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Addressing degree completion among Latinx working adults

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Addressing degree completion among Latinx working adults

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Content Addressing Degree Completion Among Latinx Working Adults
by
Gregory Thomas Vigil
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Gregory Thomas Vigil 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Gregory Vigil certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Briana Hinga
Alison Muraszewski
Maria Ott, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
Latinx working adults without bachelor’s degrees face significant barriers to economic stability
and upward mobility, thereby reducing generational wealth. There are significant benefits of
degree completion to individuals, such as increased earnings and employment, and benefits to
society through greater economic contribution, increased volunteerism, and lower dependence on
public assistance. The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences and outcomes of
Latinx working adults with some college but no degree who then enrolled and graduated from an
online bachelor’s degree completion program. The qualitative study focused on the social
cognitive factors, sources of Latinx cultural wealth, and attitudes toward online education among
successful graduates of online degree completion programs. Participants were Latinx working
adults who started an online degree completion program while working. The findings show that a
combination of social cognitive elements, sources of cultural wealth, and programs designed for
working adults propelled the study’s participants toward degree completion. The theory of
change to frame the recommendations was that higher education institutions can influence Latinx
adult re-enrollment and completion by offering online degree completion programs designed
with the Latinx working adult in mind. Recommendations for higher education institutions
included utilizing cultural wealth, social cognitive factors, and design thinking in developing
online degree completion programs to materialize innovative institutional support with the
Latinx working adult in mind. The study also contemplated areas of exploration for future
research, including further segmentation by institutional characteristics, focused research on
immigrants, and comparisons to those who did not complete a degree.
Keywords: Latinx, working adults, online, higher education, degree completion, social
cognitive theory, community cultural wealth

v
Dedication
To my family. This dissertation is dedicated to each and every one of you, whose collective
support and encouragement have made this journey possible. Thank you from the depths of my
heart.

vi
Acknowledgments
I could not have completed this dissertation without the guidance and support of my
dissertation chair, Dr. Maria Ott. Your patience with me as I contemplated multiple different
versions of a dissertation design, coupled with your invaluable feedback, has been the
cornerstone of my doctoral journey. You provided the navigational capital needed to lead me
through the doctoral process. I am grateful for the opportunity to have learned from your
expertise and leadership.
I extend my sincere appreciation to my dedicated dissertation committee members, Dr.
Alison Muraszewski and Dr. Briana Hinga. Your willingness to provide constructive feedback
and insightful suggestions has significantly improved the quality of my work.
I am indebted to the esteemed faculty members at the University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education, including Dr. Robert Filback, Dr. Jennifer Phillips, Dr. Marc
Pritchard, Dr. Courtney Malloy, Dr. Adrian Donato, Dr. Katherine Bihr, Dr. Katya Moore, Dr.
Douglas Lynch, Dr. Ayesha Madni, and Dr. Corinne Hyde, whose knowledge and guidance have
been essential throughout this journey.
I extend my deepest gratitude to those who have provided the indispensable social and
familial capital that fueled my inspiration and perseverance. To Dr. Karen Baldeschwieler: your
enduring support and mentorship have been a guiding light for over two decades. To Dr.
Anthony Bailey: your support and flexibility helped provide the space I needed to succeed. I am
also immensely grateful to my nonkin family, including Antonio Almazzo, Alon Burgin, Marcus
Fairly, Richard McLean, Russell Miller, Joseph Molina, Ken Seeraty, and their families, for their
friendship throughout this journey.

vii
To my lovely wife, Julie: your unwavering support and willingness to serve as my
sounding board have been my rock throughout this process. I am eternally grateful for your love
and encouragement. I could not have accomplished this without you by my side. I love you. To
my daughters, Avery and Reyna: your patience and understanding during the countless evenings
and weekends sacrificed for this endeavor mean more to me than words can express. You both
make me endlessly proud. To my dad, Dr. Raymond Vigil: your encouragement and insightful
discussions propelled me forward. To my loving mother, Sharon Nieb: your encouragement and
support have been my constant motivation. To my stepparents, in-laws, and siblings, Leon,
Cathy, Don, Nina, Jake, Lori, Emily, and Bryan: your love and support have been the bedrock of
my success. I am immensely proud to call you my family.
Lastly, I pay tribute to my grandparents and stepbrother Russ, who are no longer with us.
Though you may be physically absent, your presence and influence will forever be in my heart.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... xii
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study...........................................................................................1
Context and Background of the Problem ............................................................................2
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ....................................................................3
Importance of the Study ......................................................................................................4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .....................................................4
Definition of Terms.............................................................................................................6
Organization of the Study....................................................................................................8
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature...........................................................................................9
Background Information on Online Higher Education .......................................................9
Working Adult Barriers to Degree Completion ................................................................14
Background Information on Latinx Students in Higher Education...................................18
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................21
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................29
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................30
Research Questions............................................................................................................30
Overview of Design...........................................................................................................30

ix
Research Setting ................................................................................................................31
The Researcher ..................................................................................................................34
Data Sources......................................................................................................................35
Participants ........................................................................................................................35
Instrumentation..................................................................................................................36
Data Collection Procedures...............................................................................................37
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................39
Validity and Reliability .....................................................................................................39
Ethics.................................................................................................................................40
Chapter Four: Findings..................................................................................................................41
Participants ........................................................................................................................42
Findings Research Question One: Social Cognitive Factors.............................................44
Discussion Research Question One...................................................................................49
Findings Research Question Two: Sources of Latinx Cultural Wealth.............................56
Discussion Research Question Two ..................................................................................58
Findings Research Question Three: Attitudes Towards Online Education.......................60
Discussion Research Question Three ................................................................................67
Summary............................................................................................................................69
Chapter Five: Recommendations...................................................................................................71
Economic Theory ..............................................................................................................71
Theory of Change ..............................................................................................................74
Limitations and Delimitations...........................................................................................78
Recommendations for Future Research.............................................................................79

x
Connection to the USC Rossier Mission ...........................................................................80
Conclusion.........................................................................................................................80
References .....................................................................................................................................82
Appendix A: Qualification Survey Questions.............................................................................101
Appendix B: Interview Protocol..................................................................................................103

xi
List of Tables
Table 1: Listing of Identified Online Bachelor’s Degree Completion Programs 33
Table 2: Interview Participants 43
Table 3: Sample of Self-Regulatory Direct Quotations 46
Table 4: Personal and Cognitive Factors (Excluding Perceived Self-Efficacy) 50
Table 5: Perceived Self-Efficacy Factors by Source of Efficacy Information and
Psychological Processes
52
Table 6: Behavioral Factors Relating to Degree Completion 55
Table 7: Latinx Cultural Wealth Model Factors 59
Table 8: Sample of Social Connections with Faculty and Advisors Direct
Quotations
62
Table 9: Sample of Social Connections Improvement Opportunities Direct
Quotations
63
Table 10: Sample of Participant Recommendation Direct Quotations 66
Table 11: Higher Education Environment Factors 68

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 28

xiii
List of Abbreviations
ACS American Community Survey
BLS U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
CLEP College Level Examination Program
COVID-19 Coronavirus Disease 2019
CPI Consumer Price Index
CPS Current Population Survey
DEDP Distance Education Demonstration Program
EAB Educational Advisory Board
HEA Higher Education Act
HSI Hispanic-Serving Institution
IRS Internal Revenue Service
MOOC Massive Open Online Courses
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
PLA Prior Learning Assessment
SIPP Survey of Income and Program Participation
SNAP Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Latinx working adults without bachelor’s degrees face significant barriers to upward
mobility and economic stability. The number of adults with some college but without a
bachelor’s degree is substantial and growing. As of July 2020, 39 million adults have had some
college experience but have stopped pursuing a credential (Causey et al., 2022), and over 23
million adults over the age of 25 in the United States have an associate degree as their highest
level of education completed (U.S. Census Bureau, 2022). Latinx working adults comprise a
disproportionate number of adults with some college but no degree. Compared to the overall
average of 38%, only 21% of Latinx adults over 25 possess a bachelor’s degree (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2022). In the United States, the Latinx population is becoming increasingly important to
the overall economy. The Latinx population comprised more than half of the United States
population growth from 2010 to 2021 (Krogstad et al., 2023). Additionally, 78% of net new
workers between 2020 and 2030 are projected to be Latinx workers (Dubina, 2021).
Many Latinx students achieve test scores that qualify them for admission to selective
colleges and universities. Still, only 21% of Latinx graduates with test scores in the top half of
the nation’s high school students ever attend a selective college or university (Carnevale &
Fasules, 2017). Among the traditional college-age population, the Latinx population is overenrolled in open-access colleges such as community colleges and under-enrolled in selective
colleges as compared to the overall college-age population (Carnevale & Fasules, 2017). While
community colleges offer pathways toward bachelor’s degrees, few minority students who enter
community colleges obtain a bachelor’s degree. Although 80% of first-year students who enter
community college say they intend to get a bachelor’s degree eventually, only an estimated 7%
of minority students obtain a bachelor’s degree within 10 years (Engle & Lynch, 2009). As a

2
result, many higher education institutions are missing an opportunity to offer online bachelor’s
degrees designed to provide access and opportunity to Latinx adult learners who graduated from
a community college with an associate degree. By not providing this form of online
undergraduate programming, capable, diverse students lack the access and opportunity to benefit
from completing a degree, ultimately lowering their potential social mobility and positive
economic impact on society (Torche, 2011).
Context and Background of the Problem
Carnevale et al. (2021) have shown the importance of obtaining a degree. Workers who
get more education earn more and benefit from increased economic stability throughout their
careers. On average, bachelor’s degree holders can expect to earn 40% more than associate’s
degree holders over a lifetime and 75% more than those with only a high school diploma
(Carnevale et al., 2021). In addition, during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
pandemic, workers with more education were more likely to keep their jobs and work remotely
than workers with less education (Carnevale & Fasules, 2020).
Despite the benefits of obtaining a bachelor’s degree, Latinx working adults face many
barriers to furthering their education. The distance to travel is a significant factor in the decision
to attend a college or university, particularly for students who are older, work full-time, or have
childcare duties (Myers, 2018). Roessger et al. (2023) describe how online courses and degrees
can reduce proximity barriers for adult degree completers at universities, and they also offer a
brief history of online education. Historically, online education grew quickly in the United States
between 1999 and 2010, followed by moderate but consistent growth leading up to the COVID19 pandemic (Roessger et al., 2023). Between 2003 and 2018, the percentage of total
undergraduate students exclusively taking distance education courses grew from 5% to 14%

3
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2018, 2019). As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic,
the number of undergraduate students exclusively enrolled in distance education courses in the
fall of 2020 increased by 186% from 2019 to over seven million students, or 44% of all
undergraduate students (NCES, 2022b).
Several public institutions have begun to provide innovative, alternative pathways to
completing a bachelor’s degree (Gast, 2013). The rise of online bachelor’s degree completion
programs promises flexibility, convenience, and access to non-traditional students (Müller,
2008). In addition, some selective private research institutions, such as the University of
Pennsylvania, offer online bachelor’s degree programs designed for working adults and other
non-traditional students (Penn LPS Online, n.d.). As a result, the opportunity exists for more
higher education institutions to offer online bachelor’s degrees designed to provide access and
opportunity to adult learners and promote equity for marginalized Latinx working adults.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences and outcomes of Latinx working
adults with some college but no degree who then enrolled and graduated from an online
bachelor’s degree completion program. The study aimed to identify the self-perceived social
cognitive factors that contributed to the successful completion of a bachelor’s degree, to
determine the sources of cultural capital that contributed to this success, and to understand this
population’s attitudes and beliefs towards online education. The ultimate goal of the study was to
provide valuable insights that can inform the design and delivery of online bachelor’s degree
completion programs, with a focus on promoting equity in higher education and the workforce.
The following research questions guided the study:

4
1. What are the self-perceived social cognitive facilitators for completing an online
bachelor’s degree among Latinx working adults who have previously stopped out of
higher education?
2. What sources of Latinx cultural wealth contributed to the successful completion of an
online bachelor’s degree by Latinx working adults who have previously stopped out
of higher education?
3. What are the attitudes towards online education among Latinx working adults who
have successfully returned to college and completed an online bachelor’s degree?
Importance of the Study
This research study serves the interest of higher education institutions seeking to offer
innovative online programming for Latinx working adults with some college but no degree.
Higher education leaders will better understand the personal, behavioral, and environmental
factors supporting Latinx working adult students’ ability to complete an online bachelor’s degree
successfully. By understanding these factors, reducing or removing barriers, and adding
additional new programs, institutions can provide access, flexibility, and convenience to Latinx
working adult students who might otherwise be unable to obtain a degree due to location or work
and life commitments. In addition, this study will provide Latinx working adults considering
online bachelor’s degree programs with social cognitive factors to support persistence and
completion.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
At present, very little literature, if any, discusses how institutions can better support
online Latinx working adults returning to complete a bachelor’s degree through an online
bachelor's degree completion program. To address this gap in the literature, this work brings

5
together LatCrit theory (Valdes, 2005) and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001,
2023) for use as a theoretical framework. Francisco Valdes (2005) asserted that LatCrit serves
four essential functions. The first function is the production of knowledge to create an
understanding of Latinx culture. The second function is the advancement of transformation in the
form of social change. Expansion and connection of the struggles of all subordinated groups is
the third function. The fourth and final function is cultivating a community and coalition of
scholars and activists. This study demonstrated the need to advance a LatCrit perspective in
Latinx working adult online degree completion programs while keeping these functions in mind.
Additionally, this study utilized Bandura’s (1986, 1997, 2001, 2023) social cognitive
theory to investigate the role of personal, environmental, and behavioral factors central to Latinx
working adult students who successfully completed an online bachelor’s degree. In social
cognitive theory, an individual’s capacity to act as an agent with intentionality stems from
multiple psychological mechanisms, such as self-regulation, social modeling, morality, and selfefficacy beliefs that work together in concert (Bandura, 2023). Utilizing a community cultural
wealth perspective (Yosso, 2005), the study centered on the lived experiences of Latinx
graduates from online bachelor’s degree completion programs and examined familial,
aspirational, navigational, and social capital sources. In addition, the study examined outcome
expectations, forethought capability, self-regulatory capability, and perceived self-efficacy
(Bandura, 2023) needed to succeed in an online bachelor’s degree completion program. Among
these agency mechanisms, Bandura (2023) identifies self-efficacy beliefs as one that is
particularly central. The study explored the multiple perceived social cognitive factors identified
by successful students, emphasizing self-efficacy beliefs. The study also explored modeled
behaviors exhibited by successful students. Previous studies such as Gibbons and Borders (2010)

6
and Bolkan et al. (2021) have investigated students’ motivations for attending and completing
college using elements of social cognitive theory. Other studies, such as Macías (2018) and
Ayala and Contreras (2019), have evaluated the Latinx student experience in higher education
from a cultural capital perspective rather than a cultural deficit perspective.
Approaching this problem of Latinx working adults with some college but no degree
through a pragmatic lens lends itself to common-sense solutions to issues while focusing on
continuous improvement and best practices (Saunders et al., 2019). This study was pivotal to
recognizing what facilitates degree completion among Latinx working adults, understanding
attitudes towards online education, and understanding the Latinx working adult perspective from
a cultural capital rather than a cultural deficit perspective (Ayala & Contreras, 2019).
This research design utilized qualitative methods to explore the problem of practice. The
qualitative narrative analysis supported data collection using stories and experiences of Latinx
working adults who have successfully returned to college and completed an online bachelor’s
degree (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Study participants were identified using convenience and
snowball sampling (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through purposeful sampling, protocols ensured
equitable representation of Latinx working adult graduates from online bachelor’s degree
completion programs who meet the following criteria:
• started an online bachelor’s degree completion program while working
• started an online bachelor’s degree completion program while over the age of 25
Definition of Terms
Key concepts explored for this study are first-generation college students, Hispanicserving institutions, Latinx, nonkin, non-traditional, self-efficacy, selective colleges and
universities, some college but no degree, and working adult.

