Research Questions..........................................................................................................117
Introduction......................................................................................................................118
Setting the Stage (Background/Demographic)................................................................ 119
Heart of the Interview (CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports).................................................119
Closing Question............................................................................................................. 120
Closing Comments.......................................................................................................... 120
Appendix G: Screening Protocol for Teachers............................................................................ 121
Background Information..................................................................................................121
Adoption Process.............................................................................................................122
Teacher Preparation......................................................................................................... 123
Appendix H: Screening Protocol for Parents.............................................................................. 125
Research Question(s).......................................................................................................125
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Survey.......... 125
Target Population.............................................................................................................126
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 126
Survey Items.................................................................................................................... 127
Closing.............................................................................................................................130
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List of Tables
Table 1: Tensions in a Curriculum Adoption Process................................................................... 77
Table E1: District and Site Administrators Interview Question Map..........................................115
Table H1: Survey Items and CF Alignment................................................................................ 127
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 34
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1
Note: Chapter One, Chapter Two, Chapter Three, and Chapter Six are the collective effort of six
researchers, all bringing insights from their individual studies to create this unified work that
represents a synthesis of diverse perspectives.
Chapter One: Background of the Problem
In spring 2020, the United States experienced a global pandemic and the murder of
George Floyd by an on-duty police officer, which layered onto the already polarizing effects on
high school campuses because of the charged political rhetoric of the Trump administration
(Rogers et al., 2017). As the public was being asked to isolate themselves at home, wear masks,
and get vaccinated against COVID-19, social movements such as Black Lives Matter formed to
bring attention to police violence and racial inequality (Christián et al., 2022). At the same time,
local social movements such as “Let Them Breathe” and “Let Them Play” formed, due to the
feeling of a loss of individual freedoms because of mask mandates and stay-at-home orders
(Young, 2022).
Amid these challenges, California schools were directed to implement an ethnic studies
course as a graduation requirement by the 2029–2030 school year (Cal. Assemb. B. 101, Chapter
661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]). Ethnic studies is rooted in the 1960s social movements that developed this
course in universities (Kim, 2020). Ethnic studies courses have further been considered at the
K–12 level to diversify a curriculum often criticized for its colonial upbringing and
White-centered approach that is blind to the experiences of minoritized groups (Milner, 2007).
Many school districts have experienced community backlash to their compliance with state
mandates, including the implementation of (or plans to implement) an ethnic studies course
(Alliance for Constructive Ethnic Studies, n.d.; Smith, 2021). This backlash has come in the

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form of contentious school board meetings, threats to school board members and district
officials, and local school board members being recalled.
This was the contentious backdrop of a Southern California school district that decided to
adopt an ethnic studies course years ahead of the mandate, despite a polarized community, with
the help of a consulting group to bring the voices of all educational partners together. Studying
their process and the resulting adoption is important not only to the districts that have yet to
implement this course and must do so in the upcoming years, but to all organizations dealing
with competing discourses over changes that might be divisive in a community. The purpose of
this study was to examine the process by which this district led its adoption efforts, to better
understand how educational leaders can approach change and invite the participation of all
stakeholder voices. It was important to study this adoption process in a Southern California
school district to examine the effects and influences on the community and specifically students
of color within that community.
Statement of the Problem
In fall 2021, California became the first state to add an ethnic studies component to its
basic graduation requirements (Cal. Assemb. B. 101, Chapter 661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]). The broader
aim of the bill was to move the state away from the “deficit notions of the resources of
Communities of Color” that have “fueled intolerance, bigotry, and assimilation throughout the
history of U.S. public education” (del Carmen Salazar, 2013, p. 122) and toward a future where
all students are exposed to a broad curriculum that acknowledges and celebrates the historical
struggles and contributions of Native American, Latino, African American, Asian American, and
Pacific Islander Californians to the state (California Department of Education, 2022). This new
curriculum has special importance in California, as the state serves the largest student population

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and is among the most diverse in the nation, with approximately 6.2 million students speaking
more than 90 languages (California Department of Education, 2023b). More than three quarters
of California’s K–12 students are non-White: 55% Latinx, 22% White, 12% Asian or Pacific
Islander, and 5% African American.
When the ethnic studies course as a graduation requirement was voted into law, several
districts in Southern California found that the requirement brought celebration for some families,
but fear and anger for others (Kim, 2020; Rothermich, 2021). This bill quickly became
controversial and the subject of many school board meetings as districts began considering its
implementation (Andruss, 2022). This specific moment in time holds great importance owing to
the profound psychological impact on large populations in quarantine and the far-reaching
consequences of widespread unemployment due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have
caused the escalation of social movements as a way to escape isolation (Christián et al., 2022).
Ethnic studies gained attention on both sides of political action groups—some believing the
course needed immediate implementation and was past due, and some believing that this course’s
purpose was divisive and should not be implemented at all.
Research has claimed two broad categories of support for ethnic studies: personal
academic empowerment of the student and increased understanding of diverse people (Dee &
Penner, 2017). Dee and Penner’s (2017) causal study in San Francisco schools provided evidence
that ethnic studies courses, taught with fidelity to the stated aims and with culturally relevant
instruction, resulted in improved grade point averages for students of color and increases in
credits earned. Bonilla et al. (2021) completed a study in the San Francisco Unified School
District that also demonstrated positive outcomes, including increased graduation rates, for
students enrolled in ethnic studies courses. De los Ríos et al. (2015) identified increased civic

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engagement with local and state issues as a product of enrollment in ethnic studies courses.
This group study examined one Southern California district, which engaged in
stakeholder input strategies before the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of the state
requirement. Despite the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and
community groups resulting in recall efforts, there has been a lack of discussion about the
engagement process in the literature and few to no studies dedicated to the behaviors and
activities of districts as they construct and reconstruct their social reality through educational
policy. As California districts approach the 2029–2030 school year, ethnic studies will become a
mandate, and the community pressure felt by school boards will be faced by more than just a few
early adopters. This group case study focused on a large K–12 school district in Southern
California during the adoption process of an intersectional ethnic studies curriculum.
Specifically, we examined the engagement process with the community in the context of policy
adoption amid rapid political polarization in the post–George Floyd Trump administration era.
Each researcher explored a different educational partnership to gain a deeper understanding of
the experiences of the respective participants.
Purpose of the Study
Through an engagement process among multiple educational partners, the school district
was able to approve an intersectional ethnic studies (IES) adoption. This study focused on
educational partners in the local and broader community who participated in the engagement
process. The group investigated the experiences of approximately 34 educational partners and
their understanding of the stresses, demands/supports, and systems that led to the decision to
pursue early implementation.

5
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions, organized by educational
partner.
Educational Partner: School Board Members and Senior District Leaders
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and
senior district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Community Organizers
1. What was the motivation of community organizers for participating in the school
district’s dialogue regarding the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum?
2. What were the community organizers’ concerns about the district’s adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies during the engagement process?
3. How, if at all, did the engagement process about intersectional ethnic studies by a
school district affect community organizers’ confidence in district decision-making?
Educational Partner: Consultants
1. How do consultants in a Southern California school district describe their
participation and role in the steps leading up to the implementation of intersectional
ethnic studies?
2. What challenges did the consultants encounter in the steps leading up to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?

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3. What impact do the consultants think their work had on the process toward
implementing intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Teachers
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Educational Partner: District and Site Administrators
1. From an administrator’s perspective, what led the district to implement the
community engagement process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional
ethnic studies resolution?
2. How were site and district administrators involved in the community engagement
process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
3. What are administrators’ perceptions of the consensus-building process that led to
adopting an intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
Educational Partner: Parents
1. How did parents perceive the communication by the district and its representatives
during the ethnic studies adoption process?
2. In what ways, if any, did parents engage in the ethnic studies adoption process?
3. How was parental input received by the district and its representatives?

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Significance of the Study
Implementing ethnic studies courses as a high school graduation requirement in all
California schools will have a significant impact on the opportunity gap, culturally relevant
pedagogy, and community engagement (Gay, 2017). This study contributes to the literature on
implementing change in an educational setting. The special focus on politically divisive issues is
especially important, as many school districts are implementing changes that are both necessary
and unpopular. In Los Alamitos Unified School District, a nearby district, the school board
experienced several acts of civil disobedience, causing interruptions to meetings due to the mask
mandate (Andruss, 2022). Tustin Unified School District similarly experienced hundreds of
protesters at a school board meeting regarding the COVID-19 mask mandate (ABC7 Los
Angeles, 2021). These Orange County schools have also received critical feedback regarding the
implementation of ethnic studies as the state presented the new assembly bill enacting the
graduation requirement. While some community members expressed that California schools
should have already implemented a requirement of this sort and were glad to hear the legislative
change, others believed that the curriculum would blame White children for the ills of the world
and shame them into believing they knowingly or unknowingly espouse White supremacist
ideology (Smith, 2021). As a result of this divisive climate, there has been a rise in recall efforts
of school board members, some of which have been successful. For example, in Orange Unified
School District, the successful recall of school board members put a new majority school board
in place, which led to the firing of the superintendent and assistant superintendent without cause
in the 2022–2023 school year and is believed to hold implications for the district’s
implementation of ethnic studies (San Román, 2023).

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The controversy extends beyond the borders of California. Arizona State Superintendent
of Public Education Tom Horne condemned ethnic studies, deeming it anti-American, and
accused it of causing resentment toward White people. He lobbied various bills to ban ethnic
studies, finding success in the long history of race wars in Arizona in 2010 (Cammarota, 2017).
In 2017, a federal judge overturned the ban on ethnic studies courses, saying it was motivated by
racial discrimination and violated pupils’ constitutional rights (Harris, 2017). The battle is far
from over, as Horne was re-elected as superintendent in 2022; his campaign promised to get rid
of critical race theory in schools and put an end to bilingual education (Sievers, 2022).
This study may provide district officials with an understanding of the processes by which
meaningful discussion and change can happen and how this can influence a community’s trust
and support of the school district. Although a district can use many processes to adopt a new
curriculum, the district in this study used direct community engagement, producing a successful
outcome during a time when others experienced political disruption. Additionally, the findings
from this study may improve the ability of researchers to bring systemic change to educational
organizations, particularly when the change being made is difficult or controversial.
Limitations and Delimitations
A limitation of this study is its nature as a case study, which focused on a moment in time
of one particular school district going through a change process. Time was also a limitation; the
researchers needed to interview those who were involved before the nuances of their experiences
were forgotten or they were no longer reachable, as the events took place in the previous
academic school year (2021–2022). Additionally, because this case study focused on one
district’s experience, the results may not be generalizable to all other school districts due to the
small sampling of various educational partners. Due to the sampling of each stakeholder group,

9
the inclusion of other members might have led to a different interpretation. The participants’
responses are limited by their awareness of the influences on their decision-making, their
comfort with sharing their viewpoints, and their retroactive reflection of their experiences, which
are therefore subject to the potential degradation of memory that is to be expected when 1 year
has passed. Retroactive interference is a phenomenon where new information or experiences
disrupt one’s ability to recall old information or experiences (Baddeley & Dale, 1966). Although
our study was limited to the adoption process that took place in 2021, the experiences of the
initial implementation of ethnic studies as well as the ongoing political debate that has occurred
since then may have colored the participants’ memory of the events.
The delimitations in this study are that it was limited to a single, large K–12 school
district in Southern California. The focus group was intentionally delimited to groups of
individuals inside the school district as well as outside the school district, including an activist
group and religious group members who participated in the adoption process. This study also
delimited the research to the adoption of the policy and purposefully excluded experiences of
implementation.
Definition of Terms
Assembly Bill 101 (AB 101) is legislation that was passed in the California State
Assembly in 2021 and is also known as the “Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum.” The purpose of
AB 101 is to promote cultural awareness and appreciation and to help students develop a better
understanding of the experiences and contributions of historically marginalized communities in
the United States. The curriculum covers topics such as Native American studies, African
American studies, Chicano/Latino studies, and Asian American studies, among others.

10
Critical race theory (CRT) was developed within the fields of legal studies and social
sciences. Critical race theory is an analytical framework designed to examine and challenge how
race intersects with and influences societal structures, institutions, and legal systems. CRT seeks
to understand and address systemic racism, emphasizing that race is not merely an individual
characteristic but a pervasive and enduring aspect of social organization.
Culturally responsive/relevant pedagogy (CRP) is an educational approach that
emphasizes the importance of understanding and respecting students’ cultural backgrounds and
experiences in teaching and learning. The goal of CRP is to create a learning environment that
values diversity and promotes equity by centering the experiences, voices, and perspectives of
students from historically marginalized groups.
Demands are those kinds of wants of persons or groups placed before the political system
that require some special organized effort on the part of society to settle them authoritatively.
Easton’s political framework theoretical model was developed by David Easton to help
explain how political systems work and how they respond to changes in their environment. At
the core of Easton’s (1979) framework is the concept of a “political system,” which he defined as
a set of interactions and interdependencies between different actors within a society. This system
includes both formal and informal rules, as well as the institutions and organizations that carry
out these rules. Easton argued that the political system is responsive to changes in its
environment, which can include things like economic, social, and cultural factors.
Equity is providing students, and people in general, with what they need to thrive. Unlike
equality, where everyone is treated the same, equity is the promotion of fairness and takes into
consideration different backgrounds, learning styles, and material realities to account for what
each individual student needs to succeed.

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Ethnic studies is a program that focuses on the interdisciplinary and comparative study of
the history, sociology, politics, culture, and economics of North American racial and ethnic
groups relative to the community, including African Americans, American Indians/Native
Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Asian Americans.
Ethnicity is “an identity marker based on ancestry, including nationality, lands/territory,
regional culture, religion, language, history, tradition, etc. that comprise a social group”
(California Department of Education, 2022, p. 3).
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is a federal law that was signed by President
Barack Obama on December 10, 2015, and replaced the No Child Left Behind Act. The purpose
of the law is to provide all students with equal access to high-quality education, regardless of
their race, ethnicity, income, or disability status. Under ESSA, states are required to create
accountability systems that include standards for academic achievement, graduation rates, and
English proficiency, among other things.
Kotter’s change model was developed by John P. Kotter to explain the dynamics of
organizational change and how entities respond to transformative processes. At the core of
Kotter’s (1996) framework is the concept of “change management,” which he defined as a
structured approach to transitioning individuals, teams, and organizations from a current state to
a desired future state. This model encompasses both formal and informal processes, as well as
the structures and strategies that facilitate these processes. Kotter contended that organizational
change is responsive to various factors, including internal and external pressures.
Let Them Breathe, a 501(c)(3) founded in California, is a nationwide network of families
and community members that organized events and protests surrounding the wearing of masks in
schools and the desire for this to remain a matter of family choice rather than mandate.

12
Let Them Play is a foundation formed out of the concern of inactivity facing children
during the COVID-19 pandemic. This group organized events and protests fighting for students
to be allowed to play sports again during a time when this activity was restricted.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was a federal law in the United States signed by
President George W. Bush in 2002. The law aimed to improve the performance of American
students in schools by introducing new standards, assessments, and accountability measures.
Under NCLB, states were required to administer standardized tests to students in certain grade
levels, and schools were required to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward achieving
proficiency on those tests. Schools that failed to make AYP for 2 consecutive years faced
consequences, such as offering students the option to transfer to another school or providing
additional educational services. NCLB was controversial and faced criticism for its heavy
reliance on standardized testing and the penalties it imposed on schools that failed to meet AYP.
In 2015, the law was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act, which gave more control to
states and districts in determining how to measure student achievement and progress.
Race, within the field of ethnic studies, is defined as a (neo)colonial social construction.
It is viewed as a “master category” based upon a Eurocentric biological fallacy that is central to
inequitable power relations in society (California Department of Education, 2022).
Racism is “a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and
that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race” (California
Department of Education, 2022, p. 3).
Stresses are a severe type of disturbance occurring in the environment of a political
system that threatens to destroy it. A stress interferes in some fundamental way with the capacity
of a political system to keep a conversion process working.

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Support is the energy in the form of actions or orientations promoting and resisting a
political system. Actions may include voting for a political candidate or defending a decision by
the highest court of the land. Orientations, in contrast, imply a deep-seated set of attitudes or
predispositions such as loyalty to a political party or the ideals of democracy and patriotism.
Support may be directed to three distinct objects of the political system: the authorities or the
government of the day; the regime or the principles, values, legal structures, and statutes that
make up the constitutional framework of the system; and the political community as a whole,
consisting of a group of persons who seek to settle difference or promote decisions through
peaceful action in common.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into six chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the
study and introduces the context of political polarization found within the community at the time
of the policy adoption. It includes the stresses and demands that served as the impetus for change
as well as definitions of terms used in this study. Chapter Two presents a literature review in the
following areas: history of ethnic studies, development of educational policy, influence of culture
wars, case studies involving other districts implementing ethnic studies, community engagement,
culturally relevant pedagogy, and a theoretical framework. Chapter Three describes the
methodology selected for this research study and includes sample and population selection,
interview questions, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four is a report of the research
findings. Chapter Five is composed of a summary of findings, implications, conclusions, and
recommendations. Chapter Six reviews the findings from all six individual stakeholder groups.
Common themes are identified, and divergent perspectives are explored to make connections and

14
share insights that emerged when considering the findings collectively. References and
appendices are included in the conclusion of this research study.

