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Navigating political polarization: a group case study of community engagement in the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California K–12 school district

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Navigating political polarization: a group case study of community engagement in the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California K–12 school district

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Content Navigating Political Polarization: A Group Case Study of Community Engagement in the
Adoption of Intersectional Ethnic Studies in a Southern California K–12 School District
by
Jeralyn D. Johnson
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Jeralyn D. Johnson 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Jeralyn D. Johnson certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Christina Kishimoto
Paul Gothold
Greg Franklin, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This qualitative case study examined the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in one
Southern California school district, during a period marked by political polarization in the post–
George Floyd era, exploring how educational leaders can effectively engage diverse stakeholder
voices in policy adoption. Utilizing Easton’s political systems framework and Kotter’s change
model, the research focused on stakeholder engagement strategies in anticipation of the state’s
mandate for ethnic studies courses by 2029–2030. This qualitative case study used an interview
approach to collect data from six key decision makers in a Southern California school district.
Transcripts of interviews conducted with the superintendent, assistant superintendent, and four
board members were analyzed to understand their experiences with the community engagement
process. Data were coded thematically using Easton’s political systems framework and Kotter’s
change model as guiding theoretical frameworks. The data indicated that proactive community
engagement, transparent communication, and trust-building were pivotal in the successful
adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in the school district, with the engagement process
effectively addressing diverse stakeholder perspectives and fostering consensus amid a
politically charged environment. These findings revealed the importance of inclusive dialogue
and collaborative decision-making in educational policy implementation, highlighting the roles
of community partnership, open dialogue, and building understanding. The study’s findings
suggested that in educational policymaking, especially in sensitive sociopolitical contexts, the
success of implementing new initiatives such as intersectional ethnic studies relies heavily on
early and inclusive community engagement strategies. The conclusions underscore the need for
educational leaders to prioritize transparent communication and trust-building with educational
partners, demonstrating that such approaches can effectively mitigate resistance, fostering

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broader acceptance and support for policy changes. These insights provide valuable guidance for
educators, administrators, and policymakers in adopting similar educational initiatives in diverse
and dynamic community settings.
Keywords: intersectional ethnic studies, educational policy adoption, community
engagement in education, political polarization in education, Easton’s political systems
framework, Kotter’s change model

vi
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the powerful maternal legacy that began with my late
grandmother Yoshiko, a model of strength and resilience, and to my mother, the smartest woman
I know. Your intelligence and resourcefulness have me convinced that you could have easily
achieved this feat yourself, so I share this degree with you and the other formidable women who
came before us. In the spirit of our Japanese roots, I am reminded of the proverb “Nana korobi,
ya oki” (七転び八起き), meaning “Fall seven times, stand up eight.” This embodies the
perseverance and resilience that flows through our veins, guiding me through challenges and
inspiring me to never give up.
To my father, who has never wavered in his belief that I hung the moon—your confidence in me
has been my stronghold through every challenge and triumph.
To my husband, JR, who has shouldered the weight of our bustling life with ceaseless energy.
You are truly remarkable, and I stand in awe of your ability to juggle it all effortlessly. Your
support and sacrifice have made this journey possible, and I am endlessly grateful for your love.
And to our daughters, Kaya and Everly, who inspire me every day to embrace challenges and
step into my strength. You both represent the future I strive for, and it is my greatest hope that
my doctoral journey will encourage you to pursue your own paths with boldness and joy.

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This achievement reflects not just my efforts, but the love, belief, and support of each of you.
You are all integral to this accomplishment, and it is with deep gratitude and love that I dedicate
this work to you.

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Acknowledgments
This dissertation could not have been completed without the support and guidance of
many people. First and foremost, I extend my deepest gratitude to my committee chair, Dr. Greg
Franklin, for making the doctoral journey feel seamless with his remarkable patience and
consistency, encouragement, and positive attitude.
I am also indebted to the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Christina Kishimoto
and Dr. Paul Gothold, for their insightful comments throughout the process of research and
writing.
Special thanks to my partners in the case study group: Michelle Villa, Elizabeth Enloe,
Sarah Gonzales, Jennifer Huynh, and Lani Hsieh. Their collaboration was pivotal in navigating
the complexities of our group case study. The collective effort and shared vision of this group
was instrumental in achieving the depth of our research findings.
My heartfelt appreciation is extended to Romeo Baldeviso, Meghan Clark, and Jillian
Giese for their unwavering friendship and support. From the outset of the Doctor of Education in
Educational Leadership (EDL) program, we were encouraged to study with a group of “joy
buddies.” In Romeo, Meghan, and Jillian, I found not just colleagues but true partners in joy.
They were the cornerstone of my academic support network, transforming the demanding
journey into an experience filled with laughter, learning, and ceaseless cheerleading.
Finally, I want to acknowledge the participants of my study, who shared their experiences
and insights with me. Their openness and honesty were vital to the success of this project.

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Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication...................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................viii
List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................xiii
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. xiv
Chapter One: Background of the Problem...................................................................................... 1
Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 4
Research Questions............................................................................................................. 5
Significance of the Study.................................................................................................... 7
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................. 8
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 9
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 15
History and Influence for Policy/Law............................................................................... 16
Opposition to Ethnic Studies ............................................................................................ 22
Development of Educational Policy ................................................................................. 24
Culture Wars/Red vs. Blue ............................................................................................... 25
Case Study: Other Districts Implementing Early.............................................................. 27
Community Engagement .................................................................................................. 28
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy .......................................................................................... 30
Theoretical Framework..................................................................................................... 32
Summary........................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 38

x
Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 40
Selection of the Population ............................................................................................... 42
Design Summary............................................................................................................... 44
Instrumentation and Protocols .......................................................................................... 46
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 46
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 47
Validity and Reliability..................................................................................................... 47
Summary........................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter Four: Findings................................................................................................................. 49
Participants........................................................................................................................ 52
Findings for Research Question 1..................................................................................... 52
Discussion for Research Question 1 ................................................................................. 58
Findings for Research Question 2..................................................................................... 59
Discussion for Research Question 2 ................................................................................. 64
Findings for Research Question 3..................................................................................... 65
Discussion for Research Question 3 ................................................................................. 67
Summary........................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 70
Summary of Findings........................................................................................................ 70
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................... 79
Future Research ................................................................................................................ 80
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 82
Chapter Six: Synthesis of Recommendations............................................................................... 85
School Board and Senior District Leaders........................................................................ 89
Community Organizers..................................................................................................... 90

xi
Consultants........................................................................................................................ 92
Teachers............................................................................................................................ 93
Site Administrators and Junior District Administrators.................................................... 95
Parents............................................................................................................................... 97
Summary........................................................................................................................... 98
References..................................................................................................................................... 99
Appendix A: Interview Protocol for Senior District Leaders and Board Members ................... 110
Research Question(s) ...................................................................................................... 110
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 110
Questions......................................................................................................................... 111
Closing ............................................................................................................................ 113
Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Community Organizers and Religious Group Members .. 115
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 115
Main Interview Questions............................................................................................... 116
Demographic Questions.................................................................................................. 117
Closing Question............................................................................................................. 117
Closing Comments.......................................................................................................... 118
Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Consultants........................................................................ 119
Research Questions......................................................................................................... 119
Concepts From Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview............ 119
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 119
Questions With Transitions............................................................................................. 120
Closing ............................................................................................................................ 121
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Teachers............................................................................ 122
Research Questions......................................................................................................... 122

xii
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 122
Questions (With Transitions).......................................................................................... 123
Closing ............................................................................................................................ 124
Appendix E: Interview Protocol for District and Site Administrators........................................ 125
Setting the Stage Questions ............................................................................................ 125
Closing Questions........................................................................................................... 127
Appendix F: Interview Protocol for Parents............................................................................... 128
Research Questions......................................................................................................... 128
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 129
Setting the Stage (Background/Demographic) ............................................................... 130
Heart of the Interview (CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)................................................ 130
Closing Question............................................................................................................. 131
Closing Comments.......................................................................................................... 131
Appendix G: Screening Protocol for Teachers........................................................................... 132
Background Information................................................................................................. 132
Adoption Process............................................................................................................ 133
Teacher Preparation ........................................................................................................ 134
Appendix H: Screening Protocol for Parents.............................................................................. 136
Research Question(s) ...................................................................................................... 136
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Survey.......... 136
Target Population............................................................................................................ 137
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 137
Survey Items ................................................................................................................... 138
Closing ............................................................................................................................ 141

xiii
List of Tables
Table 1: Tensions in a Curriculum Adoption Process.................................................................. 88
Table E1: District and Site Administrators Interview Question Map......................................... 126
Table H1: Survey Items and CF Alignment ............................................................................... 138

xiv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 34

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Note: Chapter One, Chapter Two, Chapter Three, and Chapter Six are the collective effort of six
researchers, all bringing insights from their individual studies to create this unified work that
represents a synthesis of diverse perspectives.
Chapter One: Background of the Problem
In spring 2020, the United States experienced a global pandemic and the murder of
George Floyd by an on-duty police officer, which layered onto the already polarizing effects on
high school campuses because of the charged political rhetoric of the Trump administration
(Rogers et al., 2017). As the public was being asked to isolate themselves at home, wear masks,
and get vaccinated against COVID-19, social movements such as Black Lives Matter formed to
bring attention to police violence and racial inequality (Christián et al., 2022). At the same time,
local social movements such as “Let Them Breathe” and “Let Them Play” formed, due to the
feeling of a loss of individual freedoms because of mask mandates and stay-at-home orders
(Young, 2022).
Amid these challenges, California schools were directed to implement an ethnic studies
course as a graduation requirement by the 2029–2030 school year (Cal. Assemb. B. 101, Chapter
661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]). Ethnic studies is rooted in the 1960s social movements that developed this
course in universities (Kim, 2020). Ethnic studies courses have further been considered at the K–
12 level to diversify a curriculum often criticized for its colonial upbringing and White-centered
approach that is blind to the experiences of minoritized groups (Milner, 2007). Many school
districts have experienced community backlash to their compliance with state mandates,
including the implementation of (or plans to implement) an ethnic studies course (Alliance for
Constructive Ethnic Studies, n.d.; Smith, 2021). This backlash has come in the form of

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contentious school board meetings, threats to school board members and district officials, and
local school board members being recalled.
This was the contentious backdrop of a Southern California school district that decided to
adopt an ethnic studies course years ahead of the mandate, despite a polarized community, with
the help of a consulting group to bring the voices of all educational partners together. Studying
their process and the resulting adoption is important not only to the districts that have yet to
implement this course and must do so in the upcoming years, but to all organizations dealing
with competing discourses over changes that might be divisive in a community. The purpose of
this study was to examine the process by which this district led its adoption efforts, to better
understand how educational leaders can approach change and invite the participation of all
stakeholder voices. It was important to study this adoption process in a Southern California
school district to examine the effects and influences on the community and specifically students
of color within that community.
Statement of the Problem
In fall 2021, California became the first state to add an ethnic studies component to its
basic graduation requirements (Cal. Assemb. B. 101, Chapter 661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]). The broader
aim of the bill was to move the state away from the “deficit notions of the resources of
Communities of Color” that have “fueled intolerance, bigotry, and assimilation throughout the
history of U.S. public education” (del Carmen Salazar, 2013, p. 122) and toward a future where
all students are exposed to a broad curriculum that acknowledges and celebrates the historical
struggles and contributions of Native American, Latino, African American, Asian American, and
Pacific Islander Californians to the state (California Department of Education, 2022). This new
curriculum has special importance in California, as the state serves the largest student population

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and is among the most diverse in the nation, with approximately 6.2 million students speaking
more than 90 languages (California Department of Education, 2023b). More than three quarters
of California’s K–12 students are non-White: 55% Latinx, 22% White, 12% Asian or Pacific
Islander, and 5% African American.
When the ethnic studies course as a graduation requirement was voted into law, several
districts in Southern California found that the requirement brought celebration for some families,
but fear and anger for others (Kim, 2020; Rothermich, 2021). This bill quickly became
controversial and the subject of many school board meetings as districts began considering its
implementation (Andruss, 2022). This specific moment in time holds great importance owing to
the profound psychological impact on large populations in quarantine and the far-reaching
consequences of widespread unemployment due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have
caused the escalation of social movements as a way to escape isolation (Christián et al., 2022).
Ethnic studies gained attention on both sides of political action groups—some believing the
course needed immediate implementation and was past due, and some believing that this
course’s purpose was divisive and should not be implemented at all.
Research has claimed two broad categories of support for ethnic studies: personal
academic empowerment of the student and increased understanding of diverse people (Dee &
Penner, 2017). Dee and Penner’s (2017) causal study in San Francisco schools provided
evidence that ethnic studies courses, taught with fidelity to the stated aims and with culturally
relevant instruction, resulted in improved grade point averages for students of color and increases
in credits earned. Bonilla et al. (2021) completed a study in the San Francisco Unified School
District that also demonstrated positive outcomes, including increased graduation rates, for
students enrolled in ethnic studies courses. De los Ríos et al. (2015) identified increased civic

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engagement with local and state issues as a product of enrollment in ethnic studies courses.
This group study examined one Southern California district, which engaged in
stakeholder input strategies before the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of the state
requirement. Despite the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and
community groups resulting in recall efforts, there has been a lack of discussion about the
engagement process in the literature and few to no studies dedicated to the behaviors and
activities of districts as they construct and reconstruct their social reality through educational
policy. As California districts approach the 2029–2030 school year, ethnic studies will become a
mandate, and the community pressure felt by school boards will be faced by more than just a few
early adopters. This group case study focused on a large K–12 school district in Southern
California during the adoption process of an intersectional ethnic studies curriculum.
Specifically, we examined the engagement process with the community in the context of policy
adoption amid rapid political polarization in the post–George Floyd Trump administration era.
Each researcher explored a different educational partnership to gain a deeper understanding of
the experiences of the respective participants.
Purpose of the Study
Through an engagement process among multiple educational partners, the school district
was able to approve an intersectional ethnic studies (IES) adoption. This study focused on
educational partners in the local and broader community who participated in the engagement
process. The group investigated the experiences of approximately 34 educational partners and
their understanding of the stresses, demands/supports, and systems that led to the decision to
pursue early implementation.

5
Research Questions
This study was guided by the following research questions, organized by educational
partner.
Educational Partner: School Board Members and Senior District Leaders
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and
senior district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Community Organizers
1. What was the motivation of community organizers for participating in the school
district’s dialogue regarding the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum?
2. What were the community organizers’ concerns about the district’s adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies during the engagement process?
3. How, if at all, did the engagement process about intersectional ethnic studies by a
school district affect community organizers’ confidence in district decision-making?
Educational Partner: Consultants
1. How do consultants in a Southern California school district describe their
participation and role in the steps leading up to the implementation of intersectional
ethnic studies?
2. What challenges did the consultants encounter in the steps leading up to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?

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3. What impact do the consultants think their work had on the process toward
implementing intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Teachers
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Educational Partner: District and Site Administrators
1. From an administrator’s perspective, what led the district to implement the
community engagement process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional
ethnic studies resolution?
2. How were site and district administrators involved in the community engagement
process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
3. What are administrators’ perceptions of the consensus-building process that led to
adopting an intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
Educational Partner: Parents
1. How did parents perceive the communication by the district and its representatives
during the ethnic studies adoption process?
2. In what ways, if any, did parents engage in the ethnic studies adoption process?
3. How was parental input received by the district and its representatives?

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Significance of the Study
Implementing ethnic studies courses as a high school graduation requirement in all
California schools will have a significant impact on the opportunity gap, culturally relevant
pedagogy, and community engagement (Gay, 2017). This study contributes to the literature on
implementing change in an educational setting. The special focus on politically divisive issues is
especially important, as many school districts are implementing changes that are both necessary
and unpopular. In Los Alamitos Unified School District, a nearby district, the school board
experienced several acts of civil disobedience, causing interruptions to meetings due to the mask
mandate (Andruss, 2022). Tustin Unified School District similarly experienced hundreds of
protesters at a school board meeting regarding the COVID-19 mask mandate (ABC7 Los
Angeles, 2021). These Orange County schools have also received critical feedback regarding the
implementation of ethnic studies as the state presented the new assembly bill enacting the
graduation requirement. While some community members expressed that California schools
should have already implemented a requirement of this sort and were glad to hear the legislative
change, others believed that the curriculum would blame White children for the ills of the world
and shame them into believing they knowingly or unknowingly espouse White supremacist
ideology (Smith, 2021). As a result of this divisive climate, there has been a rise in recall efforts
of school board members, some of which have been successful. For example, in Orange Unified
School District, the successful recall of school board members put a new majority school board
in place, which led to the firing of the superintendent and assistant superintendent without cause
in the 2022–2023 school year and is believed to hold implications for the district’s
implementation of ethnic studies (San Román, 2023).

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The controversy extends beyond the borders of California. Arizona State Superintendent
of Public Education Tom Horne condemned ethnic studies, deeming it anti-American, and
accused it of causing resentment toward White people. He lobbied various bills to ban ethnic
studies, finding success in the long history of race wars in Arizona in 2010 (Cammarota, 2017).
In 2017, a federal judge overturned the ban on ethnic studies courses, saying it was motivated by
racial discrimination and violated pupils’ constitutional rights (Harris, 2017). The battle is far
from over, as Horne was re-elected as superintendent in 2022; his campaign promised to get rid
of critical race theory in schools and put an end to bilingual education (Sievers, 2022).
This study may provide district officials with an understanding of the processes by which
meaningful discussion and change can happen and how this can influence a community’s trust
and support of the school district. Although a district can use many processes to adopt a new
curriculum, the district in this study used direct community engagement, producing a successful
outcome during a time when others experienced political disruption. Additionally, the findings
from this study may improve the ability of researchers to bring systemic change to educational
organizations, particularly when the change being made is difficult or controversial.
Limitations and Delimitations
A limitation of this study is its nature as a case study, which focused on a moment in time
of one particular school district going through a change process. Time was also a limitation; the
researchers needed to interview those who were involved before the nuances of their experiences
were forgotten or they were no longer reachable, as the events took place in the previous
academic school year (2021–2022). Additionally, because this case study focused on one
district’s experience, the results may not be generalizable to all other school districts due to the
small sampling of various educational partners. Due to the sampling of each stakeholder group,

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the inclusion of other members might have led to a different interpretation. The participants’
responses are limited by their awareness of the influences on their decision-making, their
comfort with sharing their viewpoints, and their retroactive reflection of their experiences, which
are therefore subject to the potential degradation of memory that is to be expected when 1 year
has passed. Retroactive interference is a phenomenon where new information or experiences
disrupt one’s ability to recall old information or experiences (Baddeley & Dale, 1966). Although
our study was limited to the adoption process that took place in 2021, the experiences of the
initial implementation of ethnic studies as well as the ongoing political debate that has occurred
since then may have colored the participants’ memory of the events.
The delimitations in this study are that it was limited to a single, large K–12 school
district in Southern California. The focus group was intentionally delimited to groups of
individuals inside the school district as well as outside the school district, including an activist
group and religious group members who participated in the adoption process. This study also
delimited the research to the adoption of the policy and purposefully excluded experiences of
implementation.
Definition of Terms
Assembly Bill 101 (AB 101) is legislation that was passed in the California State
Assembly in 2021 and is also known as the “Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum.” The purpose of
AB 101 is to promote cultural awareness and appreciation and to help students develop a better
understanding of the experiences and contributions of historically marginalized communities in
the United States. The curriculum covers topics such as Native American studies, African
American studies, Chicano/Latino studies, and Asian American studies, among others.

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Critical race theory (CRT) was developed within the fields of legal studies and social
sciences. Critical race theory is an analytical framework designed to examine and challenge how
race intersects with and influences societal structures, institutions, and legal systems. CRT seeks
to understand and address systemic racism, emphasizing that race is not merely an individual
characteristic but a pervasive and enduring aspect of social organization.
Culturally responsive/relevant pedagogy (CRP) is an educational approach that
emphasizes the importance of understanding and respecting students’ cultural backgrounds and
experiences in teaching and learning. The goal of CRP is to create a learning environment that
values diversity and promotes equity by centering the experiences, voices, and perspectives of
students from historically marginalized groups.
Demands are those kinds of wants of persons or groups placed before the political system
that require some special organized effort on the part of society to settle them authoritatively.
Easton’s political framework theoretical model was developed by David Easton to help
explain how political systems work and how they respond to changes in their environment. At
the core of Easton’s (1979) framework is the concept of a “political system,” which he defined as
a set of interactions and interdependencies between different actors within a society. This system
includes both formal and informal rules, as well as the institutions and organizations that carry
out these rules. Easton argued that the political system is responsive to changes in its
environment, which can include things like economic, social, and cultural factors.
Equity is providing students, and people in general, with what they need to thrive. Unlike
equality, where everyone is treated the same, equity is the promotion of fairness and takes into
consideration different backgrounds, learning styles, and material realities to account for what
each individual student needs to succeed.