7
First-Generation College Students: “Students whose parents do not have any postsecondary
experience” (Redford & Hoyer, p. 2).
Hispanic-Serving Institutions: A Hispanic-Serving Institution (HSI) has a full-time equivalent
undergraduate enrollment of at least 25 percent Hispanic students (U.S. Department of
Education, n.d.).
Latinx: “Latinx in scholarship seeks to be inclusive of all people from Latin American origin and
descent” (Salinas, 2020, p. 155).
Nonkin: Nonkin relationships occur between friends, neighbors, and coworkers as opposed to kin
relationships that occur between parents and other relatives (Arevalo et al., 2016)
Non-Traditional: Seven characteristics of undergraduate students are typically considered nontraditional: 1) delayed enrollment over the age of 24, 2) no high school diploma, 3) parttime enrollment, 4) financially independent, 5) has dependents, 6) single parent status, 7)
working full-time while enrolled (Wirt et al., 2002).
Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy is the belief “in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses
of action required to produce given attainment” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3).
Selective Colleges and Universities: Selective colleges and universities are those in the top three
categories of selectivity as determined by Barron’s Profiles of American Colleges. These
colleges and universities admit students who score in the top 35 percent of college-entry
exams (Carnevale & Fasules, 2017).
Some College but No Degree: Adults who have had some postsecondary experience but have yet
to earn any type of credential and are no longer enrolled (Causey et al., 2022).

8
Working Adult: Adult students aged 25 and over who consider themselves workers first and
students second. Increasingly, this group is being recognized as underrepresented in
higher education (Bragg & Rudd, 2012).
Organization of the Study
The dissertation followed a traditional five-chapter model. Chapter One introduced the
study and its importance, along with background information on the problem. Chapter Two
highlighted the relevant literature and the conceptual framework for the study. Chapter Three
provided the research methodology. Chapter Four supplied the findings. Chapter Five detailed
the proposed recommendations and opportunities for future research.

9
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review examines several major research areas connected to degree
completion among Latinx working adults. The review begins with an overview and historical
context surrounding online higher education. Online higher education has evolved over the last
several decades and has seen significant recent adoption as higher education institutions were
forced to pivot to remote learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Demographic changes
predicted for the traditional higher education market may further drive institutions to expand
online higher education programming. The online higher education section of the chapter
concludes with a review of the effectiveness of online learning.
The review builds on the online higher education background information by examining
working adult barriers to degree completion. This section of the chapter reviews the many
challenges and competing priorities working adults face when completing a degree, including
financial constraints, time constraints, family responsibilities, and access to information.
Following the review of working adult barriers to degree completion, the literature review then
turns to the experiences of Latinx students in higher education, including an overview of Latinx
culture, how cultural values form cultural capital, and the financial and technological barriers
and support for Latinx students. While there is a significant amount of research covering online
higher education, working adults in higher education, and Latinx in higher education, little
research addresses the intersection of Latinx working adults completing their degrees online. As
a result, the literature review concludes with a perspective on the guiding conceptual framework.
Background Information on Online Higher Education
Online higher education serves as an umbrella term for various higher education
programs and institutions that operate using the Internet as a medium. This section reviews the

10
various forms of online learning programs in higher education, the history of online degrees in
higher education, and how online degrees operate today and in the near future. The section
concludes with a review of the effectiveness of online learning.
Types of Online Learning
Online learning generally refers to education delivered via the Internet and, due to
technological advances, has become the principal format of distance education at postsecondary
institutions (Xu & Xu, 2019). Online learning takes on various forms within higher education
institutions. Gast (2013) segments the online higher education market into three categories: 1)
online degree programs, 2) hybrid degree programs, and 3) short courses and certificates,
sometimes called massive open online courses (MOOCs). Online degree programs are “degree
programs that can be completed partially or entirely online, [allowing] institutions [to] help to
reduce the barriers of time and finances” (Gast, 2013, p.19). Gast goes on to differentiate fully
online programs from hybrid degree programs, where degree requirements are completed
through both online and on-campus coursework. Lastly, a third grouping of online learning in the
context of higher education is non-credit-bearing short courses, certificate programs, and
MOOCs, which are free or low-cost online courses designed for large audiences offered by
institutions on specific topic areas (Gast, 2013). Increased technological advances and internet
access have led to more online learning experiences offering flexibility, accessibility,
connectivity, and more significant interactions among learners (Peechapol et al., 2018).
History of Online Degrees in Higher Education
Online higher education has grown in prominence over the last three decades alongside
the emergence of the Internet (Deming et al., 2015). In the early 1990s, the Higher Education Act
(HEA) of 1992 rule intentionally constrained the growth of online learning by denying access to

11
federal financial aid for institutions that enrolled more than 50 percent of their students in
distance education courses or offered more than 50 percent of their courses in a distance
education format (Deming et al., 2015; Xu & Xu, 2019). In 1998, the HEA was amended to
create the Distance Education Demonstration Program (DEDP), allowing 15 institutions,
including several for-profit institutions, a waiver from the 50 percent restrictions in order to
address increasing demand and to promote new advances in distance education (Deming et al.,
2015; Xu & Xu, 2019).
The DEDP was expanded to 24 institutions in 2003, and ultimately, the HEA was
amended in 2006 to discontinue the 50 percent restrictions (Xu & Xu, 2019). This loosening of
restrictions led to significant growth in online enrollment. The number of students who took
courses online grew at a compound rate of 17.3% compared to the overall postsecondary
enrollment growth rate of 2.6% from 2002 to 2012 (Allen & Seaman, 2013). The number of
online bachelor’s degrees awarded rose during the same decade from 4,000 to 75,000 per year, or
around 5% of all bachelor’s degrees issued in the United States in 2012 (Deming et al., 2015;
Goodman et al., 2018). Less than 2% of online enrollment occurred in selective institutions
during this period. In contrast, large for-profit institutions such as DeVry, Kaplan, and the
University of Phoenix accounted for around a third of all enrollments in fully online programs
(Deming et al., 2015).
While nearly half of the fully online students were enrolled in nonselective two- and fouryear public institutions, the number of students represented only 8.5% of the total students
enrolled at these institutions (Deming et al., 2015). The next decade saw growth of fully online
students at public and nonprofit private institutions and a decline in the market share of fully
online students at for-profit institutions. Many online degree programs offered in the decade

12
between 2002 and 2012 came under heavy criticism due to aggressive recruiting tactics, low
persistence and graduation rates, and high student debt (Stratford, 2012). Towards the end of the
decade, public research universities “entered the online degree market, combining the
convenience and flexibility with highly recognized and valued reputations.” (Gast, 2013, p. 19).
These public institution online degree programs tended to target growth occupations leading to
economic growth in their home state and enrolled working professionals, managers, and
practitioners in these occupations (Kohl, 2015). By 2019, nearly 3.5 million students were
enrolled in exclusively distance education courses, with 56% enrolled at public institutions, 26%
at private nonprofit institutions, and 18% at private for-profit institutions (NCES, 2021). This
decade also brought about the advent of the MOOC, which held inflated expectations of offering
quality higher education globally with minimal marginal cost; however, MOOCs have suffered
from meager completion rates (McPherson & Bacow, 2015) and a lack of a sustainable economic
model for acquiring content, paying for talent, while charging little to nothing (Hoxby, 2014).
In the spring of 2020, the online higher education landscape endured a significant
transformation with the forced rapid transition from traditional face-to-face instruction to online
learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Neuwirth et al., 2021). This rapid change caused the
fully online enrollment numbers to increase by 150% to 8.6 million students in the fall of 2020,
with 74% enrolled in public institutions, 18% enrolled in private nonprofit institutions, and 8%
enrolled in private for-profit institutions (NCES, 2021). This rapid change required both students
and faculty to adjust to new expectations in a virtual classroom (Neuwirth et al., 2021). As a
result of the forced transition to online learning, along with the effects of the pandemic, racial
unrest, and economic pressures, undergraduate enrollment declined in the subsequent two years
after the beginning of the pandemic, with the most severe declines occurring in community

13
colleges, Minority Serving Institutions, Black colleges and universities, and Tribal Colleges and
Universities (Tate & Warschauer, 2022).
This pandemic loss of one million undergraduate students from the U.S. higher education
system continues a trend of declining enrollment since the peak in 2010 when enrollment was
nearly 17%, or three million students, higher than it is today (Sorenson Impact Center, 2023).
The rapidly aging population and declining birth rates represent the potential for a significant
drop in the number of traditional-aged students that have historically been the primary target of
undergraduate higher education (Milliron, 2023). Harvey (2021) describes in detail how the pool
of 18-year-olds begins to contract in 2025 and will continue to decline on average from one to
two percent per year for the next two decades. These demographic projections play into college
administrators’ strategic planning processes, where nearly half of all postsecondary institutions
include expanding online learning as a critical component in their formal strategic plans, and
almost two-thirds of college administrators believe that developing online courses is vital for the
long-term strategy of their institution (Xu & Xu, 2019). “As the number of traditional-age
college students continues to shrink, contributing to worsening enrollment slides, colleges
nationwide are doubling down on efforts to re-enroll those who have a head start toward a
degree” (Mangan, 2022, para. 6).
Effectiveness of Online Learning
While the potential exists for institutions to offset declining enrollments of traditionalaged students with online working adult students who desire flexibility and convenience
(Jaggars, 2014), there have been mixed results regarding student outcomes that result from
online courses compared to face-to-face courses. In a comprehensive review of several
experimental or quasi-experimental studies of learning outcomes of online delivery, Xu and Xu

14
(2019) reported that, on average, students in face-to-face classes perform better than students in
comparable online courses, especially at two-year and nonselective institutions. The difference in
performance could increase inequality among underrepresented demographic groups and lower
socioeconomic backgrounds since online courses are much more prevalent at the nonselective
institutions that disproportionally enroll students with these backgrounds. On the other hand,
when looking at more distal effects of online education, in a study of undergraduates at a public
research university (N = 10,572), Fischer et al. (2022) determined that for each online course
taken, students had a slightly higher graduation rate and slightly accelerated time-to-degree. In a
similar fashion, Johnson and Cuellar Mejia (2014) analyzed California state data and determined
that California community college students who enrolled in online courses were more likely to
earn an associate’s degree or transfer to a four-year university, even though they were less
successful in their individual online courses as compared to students who never enrolled in
online courses.
The above sections of this literature review examined the types, history, and effectiveness
of online learning in higher education. Online programs offer accessibility and flexibility that is
attractive to working adults (Jaggars, 2014). In their analysis of California state data, Johnson
and Cuellar Mejia (2014) reported that students over 25 were much more likely than younger
students to take online courses. However, there are several barriers to degree completion that
working adult students face, regardless of the format. These barriers will be reviewed in the
following section.
Working Adult Barriers to Degree Completion
Working adults seeking to return to school to complete their bachelor’s degree endure
additional challenges that traditional-aged students might not endure. These challenges fall into

15
three categories: (a) financial constraints, (b) time constraints, and (c) access to information
(Gast, 2013). Each category is reviewed in further detail below.
Financial Constraints
Life gets in the way of finishing college for many adult students, and financial constraints
are a leading reason why many students stop out and never return to school (Steele & Erisman,
2016). In a study of former students in a large community college system (N = 1877), Ortagus et
al. (2021) reported that a host of financial constraints represent the most prevalent factors that
previously successful former students perceived to be associated with their decision to leave
without a degree. “For many students who stopped out … money is still tight … [and] they may
also still be paying off student loans” (Mangan, 2022, para. 12). Gale et al. (2022) described the
issue that “those who have made several attempts to attend college may be burdened by student
loans and other educational debt but cannot reap the social and economic benefits associated
with earning a postsecondary credential” (Gale et al., 2022, p. 3). In a survey by the Educational
Advisory Board (EAB, 2020) of prospective adult degree completers, two-thirds of respondents
cited affordability as their top concern about returning to school. Most adults who re-enrolled
still accumulated student debt, even after receiving some form of financial support (Gale et al.,
2022). Even so, access to financial aid can be difficult for returning adults who enroll part-time
as some state or institutional aid programs require full-time enrollment and are targeted toward
recent high school graduates, and federal student aid requires half-time enrollment or greater to
be eligible (Erisman & Steele, 2015; Gale et al., 2020) In addition, adult students have other
financial barriers that first-time college students do not have such as loan defaults, money owed
to previous institutions, untransferable or expired college credits, and the need to acquire