15
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The California Department of Education’s mandate to implement ethnic studies courses
as a high school graduation requirement in all California schools has a significant impact on
student achievement, racially equitable instruction, and civic engagement. As local school
districts begin to adopt ethnic studies courses, each will engage in a specific change process. We
studied one of these change processes: the adoption of a K–12 intersectional ethnic studies
resolution in a suburban, Southern California school district. Intersectional ethnic studies is a
curriculum that seeks to explore systems of oppression and the histories of marginalized
communities while considering how our multiple identities intersect with power in society
(Anderson & Calderon, 2023). The adoption of this resolution took place within the contentious
political environment of the 2021–2022 school year, as COVID-19 masking mandates and the
Black Lives Matter movement were at the center of the national scene. The district’s success in
moving its IES resolution forward is examined in relation to Easton’s (1979) political systems
and Kotter’s change framework to glean best practices for other districts that will be similarly
tasked with engaging in this change process.
First, we introduce the historical issues and events that prompted California’s mandate to
move toward a more culturally relevant curriculum and instruction. Second, we address the
contentious climate associated with political backlash and pressures on school districts adopting
the mandate. It is also important that we review the literature associated with the adoption phase
and its impacts on student achievement. Last, we review literature that helped to create our
conceptual framework.

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History and Influence for Policy/Law
Ethnic Studies Early Policy
Ethnic studies is an interdisciplinary course that incorporates the political, social, cultural,
and economic experiences of people alongside race, ethnicity, class, gender, and systems of
power (Curammeng, 2022). This course was developed out of a desire for more culturally
diverse and inclusive representations of the history and the lives of marginalized American
communities (Gay, 2017).
In late 2020, Assembly Bill 1460 was passed, mandating this course for all CSU
undergraduate students (Kim, 2020). Smith (2018) looked at the benefits of having such a course
at the university level. At CSU San Francisco, ethnic studies majors as well as students who took
at least one ethnic studies course were followed, and their success was measured against that of
students without these experiences. Students who had taken ethnic studies demonstrated greater
academic and graduation success. Smith identified professors of these courses and their methods
as a large reason for this, noting that they explicitly taught content to help students with critical
thinking and finding services and meaning in their studies. Students in the ethnic studies major
also tended to have higher graduation rates (Smith, 2018).
Following AB 1460’s passage, a student-led grassroots movement promoted this course
beyond the CSU college requirement, leading to AB 331 being brought forward to make ethnic
studies a high school graduation requirement (Kim, 2020). Jewish groups criticized this bill
initially for minimizing antisemitism and taking sides with Palestinians over Israel. Others
criticized the bill for focusing on the United States’s shortcomings, especially in dealing with
race (Fensterwald, 2020). California Governor Gavin Newsom vetoed AB 331 in August 2020
for what was considered an imbalance in the proposal (Fensterwald, 2020). Assemblymember

17
Jose Medina of Riverside reintroduced the graduation requirement in the form of AB 101 in
October 2021, and this bill was signed into law by Governor Newsom (Gomez, 2020).
California Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum and the Statewide Mandate
Before the adoption in 2021 of a statewide mandate to implement ethnic studies as a
graduation requirement, Chapter 327 of the Statutes of 2016 added Section 51226.7 to the
Education Code. This new section of the Education Code required the California State Board of
Education to develop an ethnic studies model curriculum. The resulting curriculum framework
and instructional resources were adopted by the state to guide educators’ development of local
ethnic studies curricula. The model curriculum lays out four foundational disciplines that guide
ethnic studies at the high school level (African American, Latinx, Native American, and Asian
American and Pacific Islander studies) and includes general guidelines and sample course
outlines for the teaching of these disciplines (California Department of Education, 2022). The
requirements established in Assembly Bill 101 will go into effect with the graduating class of
2030 (Legislative Counsel’s Office & Medina, 2022). AB 101 does not require that the model
curriculum be adopted by local districts; instead, the model curriculum is intended to serve as a
model for best practices in teaching ethnic studies (California Department of Education, 2022).
AB 101 also allows districts to choose the length of the course; the required minimum is a
semester, but districts can also write yearlong courses or embed the requirement into a series of
courses (Bowers, 2021).
Pawel (2021) provided a succinct overview of California’s political journey toward the
successful adoption of ethnic studies as a prerequisite to graduate from high school statewide.
The model curriculum, as it was originally drafted, was criticized as lacking depth in the
representation of the Jewish community as well as other ethnic groups. While the state

18
legislature approved the bill in 2020 to ensure that students study the experiences and history of
other ethnicities and races, Governor Newsom vetoed the measure; he agreed with critics that
“the initial draft of the model curriculum was insufficiently balanced and inclusive and needed to
be substantially amended” (Fensterwald, 2020, para. 3). After revision and improvement, the
Instructional Quality Commission approved the revised draft model curriculum. The curriculum
focuses mainly on African American, Chicano/Latino, Asian American, and Native American
students. However, it is adaptable to reflect the various ethnicities in respective communities
(California Department of Education, 2022, p. 3).
Intersectional Ethnic Studies
Although schools are a site for “gendered settler colonial capitalism,” there have been
movements calling for K–12 ethnic studies to disrupt conventional schooling (Ochoa & Ochoa,
2022). Sleeter and Zavala (2020) found that teachers who see identity as central to teaching share
foundational values of self-care and trust. They also see students as intellectuals and believe in
responsiveness and relevance to students and their communities. Additionally, these teachers
share in their critical analysis of racism and other power relations.
Ethnic studies has the conceptual tools to address the intersection of race and class
(Zavala et al., 2019). The hallmarks of ethnic studies include the following: curriculum as
counternarrative, criticality, reclaiming cultural identities, intersectionality and multiplicity,
community engagement, pedagogy that is culturally responsive and mediated, and students as
intellectuals (Sleeter & Zavala, 2020). Furthermore, ever since ethnic studies started, it has
“always included a particular intersectional analysis; that looked at race and gender along with
other axes of power and difference” (Zavala et al., 2019, p. 17).

19
Cuauhtin (2019) explained how identity wheels tend to stop at a superficial level of social
identities, but ethnic studies programs work to understand and analyze intersectional identity,
relationships, and dynamics of power to resist oppression and help actively change the world for
the better. An intersectional analysis of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)
community histories is necessary to address the harm created by historical and present-day
oppression (de los Rios, 2020). A community-responsive, intersectional approach goes beyond
the superficial levels of identity and weaves ethnic studies throughout the curriculum (Ochoa &
Ochoa, 2022). It has an intersectional framework, draws on the histories and cultures of the
students and the region, and calls specifically for race, class, gender, and sexuality components
to be included, in order to analyze power, lived experiences, and multiple forms of oppression
and resistance (Ochoa & Ochoa, 2022).
De los Rios (2020) made the case for implementing transformative justice ethnic studies
in P–12 schools, describing ethnic studies as a counternarrative and a form of healing. Part of
this healing comes from ethnic studies providing the opportunity to name racialized and other
intersectional harms. In their study, Snapp and Russell (2016) interviewed various stakeholder
adults in California and Arizona schools and found that inclusive curricular and pedagogical
approaches were supported because students benefited from being reflected in their learning,
violence against others lessened as a result of this kind of learning, and students became more
academically engaged and connected with their learning and school. While some ethnic studies
courses have seen issues of identity and gender as separate and apart from the course, others
believe ethnic studies and LGBTQ-inclusive curricula are the same (Snapp & Russell, 2016).
Through an intersectional approach, students can explore who they are, the systems of power and

20
privilege that affect them, and allyship and solidarity through a solution-based approach (Sleeter
& Zavala, 2020).
Impact of Ethnic Studies on Student Achievement
Del Carmen Salazar’s (2013) review of literature described the oppressive and systemic
assimilation of students of color into dominant American society through public schooling and
then offered Paulo Freire’s concept of humanizing pedagogy as a tool for dismantling
dehumanizing structures within the school system. Del Carmen Salazar (2013) gleaned from the
literature five tenets of a humanizing pedagogy as a road map for applying Freire’s concept
within the American context:
1. The full development of the person is essential for humanization. 2. To deny someone
else’s humanization is also to deny one’s own. 3. The journey for humanization is an
individual and collective endeavor toward critical consciousness. 4. Critical reflection
and action can transform structures that impede our own and others’ humanness, thus
facilitating liberation for all. 5. Educators are responsible for promoting a more fully
human world through their pedagogical principles and practices. (p. 128)
By embracing these “humanizing” tenets, del Carmen Salazar (2013) asserted, teachers
confront their “deficit notions” of students’ abilities and support students in the development of a
healthy, scholarly identity (p. 131). According to del Carmen Salazar, developing a curriculum
that is reflective of students’ reality and engaging students in the development of a critical
consciousness around social and political issues will allow them to make crucial connections
between their own lives and the material taught in the classroom. These practices will instill hope
in a learning committee for a better future and inspire students to participate in their own
liberation (del Carmen Salazar, 2013, p. 142).

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De los Ríos et al. (2015) described the ethnic studies movement as a direct response to
the White supremacist instruction that is generally seen in high school and college curricula. In
2014, the Council of Great City Schools gathered data on the largest school districts in the
United States and reported that 71% of the 6.9 million students who were enrolled at the time in
the nation’s largest school districts were Latino or African American, 69% were eligible to
receive free or reduced lunch, and 17% were English language learners. The evolution of ethnic
studies is a change in philosophy and practice for how American schools can eradicate systemic
racism, White supremacy, and low expectations of the schools most in need. This case study
looked at two high schools and an afterschool program and defined critical pedagogy and the
implications of implementing ethnic studies. In their analysis of these case studies, the authors
argued that students of color who are enrolled in ethnic studies courses in their high schools are
more engaged and interested in their studies because they can see connections between the
course content and their own lives.
Cammarota (2017) focused on a youth social justice action research project made up of
young people of color. The Arizona Department of Education sought to eliminate an ethnic
studies program—the Social Justice Education Project (SJEP)—because it believed the program
could lead to the radicalization of the young people enrolled in the program. The elimination of
the SJEP was aggressively pursued by the Department of Education, which threatened to
withhold crucial funding from the Tucson Unified School District if the district did not agree to
ban the program, even though “SJEP students were outperforming their non–ethnic studies peers
in every academic measure” (Cabrera et al., 2014, as cited in Cammarota, 2017, p. 527). After
the ban went into effect in January 2012, this youth group took action to prevent educational
injustices and spread the message of social transformation through the ethnic studies course.

22
According to Cammarota (2017, p. 528), students’ participation in the course before the ban had
a positive impact on their academic performance: Of the 17 seniors enrolled in the first cohort,
all but two graduated, despite being credit deficient at the start of the course (students enrolled
were still technically freshmen according to their overall credit count, despite having attended for
3 years, and were considered at high risk for dropping out).
Bonilla et al. (2021) investigated the claim that ethnic studies courses have a lasting,
positive effect on student achievement. Their study analyzed the impact of a ninth-grade ethnic
studies course on students in the San Francisco Unified School District. The researchers found
that, in this context, ethnic studies had a positive impact on student engagement, high school
graduation rates, and college enrollment after high school. Students who were assigned to ethnic
studies courses had higher attendance rates and higher graduation rates for those classified as
“lower performing” by the district (Bonilla et al., 2021, p. 8). As such, the authors said, ethnic
studies courses are a “relatively tractable lever for school reform” (Bonilla et al., 2021, p. 9).
Opposition to Ethnic Studies
Fear That Ethnic Studies Sows Division and Hate
Although ethnic studies as a graduation requirement was met with celebration by some
(Kim, 2020), there were still others who believed either the proposed curricula needed further
integration into all coursework or the course divided students into victim or oppressor roles
based on their heritage (Rothermich, 2021). The latter group feared the course was divisive and
would create more polarization, violence, and bigotry among students (Alliance for Constructive
Ethnic Studies, n.d.).
In Orange County, California, several districts have experienced debates over this
course’s integration into the graduation requirements despite the bill’s passage and imminent

23
implementation. School board meetings in Los Alamitos have been filled with public comments
fearing the course will breed hate in students (Smith, 2021). In nearby Placentia-Yorba Linda, a
school board member shared a Facebook article denouncing the curriculum as purely political
and “left-wing” (Smith, 2021).
California has not been alone in this debate about the purpose and benefits of ethnic
studies. Arizona Superintendent of Public Education Tom Horne condemned the course as
anti-American and signed a bill in 2010 banning the course in Arizona (Cammarota, 2017).
Horne’s bill received support from some who believe that ethnic studies underestimate students
of color while simultaneously focusing on evoking feelings of resentment and hatred (Cacho,
2010).
Fearing Critical Race Theory
The academic discipline of critical race theory has its origins in late-1970s counter-legal
scholarship (Ladson-Billings, 2010) and has been well developed by scholars such as Kimberlé
Crenshaw, Derrick Bell, and Richard Delgado (Melville, 2021). It argues against the slow pace
of reform and that Whites have traditionally been the primary beneficiaries of civil rights
legislation (Ladson-Billings, 1998). For example, many of the recipients of affirmative action
hiring policies have been White women whose income largely has benefited White households
even though the intended beneficiaries of the policy were people of color.
Critical race theory has been used by opposers of ethnic studies as an additional reason
why the curriculum should not be implemented in schools. Those who oppose critical race theory
believe it prioritizes activism at the expense of objectivity, rationalism, and critical thinking
(Adorney, 2022). Southern California school boards have heard public comments regarding some
of these fears as well. The Orange County Board of Education held panels on ethnic studies and

24
heard public comments calling ethnic studies a vehicle for critical race theory and that it was
political indoctrination to anti-American ideals (Elattar, 2021).
Development of Educational Policy
Fowler (2009) explained what educational policy is and how it comes into practice via
power, economy, political systems, culture, values, and ideology. Public policy is created in
response to public problems in an attempt to address issues and often involves compromise
among policymakers.
Hochschild and Scovronick (2004) added further depth to a discussion of public policy
by defining the American public’s understanding of the primary role of public schooling to be
the provision of tools for pursuing one’s individual version of the American dream. They
described this understanding of the role of public education as the need to balance two
competing priorities: the success of individuals and a collective benefit to vulnerable groups,
such as students with disabilities. These two priorities clash, as the value of self-reliance
conflicts with the idea that some vulnerable groups should be identified for specialized treatment
in an attempt to ward off ill treatment in American society. These competing priorities result in a
lack of stability and continuity in national policy or practice.
The achievement gap is one of the most talked-about issues in U.S. education. The term
refers to the disparities in standardized test scores between Black and White, Latina/o and White,
and recent immigrant and White students. Ladson-Billings (2006) argued that a focus on the gap
is misplaced. Instead, we need to look at the “education debt” that has accumulated over time.
This debt comprises historical, economic, sociopolitical, and moral components. Ladson-Billings
drew an analogy with the concept of national debt—which she contrasted with that of a national
budget deficit—to argue the significance of the education debt.

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Culture Wars/Red vs. Blue
U.S. public schools have long been viewed as an apolitical function of the government.
There have been benefits to this view, largely in the public’s acceptance of funding educational
institutions (Kirst & Wirt, 2009). As a nation, there has been a general acceptance of public
schooling as a necessity that will be funded with public dollars. Additionally, Wolbrecht and
Hartney’s (2014) examination of partisan stances in educational issues and reform showed how
traditionally Republican and Democratic values have sometimes not been reflected in those
parties’ policies over the years. For example, George Bush’s No Child Left Behind and Barack
Obama’s Race to the Top both reflected some of the opposite parties’ previous talking points. For
example, Bush’s marketed “compassionate conservatism” expanded the federal role over
education, while Obama’s initiatives promoted ideas of school choice and performance pay for
teachers.
Over the last century, the changing economic goals of schooling as well as the public’s
desire to have their educational leaders carry out their own interests has created a change in this
more apolitical view of schools and has instead highlighted some polarized political views
(Horsford et al., 2018). U.S. schools’ primary goals have generally reflected the nation’s values
and views of the world and its place in it. From teaching reading for the purpose of reading the
Bible to progressively more purely economic reasons, education has always been guided by the
interests of the United States (Horsford et al., 2018). Along with a focus on self-interest, other
distinct qualities in U.S. politics that have had recent prevalence are an antiestablishment
orientation, populism, and a good versus evil duality in thinking that has fed into a conspiratorial
stance of the world and educational institutions (Uscinski et al., 2021).

