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Their voices: middle school girls of color and their perceptions of themselves as leaders
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Content
THEIR VOICES: MIDDLE SCHOOL GIRLS OF COLOR AND THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF
THEMSELVES AS LEADERS
By
Jessyka Ramirez-Holden
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2023
Copyright 2023 Jessyka Ramirez-Holden
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To all my students, THANK YOU, you have truly become part of my story. Thank you
for teaching me to never let your situation determine your outcome and thank you for being my
inspiration to finish strong. To the 15 girls who participated in this study, thank you for sharing
your stories for the world to hear. Thank you for being honest, open, and vulnerable.
To my family, thank you for all your love, support, and constant check-ins. You all
started this journey with me, and I hope I made you proud. To my Robson, thank you for being
positive and caring throughout this journey. I truly could not have done this without your
encouragement, support, and love, thank you.
To my friends, Elianny, Raquel and Brittany, thank you for being the strong, phenomenal
women I need in my life. Thank you for just checking in and being there when I needed you. To
my teaching partners who became my lifelong friends, thank you for seeing me, pushing me, and
inspiring me to stay true to who I am.
To my committee, Dr. Pensavalle, Dr. Hasan, and Dr. Ott, thank you for your flexibility,
support, understanding, and kindness throughout this process. You all never gave up on me and
your advice has truly made this study successful.
To my mother, your story and our relationship inspired this study. Thank you for being
my role model, my cheerleader, and my example of a strong leader. I will always be eternally
grateful for everything you have sacrificed for my brothers and me. I love you and hope I made
you proud, this is for you. Lastly, to my newest, and sweetest addition to my life, my son, Eze
thank you for loving me unconditionally, showing me how strong I am, and for pushing me to
finish.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………….. ii
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………….. v
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….. vi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study………………………………………………………….. 1
Background of the Problem……………………………………………………………… 1
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………... 3
Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………………... 4
Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………….. 4
Importance of the Study…………………………………………………………………. 4
Limitations and Delimitations…………………………………………………………… 5
Organization of the Study………………………………………………………………... 6
Chapter Two: Literature Review………………………………………………………………. 8
Autoethnography………………………………………………………………………… 8
Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………… 14
History of Women in Leadership……………………………………………………… 15
Leadership Prototypes………………………………………………………………….. 17
Gender and Racial Socialization……………………………………………………… 18
Leadership Development in Adolescent Girls…………………………………………. 20
Mentoring and Role Models……………………………………………………………. 21
Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence……………………………………………………... 23
Summary………………………………………………………………….……………. 25
Chapter Three: Methodology………………………………………………………………… 27
Sample and Population…………………………………………………………………. 28
Instrumentation………………………………………………………………….……… 30
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………………. 33
Data Analysis………………………………………………………………….……….. 35
Summary………………………………………………………………….……………. 36
Chapter Four: Findings……………………………………………………………………….. 38
Overview of the Findings………………………………………………………………. 38
Research Question 1: Vision of Leadership……………………………………………. 39
Research Question 2: Contexts of Leadership…………………………………………. 54
Research Question 3: Influences on Their Leadership Development………………….. 62
Summary of Findings…………………………………………….………….…………. 68
Chapter Five: Conclusions…………………………………………….………….………….. 70
Implications from Findings…………………………………………….………………. 70
Recommendations…………………………………………….………….…………….. 71
Future Studies…………………………………………….………….………….……… 74
References…………………………………………….……………………………………… 76
Appendices…………………………………………….………….………….………………. 82
Appendix A: Her Story…………………………………………….…………………… 83
Appendix B: Journaling Protocol…………………………………………….………… 85
Appendix C: Interview Protocol…………………………………………….…………. 88
iv
Appendix D: Focus Group Protocol………….………….………….………….………. 93
Appendix E: Parental Permission Form………….………….………….……………... 95
Appendix F: Youth Consent Form………….………….………….…………………... 99
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………………. 5
Table 2 Review of Articles…………………………………….…………………………………24
Table 3 Summary of Criteria for Selection……………………………………………………... 30
Table 4 Methodology Overview…………………………………….…………………………...32
Table 5 Gantt Chart Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis………………………………...34
Table 6 Summary of Themes……………………………………………………………………. 39
vi
ABSTRACT
This dissertation explores how middle school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders. The
study seeks to understand the factors that shape their self-perceptions, the challenges they face,
and the potential impact of cultural and social influences on their leadership identity. The social
identity approach grounded this study with the understanding that society influences how we see
ourselves as leaders and which leadership styles are deemed acceptable. This qualitative study
included an autoethnography that evolved from documentation and analysis of the researcher’s
story, including obstacles and challenges to becoming a leader. Fifteen middle school girls in
grades six through eighth participated and shared their stories through journaling, interviews, and
focus groups. The results indicated that the process of becoming a leader is ongoing, where
gender presented a significant challenge for the participants. The data showed that school was
the context where the participants felt most comfortable as leaders. The data indicates female
family members had the most influence on their leadership journey. The findings of this study
shed light on the importance of empowering young girls of color to recognize their leadership
potential. Further this study's findings inform of the important role mentors in their leadership
development and contribute to the ongoing discourse on fostering diversity and inclusivity in
leadership. Implied from this study’s findings is that middle school girls of color need an
understanding of leadership, female role models and mentors, and practical opportunities to
conceive themselves as leaders now and in the future.
1
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Leadership is not an inherent characteristic, but a developed and nurtured set of skills
(Burns, 1978; Eagly & Carli, 2007). This development starts in early childhood and continues
through adolescence, during which a leader identity is established. Believing in one’s ability to
lead is essential to leadership skills development, and self-confidence and self-efficacy are
connected to this identity (Bass, 1998; Le Ber et al., 2017; Mccormick, 2001; Northouse, 2016).
However, early definitions of leadership focused on male-centric traits, and many leadership
traits are still thought to be masculine (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Northouse,
2016). For women, adolescence is the most critical period for nurturing these skills and qualities
(Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008). Adolescence can be one of the most vulnerable stages and one from
which women may emerge with low self-confidence and questions of self-identity (Hoyt &
Kennedy, 2008). In elementary school, girls between the ages of eight and nine feel assertive,
confident, and authoritative about themselves (Sills, 1994). However, when they move into
adolescence, between the ages of 11 and 14, most report a decline in self-confidence and poor
self-image (Santrock, 2011). This decline raises questions regarding whether they can conceive
of themselves as leaders during adolescence and how this impacts their future development as a
leader.
Background of the Problem
Leadership is a varied concept that plays a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of
individuals 'lives. It encompasses numerous skills, qualities, and behaviors that guide and
influence others toward achieving a common goal. Despite the expanding discourse on
leadership development, a significant gap exists in understanding the trajectory of leadership
identity development from adolescence. The formative years of adolescence serve as a critical
2
period of identity development. Transitioning from elementary to middle school has been
documented as complex, and overwhelming for adolescent girls as they negotiate an unfamiliar
environment and new social relationships. For girls of color, this difficulty increases as they face
structural and societal barriers in addition to defining their own racial and ethnic identities
(Letendre & Rozas, 2015). D They must navigate intricate socio-cultural landscapes that can
impact their self-efficacy, self-confidence, and their sense of agency as future leaders.
Furthermore, a lack of women of color in top leadership positions further exacerbates the
problem of the gender gap and gender role expectations. Women comprise only 14.7% of
Fortune 500 board seats; 79% are Caucasian, while 21% are women of color (Sanchez-Hucles &
Davis, 2010). As mentioned before, girls in the elementary ages feel more assertive and
confident about themselves taking on more leadership roles. However, their self-esteem drops
when they transition to middle school (Letendre & Rozas, 2015; Sills, 1994). This raises
questions about this transition to middle school, the connection between middle school and
leadership roles, and how they can maintain their perception of leadership and confidence.
Le Ber et al. (2017) focused on leader identity development and the intersection of
gender, leadership, identity, and human development for women and girls (Le Ber et al., 2017).
They used the leader identity development perspective, beginning with the internal development
of seeing oneself as a leader. Their narratives support the finding that “Identity creation is central
to the process of becoming a leader” (Le Ber et al., 2017, p. 238). The authors describe leader
identity as a process that can be examined through the lens of cultural role schemas such as
gender, race, and social as well as personal identities. They named significant adults/mentors,
learning experientially, developing resiliency, and internal/external feedback as contributing to
their leader identity development. Le Ber et al. described these factors as important in the early
3
formative years and even more, during adolescence. Participants had opportunities to lead,
support the development of their voices and resiliency, and learn from experiences in work and
play (Le Ber et al., 2017). The researchers support further examination of the intersection of
gender, leader, and other sectional roles. According to their narratives, participants realized they
had strong leadership identities in childhood, but lost their voice in adolescence and found it
again as adults. The present study expands on the foundational theory of women’s leader identity
development.
Statement of the Problem
Researchers (Rosette, Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010)
have found there is a lack of women of color in leadership positions. Historically, women have
not had access to leadership positions, as White women were expected to occupy only the private
space at home and not the public space in the workplace (Ospina & Foldy, 2009). However,
Black and Latina women were expected to occupy both sectors (Ospina & Foldy, 2009). When
women of color are excluded from leadership, they are denied the power to make a difference
(Hill et al., 2016). This underrepresentation of women of color affects the identity development
of young girls of color. The problem is middle school girls of color are less likely to see
themselves as leaders due to the intensification of gender roles and expectations (Murphy &
Johnson, 2011).
Past research explored leader identity development in relation to success as a leader. It
has also explored leader identity development through the narratives of adult women. However,
there is a gap in the literature regarding youth leadership. This study was important to bring to
light the experiences of middle school girls of color and highlight how societal expectations,
4
stereotypes, cultural norms, and educational environments intersect to influence their leadership
journey.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined how participants envision leadership and see themselves as leaders
and the factors that contribute to this development. This study aims to advance the understanding
of leader identity development of middle school girls of color and contribute to the broader
discourse on leadership development, gender, and cultural diversity. Through the young girls’
stories, they articulated whether they saw themselves as leaders and what contributed to their
self-perceptions. This study was guided by the following research questions:
1. How do middle school girls of color envision leadership?
2. In what contexts do middle school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders?
3. What factors influence middle school girls of color leadership development?
Theoretical Framework
This study contributes to social identity theory. It sought to understand how a leader's
gender and race/ethnicity affects their identity development. Social identity theory focuses on the
interdependent roles of leaders and followers within a constructed social system (Hogg, 2001).
Through the lens of social identity theory, the researcher investigated the larger social systems of
which participants were members. Personal identity development was also key in identifying the
factors influencing participants’ leader identity development. This study examined factors
influencing participants’ leader identity through their social identity within their environments.
Importance of the Study
This study is important to understand how to maintain women of color in leadership
positions. Cultural role models strengthen the identity of girls of color (Letendre & Rozas, 2015).
5
When they see someone who looks and acts like them, they feel more confident and valued in
their community (Letendre & Rozas, 2015). By sharing their perceptions of themselves,
participants told their own stories. This study contributes to leader identity development theory
and has recommendations for teachers, counselors, coaches, and mentors who work with middle
school girls of color.
Table 1
Definition of Terms
Term Definition
Adolescence A period of development, usually between childhood and
adulthood, and spanning the biological ages of 10 to 20 (Santrock,
2011).
Girls of color For the purposes of this study, girls between the ages of 10 and 14
years old are non-white (African American, Latina, and/or AsianAmerican).
Leadership The process by which an individual influences a group to reach
agreed-upon goals. Leadership can also be defined as helping
people find meaning (Fullan, 2017; Northouse, 2016).
Social identity theory Social identity theory is grounded in the understanding that group
membership influences a person’s identity development (Hogg,
2001).
Intersectionality The manner in which multiple aspects of identity may combine in
different ways to construct social reality (Cole, 2009; SanchezHucles & Davis, 2010; Shields, 2008).
Limitations and Delimitations
This study centers on middle school girls between the ages of 11 and 14 within an
educational context, which limits the scope and perspectives of the narratives shared. While this
study aims to provide insightful perspectives, it acknowledges the potential limitations such as
6
geographic diversity, variations in cultural backgrounds, individual differences among
participants, and the researcher's influence and background.
Qualitative research carries validity threats, as it is difficult to separate the researcher’s
background and experiences from the study (Maxwell, 2013). In addition to qualitative methods,
an autoethnography component adds to researcher bias. Autoethnographies have been evaluated
for being too artful and not scientific. The autoethnography must evoke a familiar, believable,
and relatable experience (Ellis, Adams, & Bochner, 2010).