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Ethnic studies is a program that focuses on the interdisciplinary and comparative study of
the history, sociology, politics, culture, and economics of North American racial and ethnic
groups relative to the community, including African Americans, American Indians/Native
Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Asian Americans.
Ethnicity is “an identity marker based on ancestry, including nationality, lands/territory,
regional culture, religion, language, history, tradition, etc. that comprise a social group”
(California Department of Education, 2022, p. 3).
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is a federal law that was signed by President
Barack Obama on December 10, 2015, and replaced the No Child Left Behind Act. The purpose
of the law is to provide all students with equal access to high-quality education, regardless of
their race, ethnicity, income, or disability status. Under ESSA, states are required to create
accountability systems that include standards for academic achievement, graduation rates, and
English proficiency, among other things.
Kotter’s change model was developed by John P. Kotter to explain the dynamics of
organizational change and how entities respond to transformative processes. At the core of
Kotter’s (1996) framework is the concept of “change management,” which he defined as a
structured approach to transitioning individuals, teams, and organizations from a current state to
a desired future state. This model encompasses both formal and informal processes, as well as
the structures and strategies that facilitate these processes. Kotter contended that organizational
change is responsive to various factors, including internal and external pressures.
Let Them Breathe, a 501(c)(3) founded in California, is a nationwide network of families
and community members that organized events and protests surrounding the wearing of masks in
schools and the desire for this to remain a matter of family choice rather than mandate.

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Let Them Play is a foundation formed out of the concern of inactivity facing children
during the COVID-19 pandemic. This group organized events and protests fighting for students
to be allowed to play sports again during a time when this activity was restricted.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was a federal law in the United States signed by
President George W. Bush in 2002. The law aimed to improve the performance of American
students in schools by introducing new standards, assessments, and accountability measures.
Under NCLB, states were required to administer standardized tests to students in certain grade
levels, and schools were required to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward achieving
proficiency on those tests. Schools that failed to make AYP for 2 consecutive years faced
consequences, such as offering students the option to transfer to another school or providing
additional educational services. NCLB was controversial and faced criticism for its heavy
reliance on standardized testing and the penalties it imposed on schools that failed to meet AYP.
In 2015, the law was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act, which gave more control to
states and districts in determining how to measure student achievement and progress.
Race, within the field of ethnic studies, is defined as a (neo)colonial social construction.
It is viewed as a “master category” based upon a Eurocentric biological fallacy that is central to
inequitable power relations in society (California Department of Education, 2022).
Racism is “a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and
that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race” (California
Department of Education, 2022, p. 3).
Stresses are a severe type of disturbance occurring in the environment of a political
system that threatens to destroy it. A stress interferes in some fundamental way with the capacity
of a political system to keep a conversion process working.

13
Support is the energy in the form of actions or orientations promoting and resisting a
political system. Actions may include voting for a political candidate or defending a decision by
the highest court of the land. Orientations, in contrast, imply a deep-seated set of attitudes or
predispositions such as loyalty to a political party or the ideals of democracy and patriotism.
Support may be directed to three distinct objects of the political system: the authorities or the
government of the day; the regime or the principles, values, legal structures, and statutes that
make up the constitutional framework of the system; and the political community as a whole,
consisting of a group of persons who seek to settle difference or promote decisions through
peaceful action in common.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is organized into six chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the
study and introduces the context of political polarization found within the community at the time
of the policy adoption. It includes the stresses and demands that served as the impetus for change
as well as definitions of terms used in this study. Chapter Two presents a literature review in the
following areas: history of ethnic studies, development of educational policy, influence of culture
wars, case studies involving other districts implementing ethnic studies, community engagement,
culturally relevant pedagogy, and a theoretical framework. Chapter Three describes the
methodology selected for this research study and includes sample and population selection,
interview questions, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four is a report of the research
findings. Chapter Five is composed of a summary of findings, implications, conclusions, and
recommendations. Chapter Six reviews the findings from all six individual stakeholder groups.
Common themes are identified, and divergent perspectives are explored to make connections and

14
share insights that emerged when considering the findings collectively. References and
appendices are included in the conclusion of this research study.

15
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The California Department of Education’s mandate to implement ethnic studies courses
as a high school graduation requirement in all California schools has a significant impact on
student achievement, racially equitable instruction, and civic engagement. As local school
districts begin to adopt ethnic studies courses, each will engage in a specific change process. We
studied one of these change processes: the adoption of a K–12 intersectional ethnic studies
resolution in a suburban, Southern California school district. Intersectional ethnic studies is a
curriculum that seeks to explore systems of oppression and the histories of marginalized
communities while considering how our multiple identities intersect with power in society
(Anderson & Calderon, 2023). The adoption of this resolution took place within the contentious
political environment of the 2021–2022 school year, as COVID-19 masking mandates and the
Black Lives Matter movement were at the center of the national scene. The district’s success in
moving its IES resolution forward is examined in relation to Easton’s (1979) political systems
and Kotter’s change framework to glean best practices for other districts that will be similarly
tasked with engaging in this change process.
First, we introduce the historical issues and events that prompted California’s mandate to
move toward a more culturally relevant curriculum and instruction. Second, we address the
contentious climate associated with political backlash and pressures on school districts adopting
the mandate. It is also important that we review the literature associated with the adoption phase
and its impacts on student achievement. Last, we review literature that helped to create our
conceptual framework.

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History and Influence for Policy/Law
Ethnic Studies Early Policy
Ethnic studies is an interdisciplinary course that incorporates the political, social, cultural,
and economic experiences of people alongside race, ethnicity, class, gender, and systems of
power (Curammeng, 2022). This course was developed out of a desire for more culturally
diverse and inclusive representations of the history and the lives of marginalized American
communities (Gay, 2017).
In late 2020, Assembly Bill 1460 was passed, mandating this course for all CSU
undergraduate students (Kim, 2020). Smith (2018) looked at the benefits of having such a course
at the university level. At CSU San Francisco, ethnic studies majors as well as students who took
at least one ethnic studies course were followed, and their success was measured against that of
students without these experiences. Students who had taken ethnic studies demonstrated greater
academic and graduation success. Smith identified professors of these courses and their methods
as a large reason for this, noting that they explicitly taught content to help students with critical
thinking and finding services and meaning in their studies. Students in the ethnic studies major
also tended to have higher graduation rates (Smith, 2018).
Following AB 1460’s passage, a student-led grassroots movement promoted this course
beyond the CSU college requirement, leading to AB 331 being brought forward to make ethnic
studies a high school graduation requirement (Kim, 2020). Jewish groups criticized this bill
initially for minimizing antisemitism and taking sides with Palestinians over Israel. Others
criticized the bill for focusing on the United States’s shortcomings, especially in dealing with
race (Fensterwald, 2020). California Governor Gavin Newsom vetoed AB 331 in August 2020
for what was considered an imbalance in the proposal (Fensterwald, 2020). Assemblymember

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Jose Medina of Riverside reintroduced the graduation requirement in the form of AB 101 in
October 2021, and this bill was signed into law by Governor Newsom (Gomez, 2020).
California Ethnic Studies Model Curriculum and the Statewide Mandate
Before the adoption in 2021 of a statewide mandate to implement ethnic studies as a
graduation requirement, Chapter 327 of the Statutes of 2016 added Section 51226.7 to the
Education Code. This new section of the Education Code required the California State Board of
Education to develop an ethnic studies model curriculum. The resulting curriculum framework
and instructional resources were adopted by the state to guide educators’ development of local
ethnic studies curricula. The model curriculum lays out four foundational disciplines that guide
ethnic studies at the high school level (African American, Latinx, Native American, and Asian
American and Pacific Islander studies) and includes general guidelines and sample course
outlines for the teaching of these disciplines (California Department of Education, 2022). The
requirements established in Assembly Bill 101 will go into effect with the graduating class of
2030 (Legislative Counsel’s Office & Medina, 2022). AB 101 does not require that the model
curriculum be adopted by local districts; instead, the model curriculum is intended to serve as a
model for best practices in teaching ethnic studies (California Department of Education, 2022).
AB 101 also allows districts to choose the length of the course; the required minimum is a
semester, but districts can also write yearlong courses or embed the requirement into a series of
courses (Bowers, 2021).
Pawel (2021) provided a succinct overview of California’s political journey toward the
successful adoption of ethnic studies as a prerequisite to graduate from high school statewide.
The model curriculum, as it was originally drafted, was criticized as lacking depth in the
representation of the Jewish community as well as other ethnic groups. While the state

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legislature approved the bill in 2020 to ensure that students study the experiences and history of
other ethnicities and races, Governor Newsom vetoed the measure; he agreed with critics that
“the initial draft of the model curriculum was insufficiently balanced and inclusive and needed to
be substantially amended” (Fensterwald, 2020, para. 3). After revision and improvement, the
Instructional Quality Commission approved the revised draft model curriculum. The curriculum
focuses mainly on African American, Chicano/Latino, Asian American, and Native American
students. However, it is adaptable to reflect the various ethnicities in respective communities
(California Department of Education, 2022, p. 3).
Intersectional Ethnic Studies
Although schools are a site for “gendered settler colonial capitalism,” there have been
movements calling for K–12 ethnic studies to disrupt conventional schooling (Ochoa & Ochoa,
2022). Sleeter and Zavala (2020) found that teachers who see identity as central to teaching share
foundational values of self-care and trust. They also see students as intellectuals and believe in
responsiveness and relevance to students and their communities. Additionally, these teachers
share in their critical analysis of racism and other power relations.
Ethnic studies has the conceptual tools to address the intersection of race and class
(Zavala et al., 2019). The hallmarks of ethnic studies include the following: curriculum as
counternarrative, criticality, reclaiming cultural identities, intersectionality and multiplicity,
community engagement, pedagogy that is culturally responsive and mediated, and students as
intellectuals (Sleeter & Zavala, 2020). Furthermore, ever since ethnic studies started, it has
“always included a particular intersectional analysis; that looked at race and gender along with
other axes of power and difference” (Zavala et al., 2019, p. 17).

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Cuauhtin (2019) explained how identity wheels tend to stop at a superficial level of social
identities, but ethnic studies programs work to understand and analyze intersectional identity,
relationships, and dynamics of power to resist oppression and help actively change the world for
the better. An intersectional analysis of Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)
community histories is necessary to address the harm created by historical and present-day
oppression (de los Rios, 2020). A community-responsive, intersectional approach goes beyond
the superficial levels of identity and weaves ethnic studies throughout the curriculum (Ochoa &
Ochoa, 2022). It has an intersectional framework, draws on the histories and cultures of the
students and the region, and calls specifically for race, class, gender, and sexuality components
to be included, in order to analyze power, lived experiences, and multiple forms of oppression
and resistance (Ochoa & Ochoa, 2022).
De los Rios (2020) made the case for implementing transformative justice ethnic studies
in P–12 schools, describing ethnic studies as a counternarrative and a form of healing. Part of
this healing comes from ethnic studies providing the opportunity to name racialized and other
intersectional harms. In their study, Snapp and Russell (2016) interviewed various stakeholder
adults in California and Arizona schools and found that inclusive curricular and pedagogical
approaches were supported because students benefited from being reflected in their learning,
violence against others lessened as a result of this kind of learning, and students became more
academically engaged and connected with their learning and school. While some ethnic studies
courses have seen issues of identity and gender as separate and apart from the course, others
believe ethnic studies and LGBTQ-inclusive curricula are the same (Snapp & Russell, 2016).
Through an intersectional approach, students can explore who they are, the systems of power and

20
privilege that affect them, and allyship and solidarity through a solution-based approach (Sleeter
& Zavala, 2020).
Impact of Ethnic Studies on Student Achievement
Del Carmen Salazar’s (2013) review of literature described the oppressive and systemic
assimilation of students of color into dominant American society through public schooling and
then offered Paulo Freire’s concept of humanizing pedagogy as a tool for dismantling
dehumanizing structures within the school system. Del Carmen Salazar (2013) gleaned from the
literature five tenets of a humanizing pedagogy as a road map for applying Freire’s concept
within the American context:
1. The full development of the person is essential for humanization. 2. To deny someone
else’s humanization is also to deny one’s own. 3. The journey for humanization is an
individual and collective endeavor toward critical consciousness. 4. Critical reflection
and action can transform structures that impede our own and others’ humanness, thus
facilitating liberation for all. 5. Educators are responsible for promoting a more fully
human world through their pedagogical principles and practices. (p. 128)
By embracing these “humanizing” tenets, del Carmen Salazar (2013) asserted, teachers
confront their “deficit notions” of students’ abilities and support students in the development of a
healthy, scholarly identity (p. 131). According to del Carmen Salazar, developing a curriculum
that is reflective of students’ reality and engaging students in the development of a critical
consciousness around social and political issues will allow them to make crucial connections
between their own lives and the material taught in the classroom. These practices will instill hope
in a learning committee for a better future and inspire students to participate in their own
liberation (del Carmen Salazar, 2013, p. 142).

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De los Ríos et al. (2015) described the ethnic studies movement as a direct response to
the White supremacist instruction that is generally seen in high school and college curricula. In
2014, the Council of Great City Schools gathered data on the largest school districts in the
United States and reported that 71% of the 6.9 million students who were enrolled at the time in
the nation’s largest school districts were Latino or African American, 69% were eligible to
receive free or reduced lunch, and 17% were English language learners. The evolution of ethnic
studies is a change in philosophy and practice for how American schools can eradicate systemic
racism, White supremacy, and low expectations of the schools most in need. This case study
looked at two high schools and an afterschool program and defined critical pedagogy and the
implications of implementing ethnic studies. In their analysis of these case studies, the authors
argued that students of color who are enrolled in ethnic studies courses in their high schools are
more engaged and interested in their studies because they can see connections between the
course content and their own lives.
Cammarota (2017) focused on a youth social justice action research project made up of
young people of color. The Arizona Department of Education sought to eliminate an ethnic
studies program—the Social Justice Education Project (SJEP)—because it believed the program
could lead to the radicalization of the young people enrolled in the program. The elimination of
the SJEP was aggressively pursued by the Department of Education, which threatened to
withhold crucial funding from the Tucson Unified School District if the district did not agree to
ban the program, even though “SJEP students were outperforming their non–ethnic studies peers
in every academic measure” (Cabrera et al., 2014, as cited in Cammarota, 2017, p. 527). After
the ban went into effect in January 2012, this youth group took action to prevent educational
injustices and spread the message of social transformation through the ethnic studies course.

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According to Cammarota (2017, p. 528), students’ participation in the course before the ban had
a positive impact on their academic performance: Of the 17 seniors enrolled in the first cohort,
all but two graduated, despite being credit deficient at the start of the course (students enrolled
were still technically freshmen according to their overall credit count, despite having attended for
3 years, and were considered at high risk for dropping out).
Bonilla et al. (2021) investigated the claim that ethnic studies courses have a lasting,
positive effect on student achievement. Their study analyzed the impact of a ninth-grade ethnic
studies course on students in the San Francisco Unified School District. The researchers found
that, in this context, ethnic studies had a positive impact on student engagement, high school
graduation rates, and college enrollment after high school. Students who were assigned to ethnic
studies courses had higher attendance rates and higher graduation rates for those classified as
“lower performing” by the district (Bonilla et al., 2021, p. 8). As such, the authors said, ethnic
studies courses are a “relatively tractable lever for school reform” (Bonilla et al., 2021, p. 9).
Opposition to Ethnic Studies
Fear That Ethnic Studies Sows Division and Hate
Although ethnic studies as a graduation requirement was met with celebration by some
(Kim, 2020), there were still others who believed either the proposed curricula needed further
integration into all coursework or the course divided students into victim or oppressor roles
based on their heritage (Rothermich, 2021). The latter group feared the course was divisive and
would create more polarization, violence, and bigotry among students (Alliance for Constructive
Ethnic Studies, n.d.).
In Orange County, California, several districts have experienced debates over this
course’s integration into the graduation requirements despite the bill’s passage and imminent

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implementation. School board meetings in Los Alamitos have been filled with public comments
fearing the course will breed hate in students (Smith, 2021). In nearby Placentia-Yorba Linda, a
school board member shared a Facebook article denouncing the curriculum as purely political
and “left-wing” (Smith, 2021).
California has not been alone in this debate about the purpose and benefits of ethnic
studies. Arizona Superintendent of Public Education Tom Horne condemned the course as antiAmerican and signed a bill in 2010 banning the course in Arizona (Cammarota, 2017). Horne’s
bill received support from some who believe that ethnic studies underestimate students of color
while simultaneously focusing on evoking feelings of resentment and hatred (Cacho, 2010).
Fearing Critical Race Theory
The academic discipline of critical race theory has its origins in late-1970s counter-legal
scholarship (Ladson-Billings, 2010) and has been well developed by scholars such as Kimberlé
Crenshaw, Derrick Bell, and Richard Delgado (Melville, 2021). It argues against the slow pace
of reform and that Whites have traditionally been the primary beneficiaries of civil rights
legislation (Ladson-Billings, 1998). For example, many of the recipients of affirmative action
hiring policies have been White women whose income largely has benefited White households
even though the intended beneficiaries of the policy were people of color.
Critical race theory has been used by opposers of ethnic studies as an additional reason
why the curriculum should not be implemented in schools. Those who oppose critical race theory
believe it prioritizes activism at the expense of objectivity, rationalism, and critical thinking
(Adorney, 2022). Southern California school boards have heard public comments regarding
some of these fears as well. The Orange County Board of Education held panels on ethnic

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studies and heard public comments calling ethnic studies a vehicle for critical race theory and
that it was political indoctrination to anti-American ideals (Elattar, 2021).
Development of Educational Policy
Fowler (2009) explained what educational policy is and how it comes into practice via
power, economy, political systems, culture, values, and ideology. Public policy is created in
response to public problems in an attempt to address issues and often involves compromise
among policymakers.
Hochschild and Scovronick (2004) added further depth to a discussion of public policy
by defining the American public’s understanding of the primary role of public schooling to be
the provision of tools for pursuing one’s individual version of the American dream. They
described this understanding of the role of public education as the need to balance two
competing priorities: the success of individuals and a collective benefit to vulnerable groups,
such as students with disabilities. These two priorities clash, as the value of self-reliance
conflicts with the idea that some vulnerable groups should be identified for specialized treatment
in an attempt to ward off ill treatment in American society. These competing priorities result in a
lack of stability and continuity in national policy or practice.
The achievement gap is one of the most talked-about issues in U.S. education. The term
refers to the disparities in standardized test scores between Black and White, Latina/o and White,
and recent immigrant and White students. Ladson-Billings (2006) argued that a focus on the gap
is misplaced. Instead, we need to look at the “education debt” that has accumulated over time.
This debt comprises historical, economic, sociopolitical, and moral components. Ladson-Billings
drew an analogy with the concept of national debt—which she contrasted with that of a national
budget deficit—to argue the significance of the education debt.

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Culture Wars/Red vs. Blue
U.S. public schools have long been viewed as an apolitical function of the government.
There have been benefits to this view, largely in the public’s acceptance of funding educational
institutions (Kirst & Wirt, 2009). As a nation, there has been a general acceptance of public
schooling as a necessity that will be funded with public dollars. Additionally, Wolbrecht and
Hartney’s (2014) examination of partisan stances in educational issues and reform showed how
traditionally Republican and Democratic values have sometimes not been reflected in those
parties’ policies over the years. For example, George Bush’s No Child Left Behind and Barack
Obama’s Race to the Top both reflected some of the opposite parties’ previous talking points.
For example, Bush’s marketed “compassionate conservatism” expanded the federal role over
education, while Obama’s initiatives promoted ideas of school choice and performance pay for
teachers.
Over the last century, the changing economic goals of schooling as well as the public’s
desire to have their educational leaders carry out their own interests has created a change in this
more apolitical view of schools and has instead highlighted some polarized political views
(Horsford et al., 2018). U.S. schools’ primary goals have generally reflected the nation’s values
and views of the world and its place in it. From teaching reading for the purpose of reading the
Bible to progressively more purely economic reasons, education has always been guided by the
interests of the United States (Horsford et al., 2018). Along with a focus on self-interest, other
distinct qualities in U.S. politics that have had recent prevalence are an antiestablishment
orientation, populism, and a good versus evil duality in thinking that has fed into a conspiratorial
stance of the world and educational institutions (Uscinski et al., 2021).