16
transcripts of previous work at an institution that has restricted access due to a financial hold
(Erisman & Steele, 2015; Gale et al., 2020; Pelman & Watson, 2018; Sheffer et al., 2020).
In addition to these financial barriers for adult students, the perceived economic value of
a traditional higher education degree is declining as short-term and alternative credentials are
rising (Knox, 2023). In a recent public opinion survey, 70% of adults aged 18 to 34 without
degrees perceive a college education as a questionable investment because of high student loans
and limited job opportunities (Brink, 2022). The Strada Education Network and Gallup (2019)
reported that “adults without degrees say they are more likely to seek additional education and
training from employers than from traditional education institutions” (p. 3), and adults with some
college credits but no degree are no more likely to express an interest in obtaining a degree than
were others adults with no college experience. However, in addition to generally earning more,
workers with more education may benefit from more substantial economic stability throughout
their careers, as job losses during the most recent recessions were concentrated mainly among
workers with lower levels of education (Carnevale et al., 2021).
Time Constraints and Family Responsibilities
Time constraints are another significant barrier to adults returning to school to complete
their degree, as many are parents and hold at least one job (EAB, 2020). Many students stop out
from pursuing a degree due to competing personal or professional responsibilities that take on
more urgency than education (Horn & Lyle, 2019). In a study of adult learners in Louisiana (N =
749), Dumais et al. (2013) reported that first-generation adult online learners perceive less
support from their employers in balancing school with other commitments such as work and
family than continuing-generation students. Institutions create hurdles for adult learners by only
offering student support services during regular business hours, which is not conducive to adult

17
students' unique needs and busy lifestyles (Gast, 2013). In addition, adult students require faculty
and staff to treat them as adults and understand their unique time constraints for academic
success (Wyatt, 2011). “Adult learners need programs that allow them to balance family and
work, have easy on- and off-ramps into careers, and offer relevant instruction” (Gale et al., 2022,
p. 22). Structuring courses to make them easier to access by offering them frequently, at
convenient times, and with online and hybrid offerings available is especially important to adult
students (Gale et al., 2022). “While degree completers value the community that can come with
enrolling in an academic program, convenience trumps educational experience across the board”
(EAB, 2020, p. 10).
Access to Information
While there is ample information in the form of online advertising, adults returning to
college often have few places to turn for guidance as compared to traditional-aged students who
may consult with school counselors, college-educated family members, or peers who have
evaluated college choices (Steele & Erisman, 2016). When transferring to a new institution,
adults may lose some of their previously earned credits due to institutional policies, and they
may not have access to information about alternative transfer credit pathways such as prior
learning assessment (PLA), or standardized tests such as the College Level Examination
Program (CLEP) (Gast, 2013). In a survey of returning students who had re-enrolled across 11
postsecondary institutions (N = 1,360), Gale et al. (2022) determined that of the top 12 factors
helpful to students returning to college, eight factors related to information or assistance.
Information factors included: 1) information about degree programs, 2) information on the
enrollment process, and 3) information about financial aid. Assistance factors included: 1) staff
assistance with enrollment, 2) talking with an advisor about career goals, 3) outside

18
advisor/mentor helping with the process, 4) staff assistance with financial aid, and 5) advice from
family, friends, or coworkers.
Working adults face several barriers to completing a bachelor’s degree online. When
viewing these barriers from the perspective of Latinx students, the path to degree completion
becomes more complex. In the subsequent section, this review will give background information
on Latinx historical experiences in higher education.
Background Information on Latinx Students in Higher Education
According to the 2020 census, there are 62 million persons living in the United States
who are of Latinx origin, an increase from 51 million in 2010 and 35 million in 2000 (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2021b). Carnevale & Fasules (2017) reported that although college graduation
rates for Latinx students have increased over the last several decades, Latinx students rank
behind Whites and Blacks in college enrollment, degree attainment, and overall median earnings
at 79%, 21%, and $35,000, respectively. This compares to White college enrollment of 86%,
degree attainment of 45%, and overall median annual earnings of $52,000. Latinx students who
identify as female have higher bachelor's degree completion rates than those who identify as
male; however, their overall median earnings are the lowest of all racial, ethnicity, and gender
categorizations.
Latinx Culture
The population of Latinxs comprises diverse individuals with various cultural
backgrounds (Gonzalez & Morrison, 2016; Núñez, 2014) and differs based on generational status
within the U.S. and country of origin (Tello & Lonn, 2017). However, cultural commonalities
exist among some Latinx groups, as described by Tello and Lonn (2017). These significant
cultural values are familismo, personalismo, simpatico, and fatalismo. Familismo refers to family

19
loyalty, cohesiveness, interdependence, and placing family needs before personal needs.
Personalismo focuses on personal relationships and interactions rather than more formal
communication styles. In Latinx culture, Simpatico emphasizes a smooth and harmonious
relational style that may lead to a reduction in voicing complaints. Fatalismo is the belief that
some Latinx hold related to fate and may cause an appearance of a lack of assertiveness or
passiveness. These values become a form of cultural capital that Latinx students rely upon in
college (Grafnetterova & Banda, 2021).
The value of familismo is apparent during students’ journeys in higher education, as
described in a study by Jabbar et al. (2019). Utilizing data from 56 in-depth interviews with
Latinx students in Central Texas, the researchers determined that families provide inspiration and
financial, emotional, and informational support to community college students who transfer to a
four-year university. Further, families shape the set of four-year universities that community
college students consider when transferring. Other studies have reinforced the importance of
family in the educational pathways of Latinx students, such as Sáenz et al. (2020), which looked
at how female family members were identified as being the primary supporters of Latinx male
students’ educational pursuits, and Alfaro et al. (2018) that determined that Mexican-origin
female college students (N = 205) perceived that mothers provided the most academic support
while they communicated the most with their close friends.
Cultural Capital
Additional empirical studies provide further insights into how cultural values form a
cultural capital that Latinx students depend on while in college. Arevalo et al. (2016) determined
a significance between ethnicity and nonkin collectivism among a sample (N = 60) of students at
a four-year college in the southwestern United States. Latinx students were significantly more

20
collectivistic toward nonkin groups than their non-Latinx counterparts. Similarly, Moschetti et al.
(2018) reported in a study of 458 Latinx college students at a Hispanic-Serving Institution that in
addition to social support, undergraduate peer mentoring programs for Latinx college students
often provide role modeling, academic support and, to a lesser extent, help with career paths and
goal setting. Going even further, Rodriguez et al. (2021) completed a qualitative study that
examined how first-generation Mexican American college students (N = 12) sought support from
their families to handle challenges. The researchers determined that some students utilized very
close relationships with their families to cope with challenges. In contrast, others leveraged
mentors and college peers who acted as a family for the purpose of dealing with challenges.
Financial Barriers
Latinx students face specific financial challenges that may include supporting family
members financially, working multiple jobs to pay for school, and, depending on immigration
status, lacking access to federal financial aid (Abrica & Martinez, 2016). In a qualitative study of
community college students in Texas, Sáenz et al. (2013) reported that Latinx community
college students who identified as male (N = 130) often emphasized material wealth and upward
social mobility in defining their masculinity, where social status and money were gendered
expressions of dominance and power. Abrica and Martinez (2016) conducted a qualitative study
of Latinx students who identified as male (N = 21) at a Southern California community college.
They reported three distinct but interrelated financial challenge areas: 1) immediate financial
challenges that required immediate attention to avoid significant negative consequences such as
expensive car repairs needed to secure transportation to and from work and school, or moments
of food scarcity and bouts of homelessness, 2) structural challenges that were serious, but not as
immediate as not having shelter or food such as living with undocumented immigration status,

21
and 3) financial challenges associated with family including needing to care for immediate and
extended family members or worrying about how parents would manage when students
transferred to a four-year institution. Finally, in a survey of Latinx individuals who had enrolled
but never completed a degree (N = 522), Sablosky Elengold et al. (2020) reported that Latinx
students exhibited more significant financial barriers to completion than their non-Latinx peers.
Some factors that led these Latinx students to leave school included the cost of school, a desire
not to take on debt, a sudden change in personal finances, and the need to work more hours.
Technology Support and Barriers
There is little research on Latinx students' experiences with online learning. Utilizing a
mixed methods study at a small, not-for-profit Hispanic-Serving Institution, Arbelo et al. (2019)
determined that “by and large, higher education institutions may take for granted that [Latinx]
students would academically thrive in an online environment” (p. 27). Additionally, they
determined that social interactions, faculty communication, and independent learning behaviors
contributed to successful online learning outcomes for Latinx students. In another study, Johnson
and Galy (2013) reported that self-confidence in technology skills, time management, and
independent learning was linked to success for Latinx students (N = 268) taking online courses
in a bachelor of business administration program at an HSI. While the literature focusing on
Latinx students' experiences with online learning is limited, this gap presents an opportunity to
understand further how technology can either support or hinder the successful completion of a
bachelor's degree.
Conceptual Framework
This study was guided by merging components of Bandura’s (1986, 1997, 2001, 2023)
social cognitive theory with Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth model, which

22
demonstrates how Latinx students achieve their educational goals by drawing upon various
complementary forms of capital. The social cognitive model conceptualizes the personal,
environmental, and behavioral factors that work in a reciprocal triadic relationship that shapes
the successful completion of an online bachelor’s degree. Taken together, the social cognitive
model and the cultural wealth model guided selection and inquiry in the study. While Bandura’s
(1986, 1997, 2001, 2023) model was instrumental in identifying personal and environmental
factors leading to the behavioral outcomes of completing a degree, Yosso’s (2005) model was an
essential guide to identifying sources of cultural capital among Latinx graduates of online
bachelor’s degree completion programs.
Overview of Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory provides a psychological view of human behavior that
emphasizes the critical role played by the social environment on self-regulation, motivation, and
learning (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019). The theory describes
reciprocal interactions among personal, behavioral, and social/environmental factors (Schunck &
Usher, 2019). The conceptual framework for this study focused on the behaviors of adult Latinx
students who enrolled, persisted, and graduated from an online bachelor’s degree completion
program.
Similarly, the conceptual framework evaluated the higher education environment where
these behaviors occur. As described in the previous sections of this literature review, the higher
education environment consists of the online learning climate (Xu & Xu, 2019), peer and
institutional support (Gale et al., 2022), financial support and barriers (Erisman & Steele, 2015;
Gale et al., 2022.; Pelman & Watson, 2018; Sheffer et al., 2020), and technology support and
barriers (Peechapol et al., 2018).

23
One of the main lines of inquiry for the study was to understand further the personal and
cognitive factors at play for Latinx working adults who have completed an online bachelor’s
degree program. A foundational concept of social cognitive theory is understanding how
individuals utilize various vicarious, symbolic, and self-regulatory processes to develop a sense
of agency (Bandura, 2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019). Using Bandura’s social cognitive theory,
Schunk and DiBenedetto (2020) describe the key motivational processes, including goals, selfevaluation of progress, outcome expectations, values, self-efficacy, and social comparisons. The
conceptual framework for this study focused on understanding outcome expectations and
expected positive consequences of completing a degree as motivating factors and the extent to
which these cognitive beliefs are developed through social interactions between observers and
models (Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2019). As a result of the literature review above, some
anticipated expectancy values from participants in the study were the desire to improve career
prospects, increase earnings potential, and fulfill personal goals (EAB, 2020; Horn & Lyle,
2019). These outcome expectations are a part of forethought capability, which Bandura (2023)
describes as directly contributing to human agency, enabling people to transcend their immediate
environment to shape and regulate the present to realize desired futures. In a similar fashion,
outcome expectations have a positive effect on self-regulatory capability, in which “humans can
envision the future and act on it in the present” (Bandura, 2023, p. 1) and “evaluate and modify
ongoing current behaviors to best serve not only present needs, but also long-term aims”
(Bandura, 2023, p. 2).
The cognitive capabilities of forethought and self-regulation are a type of and positively
impact self-efficacy, respectively (West et al., 2019). In the context of academic achievement,
perceived self-efficacy to achieve motivates educational attainment by influencing personal goal

24
setting. (Zimmerman et al., 1992). Self-efficacy is defined by Bandura (2023) as resulting from
four psychological processes: selection processes such as the choices of activities and
environments, cognitive processes like analytic thinking and goal setting, motivational processes
consisting of effort and task performance, and affective processes that determine stress and
despondency in threatening or taxing situations. In addition to these four processes, there are
sources of information that influence self-efficacy beliefs. According to Bandura (1997), the
four sources of information that build self-efficacy beliefs are: “enactive mastery experiences
that serve as indicators of capability; vicarious experiences that alter efficacy beliefs through
transmission of competencies comparison with the attainment of others; verbal persuasion and
allied types of social influences that one possesses certain capabilities; and physiological and
affective states from which people partly judge their capableness, strength, and vulnerability to
dysfunction” (Bandura, 1997, p. 79). A review of the literature has revealed numerous studies
that have addressed online learning self-efficacy (Bates & Khasawneh, 2007; Bradley et al.,
2017; Fletcher, 2005; Peechapol et al., 2018), transfer student self-efficacy (Buenaflor, 2023;
Moser, 2013; Zimmerman et al., 1992), and Latinx student self-efficacy (Holloway-Friesen,
2021; Manzano-Sanchez et al., 2018). Several studies focused on higher education have looked
at perceived self-efficacy and degree attainment; however, few, if any, have looked at it from the
perspective of a Latinx online degree completer.
The conceptual framework for this study captures the triadic reciprocity of behavior,
higher education environment, and personal factors. In addition, the cognitive factors of outcome
expectations, forethought capability, self-regulatory capability, and perceived self-efficacy
contribute to the reciprocal relationship. These psychological processes all exist within the
context of the Latinx cultural wealth model, as described in the next section.