Maxwell (2013) discussed two broad threats to validity in a qualitative study: researcher
bias and reactivity. It is impossible to altogether remove the researcher’s theories and beliefs in a
study, but understanding how the researcher’s biases influenced the conduct and conclusions of
the study aids in maintaining validity (Miles, Huberman & Saldana, 2013). The researcher
studied her own workplace, which creates another threat to validity: reactivity. Reactivity is the
influence of the researcher on the participants (Maxwell, 2013). Again, it is impossible to
remove the researcher's influence of the researcher; However, a goal was to understand the
researcher’s influence on the participants. The study employed measure toto minimize these
validity threats and triangulated data by using three sources: journaling, interviews, and focus
groups.
Organization of the Study
This study is unique because it includes the author’s autoethnography and the
participants’ lived experiences. Chapter One provides an overview of the study, the background
of the study, the purpose and statement of the problem, and definitions of terms used. The second
chapter starts with the author’s autoethnography, which frames the literature. The literature
review is presented in thematic format. The literature themes are history of women in leadership,
7
leadership prototypes, gender and racial socialization, self-efficacy and self-confidence,
adolescent development, educational settings, and social identity theory as the theoretical
framework. The third chapter presents the methodology: journaling, focus groups, and
interviews. Chapter Four presents the data analysis and findings based on coding of themes.
Chapter Five summarizes the results, implications for practice, and suggestions for future
research.
8
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter starts with the researcher’s autoethnography, the theoretical framework is
presented, and then the discussion is organized into seven themes that support the research
questions. The first section describes the history of women in leadership. Next, leadership is
defined alongside two leadership prototypes. The following section examines gender stereotypes,
roles, expectations, and gender socialization. Related to gender socialization is racial
socialization. Self-efficacy and self-confidence are essential to successful leadership; both are
presented herein as they regard middle school girls. Next the role of mentoring and role models
are presented in how they are a strong predictor of a young girl’s positive leadership
development. Lastly, discussed are adolescent development and how elementary and middle
school girls develop.
Autoethnography
Autoethnography is an approach to research writing that involves the researcher writing
about and analyzing past experiences to understand a cultural experience or phenomenon (Ellis,
Adams, & Bochner, 2010). This method developed as a robust method focused on bringing the
self into investigations of culture and society (Adams, Holman Jones, & Ellis, 2015; Chang,
2008). This method treats research as a politically, socially just, and socially conscious act.
Instead of assuming that subjectivity, emotionality, and researcher bias do not exist in research,
this approach acknowledges and accommodates these components (Ellis, Adams, & Bochner,
2010). Autoethnography was employed because the researcher was interested in understanding
what spurs leader identity development among middle school girls of color. Reflection on the
researcher’s middle school experiences produced meaningful and accessible research grounded
in personal experience. The research questions were constructed through the researcher’s lived
9
experience of how the transition into middle school affected her view of leadership and her
leadership development.
My Story
As a student, I struggled to find my voice. I was very shy and afraid of conflict. Every
teacher said the same thing: “She’s a pleasure to have in class, and she’s very focused, but I
would like to see her participate more in class discussions.” I knew the answers and secretly had
a lot to say, but I always felt the pressure to be right all the time. When another student said what
I thought, I was mad at myself for not speaking up. Although I was quiet, I was a highly active
child. My mom wanted to ensure I was involved in other activities outside of school. She
encouraged me to try new experiences. I tried out ballet and tap, Girl Scouts, basketball, soccer,
and karate. Girl Scouts left an impression on me as a young girl. During these years, I
experienced the characteristics of a great leader: demanding work, decision-making, and strong
relationships. However, through my interactions with other girls and troop leaders, I learned to
avoid conflict by not saying what was on my mind.
Elementary school is where I became aware of race and how people would perceive me.
In second grade, a girl in my class told me that she could not play with me because I was Black.
Immediately, I felt ashamed of who I was. Was there something wrong with being Black? When
I got home, my mom and I had a difficult conversation. This conversation is one that I will never
forget. I learned that I would always have to work twice as hard as my peers, just to prove to
them that I am capable. Accomplishments, achievements, and succeeding at anything always
surprised my teachers, as if they did not believe in me. As a result, understanding my identity
became increasingly confusing. In sixth grade, I decided to run for student body president, and
was incredibly determined to win. My mother helped me create my slogan, campaign posters,
10
and deliver a presidential speech. I honestly believed in myself and thought I had a good chance
of winning. In the end, I lost my first student council election. However, I knew how hard I
worked to do something difficult for me, and I would have more chances.
Middle school was a difficult transition for me. When I left elementary school, I was
confident in my academic abilities and determined to succeed. I also felt confident in my
friendships. Nonetheless, it became clear in the first month of school that this new chapter would
not be what I thought. Most of my friends drifted in other directions, and I felt lost. I did not
have a mentor/teacher, friend, or role model who encouraged me at school. I did not speak up in
class, so my teachers did not know who I was at school. As a result, I became very worried and
stressed about everything. School was not enjoyable. It became a daunting task every single day.
I became obsessed with my grades and making sure I was prepared for college. I was not being
bullied, but I felt like other kids, teachers, and other adults were ignoring me. I was shy, and it
was extremely difficult to put myself out there to try to make new friends. I felt like life would
be much easier if I were not myself. I felt like I had no voice and that my voice did not matter in
a school where no one looked like me. Academically, my grades never slipped, and I was on
track to succeed in high school. Socially, I learned to accept that my shyness was just who I was,
and I avoided conflicts at all costs. I also understood that people did not notice me because I did
not speak up. I thought high school would give me more opportunities to get involved and break
out of my shell. Although I was shy, deep down inside, it was not how I wanted to be identified
for the rest of my life. I decided to run for ninth-grade class representative in student
government, and I won! This moment reminded me of the little girl in second grade who said she
could not play with me because I was Black. I just proved to her that people do like me, people
11
voted for me, and I was not as invisible as I thought. I started believing in myself as a leader and
my leadership identity was forming.
As I entered high school, I continued trying to figure out where I belonged. I was
involved in other activities such as basketball, track and field, honor society, community service,
and student government. Although my leader identity was still developing, I felt like I still had a
certain image of a leader in mind, and I did not think I was there yet. In trying to figure out who I
was as a leader, I became aware of my multiple layers of identity. Not only was I a young
woman, but I was also a person of color growing up in a White suburban town. In my K-12
school career, I solely identified as Black, even though I am bi-racial. I am also Mexican
American, but my biological father, who is Mexican, was absent in my life, so I identified with
my mother’s race: Black. This did not become a problem for me until high school. Most of my
friends were White and did not share the same experiences as I did. I found it hard to relate to
them sometimes.
One day, while talking to my friends about my family, I mentioned going on the Black
College Tour. They paused and said, “We didn’t know you were Black.” I said, “What do you
mean? My mom and dad are Both black. My brothers are Black. You have seen them.” They
replied, “Yes, but you don’t act or sound Black.” In the moment, I did know how to respond nor
what they meant. Later, as I thought about it at home, I became angry, frustrated, and hurt by the
comment. I started to question my “Blackness.” Was I not black enough? Do I sound white? Is
this why I did not have any Black or Latino friends? These are the questions I would continue to
struggle with daily. Where did I fit in? I knew nothing about being Mexican, and I did not speak
Spanish very well, so I felt like I was not Mexican enough. I also did not have any Black friends
12
because, according to my White friends, I did not sound Black. My skin color told me and
everyone else I was not White, but I struggled to find my place.
This experience made me look at my environment more closely. I noticed I was the only
person of color in all my honors and AP classes. What was more shocking to me was when I
realized I was one of five Black students and only one of two Black females in my entire
graduating class of 660 students. I questioned why there were so few of us in this school and
why people were shocked when I succeeded. I also questioned why people were shocked to hear
me speak. It was important for me to have an advocate on campus who would believe in me and
encourage me to succeed. My college counselor was a substantial influence on me, and she
genuinely believed in me. My counselor advocated for me to get into honors and Advanced
Placement classes. She made sure I was on the right track, taking the right classes to graduate on
time. She helped me prepare and apply for colleges. She also told me to slow down when I was
doing too much. I attribute a lot of my leadership development to her guidance in high school.
During the summer before my senior year, I was diagnosed with Type 1 Diabetes. As the
doctor started explaining the differences between type 1 and type 2 and how there was absolutely
nothing, I did to make this happen. All I could think about was my great-grandmother who died
of complications of diabetes. I was so scared and confused. How did this happen? My mom, as
always, my voice of reason and reassurance, said, “Do not let this situation define you. Do not let
it decide who you become,” My life had been completely changed, but I was determined not to
let diabetes define me or my future successes. This experience was a hurdle in my life that also
helped me build character, humility, and determination, all qualities that to me defined a leader.
When I started college, I was accepted into a three-week program for Black students to
help Black students become well-adjusted, independent, and successful at Loyola Marymount
13
University (LMU). For the first time, I felt a sense of belonging in a community: the Black
community. I built friendships with similar people who had similar backgrounds and interests. I
also had several mentors who helped me throughout my journey at LMU. One of my mentors
told me there are quiet, strong leaders, and I finally accepted that as my leader identity. I was
part of a community that supported me and genuinely cared about my success as a Black woman.
The most prominent leadership role I had was as a resident advisor. This opportunity opened so
many doors for me, and this was when I started to believe I was indeed a leader. I started to put
myself out there and take advantage of every leadership opportunity that was presented. I was
involved in the Black Student Union, a service organization called Gryphon Circle, and I
committed to going on service trips during my spring breaks. In these organizations, not only
was I a member, but I pursued organizational leadership positions.
On May 8, 2010, I walked across the stage and received my degree from Loyola
Marymount University. I was ready and excited to take on the next chapter of my life. I did not
become a lawyer as I had initially planned, but I discovered my passion through a year of
service. I completed an Ameri-Corps service year through City Year Los Angeles. Through this
program, I managed a team at a school site and handled collaborating and building partnerships
with the school. I was also in classrooms, supplying one-on-one support to students. After my
year of service, I knew I wanted to do more, and there was more work to be done, which is when
I decided to teach. It is my mission to ensure my students feel heard, seen and loved. This
passion propelled me into pursuing leadership within education.
Reflections on My Story
As I reflect on my childhood and adolescent experiences, I can see how my experiences
have shaped the leader I am today. My image of a leader was formed at an early age and was
14
changed later in my life. I am not afraid to speak up now, and I am more confident in my
leadership ability. My leadership identity has been fueled by the constant in my life, my mother,
and the challenges I have had to overcome. My mom has always been there to inspire, push,
cheer, and encourage me to keep going. In addition to a strong female role model at home, I also
had mentors along the way who encouraged my quiet leadership. I had my college counselor in
high school who believed in my determination to succeed. In college, from the beginning, I had
mentors to make sure I did not slip through the cracks. If not for these mentors in high school
and college, I would not be confident in who I am today. Through my experiences, I found the
strong leadership identity I had as a child, lost in adolescence, but regained as an adult. All my
questions, challenges, and opportunities helped me envision myself as a future leader.
Theoretical Framework
Social identity theory, developed by researchers Henri Tajfel and John Turner, explores
how individuals define themselves based on their group memberships and how these identities
impact social behavior and interactions (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The core concepts are social
categorization, social identification, and social comparison. Social categorization depicts when
people naturally categorize themselves and others into social groups based on shared
characteristics Further, social identification is when individuals identify with groups and adopt
the group’s characteristics Tajfel and Turner (1979) explained that this process leads to a sense
of belonging. Finally, social comparison is when group members tend to compare their group
favorably with other groups, which enhances their self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Social identity theory posits leadership as a group process created by prototype-based
depersonalization associated with social identity (Hogg, 2001). Within a society, ingroup, and
outgroup prototypes are defined by a cognitive process (Hornsey, 2008). The ingroups are
15
created based on the individual’s desire for positive self-perception, and members are determined
to act in a way that makes their group the best group compared to others (Hornsey, 2008; Stets &
Burke, 2000). If an individual resembles the ingroup prototype, that person is more thought of as
a leader for that group (Abrams & Hogg, 1990). If the prototype for that ingroup is a White male,
how does a woman of color navigate this prototype, and is there a particular path, as a child or
adolescent, she needs to take? According to Hogg (2001), “leadership dynamics may be
significantly affected by the social cognitive processes associated with group membership”
(p.186). The theory assumes that social categorizations like gender roles and gender stereotypes
create the individual’s place in society (Hogg, 2001).