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Political fights in education have become much more observable in recent years as there
has been movement in curriculum and standards, a focus on unions and their effects on
education, and vouchers and other systems designed to optimize family choice in schools
(Saltman, 2018). Although these political fights have clear sides, those politics have not always
been Democrat and Republican; rather, both political parties look to schools and their ability or
challenges in preparing an adequate workforce (Saltman, 2018). Both Democrats and
Republicans look at schools from an economic perspective and as an institution that helps to
teach the dominant values and views of society. Where the two parties have diverged is in which
values and views should be taught (Saltman, 2018).
After the election of 2016, Donald Trump’s presidency brought with it increased political
tension and conspiratorial thinking (Uscinski et al., 2021). Teachers and students reported higher
levels of stress and anxiety related to the policies and actions of politicians that affected their
campus culture and individual lives (Rogers et al., 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic in spring
2020 heightened these fears and increased isolation between people. Christián et al. (2022) noted
that the health risks during this time took a higher toll on minoritized groups for both medical
and social reasons. This increased the consciousness of the Black community, especially as
police violence continued to take the lives of young Black people, culminating in the killing of
George Floyd and sparking a large Black Lives Matter movement (Christián et al., 2022). The
fears, injustices, and anxieties felt by many were coupled with the psychological effects of
isolation, creating a moment in history of mass protests on both sides of the political aisle
(Christián et al., 2022).
While the Black Lives Matter movement brought out crowds, so did protests surrounding
the response to the COVID-19 pandemic and concerns around critical race theory being taught in

27
K–12 schools. In Los Alamitos, California, groups protesting the mask mandate formed a “Let
Them Breathe” campaign, disrupting schools and staffing and demanding that children should be
allowed to learn on campus during the COVID-19 pandemic without a mask due to their
constitutional freedoms and fears that social distancing would do more harm psychologically and
socially than the disease itself (Young, 2022). In Tustin, groups of parents voiced their
disapproval of masks at school at board meetings as well and formed similar protests in a spinoff “Let Them Play” campaign formed through social media, holding protests in the San
Francisco Bay area and San Diego (Ludwig, 2021).
Case Study: Other Districts Implementing Early
It is important to study other school districts considering the early adoption of ethnic
studies, including the political contexts associated with them. Surrounding school districts
provided a glimpse into acts of civil disobedience with ever-evolving COVID restrictions
(Andruss, 2022). COVID restrictions ignited communities, creating tension and unrest in what
are typically civilized meetings. In neighboring school districts, COVID mandates became the
impetus for protesting policies and laws that school districts were required to enforce, such as at
Tustin and Los Alamitos Unified School District board meetings (Young, 2022). Regardless of
state and local mandates, communities were unwilling to have school officials maintain control
over highly politicized issues.
Students look toward adults and how they model behavior during highly tense political
contexts. A middle school student refused to wear a mask in class and was asked to leave class,
sparking a protest outside of the school (McAboy, 2021). More so than ever, parents and
community groups have become more vocal and are mobilizing against state and school policies,

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implying that the implementation of a new required course and curriculum may experience the
same pushback.
Los Angeles Unified School District implemented an ethnic studies course pilot through a
few of its high schools, specifically in a high population of Filipino and Latino students
(Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015). Roosevelt and Washington High Schools (both a part of the
pilot) received support in mentoring and curriculum development to ensure teachers were
prepared for proper implementation. The implementation was to provide targeted support for
those at risk of dropping out and/or being credit deficient. Administrators interviewed described
the need for an ethnic studies curriculum to address the gaps in opportunity within education
(Tintiangco-Cubales et al., 2015). Through the pilot of the curriculum, students developed a
stronger sense of cultural awareness and empowerment.
Also in Southern California, a teacher at Pomona High School sparked the
implementation of a Chicana/o-Latina/o ethnic studies college preparatory class (de los Ríos et
al., 2015). This was created in 2006 after this teacher witnessed her students protesting the
Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration and Control Act of 2005. This led to
school-facilitated community discussions and the development of the curriculum that formed the
class. The students’ participation in discussions eventually led to the community buy-in and
implementation of ethnic studies courses in schools. Students are an equally important
stakeholder in the process, as their educational experiences will continue to be affected in the
classroom and beyond.
Community Engagement
In this case study looking at the early adoption of a curriculum, the school district being
studied engaged many different stakeholders in its process. Community engagement in schools

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can have a significant impact on school and student success. Holistic approaches to education
that emphasize the need for schools, families, and communities to work together to create
supportive and nurturing learning environments for all students help build this engagement
(Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
Brown et al.’s (2022) study highlighted several dimensions of parental participation,
including involvement, engagement, and community. Involvement refers to parents’ active
participation in school-related activities, such as attending parent-teacher conferences or
volunteering. Engagement encompasses parents’ emotional connection with the school,
including their interest in their child’s education and willingness to support learning at home.
Community involves the establishment of collaborative relationships among parents, teachers,
and administrators to create a sense of belonging and shared responsibility (Brown et al., 2022).
Parents who are more involved in school activities tend to be more engaged and feel a stronger
sense of community, which positively affects student outcomes, such as academic achievement
and socioemotional development (Brown et al., 2022). Voluntary acts of parent participation as
well as school-sought-after acts of parent participation both have positive educational outcomes
for students (Jeynes, 2013).
There are various barriers to the equitable involvement of all parents, including language
barriers, limited resources, mistrust, and conflicting cultural expectations (Baquedano-López et
al., 2013). One method to strengthen this involvement is by the development of community
schools. Daniel et al. (2019) conducted a comprehensive study exploring key aspects of
community schools, their impact on student outcomes, and the essential conditions necessary for
effective teaching in this context. Ultimately, they found that effective teachers and practitioners
must also demonstrate a deep caring and commitment to democratic participation so that they

30
can negotiate the collective understanding that supports their work. Baquedano-López et al.
(2013) emphasized the need for teacher educators to address these barriers by promoting cultural
responsiveness, developing effective communication strategies, and fostering meaningful
partnerships with families and communities. Inclusive involvement practices such as these can
empower marginalized families and help bridge gaps between home and school as well
(Baquedano-López et al., 2013).
Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural practices and communication styles within
communities is also essential because the dominant approaches in schools often reflect middleclass norms and exclude marginalized families (Baquedano-López et al., 2013). Edwards et al.
(2021) described the importance of parental involvement, adult education, and community
organizing, emphasizing the role of social justice leadership in fostering positive change in a
school community. These changes can be leveraged with the use of enrollment data, which plays
a crucial role in understanding the diversity within educational systems and its implications for
educational policy and practice (California Department of Education, 2022).
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy
Ethnic studies policies have largely come from an increased desire to adjust instruction
and curricula to meet the backgrounds and needs of all students in public schools. Culturally
relevant pedagogy contains three main qualities:
Gloria Ladson-Billings proposed three main components of Culturally Relevant
Pedagogy: (a) a focus on student learning and academic success, (b) developing students’
cultural competence to assist students in developing positive ethnic and social identities,
and (c) supporting students’ critical consciousness or their ability to recognize and
critique societal inequalities. (California Department of Education, 2023a, para. 2)

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These are all qualities that can be found in ethnic studies and the pedagogy used to teach this
course.
There are large achievement benefits for students of color enrolled in ethnic studies,
particularly concerning their attendance, grade point average, and high school credits earned.
The causal effect of an ethnic studies curriculum is that it is inclusive of culturally relevant
pedagogy (Dee & Penner, 2017). The power of culturally responsive caring must be explored
through ethnic and cultural diversity in curriculum content. The positive effects of culturally
responsive teaching continue to help students as they enter the college and post-school years. All
students will perform better on multiple measures of achievement when teaching is filtered
through students’ own cultural experiences (Gay, 2018).
Teachers of minority groups should also be cognizant of how their practices and
reflections on those practices provide a way to define and recognize culturally relevant pedagogy
as a central area of investigation. It is vital to challenge the notions about the intersection of
culture and teaching that rely on earlier generations of work. Previous generations of work
suggested that cultural mismatches exist in societal structures, while educational institutions
perpetuate the same social inequalities (Ladson-Billings, 1995b). Further, it should raise
questions about what schools can and should be doing to promote academic success for all
students. To do this, teachers must go beyond encouraging academic success and cultural
competence. It involves helping students recognize, understand, and critique current social
inequities; the teachers themselves must recognize social inequities and their causes.
Good teaching practices are not enough. The centrality of good teaching plus culturally
relevant pedagogy leads to academic success (Ladson-Billings, 1995a). As students and
communities need to evolve, so do theories and concepts. An updated theory is referred to as

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culturally sustaining pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 2014). Sustaining allows for more of a fluid
understanding of culture, and a teaching practice that explicitly engages questions of equity and
justice.
As adults research, craft, and implement structures and curricula, an important
stakeholder in the process to remember is the student. Student perceptions are important to study
when determining the effectiveness of multicultural education and skill development training
(Millhouse, 1986). Students gain significantly more rational attitudes toward diverse ethnic
groups when exposed to more diversity in people and ideas. Multicultural education and skill
development training is a significantly positive factor in improving rational and accepting
attitudes toward ethnic minority groups.
Education research is used as an analytic site for discussion, but the framework may be
transferable to other academic disciplines. According to Milner (2007), “Dangers, either seen,
unseen, or unforeseen, can emerge when we do not pay careful attention to our own and others’
racialized and cultural systems of coming to know, knowing, and experiencing the world”
(Abstract). Instead, that can focus on several interrelated qualities: researching the self,
researching the self in relation to others, engaged reflection and representation, and shifting from
the self to the system.
Theoretical Framework
Silverman (2021) noted that a conceptual framework helps researchers understand the
various aspects of a study and how they connect. The conceptual framework for this study helps
to form an understanding of how change processes can assist with pressures on the political
systems of schools. Figure 1 illustrates Easton’s process of a political system undergoing
Kotter’s change process.

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Easton’s Political Systems Model
Developing a method that analyzes the evolving behaviors and adaptations encompassed
in various political systems is ideal for understanding how political systems work (Easton, 1979).
The development of this structural analysis tool provides a deeper understanding and findings
into the conceptual intertwinings of political systems. Further, understanding this framework
fosters broader perspectives and helps to critically analyze power dynamics within a
community/organization. Easton’s approach develops a series of steps for decision-making in a
political system that is seen as delimited (i.e., without boundaries) and yet evolving and changing
(Easton, 1979). Easton noted that a political system is constantly under stress, which disrupts the
functioning of the system. The political system receives both demands and supports from
society, and it responds to the difficulties of demands to preserve itself. The demands and
supports received by the political system from society are inputs that become outputs, and a
feedback process then follows (Imene et al., 2023).
Critique
During the last half of the 20th century, the concept of a system was arguably the most
important in the theoretical repertoire of the discipline of American political science. Although
systems analysis was broadly employed in the behavioral sciences, Easton’s work was
particularly influential in the study of politics. Fullan (2015) outlined the “Elements of
Successful Change” in a larger examination of systems change within K–12 educational
institutions. These elements lend clarity to the extent of success produced by the district’s
consensus-building process. This is in part because he attempted to develop a distinct account of
the political system that was not theoretically subservient to either general systems theory or
conceptions of the social system such as that advanced by Talcott Parsons (Gunnell, 2013).

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There are many complexities behind Easton’s framework (Thomassen & Van Ham,
2017). As empirical research prompts the need for a consistent and simplified conceptual
framework, it can be challenging to utilize Easton’s framework considering so many of its
different aspects of the stresses, inputs, outputs, implementation, feedback loop, and outcomes.
Torfing and Triantafillou (2013) found that empirical research has largely ignored the demand
cycle, while attempts to explore the relationships underlying the supply cycle tend to suffer from
misconceptions of its terms. The authors proposed a framework for empirical theory that
addresses both shortcomings.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

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Support
Easton’s political systems model can be regarded as the most important non-normative
general theory in modern times (Fuchs & Klingemann, 2011). It has been influential in the study
of politics. Fuchs and Klingemann added that Easton’s framework was to be used for the analysis
of political life, also known as “systems analysis.” Kriek (1995) praised Easton’s contribution to
political science. Since 1953, when The Political System appeared, Easton has published several
well-known books. Considering all of Easton’s works in relation to one another is important in
understanding his contribution properly. Easton emphasized that every action is “interrelated and
systematically networked,” consequently establishing a social system. These social and
comprehensive systems are made up of people and their interactions with one another. Thus,
Easton drew attention to the people in the system as role players, helping to perform in their
political roles.
Cited Research
Easton’s framework for theorizing political support continues to be influential for
pertinent research (Lu & Dickson, 2020). Due to the complexity of Easton’s arguments, there is
some confusion on how to classify and measure political support in existing research. An
interdisciplinary, analytical framework is proposed to assist managers in identifying and tracking
political sources of international business risk (Van Wyk, 2010). The framework fuses the
political science concept of political system with managerial science’s notion of sequential risk
flow. With identification and early warning of political risks, managers may be more proactive,
not merely reactive, in formulating and executing their risk management policies. Proactivity is
an important aspect of coherent frameworks of an organization.

36
Kotter and Fullan’s Change Theories
Fullan’s (2006) research considered the major premises of change knowledge and
focused on the need for motivation, capacity building, learning in context, changing context, a
bias for reflective action, tri-level engagement (district, community, and state), and persistence
and flexibility. In a broader context, looking at all industries, Kotter (2012) outlined the steps for
change leaders to take to achieve successful change. In particular, these eight steps include
creating a sense of urgency, developing vision and strategies, communicating a change vision,
removing barriers to action, accomplishing short-term wins, building on change, and making
change stick (Kotter, 2012). Both Kotter and Fullan also addressed how change often can fail.
Fullan provided examples that show errors in a change process when having an incomplete
theory of action that does not get close to the reality of what is happening in schools and
highlighted the need to have a strategy of change that focuses on simultaneously changing
individuals and the culture or system within which they work. Kotter’s pitfalls help support
Fullan’s errors by noting a need for governance, resources, buy-in, and clarity and
communication of vision.
Summary
This case study focused on the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum in a Southern
California school district. Ethnic studies became a graduation requirement through AB 101 in
2021, following a time of political tension with particular attention on public schools (Gomez,
2020). The political left welcomed the new graduation requirement after the Trump
administration’s treatment of the U.S. immigrant population and the unnecessary killings of
many Americans of color, such as George Floyd and Breonna Taylor (Christián et al., 2022;
Uscinski et al., 2021). Some of these political stresses also put pressure on schools.

37
Many young Americans have experienced ethnic studies in colleges and universities,
which also helped create a grassroots movement supporting the course being brought to the K–12
setting, creating a demand on the political system (Kim, 2020). Ethnic studies is culturally
responsive in its approach and teaching methods, which further elevates the course as benefiting
all students in creating cultural competence and understanding of inequities that support the
political system (Dee & Penner, 2017). The political right, however, has largely feared the
implementation of the course, seeing this as a negative curriculum toward White students and as
another mandate to control them post-COVID-19, which is an opposing stress on the political
system (Young, 2022).
Despite the political climate, the school district in this case study chose to go through an
adoption process before the mandate’s 2030 deadline so that all students could begin taking
ethnic studies as a graduation requirement. This process required community engagement of
various stakeholders to create a guiding coalition. Voluntary parent participation not only is
essential for true collective district decision-making but also leads to greater student success in
school (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). It is also important to note that inclusive engagement
practices with marginalized families can help bridge gaps between school and home by
developing strong relationships and communication practices (Jeynes, 2013).

38
Chapter Three: Methodology
In fall 2021, California became the first state to add an ethnic studies component to its
basic graduation requirements (Cal. Assemb. B. 101, Chapter 661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]). The broader
aim of the bill was to move the state away from the “deficit notions of the resources of
Communities of Color” that have “fueled intolerance, bigotry, and assimilation throughout the
history of U.S. public education” (del Carmen Salazar, 2013, p. 122) and toward a future where
all students are exposed to a broad curriculum that acknowledges and celebrates the historical
struggles and contributions of Native American, Latino, African American, Asian American, and
Pacific Islander Californians to the state (California Department of Education, 2022). This new
curriculum has special importance in California, as the state serves the largest student population
and is among the most diverse in the nation, with approximately 6.2 million students speaking
more than 90 languages (California Department of Education, 2023b). More than three quarters
of California’s K–12 students are non-White: 55% Latinx, 22% White, 12% Asian or Pacific
Islander, and 5% African American.
When the ethnic studies course as a graduation requirement was voted into law, it
brought celebration for some families, but fear and anger for others (Kim, 2020; Rothermich,
2021). This bill quickly became controversial and the subject of many school board meetings as
districts began considering its implementation (Andruss, 2022). This particular moment in time
holds great importance due to the mass psychological effects of large populations in quarantine
and the financial impact of large-scale unemployment due to COVID-19, which may have
caused the escalation of social movements as a way to escape isolation (Christián et al., 2022).
Ethnic studies gained attention on both sides of political action groups—some believing the

39
course needed immediate implementation and was past due, and some believing that this
course’s purpose was divisive and should not be implemented at all.
Research has claimed two broad categories of support for ethnic studies: personal
academic empowerment of the student and increased understanding of diverse people. Dee and
Penner’s (2017) causal study in San Francisco schools provided evidence that ethnic studies
courses, taught with fidelity to the stated aims and with culturally relevant instruction, resulted in
improved grade point averages for students of color and increases in credits earned. Bonilla et al.
(2021) completed a study in the San Francisco Unified School District that also demonstrated
positive outcomes, including increased graduation rates, for students enrolled in ethnic studies
courses. De los Ríos et al. (2015) identified increased civic engagement with local and state
issues as a product of enrollment in ethnic studies courses.
This group study examined one Southern California district that engaged in stakeholder
input strategies before the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of the state requirement. Despite
the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and community groups
resulting in recall efforts, there has been a lack of discussion about the engagement process in the
literature and few to no studies dedicated to the behaviors and activities of districts as they
construct and reconstruct their social reality through educational policy. As California districts
approach the 2029–2030 school year, ethnic studies will become a mandate, and the community
pressure felt by school boards will be faced by more than just a few early adopters. This group
case study focused on a large K–12 school district in Southern California during the adoption
process of an intersectional ethnic studies curriculum. Specifically, we were interested in
examining the engagement process with the community in the context of policy adoption amid
rapid political polarization in the post–George Floyd Trump administration era. While we

40
studied this as a group, each researcher explored a different stakeholder group to gain a deeper
understanding of the experiences of each.
Purpose of the Study
Through an engagement process among multiple educational partners, the school district
was able to approve an intersectional ethnic studies adoption. This study focused on educational
partners in the local and broader community who participated in the engagement process. The
group investigated the experiences of approximately 34 stakeholders and their understanding of
the stresses, demands/supports, and systems that led to the decision for early implementation.
This study was guided by the following research questions, organized by educational
partner.
Educational Partner: School Board Members and Senior District Leaders
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and
senior district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Community Organizers
1. What was the motivation of community organizers for participating in the school
district’s dialogue regarding the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum?
2. What were the community organizers’ concerns about the district’s adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies during the engagement process?