25
Overview of the Latinx Cultural Wealth Model
Bourdieu (1986) used the term “cultural capital” (p. 246) to describe the cultural
competencies learned by being part of privileged groups in society. The concept explains using
nonfinancial social assets such as knowledge, familial networks, and privilege to understand
social mobility but is often interpreted using a deficit perspective when attempting to explain the
educational achievement gap between Latinx and Whites (Sáenz et al., 2020). Using LatCrit
theory, Yosso (2005) created the model of community cultural wealth to counter the deficit
perspective assigned to students of color and to “challenge the marginalizing misconception that
people of color have no forms of cultural wealth” (Sáenz et al., 2020, p. 175).
Yosso’s (2005) seminal work describes six sources of cultural wealth for people of color:
aspirational capital, familial capital, social capital, navigational capital, linguistic capital, and
resistance capital. Aspirational capital refers to resilience and the ability to maintain dreams and
hopes despite barriers (Hands, 2020; Yosso, 2005). Cultural knowledge drawn from familia (kin)
can come from connections directly related by blood, community, or friendship (Mobley &
Brawner, 2019; Matos, 2015; Yosso, 2005). Social capital signifies the community resources and
networks of people that facilitate individual goals like employment and educational attainment
(Macías, 2018; Yosso, 2005). The skills and ability to maneuver through social institutions, such
as colleges and universities, are called navigational capital (Sáenz et al., 2020; Yosso, 2005).
Social and intellectual skills that support various forms of communication are referred to as
linguistic capital (Hands, 2020; Yosso, 2005). Lastly, resistance capital is the knowledge and
skills fostered through challenging inequality through oppositional behavior (Matos, 2015;
Yosso, 2005).

26
This conceptual framework focused on the four types of Latinx cultural wealth that were
anticipated to be most relevant to the participants that would be interviewed: familial,
aspirational, navigational, and social. In a study of 15 first-generation community college
transfer students majoring in engineering, Mobley and Brawner (2019) reported these four types
of community cultural wealth as the most relevant to the students interviewed. Furthermore,
Sáenz et al. (2020) conducted 23 focus groups with 130 Latino male students to understand the
role of female family members in supporting Latino male educational pursuits. Their study
utilized three forms of cultural capital: aspirational, familial, and navigational, as a guide (Sáenz
et al., 2020). This Latinx cultural wealth model provides a framework to understand Latinx
working adults’ sources of cultural capital that support the social cognitive processes leading to
the behavior of enrolling, persisting, and completing an online bachelor’s degree.
Combining Social Cognitive Theory with the Latinx Cultural Wealth Model
Due to social cognitive theory’s assumption that learning is an internal process that may
or may not result in a behavior change, viewing the problem of practice from only a social
cognitive lens may limit some of the cultural elements needed to understand how Latinx students
can be successful in a university environment and an online learning environment. As such, the
conceptual framework places the components of social cognitive theory within the boundaries of
the Latinx cultural wealth model. This allows for capturing cultural wealth elements that may
impact an individual's decision-making process to return to school and enroll in an online degree
completion program, in addition to the cultural factors that influence their self-efficacy and the
structural elements of programs that contribute to the successful completion of a bachelor’s
degree.

27
The following diagram (Figure 1) represents an approach to understanding success
factors for online Latinx working adult graduates of bachelor’s degree completion programs.
Personal and cognitive factors, higher education environmental factors, and behavioral factors
are reciprocally connected. Several psychological mechanisms like outcome expectations and
perceived self-efficacy positively affect behavior and cognition. These processes all occur within
the cultural context of a Latinx student. The four most relevant components of Yosso’s (2005)
community cultural wealth model are depicted as surrounding the social cognitive factors that
lead to successful degree completion behavior. These components consist of familial,
aspirational, navigational, and social capital. When combined, these elements work in concert
together to reinforce the behaviors needed for Latinx working adults to enroll, persist, and
complete an online bachelor’s degree completion program.

28
Figure
1
Conceptual Framework

29
Conclusion
This literature review intended to provide an overview of the three main subject areas that
intersect to create the focus of the line of inquiry. The three subject areas consist of working
adult students, the Latinx population, and students who complete their degree in a program in an
online format. The literature review described in detail the online higher education environment,
an overview of the experiences of Latinx students in higher education, and the various challenges
that working adults face when attempting to return to complete their degree. Finally, an overview
of the conceptual framework was reviewed, showing the components of the social cognitive
theory and the community cultural wealth model most relevant to the study.

30
Chapter Three: Methodology
This study aimed to explore the experiences of Latinx working adults who completed a
bachelor’s degree via an online degree completion program. This chapter begins with a
restatement of the research questions, an overview of the methodology used, and a review of the
research setting and the researcher’s role. Then, data collection, instrumentation, and analysis
methods are discussed. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the study's ethics.
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences and outcomes of Latinx working
adults with some college but no degree who then enrolled and graduated from an online
bachelor’s degree completion program. The following research questions guided the study:
1. What are the self-perceived social cognitive facilitators for completing an online
bachelor’s degree among Latinx working adults who have previously stopped out of
higher education?
2. What sources of Latinx cultural wealth contributed to the successful completion of an
online bachelor’s degree by Latinx working adults who have previously stopped out
of higher education?
3. What are the attitudes towards online education among Latinx working adults who
have successfully returned to college and completed an online bachelor’s degree?
Overview of Design
This study utilized a qualitative methodology to determine Latinx working adult
experiences while completing an online bachelor’s degree. The study's primary focus was to
understand further the interaction between the personal, environmental, and behavioral factors
along with the various sources of Latinx cultural wealth that degree completers leveraged to

31
complete a degree successfully. Examination of this relationship includes a conceptual
framework derived from Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2023;
Schunk & Usher, 2019) and Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth model.
Data collection involved 13 semi-structured in-depth interviews with degree completers,
which addressed all research questions. Qualitative research was necessary to understand how
people interpret what they experience and the meaning they attribute to their experiences
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The study’s design aims to comprehensively describe and analyze
the factors contributing to Latinx working adults’ successful completion of an online bachelor’s
degree (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Research Setting
According to the most recent data from 2021, 2.5 million undergraduates enrolled
exclusively in distance education courses at 4-year institutions (NCES, 2022a). The percentage
of students attending public, private non-profit, and private for-profit institutions was 61%, 22%,
and 17%, respectively (NCES, 2022a). According to the National Center for Education Statistics
(2023), the percentage of undergraduate students who exclusively attended in a distance format
went from 15% in 2019 to 44% in 2020 and then decreased to 28% in 2021. Of this group of
students, 61% were enrolled in institutions in the same state where they resided. Private forprofit institutions accounted for 17% of undergraduates enrolled exclusively in distance
education courses despite enrolling only 6% of all undergraduates attending 4-year institutions.
Graduates of fully online programs were selected for this study because the literature review
primarily focused on Latinx working adults who attended an online program to complete their
degree as opposed to graduates who enrolled in hybrid or on-campus programs. Utilizing a
search for online degree completion programs, the researcher identified a sample mix of 12

32
institutions with various organizational structures that offer online bachelor’s degree completion
programs (see Table 1).

33
Table 1
Listing of Identified Online Bachelor’s Degree Completion Programs
Institution Public Private non-profit Private for-profit
Arizona State
University X
California State
University - Online X
New York University X
Northwestern
University X
Purdue Global
University X
Strayer University X
Southern New
Hampshire
University
X
University of Florida X
University of
Maryland Global
Campus
X
University of
Pennsylvania X
University of Phoenix X
Western Governors
University X
Note. This listing is not comprehensive and is intended to provide a representative sample.

34
The Researcher
A simple definition of positionality is understanding “how we are positioned in relation
to others – as dominant/subordinate, marginal/center, empowered/powerless” (Takacs, 2002, p.
169). Considering my positionality, I am a White, Hispanic, heterosexual, cisgender male. I have
lived in various parts of the United States and have studied abroad in the United Kingdom, South
Africa, Thailand, Iceland, Australia, and New Zealand. My surname is Spanish, and my family
has a long history in Southern Colorado and Northern New Mexico, where there is a complicated
mix of Hispano, Indigenous, and European cultures. My family has traced its heritage back over
300 years to the earliest Spanish settlers of the northern part of the Spanish colony of Mexico.
The border of this region changed in 1821 as Mexico gained its independence from Spain and
again in 1848 when Mexico ceded the territory to the United States at the end of the MexicanAmerican war. My ethnicity is a mix of Spanish, Indigenous, and Italian. Except for the Italian
one, my grandparents all spoke Spanish and English; however, my parents were raised to be
“American” and only spoke English. I grew up in a middle-class, English-speaking household.
None of my grandparents completed high school, except for one grandmother, who completed
her GED around the age of 50. She was a big believer in education, and while it took a while, she
received her high school diploma. She then went to her local community college and completed a
business certificate that enabled her to get a job at the local newspaper.
In my current role, I am a senior administrator and a doctoral student at a large university
that offers bachelor’s degree programs. This study introduces potential implications for
participants who might adjust their answers to questions based on perceiving the university or me
as having expertise and authority associated with power and privilege (Robinson & Firth
Leonard, 2019). To mitigate this risk, I undertook the following actions: 1) emphasized my role

35
in conducting the study as a doctoral student, 2) always attempted to be sensitive, nonjudgmental, and respectful towards the participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), 3) highlighted
the purpose of the study is to hear and learn from the participants and express appreciation for
their perspective, and 4) pilot tested the interview questions with a representative sample.
Piloting the interview questions and paying attention to the interview design provided
opportunities to be culturally responsive (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). Additionally, this
study did not ask for any additional demographic data that may be threatening or that does not
relate to a research question (Rosenberg, 2017).
Data Sources
This study used semi-structured interviews as the primary investigation technique. The
investigator regularly wrote reflections and memos during the analysis phase and after each
interview to document ideas, observations, and personal reactions to the interviews. These
memos and field notes were kept separate from the primary interview data and were utilized as
supporting documentation rather than a source of data (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Participants
The target population for this study was working adult students who have enrolled and
have completed an online bachelor’s degree program. Participants were Latinx working adults
who started an online bachelor’s degree completion program while working and were also over
the age of 25 when starting the program. This population allowed the investigator to address all
three research questions that are aimed at further understanding Latinx working adults who have
returned to school to complete a bachelor’s degree in an online format. A purposeful sampling
approach was used as the investigator intended to understand, gain insight, and discover using
information-rich cases (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For this study, the investigator identified a

36
mix of participants from several programs nationwide that included both public and private nonprofit institutions (see Table 2 for a listing of participant’s undergraduate institutions attended).
For pilot interviews, the investigator used a convenience sample of two individuals who met the
criteria of Latinx working adults who have completed an online bachelor’s degree program.
Convenience sampling for the pilot interviews was used to minimize the time, money, and
various locations needed and maximize respondents' availability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
For study interviews, a combination of convenience and snowball sampling relying on
referrals was used (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A sample of 13 interviews was conducted using
the same criteria of Latinx working adults who have completed an online bachelor’s degree
program. Recruiting was performed utilizing LinkedIn to identify graduates from a
representative sample of online bachelor’s degree completion programs found in Table 1.
Additionally, the investigator contacted several programs in Table 1 directly to help identify
qualified participants for the study. The researcher also contacted additional HSIs, non-profits
such as Excelencia in Education and the Lumina Foundation, and the White House initiative on
advancing educational equity, excellence, and economic opportunity for Hispanics (U.S.
Department of Education, n.d.) for assistance in identifying a source for participants.
Thirty-three identified participants began a qualification survey that utilized Qualtrics, an
online survey administration tool, for facilitation, electronic distribution, and results collection.
See Appendix A for a listing of qualification questions used in the initial invitation to participate
in the study. Of the 33 who started a survey, 16 respondents qualified for an interview.
Instrumentation
Data was gathered for the research questions using a semi-structured interview. Semistructured interviews are guided by a list of questions or issues to be explored, but there is some

37
flexibility in the wording and order of the questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview
protocol for this study consisted of 15 questions segmented by the concepts identified in the
conceptual framework above. The segments consist of behavior, environment, personal and
cognitive factors, and sources of cultural capital that facilitated the completion of an online
bachelor’s degree while adult participants worked either full- or part-time. All three research
questions are addressed as part of the interview protocol and have been mapped to each research
question in addition to each key concept (see Appendix B). Twelve of the 15 questions are
related to the self-perceived social cognitive factors and cultural capital elements facilitating the
completion of an online bachelor’s degree program by working adults, and seven of the 15
questions touch on online education, with three that specifically address the attitudes towards
online education among working adults who have completed an online bachelor’s degree.
Several types of questions are used in the interview protocol. The questions related to
social cognitive facilitators and cultural capital elements are mostly experience and behavior
questions, with a handful of feeling questions and opinion and values questions (Patton, 2015).
Questions related to attitudes toward online education are mostly opinion and values questions
(Patton, 2015). A single background or demographic question about the participants' educational
background starts off the list of questions while also addressing their experience with online
education. This opening question began the conversation with a question that should be easy to
answer (Kreuger & Casey, 2009).
Data Collection Procedures
Data from the interviews was collected using transcripts from interviews conducted via
Zoom, an online video conferencing tool. This allows for the greatest ease in scheduling the
interview at a convenient time for each participant. Additionally, using Zoom allowed the

38
investigator to record the sessions and create transcripts. Recording allowed the investigator to
better attend to what the participant was saying and not worry about writing down every word
(Weiss, 1994). If a participant could not access the web version of Zoom, interviews could be
conducted utilizing a telephone number for Zoom. Each interview lasted approximately 45-60
minutes. At the beginning of each interview, the investigator presented an introduction to the
interview that explained who the investigator was, the general purpose of the study, and that the
interviews would remain confidential. The investigator requested informed consent to conduct
and record the interview (A. Samkian, personal communication, July 10, 2023). Additionally, the
investigator offered to answer any participant questions before starting the interview protocol.
Audio and/or video were recorded with the explicit permission of the interviewee, and the
researcher will destroy the recording once the recording is no longer needed for the purpose of
this study. Several protections were implemented to protect the interviewee. The recording
feature was turned off by default when starting each meeting with the interviewees until
permission to commence recording was obtained from the interviewee. The interviewee was
allowed to mask their name in the Zoom session to protect their identity further. If the
interviewee was uncomfortable with a Zoom recording, even in an audio-only format where their
video is blank and the name is masked, permission could be requested to record using a phone or
other device. Finally, if an interviewee did not provide approval to record the session in any
form, the researcher took notes during the meeting by hand to capture the interviewee’s
responses to any protocol questions. Appendix B supplies complete protocol documentation,
including the introduction, a complete listing of interview questions, research question mapping,
key concept mapping, and concluding comments included as part of the protocol.