Social identity theory explains how intergroup dynamics contribute to prejudices and
discrimination against out-groups. This theory is also helpful in understanding group dynamics
in leadership within team dynamics. For this study, examine how middle school girls of color
perceive themselves as leaders within their own definitions of leadership. The participants will
discuss where they see themselves in the in-group or the out-group. Based on the research, when
a young girl develops low self-confidence and self-efficacy because she does not fit the leader
prototype, she is more likely not to pursue a leadership position in the future. This conclusion is
based on the social categorizations created by society of what an effective leader is expected to
embody.
History of Women in Leadership
Women have held leadership positions, from Pharaoh Hatshepsut in Ancient Egypt to
Queen Elizabeth I in England (Hill et al., 2016). During the Age of Enlightenment, Mary
Wollenscraft, author of A Vindication of the Rights of Women, gave rise to an academic
movement for women. Until then, women were not considered as competent as men. In the 18th
16
century, during the Industrial Revolution, women were seen as low-cost labor and worked in the
factories. During World War I and II, women were encouraged to work in place of men, but
when men returned from war, women were laid off and pushed back into the home (Albee &
Perry, 1998). If married women stayed in the workforce, they were seen as taking jobs that men
could work, and marriages did not last (Albee & Perry, 1998). This continued into the 1970s,
more and more women were graduating college and entering professional careers.
Women leading civilizations, countries, and social movements is not a new concept or
idea. In addition to leading in times of war, women have led many social movements, from the
Underground Railroad to the Civil Rights Movement, and, more recently, women-led
movements in health care and education reform. However, males outnumbered females in
leadership positions in each time-period and culture (Hill et al., 2016). Women remain
outnumbered in leadership positions across all industries (Hill et al., 2016). The numbers are
even lower for women of color (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Nonetheless, research concluded that companies benefit when there is diverse leadership,
especially when women are on the leadership team (Hill et al., 2016). They make more gains,
increase social responsibility, have positive performance, decrease groupthink, and decrease
layoffs (Hill et al., 2016; Welbourne et al., 2007). As the number of women with advanced
degrees increased over the last 50 years, they are highly qualified for these positions (Shapiro et
al., 2015). Women have developed and acquired more skills and education but still seem to fall
short. Research has been conducted on why women do not attain leadership positions and has
shown there are many qualified and interested women pursuing leadership positions, but societal
norms and gender-based stereotypes create obstacles (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Rudman et al.,
17
Salas-Lopez et al., 2011). This void creates an absence of role models and mentors for young
girls of color.
Throughout history, women have proven to be knowledgeable and willing to lead, but
perceived leadership prototypes and gender roles have led women to believe they are not
capable. The history of women in leadership reflects progress, setbacks, and ongoing efforts to
achieve gender equality. Despite these challenges, women have increasingly assumed various
leadership roles contributing to change on a global scale. When do women do develop their
leadership identity, what does it look like? What factors help maintain a woman’s leadership
development? These are the questions this study aims to answer from a young girl's experience.
Leadership Prototypes
Leadership is the process by which an individual influences a group to reach agreed-upon
goals (Northouse, 2016). Leadership can also be defined as helping people find meaning (Fullan,
2017). Leadership then becomes a social group process (Chemers, 2002; Hogg, 2001). People
develop a certain set of expectations about how leaders should behave, and this can be based on
gender and socialization experiences (Paris, Howell, Dorfman, & Hanges, 2009). Males are
expected to be agentic, which can be perceived as assertive, controlling, and confident (Eagly,
1987). Females are expected to be communal, which can be perceived as gentle, nurturing, and
helpful (Eagly, 1987). The most common leader prototype is agentic, as most people see leaders
as agentic. Problems arise when females exhibit agentic qualities because it is not within their
leadership prototype and is, therefore, seen as a negative (Eagly & Karau, 2002). If one does not
demonstrate certain leadership behaviors, one is seen as an ineffective leader (Eagly & Karau,
2002). This also stems from social identity theory, which suggests that an individual adopts an
identity within a group that dictates how they perceive themselves within that group.
18
Researchers (Paris et al., 2009) investigated 4,372 male and 1,793 female mid-level
managers in 27 countries asked them to rate items reflecting their organization’s values on a
Likert-type measurement. They were also asked to describe leader behaviors they thought
strengthen or weaken successful leadership. The results were consistent with past research in
which female leaders placed stronger values on team-oriented and participative leadership
prototypes than male leaders (Paris et al., 2009). The data indicated both genders rejected
independent decision-makers and believed outstanding leadership requires others’ viewpoints in
decision-making (Paris et al., 2009). However, women are more likely to approve of and exhibit
this behavior across the 27 countries.
In another seminal study, Eagly et al.(2003) analyzed 45 studies that compared men and
women on transactional and transformational leadership styles. The participants were rated by
their peers, subordinates, and superiors using a questionnaire. The results showed women were
more transformational leaders with charisma, idealized influence, and inspirational motivation.
The data also indicated women were positively related to follower effectiveness. Women exhibit
high-quality leadership, leading to more effective organizations. However, to be effective,
women need to be associated with positive leadership characteristics.
Gender and Racial Socialization
Gender stereotypes prescribe how men and women should be and pertain to role
behaviors, physical characteristics, occupations, and personality traits (Heilman, 2001). Women
are typically stereotyped as communal, helpful, nurturing and warm. Men are typically
stereotyped to be more agentic, assertive, controlling and confident. These stereotypes are linked
to gender roles, which are the behavioral expectations of individuals based on their sex. Eagly’s
(1987) social role theory states that gender stereotypes emerged from observations of women and
19
men in their respective roles. When men and women assume these roles, characteristics are
attached, reinforcing gender stereotypes. Due to these gender stereotypes, historically, women
have had lower status positions in society and are more likely to not work outside the home.
Gender roles are acquired at an early age through interaction and observation of social
role models. According to social learning theory, children develop a gender identity from
interactions with adults (Bandura, 1977). During the early developmental years, children observe
and interact with parents and teachers who are aware of and even endorse gender stereotypes
(Bandura, 1977). However, children are not passive in this socialization process because they
choose whom to imitate. Gender schemas also play a role in the socialization process. Gender
schemas are knowledge structures about sex and gender that guide thinking and behavior. Lastly,
media play a primary role in gender role information. Most popular television shows and
cartoons portray women as subordinate to men. In children’s books, such as fairy tales, female
characters play the damsel in distress who needs to be saved by the strong male hero. These
messages impact women as they develop these impressions of themselves, and others expect
women to fit into specific roles.
During adolescence, gender and racial identity together create an even more complex
process (Letendre & Rozas, 2015). Race and ethnicity are at the forefront of adolescents’
everyday lives. The need to associate with a group peer group becomes essential to identity
development (Letendre & Rozas, 2015). Girls are more receptive to this process than boys
(Stevens, 2002). According to Harro’s (2010) research on the cycle of socialization, racial and
ethnic identities are formed by parents, family members, teachers, established institutions, and
media. The cycle begins as we are born into a world where assumptions, rules, and oppression
are already in place (Harro, 2010). We have no control over who we are; we just are. Then, the
20
first interactions are with people we love and trust. They shape our self-concept, self-perceptions,
and how we see others (Harro, 2010). Next, institutional and cultural socialization occurs, which
consciously and unconsciously teaches us whom should have the power. This is reinforced by a
system of rewards and punishments that keeps us in the cycle (Harro, 2010). The results are bad
outcomes for those with and without power (Harro, 2010). The cycle continues if we continue to
promote the status quo. The cycle changes when we start to think, question and challenge the
status quo (Harro, 2010). If we reject the system, this cycle of socialization does not become the
norm.
Leadership Development in Adolescent Girls
Adolescence is the transition between childhood and adulthood when significant brain
development occurs alongside conceptualizations of self and future self. This proves to be a
more difficult time for young girls than boys (Santrock, 2011). Researchers theorized this is due
to loss of self-esteem and self-confidence (Impett et al., 2008). Self-esteem is the overall way we
evaluate ourselves (Santrock, 2011). Sometimes, self-esteem can reflect perceptions that match
reality. Researchers argue that this loss of self-esteem and confidence is fueled by gender role
expectations, body image changes, and a greater interest in social relationships (Impett et al.,
2008). Similar to gender stereotypes, leadership behaviors may begin in childhood and carry out
through adolescence. However, girls may not recognize themselves as leaders, and exposure is
still very important at this stage (Lord & Hall, 2005). When adolescent girls are unable to hear or
see themselves in the dominant culture, this further exacerbates their conflicts with expressing
themselves and silences their voice (Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008; Gilligan, 1993).
Adolescent girls need to envision themselves as leaders because it allows them to practice
challenging stereotypes successfully (Komives et al., 2005). Murphy and Johnson (2011)
21
asserted that “early experiences create the foundation for future leadership development to build
on” (p. 459). To envision themselves as leaders, it is crucial they see models of female leaders.
Mentoring and Role Models
Kram’s (1985) mentor role theory states mentoring’s goal is to develop an individual
personally and professionally. The benefits of mentoring include increased confidence, improved
communication skills, increased job performance, career advancement, opportunities to lead and
recognition by peers (Daresh & Playko, 1992). Among women, there is an informal mentoring
process that usually occurs when an individual shows leadership potential (Kamler, 2006). An
alternative to this informal process includes more formal mentoring through group interactions
that create relationships (Gibson, 2006; Kamler, 2006; Sherman, Munoz, & Pankake, 2008).
Same-gender mentors and role models are important for anyone wanting to climb the career
ladder (Brunner & Grogan, 2007). Role modeling is essential in the social aspect of mentoring
(Allen et al., 2004), which can have negative and positive impacts on an individual or group.
Research concluded that the lack of women in leadership positions may be due to the lack of
female role models (Buck et al., 2008; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006). Role modeling is vital in
encouraging adolescent girls to pursue nontraditional careers for women (Smith & Erb, 1986).
Social learning theory suggests that humans learn by observation and imitation (Bandura,
1977). Bandura (1977) proposed that individuals learn by observing the actions and outcomes of
others. Observing models provides valuable information about behaviors and social norms.
Humans want to imitate behaviors they perceive as rewarding or successful (Bandura, 1977).
This process involves attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (Bandura, 1977). In the
context of young girls, role models play a crucial role in shaping their behaviors, beliefs, and
aspirations of becoming a leader. This process is also known as behavioral modeling, and their
22
role models can include family members, teachers, coaches, community figures, or celebrities
(Bandura, 1977). For young girls, positive role models can significantly influence their beliefs
and behaviors, contributing to their personal and social development. Therefore, fostering
diverse and positive role models is essential to support and empower young girls as they navigate
their formative years and leadership journey.
Darling (2005) has also discussed the role of mentoring for adolescents and the positive
outcomes. During the formative years for children, they undergo significant identity exploration
and mentoring relationships can offer guidance and support in forming a positive self-concept
(Darling, 2005). Positive role models can exemplify positive behaviors and attitudes that can
influence their leadership aspirations. These relationships also aid in improved relationships with
parents, peers, and other adults (Darling, 2005). To summarize Darling’s research, mentoring
adolescents has a highly positive impact and provides opportunities for adolescents to thrive in
all aspects of life.
Mentoring relationships are influential, especially when added layers of race, ethnicity
and culture exist. The intersection of all these significantly influences the effectiveness and
outcomes of mentorship (Sanchez & Colon, 2005). When cultural matching occurs, a mentor's
understanding and appreciation of a mentee’s background helps a trusting relationship (Sanchez
& Colon, 2005). Mentors can also adapt based on the needs of the individual because they also
understand cultural sensitivity (Sanchez & Colon, 2005). Understanding and embracing cultural
nuances enriches the mentoring relationship and empowers the mentees to succeed in various
parts of their lives.
Studies have explored the influence of role models on women’s career advancement. One
study (Watterston, 2010) found mentors and role models played a significant part in female
23
educators’ leadership development These mentors and role models pushed them to persist and
overcome obstacles to be successful (Watterston, 2010). In a similar study, Shakeshaft et al.
(2007) also noted the importance of mentors and role models. Similar results referenced mentors
and role models as an important part of the leadership journey (Cranston & Ehrich, 2007).
Participants named mothers, relatives, friends and work colleagues who assisted in shaping their
careers and helped them develop leadership skills (Cranston & Ehrich, 2007).
In relation to the impact of role models and mentors on adolescent girls, results of a study
on student athletes’ perceptions of formal and informal team leaders indicated the importance of
leading by example and showing positive leadership skills (Holmes, McNeil, & Adorna, 2010).