41
3. How, if at all, did the engagement process about intersectional ethnic studies by a
school district affect community organizers’ confidence in district decision-making?
Educational Partner: Consultants
1. How do consultants in a Southern California school district describe their
participation and role in the steps leading up to the implementation of intersectional
ethnic studies?
2. What challenges did the consultants encounter in the steps leading up to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
3. What impact do the consultants think their work had on the process toward
implementing intersectional ethnic studies?
Educational Partner: Teachers
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Educational Partner: District and Site Administrators
1. From an administrator’s perspective, what led the district to implement the
community engagement process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional
ethnic studies resolution?
2. How were site and district administrators involved in the community engagement

42
process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
3. What are administrators’ perceptions of the consensus-building process that led to
adopting an intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
Educational Partner: Parents
1. How did parents perceive the communication by the district and its representatives
during the ethnic studies adoption process?
2. In what ways, if any, did parents engage in the ethnic studies adoption process?
3. How was parental input received by the district and its representatives?
Selection of the Population
School Board Members and Consultants
To conduct this study, the researchers used census sampling because the researchers
wanted to interview all participants within both educational partners. This type of sampling
supported the study because there was such a small number of sitting board members (five),
district leadership (two), and consultants (five); an attempt was made to include all individuals
involved at the time.
Community Organizers
The researcher interviewed members of a social activist group in the local community
who participated in one Southern California school district’s adoption process of the ethnic
studies graduation requirement. The researcher found contact information for the group on
Facebook and began an email exchange to send a request to interview the group. Six members of
this group agreed to participate. The researcher attempted to involve all members of the group.
Gaining knowledge from the interviews may help educational leaders gain insight for their

43
adoption process of both the ethnic studies graduation requirement and other curricular or
instructional changes in the future.
Parents and Teachers
Participants in this study included 28 classroom teachers and 11 parents in a Southern
California school district. The school district serves approximately 25,000 students, from
kindergarten through 12th grade. The screener identified potential participants for interviews:
current teachers who were also employed by the district as a teacher in the 2021–2022 academic
school year. The researcher contacted parents with help from the assistant superintendent’s
office. These parents confirmed via a screener survey that their children were enrolled in the
school for the 2021–2022 academic year. Following the survey, emails were sent out to those
parents who had indicated their willingness to participate in the interview process.
The study used purposive sampling (Johnson & Christensen, 2017) where, specifically,
social science and English language arts teachers were selected because a credential in these
licenses may be required to teach standalone ethnic studies courses. The process of selection
required using a screener for all teachers in the selected school districts by the method of random
sampling. A random sample of teachers could provide a representative sample that resembles the
population group the researcher is interested in studying (Johnson & Christensen, 2017). Some
sampling issues that may have arisen:
1. This study was time intensive, and participants had to be willing to submit to hours of
interviews and taking surveys.
2. The scope of this study was limited to a snapshot of a set of individuals in one single
district; thus, it is not generalizable.

44
District Administrators
The researcher interviewed six site and district administrators who were employed in
administrative positions during the 2021–2022 academic year. The researcher was connected
with these individuals via the office of the assistant superintendent and confirmed their
employment in the district during the 2021–2022 school year as administrators during the
individual interviews. An email was sent to all administrators from a member of the district
administrative team inviting them to participate in the study, but no additional administrators
contacted the researcher and expressed interest in participating.
Design Summary
Overview of Methodology
The methodology included qualitative data from semi-structured interviews to seek
specific information while also allowing for respondents’ worldviews to emerge (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Consistent with the grounded theory that shaped this study, this method allowed
the researcher to ask all participants the same questions but left space for flexibility to follow the
respondent’s thoughts if something unexpected emerged (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). The
interviews also included possible topics for the participants to have room to share their
experiences and perspectives that might not have been shared through the set questions. The
design and methodology were appropriate because they presented an in-depth understanding of
respondents’ experiences. It is unlikely that surveys alone could have produced the rich and
varied responses that can be elicited through interviews.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study was rooted in Easton’s (1979) political systems
framework, with consideration to Kotter’s (1996) change model. Easton’s framework provided a

45
method for organizing interview data into phases of the consensus-building process. Kotter’s
model outlines eight steps to leading change. This case study was focused on the efforts of one
Southern California school district to reach a consensus around the adoption of an intersectional
ethnic studies resolution. Therefore, the data were organized and analyzed using only the first
four phases of Easton’s (1979) framework (stresses, inputs, school systems as a political system,
and outputs and policies) and the first four steps of Kotter’s (1996) change model (create
urgency, build a powerful coalition, create a vision for change, and communicate the vision). The
case study explicitly limited its scope to these four phases and steps and did not include the
experiences after the ethnic studies resolution adoption nor the experiences of the district during
implementation. Therefore, neither the feedback loop portion of the political systems framework
nor the last four steps of the change model were incorporated as a part of the analysis. Within the
specific phase of school systems as a political system, Kotter’s change model was used to further
examine the extent of success produced by the district’s community engagement process.
In Easton’s (1979) political systems framework, stresses lead to a needed change; this
aligns with what Kotter (1996) identified as creating urgency. Easton asserted that the demands
and supports drive the policy change. In the instance of this case study, the stresses initiating the
change came in the form of a highlighted gap in content for historically marginalized students
and a fully White-centered curriculum. This conversation gained momentum out of national
events such as George Floyd’s murder at the hands of a police officer on duty, and an increase in
hate crimes focused on Asian Americans following the COVID-19 pandemic. Out of these
events, an activist group came to the local school district to demand that the already-passed AB
101 be implemented before the prescribed date. The innovation of ethnic studies in the initiation

46
phase led to support of the change from those within the school district and external change
agents in the consultants and non-district stakeholders.
Instrumentation and Protocols
The qualitative data were gathered through the use of interviews; questions were written
to ensure that they targeted the research questions and anticipated follow-up probes (see
Appendices A–H). The interviews conducted were open ended and semi-structured using an
interview guide, and the researchers took notes during the process (Patton, 2002). To stimulate
in-depth responses, the researchers included various types of questions that targeted the
experiences, opinions, feelings, and understanding of each stakeholder (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The researchers ensured that multiple (double-barreled) questions and leading questions
were not included in the protocol (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Collection
Before the interviews, the researchers gained access to the participants through screeners,
census sampling, and snowball sampling. The researchers contacted participants with an email
introducing the study, their rights as participants, and the logistics of the interview if they chose
to participate. An integral addition to the email was including what the participants would get
from participating, also known as reciprocity (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). The researchers shared
how the participants’ experiences would support and inform other educational leaders on how to
implement any initiative, policy, or change that is considered polarizing or controversial. The
information and logistics of the interview were provided to the participants in advance. At the
start of each interview, participants were reminded of their rights and that the interview would be
recorded. Each interview took 60–90 minutes. After meeting with each participant, the
researchers transcribed and reviewed all the data from the recorded interviews.

47
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative approach, deriving the data from interviews, transcription
of meeting notes, and analysis of district surveys given during the adoption process. All of the
items in the interview protocols were directly linked to the research questions, which guided the
data analysis. In instances where interviews were given in a language other than English,
transcription into English was completed with the assistance of a translator. To maintain
confidentiality and protect the participants’ information provided, all identifying information in
the transcription and analysis that followed was unlinked to ensure responses were not
identifiable to individuals.
After data were collected from the interviews, the researchers followed the steps of
transcribing, coding the data, synthesizing, and then looking for patterns (Bogden & Biklen,
2007). The researchers used Zoom, an online conferencing platform, to transcribe the recorded
interviews, which were then loaded into Nvivo, a data management tool, to manually code the
data. Before coding, the researchers made sure to organize the data by breaking it down into
manageable pieces. Researcher triangulation was utilized, where six different researchers
focused on the same case study but different educational partners to generate a more in-depth
understanding of the process leading up to the decision to implement intersectional ethnic studies
early (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Validity and Reliability
The study was conducted with careful attention to the ways the data were collected and
findings were presented (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researchers followed multiple steps to
promote validity and reliability throughout the study, including member checking, adequate time
spent collecting the data, self-reflection on any assumptions/biases, peer review, audit trail, and

48
purposefully seeking variation in the sample selection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure that
there was internal validity in the study, the researchers used data triangulation to check for
consistency of findings among the data gathered from examining documents and artifacts,
interview data, and the extensive literature review. Easton’s (1979) political systems model and
Kotter’s (1996) change model were applied as a method of linking the findings within these
larger perspectives (see Figure 1). As the interviews sought to obtain information about events
that occurred during the previous school year, the responses may have been subject to
degradation of memory over the intervening year. This possible degradation of memory may
have affected the reliability and validity of the interview results.
Summary
This case study used a qualitative approach using data from document analysis and semistructured interviews to elicit information from sample participants to address the study research
questions. The data from the six stakeholder group interviews helped paint a data-rich picture of
the experiences with one Southern California school district’s adoption process of an
intersectional ethnic studies curriculum. The data also helped the researchers understand the
tensions that the participants faced throughout the process leading up to the decision. These
findings are presented in Chapter Four, with a discussion of the findings in Chapter Five and a
comprehensive analysis of all individual data in Chapter Six.

49
Chapter Four: Findings
This group study examined one Southern California district that engaged in stakeholder
input strategies prior to the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of the state requirement to offer
a course by the 2029–2030 school year. Many school districts have experienced community
resistance to their compliance with state mandates, including the implementation (or plans for
implementation) of an ethnic studies course (Alliance for Constructive Ethnic Studies, n.d.;
Smith, 2021). Backlash has come in the form of contentious school board meetings, threats to
school board members and district officials, and local school board members being recalled
(Smith, 2021), while the entire field of study has been banned in other places (Cammarota,
2017). Despite the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and
community groups, there has been a lack of discussion about the engagement process in the
literature and few to no studies dedicated to the behaviors and activities of districts as they define
new futures through educational policy.
As California districts approach the 2029–2030 school year, ethnic studies will become a
mandate, and the community pressure felt by school boards will be faced by more than just the
few early adopters. Specifically, we were interested in examining the community engagement
process of a large K–12 district in the context of policy adoption amid rapid political polarization
in the post–George Floyd Trump administration era. Through an analysis of the community
engagement process, this study sought to provide insights and recommendations for educational
institutions and policymakers on the value of building support through communication and
collaboration with educational partners. Although we studied this as a group, each researcher
explored a different stakeholder group to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences of each.
Studying their process and the resulting adoption is important not only to the districts that have

50
yet to implement this course and must do so in the upcoming years, but to any organization
dealing with competing discourses over changes that might be divisive in a community. The
purpose of this study was to examine the approach by which this district led its adoption efforts
to better understand how educational leaders can approach change, inviting participation of all
stakeholder voices. It was important to study this adoption process in a Southern California
school district to examine the effects and influences for the community.
The conceptual framework for this study was rooted in Easton’s (1979) political systems
framework with consideration to Kotter’s (1996) change model. Easton’s framework provided a
method for organizing interview data into phases of the consensus-building process. Kotter’s
model outlined eight steps to leading change. The case study was focused on the efforts of one
Southern California school district to reach consensus around the adoption of an intersectional
ethnic studies (IES) resolution. Therefore, the data were organized and analyzed using only the
first four phases of Easton’s (1979) framework (stresses, inputs, school systems as a political
system, and outputs and policies) and the first four steps of Kotter’s (1996) change model: create
urgency, build a powerful coalition, create a vision for change, and communicate the vision. The
case study explicitly limited its scope to these four phases and steps and did not include the
experiences of administrators after the ethnic studies resolution adoption nor the experiences of
the district during implementation; therefore, neither the feedback loop portion of the political
systems framework nor the last four steps of the change model were incorporated as a part of the
analysis. Within the specific phase of school systems as a political system, Kotter’s change
model was used to further examine the extent of success produced by the district’s community
engagement process.

51
In Easton’s (1979) political systems framework, stresses lead to a needed change; this
aligns with what Kotter (1996) identified as creating urgency. Easton asserted that the demands
and supports drive the policy change. In this case study, the stresses initiating the change came in
the form of a highlighted gap in content for historically marginalized students and a fully Whitecentered curriculum. This conversation gained momentum because of national events such as
George Floyd’s murder at the hands of a police officer on duty and an increase in hate crimes
focused on Asian Americans following the COVID-19 pandemic. Out of these events, an activist
group came to the local school district to demand that the already-passed AB 101 (Cal. Assemb.
B. 101, Chapter 661 [Cal. Stat. 2021]) be implemented prior to the prescribed date. The
innovation of ethnic studies in the initiation phase led to support of the change from those within
the school district and external change agents in the consultants and non-district stakeholders.
Through an engagement process between multiple educational partners, the school
district was able to reach consensus and approve an intersectional ethnic studies adoption. This
group case study focused on stakeholder groups in the local and broader community who
participated in the engagement process. The research group investigated the experiences of
approximately 34 stakeholders and their understanding of the stresses, demands/supports, and
systems that led to the decision of early implementation. This study of the senior leadership and
school board was guided by the following research questions:
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?

52
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and
senior district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Participants
This qualitative case study used an interview approach to collect data from the
participants within the chosen school district. Six participants were interviewed: the
superintendent, the assistant superintendent, and four board members who were all active during
the community engagement process and subsequent board vote. Meetings were conducted and
recorded through Zoom, a virtual conferencing platform, and ranged in length from 50 to 75
minutes. In addition to questions about their stance on intersectional ethnic studies, I also asked
for reflections on their experiences and outcomes from the community engagement process.
Along with my notes from the meetings, I analyzed transcripts that I individually coded. The
census method of studying all participants within a defined group was appropriate because it was
a small pool and interviewing all members offered an in-depth understanding of their
experiences and nuanced reflections of the engagement process dynamics. Due to the highly
specific nature of engaging with the community around ethnic studies, the reflections and
experiences of board members and senior district leadership are colored by their beliefs about the
initiative and may have made drawing conclusions about community engagement in different
contexts a difficult task. This chapter discusses the results for each research question and several
themes that emerged from the interviews.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked the following: What stresses led the district to implement a
community engagement process before making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic
studies?

53
The purpose of this research question was to investigate the specific stresses that
prompted the district to implement a community engagement process as a preliminary step
before deciding to adopt intersectional ethnic studies. Easton’s (1979) political system can be
described as a conversion process in which inputs are transformed into outputs. Because it is an
open and adaptive system, it has to be resilient to respond to stresses and adjust to conflict; only
by withstanding the environmental stresses can it survive. Therefore, it is imperative that a
system make efforts to identify and understand these stresses, particularly in an ever-changing
environment. This study aimed to explore the environmental and political influences that shaped
the district’s decision-making process. Four themes emerged from this first research question
related to the stresses that led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies: internal development of ethnic studies,
community organizers’ demands, passage of AB 101, and charged political climate.
Internal Development of Ethnic Studies Curriculum
Throughout the interviews, it was evident that there was an effort to develop ethnic
studies within the district prior to the mandate and the community organizers’ demand for a
board resolution. The senior district leaders interviewed were quick to point out the foundation
had already been established and research had long been underway with at least a year of
planning before the current superintendent was installed. One board member shared that one of
the reasons the current superintendent was a good fit for the position was their experience
leading an ethnic studies task force as part of their duties in a previous district. Already being
versed in the work of creating courses made it easy for the superintendent to continue with the
planning of ethnic studies that was identified as a priority. Ethnic studies as a state mandate had
been working its way through the assembly for years, “and so the writing was on the wall. We

54
knew it was going to happen.” Not everyone in the district at that time was aware or fully in
support of it in the early days. One board member reflected on the previous superintendent’s
resistance to support ethnic studies and described the current superintendent as a “true partner”
who contributed to the success of the adoption. The district recognized the need for a more
inclusive curriculum that addressed the historical gaps for marginalized students. The alignment
between the direction in which the district was already moving and the support of the new
superintendent was identified as a stressor that signaled an internal tension putting pressure on
the system to make change.
Two of the trustees were community organizers with experience advocating for ethnic
studies before joining the Board of Education, and they leveraged their connection to raise
awareness among the board to encourage more support. Board members acknowledged that other
districts had attempted to adopt ethnic studies with negative consequences to the board (Smith,
2021), but several of the interviewees indicated that the recall efforts in other districts did not
deter them from supporting the initiative. Several interviewees indicated that they were actively
involved in the ethnic studies movement and had been following AB 101 closely as it passed
through the legislature, believing that it was only a matter of time before it became required.
Community Organizers’ Demands
Over the last century, the economic goals of schooling have changed, and the public’s
expectation of its educational leaders has evolved to demand the leaders carry out its interests
(Horsford et al., 2018). Through the interviews, I confirmed that, in late 2020, a grassroots
collective of community organizers including parents, grandparents, professors, local experts,
and activists advocated for students by presenting an ethnic studies resolution to the board. With
a long history of speaking out against educational inequities, this multigenerational group of

55
community members called for school board members to commit to an equity-minded and
culturally affirming curriculum by drawing on its diverse community.
When the community organizers came forward to demand the resolution, senior district
leaders felt they had to educate the board to let them know they had already begun the process of
researching and planning for ethnic studies: “We had already been researching through our
curriculum committees. Because, you know, they have a lot going on, so we don’t always tell
them.” They were able to provide the board with timelines, meeting notes, and agendas from
curriculum committees to demonstrate where they were in the process. The research and
planning process up to that point had not considered the idea of a board resolution. One district
leader recalled, “They delivered a resolution that they wanted the board to adopt it wholesale,
just like that. Here, here you go, adopt this.” While in agreement with the aim of the resolution,
this administrator had immediate resistance on the grounds that it presented a conflict of interest
because the group not only wanted the resolution adopted, but also wanted to be contracted to
train the staff. The administrator said,
So I told them that we would be having a process, and that was always part of the plan. I
know they weren’t too happy because they wanted to take credit for the whole thing is the
way I saw it.
The district leaders and school board were, however, willing to advance the issue to a
community engagement process with a third-party consultant group leading the facilitation. As
for the community organizers, “Everybody has a role to play, right? And so they are
provocateurs; they got us moving forward. And they actually gave us the wind in our sails to
move it forward.” The demand from community organizers played a crucial role in applying
external pressure that stressed the system. The district, while reluctant to adopt the resolution on

56
the spot, embraced the role the activists played while advocating for ethnic studies, which served
as a catalyst for hiring a consultant group to coordinate community outreach efforts.
Passage of AB 101
This third finding emerging from Research Question 1 showed the passage of AB 101 to
be a pivotal moment, not as a catalyst for change but rather as authority and leverage for efforts
that were already underway and a movement already establishing demand in this community. On
October 8, 2021, California Governor Newsom signed into law AB 101, mandating that all high
school students complete one ethnic studies course as a graduation requirement by the school
year 2029–2030. When asked about the passage of AB 101, four of six participants used the
word “excited” to describe their initial thoughts, and all six expressed support for it: “My first
thought was that it’s about time.”
One of the only measures of disappointment expressed by interviewees was the date
determined by the state. One board member said, “I felt that as a school district we can supersede
that timeline and be able to implement that a lot sooner than what is mandated, and that was one
of the most principal goals for us.” Using the mandate for momentum for what had already been
started, one participant described it as “the icing on the cake, the fact that the state was actually
supporting it and bringing this forward. It made it a lot easier.” For those who viewed AB 101 as
a support and foundation for what they were already doing, the mandate was a positive
development that aligned with the district’s existing plans.
Charged Political Climate
According to all of the participants, the timing of the ethnic studies mandate coupled with
highly polarizing societal events resulted in an environment of heightened tensions and
additional pressure on governing bodies such as the Board of Education. After the election of

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2016, Donald Trump’s presidency brought with it increased political tension and conspiratorial
thinking (Uscinski et al., 2021). Teachers and students reported higher levels of stress and
anxiety related to the policies and actions of politicians that might affect their campus culture
and individual lives (Rogers et al., 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020 heightened
these fears and increased isolation between people (Christián et al., 2022). This increased the
consciousness of the Black community, especially as police violence continued to take the lives
of young Black people, culminating in the murder of George Floyd and sparking the Black Lives
Matter movement (Christián et al., 2022). The fears, injustices, and anxieties felt by many,
coupled with the psychological effects of isolation, created a moment in history of mass protests
on both sides of the political aisle (Christián et al., 2022).
While the Black Lives Matter movement brought out crowds, so did protests surrounding
the response to the COVID-19 pandemic and concerns around critical race theory being taught in
K–12 schools. In Los Alamitos, California, groups protesting the mask mandate formed a “Let
Them Breathe” campaign, disrupting schools and staffing and demanding that children should be
allowed to learn on campus during the COVID-19 pandemic without a mask due to their
constitutional freedoms and fears that social distancing would do more harm psychologically and
socially than the disease itself (Young, 2022). In Tustin, groups of parents voiced their
disapproval of masks at school at board meetings as well and formed similar protests in a spinoff “Let Them Play” campaign formed through social media, resulting in protests in the San
Francisco Bay area and San Diego (Young, 2022).
Interviewees described the climate within the community at the time as one riddled with a
lot of mistrust of the district because of decisions that had previously occurred: “I knew that this
was going to be important. And if we were going to go through this process, it needed to involve