26
Political fights in education have become much more observable in recent years as there
has been movement in curriculum and standards, a focus on unions and their effects on
education, and vouchers and other systems designed to optimize family choice in schools
(Saltman, 2018). Although these political fights have clear sides, those politics have not always
been Democrat and Republican; rather, both political parties look to schools and their ability or
challenges in preparing an adequate workforce (Saltman, 2018). Both Democrats and
Republicans look at schools from an economic perspective and as an institution that helps to
teach the dominant values and views of society. Where the two parties have diverged is in which
values and views should be taught (Saltman, 2018).
After the election of 2016, Donald Trump’s presidency brought with it increased political
tension and conspiratorial thinking (Uscinski et al., 2021). Teachers and students reported higher
levels of stress and anxiety related to the policies and actions of politicians that affected their
campus culture and individual lives (Rogers et al., 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic in spring
2020 heightened these fears and increased isolation between people. Christián et al. (2022) noted
that the health risks during this time took a higher toll on minoritized groups for both medical
and social reasons. This increased the consciousness of the Black community, especially as
police violence continued to take the lives of young Black people, culminating in the killing of
George Floyd and sparking a large Black Lives Matter movement (Christián et al., 2022). The
fears, injustices, and anxieties felt by many were coupled with the psychological effects of
isolation, creating a moment in history of mass protests on both sides of the political aisle
(Christián et al., 2022).
While the Black Lives Matter movement brought out crowds, so did protests surrounding
the response to the COVID-19 pandemic and concerns around critical race theory being taught in

27
K–12 schools. In Los Alamitos, California, groups protesting the mask mandate formed a “Let
Them Breathe” campaign, disrupting schools and staffing and demanding that children should be
allowed to learn on campus during the COVID-19 pandemic without a mask due to their
constitutional freedoms and fears that social distancing would do more harm psychologically and
socially than the disease itself (Young, 2022). In Tustin, groups of parents voiced their
disapproval of masks at school at board meetings as well and formed similar protests in a
spin-off “Let Them Play” campaign formed through social media, holding protests in the San
Francisco Bay area and San Diego (Ludwig, 2021).
Case Study: Other Districts Implementing Early
It is important to study other school districts considering the early adoption of ethnic
studies, including the political contexts associated with them. Surrounding school districts
provided a glimpse into acts of civil disobedience with ever-evolving COVID restrictions
(Andruss, 2022). COVID restrictions ignited communities, creating tension and unrest in what
are typically civilized meetings. In neighboring school districts, COVID mandates became the
impetus for protesting policies and laws that school districts were required to enforce, such as at
Tustin and Los Alamitos Unified School District board meetings (Young, 2022). Regardless of
state and local mandates, communities were unwilling to have school officials maintain control
over highly politicized issues.
Students look toward adults and how they model behavior during highly tense political
contexts. A middle school student refused to wear a mask in class and was asked to leave class,
sparking a protest outside of the school (McAboy, 2021). More so than ever, parents and
community groups have become more vocal and are mobilizing against state and school policies,

28
implying that the implementation of a new required course and curriculum may experience the
same pushback.
Los Angeles Unified School District implemented an ethnic studies course pilot through a
few of its high schools, specifically in a high population of Filipino and Latino students
(Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015). Roosevelt and Washington High Schools (both a part of the
pilot) received support in mentoring and curriculum development to ensure teachers were
prepared for proper implementation. The implementation was to provide targeted support for
those at risk of dropping out and/or being credit deficient. Administrators interviewed described
the need for an ethnic studies curriculum to address the gaps in opportunity within education
(Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015). Through the pilot of the curriculum, students developed a
stronger sense of cultural awareness and empowerment.
Also in Southern California, a teacher at Pomona High School sparked the
implementation of a Chicana/o-Latina/o ethnic studies college preparatory class (de los Ríos et
al., 2015). This was created in 2006 after this teacher witnessed her students protesting the
Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration and Control Act of 2005. This led to
school-facilitated community discussions and the development of the curriculum that formed the
class. The students’ participation in discussions eventually led to the community buy-in and
implementation of ethnic studies courses in schools. Students are an equally important
stakeholder in the process, as their educational experiences will continue to be affected in the
classroom and beyond.
Community Engagement
In this case study looking at the early adoption of a curriculum, the school district being
studied engaged many different stakeholders in its process. Community engagement in schools

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can have a significant impact on school and student success. Holistic approaches to education
that emphasize the need for schools, families, and communities to work together to create
supportive and nurturing learning environments for all students help build this engagement
(Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
Brown et al.’s (2022) study highlighted several dimensions of parental participation,
including involvement, engagement, and community. Involvement refers to parents’ active
participation in school-related activities, such as attending parent-teacher conferences or
volunteering. Engagement encompasses parents’ emotional connection with the school,
including their interest in their child’s education and willingness to support learning at home.
Community involves the establishment of collaborative relationships among parents, teachers,
and administrators to create a sense of belonging and shared responsibility (Brown et al., 2022).
Parents who are more involved in school activities tend to be more engaged and feel a stronger
sense of community, which positively affects student outcomes, such as academic achievement
and socioemotional development (Brown et al., 2022). Voluntary acts of parent participation as
well as school-sought-after acts of parent participation both have positive educational outcomes
for students (Jeynes, 2013).
There are various barriers to the equitable involvement of all parents, including language
barriers, limited resources, mistrust, and conflicting cultural expectations (Baquedano-López et
al., 2013). One method to strengthen this involvement is by the development of community
schools. Daniel et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive study exploring key aspects of
community schools, their impact on student outcomes, and the essential conditions necessary for
effective teaching in this context. Ultimately, they found that effective teachers and practitioners
must also demonstrate a deep caring and commitment to democratic participation so that they

30
can negotiate the collective understanding that supports their work. Baquedano-López et al.
(2013) emphasized the need for teacher educators to address these barriers by promoting cultural
responsiveness, developing effective communication strategies, and fostering meaningful
partnerships with families and communities. Inclusive involvement practices such as these can
empower marginalized families and help bridge gaps between home and school as well
(Baquedano-López et al., 2013).
Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural practices and communication styles within
communities is also essential because the dominant approaches in schools often reflect
middle-class norms and exclude marginalized families (Baquedano-López et al., 2013). Edwards
et al. (2021) described the importance of parental involvement, adult education, and community
organizing, emphasizing the role of social justice leadership in fostering positive change in a
school community. These changes can be leveraged with the use of enrollment data, which plays
a crucial role in understanding the diversity within educational systems and its implications for
educational policy and practice (California Department of Education, 2022).
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Ethnic studies policies have largely come from an increased desire to adjust instruction
and curricula to meet the backgrounds and needs of all students in public schools. Culturally
relevant pedagogy contains three main qualities:
Gloria Ladson-Billings proposed three main components of Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy: (a) a focus on student learning and academic success, (b) developing students’
cultural competence to assist students in developing positive ethnic and social identities,
and (c) supporting students’ critical consciousness or their ability to recognize and
critique societal inequalities. (California Department of Education, 2023a, para. 2)

31
These are all qualities that can be found in ethnic studies and the pedagogy used to teach this
course.
There are large achievement benefits for students of color enrolled in ethnic studies,
particularly concerning their attendance, grade point average, and high school credits earned.
The causal effect of an ethnic studies curriculum is that it is inclusive of culturally relevant
pedagogy (Dee & Penner, 2017). The power of culturally responsive caring must be explored
through ethnic and cultural diversity in curriculum content. The positive effects of culturally
responsive teaching continue to help students as they enter the college and post-school years. All
students will perform better on multiple measures of achievement when teaching is filtered
through students’ own cultural experiences (Gay, 2018).
Teachers of minority groups should also be cognizant of how their practices and
reflections on those practices provide a way to define and recognize culturally relevant pedagogy
as a central area of investigation. It is vital to challenge the notions about the intersection of
culture and teaching that rely on earlier generations of work. Previous generations of work
suggested that cultural mismatches exist in societal structures, while educational institutions
perpetuate the same social inequalities (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). Further, it should raise
questions about what schools can and should be doing to promote academic success for all
students. To do this, teachers must go beyond encouraging academic success and cultural
competence. It involves helping students recognize, understand, and critique current social
inequities; the teachers themselves must recognize social inequities and their causes.
Good teaching practices are not enough. The centrality of good teaching plus culturally
relevant pedagogy leads to academic success (Ladson-Billings, 1995a). As students and
communities need to evolve, so do theories and concepts. An updated theory is referred to as

32
culturally sustaining pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 2014). Sustaining allows for more of a fluid
understanding of culture, and a teaching practice that explicitly engages questions of equity and
justice.
As adults research, craft, and implement structures and curricula, an important
stakeholder in the process to remember is the student. Student perceptions are important to study
when determining the effectiveness of multicultural education and skill development training
(Millhouse, 1986). Students gain significantly more rational attitudes toward diverse ethnic
groups when exposed to more diversity in people and ideas. Multicultural education and skill
development training is a significantly positive factor in improving rational and accepting
attitudes toward ethnic minority groups.
Education research is used as an analytic site for discussion, but the framework may be
transferable to other academic disciplines. According to Milner (2007), “Dangers, either seen,
unseen, or unforeseen, can emerge when we do not pay careful attention to our own and others’
racialized and cultural systems of coming to know, knowing, and experiencing the world”
(Abstract). Instead, that can focus on several interrelated qualities: researching the self,
researching the self in relation to others, engaged reflection and representation, and shifting from
the self to the system.
Theoretical Framework
Silverman (2021) noted that a conceptual framework helps researchers understand the
various aspects of a study and how they connect. The conceptual framework for this study helps
to form an understanding of how change processes can assist with pressures on the political
systems of schools. Figure 1 illustrates Easton’s process of a political system undergoing
Kotter’s change process.

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Easton’s Political Systems Model
Developing a method that analyzes the evolving behaviors and adaptations encompassed
in various political systems is ideal for understanding how political systems work (Easton, 1979).
The development of this structural analysis tool provides a deeper understanding and findings
into the conceptual intertwinings of political systems. Further, understanding this framework
fosters broader perspectives and helps to critically analyze power dynamics within a
community/organization. Easton’s approach develops a series of steps for decision-making in a
political system that is seen as delimited (i.e., without boundaries) and yet evolving and changing
(Easton, 1979). Easton noted that a political system is constantly under stress, which disrupts the
functioning of the system. The political system receives both demands and supports from society,
and it responds to the difficulties of demands to preserve itself. The demands and supports
received by the political system from society are inputs that become outputs, and a feedback
process then follows (Imene et al., 2023).
Critique
During the last half of the 20th century, the concept of a system was arguably the most
important in the theoretical repertoire of the discipline of American political science. Although
systems analysis was broadly employed in the behavioral sciences, Easton’s work was
particularly influential in the study of politics. Fullan (2015) outlined the “Elements of
Successful Change” in a larger examination of systems change within K–12 educational
institutions. These elements lend clarity to the extent of success produced by the district’s
consensus-building process. This is in part because he attempted to develop a distinct account of
the political system that was not theoretically subservient to either general systems theory or
conceptions of the social system such as that advanced by Talcott Parsons (Gunnell, 2013).

34
There are many complexities behind Easton’s framework (Thomassen & Van Ham,
2017). As empirical research prompts the need for a consistent and simplified conceptual
framework, it can be challenging to utilize Easton’s framework considering so many of its
different aspects of the stresses, inputs, outputs, implementation, feedback loop, and outcomes.
Torfing and Triantafillou (2013) found that empirical research has largely ignored the demand
cycle, while attempts to explore the relationships underlying the supply cycle tend to suffer from
misconceptions of its terms. The authors proposed a framework for empirical theory that
addresses both shortcomings.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

35
Support
Easton’s political systems model can be regarded as the most important non-normative
general theory in modern times (Fuchs & Klingemann, 2011). It has been influential in the study
of politics. Fuchs and Klingemann added that Easton’s framework was to be used for the analysis
of political life, also known as “systems analysis.” Kriek (1995) praised Easton’s contribution to
political science. Since 1953, when The Political System appeared, Easton has published several
well-known books. Considering all of Easton’s works in relation to one another is important in
understanding his contribution properly. Easton emphasized that every action is “interrelated and
systematically networked,” consequently establishing a social system. These social and
comprehensive systems are made up of people and their interactions with one another. Thus,
Easton drew attention to the people in the system as role players, helping to perform in their
political roles.
Cited Research
Easton’s framework for theorizing political support continues to be influential for
pertinent research (Lu & Dickson, 2020). Due to the complexity of Easton’s arguments, there is
some confusion on how to classify and measure political support in existing research. An
interdisciplinary, analytical framework is proposed to assist managers in identifying and tracking
political sources of international business risk (Van Wyk, 2010). The framework fuses the
political science concept of political system with managerial science’s notion of sequential risk
flow. With identification and early warning of political risks, managers may be more proactive,
not merely reactive, in formulating and executing their risk management policies. Proactivity is
an important aspect of coherent frameworks of an organization.

36
Kotter and Fullan’s Change Theories
Fullan’s (2006) research considered the major premises of change knowledge and
focused on the need for motivation, capacity building, learning in context, changing context, a
bias for reflective action, tri-level engagement (district, community, and state), and persistence
and flexibility. In a broader context, looking at all industries, Kotter (2012) outlined the steps for
change leaders to take to achieve successful change. In particular, these eight steps include
creating a sense of urgency, developing vision and strategies, communicating a change vision,
removing barriers to action, accomplishing short-term wins, building on change, and making
change stick (Kotter, 2012). Both Kotter and Fullan also addressed how change often can fail.
Fullan provided examples that show errors in a change process when having an incomplete
theory of action that does not get close to the reality of what is happening in schools and
highlighted the need to have a strategy of change that focuses on simultaneously changing
individuals and the culture or system within which they work. Kotter’s pitfalls help support
Fullan’s errors by noting a need for governance, resources, buy-in, and clarity and
communication of vision.
Summary
This case study focused on the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum in a Southern
California school district. Ethnic studies became a graduation requirement through AB 101 in
2021, following a time of political tension with particular attention on public schools (Gomez,
2020). The political left welcomed the new graduation requirement after the Trump
administration’s treatment of the U.S. immigrant population and the unnecessary killings of
many Americans of color, such as George Floyd and Breonna Taylor (Christián et al., 2022;
Uscinski et al., 2021). Some of these political stresses also put pressure on schools.

37
Many young Americans have experienced ethnic studies in colleges and universities,
which also helped create a grassroots movement supporting the course being brought to the K–12
setting, creating a demand on the political system (Kim, 2020). Ethnic studies is culturally
responsive in its approach and teaching methods, which further elevates the course as benefiting
all students in creating cultural competence and understanding of inequities that support the
political system (Dee & Penner, 2017). The political right, however, has largely feared the
implementation of the course, seeing this as a negative curriculum toward White students and as
another mandate to control them post-COVID-19, which is an opposing stress on the political
system (Young, 2022).
Despite the political climate, the school district in this case study chose to go through an
adoption process before the mandate’s 2030 deadline so that all students could begin taking
ethnic studies as a graduation requirement. This process required community engagement of
various stakeholders to create a guiding coalition. Voluntary parent participation not only is
essential for true collective district decision-making but also leads to greater student success in
school (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). It is also important to note that inclusive engagement
practices with marginalized families can help bridge gaps between school and home by
developing strong relationships and communication practices (Jeynes, 2013).

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Chapter Three: Methodology
In fall 2021, California became the first state to add an ethnic studies component to its
basic graduation requirements (Cal. Assemb. B. 101, Chapter 661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]). The broader
aim of the bill was to move the state away from the “deficit notions of the resources of
Communities of Color” that have “fueled intolerance, bigotry, and assimilation throughout the
history of U.S. public education” (del Carmen Salazar, 2013, p. 122) and toward a future where
all students are exposed to a broad curriculum that acknowledges and celebrates the historical
struggles and contributions of Native American, Latino, African American, Asian American, and
Pacific Islander Californians to the state (California Department of Education, 2022). This new
curriculum has special importance in California, as the state serves the largest student population
and is among the most diverse in the nation, with approximately 6.2 million students speaking
more than 90 languages (California Department of Education, 2023b). More than three quarters
of California’s K–12 students are non-White: 55% Latinx, 22% White, 12% Asian or Pacific
Islander, and 5% African American.
When the ethnic studies course as a graduation requirement was voted into law, it brought
celebration for some families, but fear and anger for others (Kim, 2020; Rothermich, 2021). This
bill quickly became controversial and the subject of many school board meetings as districts
began considering its implementation (Andruss, 2022). This particular moment in time holds
great importance due to the mass psychological effects of large populations in quarantine and the
financial impact of large-scale unemployment due to COVID-19, which may have caused the
escalation of social movements as a way to escape isolation (Christián et al., 2022). Ethnic
studies gained attention on both sides of political action groups—some believing the course

39
needed immediate implementation and was past due, and some believing that this course’s
purpose was divisive and should not be implemented at all.
Research has claimed two broad categories of support for ethnic studies: personal
academic empowerment of the student and increased understanding of diverse people. Dee and
Penner’s (2017) causal study in San Francisco schools provided evidence that ethnic studies
courses, taught with fidelity to the stated aims and with culturally relevant instruction, resulted in
improved grade point averages for students of color and increases in credits earned. Bonilla et al.
(2021) completed a study in the San Francisco Unified School District that also demonstrated
positive outcomes, including increased graduation rates, for students enrolled in ethnic studies
courses. De los Ríos et al. (2015) identified increased civic engagement with local and state
issues as a product of enrollment in ethnic studies courses.
This group study examined one Southern California district that engaged in stakeholder
input strategies before the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of the state requirement. Despite
the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and community groups
resulting in recall efforts, there has been a lack of discussion about the engagement process in the
literature and few to no studies dedicated to the behaviors and activities of districts as they
construct and reconstruct their social reality through educational policy. As California districts
approach the 2029–2030 school year, ethnic studies will become a mandate, and the community
pressure felt by school boards will be faced by more than just a few early adopters. This group
case study focused on a large K–12 school district in Southern California during the adoption
process of an intersectional ethnic studies curriculum. Specifically, we were interested in
examining the engagement process with the community in the context of policy adoption amid
rapid political polarization in the post–George Floyd Trump administration era. While we studied

40
this as a group, each researcher explored a different stakeholder group to gain a deeper
understanding of the experiences of each.
Purpose of the Study
Through an engagement process among multiple educational partners, the school district
was able to approve an intersectional ethnic studies adoption. This study focused on educational
partners in the local and broader community who participated in the engagement process. The
group investigated the experiences of approximately 34 stakeholders and their understanding of
the stresses, demands/supports, and systems that led to the decision for early implementation.
This study was guided by the following research questions, organized by educational
partner.
Educational Partner: School Board Members and Senior District Leaders
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and
senior district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Community Organizers
1. What was the motivation of community organizers for participating in the school
district’s dialogue regarding the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum?
2. What were the community organizers’ concerns about the district’s adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies during the engagement process?