Various studies also examined the underrepresentation of women in science career fields (Cotner
et al., 2011). One study found a female instructional leader was influential in improving female
students’ confidence in science class (Cotner et al., 2011). Other studies found that female
political role models influence adolescent girls and women to pursue political office and partake
in political activities (Campbell & Wolbrecht, 2006). These studies support the importance of
mentoring programs in developing leadership skills among adolescent girls and women.
Research concluded that role models and mentors impact adolescent girls and women’s career
choices (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006).
Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence
Self-efficacy is related to a person’s motivation to lead (Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, &
Harms, 2008). Although self-efficacy and self-confidence are not the same, they are related and
help develop a leader identity and success (Atwater et al., 1999; Chemers et al, 2000; Smith &
Foti, 1998). Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to achieve a desired
outcome (Bandura, 1977) successfully. Higher self-efficacy tends to lead to greater persistence
24
and resilience when facing challenges. Bandura (1977) highlighted that self-efficacy affects
individuals' choices and responses to difficult situations. Young female leaders’ self-confidence
and self-esteem are affected by gender role expectations, which results in negative outcomes
when they have lower self-confidence (Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008). As one gains greater leadership
efficacy, one will engage in more leadership experiences, increasing efficacy. Without a desire or
motivation to lead, it is unlikely that the leadership role will be pursued (Chan & Drasgow,
2001). Table 2 identifies key articles reviewed that are connected to each research question.
Table 2
Review of Articles
Topic Research Question Articles Summary
Social Identity
Theory
Theoretical Framework Hogg, 2001; Tajfel &
Turner, 1979; Hornsey,
2008; Stets & Burke, 2000;
Abrams and Hogg, 1990
Social Identity Theory
suggests that a person’s
self-concept is not only
based on their individual
identity but also on their
identification with social
groups.
History of
Women in
Leadership
How do middle school
girls of color envision
leadership?
What factors influence
the leadership
development of middle
school girls of color?
Hill, Miller, Benson, &
Handley, 2016; SanchezHucles & Davis, 2010;
Shapiro et al., 2015; Albee
& Perry, 1998; Welbourne,
Cycyota, & Ferrante, 2007;
Rudman, Moss-Racusin,
Phelan, & Nauts, 2012;
Eagly & Karau, 2002
Throughout history women
have held leadership
positions, not a new
concept. Research has
concluded that companies
and organizations benefit
when there are women in
leadership positions.
Leadership
Prototypes
How do middle school
girls of color envision
leadership?
Eagly, 1987; Eagly &
Karau, 2002; Hogg, 2001;
Chemers, 2002; Paris,
Howell, Dorfman, and
Hanges, 2009; Eagly,
Johannesen-Schmidt, & van
Engen, 2003;
Most common leadership
prototype is agentic, which
is defined as assertive,
competitive, independent
and courageous. This is
commonly expected of
males.
25
Gender and
Racial
Socialization
How do middle school
girls of color envision
leadership?
What factors influence
the leadership
development of middle
school girls of color?
Bandura, 1977
Letendre & Rozas, 2015;
Heilman, 2001; Harro,
2010; Stevens, 2002
Social role theory states that
gender stereotypes emerged
from women and men in
their respective roles. These
roles are assumed from an
early age and observed
through interactions with
adults. Children learn from
social role models.
Leadership
Development in
Adolescent
Girls
In what context do
middle school girls of
color perceive
themselves as leaders?
What factors influence
the leadership
development of middle
school girls of color?
Santrock, 2011; Lord &
Hall, 2005; Impett et. al,
2008; Hoyt & Kennedy,
2008; Komives, Owen,
Longerbeam, Mainella, &
Osteen, 2005; Murphy &
Johnson, 2011
Important transition from
childhood to adolescence that
conceptualizes self and future
self.
Mentoring and
Role Models
What factors influence
the leadership
development of middle
school girls of color?
Kram, 1985; Smith & Erb,
1986; Kamler 2006;
Daresh & Playko, 1992;
Brunner & Grogan, 2007;
Quimby & DeSantis, 2006;
Watterston, 2010; Cranston
&Enrich, 2007; Eagly &
Carli, 2007; Holmes,
McNeil, & Adorna, 2010;
Cotner, Ballen, Brooks, &
Moore, 2011; Bandura,
1977
The benefits of mentoring
include increased confidence,
increased communication
skills, job advancement and
recognition by peers. Social
learning theory states that
humans learn by observation
and positive role modeling for
young girls play a crucial role
in shaping their behaviors,
beliefs, and aspirations of
becoming a leader.
Self-Efficacy
and SelfConfidence
What factors influence
the leadership
development of middle
school girls of color?
Bandura, 1977; Hoyt &
Kennedy, 2008; Atwater et
al., 1999; Chemers,
Watson, & May, 2000;
Smith & Foti, 1998; Chan
& Drasgow, 2001
As one gains greater
leadership efficacy or
confidence in one’s ability to
lead a group, one will engage
in more leadership
experiences, which will
increase leadership efficacy.
Summary
In conclusion, the literature findings indicate society benefits when there is a woman of
color in a leadership position. There are also strong indicators that when a young girl can see
26
herself as a leader in middle school, she may be inclined to pursue leadership positions in the
future. Positive mentors and role models are also strong indicators that the young girl will be
successful in pursuing her leadership journey. There will be obstacles created by society that
include gender and race, but they are also obstacles that will propel one into leadership. The
literature findings indicated there is a need for this study of middle school girls. The following
methodology chapter describes the sample and population, instrumentation, and data collection.
27
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study explored the stories of how middle school girls of color envision leadership,
how they perceive themselves as leaders, and what factors contribute to their leadership
development. This study aimed to advance understanding of the leader identity development of
girls of color in middle school. Through their stories, they articulate whether they see themselves
as leaders and what contributed to their leadership development. The impact of this study will
encourage educators and researchers to examine leadership for girls of color through a different
lens. The following research questions guide this study:
1. How do middle school girls of color envision leadership?
2. In what contexts do middle school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders?
3. What factors influence middle school girls of color leadership development?
This chapter outlines the sample population, instrumentation, data collection, and data
analysis. This study employed a qualitative approach that includes an autoethnography of the
researcher and participants’ journaling, interviews, and focus groups. The use of all three
instruments further enhances the validity and reliability of the findings (Creswell, 2014; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016).
Qualitative research aims to understand how people make sense from their lives from
their perspective (Patton, 2002). The research questions for this study allowed for qualitative
methods. The questions ask for the experiences and reflections of leadership through the eyes of
middle school girls of color. All three questions require a focus on making meaning and
understanding from the participants’ point of view. The characteristics of qualitative research
include focusing on the process, understanding, and making meaning where the researcher is the
primary instrument of data collection and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Qualitative
28
research is used when the assumption is that researchers study phenomena in their natural setting
to understand the phenomena. Journaling, interviews, and focus groups are used based on the
constructivist perspective (Hennink, 2014). The way people internalize and make meaning
through their own experiences is the foundation of this study.
Sample and Population
In the Southern California School District, Agents Middle School was selected as the site
for this study based on the convenience of the location and length of the study. Agents Middle
School (AMS) is a sixth through eighth-grade middle public charter school located in Southern
California. The school serves 306 students with small class sizes and a teacher-to-student ratio of
27:1. The school is driven by three mission pillars guiding the school’s work in achieving
outcomes for students. The school has a rigorous curriculum, fosters respect for human life and
provides relevant life experiences. Students come from the surrounding neighborhoods: 79.7%
are Hispanic or Latino, 13.7% are Black, 3.6% are White, and 1.6% are of two or more
ethnicities. In sixth grade, there are 106 students in seventh grade and 99 students in 101 students
in eighth grade. Socially disadvantaged students make up 82% of the population; 11% are
English learners, 12% have disabilities, and 1% are foster youth.
The teachers have taught in both public and private educational settings. A few teachers
are starting a second career and have experience in the film and business industries. The
teachers’ experience ranges from 2 to 12 years in education. There are 20 teachers who teach
humanities, math, science, art, resource, enrichment, and physical education. The demographics
of the teachers are such that 19% are Black, 47.6% are Latino, and 33.3% are White. There are
four male teachers and 14 female teachers. The humanities, math, and science teachers hold
either a single-subject or multiple-subject credential. The leadership team has a principal,
29
assistant principal, head of schools, and executive director. All leadership team members, one
male, and three females, identify as White. AMS receives Title I funding and supplemental
grants for English language learners, low-income students, and foster youth. Four full-time
teachers at each grade level teach math, science, humanities, and intervention. The students also
have art and physical education as elective classes. It is essential to note the teachers and leaders'
demographics and previous careers to highlight factors that might affect the participants in the
study.
This study entailed a non-probabilistic, purposive sampling. Purposeful sampling is based
on wanting to discover, understand, or gain insight; therefore, a particular sample is chosen
based on certain criteria (Johnson & Christensen, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). For this study, the researcher chose young girls at a middle school due to the school’s
convenience in terms of time, availability of the researcher, and location (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The young girls are between the ages of 11 and 14. For the purposes of this study, young
girls of color were defined as adolescent girls who are non-White, which includes African
Americans, Latinas, and Asian Americans.
To recruit the participants, I advertised the study and held a meeting for interested girls.
In this meeting, the researcher explained the study, the required hours of participation, and
confidentiality. Once a list was compiled, the researcher selected girls based on their willingness
to participate and parental consent. Fifteen girls were selected to participate in all three parts of
the process: journaling, interviews, and focus groups. To ensure validity, the researcher ensured
that none of the girls selected for the study were students whom she directly teaches. Each
participant kept a journal for two weeks, was interviewed separately, and participated in a grade-
30
level focus group. The selection of these girls was purposive, convenience sampling based on the
criteria in Table 3.
Table 3
Summary of Criteria for Selection
Middle school young girls of color
Ɣ Journaling (15)
Ɣ Interviews (15)
Ɣ Focus groups (3 groups of 5)
Ɣ 11 to 14 years old
Ɣ Non-white (African American, Latina,
Asian-American)
Ɣ Parental consent
Ɣ Random selection (tickets, alphabet)
Ɣ Willingness to participate
Instrumentation
The design of this study is unique in that the research questions were gleaned from the
researcher's autoethnography. Journal prompts were determined based on experiences in middle
school and how those experiences shaped leader identity. Interview questions were created based
on the responses to the journal prompts. After journaling and interviews, focus groups were
conducted to discuss commonalities and differences in leadership. Table 4 presents a
methodology overview with links to the research questions.
Journaling
Journaling is useful in obtaining the language and words of the participants (Creswell,
2014). Journaling was conducted over a two-month period, providing eight entries. Five girls
from each grade level responded to a weekly journal prompt in a notebook. Journaling occurred
before interviews to make the participants comfortable with the study and its purpose. The
foreseen disadvantage to using journal entries was ensuring everyone could articulate their
thoughts through writing (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To ensure the validity and reliability of this
data collection method, the researcher made sure the participants were comfortable and capable
31
of responding to questions in writing. This explanation was also included in the recruitment
meeting.
Interviewing
The interviewing is to obtain information that cannot be observed: behavior, feelings, or
thoughts. As Patton (2002) explains, the researcher wants to discover what is inside someone
else’s mind. The assumption is that others’ perspectives are meaningful. During an interview, the
researcher can ask questions about the past, present, and future and confront action from
observation with talk from the interview. Weiss (1994) integrates multiple perspectives,
describes process, and learns how events are interpreted as reasons for conducting an interview.
In a quantitative study, there might be a missed opportunity to make meaning of the data based
on the participants’ perspectives. Interviews were necessary to understand how the girls interpret
themselves in the world around them and help replicate past events (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The interviews were semi-structured, allowing the researcher to use responses from participants
to probe for further descriptions and details (Weiss, 1994). All interviews were recorded using an
audio-recording device with the participants’ parents’ consent. Participants’ parents were also
presented with the interview questions ahead of time and were required to sign the interview
protocol. The disadvantage of interviewing is the researcher’s presence and bias may impact
responses (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher is a teacher at the school, and due to power dynamics
between students and teachers, the researcher may have influenced participants’ responses. To
ensure the data is reliable and valid, the participants were not any students the researcher taught.