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the stakeholders and specifically that community group.” In an environment that was politically
charged, it was critical to build buy-in, not just from the most ardent supporters but also from the
harshest critics. “So, I think, involving them early on was key to getting things done,” reflected a
participant on the community engagement process. In some ways, the politically charged nature
of the events of the day were seen as an impetus for adopting ethnic studies: “I learned things
like you never waste a crisis, because this again gave us wind in our sails.”
One comment captured the impact of the political environment as a stress for change:
“This is even more reason why we need to study the true history of the United States. It’s
uncomfortable. It’s not convenient. A lot of us don’t want to hear it, but it’s the truth.” This
statement reflected the sentiment that the incidents around George Floyd’s murder underscored
the urgency of “confronting historical and contemporary injustices and systemic inequities.” One
board member added, “Look, this is why we must educate our students and our staff. That what
we see in textbooks is not particularly accurate. It’s just one version of history, if even an
accurate version of history.” In alignment with de los Rios (2020), participants felt that an
intersectional analysis of community histories is necessary to address the harm created by
historical and present-day oppression. The political climate at the time served as a critical
stressor originating from the environment itself and influenced the outcome of engaging
educational partners, even those with opposing views, in a highly charged atmosphere in order to
build buy-in and address the community’s mistrust.
Discussion for Research Question 1
This research question was meant to explore the variety of stresses that prompted a
Southern California school district to initiate a community engagement process before the
adoption of intersectional ethnic studies. Easton’s (1979) political system framework described a

59
network of behaviors as they operate within and respond to its social environment while making
“binding allocations of values” (policies, decisions, and implementation). Four stresses emerged,
making up the conditions under which members of this system acted and reacted: internal
development of ethnic studies, community organizers’ demands, passage of AB 101, and the
charged political climate. As the system interacted with the environment, it turned inputs into
outputs. Therefore, it was necessary to examine the stresses and the capacity of this system to
cope with them without collapsing. The political system is driven by the demands and challenges
made on it and the support it gets from its members. All participants in the study were able to
articulate the convergence of the internal and external stresses from activists, state mandates, the
charged political climate, and the district’s internal tensions and illuminate how they were the
driving force for the district’s decision to undertake a community engagement process.
Understanding these stresses provides valuable insights into the factors that shaped the adoption
process of IES in this district.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked the following: What did the school board and senior district
leaders hope to accomplish through the adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
The purpose of this research question was to examine the goals and objectives that
motivated the school board and senior district leaders to initiate a community engagement
campaign in the context of their decision-making process. Employing a consultant group to
conduct surveys, listening circles, and consensus-building circles, the district sought input from
educational partners including high school students, families, and faculty and staff. Through an
in-depth exploration of their intentions and expectations, this study aimed to uncover the
underlying motivations, perceived benefits, and anticipated outcomes of the community

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engagement campaign. By understanding the rationale behind the campaign, this research sought
to provide valuable insights into the district’s approach to community involvement and its impact
on educational policymaking, providing a deeper understanding of the role of community
engagement in shaping school initiatives and fostering positive relationships between
stakeholders. Three themes emerged from the second research question related to the objectives
of a community engagement process before the district made the decision to adopt intersectional
ethnic studies: community partnership, open dialogue, and building understanding.
Community Partnership
Drawing on academic literature, the study highlighted the connection between
community engagement in schools and the impact on school and student success. Holistic
approaches to education, emphasizing the need for schools, families, and communities to work
together to create supportive and nurturing learning environments for all students, help build this
engagement (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Brown et al.’s (2022) study highlighted several
dimensions of parental participation including involvement, engagement, and community. All six
participants addressed community engagement in their interviews and identified partnering with
the community as an intended goal: “We wanted to make sure we offered an opportunity for
everyone to get involved.” Participants expressed a shared goal of fostering community
partnership, ensuring stakeholders’ active involvement. The use of surveys and listening circles
consistently highlighted the importance of participants seeing themselves, their identities, and
their histories reflected and valued. Stakeholder groups included students, multiple generations
of family, classified and certificated staff, elected officials, activist groups, religious groups, and
marginalized communities expressly invited to develop “mutual respect, empathy, inclusivity,
student agency, solidarity and collaboration.” Through an intersectional and solution-based

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approach, students can explore who they are, the systems of power and privilege that affect them,
and allyship and solidarity (Sleeter & Zavala, 2020).
According to Baquedano-López et al. (2013), there are various barriers to the equitable
involvement of all parents, including language barriers, limited resources, mistrust, and
conflicting cultural expectations. By overcoming barriers, such as by offering meetings in
different geographic locations and options for in-person and virtual meeting spaces, the district
aimed to create inclusive practices that empowered marginalized families and established trust.
Ultimately, they tried to demonstrate a deep caring and commitment to democratic
participation so that they could negotiate the collective understanding that supports their work:
We want to partner with them, and we want to hear their voices, and then reflect back to
them and demonstrate that we are listening, and we are implementing what is appropriate
in our curriculum and aligns with our frameworks.
Families were not the only stakeholder group that was considered a crucial educational
partner. One board member addressed the specific intention to involve the activist group,
recognizing the benefits of building support with such an influential organization: “So, I think,
involving them early on was the key to getting things done.”
Open Dialogue
Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural practices and communication styles within
communities was essential because the dominant approaches in schools often reflect middleclass norms and exclude marginalized families (Baquedano-López et al., 2013). The district
aimed to avoid past mistakes gathering adequate stakeholder engagement: “We wanted to make
sure we heard from the community ’cause that’s something that, you know, in the past, we’ve
been criticized about is moving forward on big decisions without engaging the community

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thoroughly enough.” Every interviewee prioritized including as many stakeholder voices as
possible, ensuring that individuals were included whether they were supportive of or against the
adoption of ethnic studies: “That was extremely, extremely important for us, because we wanted
to make sure that as many people felt heard and felt seen, you know?” One participant described
their goals for prioritizing transparent and inclusive community partnerships this way:
Really to hear, one, their frustrations; two, their hopes; three, their questions, because
there’s a lot of questions, as you know, about intersectional ethnic studies because it is
polarizing. Even when we started advertising the meetings, I started getting emails: “Are
you teaching critical race theory?” And I said, “No, it’s not part of the state framework.
But we will teach history, which is, you know, slavery and discrimination and racism. All
of those are a part of our history. So, we will be addressing those issues.”
Build Understanding
The district’s goals went beyond requesting input and extended to building understanding
among educational partners. Senior district leaders and board members expressed the desire to
address concerns and educate the community about the proposed ethnic studies curriculum:
For the most part, it was very positive; it was an opportunity to have a dialogue again.
But were there some members that were still upset? Yes, we did have those, but we were
trying to use, you know, logic, or if you, if you’re against it, well, tell us why you’re
against it. How can we make you change your mind so that you feel comfortable,
comfortable, and content with bringing this forward?
Emphasizing the importance of clarifying misconceptions, the district aimed to use the
community engagement process as an opportunity to foster awareness, educate, and promote a
shared understanding of intersectional ethnic studies. Addressing common misconceptions, one

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participant commented, “When I would get emails or people reaching out to me with those
concerns, I would say, attend our stakeholder engagement groups; we want to hear diverse
opinions.” They welcomed different perspectives and viewed it as a tool to better inform the
community: “Even if I may disagree, we value your opinion, and, you know, learn about what
we’re gonna be teaching and to demystify whatever concerns you have.”
Ethnic studies was developed out of a desire for more culturally diverse and inclusive
representations of the history and lives of marginalized American communities (Gay, 2017).
Some see the course as divisive and fear it will create more polarization, violence, and bigotry
(Alliance for Constructive Ethnic Studies, n.d.). The Orange County Board of Education held
panels on ethnic studies and heard public comment calling ethnic studies a vehicle for critical
race theory and describing it as political indoctrination to anti-American ideals (Elattar, 2021).
For individuals expressing those concerns, the district responded with sentiments echoed by
Ochoa and Ochoa (2022): A community-responsive, intersectional approach goes beyond the
superficial levels of identity and weaves ethnic studies throughout the curriculum. It has an
intersectional framework and draws on the histories and cultures of the students and the region
and calls specifically for race, class, gender, and sexuality components to be established in the
ethnic studies framework. It analyzes power, lived experiences, and multiple forms of oppression
and resistance (Ochoa & Ochoa, 2022). The district leadership and school board believed that
students benefit from being reflected in their own learning (Snapp & Russell, 2016). While some
ethnic studies courses have seen issues of identity and gender as separate and apart from the
course, others believe ethnic studies and LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum are one and the same
(Snapp & Russell, 2016). Some interviewees held strong beliefs in line with Snapp and Russell

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(2016) and expressed disappointment that the district’s adoption did not go far enough to instill
these values from the very earliest ages.
Discussion for Research Question 2
The findings revealed that the community engagement campaign had overarching
objectives of fostering community partnerships, promoting open dialogue, and building
understanding. These goals aligned with the broader educational literature emphasizing the
positive impact of community involvement on student success (Brown et al., 2022; Daniel et al.,
2019; Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Cultivating informed dialogue allowed the district to alleviate
concerns and reduce stresses that could have otherwise impeded the successful adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies. By actively engaging in open conversations, the district addressed
demands and supports within the political system, fostering a collective understanding among
educational partners that created urgency and brought them together as a coalition of support.
This approach facilitated the initiation phase, responding to external pressures and advocating for
the necessary changes. The community engagement campaign served as a crucial tool in
transforming environmental stresses into consensus-building opportunities, reinforcing the
resilience of the educational system. In this context, the dialogue played a pivotal role in
navigating the complexities of the political environment, highlighting the significance of
proactive communication in the broader educational policymaking process. The study
contributes insights into how the district strategically approached community engagement,
addressing barriers and leveraging the process to build a supportive community for the adoption
of intersectional ethnic studies.

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Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked the following: What impact did the community engagement
process have on board members and senior district leaders regarding the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies?
The purpose of this research was to assess the specific impacts that the community
engagement process had on board members and senior district leaders in relation to the adoption
of intersectional ethnic studies. By examining the experiences and perspectives of these key
decision makers, this study aimed to gain a comprehensive understanding of how the
engagement process influenced their attitudes, beliefs, and decision-making regarding the
curriculum’s adoption. Two themes emerged from the third research question related to the
impact of a community engagement process on the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic
studies: building trust and cultivating unity.
Through this investigation, valuable insights can be gained into the role of community
engagement in shaping educational policies and the extent to which it influenced the
stakeholders’ understanding of the importance and implications of intersectional ethnic studies in
the district’s educational framework.
Building Trust
The climate within the community was dynamic and marked by mistrust, particularly by
the activist group toward the district for past decisions. One interviewee pointed to the societal
pressures in the pandemic environment at the time:
You have to remember this is all happening during the reopening of schools, so we knew
that those meetings had to happen right away, and that there had to be feedback and
progress and things like that. So, we would give updates to the board. We had a new

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communications team come in too; they were updating the community as well so people
could see the progress.
Despite the length of time it took to develop, the final product reflected community input
and many of the elements in the initial resolution demand, contributing to an advance in trust.
The emphasis on transparency and a commitment to including the voices of all stakeholders
played an additional role in rebuilding trust. Participants acknowledged the challenge of the
climate being politically charged and agreed that “you let the experts do what they do best.”
While the senior district leaders had extensive experience, the decision was made to task a
consultant group with the facilitation of community input, hoping the district would be seen as a
trusting equal partner in the work. Referencing historical wrongs, one participant stated, “Let’s
work together hand in hand as opposed to you’re doing this to us, you know, ’cause you hear that
a lot.” Trust in this case was bidirectional; the district wanted to be seen as a trusted partner and
also wanted to put its trust in the consultant group and with the community: “’Cause that’s the
thing: We didn’t know. You never know; it could have taken a very huge turn for the worse.”
Unity
Unity emerged as a central theme. Several participants expressed an awareness of other
school districts that had taken similar measures with more deleterious outcomes, but they also
pointed to bright spots; listening to success stories from similar populations gave them
motivation to try despite the uncertainty. One idea mentioned repeatedly was the conviction to
hire third-party consultants to serve as expert facilitators in an effort to build trust and also unify
the community. Working in alignment with a common vision and providing consistent
communication were identified as top priorities. Recognizing the importance of practicing what
they preach, senior district leaders repeatedly addressed this value: “The ethnic studies

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curriculum is going to focus on unifying, having hard conversations, reading about and studying
about the history, the true history, the difficult history of our country, and of our local
community.” As the nature of the ethnic studies curriculum was to unify, the board and senior
district leaders also saw that mirrored in the outcomes from the community engagement, which
further fueled their motivation for change: “The goal of this is to unify, not to now privilege
again one group over another group.”
Many hoped the community would rally around this movement, especially in light of the
contentious results experienced in other school districts where people picketed after the passage
of AB 101 and the boards themselves changed and become ultraconservative (Smith, 2021;
Young, 2022). Reflecting on friends and colleagues in other districts, one participant said, “I
thought how grateful I am that this community was willing to confront, have the conversations,
trust the district with one eye. Honest, maybe still two eyes. We’re still watching you, you know,
kind of thing, and that’s okay.” Reflecting further on the unity seen after the engagement
process, one participant said, “They really came together in a way that I think shows how special
that community is to really want to move forward.”
Discussion for Research Question 3
Ultimately, the board approved an intersectional ethnic studies resolution with the goal of
providing a culturally and linguistically responsive and inclusive curriculum to increase student
engagement and the connectedness of the most marginalized students. Furthermore, the
resolution promised to provide continued opportunities for students, staff, and families to
contribute to and shape the development of an IES curriculum, emphasizing the deep
commitment to community partnerships. Addressing the discomfort that community engagement
can produce, one participant said, “In the end, bringing the community in makes us stronger.

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Then, I think it’s a more meaningful process, and the outcomes are going to be more meaningful
when we have buy-in, so it’s scary as it can be.” Multiple interviewees mentioned navigating the
uncertainty of community involvement, recognizing it as a necessary step in achieving a more
meaningful and authentic process. Planning, strategizing, and anticipating potential challenges
were crucial elements. Participants described the engagement process as a delicate balance
between planning and flexibility, allowing for adjustments based on the evolving dynamics.
They highlighted trustworthy partners, external facilitators, and effective communication
strategies as essential components for success. One participant spoke to the risk-reward
challenge succinctly: “Authentic and genuine engagement will make or break a process, because
people can smell fake a mile away.”
Summary
This qualitative case study explored three research questions aimed at uncovering the
intricate dynamics surrounding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies within one Southern
California school district. The first question was aimed at uncovering the stresses that led the
system to initiate a community engagement process. The second research question explored the
motivations and decision-making process of the school board and senior district leaders in
initiating the community engagement campaign. Finally, the third research question focused on
the impact of community engagement on the decision-making process preceding the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies. The findings from interviews with board members and senior
district leaders demonstrated how the engagement process fostered trust, cultivated unity, and
established effective communication, contributing to the successful adoption of an intersectional
ethnic studies resolution.

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Cultivating informed dialogue allowed the district to alleviate concerns and reduce
stresses that would have otherwise impeded the successful adoption of intersectional ethnic
studies, aligning with Easton’s (1979) framework of schools as a political system and Kotter’s
(1996) conceptions of creating change. By actively engaging in open conversations, the district
addressed demands and supports within the political system by creating urgency, fostering a
collective understanding among a powerful coalition. The community engagement campaign
served as a crucial tool in transforming environmental stresses into consensus-building
opportunities, reinforcing the resilience of the educational system. In this context, community
engagement played a pivotal role in navigating the complexities of the political landscape,
ultimately contributing to the successful adoption of intersectional ethnic studies and
highlighting the significance of proactive communication in the broader educational
policymaking process.
The findings underscored the importance of proactive community engagement,
transparent communication, and building trust within the decision-making process for
implementing educational initiatives. These insights offer valuable lessons for educators,
administrators, and policymakers seeking to adopt similar programs. The findings gathered from
interviews with participants offer practical strategies for enhancing community engagement,
addressing challenges, and sustaining positive relationships with stakeholders. Chapter Five
proposes avenues for further research, identifying gaps in the current study and suggesting areas
where additional exploration could deepen understanding of community engagement in
educational policymaking. The recommendations offer a guide to navigating future initiatives
and contribute to the ongoing discourse on intersectional ethnic studies and community
involvement in educational settings.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes the findings and implications for navigating the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies within one Southern California school district and contributes to the
ongoing discourse on community engagement and educational settings as political systems. The
primary purpose was to uncover the motivations, decision-making processes, and impacts of
community engagement on key educational partners. At its core, the study aimed to address
persistent challenges in educational policy adoption, particularly concerning the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies. Recognizing the need for identifying the behaviors and activities of
districts as they pursue transformational change through educational policy, the study sought to
investigate how community engagement could mitigate underlying issues such as mistrust,
differing perspectives, and potential resistance.
Summary of Findings
Key research findings are discussed in order to shed light on the crucial role of proactive
community engagement, transparent communication, and building trust during the decisionmaking process for educational initiatives. These insights provide practical lessons for educators,
administrators, and policymakers seeking to adopt similar programs. The findings gathered from
interviews with participants offer strategies for enhancing community engagement, addressing
challenges, and sustaining positive relationships with educational partners. Within the context of
this study, recommendations for future research are also made.
This research aimed to understand the intricate dynamics surrounding the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies within one Southern California school district rooted in Easton’s
(1979) political systems framework and Kotter’s (1996) change model. By understanding the
political systems model and how it describes the conversion of inputs into outputs, this study

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aimed to show how the engagement process fostered trust, cultivated unity, and established
effective communication, contributing to the successful adoption of an intersectional ethnic
studies resolution. The following questions guided this research:
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and
senior district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
I employed a qualitative case study approach to pursue these questions. I conducted indepth interviews with key decision makers, including school board members and senior district
leaders, providing rich insights into their perspectives and experiences with a community
engagement process. I analyzed my notes and transcripts, which allowed for a nuanced
examination of the challenges and successes that occurred during the community engagement
process. This study not only resulted in nine findings but also offers three recommendations for
future research.
Findings from this study suggested that following a structured change theory framework
is essential to implementing needed changes within a school district when trying to adopt policy
in dynamic educational systems. Transformative initiatives often necessitate a structured
approach to navigate the complexities of change. Kotter’s (1996) change model provided a
framework of interconnected steps, offering valuable insights for organizations seeking not just
change but sustainable transformation. For school boards and senior district leadership, it is
crucial to establish trust and build relationships with the school community prior to

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implementing significant district objectives. Factors that influence the coalition depend on
proactive communication, establishing trust, and creating a sense of urgency. Nine themes were
identified that related to the study’s three research questions. This section summarizes and
discusses the study’s findings regarding previous research and current practice.
Research Question 1
According to Kotter (1996), in order for change to happen, the entire organization must
“buy in” to the change, and a sense of urgency must be created around the need for change. The
community engagement process served as the spark that began honest conversations, allowing
the district to assess the level of support and opposition as well as identify potential threats.
Research Question 1 examined the specific stresses that prompted the district to implement a
community engagement process as a preliminary step before deciding to adopt intersectional
ethnic studies, which led to four findings. Four stresses were identified: internal development of
ethnic studies, community organizers’ demands, passage of AB 101, and the charged political
climate that made up the conditions under which members of this system acted and reacted.
The first finding highlighted the district’s internal readiness for change evidenced by its
pre-existing efforts to develop an ethnic studies program. Kotter’s (1996) model emphasized the
importance of creating a sense of urgency. The district’s proactive stance in developing ethnic
studies internally aligns with Kotter’s first step, instilling a collective understanding of the need
for change. In unraveling the district’s response to the stresses instigating a community
engagement process, the insights gained from participant interviews offer a nuanced perspective.
As illustrated by one participant, the internal development of ethnic studies within the district
was not a reactionary measure but a proactive response: “The writing was on the wall. We knew
it was going to happen.” One participant said, “I always believe it’s better we do it, than it’s done

73
to us.” This foresight aligns with Kotter’s (1996) change model, emphasizing the importance of
establishing a sense of urgency and preparing for change before it becomes imperative.
The second finding identified external demands, emphasizing the conversion process
within Easton’s (1979) framework, where inputs drive adjustments in the system. The demands
from community organizers acted as inputs, leading to adjustments in the system’s decisionmaking processes. In keeping with the demand by community activists, as depicted in participant
accounts as “provocateurs,” the participants emphasized the formation of powerful coalitions:
“They actually gave us the wind in our sails to move it forward.” The external stressor of
community demands not only influenced the system but, as noted by one participant, provided
the impetus to move forward, illustrating the significance of building alliances, a key tenet of
Kotter’s approach. This partnership speaks to the significance of building alliances to foster
change, as advocated by Kotter.
The third finding pointed to external authority through the passage of AB 101, which
influenced system behavior in line with Easton’s (1979) framework. AB 101, as a legislative
mandate, shaped the system’s behavior, where external influences play a crucial role in
determining the system’s responses. Moreover, the passage of AB 101 emerged as a pivotal
moment, aligning with Kotter’s (1996) call for developing a vision and strategy. Participants
shared sentiments of excitement and support, with one remarking, “It made it a lot easier.” This
legislative mandate served as both validation and impetus, influencing the system’s behavior, in
alignment with Easton’s (1979) political systems framework, where external authority plays a
crucial role in shaping decisions, and echoed Kotter’s emphasis on creating a compelling vision
to drive change.