41
3. How, if at all, did the engagement process about intersectional ethnic studies by a
school district affect community organizers’ confidence in district decision-making?
Educational Partner: Consultants
1. How do consultants in a Southern California school district describe their
participation and role in the steps leading up to the implementation of intersectional
ethnic studies?
2. What challenges did the consultants encounter in the steps leading up to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
3. What impact do the consultants think their work had on the process toward
implementing intersectional ethnic studies?

42
Educational Partner: Teachers
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Educational Partner: District and Site Administrators
1. From an administrator’s perspective, what led the district to implement the
community engagement process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional
ethnic studies resolution?
2. How were site and district administrators involved in the community engagement
process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
3. What are administrators’ perceptions of the consensus-building process that led to
adopting an intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
Educational Partner: Parents
1. How did parents perceive the communication by the district and its representatives
during the ethnic studies adoption process?
2. In what ways, if any, did parents engage in the ethnic studies adoption process?
3. How was parental input received by the district and its representatives?

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Selection of the Population
School Board Members and Consultants
To conduct this study, the researchers used census sampling because the researchers
wanted to interview all participants within both educational partners. This type of sampling
supported the study because there was such a small number of sitting board members (five),
district leadership (two), and consultants (five); an attempt was made to include all individuals
involved at the time.
Community Organizers
The researcher interviewed members of a social activist group in the local community
who participated in one Southern California school district’s adoption process of the ethnic
studies graduation requirement. The researcher found contact information for the group on
Facebook and began an email exchange to send a request to interview the group. Six members of
this group agreed to participate. The researcher attempted to involve all members of the group.
Gaining knowledge from the interviews may help educational leaders gain insight for their
adoption process of both the ethnic studies graduation requirement and other curricular or
instructional changes in the future.
Parents and Teachers
Participants in this study included 28 classroom teachers and 11 parents in a Southern
California school district. The school district serves approximately 25,000 students, from
kindergarten through 12th grade. The screener identified potential participants for interviews:
current teachers who were also employed by the district as a teacher in the 2021–2022 academic
school year. The researcher contacted parents with help from the assistant superintendent’s
office. These parents confirmed via a screener survey that their children were enrolled in the

44
school for the 2021–2022 academic year. Following the survey, emails were sent out to those
parents who had indicated their willingness to participate in the interview process.
The study used purposive sampling (Johnson & Christensen, 2017) where, specifically,
social science and English language arts teachers were selected because a credential in these
licenses may be required to teach standalone ethnic studies courses. The process of selection
required using a screener for all teachers in the selected school districts by the method of random
sampling. A random sample of teachers could provide a representative sample that resembles the
population group the researcher is interested in studying (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Some
sampling issues that may have arisen:
1. This study was time intensive, and participants had to be willing to submit to hours of
interviews and taking surveys.
2. The scope of this study was limited to a snapshot of a set of individuals in one single
district; thus, it is not generalizable.
District Administrators
The researcher interviewed six site and district administrators who were employed in
administrative positions during the 2021–2022 academic year. The researcher was connected
with these individuals via the office of the assistant superintendent and confirmed their
employment in the district during the 2021–2022 school year as administrators during the
individual interviews. An email was sent to all administrators from a member of the district
administrative team inviting them to participate in the study, but no additional administrators
contacted the researcher and expressed interest in participating.

45
Design Summary
Overview of Methodology
The methodology included qualitative data from semi-structured interviews to seek
specific information while also allowing for respondents’ worldviews to emerge (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Consistent with the grounded theory that shaped this study, this method allowed
the researcher to ask all participants the same questions but left space for flexibility to follow the
respondent’s thoughts if something unexpected emerged (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). The
interviews also included possible topics for the participants to have room to share their
experiences and perspectives that might not have been shared through the set questions. The
design and methodology were appropriate because they presented an in-depth understanding of
respondents’ experiences. It is unlikely that surveys alone could have produced the rich and
varied responses that can be elicited through interviews.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study was rooted in Easton’s (1979) political systems
framework, with consideration to Kotter’s (1996) change model. Easton’s framework provided a
method for organizing interview data into phases of the consensus-building process. Kotter’s
model outlines eight steps to leading change. This case study was focused on the efforts of one
Southern California school district to reach a consensus around the adoption of an intersectional
ethnic studies resolution. Therefore, the data were organized and analyzed using only the first
four phases of Easton’s (1979) framework (stresses, inputs, school systems as a political system,
and outputs and policies) and the first four steps of Kotter’s (1996) change model (create
urgency, build a powerful coalition, create a vision for change, and communicate the vision). The
case study explicitly limited its scope to these four phases and steps and did not include the

46
experiences after the ethnic studies resolution adoption nor the experiences of the district during
implementation. Therefore, neither the feedback loop portion of the political systems framework
nor the last four steps of the change model were incorporated as a part of the analysis. Within the
specific phase of school systems as a political system, Kotter’s change model was used to further
examine the extent of success produced by the district’s community engagement process.
In Easton’s (1979) political systems framework, stresses lead to a needed change; this
aligns with what Kotter (1996) identified as creating urgency. Easton asserted that the demands
and supports drive the policy change. In the instance of this case study, the stresses initiating the
change came in the form of a highlighted gap in content for historically marginalized students
and a fully White-centered curriculum. This conversation gained momentum out of national
events such as George Floyd’s murder at the hands of a police officer on duty, and an increase in
hate crimes focused on Asian Americans following the COVID-19 pandemic. Out of these
events, an activist group came to the local school district to demand that the already-passed AB
101 be implemented before the prescribed date. The innovation of ethnic studies in the initiation
phase led to support of the change from those within the school district and external change
agents in the consultants and non-district stakeholders.
Instrumentation and Protocols
The qualitative data were gathered through the use of interviews; questions were written
to ensure that they targeted the research questions and anticipated follow-up probes (see
Appendices A–H). The interviews conducted were open ended and semi-structured using an
interview guide, and the researchers took notes during the process (Patton, 2002). To stimulate
in-depth responses, the researchers included various types of questions that targeted the
experiences, opinions, feelings, and understanding of each stakeholder (Merriam & Tisdell,

47
2016). The researchers ensured that multiple (double-barreled) questions and leading questions
were not included in the protocol (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Collection
Before the interviews, the researchers gained access to the participants through screeners,
census sampling, and snowball sampling. The researchers contacted participants with an email
introducing the study, their rights as participants, and the logistics of the interview if they chose
to participate. An integral addition to the email was including what the participants would get
from participating, also known as reciprocity (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The researchers shared
how the participants’ experiences would support and inform other educational leaders on how to
implement any initiative, policy, or change that is considered polarizing or controversial. The
information and logistics of the interview were provided to the participants in advance. At the
start of each interview, participants were reminded of their rights and that the interview would be
recorded. Each interview took 60–90 minutes. After meeting with each participant, the
researchers transcribed and reviewed all the data from the recorded interviews.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative approach, deriving the data from interviews, transcription
of meeting notes, and analysis of district surveys given during the adoption process. All of the
items in the interview protocols were directly linked to the research questions, which guided the
data analysis. In instances where interviews were given in a language other than English,
transcription into English was completed with the assistance of a translator. To maintain
confidentiality and protect the participants’ information provided, all identifying information in
the transcription and analysis that followed was unlinked to ensure responses were not
identifiable to individuals.

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After data were collected from the interviews, the researchers followed the steps of
transcribing, coding the data, synthesizing, and then looking for patterns (Bogden & Biklen,
2007). The researchers used Zoom, an online conferencing platform, to transcribe the recorded
interviews, which were then loaded into Nvivo, a data management tool, to manually code the
data. Before coding, the researchers made sure to organize the data by breaking it down into
manageable pieces. Researcher triangulation was utilized, where six different researchers
focused on the same case study but different educational partners to generate a more in-depth
understanding of the process leading up to the decision to implement intersectional ethnic studies
early (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Validity and Reliability
The study was conducted with careful attention to the ways the data were collected and
findings were presented (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researchers followed multiple steps to
promote validity and reliability throughout the study, including member checking, adequate time
spent collecting the data, self-reflection on any assumptions/biases, peer review, audit trail, and
purposefully seeking variation in the sample selection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure that
there was internal validity in the study, the researchers used data triangulation to check for
consistency of findings among the data gathered from examining documents and artifacts,
interview data, and the extensive literature review. Easton’s (1979) political systems model and
Kotter’s (1996) change model were applied as a method of linking the findings within these
larger perspectives (see Figure 1). As the interviews sought to obtain information about events
that occurred during the previous school year, the responses may have been subject to
degradation of memory over the intervening year. This possible degradation of memory may
have affected the reliability and validity of the interview results.

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Summary
This case study used a qualitative approach using data from document analysis and
semi-structured interviews to elicit information from sample participants to address the study
research questions. The data from the six stakeholder group interviews helped paint a data-rich
picture of the experiences with one Southern California school district’s adoption process of an
intersectional ethnic studies curriculum. The data also helped the researchers understand the
tensions that the participants faced throughout the process leading up to the decision. These
findings are presented in Chapter Four, with a discussion of the findings in Chapter Five and a
comprehensive analysis of all individual data in Chapter Six.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine the process by which school districts lead their
adoption efforts to better understand how educational leaders can approach change, inviting
participation of all stakeholder voices. Specifically, I sought to assess a Southern California
school district’s adoption of ethnic studies and the teachers’ perception of their engagement
within the adoption process. I set out to explore how the power of culturally responsive caring is
explored through ethnic and cultural diversity in curriculum content and policy adoption. This
study was guided by the following research questions:
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Participants
An interview approach was used in this qualitative study in order to collect data from the
participants within the chosen school district. There were a total of six participants, all of whom
were secondary teachers within the school district. Each teacher came from a different school site
and volunteered to be a participant in this study through a survey sent to multiple teachers in the
school district.
I conducted the interviews online via Zoom. All six teachers interviewed had been on
staff before the Southern California School District adopted ethnic studies as a high school
graduation requirement. All six teachers volunteered to be a part of the adoption process when

51
the district sent a request for participants interested in the process. This pool of participants was
sufficient to provide me insight and understanding into the attitudes of teachers and their
perception of involvement within the adoption process of ethnic studies.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked the following: How do teachers describe the Southern
California School District’s process for engaging teachers in policy decisions?
Studying the adoption process in the Southern California School District provided an
opportunity to examine the political influences and effects on the community. Specifically, other
districts with similar demographic makeups can learn from this district’s strengths and challenges
in preparation for their own adoption in their school districts. Southern California School
District’s teachers and their engagement in the adoption process may help to inform other
teachers about how they can implement and prepare for ethnic studies. Two themes emerged
from this first research question in relation to the participants describing the engagement process
for teachers in policy decisions: support and resources, and autonomy and trust.
Support and Resources
One finding that emerged for Research Question 1 was the need to provide teachers with
appropriate and applicable support and resources in preparation for their classrooms. Before any
policy decision could be made, a teacher said,
I have no idea what this would entail for my classroom. How am I supposed to support
and engage in something new for my site and classroom when I am not even sure of what
level of support I will get from my administration and school district?
The adoption at the Southern California School District prompted a need to review what teachers
might need to provide adequate support and resources in the form of training, curriculum, and

52
time. One of the teachers interviewed said there “had not been a lot of focus on celebration of
diversity of cultures within curriculum, only during school activities.” They added that the
demographics of the community had changed since the 1990s, and more education for both staff
and students was highly needed to understand this dynamic and culture of the community as a
whole.
A teacher from another school site shared that it was vital for the district to commit to
providing teachers with the time to plan and develop the curriculum outside of the regular school
day:
As much as I believed that this was a great thing to be a part of the initial stages, I didn’t
want to commit to one more thing where my time wasn’t valued in compensation. Too
often, teachers continue to offer our insights and services for free at such low pay
compared to other professions.
One teacher mentioned how great it was to have a consultant with previous experience as an
ethnic studies teacher facilitate and guide the group of teachers during this process. They said it
helped them gain perspective, develop measurable goals, and maintain focus on the standards of
the course.
Autonomy and Trust
The second theme for Research Question 1 was autonomy and trust. For those involved
in the adoption process, it is key for the teachers to feel a sense of ownership and trust in what
they do as professionals and for this to be valued in policy decision-making. Having the
autonomy to exercise their professional judgment and expertise in the classroom gives them a
feeling of trust from site and district administrators. One teacher said,

53
I didn’t want to participate just so I can be a checklist on the district’s box of “done, we
have a teacher at the table.” I wanted to be valued and heard for my expertise and how
my perspective could really guide what we were looking to build for a future course.
A teacher from a different school site expressed how important it was to have teachers, not
consultants, develop the curriculum for ethnic studies. Because the curriculum development
drafting occurred prior to adoption, it was important to have examples and a framework available
for review by all stakeholders. As the school district was looking to have diverse voices through
the process, the teachers strongly believed that teacher voice in the realm of curriculum
development and proposal were the key elements to successful adoption. This cohort all had
similar comments about the importance of teacher-developed curriculum that would eventually
be taught by teachers. One teacher also talked about how they believe this is the first layer of
building trust with staff as they work on any future plans to expand ethnic studies in subjects
besides social science and English.
According to one of the teachers, they lose trust quickly when the “big wigs” from the
district come into the school for the photo ops and speeches about all the initiatives happening in
the schools. They said these individuals try to “school us” on how to teach. The teachers wanted
the district to trust them to teach with fidelity rather than micromanage them for the sake of
positive news to share with the community.
Discussion for Research Question 1
The purpose of this research question was to understand how teachers felt they were
engaged in policy decisions of the district, and these themes help to highlight the vital
components of collaboration and communication and recognize the input of an important
stakeholder: the teacher. Giving teachers the chance to be a part of this process helps to share the

54
educational outcomes of the school district. Ladson-Billings (1995) stressed how educators
should help students comprehend and critically analyze current social inequities, and, at the same
time, teachers should recognize their own beliefs and the inequities they may perpetuate. As they
are on the frontlines of teaching the curriculum, it is important for them to be involved in the
adoption and implementation of ethnic studies to ensure fidelity.
All of the participants mentioned that if the Southern California School District solicits
teacher feedback and engagement, it is important to create spaces for teachers to do just that.
Surveys, listening circles, and curriculum development were highlighted as the main areas where
teachers felt included and heard in the process. In doing so, teachers felt a higher sense of
engagement within the process and more informed.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked the following: In what ways do teachers in the Southern
California School District describe the community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic
studies?
This research question was intended to determine if teachers felt there were adequate
engagement opportunities with the community. My goal was to determine if there was a diverse
set of members from the community who were engaged prior to the adoption of ethnic studies
and if the teachers felt that those voices were represented well. Two themes emerged from this
second research question in relation to the participants describing ways in which the community
was engaged in the pre-adoption process: voice and representation, and collaboration and
communication.