Focus Groups
Focus groups were the conclusion of the data collection, which inquired about
participants’ views of leadership as a group. Focus groups helped the girls lead a discussion on a
32
topic they would otherwise not discuss on their own. They shared their views, heard about
others’ views, and refined their own views on envisioning themselves as leaders (Hennink,
2014). Three focus groups were conducted and were audio-recorded with parental consent. A
disadvantage of focus groups is the possibility of group thinking, especially with adolescent girls
who influence each other (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon
that occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony or conformity withing the
group results in an irrational decision (Janis, 1982). When examining groupthink among young
girls, some factors to consider are a desire for acceptance, fear of rejection, pressure, and lack of
diverse perspectives. They may conform to the dominant or majority opinion when a question is
asked. To ensure the reliability and validity of the focus groups, participants wrote their
responses down before responding to the whole group. The researcher also fostered an
environment that encouraged open communication and diverse perspectives by setting discussion
norms and reviewing the questions before the discussion.
Table 4
Methodology Overview
Research
Question
Data Collection
Methods
Method of
Analysis
Rationale Function Implementation
1. How do
middle school
girls of color
envision
leadership?
Journaling
Interviews
Pattern codes,
memoing, and
looking for
themes (Miles,
Huberman, &
Saldana, 2014)
Semistructured
interviews
Data
Qualitative
Triangulation
In-depth
To hear their
stories and
understand if
they define
themselves as
leaders.
Purposeful
selection
Convenient
sampling
sixth-eighth grade
girls (11–14 years
old)
AMS site
33
2. In what
contexts do
middle school
girls of color
perceive
themselves as
leaders?
Journaling
Interviews
Focus groups
Pattern codes,
memoing, and
looking for
themes (Miles,
Huberman, &
Saldana, 2014)
Semistructured
interviews
Data
Qualitative
In-depth
Triangulation
To hear their
stories and
understand if
they define
themselves as
leaders.
To help them
share their
views, hear
others’ views,
and refine
their own
views.
Purposeful
selection
Convenient
sampling
sixth-eighth grade
girls (11–14 years
old)
AMS site
3. What
factors
influence
middle school
girls of color
leadership
development?
Journaling
Interviews
Pattern codes,
memoing, and
looking for
themes (Miles,
Huberman, &
Saldana, 2014)
Semistructured
interviews
Data
Qualitative
Triangulation
To understand
who, what, or
what
organizations
have helped
shape them as
leaders.
Purposeful
selection
Convenient
sampling
sixth-eighth grade
girls (11–14 years
old)
AMS site
Data Collection
The research questions, the purpose of the study, the interview protocol, and the
questions were provided to the AMS administration for approval. The administration granted
access to the students for data collection. Meetings were held with parents and participants to
explain the purpose of the study and provide the consent forms. During the meetings, the parents
and participants were also informed the study was completely voluntary and that they could opt
out at any point. A schedule was created to illustrate the sequence of the data collection (Table
5). Journals were the first data source, followed by interviews and focus groups. This data
collection process allowed the questions to be tailored to the girls’ experiences (Bodgen &
Bilken, 2003).
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Table 5
Gantt Chart Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis
Data Collection/Analysis Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May
Journaling -------- -------- --------
Analysis -------- --------
Interviews -------- --------
Analysis --------
Focus Groups -------- --------
Analysis -------- --------
Journaling
Journaling was completed by the participants in December, January, and February.
Before journaling, participants received directions on the journaling process. The participants
were instructed to be honest and reflective in their responses. The journals were confidential, and
no names were written on them. Each participant was assigned a number, and the researcher did
not know which participant was assigned to each number. The 15 participants were given journal
prompts to respond to over a two-week period. To ensure the confidentiality of the responses, the
researcher picked up the journals weekly from a locked box in another teacher’s classroom.
Participants understood the researcher’s role was to gather information for the study, and none
affected their grades or was shared with parents, teachers, or administrators.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted during February and March. The interviews happened after
school in a teacher’s classroom, where the girls felt most comfortable. The interview was semi-
35
structured, audio-recorded, and flowed according to the participants’ responses. The researcher
also had a list of questions to help progress the interview. The interviews were no longer than 45
minutes. The researcher took notes on significant themes and patterns that came up.
Focus Groups
Focus groups were conducted in March and April. After analysis of the journaling and
interviews, the researcher determined the questions for the focus groups. There were three focus
groups to help mitigate the danger of groupthink. There was one group for each grade level so
the girls would feel comfortable sharing their responses. Each group had five participants. There
were no teachers or administrators in the focus groups. The focus group was audio-recorded, and
the research took notes.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began following the first journal entries and continued throughout the
study. Data analysis throughout the collection is advised to ensure thoughts, notes, and
reflections are not lost (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher kept a journal of analytic
memos to aid in collecting thoughts, aligning answers to research questions, or discovering
emergent patterns or themes (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). A phenomenological
approach, which studies how people experience events through their eyes, was the foundation for
data collection and analysis.
Journaling
The participants’ journals were analyzed weekly. The information was used to compile a
list of themes and codes. The journals' codes helped further analyze the interviews and focus
group transcriptions. Open and axial coding were used to interpret data from general to specific
themes (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Coding took place throughout data collection.
36
Interviews
The interviews were transcribed from the audio recordings. The researcher also analyzed
handwritten notes and memos for emergent themes or patterns. There were multiple rounds of
coding. The first round served to chunk the data into manageable pieces. In the second round, the
transcripts were coded to tie back to the themes and patterns in the literature review (Corbin &
Strauss, 2008; Miles et al., 2014).
Focus Groups
Focus groups were transcribed in the same format as the interviews. The focus groups
were recorded with permission to ensure validity. The researcher also took notes during the focus
groups, which were analyzed for themes or patterns with the other data. This data was the last to
be analyzed, and it was essential to cluster the codes at this point to highlight major categories.
The researcher analyzed meaning from specific codes to general codes, then zoomed back into
specific codes (Miles et al., 2014).
Summary
This phenomenological study emphasized the understanding and meaning of the lived
experiences of girls of color in middle school. Their stories and voices about leadership and
leader identity were reflected through this analysis. The school selected was convenient, as it is
the researcher's workplace. To ensure validity, the participants were not students the researcher
directly taught and were recruited by advertising throughout the school. Next, there was a
meeting with the potential participants where they received parental consent forms. The girls
who returned their parental consent were randomly selected for the study. Another meeting was
held with the parents and participants to explain the process and components of the study. First,
the participants journaled and reflected on their own experiences for two weeks. The journals
37
were dropped off weekly, and the researcher sought themes and patterns. Interview questions
were created based on the responses from this data method. The researcher audio-recorded
interviews and took hand-written notes. The interviews were semi-structured based on the
responses in participants’ journals. After analyzing the interviews, the focus group questions
were determined. There were three focus groups of five participants by grade level. The girls
wrote their answers to the questions to prevent groupthink before sharing with the group. Once
all data were collected, the researcher analyzed using open coding. The researcher sought themes
and patterns to answer the research questions. This chapter provided the sample, population,
instrumentation, and the data collection and analysis process
38
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study aimed to understand the factors that sustain the leader identity of middle
school girls of color through their own stories. A qualitative study was conducted, which
included journaling, interviews, and focus groups. An autoethnography of the researcher helped
form the research questions. This study employed a structured journaling protocol and a semistructured protocol for the interviews and focus groups. Through the participants’ stories, they
articulated whether they see themselves as leaders and what contributed to their leadership
development. The participants are identified as Participant 1, Participant 2, and so forth to
protect their identities. Responses from the participants’ journals are referenced separately as
Journal 1, Journal 2, and so forth. This chapter is organized by the research questions with an
analysis of the themes that emerged for each research question.
Overview of the Findings
Data were coded for commonalities across all three data sources for fifteen participants.
Table 6 shows the research questions and the themes that emerged for each. This table also
presents the methodology and literature according to each research question. The first research
question discusses how middle school girls of color envision leadership. Participants discuss
their definition of leadership, leader identity, and leadership challenges. Through journals and
interviews, the themes that emerge align with the literature. The first theme that emerged was
their vision of leadership, which addressed the first research question. The second theme was
their contexts of leadership, which addressed the second research question. The third theme was
influences on their leadership development, which addressed the third research question.
39
Table 6
Summary of Themes
Research Question Themes and Data Source Literature Connection
1. How do middle school girls of color
envision leadership?
Definition of leadership
- Journals
Leader Identity
- Journals
- Interviews
Challenges to leadership
- Journals
- Interviews
History of Women in
Leadership
Leadership Prototypes
Gender and Racial
Socialization
Leader Identity Development
Social Identity Theory
2. In what contexts do middle school
girls of color perceive themselves as
leaders?
Leader at school and home
- Interviews
- Focus groups
Elementary School vs. Middle
School
- Interviews
- Focus groups
Leader Identity Development
Social Identity Theory
Adolescent Development
3. What factors influence middle
school girls of color leadership
development?
Female family members
- Interviews
- Focus groups
Teacher mentors
- Interviews
- Focus groups
Self-confidence
- Interviews
- Focus groups
Positive relationships
Self-Efficacy and SelfConfidence
Research Question 1: Vision of Leadership
The first research question addressed how the participants envision leadership. The three
main themes that emerged were the definition of leadership, leader identity, and leadership
challenges. The definition of leadership emerged from the participants’ responses, and the
40
responses aligned with current research on leadership prototypes. Leadership prototypes refer to
the representations or models of what constitutes an ideal or effective leader shaped by societal,
cultural, and personal experiences. The next theme, leader identity, emerged as the participants
reflected in their journaling. The participants explored their leader identity and often referred to
their leadership journey in a school context. The last theme that emerged was leadership
challenges. Participants described their personal experiences of how there are challenges and
obstacles as they develop as leaders. Most participants saw their race and gender as a challenge,
but gender was more prominent in their discussions than their race. This section is organized by
the type of methodology, journals, and interviews, and within each methodology, the main
themes that emerged.
Journals
Journal entries were examined and revealed the following findings. In response to the
first theme that emerged, the definition of leadership, participants reflected on examples of
leaders who were important to them whether they were individuals they knew personally or
famous figures. The three sub-themes that emerged were standing up for others, taking charge,
and helping others. The next theme, leader identity, presented three sub-themes in their
reflections. The participants described themselves as either a leader, situational leader, or a nonleader. This section organizes the main themes of the definition of leadership and leader identity.
To ensure the validity of the data, the researcher did not know which journal belonged to which
participant. Therefore, journal responses are written, “journal, plus a number.” For example,
“Journal 10.”
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Definition of Leadership
Data pertaining to the first research question yielded themes about the definition of
leadership as helping and encouraging others, taking charge, and making change. This definition
is consistent with leadership prototype research (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Karau, 2002). According
to Eagly and Carli (2007), helping and encouraging others are common leadership characteristics
among females in positions, whereas taking charge is a common leadership characteristic among
males. Similarly, the Leadership Prototype Theory posits that females’ effectiveness as leaders
requires exhibiting sensitivity and strength, whereas male leaders only need to demonstrate
strength (Eagly, 1987). The following participants’ journal responses represent the sub-themes of
standing up for others, taking charge, and helping others. These were the common key phrases
from the participants’ journal responses as the defined leadership.
Standing Up for Others. In these journal responses, some participants expressed the
need for role modeling and being an example to be considered a leader. For example, Journal 10
stated, “Leadership means being a role model for other people to stand up for what is right in this
world.” Similarly, Journal 11 mentioned, “The definition of leadership is to lead people to do
better or to show an example of what they should do.” Adding insight into Standing up for
others, Journal 14 said, “I think leadership is being brave and standing up for other people.”
Taking Charge. On the other hand, some participants highlighted that leadership means
taking charge. Journal 15 stated, “I believe leadership is a skill people have and use it to take
charge of situations.” Similarly, Journal 9 mentioned, “My definition of a leader is someone who
takes charge and makes the rules.” Another participant described leadership as “power and
intelligence.” Along the same line of thinking about leadership, in Journal 11, the participant
stated, “I think leadership means you take charge by taking over and doing everything, so people
42
follow you.” Several of the participants viewed leadership as something to take ahold of and
assume responsibility for.
Helping Others. Lastly, some participants described leadership as helping others.
Journal 2 provided school as an example, “My definition of leadership is being a leader for the
whole school not only to the people you know but to the whole community around us and help
others.” In addition, Journal 4 stated, “The way I describe a leader is respect yourself and others,
by standing up for people’s rights and women’s rights. I also think a leader is a person that is
nice and helps in the community.” Journals 7 and 8 commented on leadership as “hearing
everyone out and making sure their voice is heard.” Therefore, the journal entries revealed
various definitions: standing up for others, taking charge, and helping others.