39
Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted following Creswell and Creswell’s (2018) data analysis
process. This process consisted of the following five sequential steps:
1. Data from recorded interviews and field notes was sorted and stored in digital, passwordprotected files.
2. Data was reviewed for overall meaning, generalizability, and connections.
3. Data was coded to include analytical coding of interview transcripts for groupings of
themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) using a codebook developed using the study’s
conceptual framework as a guide.
4. Themes were generated to display multiple perspectives and shared experiences.
5. The description and themes from the coding analysis were represented in a qualitative
narrative using direct quotes as supporting evidence.
Validity and Reliability
The data-gathering and research design supports credibility and trustworthiness through
triangulation, accurate records, process notes, consistent procedures, interview protocols,
adequate engagement in data collection, and reflexivity (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Strategies such as these lend confirmability, dependability, credibility, and
transferability. Triangulations will include comparing data collected to previous studies from the
literature review. Additionally, the study gathered data from participants who graduated from
different institutions with varying levels of selectivity and operating structures. The length and
number of interviews provided enough time and space to record rich, thick descriptions from the
participants using a standardized set of questions that were presented in a consistent manner. The
researcher took detailed notes, allowing for an audit trail accounting for the methods, procedures,

40
and decision points as the study was conducted. This record-keeping supported the credibility
and trustworthiness of the captured information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, it was
important to conduct a “critical self-reflection by the researcher regarding the assumptions,
worldview, biases, theoretical orientation, and relationship to the study that may affect the
investigation” (Meriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 259).
Ethics
The study adhered to ethical research practices. As this study recruited and conducted
research on human subjects, the researcher followed the ethical principles set forth by the
University of Southern California’s Office for the Protection of Research Subjects and the
Institutional Review Board (University of Southern California, 2022). Recruitment of
participants included detailed information about the study and disclosures regarding consent for
recording interviews, voluntary participation, confidentiality of the interview, and associated
data, as well as contact information for the faculty advisor. Participants were advised that
participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw without consequence or penalty at any
time up until the commencement of data analysis. All data and information related to the study
were stored in password-protected digital files.

41
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences and outcomes of Latinx working
adults with some college but no degree who then enrolled and graduated from an online
bachelor’s degree completion program in alignment with a conceptual framework based on
Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019)
and Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth model. The problem of practice is that Latinx
working adults without bachelor’s degrees face significant barriers to upward mobility and
economic stability. This chapter focuses on the study’s qualitative approach, presenting the
findings from interviews of participants who were working adult students who enrolled and
completed an online bachelor’s degree program along with the related analyses and emerging
themes concerning the following research questions:
1. What are the self-perceived social cognitive facilitators for completing an online
bachelor’s degree among Latinx working adults who have previously stopped out of
higher education?
2. What sources of Latinx cultural wealth contributed to the successful completion of an
online bachelor’s degree by Latinx working adults who have previously stopped out
of higher education?
3. What are the attitudes towards online education among Latinx working adults who
have successfully returned to college and completed an online bachelor’s degree?
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings from the study. The chapter begins
by describing the participants who passed the qualification survey and completed an interview as
part of the study. The findings will be presented with themes from the data collected and

42
structured and organized around the research questions. Evidence for all findings is provided
through direct quotations from participants.
Participants
Participants were recruited to participate using social media postings, inquiries to various
Latinx or Hispanic non-profits, word-of-mouth, and participant referrals. In addition, participants
were recruited using LinkedIn, an employment-focused social media platform, by targeting
individuals who listed having obtained a bachelor’s degree from schools with known online
degree completion programs and were members of groups with a Latinx or Hispanic theme, such
as Latinx alumni associations or Hispanic networking groups. Due to a low volume of
respondents who initially passed the qualification survey, I received approval from the
University of Southern California’s Office for the Protection of Research Subjects and the
Institutional Review Board to adjust participant criteria and remove the restriction requiring
participants to have graduated with their bachelor’s degree within the last five years. A total of
33 respondents completed the qualification survey, with 16 meeting the criteria to participate in a
full interview. I scheduled and completed interviews with 13 of the 16 qualified respondents.
Table 2 provides a list of participants along with the institution where they completed their
bachelor’s degree, the highest degree level earned at any institution, and whether the student was
a first-generation college student as determined by responses to interview questions. Pseudonyms
have been assigned for each participant to be used in discussing the findings throughout this
chapter.

43
Table 2
Interview Participants
Pseudonym Undergraduate institution
attended
Highest degree
earned
Firstgeneration
college
student?
Elena* Florida International University Bachelor’s Yes
Rick Arizona State University Bachelor’s Yes
Melissa University of Arizona Global
Campus Master’s Yes
Dante* Southern New Hampshire
University Master’s Yes
Alicia Western Governors University Master’s No
Sofia Keiser University Master’s Yes
Maya Western Governors University Master’s No
Samantha University of Maryland Global
Campus Master’s No
Rene* Thomas Edison State University Master’s Yes
Oscar University of Maryland Global
Campus Master’s No
Bethany* Western Governors University Master’s No
Megan Colorado State University Global
Campus Bachelor’s Yes
Andres University of Maryland Global
Campus Master’s Yes
Note. Participants marked with an asterisk (*) were enrolled in a doctoral program at the time of
the interview.

44
Findings Research Question One: Social Cognitive Factors
The study’s first research question probed the self-perceived social cognitive factors
supporting Latinx working adults to complete an online bachelor’s degree. The three themes
identified to answer the first research question were: (a) outcome expectations and goal setting,
(b) ability to self-regulate, and (c) early online success. The following subsections discuss each
of the three themes with detailed evidence.
Outcome Expectations and Goal Setting
When asked to discuss reasons for completing an online bachelor’s degree, 13 out of 13
participants described various outcomes, expectations, and goals associated with degree
completion. Specifically, Dante mentioned that “the beauty of this life is that we can start over if
we’re brave enough … the only way that I can change careers or the only way that I can get more
opportunities is pursuing that degree.” For Oscar, the goal of getting a job that allowed him to
move from sitting in a cubicle to a job in an office led him to pursue a degree. Oscar describes
that he “wanted to know what those other professionals that were sitting inside the offices did.”
Outcomes expectations for successful degree completers who participated in the study included
clearly outlined goals, a better job, or fulfilling a lifelong dream of obtaining a bachelor’s degree.
When looking at first-generation college student participants, six out of eight participants
described personal goals of attaining a degree in addition to career enhancement opportunities,
while none of the non-first-generation students mentioned personal goals. Rene describes how
“earning a degree has been in my mind, a college degree has been in my mind since I was a kid,”
while Melissa said that she “always wanted to have a higher education more than high school.”
While career-oriented goals were consistently mentioned across all participants, discussion of
lifelong personal goals was only prevalent among the first-generation participants.

45
Ability to Self-regulate
According to participants, self-regulatory capability is crucial for completing an online
bachelor’s degree program, with 12 out of 13 participants mentioning how self-regulation
reinforced their ability to complete an online bachelor’s degree successfully. Andres described
“the study habits that I … picked up in online school; I just took with me to my graduate studies.
And it made me much more effective.” Andres further described how “for the first time, I got …
a 4.0 GPA in grad school. … I wouldn’t have been able to pull that off without the skills that I
gained through online studies.” Self-regulatory behaviors identified by the participants who were
successful degree completers included organization, planning, focused time, and study skills.
Table 3 below provides a sample of direct quotations further describing the self-regulatory
behaviors that participants attributed to their success.

46
Table 3
Sample of Self-Regulatory Direct Quotations
Participant Direct quotation
Elena
“I always at the very beginning of the semester, when the syllabus came out,
for each one of my classes, I would chart out and look at the assignments
… So I was able to just on, you know, chart out, okay, what class has the
most assignments? What tests do I have coming on out, and I would plan,
like, certain days, I know certain days were, like, my kids didn’t have
practice on, like, Wednesday, I know that night, I could block out and do
this class.” (Elena, para. 67)
Dante
“What makes me successful was just I developed a plan, I was able to, to
understand how I learned and make sure that I, I put everything in place
for me to be able to succeed … If I didn’t create a space for me and made
everyone around me understand the importance of my schedule, and how I
was going to be able to participate or not have certain things to be able to
get this degree, I wouldn’t have been successful. You have to be very
determined, to say no to things, to miss a few things, or be flexible as well,
just move things around. But you have to make sure that you make up the
time. If you don’t do that, it’s not; it’s not gonna work.” (Dante, para. 181)
Alicia
“So, for me, it was, you know, getting up at 4am. And reading for an hour or
two before the alarm clock even went off, and making sure that I, you
know, plan that time and kind of stuck to it. So that way, you know, or if I
had a paper to write, I’d write until 10am on a Saturday, and then I could
still function with my children and my granddaughter and, you know, still
have a life, and it wasn’t too overwhelming. And every day I did lunch,
and early morning, I did at least an hour or two at night.” (Alicia, para. 61)
Samantha
“I front load. So, I do all my work as soon as that week opens up, and then,
you know, I don’t have to worry about it. I also, I’m addicted to leaving
reminders for myself, so I don’t have to think about anything. I’m just
like, Alexa, remind me, echo, remind me. At the time it was my cal, my
Google calendar, just add things and reminders. And so those were my
two biggest strategies.” (Samantha, para. 121)
Oscar
“I would do a to-do list the night before. I would go over my syllabus, look
over the assignments for that week and do and see which classes required
my time immediately so I would write on my planner and schedule my
homework.” (Oscar, para. 61)

47
Participant Direct quotation
Megan
“I would have to schedule out my day and set certain times of when I was
going to be doing what. Of course, if I knew that there was an event
coming up, I would have to readjust so I can have that set time for me to
study. … Time management, I think that’s a big thing.” (Megan, para. 97)
Andres
“I think the most important strategy was to have some kind of like, for me, the
thing that helped the most was to get out of the house … go to a library,
just camp there, and then only come home just to eat and go to sleep and
then start the next day.” (Andres, para. 79)

48
Early Online Success
Enactive mastery experiences were a significant information source for increased selfefficacy toward degree completion among 11 of 13 participants who referred to early
experiences contributing to the confidence needed to continue toward bachelor’s degree
completion and beyond. Dante described how “I never finished things before this degree. I
always started things. I never finished them.” He recalled, “As I started seeing that I was
finishing a term and then finishing another term, I became very determined to finish.” Bethany
also described a similar experience, commenting that “it was at that point that I was like, oh, hell
yeah, I can do this…It gave me a sense of validation that I didn’t know I was missing.” These
early successes during participants’ first online experiences contributed to the persistence needed
to complete their bachelor’s degrees.
Success in early online courses eventually led to many participants continuing to
complete graduate school degrees. Eleven out of 13 study participants went on to study in
graduate programs after completing their bachelor’s degrees. Of the 11, 10 completed master’s
degrees, three of whom were enrolled in doctorate programs at the time of the interview. One
additional participant went directly from completing a bachelor’s degree to being enrolled in a
doctorate program at the time of the interview. Rene describes how “when you start learning and
… discovering new information that changes the way you think … and the way you see the
world … that’s what happened to me. And once that happened the first time … you want more,
and you want to know more.” Elena described how she was “doing these classes, and I’m doing
good. I’m getting A’s, and I’m like, wow, this is, you know, I started getting more confidence.”
These early enactive mastery experiences provided information sources to build self-efficacy,

49
eventually leading to the participants' completion of bachelor’s degrees and, for 10 of the 13,
completion of master’s degrees.
Discussion Research Question One
Research question one focused on the social cognitive factors associated with online
degree completion among Latinx working adults. Coding was broken down into the three parts
of the reciprocal triad that comprise social cognitive theory: behavior, environment, and personal
and cognitive factors (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019) to evaluate the
results of participant interviews. Perceived self-efficacy components were evaluated separately,
given the many codes that made up that category. Two of the three themes for research question
one come directly from the high frequency of participant coding relating to outcome expectations
and self-regulatory capability. Table 4 below describes the personal and cognitive factors, other
than self-efficacy, which were most prevalent among participants.

50
Table 4
Personal and Cognitive Factors (Excluding Perceived Self-Efficacy)
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Outcome
expectations
“I’m assuming you need a degree of some sort.
And I said, well, if that is what it takes, that is
what it takes, and I must do.” (Oscar, para. 25)
13 48
Selfregulatory
capability
“I think your own determination is just about
everything. … with online, you have to be the
one; you have to be your own driver.” (Maya,
para. 127)
12 35
Forethought
capability
“I know that education is the only way to
success. I am 100% sure. That is the only way
to success in life.” (Rene, para. 109)
12 23

51
To evaluate the components of perceived self-efficacy, codes were created for the
individual components of self-efficacy and grouped into two categories of self-efficacy: (a)
principal sources of efficacy information and (b) classes of psychological processes where selfefficacy judgments function as one proximal determinant (Bandura, 2023). While the
participants described all the psychological components of self-efficacy, the enactive mastery
experiences as an information source fostering increased self-efficacy towards degree completion
stood out as unique among the participant’s belief in their ability to complete a degree. Of the
four information source codes, enactive mastery experiences had a noticeably larger participant
count than the others, as described by 11 of 13 participants. Table 5 below outlines both the
participant count and frequency count of both the psychological and information source
categories fostering increased self-efficacy along with example direct quotations.