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Voice and Representation
According to del Carmen Salazar (2013), developing a curriculum that is reflective of
students’ reality and engaging students in the development of a critical consciousness around
social and political issues will allow students to make crucial connections between their own
lives and the material taught in the classroom. The teachers interviewed emphasized how
important it was for the district to include diverse voices and perspectives from the community.
Specifically, they also reiterated how important it was to ensure that the voices are not only given
space to provide feedback, but also heard and represented in the district’s overall
decision-making processes.
One teacher felt that the district could help with ensuring that voices that are “at the
table” are also ones that are heard: “Often, teacher, parent, and student voices are invited to a
decision-making process, but it can seem surface-level and transactional.” The teacher would
like to see more of those perspectives’ voices intertwined with the decisions that were made to
truly feel heard and represented, aligning with the feedback loop in Easton’s framework process.
Many of the interviewees said that the most valuable experience was that of the listening circles,
where many stakeholders participated in two-way conversations and had a chance to review the
curriculum that was being developed to see if it aligned with their personal experiences.
Collaboration and Communication
The interviews with the participants revealed that community engagement in schools can
have a significant impact on school and student success. Holistic approaches to education,
emphasizing the need for schools, families, and communities to work together to create
supportive and nurturing learning environments for all students, help build this engagement
(Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Community involves the establishment of collaborative

56
relationships among parents, teachers, and administrators to create a sense of belonging and
shared responsibility (Brown et al., 2022). Parents who are more involved in school activities
tend to be more engaged and feel a stronger sense of community, which positively influences
student outcomes, such as academic achievement and socioemotional development (Brown et al.,
2022).
A teacher shared that in order to understand how to develop curriculum that is relatable to
the community, the district needs to solicit the voices of the community it serves and facilitate
spaces for those voices to participate in collaborative formats. From this participant’s
perspective, the district did attempt to get a diverse set of voices to represent each constituent
group. This same teacher expressed that during class discussions, it felt like therapy sessions for
students, validating the need to include their voice at the table. This is because “it is their
opportunity to share the stories and traumas of their experiences, something more valuable than
something that could be read out of a textbook.” One participant mentioned that there were
several listening circles facilitated to bring community members together. These circles offered a
chance for the community to ask questions, but they were also able to look over the curriculum
that was being developed. Providing a space for these members to review the curriculum and ask
questions was an effective way to engage those stakeholders.
Consistent communication was also something that all participants expressed as being
important in the adoption process. The participants expressed that the district made many
attempts to communicate the process on a regular basis. However, one mentioned, “If you
weren’t directly involved in the conversation, it was easy for others to just skip over the emails
and newsletters.” Another teacher said,

57
It felt like the closer we got to adoption, the less we heard from the students and parents.
After a few months, it felt like the main drivers were the teachers and
administrators—which I am not sure was a good or bad thing.
With so many different components and a variety of people representing different groups,
concise communication that came from the source was key in ensuring that the same narrative
was being portrayed.
Discussion for Research Question 2
Initially, the purpose of researching this question was to discuss the activities and
listening sessions that took place. Upon interviewing the participants, it was evident that their
perspectives and mindsets were changed as they participated in those activities and discussions.
Their participation in the collaboration with other stakeholders gave them a sense of
empowerment and purpose when developing a curriculum that matched the experiences of their
students and community members. Daniel et al. (2019) found that effective teachers and
practitioners must demonstrate a deep caring and commitment to democratic participation so that
they can negotiate the collective understanding that supports their work. Baquedano-López et al.
(2013) emphasized the need for teacher educators to address these barriers by promoting cultural
responsiveness, developing effective communication strategies, and fostering meaningful
partnerships with families and communities. Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural practices
and communication styles within communities is also essential because the dominant approaches
in schools often reflect middle-class norms and exclude marginalized families
(Baquedano-López et al., 2013). For comparison, LAUSD implemented an ethnic studies course
pilot through a few of its high schools, specifically in a high population of Filipino and Latino

58
students (Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015). The schools received support in mentoring and
curriculum development to ensure teachers were more prepared.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked the following: What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the
state ethnic studies curriculum, instructional practices, and learning goals?
This research question was designed to determine the insights that teachers experienced
through learning the state ethnic studies curriculum, instructional practices, and learning goals.
Studying these insights and attitudes is important to determine how to move forward with the
implementation of a curriculum that affects teachers and students. For implementation practices
to be successful, it is important to consider that concise information, advocacy for students, and a
process that is practical are essential. The causal effect of an ethnic studies curriculum is that it is
inclusive of culturally relevant pedagogy (Dee & Penner, 2017). The power of culturally
responsive caring must be explored through ethnic and cultural diversity in curriculum content.
The following three themes emerged from the interviews: clear and consistent communication,
advocacy for students, and practical implementation.
Clear and Consistent Communication
All of the teachers interviewed expressed the need for clear, concise, and transparent
communication from site and district administrators. One participant mentioned, “This is
especially important because decisions that are made will always directly impact our work with
student learning. We want to do a good job, and we can only do that under clear and explicit
expectations.” Teachers also want opportunities for meaningful engagement in decision-making.
This gives them the chance to provide their perspectives and expertise in teaching and learning,

59
which can typically be undervalued or overlooked. During the adoption phase, one teacher
shared,
I felt, for the most part, that the district informed my colleagues and me, but that it was
most likely due to us participating in the listening circles that were offered as well as
being on the curriculum development team.
This teacher also added that their colleagues who taught in other subject areas were not as
“in tune” with what was being communicated:
I saw many colleagues just sitting back, on their computers during presentations from
administrators regarding updates to the adoption process for ethnic studies. I know
teachers have a lot on their plates, but this is very important stuff for our community. If
they weren’t a part of the process, they didn’t seem to have any accountability to it.
Unless there is also active engagement from the stakeholder with the district, each person’s
perception of effective communication lines may be very different.
Advocacy for Students
Teachers are often one of the most impactful advocates for students. They advocate for
policies and practices that directly affect their students. These typically consist of resources to
help improve their education, curriculum changes that are relevant to their experiences, and
support systems that are directly related to their needs. A teacher participant who was part of a
group that developed the ethnic studies curriculum for the district spoke about how important it
was for them to create space for students to be themselves and hear about experiences of people
they could relate to in their studies. To effectively do this, this teacher consistently invited
students to the listening circles with them and also facilitated discussions in the classroom,
eliciting feedback from students on what they would like to see in the curriculum. Another

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teacher said, “I decided to carve out 15–20 minutes a week to give students the chance to share
their opinions on the process they observed. I did this on my own because students’ perspectives
are important in the decision-making process.” This participant expressed that they wanted to do
this to help ensure student voices were being collected, even on an informal basis.
Bonilla et al. (2021) investigated the claim that ethnic studies courses have a lasting,
positive effect on student achievement. In this context, ethnic studies had a positive impact on
student engagement, high school graduation rates, and college enrollment after high school.
Students expressed a high level of interest in being a part of the discussion and wanted to
continue being a part of the evolving process that will continue to affect them and their
communities.
Practical Implementation
Teachers highlighted the importance of implementing policies and curricula that are
feasible within the context of the classroom. All participants mentioned that the district must
consider real-world implications and the challenges that will arise with implementation. One
participant said that the district created more lessons than they had time to actually get through in
one school year. The district did this on purpose, knowing that teachers might need to pivot
depending on the context of the classroom, participants, and time. One teacher said that in order
for other teachers to feel prepared to implement a new curriculum in the classroom, it needed to
be developed by teachers, for teachers. Also, it was determined that teachers who were
developing the curriculum needed the time to do so. The district created a committee of teachers
with one from each high school representing each site.
An interviewee said that they felt they would like to see ethnic studies more integrated
into other cross-curricular subjects such as English language arts and science classes. They

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would like to see an expansion of knowledge and understanding of the concepts of the
curriculum with all teachers. They also understand that this will take time and buy-in with
teachers, as is the case with policies and practices that affect the classroom. As students and
communities need to evolve, so do theories and concepts. An updated theory is referred to as
culturally sustaining pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 2014). As teachers accept the fluidity
understanding of culture, teaching practices can explicitly engage questions of equity and justice
in cross-curricular fashion.
Discussion for Research Question 3
Overall, the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum, instructional
practices, and learning goals showed that intentional and teacher-initiated practices were vital for
successful implementation in the classroom. Often, teachers may unintentionally isolate
themselves in the world of their classroom and may not perceive themselves as part of policy and
practice decision-making. Those who actively become involved in the workshops, listening
circles, and curriculum development have a closer connection to the adoption process and
communication that came from the school district. It showed that at the site level, more teachers
could have been engaged in the process of implementation rather than the “responsibility”
resting solely on the social science teachers. It was also evident that in order to integrate
curriculum concepts and learning goals throughout a school site effectively, there must be a
consideration of practical implementation for teachers to do so with fidelity. It should also be
mentioned that the political climate of education can affect the ability to implement ethnic
studies in a practical way. In Southern California, many school board meetings were dominated
by the opposing views to critical race theory within schools. Those who oppose critical race
theory believe it prioritizes activism at the expense of objectivity, rationalism, and critical

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thinking (Adorney, 2022). With these competing narratives, it can be argued that challenges exist
within school systems to expand schoolwide changes.
Summary
The first and second research questions used Easton’s political systems framework to
examine the adoption and implementation of ethnic studies across the Southern California
School District and the importance of engaging teachers in the process. According to the
interviews and study, the teachers felt that there was a minimal amount of engagement from the
school district to involve teachers and entrust them to provide a meaningful and relevant learning
experience to their students. The participants were aware of the benefits to adopting and
implementing the course and curriculum to meet the needs of the community being served,
collectively stating, “It’s about time.” Teachers felt empowered to be advocates for their students
and their colleagues, not only by participating in the initial stages of the process, but also
currently through curriculum development and professional training.
The third research question focused on how teachers perceived their preparedness for
implementing the ethnic studies curriculum and learning goals. The interviews showed that
teachers need time, evaluation, and review of the process on a regular basis. According to the
participants, they discussed the importance of holding stakeholders accountable for policy and its
outcomes. At the same time, it was just as important that teachers receive resources and the
necessary support in order to enact policies and the curriculum with fidelity. The multifaceted
perspectives and concerns that teachers bring to community engagement are vital when
discussing change within an educational realm.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes the findings on adopting ethnic studies in a Southern California
School District through Easton’s political systems framework. It contains key research findings
to help guide educational leaders in their own path toward adoption of ethnic studies curricula in
their school districts. Using this framework will allow educational leaders to consider multiple
perspectives, especially those of teachers, and how their engagement and work directly
influences the students of their communities. More importantly, this research revealed the
importance of building a culture of care and trust among the school sites, district office, and the
community. Recommendations for future research are also made within the context of this study.
In this study, I aimed to examine the process by which school districts lead their adoption
efforts to better understand how educational leaders can approach change, inviting participation
of all stakeholder voices. Specifically, I sought to assess teachers’ perceptions of their
engagement within the adoption of ethnic studies. I set out to explore how the power of
culturally responsive caring is expressed through ethnic and cultural diversity in curriculum
content and policy adoption. This is essential for other districts to understand, so they can
support their communities of marginalized students. The following questions helped to guide the
research:
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?

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This qualitative study involved the evaluation of Southern California School District’s
adoption process for ethnic studies while utilizing Easton’s political systems framework. This
method allowed for a more insightful understanding of how the district engaged stakeholders in
the process, especially the teachers who would, in turn, influence the community. Teachers were
interviewed in this process to provide their perspectives and involvement in the adoption.
Summary of Findings
This study’s findings suggested that following a structure such as Easton’s political
systems framework is key to an adoption process for ethnic studies and curriculum when trying
to engage teachers in the process. For administrators at the district and site levels, it is essential
that they are concise with communication, build trust, and empower teachers prior to the
implementation of new policies and curricula. These are critical elements to ensure an adoption
process that is conducive to the needs of the school district and community’s goals. Seven
themes were identified as they related to the three research questions. This section summarizes
and discusses these findings in relation to previous research and current practice.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked the following: How do teachers describe the Southern
California School District’s process for engaging teachers in policy decisions? The qualitative
data for Research Question 1 produced two findings. The first finding determined that in order
for the adoption process to be successful, teachers needed adequate support and resources from
the school district. Because of ethnic studies’ comprehensive nature, the hallmarks of ethnic
studies include the following: curriculum as counter-narrative, criticality, reclaiming cultural
identities, intersectionality and multiplicity, community engagement, pedagogy that is culturally
responsive and mediated, and students as intellectuals (Sleeter & Zavala, 2020).

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It is evident that the school district spent a significant amount of time surveying and
engaging teachers in the adoption process for ethnic studies. All participants mentioned that, in
the beginning stages, teachers were surveyed to determine their level of understanding of the
state standards and basis for the curriculum. Then, teachers were invited to participate in
listening circles, where they engaged with other stakeholders and were directly responsible for
developing the curriculum for ethnic studies. It became more than just about good teaching, but
rather a relevant and sustainable curriculum. As students and communities need to evolve, so do
theories and concepts. An updated theory is referred to as culturally sustaining pedagogy
(Ladson-Billings, 2014). According to the teachers interviewed, they felt they were supported
and received the necessary resources to help guide their work through adoption and
implementation. Specifically, the interviewees mentioned that having a consultant who had
extensive experience in ethnic studies facilitate their work helped them feel more comfortable
with moving forward in the process.
Previous generations of work have suggested that cultural mismatches exist in societal
structures, while educational institutions perpetuate the same social inequalities
(Ladson-Billings, 1995b). The participants in the study emphasized how important it was for
them to be provided the time to work with colleagues on developing a curriculum that was
applicable and relevant to their students’ communities. Because the district provided teachers
time and compensation to engage and develop the curriculum, the interviewees felt respected and
responsible for the future of ethnic studies in the school district.
The second finding that emerged from Research Question 1 was the need to provide
teachers with autonomy and trust through the adoption process of ethnic studies. Teachers feel
more empowered and bought-in when they are trusted as professionals and given the autonomy

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to work through their craft: curriculum and instruction. The teachers interviewed expressed that
to create a sustainable curriculum that would continue to expand across the district, it needed to
be developed by teachers, not those who have not been in the classroom. The centrality of good
teaching plus “culturally relevant” pedagogy leads to academic success (Ladson-Billings,
1995a). If teachers are provided a curriculum developed by their peers and it is combined with
good teaching, the impact to students would be much greater.
The second finding supports Easton’s political systems framework, where Van Wyk
(2010) discussed how the framework fuses the political science concept of political system with
managerial science’s notion of sequential risk flow. Administrators (managers) can provide
teachers with autonomy and trust in order to foster a sense of professionalism. It also encourages
teachers to be innovative and creative. Educators are able to tailor their teaching and approaches
to meet the needs of their students, overall promoting a positive and effective learning
experience.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked the following: In what ways do teachers in the Southern
California School District describe the community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic
studies? As part of the adoption process for ethnic studies, it was important for the district to
engage with multiple stakeholders, including the community, to understand their perspectives
and voices. The research for this question produced two findings. The first finding was the need
to ensure there was adequate voice and representation of the community integrated in both the
ethnic studies curriculum and the adoption process toward implementation as well.
The first finding confirmed that diverse representation of the community within the
adoption process helped to provide relevant and deep-rooted authenticity to the curriculum for

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students. This was also in line with del Carmen Salazar (2013) in terms of pedagogy having the
ability to be humanized and part of liberation for marginalized communities. When the
participants were asked about the process and how the community was engaged, they were able
to identify the different measures that the district took to include those stakeholders. They
characterized the types of circles that were available as well as other workshops provided to the
community.
In relation to his change theory, Fullan (2007) described the importance of the evolving
cycle of change that is supported through time, strategy, review, feedback, and revision
opportunities. The participants mentioned that the district utilized a similar cycle through the
adoption process as they learned more about the community’s perspectives and needs and
adapted accordingly.
The second finding for Research Question 2 was collaboration and communication.
Collaborative learning is essential for the school district to engage with all stakeholders in new
policy and decision-making. Educational experiences are meant to be active and relatable and
maintain the societal contexts of the community. The teachers interviewed appreciated that the
district offered opportunities for community members to come and preview the curriculum that
was developed by teachers of the district. They felt that, in doing so, there was active
engagement from both sides of the coin, which allowed for progressive discourse and
understanding of the work being done at the district to support students. Also, the interviews
indicated that teachers were pleased with how often and concisely the information was
communicated to the community and school district on a regular basis. As Fullan (2007) would
agree, this process helped each stakeholder see that their own sense of accountability and
responsibility translated to purposeful change.

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Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked the following: What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the
state ethnic studies curriculum, instructional practices, and learning goals? Three findings
emerged from this research study question. The first finding revealed how important it was for
the school district to provide clear and consistent communication regarding the adoption of
ethnic studies as well as plans for implementation. Many of the teachers interviewed expressed
how vital it was for them to receive clear guidance that provided information on how the district
planned to proceed with the adoption of ethnic studies. Fullan (2015) would attribute these
elements as they lend clarity to the extent of success produced by the district’s
consensus-building process.
Prioritizing clear and consistent communication was essential to ensuring a successful
adoption and implementation of ethnic studies. Although the call for making ethnic studies a
graduation requirement was met with celebration, there were some who either believed the
proposed curricula needed further integration into all coursework or believed the course divided
students into victim or oppressor roles based on their heritage (Rothermich, 2021). Clear and
consistent communication provides clarity and certainty, especially for those who are not directly
involved in the process at all times.
Developing teacher leaders within the committees was an effective way to deliver
information in an authentic way, as teachers have a more established rapport with their
colleagues than with site and district administrators. At least one of the interviewees felt that the
district could have utilized more site staff meetings to communicate and engage teachers
separately from the community, allowing more teachers the opportunity to collaborate, even if
they were not intending to teach the ethnic studies curriculum.