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The fourth finding explored external stresses resulting from political tensions within the
environment, testing the district’s resilience to stress. The politically charged climate,
characterized by mistrust and heightened tensions within the community, served as a critical
stressor, aligning with Kotter’s (1996) emphasis on creating short-term wins. As one participant
noted, “You never waste a crisis.” The charged atmosphere provided the urgency for the district
to address historical and contemporary injustices through the adoption of ethnic studies. Los Ríos
et al. (2015) described the ethnic studies movement as a direct response to the White supremacist
instruction that is generally seen in high school and college curricula, aligning with the broader
literature on the urgency of confronting systemic inequities (Bonilla et al., 2021; TintiangcoCubales & Duncan-Andrade, 2021). Data gathered from interviews pointed to the political
climate as further motivation to correct the wrongs of the past: “The ethnic studies curriculum is
going to focus on unifying, having hard conversations, reading about and studying about the
history, the true history, the difficult history of our country, and of our local community.”
The district’s community engagement campaign coincided with several high-profile
societal events. The Trump administration saw increased political tension and conspiratorial
thinking (Uscinski et al., 2021), the COVID-19 pandemic heightened fears and increased
isolation between people (Christián et al., 2022), and police violence highlighted by the murder
of George Floyd sparked the Black Lives Matter movement (Christián et al., 2022). The societal
events of the time created an impetus for the district to pursue change in the form of ethnic
studies, as evidenced by one interview statement: “This is even more reason why we need to
study the true history of the United States.”
The findings underscored the importance of proactive leadership in navigating internal
and external pressures, contributing to the broader literature on educational leadership in times of

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change. Insights from this study may contribute to discussions of policy implementation,
showcasing how external mandates can intersect with internal initiatives. The role of community
engagement emerged as a critical factor. This aligns with the broader research emphasizing the
significance of involving educational partners in decision-making processes (Daniel et al., 2019).
Collectively, the participant narratives echoed the intricacies of Kotter’s and Easton’s
frameworks, illustrating how these theoretical concepts align with and illuminate the experiences
of educational leaders navigating change in a complex sociopolitical landscape. These findings
not only contribute to the understanding of this specific case but also offer broader implications
for educational practitioners and policymakers grappling with the challenges of implementing
transformative initiatives in dynamic educational environments.
Research Question 2
The examination of the goals and objectives in initiating a community engagement
campaign, through Research Question 2, provides valuable insights into the motivations and
expectations of the school board and senior district leaders. Three themes emerged from the
second research question related to the objectives of a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies: community partnership, open
dialogue, and building understanding. The findings reflect the interplay between internal and
external factors shaping the district’s approach to community involvement.
The first theme, community partnership, underscores the district’s goal of fostering active
engagement with diverse educational partners. One district leader stated, “I wanted the whole
community to be involved. I wanted the students, the parents, all the stakeholders to be part of it
in order for it to be successful.” This aligned with Kotter’s (1996) emphasis on building powerful
coalitions and Easton’s framework, where external inputs, in this case, community partnerships,

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contribute to adjustments within the system. One participant said, “We want to make sure that
everybody feels welcome, that they have a place on the table to sit.” The participants’ emphasis
on inclusivity and collaboration with various stakeholder groups, as highlighted in their
comments, reflected a commitment to creating a supportive and nurturing learning environment,
echoing the broader literature on community engagement in education (Brown et al., 2022;
Henderson & Mapp, 2002).
The second theme, open dialogue, mirrored Kotter’s (1996) call for creating a sense of
urgency through transparent and inclusive communication. Comments such as, “Our intention is
to have an open dialogue and have an open book where everybody is important,” showed the
commitment to lifting the voices of all stakeholders. The district’s proactive approach in
avoiding past mistakes by thoroughly engaging the community aligned with Kotter’s emphasis
on creating short-term wins. Recognizing and valuing diverse cultural practices and
communication styles within communities was essential because the dominant approaches in
schools often reflect middle-class norms and exclude marginalized families (Baquedano-López
et al., 2013). The participants’ focus on hearing diverse voices, even those in opposition,
illustrated the district’s commitment to transparent communication, an essential element in
navigating the complexities of educational policymaking, as advocated by both Kotter and
Easton.
The third theme, building understanding, resonated with Kotter’s (1996) directive to
develop a vision and strategy. The district’s goals extend beyond receiving input to actively
building understanding among educational partners, aligning with Easton’s (1979) framework,
where external authorities shape system behavior. One participant’s comment illustrated this
determination: “How do we start building this now, so that when it’s rolled out, we ensure that

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it’s a message of unification, of unifying a community of understanding, not whitewashing, not
making everybody the same, but really understanding?” The emphasis on clarifying
misconceptions and educating the community about the proposed ethnic studies curriculum
reflected a strategic approach to foster awareness and promote a shared understanding,
contributing to the broader literature on educational leadership and policy implementation.
The overarching objectives of the community engagement campaign aligned with the
educational literature emphasizing the positive impact of community involvement on student
success (Brown et al., 2022; Henderson & Mapp, 2002). By actively engaging in open
conversations, the district addressed demands and supports within the political system, fostering
a collective understanding that created urgency and brought educational partners together in
support. The findings contributed valuable insights into how the district strategically approached
community engagement, addressing barriers and leveraging the process to build a supportive
community for the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies. The alignment with Kotter’s (1996)
change model and Easton’s (1979) political systems framework underscored the systematic and
intentional nature of the district’s efforts, providing a deeper understanding of the interplay
between internal and external factors in educational policymaking. One participant said, “I don’t
know that we had planned on using the community the way that we did, but in the end it ended
up being a very positive result.” The district may not have intended to have these outcomes and
may have fallen into success regardless.
Research Question 3
The examination of the impact of the community engagement process on board members
and senior district leaders, as per Research Question 3, aimed to shed light on the influence of
this process on attitudes, beliefs, and decision-making regarding the adoption of intersectional

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ethnic studies. Based on the interview data, all six participants declared their support for the
policy change prior to the community engagement process, denying any influence on their
ultimate support for the adoption of IES. Still, the findings revealed the dynamics between the
community engagement process and the key decision makers’ perceptions and actions.
The first theme, building trust, unveiled the significance of trust-building in a climate
marked by societal pressures and mistrust. The district’s proactive measures, such as providing
updates, transparency, and a commitment to including diverse voices, aligned with Kotter’s
(1996) emphasis on creating a sense of urgency through transparent communication. The
bidirectional trust sought by the district, aiming to be seen as a trusted partner and placing trust
in external facilitators and the community, resonated with the need for creating powerful
coalitions as emphasized by Kotter and adjustments within the system according to Easton’s
framework.
The second theme, unity, underscored the central role of bringing disparate voices
together in the process. The awareness of potential challenges and uncertainties from other
school districts underscored the district’s commitment to unifying the community. Aligning with
Kotter’s call for developing a vision and strategy, the district’s emphasis on a common vision,
consistent communication, and mirroring the unifying nature of the ethnic studies curriculum
reflected a strategic approach to fostering unity within the educational system. This approach
aligned with Easton’s framework, where external influences shape system behavior, as the unity
sought by the district was a response to external challenges and potential division.
The findings contribute to the literature on educational leadership and policy
implementation by illustrating how the community engagement process served as a
transformative tool, not only for obtaining input but also for building trust and unity among

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decision makers. The alignment with Kotter’s (1996) change model and Easton’s (1979) political
systems framework highlighted the intentional and strategic nature of the district’s efforts,
providing insights into the complex interplay between internal and external factors in the
adoption of intersectional ethnic studies. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of
the role of community engagement in shaping educational policies and its impact on key decision
makers.
Implications for Practice
This study explored the community engagement process and the importance of building
trust, cultivating partnerships, and proactive communication. Culture wars often arise from
differing perspectives and values within a society, leading to contentious issues that can affect
various sectors, including education (Horsford et al., 2018; Uscinski et al., 2021). It is essential
to facilitate open and respectful dialogue about controversial topics in order to find common
ground. To the extent possible, reaching consensus promotes a more unified and cohesive
approach to addressing the change process. By creating an environment where individuals from
diverse backgrounds can share their viewpoints and understand each other’s concerns, schools
and educational institutions can foster a sense of inclusivity and mutual respect. This not only
supports transformational change but models for students how to navigate complex societal
issues in the future.
School districts encountering similar controversial matters can learn valuable lessons
from the experiences shared by school board members and senior district leaders in this study.
By observing how open dialogue and consensus-building contribute to fostering a positive and
inclusive educational environment, others can adopt similar strategies to address their own
challenges. Emphasizing the importance of respectful communication, active listening, and

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valuing diverse perspectives within the school community can lead to a more harmonious
resolution of contentious issues. Additionally, school systems can also explore implementing
structured forums or workshops that encourage educational partners to engage in constructive
conversations, enabling them to find common ground and build collaborative solutions. Learning
from the experience of others allows school districts to create a stronger foundation for
addressing culture wars and contentious issues, thus promoting a more cohesive and inclusive
learning environment for all students and educational partners.
Future Research
The literature review conducted in this study revealed a notable absence of discourse on
the engagement process and a scarcity of research dedicated to the behaviors and activities of
districts in shaping and reshaping their social reality through educational policy. The necessity
for additional research in adopting these suggestions arises from the potential to empower
educators, policymakers, and community leaders. It enables them to make more informed
decisions and craft customized approaches to address the challenges effectively. Such research
might cultivate inclusivity, foster engagement, and promote acceptance within educational
policymaking processes. By deepening our understanding of these crucial aspects, we can pave
the way for a more equitable and effective education system. Although this study did provide
valuable feedback and context regarding the implementation process of one school district,
additional research is required in three areas related to this study.
Other Settings
Conducting the community engagement process in districts outside of Southern
California would offer a broader perspective on the factors influencing policy adoption and
community dynamics across diverse educational landscapes. Researchers could select districts

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from various states or regions with contrasting sociopolitical climates and cultural contexts. For
instance, examining a district in the Midwest with a different historical background and ethnic
composition could uncover unique challenges and opportunities in fostering acceptance for
ethnic studies. Similarly, studying a district in the Northeast, where educational policies are
shaped by different legislative frameworks, might provide contrasting insights into the dynamics
of community engagement and policy adoption.
Replicating the Process in Nonhomogeneous Districts
Replicating the community engagement process in districts that are not as homogeneous
as the one studied in Southern California would allow researchers to investigate the
transferability of the approach to different community structures. For example, selecting a
district with a substantial immigrant population or a rural community with distinct cultural
traditions would provide valuable data on how factors such as language barriers, economic
disparities, or geographic isolation might influence the acceptance of ethnic studies.
Understanding the similarities and differences between these districts and the original study
could help tailor the community engagement process to better suit diverse contexts.
Exploring In-House Facilitation
Rather than outside consultants, examining the effectiveness of district staff, such as
central office personnel, educators, or administrators, in facilitating the community engagement
process would offer insights into the benefits and challenges of internal involvement. Potential
research could explore the advantages of using in-house facilitators, such as their deep
understanding of local concerns and established relationships within the community. On the
other hand, it might also shed light on potential biases or limitations that internal facilitators
might face due to pre-existing relationships or institutional perspectives. Understanding these

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nuances can help educational leaders make informed decisions about whether to utilize internal
or external facilitators for future community engagement initiatives.
In summary, exploring other settings, replicating the process in nonhomogeneous
districts, and investigating internal facilitation are crucial steps to broaden the scope and
applicability of the findings from the initial study. Each of these research directions offers unique
insights into the dynamics of community engagement, policy adoption, and acceptance of ethnic
studies in diverse educational contexts. By embracing these future research suggestions,
educators, policymakers, and community leaders can make more informed decisions and develop
tailored approaches to foster inclusivity, engagement, and acceptance in educational
policymaking processes.
Conclusion
In navigating the complexities of adopting intersectional ethnic studies, this study
explored the intricacies of a community engagement process within a Southern California school
district. The findings, rooted in Easton’s (1979) political systems framework and Kotter’s (1996)
change model, underscored the intentional efforts made by the district to build trust, cultivate
unity, and establish effective communication. Reflecting on the significance of this research
journey, several insights emerged, emphasizing the importance of ongoing exploration in this
area. The findings from this case study revealed the transformative power of community
engagement in educational policymaking. Witnessing how trust was intentionally built, unity
fostered, and transparent communication established has deepened my understanding of
leadership within dynamic educational systems. It became apparent that this process was not
merely about adopting a curriculum but a profound journey of change, collaboration, and
building a community that values diverse perspectives. The experiences shared by key decision

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makers unveiled the complexity of navigating a politically charged environment; therefore, the
findings offer valuable lessons for future endeavors in educational policymaking.
The importance of this research extends beyond the specifics of one school district; it
resonates with broader discussions on educational leadership, policy implementation, and the
role of community engagement. As culture wars persist and educational systems grapple with
evolving societal norms, the need for informed decision-making becomes paramount. This study
contributes to the body of knowledge by illustrating how intentional, strategic, and transparent
community engagement can serve as a catalyst for positive change. The findings underscored the
relevance of established theoretical frameworks, such as Easton’s (1979) and Kotter’s (1996), in
understanding and navigating the complexities of educational policy adoption.
To fellow researchers, educators, and policymakers, this study serves as an invitation to
continue unraveling the multifaceted dynamics of community engagement in educational
policymaking. The implications for practice emphasize the significance of respectful dialogue,
active listening, and valuing diverse perspectives, offering practical insights for addressing
contentious issues within educational settings. For future studies, three avenues for continued
research emerge: exploring other settings, replicating the process in nonhomogeneous districts,
and investigating internal facilitation.
In exploring other settings, researchers can enrich our understanding of the factors
influencing policy adoption and community dynamics across diverse educational landscapes.
Replicating the process in nonhomogeneous districts would allow for a nuanced investigation
into the transferability of community engagement approaches to different community structures.
Moreover, looking into the effectiveness of in-house facilitation would offer insights into the
benefits and challenges of internal involvement. For a more equitable and effective education

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system, the continued exploration of community engagement processes is imperative. Embracing
these research directions can further refine the collective understanding of how intentional
engagement shapes educational policies, fostering inclusivity, engagement, and acceptance in
diverse contexts. This research journey serves as a stepping stone in the ongoing quest to
enhance educational policymaking through meaningful community engagement. I hope this
study will be a catalyst for deeper explorations, informed practices, and a collective commitment
to building educational systems that truly reflect the values of inclusivity, unity, and
understanding.

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Chapter Six: Synthesis of Recommendations
In Chapter Six, we delve into the heart of our research, weaving together the varied
perspectives we have gathered to address the complexities of policy adoption within one
Southern California school district. This analysis is rooted in the insightful frameworks of
Easton’s (1979) political systems framework and Kotter’s (2012) change theory, applied to
understand the constituent engagement process in the adoption of an ethnic studies resolution by
the district during a notably contentious period in both the nation and the local community: the
2020–2021 school year. In utilizing the Easton conceptual framework, “the task of the theorist is
to identify sharply the particular aspect or segment of the political system on which he is
focusing and to construct a body of logically interrelated propositions adequate for explaining
behavior in this area” (Easton, 1979, p. 8). The behaviors of the district at this time lent
themselves to the finalization of a shared vision that translated into the successful adoption of an
intersectional ethnic studies resolution. A deeper question, however, exists under the surface of
this achievement: Was true constituent consensus produced through the process? In this case
study, the answers to this question vary according to the constituent group under examination.
Informed by Kotter’s (2012) change theory, we have analyzed the findings for each
constituent group to glean key themes that echo across the experiences of all groups involved,
from school board and senior district leaders to community organizers, consultants, teachers, site
and junior district administrators, and parents. These themes shine a light on the multifaceted
nature of the district’s community engagement efforts within the consensus-building process,
highlighting both strengths and areas for improvement. It is crucial to note that the
interchangeable use of terms such as community engagement, consensus building, and
community education throughout our discussion reflects the district’s lack of clarity in these

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areas, rather than any ambiguity on the part of the researchers. This distinction underscores the
importance of precise language and strategies in policy adoption and community engagement
efforts. It is also important to consider the context of time and how the political and social
dynamics of the pandemic, post–George Floyd, and the Trump administration contributed to the
complexities of this study. The uniqueness of this time period added a level of intricacy for
leaders that may have influenced the various experiences shared by each educational partner.
By employing Easton’s framework, we identified significant disconnections in the
feedback loop of policy implementation, where the community’s expectations and the district’s
outputs often misalign (Easton, 1979). Similarly, Kotter’s theory offered a strategic lens through
which to enhance genuine stakeholder engagement, focusing on building urgency, forming
strategic alliances, and empowering stakeholders to bridge the perceived gaps between district
intentions and community perceptions (Kotter, 2012). A particularly striking theme is the
community’s skepticism toward the engagement process, often viewed as superficial or
predetermined. This skepticism undermines trust and questions the legitimacy of the engagement
efforts. Drawing on Kotter’s principles, we suggest pathways to mitigate these concerns,
emphasizing the importance of genuine inclusivity, transparency, and active participation in
rebuilding trust and fostering meaningful community involvement (Kotter, 2012).
These pathways to mitigate concerns and maximize trust must also consider the tensions
that clearly existed throughout the adoption process. The tensions we collectively discovered
contain complex contradictions that can be expected in a major change event of a political
system. In the course of this school board and district leadership’s IES adoption work, the
specific areas of tension that could have been accounted for were in the areas of curriculum,
decision-making, collaboration, communication, and relationships. In each area, the district

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leadership must make decisions that serve the purpose of the adoption process while navigating
contradicting factors. For example, in this case study, the district leadership had to make some
hierarchical decisions to move forward in the adoption of IES, but the community stakeholders
needed an understanding of how their voices would be used in the process as well. A lack of
clarity in this led to distrust and frustration. Clear communication about what involvement in the
adoption process would look like and result in could have smoothed over this tension in
decision-making. Moving into any engagement process, district leaders can prepare for these
tensions and take measures to mitigate potential negative effects. Table 1 lists the tensions and
contradictions to be expected in an adoption process.
From our analysis, we recommend several strategies to refine the policy adoption
process. These include developing truly inclusive engagement strategies that have a tangible
impact on decision-making, enhancing communication to more accurately reflect and include
diverse community perspectives, and addressing concerns related to exclusion and the perception
of engagement as merely performative. These recommendations aim to equip educational leaders
with practical approaches to navigate the complexities of community engagement more
effectively and equitably.
This chapter not only synthesizes our findings but also serves as a blueprint for future
efforts in policy adoption. By bridging theoretical insights with actionable recommendations, it
guides educational leaders toward fostering an educational landscape that is more inclusive,
responsive, and reflective of the community’s diverse needs and aspirations.

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Table 1
Tensions in a Curriculum Adoption Process
Area of tension Contradictions What to avoid
Curriculum
External curriculum: The outward
representation of the curriculum in name
and marketing
Internal curriculum: The actual components
of the curriculum including all learning
targets
A curriculum that is not transparent
to families or community members
has potential for future conflict as
curriculum is implemented.
Decision-making
Hierarchical direction: District leader/school
board top-down decisions both pre- and
post-engagement
Collaborative consensus building:
Engagement process gathering all
community voices and coming to shared
understanding
While there is a need for both types
of decision-making at different
times, a focus on one approach at
the expense of the other can result
in frustration or confusion. The
communication of decisions must
be clear and transparent.
Collaboration
Scripted tokenism: Appeasing oppositional
stakeholder voices to avoid conflict
Authentic engagement: Using stakeholder
contributions in the final decisions of the
district
Appeasing members of the
community with inauthentic
tokenism leads to fractured
relationships and a breakdown of
trust.
Communication
Narrative control: District leaders being the
only voice
Narrative inclusion: Stakeholder input
included in communications
Including stakeholder voices in a
transparent narrative to the
community helps promote trust.
Acknowledging shortcomings: District leader
accountability when things go wrong
Celebrating wins: Promoting positive
outcomes publicly
While it is important to celebrate
short-term wins, it is equally as
important to share the challenges
encountered.
Relationships
Avoiding challenging voices: District leaders
creating obstacles for participation
Promoting stakeholder involvement: Creating
accessible opportunities to engage
Having all voices present allows for
an authentic process where bridges
can be built and partnerships can
be formed with hard work.
Consultants as proxy to district leadership:
Using outside groups or individuals to
engage in place of district leadership
Community partnering: District leaders being
active participants
Consultants can be helpful
facilitators for conversations, but it
is essential that district leaders are
also at the table building
relationships and engaging in
conversations.