52
Table 5
Perceived Self-Efficacy Factors by Source of Efficacy Information and Psychological Processes
Category Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Information
source
Enactive
mastery
experiences
“Once I kind of got comfortable
with that process and passed
the first class, then I felt more
confident in going through the
rest of the program.”
(Bethany, para. 109)
11 27
Information
source
Vicarious
experiences
“My older brother was also
taking online classes. So, he
kind of told me … here are
some of the things that [you]
should … put your efforts
into.” (Alicia, para. 79)
7 23
Information
source
Verbal
persuasion
“My husband … was like, hey,
you know, why don’t you?
Have you thought about
finishing your degree?”
(Elena, para.19)
7 19
Information
source
Physiological
and
affective
states
“I’m traveling too much. And I
want to go to school, I want to
take the classes, but I don’t
want to get sick by stress or
anxiety.” (Melissa, para. 85)
5 7
Psychological Motivational
Processes
“I think it’s important that you
do have … at least one person
that, you know, can help you
go through that journey. And
in any kind of roadblock, kind
of help you push through that.
Because, there’s obviously, so
many things that come up
when you’re, when you’re
finishing your degree.” (Elena,
para. 85)
11 32

53
Category Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Psychological Cognitive
Processes
“Hey, you have an opportunity
to do something that you
probably wouldn’t have been
able to do … I wasn’t going
back to [the] classroom [and]
gonna put myself on campus.”
(Rick, para. 133)
12 23
Psychological Affective
Processes
“Unstoppable. Yeah. And loved,
obviously, like so loved and so
grateful.” (Maya, para. 145)
12 22
Psychological Selection
Processes
“The culture was such that I had
to choose, I had to make that
choice … I didn’t have that
pressure, I had to make that
choice. And it was probably
better that way … it wasn’t
like something I felt was
forced.” (Andres, para. 127)
8 13

54
Behavioral factors relating to degree completion, as described in the conceptual
framework in Figure 1, were discussed extensively among the participants. This discussion
demonstrated the reciprocal relationship between these behavioral factors, the environment, and
personal and cognitive factors that comprise social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001,
2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019). Twelve out of 13 participants separately described behaviors
associated with enrollment, persistence, and completion of online degree programs. Table 6
below demonstrates the consistency of participants describing enrollment, persistence, and
completion behaviors, with persistence behaviors being described more frequently than the
others. Later in this chapter, the findings surrounding research question number three include a
discussion about the higher education environmental factors associated with social cognitive
theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019) and are therefore not
duplicated here.

55
Table 6
Behavioral Factors Relating to Degree Completion
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Persistence
behaviors
“You just keep working at it, and eventually
you’re going to be done. Just, you know,
don’t give up.” (Elena, para. 31)
12 39
Completion
behaviors
“Determination. Consistency. Yeah, that’s,
that’s, that’s it. I was determined to finish. I
was not going to stop in the middle. I wanted
to complete it.” (Melissa, para. 163)
12 29
Enrollment
behaviors
“I have to get; I need to get more educated. So,
that’s when I decided to pursue my
bachelor’s degree.” (Rene, para. 25)
12 25

56
Findings Research Question Two: Sources of Latinx Cultural Wealth
The study’s second research question probed the sources of Latinx cultural wealth that
contributed to the success of Latinx working adults in completing an online bachelor’s degree.
Three themes emerged from the interviews in response to the second research question: (a) past
and future legacy, (b) navigational capital, and (c) social support. The following subsections
discuss the three themes with detailed evidence gathered from participant interviews.
Past and Future Legacy
Participants consistently referenced familial capital, with all 13 participants describing
elements of familial capital in their interviews. In addition to describing the support that they
received from their families, nine of the 13 included references to honoring the legacy of past
family members. Dante described it as a “feeling of not giving up or motivating myself, even
when I’m not motivated, just thinking about my grandparents and everything. They went through
raising 10 kids with a third-grade education, and you know, I have no excuses.” Bethany
similarly described how she was “doing this for my grandparents. I’m doing this for my family.
I’m doing this for, you know, the people that are no longer here because … I’m my ancestors’
wildest dreams.” For several participants, there was a sense of pride and fulfillment of a desire
that parents and grandparents wanted more for their children and grandchildren than they had.
Many also wanted to be good role models for future generations of their family. Nine out
of 13 participants described their desire to provide their children with a future legacy. When
describing her desire to be a role model for her children, Maya said, “I also wanted to show my
kids that it didn’t matter. You know, you can, as long as you are determined, you have the
support of your family, like you can do anything. Doesn’t matter how old you are.” This desire

57
motivated several participants towards degree completion, in addition to the general support that
they received from their respective families.
Navigational Capital
Whether provided by friends, family members, or others, navigational capital was a
critical factor in enrolling, persisting, and completing an online bachelor’s degree program by
participants, with 11 of 13 participants referring to various forms of navigational capital. Rene
described how he looked up to his cousin, who was a college professor. “He was a very talented,
talented person. And I said, one day, I want to be like him; I want to be there too.” For others,
like Maya, the navigational capital was found through assigned mentors. She describes her
“experience of having a mentor, like what that means to have somebody in your corner.”
Similarly, Alicia said “I found that I had a mentor, they checked in, they held me accountable.”
Among the various sources of navigational capital, the participants consistently described the
benefit of having someone to support their efforts to complete their degree successfully.
Social Support
Participants consistently referenced social capital, with all 13 referencing it and many
describing support they received from co-workers and peers. Alicia described how her coworkers were inspired to join her in returning to school and finishing their degrees. “So, when
they said, if you can do it, we can do it, of course, I was like, well, yeah. You know, done. Let’s
do it. So, yeah, I’ve been really lucky to have great support.” Participants also referenced senior
leaders, church friends, office managers, and classmates who provided support and motivation
when completing their degrees.

58
Discussion Research Question Two
Research question two focused on the Latinx cultural wealth factors contributing to
online degree completion among Latinx working adults who previously quit higher education.
Coding was broken down into the six factors that comprise the Latinx cultural wealth model:
aspirational capital, navigational capital, familial capital, social capital, resistance capital, and
linguistic capital. Familial, social, and navigational capital were the most prevalent factors
described among participants. Table 7 below provides participant counts, frequency counts, and
examples of the Latinx cultural wealth model factors described among participants.

59
Table 7
Latinx Cultural Wealth Model Factors
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Familial
Capital
“My family members because they’re the ones who
are always close to me. They are really in support
of me. They have supported me, they have
encouraged me, they have been my pillar for
success, and they are always a pillar for my
motivation. So, they have had a positive influence
to me achieving the bachelor’s degree.” (Sofia,
para. 118)
13 75
Social Capital
“When you are surrounded by people that they want
you to be successful. You feel, you feel empowered.
… that kind of support helps you to keep moving
forward.” (Rene, para. 163)
13 62
Navigational
Capital
“I think a mentor is probably the best thing … who’s
actually already been through who already has a
degree who can kind of coach you along … and be
a cheerleader … and give you advice.” (Elena, para.
115)
11 42
Aspirational
Capital
“The most important thing was having more career
opportunities … to own my home, have vehicles,
start a family.” (Andres, para. 91)
10 25
Linguistic
Capital
“Coming from another country, having another
language, having your limited vocabulary, that
limited, also how people see you how people think
about you, but having a better education, have
extended the language … you can be able to
communicate with different people. I think that,
most than anything else have helped me in my
confidence.” (Melissa, para. 67)
8 14
Resistance
Capital
“I’m going to places that they would have never been
able to walk into. And here I am, like occupying
spaces. So, it became more of a request for like
liberation through education, rather than just I’m
getting a degree … you’re like, I’m doing this to, to
give honor to the people who have walked before
me.” (Bethany, para. 139)
5 7

60
Findings Research Question Three: Attitudes Towards Online Education
The third research question for the study was focused on the attitudes toward online
education among Latinx working adults who successfully returned to college and completed an
online bachelor’s degree. Three themes were identified to answer the third research question: (a)
social connections, (b) flexibility and convenience, and (c) the encouragement of other Latinx
working adults to enroll and complete their bachelor’s degree online. The following subsections
discuss these themes, along with detailed evidence gathered from participant interviews.
Social Connections
Participants valued social connections made through attendance in online programs,
whether with peers, advisors, mentors, or instructors. Dante described how “it’s weird because
you’re studying online, but there has to be some sort of connection. Even though we’re apart,
there has to be; we have to feel that we’re connected to the class, we’re connected to our
classmates.” Alicia described her connection with classmates through “the course chatter there’s
always questions, you know, and we’re able to, you know, just be privately inspirational to
them,” and Samantha mentioned that while she is more introverted, for others, “being able to
socialize online better really increases their experience and opportunity.” Finally, Andres
suggested for future online students to find study partners “to make it social, right, to find others
that are in the same educational track, to go through it together.”
However, not all programs offer synchronous sessions, and some participants, like Sofia,
describe how they can be less productive when studying online because “there is nobody who is
watching you.” She described how asynchronous courses “don’t have the interaction … with
other students. So, your confidence might have reduced.” In several interviews, participants
described the social connections that occurred with faculty, advisors, or classmates, and for those

61
who attended primarily asynchronous programs, the connections with instructors and assigned
mentors were even more prevalent as a source of motivation and support. See Table 8 below for
a sample of direct quotations discussing social connections with faculty and advisors. Table 9
below identifies opportunities for greater connection in online bachelor’s degree programs.

62
Table 8
Sample of Social Connections with Faculty and Advisors Direct Quotations
Participant Direct quotation
Elena*
“They did have these advisors that I met with, like, periodically, just to make
sure that, you know… I stayed on track. … I always need that. I did need
that reassurance, too. … I really kind of needed one person to kind of keep
me on track, like an actual really good advisor.” (Elena, para. 133)
Maya*
“Assigned mentors, … it was a 15-minute call every week. … That strategy is
a huge, you know, it ties you to the school. It gives you that, that contact,
but it also gives you the accountability. You have to be accountable to
someone.” (Maya, para. 115)
Sofia
“With good teachers, of course. Good kinds of teachers in the way that they
elaborate the system. … So, I feel like if we have teachers who can always
be welcoming, not matter what the situation is, they’ll be understanding.
That will be helpful to many students” (Sofia, para. 202)
Alicia*
“I had really good support. I was scared I was going to be alone. And I was
going to, you know, come into issues, and not have a support, you know.
But I found that I had a mentor, they checked in, they held me accountable.
… I didn’t feel like I was alone, even if I was online.” (Alicia, para. 55)
Note. Participants marked with an asterisk (*) are assumed to have received primarily
asynchronous instruction based on their descriptions of their online learning environments.

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Table 9
Sample of Social Connections Improvement Opportunities Direct Quotations
Participant Direct quotation
Rick*
“Having a conversation about what I was about to undertake. I think that would
have been something I would have valued. Because it was, it was all online,
right? So, it’s email here, email here, read the intro here. Click to start, right,
instead of like, hey, here’s what we’re gonna do … I think it would have
been beneficial, especially because I think culturally, like, I think Latinos
tend to want to be communal, in thought, and in action.” (Rick, para. 169)
Dante*
“And there are some classes that I think, and I still think that required more of
like a Zoom meeting where I can just ask questions and get an answer right
away. You know, for, you know, online learning, sometimes you don’t get
the professor, you just finished modules, turn in assignments, and then you
have to wait for the feedback.” (Dante, para. 55)
Oscar
“I think more time with your professor would be good. More time with, I don’t
know, maybe partnering … with another person in your class to ask them
questions.” (Oscar, para. 157)
Alicia*
“You would have to set an appointment with the instructor. And I wanted the
answers now, you know, not three days from now, that, you know, if they
were more available, or if I could just shoot a quick email and they
responded very quickly, that worked better for me. But if it was some
professor that I had to schedule time with, that’s difficult because my
schedule is so crazy, you know.” (Alicia, para. 151)
Sofia
“So if there is a forum created, like some minutes before the class, that people
can be given some minutes to interact with each other and just know the
people who are in that class and all that, I guess that is one of the things like
it will be a like it will be a group meeting in the class. That is one of the
things that would be very beneficial to online learners.” (Sofia, para. 202)
Note. Participants marked with an asterisk (*) are assumed to have received primarily
asynchronous instruction based on their descriptions of their online learning environments.

64
Flexibility and Convenience
The flexibility and convenience of online programs were considered the main benefits of
online education among participants. Nine of the 13 participants discussed flexibility, and nine of
the 13 participants discussed convenience. Combined, all 13 participants discussed either
convenience, flexibility, or both as a primary benefit of attending an online program to complete
their bachelor’s degree. Elena described how “flexibility is really important when you’re
working with the schoolwork and just kind of, I think, the understanding … that they know
you’re a working professional.” Similarly, Rene talked about how online education is
“convenient. I think that’s the word that describes online education the best.” Several
participants described that completing their degree while working would not be possible without
the convenience and flexibility of online programs due to the added time needed to drive to
campus. Additionally, many campus-based courses were only offered during times that
conflicted with other commitments.
Do it!
Participants encouraged other Latinx working adults with some college but no degree to
just “do it” and enroll in online programs designed for the student experience. When asked what
they would recommend to others considering completing a bachelor’s degree online, 11 out of 13
participants recommended doing so. When talking about the institution that she attended,
Bethany said, “…and now I tell everybody to go, like, they’re like, oh, I work, I can’t go to
classes all day, I was like, hey …they have your program there … whatever it is, they’re there
for you.” Megan recommended that others “just have some discipline, patience, and
determination. Because it’s possible, you can do it.” None of the participants discouraged others
from attending an online degree completion program. However, one participant suggested trying

65
out online courses at a local community college before enrolling in an online-only university to
try out online courses since it is a different learning environment. Table 10 below provides a
sample of some of the recommendations articulated by participants.