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The second finding for Research Question 3 emphasized the importance of teachers being
advocates for students. With intensified political tensions associated with ethnic studies
curriculum adoption, the latter group fears the course is divisive and will create more
polarization, violence, and bigotry among students (Alliance for Constructive Ethnic Studies,
n.d.). The teachers interviewed mentioned that they felt a sense of urgency and accountability in
being advocates for their students. Although students were part of the listening circles and
discussions, the teachers felt they were responsible for ensuring that their students’ voices
mattered and were heard across the adoption and implementation processes.
It is so crucial for students to feel safe, physically and emotionally, in school as they
watch the world become divided among issues related to them and their ancestry. Arizona
Superintendent of Public Education Tom Horne has condemned ethnic studies as anti-American
and signed a bill in 2010 banning the course in Arizona (Cammarota, 2017). When students see
adults criticizing the curriculum as “anti-American,” it is very easy for them to feel like they are
identified as “un-American.”
The third finding for Research Question 3 was the impact of practical implementation for
the ethnic studies curriculum, instructional strategies, and learning goals. As with any new
curriculum adoption, teachers wanted to see a practical and feasible strategy on how to
implement it in their own classrooms. Ethnic studies is an interdisciplinary course that
incorporates the political, social, cultural, and economic experiences of people alongside race,
ethnicity, class, gender, and systems of power (Curammeng, 2022). The complexities and
deep-rooted histories embedded within the curriculum required that the district provide teachers
not only adequate time to be part of the development of the curriculum, but also the means to
practically implement it in applicable classrooms. The teachers confirmed that, with each year,

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they anticipated that more teachers would become involved in the expansion of teaching ethnic
studies due to the practicality of the district’s overall implementation across all secondary sites.
Implications for Practice
This study explored the adoption process for ethnic studies in a Southern California
school district and the teachers’ perceptions of their engagement within that process. The study’s
findings established some themes to help both site and district schools in leading their adoption
efforts and meeting state requirements. The findings demonstrated which methods used by the
district were more impactful and valuable in adopting a sustainable curriculum and culture.
The first implication for the informed practice of educators is that all stakeholders need to
be open to not only a new process but also change within that process as it evolves over time and
with the needs of the people involved. All of the participants of the study praised the district for
being open to the ongoing changes to the process that occurred. They appreciated that the district
modeled what was expected of other stakeholders, and that was to constantly view the process as
reflectively as possible while still maintaining the overall goals of the adoption process. Theories
and concepts will evolve, especially as populations continue to change. The findings appear to
support the emphasis on the reflection and change cycle in the adoption process. Students will
benefit greatly from a growth mindset model from adults, as it helps to professionally develop
teachers, in turn directly influencing the quality of education for their students.
The second implication for a school district’s adoption and implementation process is the
need for direct, concise, and consistent priorities and communication from the district. A
coherent framework and plan around the adoption process is essential for administrators to be
able to disseminate information and facilitate plans at their own sites. Providing administrators
and teachers with the ability to develop site plans will help to bridge the gap in communication

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that typically comes from the district level. At the site level, more trust and rapport has already
been established with the community, allowing more trust to be built. Also, the district can
require that more teacher representation be included from other cross-curricular subjects besides
social science and English language arts. Participants shared that they felt they were alone in the
movement of bringing ethnic studies to fruition in comparison with their math and science
colleagues. Everyone means everyone. As committees continue to evolve over the next few
years, it would be important to require, not have as optional, teachers from other subject areas
and grade levels to serve on those committees. Serving on a committee will provide participants
with a different perspective, compared with reading updates through district and site emails.
Lastly, it is imperative that the information and communication shared be consistent and concise,
to ensure the narrative remains logical. Designating a point person who can assist with
communications can help with ensuring consistent and concise messaging for the district.
The third implication within a school district’s path toward adoption of the curriculum is
the need for authentic and intentional collaboration with all stakeholders of the school
community. The participants consistently shared that, if they were going to be a part of
transformative practices and policies for the school district, they needed to be able to collaborate
with administrators, students, and the community on a regular basis. It was essential that those
involved, either directly or indirectly, had an opportunity for their voices to be heard. Each
stakeholder held a level of accountability and responsibility in moving the work forward in a
way that was going to transform the educational experience for their students. All participants
expressed that this process has been “long overdue.” Having a shared vision, courage, and action
plan are the building blocks toward a sustainable and relevant learning environment for students
of marginalized communities.

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Future Research
This study’s literature review indicated that additional research is needed to examine the
adoption and implementation of ethnic studies in school districts and how it will affect students
of marginalized communities. Although this research provided some insightful and informative
feedback, there is more information that can be discovered through additional research. There is
a need for additional research in three areas of this study.
The study of how the district will measure sustainability over time is important to this
research. Study findings suggested that the Southern California School District’s approach to
engaging with stakeholders was a step in the right direction toward enacting positive change for
the district’s community. There are data to help support the immediate measurement of student
impact from teachers, students, administrators, and the community. However, it would be helpful
to look at the long-term effects by collecting and analyzing longitudinal data. This would also
include data from students at a postsecondary level to determine how a culturally relevant
curriculum influences them in their adult education and experiences.
The second recommendation is to look at longitudinal data by comparing student
achievement data between an ethnic studies–integrated curriculum and a standalone ethnic
studies course. In the adoption phase, school districts spend time deciding between the use of
integrated curriculum or standalone courses. Some may opt to do both. Some discussions that
occurred in the early phases identified that due to feeling overwhelmed with “another thing to
do,” some teachers were opting for the integrated curriculum and claimed that they were already
integrating the ethnic studies curriculum in unofficial ways in their classroom. Thus, the notion
was that there was no need for change because it was allegedly already happening in their
classrooms. There is a need to research this deeper to identify which method may be more

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effective and impactful for both teachers and students. Teachers can then look at concrete and
measurable data to help inform their teaching practices. It would be worthwhile to examine how
each type of curriculum compares as well, in order to help other districts make informed
decisions about how best to proceed in their adoption and implementation processes.
The third recommendation is to look at other demographic-dominated communities aside
from marginalized communities. There have been many studies conducted in school districts of
marginalized communities. It would be helpful to have more research in districts in California
where the communities are more affluent and high-achieving. The approach and identification of
priorities may be different, but these districts would need to deeply examine their own systems
and practices to minimally meet the state standards. This expanded research could provide
insightful guidance and feedback for other districts going through similar adoption processes.
Also, each school district is unique, and there is no one silver bullet. Having comparative
research in a diverse array of school districts would help to provide more comprehensive
information for other districts to utilize for their own strategic pathway.
Conclusions
This study provided findings indicating that utilizing Easton’s political systems
framework during an adoption process for ethnic studies helps to engage necessary stakeholders
and, in turn, positively affects students from marginalized communities. It helped to emphasize
the importance of fostering a culture of reflection and change in decision-making. Findings also
suggested that direct, concise, and consistent priorities and communication were vital to each
stakeholder’s understanding of the adoption process. Dangers, either seen, unseen, or unforeseen,
can emerge when we do not pay careful attention to our own and others’ racialized and cultural
systems of coming to know, knowing, and experiencing the world (Milner, 2007). Careful

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consideration of how information is communicated, especially in a highly politicized topic, can
significantly affect implementation. Lastly, findings also determined the importance of fostering
a culture of collaboration with all stakeholders. Intentionally bringing teachers to the table to
collaborate with students, administrators, and members of the community provides intentional
space for represented groups to work toward a shared vision of equity for all students.
Overall, it was essential to assess the Southern California School District’s adoption of
ethnic studies and the teachers’ perception of their engagement within the adoption of ethnic
studies. This study provides awareness and understanding behind systems in decision-making in
the Southern California School District and the importance of fostering a change in culture to
influence marginalized students of the community.

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Chapter Six: Synthesis of Recommendations
In Chapter Six, we delve into the heart of our research, weaving together the varied
perspectives we have gathered to address the complexities of policy adoption within one
Southern California school district. This analysis is rooted in the insightful frameworks of
Easton’s (1979) political systems framework and Kotter’s (2012) change theory, applied to
understand the constituent engagement process in the adoption of an ethnic studies resolution by
the district during a notably contentious period in both the nation and the local community: the
2020–2021 school year. In utilizing the Easton conceptual framework, “the task of the theorist is
to identify sharply the particular aspect or segment of the political system on which he is
focusing and to construct a body of logically interrelated propositions adequate for explaining
behavior in this area” (Easton, 1979, p. 8). The behaviors of the district at this time lent
themselves to the finalization of a shared vision that translated into the successful adoption of an
intersectional ethnic studies resolution. A deeper question, however, exists under the surface of
this achievement: Was true constituent consensus produced through the process? In this case
study, the answers to this question vary according to the constituent group under examination.
Informed by Kotter’s (2012) change theory, we have analyzed the findings for each
constituent group to glean key themes that echo across the experiences of all groups involved,
from school board and senior district leaders to community organizers, consultants, teachers, site
and junior district administrators, and parents. These themes shine a light on the multifaceted
nature of the district’s community engagement efforts within the consensus-building process,
highlighting both strengths and areas for improvement. It is crucial to note that the
interchangeable use of terms such as community engagement, consensus building, and
community education throughout our discussion reflects the district’s lack of clarity in these

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areas, rather than any ambiguity on the part of the researchers. This distinction underscores the
importance of precise language and strategies in policy adoption and community engagement
efforts. It is also important to consider the context of time and how the political and social
dynamics of the pandemic, post–George Floyd, and the Trump administration contributed to the
complexities of this study. The uniqueness of this time period added a level of intricacy for
leaders that may have influenced the various experiences shared by each educational partner.
By employing Easton’s framework, we identified significant disconnections in the
feedback loop of policy implementation, where the community’s expectations and the district’s
outputs often misalign (Easton, 1979). Similarly, Kotter’s theory offered a strategic lens through
which to enhance genuine stakeholder engagement, focusing on building urgency, forming
strategic alliances, and empowering stakeholders to bridge the perceived gaps between district
intentions and community perceptions (Kotter, 2012). A particularly striking theme is the
community’s skepticism toward the engagement process, often viewed as superficial or
predetermined. This skepticism undermines trust and questions the legitimacy of the engagement
efforts. Drawing on Kotter’s principles, we suggest pathways to mitigate these concerns,
emphasizing the importance of genuine inclusivity, transparency, and active participation in
rebuilding trust and fostering meaningful community involvement (Kotter, 2012).
These pathways to mitigate concerns and maximize trust must also consider the tensions
that clearly existed throughout the adoption process. The tensions we collectively discovered
contain complex contradictions that can be expected in a major change event of a political
system. In the course of this school board and district leadership’s IES adoption work, the
specific areas of tension that could have been accounted for were in the areas of curriculum,
decision-making, collaboration, communication, and relationships. In each area, the district

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leadership must make decisions that serve the purpose of the adoption process while navigating
contradicting factors. For example, in this case study, the district leadership had to make some
hierarchical decisions to move forward in the adoption of IES, but the community stakeholders
needed an understanding of how their voices would be used in the process as well. A lack of
clarity in this led to distrust and frustration. Clear communication about what involvement in the
adoption process would look like and result in could have smoothed over this tension in
decision-making. Moving into any engagement process, district leaders can prepare for these
tensions and take measures to mitigate potential negative effects. Table 1 lists the tensions and
contradictions to be expected in an adoption process.
From our analysis, we recommend several strategies to refine the policy adoption
process. These include developing truly inclusive engagement strategies that have a tangible
impact on decision-making, enhancing communication to more accurately reflect and include
diverse community perspectives, and addressing concerns related to exclusion and the perception
of engagement as merely performative. These recommendations aim to equip educational leaders
with practical approaches to navigate the complexities of community engagement more
effectively and equitably.
This chapter not only synthesizes our findings but also serves as a blueprint for future
efforts in policy adoption. By bridging theoretical insights with actionable recommendations, it
guides educational leaders toward fostering an educational landscape that is more inclusive,
responsive, and reflective of the community’s diverse needs and aspirations.

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Table 1
Tensions in a Curriculum Adoption Process
Area of tension Contradictions What to avoid
Curriculum
External curriculum: The outward
representation of the curriculum in name
and marketing
Internal curriculum: The actual components
of the curriculum including all learning
targets
A curriculum that is not transparent
to families or community members
has potential for future conflict as
curriculum is implemented.
Decision-making
Hierarchical direction: District leader/school
board top-down decisions both pre- and
post-engagement
Collaborative consensus building:
Engagement process gathering all
community voices and coming to shared
understanding
While there is a need for both types
of decision-making at different
times, a focus on one approach at
the expense of the other can result
in frustration or confusion. The
communication of decisions must
be clear and transparent.
Collaboration
Scripted tokenism: Appeasing oppositional
stakeholder voices to avoid conflict
Authentic engagement: Using stakeholder
contributions in the final decisions of the
district
Appeasing members of the
community with inauthentic
tokenism leads to fractured
relationships and a breakdown of
trust.
Communication
Narrative control: District leaders being the
only voice
Narrative inclusion: Stakeholder input
included in communications
Including stakeholder voices in a
transparent narrative to the
community helps promote trust.
Acknowledging shortcomings: District leader
accountability when things go wrong
Celebrating wins: Promoting positive
outcomes publicly
While it is important to celebrate
short-term wins, it is equally as
important to share the challenges
encountered.
Relationships
Avoiding challenging voices: District leaders
creating obstacles for participation
Promoting stakeholder involvement:
Creating accessible opportunities to
engage
Having all voices present allows for
an authentic process where bridges
can be built and partnerships can
be formed with hard work.
Consultants as proxy to district leadership:
Using outside groups or individuals to
engage in place of district leadership
Community partnering: District leaders being
active participants
Consultants can be helpful
facilitators for conversations, but it
is essential that district leaders are
also at the table building
relationships and engaging in
conversations.

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School Board and Senior District Leaders
When exploring the experiences of only the senior district leaders and the school board, it
would seem that the community engagement process was an incredibly successful endeavor.
Taking a comprehensive view of this study and considering the experiences of the various
stakeholder groups provided insights that offered new findings and recommendations. One area
emerged in the perceptions of the process’s effectiveness. District employees generally viewed
the engagement process as positive and effective, but other community stakeholders, particularly
community organizers and some parents, perceived it as performative and strategically crafted to
be a gatekeeper for true participation from some community members. This points to a gap
between the intentions of the school district and the perceptions of its community members. This
situation can be analyzed through Easton’s political systems framework, where the experiences
and perceptions of educational partners serve as inputs to the educational policy system,
highlighting a disconnection in the feedback loop between policy outputs and community
expectations (Easton, 1979).
A common theme across the stakeholder groups was the concept of tokenism and the
belief that the board had already decided to adopt ethnic studies; many described the engagement
process as a formality rather than a genuine decision-making exercise. Such perceptions raise
concerns about the authenticity and impact of community engagement in policy adoption and
further deepen the existing mistrust the community has with the district. In this context, Kotter’s
(1996) change model could guide the district in creating a sense of urgency around addressing
these concerns, forming a coalition of diverse stakeholders to foster genuine engagement and
transparency in the decision-making process.

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Based on these findings, several recommendations emerged. If community input is the
goal, the district might consider ensuring future processes are inclusively designed and have a
real impact on decision-making. Addressing perceptions of tokenism is crucial in the effort to
develop trust. Improving communication strategies to include diverse parental and community
perspectives is essential for ensuring transparency and responsiveness, especially in light of past
distrust in this area. Applying Kotter’s (2012) steps, such as communicating the change vision
and empowering broad-based action, would help in operationalizing these recommendations.
Finally, addressing concerns around exclusion and the performative nature of the engagement
process, especially raised by community activists and marginalized groups, could increase trust
and buy-in. These insights highlight the complexities of policy adoption in educational settings
and underscore the importance of considering the varied perspectives of all educational partners
involved in transformative processes.
Community Organizers
After a review of all researchers’ findings, it appears that the district stakeholders’
experiences and perceptions of the early adoption process differed largely from those of the
community organizers. The school district senior leadership’s impact in the early adoption work
did not match their intended outcomes through the view of the community organizers. Although
partnership and dialogue were a major goal of district stakeholders, community organizers felt
their participation was not sought out authentically and, in some cases, that the district was
attempting to avoid community members who may have caused them more work or conflict by
bringing up their concerns rather than truly listening.
Educational leaders can learn from this experience by noting several themes that, if
avoided, could create better partnerships with the communities they serve and leverage those

81
connections to achieve more for the students in their schools. One is accountability and
engagement. District officials are in a unique position to help bridge divides within a community
with the common goal of providing safe, inclusive, and rigorous learning experiences for all
students. To do this, there must be a clear understanding of the needs of the community in all of
its factions, which requires difficult conversations of sometimes opposing viewpoints.
Additionally, when a district deeply engages with stakeholders for a common purpose,
confidence and respect are built in the community being served (Brown et al., 2022).
Based on the themes uncovered with community organizers, recommendations for
educational leaders include a need for leader preparation in topics they will be responsible for
implementing in their schools as well as seeking connection with all members of the community
with accessible means of engagement. For example, all materials for community consumption
should have some opportunity for easy translation into multiple languages, and opportunities for
participation should be during times and in places that help promote participation. One way these
district leaders helped engagement was by making meetings accessible through Zoom; however,
accessibility needs to be further considered. Technology can limit participation for those who are
not as comfortable with online tools or who do not have Internet access. Language barriers can
also hinder participation if materials are offered in English only, as was the case in the school
district’s application for the engagement process.
Additionally, educational leaders under the direction of senior leadership must have a
clear understanding of the initiatives and laws governing schools. They should also be able to
speak to the district’s stance and direction. For example, community organizers explained how
site leaders presenting on graduation requirements and course offerings at various parent
meetings did not seem to understand that ethnic studies had become a graduation requirement in

82
the district. This was both concerning and offensive to the groups of parents who had given their
time to participate in the engagement process for the course. Confidence is built on clarity and
competence and is damaged when members of the organization are not knowledgeable.
Finally, district leaders must transparently set their goals prior to working with multiple
voices and groups. Community organizers and some additional members of the engagement
process entered into dialogue with a different idea of what the purpose for the meetings would
be. It was not clear that the course was already set to be adopted and that the meetings would be
about learning about ethnic studies and not focused on building curriculum and hiring essential
personnel for the course and diversity, equity, and inclusion work. Had all members understood
their purpose in participating in this process, some might have elected not to participate and
others might have participated with reservations about the district’s decisions, but all could have
been clearer about the direction of the district and potentially have seen the district as more
transparent and trustworthy.
Consultants
Getting a full scope of each educational partner’s experience with the Southern California
School District’s early implementation of intersectional ethnic studies revealed future
implications for consultants in any change initiative. Both the consultants and the community
organizers shared a concern about the senior district leaders’ avoidance of implementing ethnic
studies in its truest form, specifically with gender studies. Although senior district leaders
communicated a desire to develop ethnic studies, consultants and community organizers
observed the opposite. Senior district leaders did not make an effort to increase their depth of
knowledge around ethnic studies. The senior leadership did not fully participate in the
community engagement process, which caused consultants and community organizers to