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School Board and Senior District Leaders
When exploring the experiences of only the senior district leaders and the school board, it
would seem that the community engagement process was an incredibly successful endeavor.
Taking a comprehensive view of this study and considering the experiences of the various
stakeholder groups provided insights that offered new findings and recommendations. One area
emerged in the perceptions of the process’s effectiveness. District employees generally viewed
the engagement process as positive and effective, but other community stakeholders, particularly
community organizers and some parents, perceived it as performative and strategically crafted to
be a gatekeeper for true participation from some community members. This points to a gap
between the intentions of the school district and the perceptions of its community members. This
situation can be analyzed through Easton’s political systems framework, where the experiences
and perceptions of educational partners serve as inputs to the educational policy system,
highlighting a disconnection in the feedback loop between policy outputs and community
expectations (Easton, 1979).
A common theme across the stakeholder groups was the concept of tokenism and the
belief that the board had already decided to adopt ethnic studies; many described the engagement
process as a formality rather than a genuine decision-making exercise. Such perceptions raise
concerns about the authenticity and impact of community engagement in policy adoption and
further deepen the existing mistrust the community has with the district. In this context, Kotter’s
(1996) change model could guide the district in creating a sense of urgency around addressing
these concerns, forming a coalition of diverse stakeholders to foster genuine engagement and
transparency in the decision-making process.

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Based on these findings, several recommendations emerged. If community input is the
goal, the district might consider ensuring future processes are inclusively designed and have a
real impact on decision-making. Addressing perceptions of tokenism is crucial in the effort to
develop trust. Improving communication strategies to include diverse parental and community
perspectives is essential for ensuring transparency and responsiveness, especially in light of past
distrust in this area. Applying Kotter’s (2012) steps, such as communicating the change vision
and empowering broad-based action, would help in operationalizing these recommendations.
Finally, addressing concerns around exclusion and the performative nature of the engagement
process, especially raised by community activists and marginalized groups, could increase trust
and buy-in. These insights highlight the complexities of policy adoption in educational settings
and underscore the importance of considering the varied perspectives of all educational partners
involved in transformative processes.
Community Organizers
After a review of all researchers’ findings, it appears that the district stakeholders’
experiences and perceptions of the early adoption process differed largely from those of the
community organizers. The school district senior leadership’s impact in the early adoption work
did not match their intended outcomes through the view of the community organizers. Although
partnership and dialogue were a major goal of district stakeholders, community organizers felt
their participation was not sought out authentically and, in some cases, that the district was
attempting to avoid community members who may have caused them more work or conflict by
bringing up their concerns rather than truly listening.
Educational leaders can learn from this experience by noting several themes that, if
avoided, could create better partnerships with the communities they serve and leverage those

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connections to achieve more for the students in their schools. One is accountability and
engagement. District officials are in a unique position to help bridge divides within a community
with the common goal of providing safe, inclusive, and rigorous learning experiences for all
students. To do this, there must be a clear understanding of the needs of the community in all of
its factions, which requires difficult conversations of sometimes opposing viewpoints.
Additionally, when a district deeply engages with stakeholders for a common purpose,
confidence and respect are built in the community being served (Brown et al., 2022).
Based on the themes uncovered with community organizers, recommendations for
educational leaders include a need for leader preparation in topics they will be responsible for
implementing in their schools as well as seeking connection with all members of the community
with accessible means of engagement. For example, all materials for community consumption
should have some opportunity for easy translation into multiple languages, and opportunities for
participation should be during times and in places that help promote participation. One way these
district leaders helped engagement was by making meetings accessible through Zoom; however,
accessibility needs to be further considered. Technology can limit participation for those who are
not as comfortable with online tools or who do not have Internet access. Language barriers can
also hinder participation if materials are offered in English only, as was the case in the school
district’s application for the engagement process.
Additionally, educational leaders under the direction of senior leadership must have a
clear understanding of the initiatives and laws governing schools. They should also be able to
speak to the district’s stance and direction. For example, community organizers explained how
site leaders presenting on graduation requirements and course offerings at various parent
meetings did not seem to understand that ethnic studies had become a graduation requirement in

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the district. This was both concerning and offensive to the groups of parents who had given their
time to participate in the engagement process for the course. Confidence is built on clarity and
competence and is damaged when members of the organization are not knowledgeable.
Finally, district leaders must transparently set their goals prior to working with multiple
voices and groups. Community organizers and some additional members of the engagement
process entered into dialogue with a different idea of what the purpose for the meetings would
be. It was not clear that the course was already set to be adopted and that the meetings would be
about learning about ethnic studies and not focused on building curriculum and hiring essential
personnel for the course and diversity, equity, and inclusion work. Had all members understood
their purpose in participating in this process, some might have elected not to participate and
others might have participated with reservations about the district’s decisions, but all could have
been clearer about the direction of the district and potentially have seen the district as more
transparent and trustworthy.
Consultants
Getting a full scope of each educational partner’s experience with the Southern California
School District’s early implementation of intersectional ethnic studies revealed future
implications for consultants in any change initiative. Both the consultants and the community
organizers shared a concern about the senior district leaders’ avoidance of implementing ethnic
studies in its truest form, specifically with gender studies. Although senior district leaders
communicated a desire to develop ethnic studies, consultants and community organizers
observed the opposite. Senior district leaders did not make an effort to increase their depth of
knowledge around ethnic studies. The senior leadership did not fully participate in the
community engagement process, which caused consultants and community organizers to

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question their commitment. According to community organizers and consultants, senior district
leaders did not want to give gender studies adequate attention and focus. Therefore, the term
intersectional was added to ethnic studies to avoid creating a specific gender studies component.
“Intersectional” was used to encompass gender studies and lump it in with other ethnic studies
courses rather than providing a standalone gender studies course.
Initiating change that is authentic and beneficial requires active and intentional
participation from all educational partners. If the senior district leaders are unable to fully engage
in the process, decisions such as leaving out a large and essential component of the change
initiative such as gender studies can occur. One should, before accepting a position as a
consultant, engage in some type of onboarding process that lays out a clear agreement between
both parties. A key role of a consultant is to provide a shared understanding of the initiative. If
consultants can be clear from the beginning with senior district leaders that a crucial component
is deepening their education to fully create a partnership with the community, feelings of angst or
discord can be avoided. It would also be helpful for senior district leaders to be clear with their
goals and intentions for the consultants. Active participation from senior district leaders and their
willingness to engage in deep and meaningful learning could have been the catalyst for
implementing a more authentic and inclusive ethnic studies.
Teachers
Based on the findings of the teachers’ perspective on the adoption process for ethnic
studies in the Southern California School District, future implications indicate that teachers need
more opportunities to become engaged in policy decision-making. Specifically in Easton’s
political systems framework, a main component is the feedback loop, where stakeholders feel
that their opinions and ideas are acted upon (Easton, 1979). The teachers’ conceptual idea of

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being engaged in the process means that they feel empowered by their district to be actively
involved in decision-making and the outcomes. This also means that most of their opinions and
ideas are embedded within the structures of the adoption process. The teachers shared that
listening circles were the most opportune time to feel as though they were a part of the
engagement process in adopting ethnic studies. They indicated that the district sending out
memos and emails with updates was not an effective way to engage their opinion in the process.
Teachers mentioned that although they recognize that reading through communications is a
professional responsibility, doing so only continues to perpetuate the traditional “one-way”
communication between the district and its teachers.
Using Easton’s political systems framework will allow educational leaders to consider
multiple perspectives, especially those of teachers, and how their engagement and work directly
affect students of their communities (Easton, 1979). More importantly, this research revealed the
importance of building a culture of care and trust among the school sites, district office, and the
community. For administrators at the district and site levels, it is essential that they are concise
with communication, build trust, and empower teachers before the implementation of new
policies and curricula. These are critical elements to ensure an adoption process that is conducive
to the needs of the school district and community’s goals.
Overall, the teachers felt that the adoption process was similar to how the district has
historically operated in decision-making. There was not much that was different from the status
quo. It was evident that collaborative inquiry is essential for the school district to engage with all
educational partners in new policy and decision-making, but this was theoretical. This is not
what entirely happened in their perspectives. Educational experiences are meant to be active and
relatable and maintain societal contexts of the community. Having teachers just to “fill a seat” at

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the table is not collaborative; it is transactional. They felt that unless one was part of the
committee, everyone else received email updates, and this was just a passive way of not
including voices that are vital to the process. Feedback should also be more than acknowledged.
It needs to be integrated, such as through the feedback loop described by Easton (1979). The
process felt reactionary, rather than coherent with a vision aligned with the district/initiative
values. District leaders must truly work on fostering relational trust with the people they entrust
to coordinate and lead the initiative. This means more time making meaningful connections on
campuses if district leaders want to see collective buy-in and change. Essentially, the teachers
said, the district should not invite someone to have a seat at the table if it is not also going to give
them a voice that is heard and valued.
Site Administrators and Junior District Administrators
The findings of this case study as they pertain to site and junior district administrators
demonstrated a collective confidence in the district’s methodology for building consensus around
difficult issues with multiple constituent groups. A comparison of these findings, however, with
the information gleaned from other affected groups—parents, community organizers, and
consultants—underscores the importance of obtaining impressions from all constituencies about
the quality of a consensus-building process. From an outside or public perspective, the consensus
development process undertaken by the district was successful; the intersectional ethnic studies
resolution passed with a unanimous vote by district school board members. From the perspective
of some constituents, however, the consensus generated by the district was not inclusive or
reflective of all affected groups. The findings gleaned in this project from studying other
constituent groups are generally at odds with the findings resulting from a study of site and
junior district administrators; these conflicting conclusions generate fair and urgent questions

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about the true success of the consensus-building process: Did the process build true consensus or
only the appearance of consensus? Is the consensus-building process still valid if, as described in
this study as well as the study of district leadership and school board members, district leaders
had decided on a course of action before the consensus-building process?
As discussed in Chapter Five, two questionable practices took place during the process of
selecting listening circle attendees. First, those stakeholders who wished to attend listening
circles had to fill out an application and be accepted; second, the district appears to have
selectively chosen applicants who would be in support of ethnic studies. These practices would
act as barriers to known opponents of ethnic studies, ensuring a less conflicted environment for a
listening circle discussion. Although the findings of the study about site and junior district
administrators paint the picture of a successful consensus-building process, the question raised
by these practices deserves further attention: Are such practices ethical, even if they do result in
a greater sense of community consensus?
A study of these questions through the lens of a layered Easton/Kotter conceptual
framework requires us to locate exactly where in the district’s journey through the framework
these questions arise (Easton, 1979; Kotter, 2012). In Chapters Four and Five, the administrators’
impressions of the stresses present in the district just prior to and throughout the consensusbuilding process generally correlated with the impressions of other constituent groups. The
formation of a guiding coalition also appears to have occurred generally without controversy,
although the coalition was composed of only district employees. It is in the process of building a
vision in a politically charged school system that questions are raised about the possible silencing
of constituent voices through practices that screened for those voices to produce an atmosphere
more conducive to agreement.

97
Parents
This study on the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California school
district provides significant insights into parental engagement and the dynamics of educational
reform processes. One of the key future implications for parental engagement in change
initiatives is the critical need for transparent communication. The findings underscore the
importance of open and ongoing dialogue with parents and community members to foster trust
and a shared understanding of educational reforms’ objectives and processes. Moreover, the
study revealed the necessity of recognizing parental input as valuable throughout the decisionmaking and implementation stages. Ensuring that parental feedback is meaningfully integrated
can enhance the quality and relevance of educational offerings. Additionally, diversity and
inclusivity in engagement strategies emerged as crucial, suggesting that future initiatives should
adopt more inclusive strategies that recognize and accommodate the varied cultural sensitivities
and backgrounds of the school community through tailored engagement strategies.
Recommendations for school districts navigating change processes include developing
and implementing inclusive communication plans that outline engagement with parents and the
community, establishing continuous feedback mechanisms, and fostering collaborative cultures
to build collective capacity. These strategies, aligned with Fullan’s change theory, emphasize the
importance of creating a supportive environment for change grounded in shared values and a
common vision (Fullan, 2007). Furthermore, adopting an adaptive and reflective approach to
change is essential, as is prioritizing equity and inclusion in curriculum development. By
integrating Easton’s political systems framework with Fullan’s principles, this study highlighted
the necessity of an educational system that is responsive and adaptive to community needs and

98
feedback, continually assessing the effectiveness of implemented strategies and adjusting plans
based on feedback and evolving community needs (Easton, 1979; Fullan, 2007).
Summary
Through the media coverage of heated political debates between school boards and
community groups resulting in recall efforts, and amid polarized political powers post–George
Floyd and the Trump administration, tensions were extremely high between the district and its
educational partners. Many of the educational partners’ personal ties to the community and
district have a deep-rooted history that gave insight into their behaviors and activities as they
constructed and reconstructed their social reality through educational policy.
These insights from this Southern California school district’s experience with IES
implementation offer actionable recommendations for fostering a supportive environment that
embraces all stakeholders’ contributions in pursuing educational excellence and equity. By
prioritizing transparent communication, inclusive engagement strategies, and a reflective
approach to change, districts can navigate the complexities of educational reforms effectively.

99
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol for Senior District Leaders and Board Members
Research Question(s)
1. What stresses led the district to implement a community engagement process before
making the decision to adopt intersectional ethnic studies?
2. What did the school board and senior district leaders hope to accomplish through the
adoption of a community engagement “campaign”?
3. What impact did the community engagement process have on board members and senior
district leaders regarding the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
Schools as a Political System, Outputs and Policy, Creating Urgency, Building a
Powerful Coalition, Creating a Vision for Change, and Communicating the Vision
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to meet with me today. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take
about an hour. Does that still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study and answer any questions
you might have about participating in this interview.
Your contribution is critical to this research about the policy adoption of intersectional
ethnic studies. You were chosen because you were a sitting board member during the process of
engagement with the community amid rapid political polarization. The aim of our conversation
today is to get your perspective as you describe the experiences that led to the adoption of
intersectional ethnic studies in your district last year. I’m interested in how you interpreted the
events of the community engagement process and the factors that played a role in your decision

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to support the adoption of ethnic studies in advance of AB 101 mandate to implement by 2029–
2030.
You have a copy of the Study Information Sheet and Signed Consent Form, but, as a
reminder, the notes and recordings from our conversation will remain confidential and your
identity will be protected. The data for this study will be compiled into a report, and while I do
plan on using some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed
to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify
any of the data I gather.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password-protected
computer, and all data will be destroyed after 3 years. I’d like to record our conversation so I can
be sure to capture all of your thoughts accurately. So, if you don’t mind, I’d like to record. If at
any time during the interview you would like to stop, all you have to do is say the word, and I’ll
stop the recording. The recording is solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and
will not be shared with anyone outside the research team.
May I have your permission to record our conversation?
Might you have any questions about the study before we get started?
Questions
I’d like to start with the point in time when you were first introduced to AB 101, the CA
state bill mandating that all high school students take one ethnic studies course as a graduation
requirement by the school year 2029–2030.
1. What was your initial impression of the AB 101 ethnic studies mandate?
a. Tell me what you recall about your position on ethnic studies at that time.
b. What were some of the feelings that stand out in your memory from that time?

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We’ve been talking about your personal experiences and beliefs prior to the demand for
adopting ethnic studies. I now want to turn your attention to the process of community
engagement.
2. Can you describe the political atmosphere preceding the decision to employ the
community engagement process?
a. Tell me about how the post-George Floyd racial awakening influenced the
environment at that time, if at all.
b. Tell me about how the Black Lives Matter movement influenced the
environment at that time, if at all.
c. Tell me about how the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the environment at that
time, if at all.
3. Can you reconstruct the events that precipitated the community engagement process?
a. How was the consultant group selected?
b. What role did the community activist group play?
4. How did the board/district define community engagement?
5. What strategies were used to engage the community in the process?
a. Which stakeholders were the board/district hoping to involve in the community
engagement process? (various stakeholders, including students, parents,
educators, community leaders, and advocacy groups)
6. What did you hope to accomplish with the meetings?
You’ve recalled many of the events and key moments that occurred prior to the meetings,
but I’m curious about the emotions at play during the community engagement process.
7. How would you describe the response from stakeholders to these activities?

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8. In what ways did the community engagement activities achieve your desired
outcomes?
9. Were there any unexpected outcomes or reactions? If so, please describe.
a. Can you give examples of things that went well?
b. Tell me about some of the things that didn’t go well.
10. Some people might say that ethnic studies imposes a narrow political ideology and
polarizes students by viewing history through a racial lens. What are your thoughts on
this perspective?
Building on our previous discussion, I’d like to explore the role the community
engagement process played in shaping the board’s decision making regarding policy adoption,
and how this process may have influenced the policy outcomes.
11. How, if at all, did the engagement process influence your decision to approve the
adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
12. Looking back, what would you say were the key takeaways or lessons learned from
the community engagement process in relation to the adoption of intersectional ethnic
studies?
Closing
I’d like to finish by asking some background questions about you.
13. Can you tell me about your background outside of the board?
a. How did you become involved in the board of education?
b. How long have you served on the board?
This covers the things I wanted to ask. Is there anything else you’d like to add about the
process of intersectional ethnic studies adoption that I might not have covered?

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Thank you again for the time you offered today. I really appreciate your time and
willingness to share your experiences serving on the board during the process of adopting ethnic
studies in your district. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find
myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you, and, if so, is email okay?
Again, thank you for participating in my study.

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol for Community Organizers and Religious Group Members
Introduction
My name is Michelle England, and I am a researcher at the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education. I am conducting a case study on the adoption of ethnic
studies in your school district to examine the process implemented for decision making. It is
important for education leaders to study the successful adoption of curriculum change, as all
California districts will be going through similar processes and findings can be used to better
implement other significant curricular and instructional changes.
During this interview, I hope to learn more about your experiences as a group member
outside of the school district. I am particularly interested in learning about your involvement in
the engagement process as well as your motivated interest in participation in the process.
The information that you provide will hopefully serve to support the work many
California school districts will do in the adoption of ethnic studies.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. I will not identify
you, or your organization, by name. I would like to tape-record this interview in order to capture
information that I may have missed. Would this be okay with you?
The research questions for this study include the following:
1. What was the motivation of community organizers and religious organizations
outside of the school district in participating in the school district’s dialogue
regarding the adoption of an ethnic studies curriculum?
2. What were the community organizers’ and religious group members’ goals and
concerns about the district’s adoption of intersectional ethnic studies during the
engagement process?

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3. How, if at all, did the engagement process about intersectional ethnic studies by a
school district affect community organizers’ and religious group members’
confidence in district decision-making?
The interview should take approximately 45 minutes.
Thank you for your time.
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
1. First, in what way(s) are you connected to Urban School district?
2. In what way(s), if any, are you involved in the broader community?
Main Interview Questions
Now, I’d like to ask you some questions about ethnic studies and the district’s adoption
process.
1. What, if any, is your understanding regarding Assembly Bill 101 regarding ethnic
studies?
2. What information had you heard, prior to your adoption of the course, about ethnic
studies?
3. What, if any, involvement did you have with the school district prior to discussions
surrounding ethnic studies adoption?
4. If you have been involved in the past, what has your experience been like interacting
with district officials?
5. What were your reasons for becoming involved in the conversation surrounding
ethnic studies adoption?

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6. What opinions or feelings did you have about Ethnic Studies prior to your
interactions with the school district?
a. What do you attribute your opinions/ feelings to?
b. Did those opinions or feelings change after you became involved in the
adoption process of this new course?
i. If they changed, what do you attribute this change to?
7. How involved did you feel in the ultimate adoption of ethnic studies and
intersectional ethnic studies?
a. What do you attribute these feelings to/why do you feel this way?
8. How valued do you feel your voice was through surveys administered by the district?
9. How valued do you feel your voice was through listening circles administered by the
district?
10. How satisfied are you with the adoption of ethnic studies following the engagement
process? How satisfied are you with the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies?
a. What do you attribute this level of satisfaction to?
Demographic Questions
How would you classify your political affiliation?
a. How active do you consider yourself in local politics?
b. How active do you consider yourself in national politics?
Closing Question
What other insight would you like to share about your experiences working with the
adoption group?