Leader Identity
According to the literature, leader identity development is determined by individual
factors such as motivation and self-awareness (Day, 2000). Along with these individual factors a
leader must have the opportunity to develop as a leader (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). Eleven out of
fifteen participants felt their opportunity to lead was at school and, through journaling, they
reflected on how they see themselves as leaders. Three categories of leader identities emerged
within their journals: a leader, a situational, and a non-leader who does not see herself as a
leader.
A Leader. Four participants identified themselves as leaders. Journal 2 stated, “I am a
leader because I don’t only help my friends, but I help all my peers.” According to Journal 8,
another participant felt similarly:
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I do think I am a leader because I listen to people’s opinions, and I work well in groups. I
am a leader at school, programs and sports because I am responsible, and I am able to
lead a team. I am also good at making decisions and I listen to others.
Taking charge was also used to define leadership, and participants believed it was why they were
leaders. Journal 9 read, “Based on my definition of what a leader is, I think I am a leader
especially during school projects I like to take charge in the groups.” Likewise, Journal 11
mentioned being in charge,
I do think I am a leader most of the time. I have to be a leader at school because I’m
usually the smartest in the team, I’m also a leader at home because I’m the oldest sibling.
I think I’m a leader in the settings because I feel in charge when I’m there.
The first theme represented that some participants envision themselves as a leader.
A Situational Leader. The next common description of leadership was being a leader
sometimes in certain situations. Participants described a sense of security in comfortable
situations such as school and home, but most were hesitant to definitively say they were leaders,
without giving a disclaimer. For example, Journal 14 mentioned,
I think I am a leader sometimes. I am more of a leader at school and at home because I
know people there and know how those settings work. In those places I feel secure and
brave enough to work in a team for something.
Another participant in Journal 10 described being a leader sometimes because she gives up
quickly:
I think I’m not, but I am. The reason I think that is because sometimes I stand up for
myself or I just sit there and do nothing. Sometimes I don’t give up and sometimes I do
and don’t even believe in myself. That’s why I think I am both. I think at home your
44
mom is the leader. I just think grown-ups are the leaders. I think what prevents me from
being a leader sometimes is just I give up real quick and having doubts.
Another situational example emerged from Journal 12 and stated,
I wouldn’t say I’m a leader 24/7, but I do tend to influence or help people out. I influence
them to say what they think and not to do negative things that’ll impact them badly. But
I’m not one of those strict leaders that tell them what to do. I listen to what they want to
do or choices they want.
Journal 13 mentioned similar thoughts on being a leader at times. She wrote,
Based on my definition of leadership I think I’m a leader when I want to be. I am a leader
in school because whenever someone is doing something bad I let them know that they’re
doing something bad. Also, if we have an assignment to do in class and the people at my
table aren’t doing it, I make sure that I am doing it, so they follow along. Also if someone
needs help I try to help them. I try my best to make sure that everything that is under my
control is okay and do whatever I can to help others. People sometimes ask me if they are
doing the right thing and I try to let them know if they are or if they aren’t. I want
everyone to be going in the right direction and making the right decisions.
A final example was represented in Journal 7, which expressed being a leader on a need-to basis,
“Sometimes I am a leader and sometimes I am not when I feel like I need to be I am. When I feel
like I don’t need to be I’m not a leader.”
A Non-Leader. The participants who did not see themselves as leaders described a lack
of self-confidence and comfort with being a leader. For example, Journal 5 revealed, “I don’t
think I am a leader because I am not confident, and no one looks up to me or respect me.”
Similarly, Journal 15 stated,
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Personally, I do not believe myself as a leader. I have always tried to speak up but I never
seem to be able to. I have trouble talking to people I don’t know or uncomfortable with it
unless it is necessary. One thing that prevents me is who I am. Most people are extroverts
while I am an introvert. This means it is harder for me to speak up than others. I can keep
trying to speak up until the day comes where I am comfortable speaking to strangers.
Although she explains that she does not believe in herself as a leader, in the end, she leaves the
potential to grow into a leader, saying “until the day comes.” Similarly, in Journal 3, a participant
described her self-confidence as a barrier to being a leader, but, in the end, she also admitted to
showing leadership in school:
I don’t think I am a leader because I’m not that confident. I’m not confident because I’m
a shy person. But in class, I do show my leadership by combining ideas that my
classmates have and begin working on the problem we have to solve. I also make sure
that my classmates are working together and collaborating with each other so we can
build ideas. So, I do show my leadership in school when I’m working with other people
but I also don’t think that I show my leadership in general.
Along the same lines, Journal 13 used a simile to describe the power leaders have as children:
I wouldn’t say I am a very good leader because power to me is like a child because you
have to be careful with it and I like to listen and watch, not lead. If I were ever given
power like that, I definitely would be the best I could be, but I wouldn’t be perfect. What
prevents me are my thoughts, sometimes they can get the best of me and set me off. I also
think I come up with great ideas, but I have a harder time presenting them.
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Interviews
In comparison to the journal reflections, the interviews provided more context and
elaboration from the participants. This next section is organized by the three main themes,
definition of leadership, challenges to leadership, and leader identity.
Definition of Leadership
Although they were able to expand more on their definitions in the interviews, the key
phrases were the same: standing up for others, taking charge, and helping others. Participant 2
remarked, “I would describe leadership as someone that guides other people, or fight to
something that they want better.” Participant 8 agreed with this definition and replied,
My definition of leadership is somebody who stands up for what they believe in,
somebody who cares about other people’s rights and how they should have a turn to
speak. And I also think a leader is somebody who cares about their community and
somebody who solves situations.
Participant 4 said, “I define leadership as taking charge and knowing what you’re supposed to do
and doing it and leading others to do what they’re supposed to do too. Being a guide to others.”
Participant 11 described leadership also as taking charge of getting something done. When asked
to further explain leadership qualities, she shared,
For me, I think like you have to be serious about it because, if you’re not serious about it,
you don’t have passion for it, then there’s no point. You also have to have knowledge. If
you want people to follow you, to back you up or something, you have to have
knowledge about what you’re leading about. If you don’t have knowledge, then people
won’t follow you.
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Later in her interview, she described someone being a leader: “In elementary school, my friends
and I would help other people. They would come to us with their problems, and we would try to
help them solve them because we had knowledge about the math problems.” This participant was
the only one who commented on having knowledge as a leader. She was adamant about not
having followers if you do not have knowledge. Participant 5 summed up the consensus of the
definitions of all the participants:
Leadership is when you influence people to make a change. Well, hopefully, it’s to do
something good. Also, you can give a voice to other people that don’t have theirs yet,
then you can motivate others you know to make a change, maybe powerful.
Participants’ descriptions of times they saw someone being a leader were consistent with
their definition of helping others and taking charge. Participant 2 explained, “I saw a student
being a leader in class when they were trying to get everyone on task. And they said things like,
‘Why don’t you do this and I’ll find this.’ The student kind of split things up.” This participant
described the student as a leader because the student took charge to help the group get on task.
Another participant described a time when she saw someone being a leader through kindness:
I actually saw my sister being a leader when we went to a place to eat and she had
leftovers, but she got a new meal to give to a homeless person. I think like that taught me
to be kind to people. So, she gave back and she cares for other people. That’s being a
leader.
Standing up for someone else was a typical example participants shared of someone being a
leader. Participant 12 said,
I didn’t see this face to face, but I saw it in a video that we saw in humanities where a
48
girl was being bullied for what she was wearing. Another girl stood up for her. She was
like one of the shyest girls there, and she stood up for her. I think that’s being a leader.
One participant described her many experiences in Girl Scouts:
My Girl Scout troop leader is a leader in different ways because she helps us out with
tough situations. She took us to the women’s march to show us what happens when a big
group of people come together to stand for change. That’s just one of the reasons why
she’s a leader.
This participant referenced many experiences from Girl Scouts during her interview, especially
when asked about her leadership and self-confidence. She recounted a time when she was a
leader:
I feel like a leader in my Girl Scout Community Center because some of the girls in my
troop are really lazy. When we are selling cookies in the booth, they are always
complaining about how tired they are and how they don’t want to be there. So, my sister,
two of my friends and I put in more effort and we get really competitive. We try to
compete to get to the customer first. I got things done. I also felt like a leader when I
went to my Girl Scout Camp. Nobody wanted to do any of the activities, but I said,
“Don’t be negative, it will be fun.” Turns out I was right, the girls listened to me and it
was fun.
During her interview, this participant also described the feeling that Girl Scouts contribute to her
leadership development. Unprompted, some participants described what they saw as nonleadership qualities. They particularly saw bragging or over-confidence as a non-leadership
quality. Participant 9 said,
49
I remember this time that there was this girl in elementary school. She finished her work
so fast because she was really passionate about the work. She saw other students
struggling, so she asked the teacher if she could help others. She was a leader because she
was trying to help others and not bragging or nothing. She just wanted to help others. I
felt like that was good leadership.
Participant 10 showed agreement with the Participant 9 as she described a time, she saw her aunt
stand up for herself:
I think, when I was with a lot of my family, we were in a really crowded area. This older
man kind of shoved one of my aunts. Like, if that happened to me, I would say, “oh, I’m
sorry and walk away,” but she was like, “why did you do that?” Like, come on, what’s
wrong with you? But she did not raise her voice. She was just in a calm manner. That
kind of inspired me not to be aggressive but how to show you’re actually serious. She
was not overconfident.
Each of the previous participants shared a collective understanding of leadership which included:
standing up for oneself, taking charge, and helping others.
Challenges to Leadership
Although there is progress, there are still factors that contribute to the leadership gender
gap. Traditional gender roles and gender stereotypes contribute to this gap. Gender stereotypes
prescribe how men and women ought to be and revolve around their role behaviors, physical
characteristics, occupations, and personality traits (Heilman, 2001; Mccormick, 2001). The
participants described their gender and race as barriers to their leadership. More girls believed
that gender affected how they would be seen as leaders. For this theme, the data came from the
50
interviews. The researcher asked questions regarding what these challenges meant for the
participants.
Gender. Gender emerged as a theme representing a challenge the young girls
experienced in leadership. The participants were quick to say people, specifically boys, do not
listen to or trust girls to make the right decisions. Participant 13 said, “People are rude to women
because they think they can’t do anything.” Participant 3 agreed, “I feel like it’s harder because
sometimes the boys won’t listen to the girls.” Participant 12 explained how she sees women
treated: “I don’t think it’s easy because, by being just a girl, people treat you differently. They
say that boys can do more and that just because you’re a girl, you can’t do it.” Participant 11
expressed that, as a girl, you have to prove them wrong:
No, because when you’re a person of color, especially if you’re a girl, people have, like,
low expectations for you. So you need to go above their expectations... you don’t want
them to be right, you want to prove them wrong because you don’t want to be that girl
that can’t do anything.
Additionally, Participant 1 expressed a similar idea that people have about girls:
I don’t think it’s easy being a leader as a girl because people probably won’t like respect
you. They say girls can’t be leaders. Usually, the boys are the leaders. Boys are
supposedly, supposed to be the strong ones. And girls are usually supposed to be like the
fragile ones that don’t really do anything.
Participant 4 contributed to this theme and grounded her belief in history to explain her point:
People say that men do it better than women, and I don’t think that’s true. I heard that
78% of teachers are women and teachers are leaders, so that doesn’t add up. America is a
51
great example because all of our presidents were men, and our country isn’t the greatest;
it’s very messed up, especially right now.
Although the participants felt gender was a challenge, they felt inspired by what women do today
to make a difference. There was consensus among the girls during the seventh-grade focus group
that women are leaders today more than ever. To encapsulate this shared perspective, one
participant stated, “Women are now standing up for themselves and rising. They inspire us.”
Race. Racial identity, their desire to fit in, emerged as the second most common
challenge the participants saw to their leadership. During adolescence, gender and racial identity
together create an even more complex process (Letendre & Rozas, 2015). Participant 12 said,
“For people of color, they call you names, racist names. They always think White people have
more power.” Participant 2 expressed, “It’s harder because there’s a lot of discrimination.”
Further, Participant 4 stated, “Because of slavery and racism, people don’t really expect black
people to reach high standards.” To this point, Participant 8 offered,
I don’t think it’s that easy because most people, they don’t really believe in us, people of
color. So, I think it’s not that easy because nobody believes in us, they don’t think we can
do certain stuff, but we can. But it’s kind of hard.
The participants were internalizing discrimination and reflected on what it meant for them. They
saw gender and race as challenges but challenges they could overcome. During the sixth and
eighth-grade focus groups, they agreed that seeing other women leaders of color in their families
and the world makes it possible for them. One participant gave the example: “My dad is a leader,
but he usually doesn’t lead. Most of the women in my family lead.”