66
Table 10
Sample of Participant Recommendation Direct Quotations
Participant Direct quotation
Elena
“I always tell people, you know, you can definitely do it. If you’re working
full-time. And you find a program online; it’s a very attainable goal. And
it’s, it’s certainly night and day different than having to actually go in
person. … I don’t know if I would have finished if I had to physically drive
to a school.” (Elena, para. 151)
Rick
“Answer the email. I just say do it. … So, I would say, yeah, you missed the
first bus stop. But let’s get the third bus stop. Let’s pick up the third bus and
do the same thing: do everything you want to do. And just get it done. I
think, I think we, as adult students who didn’t finish the traditional way,
have a lot of pressure to not go back. Oh, I can’t go to class. I can’t ever be a
student again. And that’s a shame because I was in that boat. And I’m so
glad I did it.” (Rick, para. 193)
Melissa
“I think anyone can do it, honestly. … [If] you want to commit to do this
flexible study that will depend on you. You have to do the commitment to
yourself.” (Melissa, para. 169)
Rene
“I encourage anyone who wants with family, working adult, to earn the, to, to
earn a degree, to do it online. It’s very convenient, it’s efficient, and it works
well.” (Rene, para. 19)
Samantha “I mean, I really, if I could do it all over again. I would do it all over again.”
(Samantha, para. 115)

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Discussion Research Question Three
Research question three focused on the attitudes towards online education among Latinx
working adults who completed an online bachelor’s degree. Participant interviews were coded to
evaluate environmental factors and were broken down into the four social cognitive components
focused on the higher education environment as described in the conceptual framework. These
consisted of the online learning climate, peer and institutional support, financial support and
barriers, and technology support and barriers. Almost all participants described all four
environmental factors of higher education, and frequency counts were high for several
components. In vivo coding for emergent themes was applied to the four environmental factors
to identify the attitudes toward online education. Table 11 below provides participant counts,
frequency counts, and examples of the higher education environment factors.

68
Table 11
Higher Education Environment Factors
Codes Example direct quotation Participant
count
Frequency
count
Peer and
institutional
support
“There has to be those resources, but resources
that are flexible enough that they could do
things like offer weekend hours, or night
hours, remote, so I don’t have to go in person.
Nowadays, that’s like, the technology’s there,
that’s just a matter of putting in the resources
to support students with tutoring.” (Andres,
para. 163)
13 100
Online learning
climate
“Online learning is different because you get
people from all over the states. And you don’t
get to choose when you have to work in pairs
or in groups.” (Dante, para. 145)
12 68
Technology
support and
barriers
“I was like, wow, and everything’s paperless.
And I actually, when I graduated from high
school, I was using a typewriter. I couldn’t
afford a … computer. So, I would actually
type my papers on a typewriter. So, for me to
be able to type papers, and digitally, you
know, and then you got your grades
immediately. And you can take your tests
online. I really because I do like technology.
So, to me, I was like, this is amazing. I’m
loving this, absolutely loving this.” (Elena,
para. 61)
12 66
Financial
support and
barriers
“If it’s like a choice between going to school and
your family, culturally, you’re always going
to choose your family, but then at the
detriment of boosting your family’s wellbeing, your, your economics … by having
online and being, you know provided I mean,
so many schools, they have … tuition benefits
… to help remove all those barriers and have
people understand they don’t have to choose
between, you know, the two can live
together.” (Maya, para. 205)
12 33

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Summary
Three research questions were used to guide this study. The first question addressed the
self-perceived social cognitive facilitators for completing an online bachelor’s degree among
Latinx working adults who had previously dropped out of higher education. The three themes
that emerged during the data analysis to answer this question were: (a) goal clarity and outcomes
expectations, (b) ability to self-regulate, and (c) early online success. The second question
focused on the sources of Latinx cultural wealth that contributed to successful degree
completion. The sources that were most frequently discussed by participants were: (a) familial
capital and, more specifically, past and future legacy, (b) navigational capital, and (c) social
capital in the form of support. The third question aimed to understand the attitudes towards
online education from the participant group. The themes that emerged were: (a) the value of
social connections in online education, (b) the significant benefit of flexibility and convenience
provided by online education, and (c) the consistent recommendation for others to follow a
similar path.
There is some overlap between the findings and the three research questions. In
particular, the social aspect is identified in the findings for research questions two and three. In
research question two, the theme describes how social capital is a source of cultural strength that
provides the motivation and support needed to reach degree completion. In research question
three, the social connections provided as part of the online learning environment reinforce the
importance of social interaction within an online learning environment, whether from peers or
faculty and advisors. These themes also relate to the first research question and social cognitive
theory with the reciprocal relationship between environmental, personal, and behavioral factors
(Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001, 2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019). Each reinforces the other and

70
supports how Latinx cultural wealth components reinforce and provide sources of capital that
can influence all three components of triadic reciprocal causation of behavior change.
The findings show that no single factor leads to Latinx working adults’ successful
completion of an online degree. A combination of social cognitive factors such as enactive
mastery, outcomes expectations, and self-regulatory capability, sources of cultural wealth like
navigational, social, and familial capital, and programs designed for working adults propelled the
study’s Latinx participants to successful completion of bachelor’s degrees and beyond. These
findings directly influence the recommendations outlined in chapter five below.

71
Chapter Five: Recommendations
To put context around the findings and the importance of the problem of Latinx working
adults without bachelor’s degrees, this chapter will begin by introducing an economic theory that
provides the basis for a theory of change to inform recommendations. As part of this discussion,
an analysis outlining the value of obtaining a degree for individuals will be given, followed by an
analysis of the value of increasing the number of completed bachelor’s degrees in society.
Recommendations that emerged from the findings from chapter four will then be introduced
along with limitations, delimitations, and future research recommendations.
Economic Theory
Human capital theory is the economic theory providing the foundational basis for the
recommendations. Human capital is “the productive capacities – knowledge, understandings,
talents, and skills – possessed by an individual or society; and investment in human capital refers
to expenditures on education, health, and other activities that augment these productive
capacities” (Paulsen, 2001, p. 56). Students make human capital investment choices where and
when they decide to enroll and persist to the completion of a bachelor’s degree (Becker, 1993;
Paulsen, 2001; Schultz, 1961; Sweetland, 1996). Investment in higher education as a form of
human capital investment is attractive to individuals and governments, higher education
institutions, and society due to the greater productive capacity of individual workers (Becker,
1993; Paulsen, 2001; Schultz, 1961; Sweetland, 1996). The following section will explore the
various individual benefits from a human capital investment in higher education, followed by a
summary of the societal and government benefits from the investments.

72
Individual Benefits
As described in the first chapter, workers completing additional education earn more and
benefit from increased economic stability throughout their careers. Levin et al. (2018) summarize
nine separate studies that attempt to quantify the lifetime earnings that result from bachelor’s
degrees over high school graduation using various sources such as the Survey of Income and
Program Participation (SIPP), the Internal Revenue Service tax files (IRS), Current Population
Survey (CPS), and the American Community Survey (ACS). The average of the nine studies
results in an average earnings gain of $532,701 when adjusted to 2023 dollars using an inflation
rate of 2.9%, which is the average monthly Consumer Price Index (CPI) 12-month percent
change between 2015 and 2023 (BLS, n.d.).
When looking at the difference in earnings among Latinx who complete college and
those who do not, and adjusting to 2023 dollars using an average inflation rate of 5%
representing the average monthly CPI 12-month percent change between 2021 and 2023 (BLS,
n.d.), there is a median difference of $16,000 in annual earnings between bachelor’s degree
holders and high school grads and a median difference of $11,000 in annual earnings between
bachelor’s degree holders and associate’s degree holders (NCES, 2022c). This represents a 38%
earnings gain between Latinx bachelor’s degree holders and high school graduates and a 26%
earnings gain between Latinx associate’s degree holders. The earnings gain difference between
Latinx bachelor’s degree graduates is smaller than average. This can be explained by the gap
between Whites and Latinx median earnings among bachelor’s degree holders. The median
annual earnings for a White bachelor’s degree holder is $72,000 in 2023 dollars compared to
$57,330 for a Latinx bachelor’s degree holder (NCES, 2022c). This difference is partially driven
by Latinx college graduates being overrepresented in lower-paying occupations and

73
underrepresented in higher-paying occupations such as those in Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields (Carnivale & Fasules, 2017). The percentage of the Latinx
labor force ages 25-34 who worked full-time, year-round, in 2021 was 72.7% for bachelor’s
degree holders, 64.7% for associate’s degree holders, and 67.9% for high school graduates
(NCES, 2022c). These data points are representative of the period during the COVID-19
pandemic, where workers with more education were more likely to keep their jobs and work
remotely than workers with less education (Carnevale & Fasules, 2020).
In addition to increased earnings, college degree holders save more for retirement.
Adjusted to 2023 dollars, college degree holders, on average, save $137,000 for retirement
compared to $46,000 for non-degree holders (Tax Policy Center, 2021). Compared to 68.1% of
bachelor’s degree holders, only 42.6% of workers without a bachelor’s degree have a retirement
plan at work, and of this group, only 36.4% of Latinx workers have a retirement plan at work as
compared to 58.4% of White workers (Sabelhaus, 2022). Not only are there significant financial
individual benefits to obtaining a bachelor’s degree, like more significant income, a higher
likelihood of employment, and greater retirement savings, there are other positive individual
benefits, such as better health, a higher likelihood of marriage, and a lower likelihood of being
incarcerated (Trostel, 2015).
Societal Benefits
While the personal gains from higher education are significant, several additional benefits
to society come with increased bachelor’s degree completion. People with a bachelor’s degree
are more likely to volunteer. An estimated 32% of U.S. bachelor’s degree holders formally
volunteered in their communities, compared to 14% of high school graduates (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2023). People with a bachelor’s degree are also more likely to vote. Seventy-eight

74
percent of U.S. bachelor’s degree holders reported participating in the 2020 election compared to
56% of high school graduates (U.S. Census Bureau, 2021a). U.S. bachelor’s degree holders are
also less likely to live in households that receive public assistance such as Medicaid,
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), or housing assistance (Ma & Pender,
2023). Adjusted to 2023 dollars, the average bachelor’s degree holder contributes $352,000 more
to local economies than the average high school graduate through direct spending throughout his
or her lifetime (Rothwell, 2015). Further, bachelor’s degree holders contribute an additional
$56,000, adjusted to 2023 dollars, in additional state and local taxes over their lifetime
(Rothwell, 2015). Including federal taxes, property taxes, sales taxes, and lower government
expenditures on government public assistance services and social insurance programs, the
lifetime total fiscal effect for a bachelor’s degree holder is estimated to be $450,000 using 2023
dollars as compared to a high school graduate (Trostel, 2015).
Theory of Change
Given the significant benefits to individuals and society of increased bachelor’s degree
completion, several potential interventions and audiences can be considered. For example,
interventions could be targeted directly to students, such as peer mentoring programs and adult
academic counseling programs focused on addressing information asymmetry. Alternatively,
interventions could be focused on policymakers and employers addressing the many financial
barriers and constraints that Latinx working adults with some college but no degree face. The
recommendations below focus on higher education institutions and their ability to increase online
programming for Latinx working adults with some college but no degree.
The theory of change is that higher education institutions can make a difference in Latinx
adult re-enrollment and completion by offering online bachelor’s degree completion programs

75
designed with the Latinx working adult in mind. In a study of adults who returned to school to
complete their degrees in any format (N = 325), 88% cited supportive school faculty and staff as
the top factor that helped them persevere and get through school (Sheffer et al., 2020). A
separate study of successful returning adult students (N = 1360) similarly found that higher
education institutions can make a difference in adult re-enrollment, as students viewed
institutional support as very helpful to re-enrolling (Gale, 2022). Both studies describe the need
for additional time to complete a degree, reduction of financial and administrative barriers, and
flexible programs with delivery of courses at times and formats, such as online or hybrid courses
that are designed with the needs of adult learners, as significant factors to adult students
persevering to completion (Gale, 2022; Sheffer et al., 2020).
Recommendation 1: Purposefully Develop Self-Regulatory Skills
The study’s data demonstrated that goal clarity and outcomes expectations, selfregulation, and early online success reinforced participants’ ability to complete an online
bachelor’s degree successfully. Recognizing the importance of personal and cognitive factors
such as self-regulatory capability and self-efficacy for success in degree completion, the first
recommendation is for higher education institutions with online degree completion programs to
pay attention to early experiences and build tools for Latinx working adults to develop the
necessary self-regulatory skills for success. For example, this can be done through skill-based
workshops on scheduling, planning, setting reminders, and study skills. Additionally, institutions
should incorporate the importance of these skills for Latinx working adults into faculty and staff
professional development.
This recommendation is grounded in social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997, 2001,
2023; Schunk & Usher, 2019). One of the implementation strategies for social cognitive theory is

76
to “encourage the use of self-regulatory strategies, including goal setting and self-evaluation, to
enhance learning and performance” (K. Hirabayashi, personal communication, June 3, 2022). In
addition, the expectancy value theory (Eccles, 1983) contains a principle that states that
“focusing instruction to help people develop their self-efficacy, rather than global self-esteem,
increases performance” (E. Patall, personal communication, July 4, 2022). Koh et al. (2022)
conducted a study of ethnically diverse incoming first-year students to a large, urban, public
university (N = 3,316) and found that increased behavioral regulation enhanced academic
success and that intervention programs focused on behavioral regulation should be used to meet
the needs of students. In a study focused on online courses, Barnard et al. (2008) found that
online self-regulatory learning behaviors act as a mediator in the relationship between online
course perceptions and achievement.
Recommendation 2: Enable and Activate Sources of Cultural Wealth
The study’s data also demonstrated that past and future legacy, navigational capital, and
social support were significant sources of cultural wealth among participants. The second
recommendation is for higher education institutions with existing online programs to focus on
the value of navigational, social, and familial capital and develop tools for Latinx working adults
to enable and activate sources of cultural wealth. Examples include showcasing successful
completers as role models, creating a peer mentorship program for online students, or developing
a knowledge base for advice. This knowledge base could contain elements of navigational
capital, such as advice for selecting an online program, the enrollment process, handling transfer
credits, and sources of funding.
This recommendation is rooted in Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth model and
is informed by sociocultural theory (Searle, 2017). One of the principles of sociocultural theory

77
is that in learning environments, you want to build on the opportunity that social interaction,
cooperative learning, and cognitive apprenticeships that include mentorships, coaching models,
and reciprocal teaching to facilitate the construction of new knowledge (C. L. Malloy, personal
communication, May 27, 2022). An additional principle of sociocultural theory is that learning
tasks similar to those common to the individual’s familiar cultural settings will promote learning
and transfer (C. L. Malloy, personal communication, May 27, 2022). In a study aimed at
identifying what institutions can learn from the navigational capital of minoritized students, one
of the findings was for institutions to “get the word out about resources” (Covarrubias et al.,
2022, p. 46). In a separate study focused on the navigational capital of Latinx engineering
transfer students, Denton & Borrego (2021) found that social agents, such as faculty and peers,
often initiate relationships that provide resources, encouragement, and emotional support.
Recommendation 3: Increase the Number of Thoughtfully Designed Programs
Finally, the study’s data found that Latinx working adults benefit from and appreciate
programs designed with the student experience in mind, incorporating convenience, flexibility,
and opportunities for social interaction. The third and final recommendation is to utilize design
thinking methodologies and concepts such as human-centered design and ideation to understand
further the needs of Latinx working adult students, materialize innovative ways to provide
greater institutional support, and increase the number of thoughtfully designed programs. Design
thinking can also be incorporated into expanding the number of flexible and convenient
programs providing faculty access and mentorship. Finally, design thinking should be utilized to
continually evaluate the experience of Latinx working adults in existing online degree
completion programs.