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Closing Comments
Thank you so much for sharing your time and experiences with me today. If you are
interested in receiving a copy of the final study, I’d be happy to provide that for you!

119
Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Consultants
Research Questions
1. How do consultants in a Southern California school district describe their
participation and role in the steps leading up to the implementation of intersectional
ethnic studies?
2. What challenges did the consultants encounter in the steps leading up to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
3. What impact do the consultants think their work had on the process toward
implementing intersectional ethnic studies?
Concepts From Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
Easton’s Political Systems Framework
● stresses (historical struggles, national events, literacies of power)
● inputs (culturally relevant pedagogy, state mandate, community demands)
● school systems as political systems (change process, listening sessions, surveys)
● outputs (adoption of resolution)
John Kotter’s Eight Steps to Leading Change
Introduction
I want to thank you again for participating in my study. I know you are busy and
appreciate your time. This interview should take about an hour. Does that still work? Here is a
copy of the Study Information Sheet. I am currently a student at USC and conducting a study on
Southern California Unified School District’s decision to implement intersectional ethnic studies
prior to the 2029–2030 school year deadline. I am particularly interested in the consultant’s role

120
in this whole process. There are a few of us who will be interviewing various stakeholders, but I
will be the only one interviewing consultants.
The questions I ask you are not evaluative. My goal is to understand your role and your
perspective of the whole process. This interview is confidential. I will not be attributing any
responses to you and will protect your confidentiality by creating a pseudonym for you and the
district. The data will be compiled into a report, and I will do my best to de-identify any of the
data I gather. I will be happy to send you a copy of my final paper if you are interested. Lastly, I
will be recording this session so I can accurately capture what you share. The recording is only
for me and will not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. Do I have your
permission to record our conversation? Thank you!
Questions With Transitions
Consultant Work
I’d like to start out by getting to know you and your role as a consultant.
1. How did you become engaged as a consultant in Southern California Unified?
2. What experiences do you have that led to your role as a consultant?
3. What was your understanding of your role when you were approached for this
position?
4. Where did you get that understanding from?
5. What activities were conducted by the consultants?
6. What was your participation in the activities?
Stakeholder Groups
Now, I would like to discuss the various stakeholders.

121
7. What stakeholders were involved in the engagement process prior to the early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
8. What was your role in working with each stakeholder?
9. What stresses or demands did the consultants face about the implementation of
intersectional ethnic studies?
10. Were there any particular stakeholder groups that were supportive in your role or
process?
Early Implementation
I’d like to discuss the decision to implement early.
11. What factors do you believe ultimately influenced the decision for early
implementation of intersectional ethnic studies?
12. Were consultants involved in any of these factors?
13. Were there any unexpected barriers?
Closing Questions
As we near the end of our conversation, I have a few questions:
14. Looking back, do you wish there was a different outcome for any part of the process?
15. How do you see this whole process as a piece of your overall personal/professional
goals?
Closing
Thank you so much for your thoughts and willingness to share! I really appreciate your time.
Everything that you have shared is helpful for my study. If I have any follow-up questions, may I
contact you? If so, is email okay? Thank you again for participating in my study.

122
Appendix D: Interview Protocol for Teachers
Research Questions
1. How do teachers describe the Southern California School District’s process for
engaging teachers in policy decisions?
2. In what ways do teachers in the Southern California School District describe the
community engagement prior to the adoption of ethnic studies?
3. What are the teachers’ attitudes toward the state ethnic studies curriculum,
instructional practices, and learning goals?
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Interview
● Easton’s political systems framework
o stresses
o inputs and demands
o school systems as political systems
o outputs and policies
Introduction
I want to thank you again for taking the time to interview with me today. I know your
time is valuable, and so is your input on the topic of adopting ethnic studies in a Southern
California urban school district.
You were chosen to participate because of your role as a secondary teacher. As you may
be aware, the California Department of Education mandated that all school districts adopt ethnic
studies courses as part of a student’s high school graduation requirement by the year of 2029.
The adoption of ethnic studies has become a highly charged, political conversation in many
districts across California. Today, I am interested in understanding your perspective in the

123
process at your school site. Part of this study’s research will also include interviewing and
surveying other stakeholders as well to ensure that we are capturing a diverse set of perspectives.
I plan to take some notes during our conversation so I can refer back to them if needed at
some point in our interview. I was also hoping to record this interview so I can accurately
capture your responses within the interview. Only I would have access to the recording, as it is
for my own reference in understanding your perspective in this process. Is that okay with you?
Okay, let’s get started.
Questions (With Transitions)
1. Can you tell me about your professional experience? (CF: school systems as political
systems; Patton: background)
a. Can you describe why you were interested in teaching?
2. For demographic purposes, what is/are your ethnicity background(s)?
3. What, if any, activities are you involved in your school district outside the classroom?
(CF: school systems as political systems; Patton: background)
a. If you had more time, what activities might you be interested in doing within the
school?
4. How do you think your school’s philosophy on ethnic studies aligns with the goals of
teaching students about culturally relevant instruction? (CF: inputs,
demands/supports; Patton: opinion and value)
a. How much do you agree or disagree with this philosophy, and why?
5. Describe your experience with the district’s community engagement process prior to
the adoption of ethnic studies. (CF: school systems as political systems; Patton:
knowledge)

124
a. Were you a part of the implementation process, and can you describe that
experience?
b. If none, would you be interested in being a part of the process?
6. In general, how do you feel about how the district places emphasis on getting teacher
voice for district-implemented policies? (CF: stresses; Patton: feeling)
a. What do you think the district can do to elicit more teacher voice in decision
making?
7. How do you feel that the district places emphasis on getting teacher voice in the
adoption phase of ethnic studies? (CF: stresses; Strauss et al.: interpretative)
8. Can you provide specific examples of why you feel that way? (CF: stresses; Patton:
opinion and value)
9. What was your reaction to the district’s intersectional ethnic studies adoption
decision? (CF: outputs and policy; Patton: feeling)
10. How prepared do you feel for the implementation of ethnic studies in your
classroom? (CF: outputs and policy; Strauss et al.: hypothetical)
a. What do you need to feel prepared for implementation? (Strauss et al.: ideal
position)
Closing
Well, thank you so much for meeting with me and agreeing to share your perspective
with me today. It has been a pleasure speaking with you. Thank you, again and have a great rest
of your day!

125
Appendix E: Interview Protocol for District and Site Administrators
● Research Question 1 (RQ 1): From an administrator’s perspective, what led the
district to implement the community engagement process that led to the adoption of a
K–12 intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
● Research Question 2 (RQ 2): How were site and district administrators involved in
the community engagement process that led to the adoption of a K–12 intersectional
ethnic studies resolution?
● Research Question 3 (RQ 3): What are administrators’ perceptions of the consensus
building process that led to the adoption of an intersectional ethnic studies resolution?
Setting the Stage Questions
I’d like to start by hearing about your own background in education.
1. How long have you worked in education?
2. What brought you to this district?
3. What is your current position?
4. What are your responsibilities in this position?

126
Table E1
District and Site Administrators Interview Question Map
RQ 1 RQ 2 RQ 3 Heart of the interview questions
X
5. The 2021–2022 school year took place during a tumultuous
political period. Can you describe the political climate on
campus during that school year? (Wait to see if interviewees
mention George Floyd, racial uprisings, BLM) If not, ask:
X 6. How would you describe the student response to the killing
of George Floyd and the Black Lives Matter movement?
X 7. How would you describe the staff response to the killing of
George Floyd and the Black Lives Matter movement?
X X
8. What would you say are the intended student outcomes the
district was looking for in its adoption of a K–12
intersectional ethnic studies curriculum?
X
9. Please share any ways that the district previewed the
process of consensus building around IES adoption with site
administrators.
X X X 10. Was this engagement process consistent with previous
engagement processes conducted by the district?
X 11. Did anything surprise you during the IES consensus
building process?
X 11. How would you have designed the frontloading process
for site administrators if you were in charge? Why?
X X 12. Please describe the demographics of the population your
district serves.
X X 13. What influenced the district’s decision to adopt IES?
X X 14. Tell me about the communications you had with students
about the consensus building process.
X X 15. Tell me about the communications you had with parents
about the consensus building process.
X X 16. Tell me about the communications you had with
community members about the consensus building process.

127
Closing Questions
17. Is there anything I did not ask you that you’d like to share?
18. Thank you for sharing your experience with me today. I want to reassure you that the
information you provided will remain confidential. If additional questions arise, I
would like to contact you again. Would that be okay with you?

128
Appendix F: Interview Protocol for Parents
Research Questions
● What do the parents who participated in the ethnic studies adoption process think
about the final adoption of the resolution, which puts into place the IES program?
(CF: outputs and policies)
● How do the parents who participated in the ethnic studies adoption process engage
with the school district to adopt the ethnic studies program? (CF: school systems as
political systems)
● In what ways, if at all, did parent engagement influence the district decision to adopt
the program? (CF: outputs and policies)
● How do the parents who participated in the ethnic studies adoption process in one
school district describe the community engagement process for the adoption of an
ethnic studies program? (CF: inputs: demands/supports)
The main concept from the conceptual framework addressed in this interview is Easton’s
political systems framework, which is used to analyze the adoption of the ethnic studies
curriculum in one school district. The framework is used to examine the adoption process
through the lens of parental engagement and community voice.
Other concepts from the conceptual framework that are relevant to this interview include
the role of parents and community in the decision-making process, the impact of external factors
such as national events on the adoption process, and the importance of meeting community
demands and fulfilling state mandates. Additionally, the concept of inputs, such as demands and
supports, is also addressed in the interview, as it is used to determine how the community
perceived the state mandate and whether or not community demands were met during the

129
adoption process. Finally, the concept of the adopted resolution is also relevant, as it is used to
determine whether parents saw the impact of their involvement in the adoption process.
Introduction
Hello, and welcome to my study! Thank you for taking the time to participate.
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet, and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC, and the purpose of this study is to better
understand the role parents played in the adoption process of the Ethnic Studies Resolution in
your district. You have been selected to participate because you have a student who currently
attends one of the comprehensive high schools in your district.
During the study, I will be collecting data through data collection methods, such as
surveys and interviews. We may also be recording the sessions for the purpose of transcribing
and analyzing the data. Rest assured that any identifying information will be kept confidential
and only the research team will have access to the recordings.
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary, and you are free to withdraw at
any time without any negative consequences. We have provided you with a Study Information
Sheet and Signed Consent Form prior to this session, but if you have any questions or concerns,
please do not hesitate to ask.
Do you have any questions before we get started? I will be recording our interview
through the record option on Zoom. This will enable me to transcribe the information you share
with me today. The recording is only for the purpose of transcribing your perspective and
experience. I will not share this information with anyone outside of the research team. May I
have your permission to record?

130
Setting the Stage (Background/Demographic)
Thank you again for your participation and for helping us with our research. I would like
to start with some background questions about you.
1. First, tell me about your background in education. (background/demographic)
a. What were your experiences as a K12 student?
b. Was it in California?
c. Can you describe the demographic of your high school experience?
d. Is there anything about your school experience you could change?
(hypothetical)
Heart of the Interview (CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)
I would like to start by asking you some questions about how you were introduced to the
new state graduation requirement and what your initial thoughts on it were.
1. How were you first introduced to intersectional ethnic studies and what did it mean to
you? (background/experience)(CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)
a. When were first introduced to this proposed adoption through your district?
b. What was your initial vote on the proposed adoption?
c. Can you share your thoughts on why intersectional ethnic studies is important for
your child’s school district? (opinion/values)
Now I would like to ask you some questions about your level of involvement and
engagement in the adoption process.
2. The district provided listening sessions, townhalls, etc. In what ways were you
engaged?
3. How did you feel the district received your input?

131
4. Did the district engagement process change or influence your perspective on ethnic
studies?
5. How do you stay informed about any changes or updates to their school curriculum in
your child’s district? (CF: Outputs and policies)
6. How would you rate the district’s ability to engage parents through communication in
the ethnic studies adoption process in comparison to past efforts?
7. What suggestions do you have for improving the parent engagement process at your
child’s district in the future? (opinion, experience) (CF: Outputs and policies)
Closing Question
Is there any additional perspective or information related to the adoption of intersectional
ethnic studies in your child’s school district that you would like to share, which may not have
been addressed during our conversation?
Closing Comments
I am grateful for the valuable insights you have shared with me today! Your willingness
to spare your time and thoughts is highly appreciated, and I find everything you shared to be
incredibly useful for my research. In case I have any further questions, would it be possible for
me to reach out to you via email? Thank you once again for your participation in my study.

132
Appendix G: Screening Protocol for Teachers
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.
The purpose of the study is to examine a Southern California school district’s adoption of
ethnic studies and its teachers’ perception of their engagement within the adoption of ethnic
studies. For the study, the concept of engagement is defined by teacher involvement in culturally
responsive curriculum development and their own identification of social and educational
inequities.
You have been selected to participate because you are a secondary teacher in a
comprehensive middle or high school in the [Southern California] School District. As an
employee of the district, you are invited to participate and share your experiences to help inform
this study. This survey will take approximately 12 minutes to complete and all responses are
confidential.
Background Information
1. Indicate your current role:
a. Teacher
b. Teacher on Special Assignment
c. Administrator
d. Other:___________________
2. How many years of classroom teaching experience do you have?
a. 0–5 years
b. 6–15 years
c. 16+ years

133
Adoption Process
3. Did you participate in your district’s ethnic studies early adoption phase?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not Applicable
4. If yes, in what way did you participate? (Check all that apply)
a. Attended a focus group
b. Attended listening session
c. Attended town hall meeting(s)
d. Was part of a development committee
e. Sent written feedback
f. Other:_____________
5. Also, if yes, would you be willing to participate in a 30-minute interview?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not sure
6. How familiar are you with the state’s ethnic studies framework?
a. Very familiar
b. Somewhat familiar
c. Not very familiar
d. Not at all familiar
e. Not applicable
7. Did the school district provide you with a copy of the state ethnic studies framework?

134
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not sure
8. By what method(s) did the school district provide you a copy of the state ethnic studies
framework? (Check all that apply)
a. Email
b. Memorandum
c. U.S. Mail
d. Website
e. Other:___________________
Teacher Preparation
9. How familiar are you with how the school district plans to implement ethnic studies?
a. Very familiar
b. Somewhat familiar
c. Not very familiar
d. Not at all familiar
e. Not applicable
10. Your instruction includes elements of the state Ethnic Studies framework:
a. Yes
b. No
c. Not Sure
11. What additional support, if any, do you need from your site leader and/district leadership
to effectively implement Ethnic Studies instructional practices?

135
a. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

136
Appendix H: Screening Protocol for Parents
Research Question(s)
● What do the parents that participated in the ethnic studies adoption process think about
the final adoption of the resolution, which puts into place the IES program? (CF: Outputs
and policies)
● How do the parents that participated in the ethnic studies adoption process engage with
the school district to adopt the ethnic studies program? (CF:School systems as political
systems)
● In what ways if at all did parent engagement influence the district decision to adopt the
program? (CF: Outputs and policies)
● How do the parents that participated in the ethnic studies adoption process in one school
district describe the community engagement process for the adoption of an ethnic studies
program? (CF: Inputs: Demands/Supports)
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in This Survey
While Easton’s political systems framework does not explicitly address parent
engagement, it can be argued that parent engagement plays a role in several components of the
framework.
Firstly, parent engagement can be seen as a form of input into the political system.
Parents, as members of society, can communicate their demands, needs, and expectations to the
political system through various channels, such as parent-teacher associations, community
groups, and political parties.
Secondly, the outputs of the political system, such as education policies and programs,
can directly impact parents and their children. Parent engagement can play a role in evaluating

137
these outputs and providing feedback to the political system, which can lead to changes in the
input and the political system itself.
Thirdly, parent engagement can also be seen as a form of feedback in the political
system. Parents can evaluate the outputs of the political system, such as the quality of education
and the effectiveness of education policies, and provide feedback through various channels, such
as surveys, meetings with policymakers, and social media.
Overall, while parent engagement may not be explicitly mentioned in Easton’s political
systems framework, it can be seen as an important aspect of the interaction between the political
system and society. Effective parent engagement can help ensure that the political system is
responsive to the needs of parents and their children and can lead to more effective and equitable
education policies and programs (Easton, 1979).
Target Population
● Parents of students in one particular Southern California School District during the 21–22
academic school year
Introduction
Dear Participant:
We invite you to take part in a research survey aimed at better understanding the
experience and perceptions of parents in the adoption process of ethnic studies in one southern
California school district. The purpose of this study is to gain insights into how the change
process began and how parents were involved in the adoption of ethnic studies.
Your participation in this survey is crucial to help us gather data on how the involvement
of parents impacted the final resolution of the adoption process. By answering the survey

138
questions, you will help us understand how community engagement and empowerment were
achieved during the adoption process.
The survey will be administered online and will take approximately 10–15 minutes to
complete. Your responses will remain confidential and will be used solely for research purposes.
Participation in this survey is voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time without penalty.
Survey Items
Table H1
Survey Items and CF Alignment
Demographic
1. What is your gender?
a. Male
b. Female
c. Prefer not to say
2. What is your ethnicity?
a. White
b. African American or
Black
c. Hispanic or Latino
d. Asian or Pacific Islander
e. Native American or
Alaska Native
f. Mixed ethnicity
g. Other (please specify)
_______
3. Did you have children in X
Southern California School District the
academic school year 2021-2022?
a. Yes
b. No

139
Close-Ended
1. On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being
poor and 10 being excellent, how would
you rate the district’s ability to engage
parents through communication in the
ethnic studies adoption process in
comparison to past efforts?
2. How strongly do you agree or
disagree with the following statement:
“The ethnic studies adoption process was
transparent and inclusive.”
3. On a scale of 1 to 5, how wellinformed do you feel about the
implementation of the IES program?
4. How satisfied are you with the
final adoption of the resolution that puts
the IES program into place?
5. On a scale of 1 to 10, how well do
you think the IES program will address
issues of inequality and injustice in
education?
6. To what extent do you believe that
the IES program will help promote
diversity and inclusion in schools?
7. How likely are you to recommend
the IES program to other parents?
1 (not at all) / 2 / 3 / 4 /
5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10 (very
well)
Strongly agree /
Somewhat agree /
Neither agree nor
disagree / Somewhat
disagree / Strongly
disagree
1 (not at all) / 2 / 3 / 4 /
5 (very well)
Very satisfied /
Somewhat satisfied /
Neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied / Somewhat
dissatisfied / Very
dissatisfied
1 (not at all) / 2 / 3 / 4 /
5 / 6 / 7 / 8 / 9 / 10 (very
well)
Not at all / Slightly /
Somewhat / Moderately
/ Very much
Extremely likely /
Somewhat likely /
Neither likely nor
unlikely / Somewhat
(CF:
Inputs:
Demands/
Supports)
(CF:
Inputs:
Demands/
Supports)
(CF:
Outputs
and
policies)
(CF:
School
systems
as
political
systems)
(CF:
Outputs
and
policies)
(CF:
School
systems

140
8. How important do you think it is
for parents to be involved in the ongoing
development and implementation of the
IES program?
unlikely / Extremely
unlikely
Not at all important /
Slightly important /
Somewhat important /
Moderately important /
Very important
as
political
systems)
(CF:
Outputs
and
policies)
(CF:
School
systems
as
political
systems)

141
Open-Ended
1. Can you share your thoughts on
why intersectional ethnic studies is
important for your child’s school
district?
Open-ended (CF:
School
systems
as
political
systems)
Closing
I would like to take a moment to express my sincere gratitude for your participation in
this research survey. Your contribution is invaluable in helping us gain a better understanding of
the adoption process of ethnic studies in one southern California school district and how
community engagement and empowerment were achieved. Your thoughtful and honest responses
will provide valuable insights into this important topic, and we greatly appreciate the time and
effort you have put into completing this survey.
Once again, thank you for your participation and for sharing your valuable perspectives
with us. Your input is essential in helping us make a positive impact on education and
community empowerment.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Johnson, Jeralyn Delia (author)

Core Title Navigating political polarization: a group case study of community engagement in the adoption of intersectional ethnic studies in a Southern California K–12 school district

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/30/2024

Defense Date 03/29/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag community engagement in education,Easton’s political systems framework,educational policy adoption,intersectional ethnic studies,Kotter’s change model,OAI-PMH Harvest,political polarization in education

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Franklin, Greg (committee chair), Gothold, Paul (committee member), Kishimoto, Christina (committee member)

Creator Email jeraloo@gmail.com,jeralynj@usc.edu

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