83
question their commitment. According to community organizers and consultants, senior district
leaders did not want to give gender studies adequate attention and focus. Therefore, the term
intersectional was added to ethnic studies to avoid creating a specific gender studies component.
“Intersectional” was used to encompass gender studies and lump it in with other ethnic studies
courses rather than providing a standalone gender studies course.
Initiating change that is authentic and beneficial requires active and intentional
participation from all educational partners. If the senior district leaders are unable to fully engage
in the process, decisions such as leaving out a large and essential component of the change
initiative such as gender studies can occur. One should, before accepting a position as a
consultant, engage in some type of onboarding process that lays out a clear agreement between
both parties. A key role of a consultant is to provide a shared understanding of the initiative. If
consultants can be clear from the beginning with senior district leaders that a crucial component
is deepening their education to fully create a partnership with the community, feelings of angst or
discord can be avoided. It would also be helpful for senior district leaders to be clear with their
goals and intentions for the consultants. Active participation from senior district leaders and their
willingness to engage in deep and meaningful learning could have been the catalyst for
implementing a more authentic and inclusive ethnic studies.
Teachers
Based on the findings of the teachers’ perspective on the adoption process for ethnic
studies in the Southern California School District, future implications indicate that teachers need
more opportunities to become engaged in policy decision-making. Specifically in Easton’s
political systems framework, a main component is the feedback loop, where stakeholders feel
that their opinions and ideas are acted upon (Easton, 1979). The teachers’ conceptual idea of

84
being engaged in the process means that they feel empowered by their district to be actively
involved in decision-making and the outcomes. This also means that most of their opinions and
ideas are embedded within the structures of the adoption process. The teachers shared that
listening circles were the most opportune time to feel as though they were a part of the
engagement process in adopting ethnic studies. They indicated that the district sending out
memos and emails with updates was not an effective way to engage their opinion in the process.
Teachers mentioned that although they recognize that reading through communications is a
professional responsibility, doing so only continues to perpetuate the traditional “one-way”
communication between the district and its teachers.
Using Easton’s political systems framework will allow educational leaders to consider
multiple perspectives, especially those of teachers, and how their engagement and work directly
affect students of their communities (Easton, 1979). More importantly, this research revealed the
importance of building a culture of care and trust among the school sites, district office, and the
community. For administrators at the district and site levels, it is essential that they are concise
with communication, build trust, and empower teachers before the implementation of new
policies and curricula. These are critical elements to ensure an adoption process that is conducive
to the needs of the school district and community’s goals.
Overall, the teachers felt that the adoption process was similar to how the district has
historically operated in decision-making. There was not much that was different from the status
quo. It was evident that collaborative inquiry is essential for the school district to engage with all
educational partners in new policy and decision-making, but this was theoretical. This is not
what entirely happened in their perspectives. Educational experiences are meant to be active and
relatable and maintain societal contexts of the community. Having teachers just to “fill a seat” at

85
the table is not collaborative; it is transactional. They felt that unless one was part of the
committee, everyone else received email updates, and this was just a passive way of not
including voices that are vital to the process. Feedback should also be more than acknowledged.
It needs to be integrated, such as through the feedback loop described by Easton (1979). The
process felt reactionary, rather than coherent with a vision aligned with the district/initiative
values. District leaders must truly work on fostering relational trust with the people they entrust
to coordinate and lead the initiative. This means more time making meaningful connections on
campuses if district leaders want to see collective buy-in and change. Essentially, the teachers
said, the district should not invite someone to have a seat at the table if it is not also going to give
them a voice that is heard and valued.
Site Administrators and Junior District Administrators
The findings of this case study as they pertain to site and junior district administrators
demonstrated a collective confidence in the district’s methodology for building consensus around
difficult issues with multiple constituent groups. A comparison of these findings, however, with
the information gleaned from other affected groups—parents, community organizers, and
consultants—underscores the importance of obtaining impressions from all constituencies about
the quality of a consensus-building process. From an outside or public perspective, the consensus
development process undertaken by the district was successful; the intersectional ethnic studies
resolution passed with a unanimous vote by district school board members. From the perspective
of some constituents, however, the consensus generated by the district was not inclusive or
reflective of all affected groups. The findings gleaned in this project from studying other
constituent groups are generally at odds with the findings resulting from a study of site and
junior district administrators; these conflicting conclusions generate fair and urgent questions

86
about the true success of the consensus-building process: Did the process build true consensus or
only the appearance of consensus? Is the consensus-building process still valid if, as described in
this study as well as the study of district leadership and school board members, district leaders
had decided on a course of action before the consensus-building process?
As discussed in Chapter Five, two questionable practices took place during the process of
selecting listening circle attendees. First, those stakeholders who wished to attend listening
circles had to fill out an application and be accepted; second, the district appears to have
selectively chosen applicants who would be in support of ethnic studies. These practices would
act as barriers to known opponents of ethnic studies, ensuring a less conflicted environment for a
listening circle discussion. Although the findings of the study about site and junior district
administrators paint the picture of a successful consensus-building process, the question raised
by these practices deserves further attention: Are such practices ethical, even if they do result in
a greater sense of community consensus?
A study of these questions through the lens of a layered Easton/Kotter conceptual
framework requires us to locate exactly where in the district’s journey through the framework
these questions arise (Easton, 1979; Kotter, 2012). In Chapters Four and Five, the administrators’
impressions of the stresses present in the district just prior to and throughout the
consensus-building process generally correlated with the impressions of other constituent groups.
The formation of a guiding coalition also appears to have occurred generally without
controversy, although the coalition was composed of only district employees. It is in the process
of building a vision in a politically charged school system that questions are raised about the
possible silencing of constituent voices through practices that screened for those voices to
produce an atmosphere more conducive to agreement.

87
Parents
This study on the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California school
district provides significant insights into parental engagement and the dynamics of educational
reform processes. One of the key future implications for parental engagement in change
initiatives is the critical need for transparent communication. The findings underscore the
importance of open and ongoing dialogue with parents and community members to foster trust
and a shared understanding of educational reforms’ objectives and processes. Moreover, the
study revealed the necessity of recognizing parental input as valuable throughout the
decision-making and implementation stages. Ensuring that parental feedback is meaningfully
integrated can enhance the quality and relevance of educational offerings. Additionally, diversity
and inclusivity in engagement strategies emerged as crucial, suggesting that future initiatives
should adopt more inclusive strategies that recognize and accommodate the varied cultural
sensitivities and backgrounds of the school community through tailored engagement strategies.
Recommendations for school districts navigating change processes include developing
and implementing inclusive communication plans that outline engagement with parents and the
community, establishing continuous feedback mechanisms, and fostering collaborative cultures
to build collective capacity. These strategies, aligned with Fullan’s change theory, emphasize the
importance of creating a supportive environment for change grounded in shared values and a
common vision (Fullan, 2007). Furthermore, adopting an adaptive and reflective approach to
change is essential, as is prioritizing equity and inclusion in curriculum development. By
integrating Easton’s political systems framework with Fullan’s principles, this study highlighted
the necessity of an educational system that is responsive and adaptive to community needs and

88
feedback, continually assessing the effectiveness of implemented strategies and adjusting plans
based on feedback and evolving community needs (Easton, 1979; Fullan, 2007).
Summary
Through the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and
community groups resulting in recall efforts, and amid polarized political powers post–George
Floyd and the Trump administration, tensions were extremely high between the district and its
educational partners. Many of the educational partners’ personal ties to the community and
district have a deep-rooted history that gave insight into their behaviors and activities as they
constructed and reconstructed their social reality through educational policy.
These insights from this Southern California school district’s experience with IES
implementation offer actionable recommendations for fostering a supportive environment that
embraces all stakeholders’ contributions in pursuing educational excellence and equity. By
prioritizing transparent communication, inclusive engagement strategies, and a reflective
approach to change, districts can navigate the complexities of educational reforms effectively.

89
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol for Senior District Leaders and Board Members
Research Question(s)
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and senior
district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
Schools as a Political System, Outputs and Policy, Creating Urgency, Building a Powerful
Coalition, Creating a Vision for Change, and Communicating the Vision
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me today. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take
about an hour. Does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study and answer any questions
you might have about participating in this interview.
Your contribution is critical to this research about the policy adoption of intersectional
ethnic studies. You were chosen because you were a sitting board member during the process of
engagement with the community amid rapid political polarization. The aim of our conversation
today is to get your perspective as you describe the experiences that led to the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies in your district last year. I’m interested in how you interpreted the
events of the community engagement process and the factors that played a role in your decision

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to support the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of AB 101 mandate to implement by
2029–2030.
You have a copy of the Study Information Sheet and Signed Consent Form, but, as a
reminder, the notes and recordings from our conversation will remain confidential and your
identity will be protected. The data for this study will be compiled into a report, and while I do
plan on using some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed
to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify
any of the data I gather.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password-protected
computer, and all data will be destroyed after 3 years. I’d like to record our conversation so I can
be sure to capture all of your thoughts accurately. So, if you don’t mind, I’d like to record. If at
any time during the interview you would like to stop, all you have to do is say the word, and I’ll
stop the recording. The recording is solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and
will not be shared with anyone outside the research team.
May I have your permission to record our conversation?
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started?
Questions
I’d like to start with the point in time when you were first introduced to AB 101, the CA
state bill mandating that all high school students take one ethnic studies course as a graduation
requirement by the school year 2029–2030.
1. What was your initial impression of the AB 101 ethnic studies mandate?
a. Tell me what you recall about your position on ethnic studies at that time.
b. What were some of the feelings that stand out in your memory from that time?

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We’ve been talking about your personal experiences and beliefs prior to the demand for
adopting ethnic studies. I now want to turn your attention to the process of community
engagement.
2. Can you describe the political atmosphere preceding the decision to employ the
community engagement process?
a. Tell me about how the post-George Floyd racial awakening influenced the
environment at that time, if at all.
b. Tell me about how the Black Lives Matter movement influenced the
environment at that time, if at all.
c. Tell me about how the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the environment at that
time, if at all.
3. Can you reconstruct the events that precipitated the community engagement process?
a. How was the consultant group selected?
b. What role did the community activist group play?
4. How did the board/district define community engagement?
5. What strategies were used to engage the community in the process?
a. Which stakeholders were the board/district hoping to involve in the community
engagement process? (various stakeholders, including students, parents,
educators, community leaders, and advocacy groups)
6. What did you hope to accomplish with the meetings?
You’ve recalled many of the events and key moments that occurred prior to the meetings,
but I’m curious about the emotions at play during the community engagement process.
7. How would you describe the response from stakeholders to these activities?

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8. In what ways did the community engagement activities achieve your desired
outcomes?
9. Were there any unexpected outcomes or reactions? If so, please describe.
a. Can you give examples of things that went well?
b. Tell me about some of the things that didn’t go well.
10. Some people might say that ethnic studies imposes a narrow political ideology and
polarizes students by viewing history through a racial lens. What are your thoughts on
this perspective?
Building on our previous discussion, I’d like to explore the role the community
engagement process played in shaping the board’s decision making regarding policy adoption,
and how this process may have influenced the policy outcomes.
11. How, if at all, did the engagement process influence your decision to approve the
adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
12. Looking back, what would you say were the key takeaways or lessons learned from
the community engagement process in relation to the adoption of intersectional ethnic
studies?
Closing
I’d like to finish by asking some background questions about you.
13. Can you tell me about your background outside of the board?
a. How did you become involved in the board of education?
b. How long have you served on the board?
This covers the things I wanted to ask. Is there anything else you’d like to add about the
process of intersectional ethnic studies adoption that I might not have covered?

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Thank you again for the time you offered today. I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share your experiences serving on the board during the process of adopting ethnic
studies in your district. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find
myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you, and, if so, is email okay?
Again, thank you for participating in my study.

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Community Organizers and Religious Group Members
Introduction
My name is Michelle England, and I am a researcher at the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education. I am conducting a case study on the adoption of ethnic
studies in your school district to examine the process implemented for decision making. It is
important for education leaders to study the successful adoption of curriculum change, as all
California districts will be going through similar processes and findings can be used to better
implement other significant curricular and instructional changes.
During this interview, I hope to learn more about your experiences as a group member
outside of the school district. I am particularly interested in learning about your involvement in
the engagement process as well as your motivated interest in participation in the process.
The information that you provide will hopefully serve to support the work many
California school districts will do in the adoption of ethnic studies.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. I will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to tape-record this interview in order to capture
information that I may have missed. Would this be okay with you?
The research questions for this study include the following:
1. What was the motivation of community organizers and religious organizations
outside of the school district in participating in the school district’s dialogue regarding
the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum?
2. What were the community organizers’ and religious group members’ goals and
concerns about the district’s adoption of intersectional ethnic studies during the
engagement process?

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3. How, if at all, did the engagement process about intersectional ethnic studies by a
school district affect community organizers’ and religious group members’
confidence in district decision-making?
The interview should take approximately 45 minutes.
Thank you for your time.
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
1. First, in what way(s) are you connected to Urban School district?
2. In what way(s), if any, are you involved in the broader community?
Main Interview Questions
Now, I’d like to ask you some questions about ethnic studies and the district’s adoption
process.
1. What, if any, is your understanding regarding Assembly Bill 101 regarding ethnic
studies?
2. What information had you heard, prior to your adoption of the course, about ethnic
studies?
3. What, if any, involvement did you have with the school district prior to discussions
surrounding ethnic studies adoption?
4. If you have been involved in the past, what has your experience been like interacting
with district officials?
5. What were your reasons for becoming involved in the conversation surrounding
ethnic studies adoption?

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6. What opinions or feelings did you have about Ethnic Studies prior to your
interactions with the school district?
a. What do you attribute your opinions/ feelings to?
b. Did those opinions or feelings change after you became involved in the
adoption process of this new course?
i. If they changed, what do you attribute this change to?
7. How involved did you feel in the ultimate adoption of ethnic studies and
intersectional ethnic studies?
a. What do you attribute these feelings to/why do you feel this way?
8. How valued do you feel your voice was through surveys administered by the district?
9. How valued do you feel your voice was through listening circles administered by the
district?
10. How satisfied are you with the adoption of ethnic studies following the engagement
process? How satisfied are you with the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
a. What do you attribute this level of satisfaction to?
Demographic Questions
How would you classify your political affiliation?
a. How active do you consider yourself in local politics?
b. How active do you consider yourself in national politics?
Closing Question
What other insight would you like to share about your experiences working with the
adoption group?

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Closing Comments
Thank you so much for sharing your time and experiences with me today. If you are
interested in receiving a copy of the final study, I’d be happy to provide that for you!

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Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Consultants
Research Questions
1. How do consultants in a Southern California school district describe their
participation and role in the steps leading up to the implementation of intersectional
ethnic studies?
2. What challenges did the consultants encounter in the steps leading up to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
3. What impact do the consultants think their work had on the process toward
implementing intersectional ethnic studies?
Concepts From Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
Easton’s Political Systems Framework
● stresses (historical struggles, national events, literacies of power)
● inputs (culturally relevant pedagogy, state mandate, community demands)
● school systems as political systems (change process, listening sessions, surveys)
● outputs (adoption of resolution)
John Kotter’s Eight Steps to Leading Change
Introduction
I want to thank you again for participating in my study. I know you are busy and
appreciate your time. This interview should take about an hour. Does that still work? Here is a
copy of the Study Information Sheet. I am currently a student at USC and conducting a study on
Southern California Unified School District’s decision to implement intersectional ethnic studies
prior to the 2029–2030 school year deadline. I am particularly interested in the consultant’s role

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in this whole process. There are a few of us who will be interviewing various stakeholders, but I
will be the only one interviewing consultants.
The questions I ask you are not evaluative. My goal is to understand your role and your
perspective of the whole process. This interview is confidential. I will not be attributing any
responses to you and will protect your confidentiality by creating a pseudonym for you and the
district. The data will be compiled into a report, and I will do my best to de-identify any of the
data I gather. I will be happy to send you a copy of my final paper if you are interested. Lastly, I
will be recording this session so I can accurately capture what you share. The recording is only
for me and will not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. Do I have your
permission to record our conversation? Thank you!
Questions With Transitions
Consultant Work
I’d like to start out by getting to know you and your role as a consultant.
1. How did you become engaged as a consultant in Southern California Unified?
2. What experiences do you have that led to your role as a consultant?
3. What was your understanding of your role when you were approached for this
position?
4. Where did you get that understanding from?
5. What activities were conducted by the consultants?
6. What was your participation in the activities?
Stakeholder Groups
Now, I would like to discuss the various stakeholders.

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7. What stakeholders were involved in the engagement process prior to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
8. What was your role in working with each stakeholder?
9. What stresses or demands did the consultants face about the implementation of
intersectional ethnic studies?
10. Were there any particular stakeholder groups that were supportive in your role or
process?
Early Implementation
I’d like to discuss the decision to implement early.
11. What factors do you believe ultimately influenced the decision for early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
12. Were consultants involved in any of these factors?
13. Were there any unexpected barriers?
Closing Questions
As we near the end of our conversation, I have a few questions:
14. Looking back, do you wish there was a different outcome for any part of the process?
15. How do you see this whole process as a piece of your overall personal/professional
goals?
Closing
Thank you so much for your thoughts and willingness to share! I really appreciate your time.
Everything that you have shared is helpful for my study. If I have any follow-up questions, may I
contact you? If so, is email okay? Thank you again for participating in my study.