78
This recommendation leverages design thinking, an idea that states that “the ways
professional designers problem-solve is of value to firms trying to innovate and to societies
trying to make change happen” (Kimbell, 2011, p. 285). In an article describing the applicability
of design thinking in online higher education environments, Zevoits et al. (2021) discuss the
need to challenge assumptions that online experiences need to be compared and measured
against in-person experiences, that technology is at the center of design thinking online, and that
we should aim for ‘best practice’ in design thinking online. Expanding the concept of design
thinking to higher education with equity in mind, Culver et al. (2021) describe how “successful
higher education designers infuse equity-mindedness, both inward- and outward-looking, into
every phase of design thinking” (Culver et al., 2021, p. 6).
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations of the study include participant self-selection into the study, which skewed
the participant group to those willing to share their experiences, and the truthfulness of the
respondents. Delimitations for the study include the decisions made surrounding interviews, such
as the small number of interview participants and convenience and snowball sampling approach
that provided valuable insights but may not necessarily represent the broader Latinx working
adult population. Given the limited time of 60 minutes to conduct an interview, it was not
feasible to review every item of the conceptual framework thoroughly with all participants. The
quality of the interview data depended on the researcher’s skill in eliciting responses that allowed
the researcher to enter the participants' world (Patton, 2002).
The researcher did not use gender as a criterion for selection as a participant in the study,
which may delimit the applicability of study findings to a broader population. In addition, the
investigator focused only on graduates from fully online programs at 4-year institutions, even

79
though many students choose to take online courses but are not enrolled at 4-year institutions or
exclusively in online courses, and many students who do take online courses do not graduate.
This may delimit the applicability of any findings to all Latinx working adult online students.
Despite the limitations and delimitations of this study, it was still worthwhile to proceed in order
to gain the insights needed to address the research questions.
Recommendations for Future Research
Recommendations for future research include further investigating non-completers,
immigrants, and those completers who attended institutions with various institutional
characteristics or organizational structures, such as private for-profit institutions. While this
study focused on those who were successful, further research to explore the experiences and
outcomes of Latinx working adults who started an online bachelor’s degree program but did not
complete the program is recommended to identify similarities and differences between those who
were successful and those who were unsuccessful. Second, a subset of participants in the study
were immigrants with a unique viewpoint surrounding degree completion in the United States.
Several referred to cultural wealth factors from relatives who had pursued and completed high
levels of education in their home country. While this was outside of the scope of the current
study, it is recommended that future research be conducted on the subgroup of Latinx working
adults who completed an online bachelor’s degree who are also immigrants and non-native
English speakers. Finally, a third recommendation for future research is to compare and contrast
the experiences of Latinx working adults based on the organizational structure of the institutions
attended or group experiences by other institutional characteristics such as HSI status or by
various levels of selectivity in the institution’s traditional on-ground programs. Participants in
this study were a mix of graduates who attended public or private, not-for-profit institutions.

80
Future research focusing on working adult Latinx completers could be segmented further by
public, private not-for-profit, and private for-profit institutions.
Connection to the USC Rossier Mission
The mission of USC Rossier School of Education (2024) is to prepare leaders to achieve
educational equity through practice, research, and policy. This study focused on addressing
disparities affecting Latinx working adults, a historically marginalized group. The conceptual
framework specifically values and respects the cultural context of the participants' communities,
in alignment with the mission. Similarly, through the findings and recommendations, the study
identifies innovative thinking and research in an attempt to solve an intractable educational
problem.
Conclusion
Utilizing the main themes of the conceptual framework, the study focused on social
cognitive elements, sources of cultural wealth, and perceptions of the online learning
environment for Latinx working adults completing an online degree. Goal clarity, self-regulation,
and early online success were identified as important social cognitive factors leading to
successful outcomes. These findings led to a recommendation for higher education institutions
with online degree completion programs to pay attention to early experiences and build tools for
Latinx working adults to develop the necessary self-regulatory skills for success. Past and future
legacy, navigational capital, and social support were significant sources of cultural wealth among
participants, leading to a recommendation for higher education institutions with existing online
programs to activate and enable sources of cultural wealth for Latinx working adults attending
online degree completion programs. Finally, Latinx working adult participants benefited from
and appreciated programs designed with the student experience in mind, incorporating

81
convenience, flexibility, and opportunities for social interaction. These findings led to the third
and final recommendation to utilize design thinking methodologies and concepts such as humancentered design and ideation to understand further the needs of Latinx working adult students,
materialize innovative ways to provide greater institutional support, and increase the number of
thoughtfully designed programs. The number of adults with some college but without a
bachelor’s degree is substantial and grows yearly. Latinx working adults without bachelor’s
degrees face significant barriers to economic stability and upward mobility that impact not only
the current generation but future generations as well. As a result, higher education institutions at
all levels have an opportunity to offer online bachelor’s degrees designed to provide access and
opportunity to adult learners and promote equity for marginalized Latinx working adults.

82
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Appendix A: Qualification Survey Questions
Question Open or
Closed?
Level of
Measurement.
(nominal,
ordinal,
interval,
ratio)
Response options (if close-ended)
1. What is the highest
level of school you
have completed or
the highest degree
you have received?
Closed Ordinal a. Less than High School
Graduate
b. HIGH SCHOOL
GRADUATE: high school
DIPLOMA or the equivalent
(For example: GED)
c. Some college but no degree
d. Associate degree in college:
Occupational/vocational
program
e. Associate degree in college:
Academic program
f. Bachelor’s degree (For
example: BA, AB, BS)
g. Master’s degree (For example:
MA, MS, Meng, Med, MSW,
MBA)
h. Professional School Degree
(For example: MD, DDS,
DVM, LLB, JD)
i. Doctorate degree (For example:
PhD, EdD)
2. If answer f, g, h, or i,
then continue, else
show non-qualified
response.
If non-qualified, show the
following message:
“Unfortunately, you do not
meet the qualifications for
this study. Thank you for
your time and interest.”
3. Please provide the
name of the
institution where you
completed your
bachelor’s degree.
Open Nominal
4. Did you graduate
with your bachelor’s
degree between 2018
Closed Ordinal a. Yes
b. No

102
and 2023 (within the
last 5 years)?
5. Did you complete
your bachelor’s
degree online?
Closed Ordinal a. Yes
b. No
6. Did you complete
your bachelor’s
degree while working
either full-time or
part-time?
Closed Ordinal a. Yes
b. No
7. Did you begin your
bachelor’s degree or
return to complete
your bachelor’s
degree after the age
of 25?
Closed Ordinal c. Yes
d. No
8. Do you identify as
any of the following
racial or ethnic
categories? Hispanic,
Latino/a, Latin@,
Latine, Latinx,
Mexican, Central
American, South
American, Spanish,
Spanish American,
All other Hispanic
Closed Ordinal a. Yes
b. No
If participants answer as having completed a bachelor’s degree and answer yes to
questions four through eight, and are selected to participate in the study, they will be provided
study documents, including any required information sheets required by the University of
Southern California Institutional Review Board, along with a link to schedule time for an
interview. If the participant does not meet these qualifications, the survey will explain that they
do not qualify for the study and will thank them for taking the time to complete the survey.

103
Appendix B: Interview Protocol
Introduction to the Interview:
• Thank you for agreeing to meet with me. My name is Greg, and I am a doctoral student at
the University of Southern California.
• The purpose of this study is to explore the experiences and outcomes of Latinx working
adults who have completed a bachelor’s degree online.
• This interview is confidential; I will not include your name or any other information that
could identify you in any reports I write.
• I am going to take a couple of notes while we are talking so that I can capture
your ideas and come back to them if I need to.
• I would also like to record our conversation if that is okay with you. The purpose
of the recording is to make sure I capture your perspectives accurately, and only I
will see the recording. It is a way for me to go back to what you have said to
ensure I am capturing your perspectives. Would that be okay with you?
• Do you have any questions about this study before we begin?
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Addressed Key Concept
Addressed
1. Please describe your
educational background,
including your
experience with online
higher education.
1, 3
Environment,
Behavior
2. Why did you decide to
pursue a bachelor’s
degree while working?
What factors influenced
your decision?
Personal and cognitive
factors?
Environmental factors?
Behavioral factors?
Cultural Factors?
Role models? 1, 2, 3
Social
cognitive
factors, Latinx
cultural
wealth,
attitudes
toward online
learning

104
3. Why did you choose to
complete your degree
online?
What factors influenced
your decision?
Personal and cognitive
factors?
Environmental factors?
Behavioral factors?
Cultural Factors?
Role models?
Benefits and drawbacks
of online education from
your perspective? 1, 2, 3
Social
cognitive
factors, Latinx
cultural
wealth,
attitudes
toward online
learning
4. How has the online
learning experience
affected your confidence
in doing well
academically?
How, if an any way, did
your beliefs and attitudes
towards online education
change over the course of
your program?
Do you have any
strategies for managing
your online coursework
while you are also
working and taking care
of other things? 1, 3
Perceived selfefficacy,
attitudes
toward online
learning
5. How do your personal
goals align with your
pursuit of education?
How does getting your
degree fit into your plans
for your own future?
How does getting your
degree fit into your plans
for your community? 1, 2
Personal and
cognitive
factors,
outcome
expectations,
forethought
capability,
self-regulatory
capability,
aspirational
capital
6. How have the people
around you, both from
your cultural community
and elsewhere, supported
you in your pursuit of a
bachelor’s degree?
Please describe some
moments, if any, when
your family, friends, or
coworkers’ support
played a role in your
academic progress? 1, 2
Social capital,
familial
capital,
personal and
cognitive
factors,

105
How has this support
affected how you feel
about yourself?
How has this support
affected how you feel
about your motivation to
finish your degree?
outcome
expectations,
environment,
behavior
7. How has your cultural
background shaped your
experience in getting
your degree?
How have your cultural
strengths helped you
handle your studies and
other responsibilities? 2
Latinx cultural
wealth
8. Have you noticed any
effective strategies from
others that have helped
you with your online
learning and degree
completion?
How have these
strategies influenced your
own learning process? 1, 2
Navigational
capital,
personal and
cognitive
factors
9. How have you
managed to adapt to the
online learning
environment?
What examples do you
have of how you have
handled challenges
related to technology,
coursework, or time
management 3
Environment,
attitudes
toward online
learning
10. Looking back, how
has your own
determination helped you
succeed in your studies?
What are some examples
of times when you made
decisions to improve
your learning
experience? 1
Personal and
cognitive
factors
11. How has your unique
cultural background
influenced your
interactions with your
peers and instructors in
the online learning
environment?
How have you shared
your own experiences
with your classmates? 1,2
Latinx Cultural
Wealth Model,
Environment
12. What challenges or
barriers, if any, did you
face in the program?
How did you manage to
keep going despite the
challenge?
How have cultural values
helped you overcome
challenges during your
studies? 1,2
Latinx Cultural
Wealth Model,
Environment

106
What barriers remained?
13. What resources or
assistance do you feel
could have helped to
remove those barriers? 1,2
Latinx Cultural
Wealth Model,
Environment
14. What advice would
you give to colleges and
universities to better
support people like you
who are working and
learning online?
How can institutions
make the learning
experience more
welcoming and effective
for everyone? 1,2
Latinx Cultural
Wealth Model,
Environment
15.What do you think
made you successful in
completing the program?
What would you
recommend to others
considering a similar
path? 1,2,3
Latinx Cultural
Wealth Model,
Personal and
cognitive
factors,
Environment,
Behavior
Conclusion to the Interview:
• Those were all the questions that I wanted to ask.
• Do you have any final thoughts that you would like to share?
Thank you for your time and participation.

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Vigil, Gregory Thomas (author)

Core Title Addressing degree completion among Latinx working adults

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/30/2024

Defense Date 04/12/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag community cultural wealth,degree completion,Higher education,Latinx,OAI-PMH Harvest,online,social cognitive theory,working adults

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ott, Maria (committee chair), Muraszewski, Alison (committee member), (Hinga, Briana)

Creator Email gvigil@me.com,vigilg@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113911959

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Legacy Identifier etd-VigilGrego-12860

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Format theses (aat)

Rights Vigil, Gregory Thomas

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