Although most of the girls felt gender and race were challenges, three out of the fifteen
participants felt differently. Participant 15 said, “Well now it’s easier, but, before, it would be
52
harder because they wouldn’t really have a voice. They do one thing wrong, and then they get in
trouble. I think now it’s easier.” Participant 10 emphasized, “there are more leaders of color
now,” and explained how it’s easier now, but during the Civil Rights Movement, it was more
difficult for women like Rosa Parks. Participant 3 explained that it depends on the situation, “I
think it just depends. Sometimes, when you’re of color and you’re a leader, it just depends on the
people surrounding you and how they treat you.” Participant 11 viewed her challenges as an
opportunity to build trust: “People may not trust me, since I’m a female in charge and a person of
color, so I have to earn people’s trust.” Overall, the participants understand there are challenges
they may face a female leader and person of color, but they also understand the progress we have
made as a society.
Leader Identity
Even though many participants did not see themselves as leaders right now, ten out of
fifteen reported during their interviews that they did see themselves as leaders in the future.
Participant 2 noted, “I do see myself as a leader in the future. I want to be a teacher and make a
school or something.” Participant 3 commented that being a leader involves working with other
people, “I feel like I would be a leader when I grow up because I want to be a pediatrician, and I
will have to work with other pediatricians, so I’ll have to show my leadership skills.” Participant
4 realized she was growing into a leader: “In the future, the most realistic thing I want is to be an
entrepreneur. That takes leadership and feel like I can do that. I’ve grown so much in so little
time. I’m going to go even more as a leader and become a pro at leadership.” Participant 5
wanted to make change, but not be the one in the front leading, which, according to her
definition, is still a leader:
53
So, in the future, I feel like I will join a lot of protests, but I don’t, I don’t see myself yet
leading everybody to this like one problem. Maybe I’ll make them also conscious about
what’s going on, but not lead like Malala. I like to help make change but not lead. I don’t
know, maybe that is a leader.
Leader identity emerged as the final theme and represented a consensus among several of the
participants that revealed their belief that they anticipated that one day they would lead in their
own way.
Summary
The data presented answered the research question: how do middle school girls of color
envision leadership? Three themes emerged: leadership is defined as helping others and taking
charge (definition of leadership), their perceptions of themselves as leaders are still a work in
progress (leader identity), gender and race are challenges to leadership (leadership challenges)
Although many participants saw themselves as leaders in the future rather than right now, they
articulated a definition and provided examples. The methodology to answer this research
question was journals and interviews. Comparing the journals to the interviews, the participants’
definitions of leadership were non-conflicting. However, interviews offered more elaboration
than the journals. The data indicated the participants believed leadership involves helping others
and taking charge. Participants elaborated on examples of leadership and explained why or how
they saw someone being a leader. During the interviews, when face-to-face with the researcher,
the participants were comfortable talking about their personal experiences. Additional themes of
gender and race emerged in the interviews as challenges shaping their views of themselves as
leaders. In their journal writing, most participants described themselves as either only a leader in
certain situations or not at all. However, during the interviews, more participants confidently said
54
they saw themselves as leaders now or in the future. They were more willing to accept that they
are developing as leaders. In conclusion, to answer the research question, middle school girls of
color envision leadership as an act that an individual does for others, and there may be
challenges, especially if you are a woman of color.
Research Question 2: Contexts of Leadership
The second research question investigated the participants’ evaluation of the contexts in
which they see themselves as leaders. The themes that emerged were being a leader at school and
home and being a leader in elementary school versus middle school. The sources of data to
answer this question were interviews and focus groups. Participants described their experiences
in detail during the interviews and related to each other during the focus groups.
Interviews
Participants conveyed in their responses that they saw themselves as leaders in certain
situations or settings. These questions yielded almost the same answer from every participant.
The school was where most felt like leaders, specifically when doing a group project or task.
Although some participants reported not being leaders, they described feeling comfortable being
leaders at school. The participants who reported being leaders at home attributed this to being the
oldest child and having to take care of their younger siblings.
Leader at School Versus Leader at Home
The data revealed school was the most comfortable and easiest way for the participants to
be leaders. One participant described school as her opportunity to be a leader because, in every
other setting, there is already a leader. She said,
I feel like a leader mostly when I’m at school because, as I said, I’m the smartest and I
don’t like being told what to do. At home, I have to listen to my mom and my siblings
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that don’t live with me half the time. In sports teams, I have to listen to the coach, and at
church, you have to listen to the pastor.
In group projects, some participants described they tended to be the ones to get everyone focused
on completing tasks. Participant 1 commented on her leadership at school,
I’m more of a leader at school versus home because, for school, I can just help. I feel
better when I’m at school because I do my work and have good grades and then help
people. I really like helping people. I felt like a leader when I had a project with my table.
We had to make a math poster, and we were running out of time, so I just gave each
person a specific thing to do.
Participant 1 delineated tasks to each person, aligning with her leadership definition. Participant
2 was similar in the fact that she also delegated tasks: “At school, I’m mostly a leader because
when we’re in a group, I’m mostly like telling them we could do this and ask for everyone’s
ideas.” Participant 3 made a point about a class in which she specifically did not feel like a
leader:
I feel more like a leader when I’m at school working with my table team in class. I don’t
feel like a leader in PE because the boys they just take over and they don’t let me speak
on what we should do.
This sentiment was expressed by the same participant who named gender as a challenge to her
leadership because “boys don’t listen to the girls.” Another participant described her experience
as a leader in school as a way to encourage her peers to stand up for themselves. Participant 5
stated,
I feel like I’m a leader in school because I feel like I motivate my peers. I stand up if I
don’t like something, and I tell them don’t do that. If a friend of mine tells me they didn’t
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like what somebody did, I tell them privately, “you know, you should just stand up to
them.” I tell them not to be afraid and just say “I don’t like it” or “Don’t do that.”
The examples above present the theme that school is the place that offers them an opportunity to
see themselves as leaders.
Elementary School Versus Middle School
During the interviews, the participants were asked to compare their leadership experience
in elementary school to middle school. The common theme throughout their stories was that
elementary school differs from middle school, but the experience varied for each girl. Some
participants recounted instances in fifth grade when they were leaders. Participant 12 explained,
In elementary school, one time I was a leader when we were in fifth grade. My teacher
wasn’t in school. We had a substitute. Everyone was just messing around and not doing
what they were supposed to do. I didn’t yell it, but I told everyone to go back to their
work because our teacher would not want us to mess around. Then, some people listened
to me. That made me happy because people listened to me. In middle school, I think it
feels better than how I felt in elementary school because I’m older and there are older
people here. For example, if I’m being a leader and an eighth grader is not being a good
example, but I am, I feel like I have accomplished something because I am younger than
them.
The older students give her motivation to be even more of a leader. Participant 11 told a story
about student council in fifth grade:
In fifth grade, I ran for student council and won for vice president. I liked being in
student council because I felt like I had a voice and a say in the things we were doing in
the school. I had a choice and I was helping them, the students. I also thought I was
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making the school more fun for the other kids because of the activities we planned for
them. But, in middle school, I didn’t run for anything. I didn’t want to go into student
leadership because I didn’t have a lot of friends, and I did not want to be there by myself.
I had more friends in elementary school who were in student council.
This participant later discussed that if some of her friends had joined student leadership, she
would have, too. She referred to the middle school being small as a disadvantage that hindered
her leadership. She said,
I guess we don’t really have that much say in anything now because everything is pretty
limited since it’s a small school. I’ve only been a leader in humanities class, but outside
of class, like during other classes, during lunch or nutrition and the after school program,
no, I do not see myself as a leader.
On the other hand, another participant described the small school size as an advantage to her
leadership, Participant 2 said,
I was super shy in elementary school, so I didn’t talk a lot. I’m more of a leader in middle
school. Maybe because it’s a small school and no one knew me here, so I guess I got to
start over.
Some participants reported a different experience that was easier than elementary school.
Participant 3 said,
Yeah it has changed because, in elementary school, I used to be shy, like not talk at all. In
middle school, I met some new people that have the same background as me, and so I
have gotten used to them and I talk to them.
Participant 4 said, “I’ve grown since elementary. I know how to take care of myself more. In
elementary, I was super shy. Like it was a problem, and I didn’t really have any friends.”
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Similarly, Participant 9 said, “I feel like more of a leader now because I have a lot more selfconfidence.” For Participant 14, middle school became a safe haven for, her and, as a result, she
did not feel the need to be tough. She said,
In elementary, I used to be tough because I was afraid I would get bullied. My cousin, she
told me I need to follow her steps. When I got to middle school, it was very different. I
felt more safe, like people will actually care about me. Now, I just like being sweet.
When this participant described her experiences in middle school, she beamed with excitement
and was very happy with her decision to come to this middle school in particular.
One participant told her unique story about her experience in elementary school and
middle school, which affected how she ultimately viewed herself and leadership. She said,
When I was in elementary school, I was always teased or bullied because of how I looked
and, because of my weight, and because my family like they’re there, they’re fluffy. They
would usually tease me because of that, and so that really hurt. When that first happened
to me, I was in kindergarten. The teachers just told the other students to stop, how they
would usually do, but it would still continue. I wouldn’t say anything because it was the
same thing over and over again. My mentality was, “You need to act strong.” When I felt
like I really wasn’t. Moving to middle school, I realized that they don’t really say stuff to
face. They say it behind your back, which hurts even more. I kept the same strong
mentality, but it didn’t really work. In elementary school, being strong was positive, but
in middle school, being strong was negative. People say, like, oh, here comes her, don’t
say anything, and so on. I realized that people started going away from me because of
how I acted. So, that hurt because I thought I was doing the right thing, but, in other
people’s eyes, I was doing something wrong.
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Participant 1 described being a leader in elementary as easy because she was bossy to everyone.
However, this is harder to do in middle school, because “sometimes you don’t really know
what’s going on.”
Participant 13, who said she did not see herself as a leader right now or in the future,
reported a different experience in elementary school. She said,
Well, in elementary, I actually tried doing student council and wanted to become
president, but then someone else won. They invited me to be the ambassador, but then I
forgot to turn in the slip. I also wanted to start my own club with one of my friends. I
helped gather a group of people, even the people I dislike in middle school, right now, I
gathered them. Then, we would just do stuff that would help the school. One time, in the
soccer field, we came across a patch of rollie-pollies. Then, together, we moved them, so
they wouldn’t die from the soccer ball. They listened to me.
Interestingly, although Participant 13 said she tried to join the student council in elementary and
created a club, she still said she did not see herself as a leader. She described a certain image of a
leader and revealed that she did not think she would ever be that representation in her mind, and
what prevents her is, “I never try to attempt to talk with others.” However, she did admit,
“Leadership is something I want to do, but to be honest, I’m not really sure what is stopping
me.” In all, the examples above reveal the differences that emerged from elementary to middle
school in opportunities and experiences in leadership.
Focus Groups
During the focus groups, the participants elaborated on how they felt being a leader at
home versus school and their experiences in both elementary school and middle school as a
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leader. The focus groups provided more information because they could explain their journal
responses and give more details regarding their experiences.
Leader at School Versus Leader at Home
In the sixth-grade focus group, participants agreed that school is where they felt like
leaders. One participant said, “In school, I feel like a leader because I usually help people in
groups. At home, my mom is the leader.” The seventh-grade focus group members also talked
about being leaders in school: “I feel like a leader at school because we spend more time here. In
group projects, people ask me what to do.” However, they discussed being a leader more at home
because they have more responsibilities. One participant described her duties at home,
At home, I’m the oldest, and we have a big family, so I have to take care of my younger
siblings. I try to help my little brother with his homework. Even though we fight a lot, we
experience things together.
Although the eighth-grade focus group had a similar discussion about being leaders at school,
their conversation focused more on being role models for their siblings. One participant said,
“There’s a lot of pressure to make the right decisions.” Another participant commented, “I’m not
the same as I was in sixth grade. I have learned more about myself.” As the older group, they
realized they are growing up and, with that, comes more responsibility.
Elementary School Versus Middle School
The sixth-grade focus group described being leaders in middle school as easier than in
elementary. One participant said, “In elementary, I was more shy and did not talk at all. Here, I
feel more comfortable.” In contrast, the seventh-grade focus group described being leaders in
middle school as more difficult: “Middle school is harder. I have less confidence. People are
mean and mock you if you get things wrong in class. There’s a lot of pressure.” The eighth-grade
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group explained they have grown since sixth grade and although not every eighth-grade girl
described herself as a leader, they recognized leadership qualities in themselves, mostly in
middle school. One participant said, “In sixth and seventh grade, the teachers asked you about
leadership, but not in elementary school. That helped me to think about how I see myself as a
leader.”