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Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Teachers
Research Questions
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
● Easton’s political systems framework
o stresses
o inputs and demands
o school systems as political systems
o outputs and policies
Introduction
I want to thank you again for taking the time to interview with me today. I know your
time is valuable, and so is your input on the topic of adopting ethnic studies in a Southern
California urban school district.
You were chosen to participate because of your role as a secondary teacher. As you may
be aware, the California Department of Education mandated that all school districts adopt ethnic
studies courses as part of a student’s high school graduation requirement by the year of 2029.
The adoption of ethnic studies has become a highly charged, political conversation in many
districts across California. Today, I am interested in understanding your perspective in the

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process at your school site. Part of this study’s research will also include interviewing and
surveying other stakeholders as well to ensure that we are capturing a diverse set of perspectives.
I plan to take some notes during our conversation so I can refer back to them if needed at
some point in our interview. I was also hoping to record this interview so I can accurately capture
your responses within the interview. Only I would have access to the recording, as it is for my
own reference in understanding your perspective in this process. Is that okay with you?
Okay, let’s get started.
Questions (With Transitions)
1. Can you tell me about your professional experience? (CF: school systems as political
systems; Patton: background)
a. Can you describe why you were interested in teaching?
2. For demographic purposes, what is/are your ethnicity background(s)?
3. What, if any, activities are you involved in your school district outside the classroom?
(CF: school systems as political systems; Patton: background)
a. If you had more time, what activities might you be interested in doing within the
school?
4. How do you think your school’s philosophy on ethnic studies aligns with the goals of
teaching students about culturally relevant instruction? (CF: inputs,
demands/supports; Patton: opinion and value)
a. How much do you agree or disagree with this philosophy, and why?
5. Describe your experience with the district’s community engagement process prior to
the adoption of ethnic studies. (CF: school systems as political systems; Patton:
knowledge)

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a. Were you a part of the implementation process, and can you describe that
experience?
b. If none, would you be interested in being a part of the process?
6. In general, how do you feel about how the district places emphasis on getting teacher
voice for district-implemented policies? (CF: stresses; Patton: feeling)
a. What do you think the district can do to elicit more teacher voice in decision
making?
7. How do you feel that the district places emphasis on getting teacher voice in the
adoption phase of ethnic studies? (CF: stresses; Strauss et al.: interpretative)
8. Can you provide specific examples of why you feel that way? (CF: stresses; Patton:
opinion and value)
9. What was your reaction to the district’s intersectional ethnic studies adoption
decision? (CF: outputs and policy; Patton: feeling)
10. How prepared do you feel for the implementation of ethnic studies in your
classroom? (CF: outputs and policy; Strauss et al.: hypothetical)
a. What do you need to feel prepared for implementation? (Strauss et al.: ideal
position)
Closing
Well, thank you so much for meeting with me and agreeing to share your perspective
with me today. It has been a pleasure speaking with you. Thank you, again and have a great rest
of your day!

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Appendix E: Interview Protocol for District and Site Administrators
● Research Question 1 (RQ 1): From an administrator’s perspective, what led the
district to implement the community engagement process that led to the adoption of a
K–12 intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
● Research Question 2 (RQ 2): How were site and district administrators involved in
the community engagement process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional
ethnic studies resolution?
● Research Question 3 (RQ 3): What are administrators’ perceptions of the consensus
building process that led to the adoption of an intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
Setting the Stage Questions
I’d like to start by hearing about your own background in education.
1. How long have you worked in education?
2. What brought you to this district?
3. What is your current position?
4. What are your responsibilities in this position?

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Table E1
District and Site Administrators Interview Question Map
RQ 1 RQ 2 RQ 3 Heart of the interview questions
X
5. The 2021–2022 school year took place during a tumultuous
political period. Can you describe the political climate on
campus during that school year? (Wait to see if interviewees
mention George Floyd, racial uprisings, BLM) If not, ask:
X
6. How would you describe the student response to the killing
of George Floyd and the Black Lives Matter movement?
X
7. How would you describe the staff response to the killing of
George Floyd and the Black Lives Matter movement?
X X
8. What would you say are the intended student outcomes the
district was looking for in its adoption of a K–12
intersectional ethnic studies curriculum?
X
9. Please share any ways that the district previewed the
process of consensus building around IES adoption with site
administrators.
X X X
10. Was this engagement process consistent with previous
engagement processes conducted by the district?
X
11. Did anything surprise you during the IES consensus
building process?
X
11. How would you have designed the frontloading process
for site administrators if you were in charge? Why?
X X
12. Please describe the demographics of the population your
district serves.
X X 13. What influenced the district’s decision to adopt IES?
X X
14. Tell me about the communications you had with students
about the consensus building process.
X X
15. Tell me about the communications you had with parents
about the consensus building process.
X X
16. Tell me about the communications you had with
community members about the consensus building process.

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Closing Questions
17. Is there anything I did not ask you that you’d like to share?
18. Thank you for sharing your experience with me today. I want to reassure you that the
information you provided will remain confidential. If additional questions arise, I
would like to contact you again. Would that be okay with you?

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Appendix F: Interview Protocol for Parents
Research Questions
● What do the parents who participated in the ethnic studies adoption process think
about the final adoption of the resolution, which puts into place the IES program?
(CF: outputs and policies)
● How do the parents who participated in the ethnic studies adoption process engage
with the school district to adopt the ethnic studies program? (CF: school systems as
political systems)
● In what ways, if at all, did parent engagement influence the district decision to adopt
the program? (CF: outputs and policies)
● How do the parents who participated in the ethnic studies adoption process in one
school district describe the community engagement process for the adoption of an
ethnic studies program? (CF: inputs: demands/supports)
The main concept from the conceptual framework addressed in this interview is Easton’s
political systems framework, which is used to analyze the adoption of the ethnic studies
curriculum in one school district. The framework is used to examine the adoption process
through the lens of parental engagement and community voice.
Other concepts from the conceptual framework that are relevant to this interview include
the role of parents and community in the decision-making process, the impact of external factors
such as national events on the adoption process, and the importance of meeting community
demands and fulfilling state mandates. Additionally, the concept of inputs, such as demands and
supports, is also addressed in the interview, as it is used to determine how the community
perceived the state mandate and whether or not community demands were met during the

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adoption process. Finally, the concept of the adopted resolution is also relevant, as it is used to
determine whether parents saw the impact of their involvement in the adoption process.
Introduction
Hello, and welcome to my study! Thank you for taking the time to participate.
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet, and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC, and the purpose of this study is to better
understand the role parents played in the adoption process of the Ethnic Studies Resolution in
your district. You have been selected to participate because you have a student who currently
attends one of the comprehensive high schools in your district.
During the study, I will be collecting data through data collection methods, such as
surveys and interviews. We may also be recording the sessions for the purpose of transcribing
and analyzing the data. Rest assured that any identifying information will be kept confidential
and only the research team will have access to the recordings.
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary, and you are free to withdraw at
any time without any negative consequences. We have provided you with a Study Information
Sheet and Signed Consent Form prior to this session, but if you have any questions or concerns,
please do not hesitate to ask.
Do you have any questions before we get started? I will be recording our interview
through the record option on Zoom. This will enable me to transcribe the information you share
with me today. The recording is only for the purpose of transcribing your perspective and
experience. I will not share this information with anyone outside of the research team. May I
have your permission to record?

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Setting the Stage (Background/Demographic)
Thank you again for your participation and for helping us with our research. I would like
to start with some background questions about you.
1. First, tell me about your background in education. (background/demographic)
a. What were your experiences as a K12 student?
b. Was it in California?
c. Can you describe the demographic of your high school experience?
d. Is there anything about your school experience you could change?
(hypothetical)
Heart of the Interview (CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)
I would like to start by asking you some questions about how you were introduced to the
new state graduation requirement and what your initial thoughts on it were.
1. How were you first introduced to intersectional ethnic studies and what did it mean to
you? (background/experience)(CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)
a. When were first introduced to this proposed adoption through your district?
b. What was your initial vote on the proposed adoption?
c. Can you share your thoughts on why intersectional ethnic studies is important for
your child’s school district? (opinion/values)
Now I would like to ask you some questions about your level of involvement and
engagement in the adoption process.
2. The district provided listening sessions, townhalls, etc. In what ways were you
engaged?
3. How did you feel the district received your input?

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4. Did the district engagement process change or influence your perspective on ethnic
studies?
5. How do you stay informed about any changes or updates to their school curriculum in
your child’s district? (CF: Outputs and policies)
6. How would you rate the district’s ability to engage parents through communication in
the ethnic studies adoption process in comparison to past efforts?
7. What suggestions do you have for improving the parent engagement process at your
child’s district in the future? (opinion, experience) (CF: Outputs and policies)
Closing Question
Is there any additional perspective or information related to the adoption of intersectional
ethnic studies in your child’s school district that you would like to share, which may not have
been addressed during our conversation?
Closing Comments
I am grateful for the valuable insights you have shared with me today! Your willingness
to spare your time and thoughts is highly appreciated, and I find everything you shared to be
incredibly useful for my research. In case I have any further questions, would it be possible for
me to reach out to you via email? Thank you once again for your participation in my study.

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Appendix G: Screening Protocol for Teachers
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.
The purpose of the study is to examine a Southern California school district’s adoption of
ethnic studies and its teachers’ perception of their engagement within the adoption of ethnic
studies. For the study, the concept of engagement is defined by teacher involvement in culturally
responsive curriculum development and their own identification of social and educational
inequities.
You have been selected to participate because you are a secondary teacher in a
comprehensive middle or high school in the [Southern California] School District. As an
employee of the district, you are invited to participate and share your experiences to help inform
this study. This survey will take approximately 12 minutes to complete and all responses are
confidential.
Background Information
1. Indicate your current role:
a. Teacher
b. Teacher on Special Assignment
c. Administrator
d. Other:___________________
2. How many years of classroom teaching experience do you have?
a. 0–5 years
b. 6–15 years
c. 16+ years

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Adoption Process
3. Did you participate in your district’s ethnic studies early adoption phase?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not Applicable
4. If yes, in what way did you participate? (Check all that apply)
a. Attended a focus group
b. Attended listening session
c. Attended town hall meeting(s)
d. Was part of a development committee
e. Sent written feedback
f. Other:_____________
5. Also, if yes, would you be willing to participate in a 30-minute interview?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not sure
6. How familiar are you with the state’s ethnic studies framework?
a. Very familiar
b. Somewhat familiar
c. Not very familiar
d. Not at all familiar
e. Not applicable
7. Did the school district provide you with a copy of the state ethnic studies framework?

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a. Yes
b. No
c. Not sure
8. By what method(s) did the school district provide you a copy of the state ethnic studies
framework? (Check all that apply)
a. Email
b. Memorandum
c. U.S. Mail
d. Website
e. Other:___________________
Teacher Preparation
9. How familiar are you with how the school district plans to implement ethnic studies?
a. Very familiar
b. Somewhat familiar
c. Not very familiar
d. Not at all familiar
e. Not applicable
10. Your instruction includes elements of the state Ethnic Studies framework:
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not Sure
11. What additional support, if any, do you need from your site leader and/district leadership
to effectively implement Ethnic Studies instructional practices?

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a. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

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Appendix H: Screening Protocol for Parents
Research Question(s)
● What do the parents that participated in the ethnic studies adoption process think about
the final adoption of the resolution, which puts into place the IES program? (CF: Outputs
and policies)
● How do the parents that participated in the ethnic studies adoption process engage with
the school district to adopt the ethnic studies program? (CF:School systems as political
systems)
● In what ways if at all did parent engagement influence the district decision to adopt the
program? (CF: Outputs and policies)
● How do the parents that participated in the ethnic studies adoption process in one school
district describe the community engagement process for the adoption of an ethnic studies
program? (CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Survey
While Easton’s political systems framework does not explicitly address parent
engagement, it can be argued that parent engagement plays a role in several components of the
framework.
Firstly, parent engagement can be seen as a form of input into the political system.
Parents, as members of society, can communicate their demands, needs, and expectations to the
political system through various channels, such as parent-teacher associations, community
groups, and political parties.
Secondly, the outputs of the political system, such as education policies and programs,
can directly impact parents and their children. Parent engagement can play a role in evaluating

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these outputs and providing feedback to the political system, which can lead to changes in the
input and the political system itself.
Thirdly, parent engagement can also be seen as a form of feedback in the political system.
Parents can evaluate the outputs of the political system, such as the quality of education and the
effectiveness of education policies, and provide feedback through various channels, such as
surveys, meetings with policymakers, and social media.
Overall, while parent engagement may not be explicitly mentioned in Easton’s political
systems framework, it can be seen as an important aspect of the interaction between the political
system and society. Effective parent engagement can help ensure that the political system is
responsive to the needs of parents and their children and can lead to more effective and equitable
education policies and programs (Easton, 1979).
Target Population
● Parents of students in one particular Southern California School District during the 21–22
academic school year
Introduction
Dear Participant:
We invite you to take part in a research survey aimed at better understanding the
experience and perceptions of parents in the adoption process of ethnic studies in one southern
California school district. The purpose of this study is to gain insights into how the change
process began and how parents were involved in the adoption of ethnic studies.
Your participation in this survey is crucial to help us gather data on how the involvement
of parents impacted the final resolution of the adoption process. By answering the survey

128
questions, you will help us understand how community engagement and empowerment were
achieved during the adoption process.
The survey will be administered online and will take approximately 10–15 minutes to
complete. Your responses will remain confidential and will be used solely for research purposes.
Participation in this survey is voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time without penalty.
Survey Items
Table H1
Survey Items and CF Alignment
Demographic
1. What is your gender?
a. Male
b. Female
c. Prefer not to say
2. What is your ethnicity?
a. White
b. African American or
Black
c. Hispanic or Latino
d. Asian or Pacific Islander
e. Native American or
Alaska Native
f. Mixed ethnicity
g. Other (please specify)
_______
3. Did you have children in X
Southern California School District the
academic school year 2021-2022?
a. Yes
b. No

129
Close-Ended
1. On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being
poor and 10 being excellent, how would
you rate the district’s ability to engage
parents through communication in the
ethnic studies adoption process in
comparison to past efforts?
2. How strongly do you agree or
disagree with the following statement:
“The ethnic studies adoption process was
transparent and inclusive.”
3. On a scale of 1 to 5, how
well-informed do you feel about the
implementation of the IES program?
4. How satisfied are you with the
final adoption of the resolution that puts
the IES program into place?
5. On a scale of 1 to 10, how well do
you think the IES program will address
issues of inequality and injustice in
education?
6. To what extent do you believe that
the IES program will help promote
diversity and inclusion in schools?
7. How likely are you to recommend
the IES program to other parents?
1 (not at all) / 2 / 3 / 4 /
5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10 (very
well)
Strongly agree /
Somewhat agree /
Neither agree nor
disagree / Somewhat
disagree / Strongly
disagree
1 (not at all) / 2 / 3 / 4 /
5 (very well)
Very satisfied /
Somewhat satisfied /
Neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied / Somewhat
dissatisfied / Very
dissatisfied
1 (not at all) / 2 / 3 / 4 /
5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10 (very
well)
Not at all / Slightly /
Somewhat / Moderately
/ Very much
Extremely likely /
Somewhat likely /
Neither likely nor
unlikely / Somewhat
(CF:
Inputs:
Demands/
Supports)
(CF:
Inputs:
Demands/
Supports)
(CF:
Outputs
and
policies)
(CF:
School
systems
as
political
systems)
(CF:
Outputs
and
policies)
(CF:
School
systems

130
8. How important do you think it is
for parents to be involved in the ongoing
development and implementation of the
IES program?
unlikely / Extremely
unlikely
Not at all important /
Slightly important /
Somewhat important /
Moderately important /
Very important
as
political
systems)
(CF:
Outputs
and
policies)
(CF:
School
systems
as
political
systems)
Open-Ended
1. Can you share your thoughts on
why intersectional ethnic studies is
important for your child’s school district?
Open-ended (CF:
School
systems
as
political
systems)

131
Closing
I would like to take a moment to express my sincere gratitude for your participation in
this research survey. Your contribution is invaluable in helping us gain a better understanding of
the adoption process of ethnic studies in one southern California school district and how
community engagement and empowerment were achieved. Your thoughtful and honest responses
will provide valuable insights into this important topic, and we greatly appreciate the time and
effort you have put into completing this survey.
Once again, thank you for your participation and for sharing your valuable perspectives
with us. Your input is essential in helping us make a positive impact on education and
community empowerment.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Huynh, Ha (Jennifer) (author)

Core Title Navigating political polarization: a group case study of community engagement in the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California K-12 school district

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 05/01/2024

Defense Date 03/29/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag community engagement in education,Easton’s political systems framework,educational policy adoption,intersectional ethnic studies,Kotter’s change model,OAI-PMH Harvest,political polarization in education

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Franklin, Gregory (committee chair), Gothold, Paul (committee member), Kishimoto, Christina (committee member)

Creator Email hahuynh@usc.edu,jenniferhahuynh@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113912162

Unique identifier UC113912162

Identifier etd-HuynhHaJen-12881.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-HuynhHaJen-12881

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Huynh, Ha (Jennifer)

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240503-usctheses-batch-1147 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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