Summary
The data presented answered the second research question: in what contexts do middle
school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders? The main themes were being a leader at
home versus school and being a leader in middle school in contrast to elementary school. The
school environment was where participants felt most comfortable as leaders. They were able to
give concrete examples of situations when they were leaders. This held true even for the
participants who considered themselves non-leaders. Participants used their schooling experience
as common ground. The responses from the focus groups and interviews were similar in that
school was a place of growth, especially for the eighth-grade group. They realized they were
leaders in school and at home, whereas the sixth and seventh-grade groups said at home, their
parents are leaders. They did not see themselves as role models yet. It is essential to note the
different responses at each grade level. The sixth graders are just entering middle school, and
they have a fresh perspective on their experiences. The seventh graders worked through an entire
year and were more critical of their experiences. The eighth graders can reflect on their growth
and their future. These students have the ability to think past tomorrow to envision what high
school might look like.
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Research Question 3: Influences on Their Leadership Development
The third research question examined the factors influencing the participants’ leadership
development. The most common theme that emerged was the influence of female family
members. Almost all participants named their mother, sister, aunt, or grandmother as an
influence. These findings concur with previous research that indicated that when young girls
have strong female role models or mentors, they are more likely to see themselves as leaders and
develop strong leadership characteristics (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Hill et al., 2016; Hoyt &
Kennedy, 2008; Lord & Hall, 2005; Quimby & DeSantis, 2006). Other important influences
these participants included were male family members, their teachers, self-confidence, and
teachers. Responses pertaining to this theme were derived from interviews and focus groups.
Interviews
The participants’ influences were indicative of their definitions of leadership and why
they saw leadership as a helpful, caring role while taking charge and getting things done. During
the interviews, participants responded to the question, “Who influences you as a leader, or who
influences your continued leadership development?”
Female Family Members
When asked to name leaders in their lives, most participants named a female family
member: a mom, aunt, sister, or grandmother. Only two girls named a male figure as examples of
leaders. Participant 1 described her sister’s challenges as an influence:
The person that influences me overall is the oldest of all of us, one of my sisters. She
influences me because she went to a not so good high school, and they didn’t really teach
anything. She had to go to other classes, like other schools, so that she could learn. She
also had a job at age 15 to make her own money so that she can get into a good college.
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But, then, she didn’t really need that money because she got a scholarship to UCLA,
which is why I see her as a leader because she’s always taking charge of her own learning
and doing things to help other people.
Participant 9 had a similar situation when she described her mother’s story:
I feel like my mom influenced me a lot because she told me that when she was in middle
school, she was really shy. Every time that they would call on her in school, she would
start turning red and start sweating. She was really, really shy, even though she was
really, really smart. That’s why sometimes I get mad at my mom when she tells me to
speak up because she didn’t do that. She tells me to be more confident because she
wishes she would have done that. She wants me to stand up and not be like her. She’s
part of me, and she’s the one that really inspires me with her experiences.
Another participant described her mother’s story of having to navigate a world that was new to
her, which showed her hard work:
I would say my mom because she was born somewhere else. She came to America
around my age without any knowledge of what to expect. Because she didn’t have her
mom, I believe she was with her grandma and her aunt. She had a hard time. She didn’t
have a lot of money. When she got older and had kids, she did provide for with not the
best job, but she still had a house, a car, figured out a way to get them to school, and to
get them back home with not much help from the father. Then, she had to leave the state
where she started in America and go somewhere else. But, now, she has a pretty good
job. I think she’s set, like really set, she’s really worked hard.
Participant 11 empathized with her mother’s reality: “It’s mostly my mom because she’s a single
mom. She has to take care of me and my sisters by herself. She also has to finish school while
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taking care of us.” This was a commonality among the participants: the concept of taking
someone’s challenges and turning them into inspiration to be leaders. Most of the participants
were heavily influenced by family members. However, Participant 5 explained how social media
has influenced and inspired her to be a leader:
I have many people on social media that influence me. I have some actresses that I
admire and models. But what I admire about them is they’re conscious about what’s
going on. I think that’s kind of where I find my news. For example, the news story about
them throwing gas powder across the border to those children, I didn’t know about it
because I don’t really watch the news.
Although she acknowledged social media as an influence, she further described her mother’s
challenges as a source of motivation:
Another person that motivates me would be my mom because her parents didn’t motivate
her to do well in school, or to raise money for college. So, I really appreciate her because
she pushes me to do great. Also, she’s already thinking ahead for the future, for college
and university.
Male Family Members
Equally important, two participants described male figures in their lives as an influence.
Participant 3 said, “It would probably be my dad because I would see him talk to his co-workers
and how he handles problems. It’s taught me how to deal with my problems.” She believes
leadership means listening to others and ensuring everyone’s voice is heard. She used her father
as an example to describe leadership; her father shaped her definition of leadership. Participant 8
explained her father’s story of overcoming a challenge and commented on her grandfather’s
influence:
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Then, my dad influenced me because he got hurt badly. Two times in a row. He had to
take the whole year off. After he recovered. He fell off a truck. That was like good thing
he wasn’t moving. So, he had to take a few months off again, but half of the year. So,
yeah, he influences me because he got up again, even though his back hurts a lot
sometimes. He inspires me to keep on pushing. Even though you think you can’t do it,
you have to believe in yourself. Then, my grandfather, he inspired me because he was a
strong man. Ever since he was a kid, he always wanted to do good things for people. That
inspired me.
Self-Confidence
Self-confidence was another influence on participants. Participant 4 described her mother
as an influence and talked about her self-confidence:
My mom influences me because she pays her own rent and her own bills. She buys my
stuff and her stuff and we have a whole bunch of shoes, and our closet is super full and
that’s all from her job and her money. She’s really independent. The biggest influence
would be my mom, but I have to take some credit, too, because like my mental state has
to be right and had to tell myself like I can do this and I had to like learn strategies on like
what’s best for me to stay motivated to be a leader.
There was a moment of self-realization. Participant 4 acknowledged she had to motivate herself
to be a leader. Participant 1 attributed her leadership to the self-confidence her mother helped her
gain,
I don’t really care what people think, but, when I was younger, I did. I was really shy,
shyer than most people. I remember I would be so shy so I wouldn’t want to sing in front
of a crowd or anything. My mom would be like, if you’re not going to sing loud enough,
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I’m not going to come anymore. She was joking, but I did sing louder. I also started
raising my hand more in class and talk to more to teachers and students. My selfconfidence has increased since elementary school, and I feel more confident now.
Several participants talked about being self-confident around familiar people, which contributes
to their leadership in group projects at school. Participant 3 commented, “Sometimes I do have
self-confidence and sometimes I don’t. I’m confident when I’m with my friends because I know
them, and I’m used to them.” Participant 4 described how one can lose self-confidence: “It’s
something you have to build, and you could lose it with peer pressure, and it’s hard to regain.
Nobody can give you self-confidence.” She later narrated her experience with her own selfconfidence:
In elementary school, my own brother would say I was fat and I was really taller than the
rest of the girls. Then, I heard on the phone, my uncle didn’t know he was on the speaker,
but he said, “She’s way too big.” I was like, dang and what else? In sixth grade, I started
losing weight. I didn’t change anything, though; it just happened. So, that helped my selfconfidence. I realized that I should have loved myself all along, though. You can’t love
others if you don’t love yourself.
Through her own reflection, participant 3 realized how to love herself. In her interview, she
reported that, to be a leader, loving yourself is also important because there will be challenges
along the way.
Focus Groups
During the focus groups, the participants were consistent with their interview answers
and named mostly females as influences. Furthermore, they were more inclined to name teachers
as influences. The researcher assumed groupthink was happening in this instance because as one
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participant mentioned a teacher as an influence, the other participants contributed and named a
teacher as well. The researcher also noted that they are in an educational setting, which may have
also influenced their answers.
Teachers
In addition to family members and female role models, teachers were a popular topic in
the focus groups. One participant said, “Teachers motivate and encourage me to make good
decisions, or if I have an idea, they encourage me to do it.” Another participant agreed and said,
“Teachers that I know I could talk to, especially those that give me advice on what I can do.” In
the interviews, if a teacher was mentioned, it was in an explanation of when participants felt
most like leaders: in school. The eighth-grade group reflected on the teachers they had
throughout their three years at school. One participant concluded, “Teachers have helped me in
ways that they didn’t notice that they were doing, but it developed me.”
Female Influence
Participants mentioned mostly female leaders as sources of inspiration and asked them to
reflect on why they mentioned females. In the eighth-grade focus group, one participant said, “I
identify more with women, and I’m over men.” Another participant added, “Women are in more
movies now, doing big things, and they inspire us.” This was also true in the seventh-grade focus
group during a discussion about women standing up for themselves. One participant said,
“Women are now standing up for themselves. We are women, too, and we want to rise up.” The
sixth-grade focus group had a different discussion in response to why they all chose women. One
participant said, “Boys don’t understand girls’ feelings.” Another participant added, “Yeah, boys
are childish.” They continued this conversation about how boys have difficulty understanding
who girls are as leaders. One participant admitted she just felt more comfortable talking to
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women: “Women have things in common, and I have more confidence in talking to other
women.”
Summary of Findings
Leadership is not a similar linear process for everyone. Participants told their stories and
reflected on their own leadership journey thus far. Data emerged from three different data
sources, which proved some alignment and some inconsistencies. Journaling started the
reflection process and helped the participants to start thinking about leadership in their lives. The
interviews proved to be the richest data point because the participants went more in-depth into
their responses. Many participants told stories they did not write in their journals or share in the
focus groups. The focus groups allowed the participants to feel more comfortable about their
experiences, knowing their experience is not a singular one.
Leadership, as defined by the participants, included caring for and helping others while
taking charge and making sure things are done. This definition was consistent in their examples
of leaders as they shared a time when they saw someone being a leader. Gender and race were
discussed as challenges for the participants, as they recalled certain events at school where they
were treated differently. This small representation of girls provided insight into a larger issue of
how women of color are treated in leadership.
Identifying themselves as leaders was an issue for some and something that needed more
thought for others. The idea of a “leader in progress” surfaced repeatedly in the responses. As
girls reflected on whether they see themselves as leaders, they referenced situations where they
were leaders and times when they were not. It raised the question of, “Do you have to be a leader
all the time to be considered a leader?” As a result of claiming they are only leaders in certain
situations, most girls identified with “sometimes leader.” Using this language made the
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participants feel more comfortable thinking about the future. Although they would not
confidently say they are leaders now, they could think into the future and commit to being
leaders.
Participants felt most comfortable being leaders at school, specifically working in groups.
Many factors contributed to their view of themselves as leaders. Some participants claimed they
had more confidence when working with their classmates because they were familiar. Although
current research claims the transition from elementary school to middle school is difficult for
girls, each participant’s story was unique and different from their experiences. Nonetheless, the
data showed each girl’s story is worth telling, adding to the uniqueness of their construction of
knowledge and experience toward understanding themselves as leaders. The next chapter will
present implications from findings, recommendations for educators and parents, and potential
future studies.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Leadership is both an individualistic and a group-influenced developmental process
(Northouse, 2018). The data illustrated that female leadership can be considered a cyclical
process influenced by other women, as aligned with prior research (Eagly & Carli, 2007). The
participants named mothers, aunts, sisters, and grandmothers who impacted their lives. They
were transparent about why those females influenced them, which included the males in their
lives not promoting leadership development as much as the females in their lives. This
generation notices more female leadership and females taking a stand, and it inspires them.
Middle school is a time of growth but presents different challenges than elementary or high
school (Eccles & Roeser, 2011). Adolescents face gender norms and stereotypes, trying to gain
self-confidence and develop a social and academic identity while forming new friendships
(Erickson, 1968). Through this reflective process, the data is evidence that the experiences of
middle school shape their leadership identities in the future. This chapter presents the
implications of findings, recommendations for educators and parents, and potential future studies
to continue this research.
Implications from Findings
Based on data analysis combined with the theoretical framework and synthesizing of past
literature, the research answered the question: What do middle school girls of color need to
perceive themselves as leaders? The implications from each research question organize this
section.
Answering the first research question included participants’ responses to envisioning
leadership. The main themes discussed were the definition of leadership, leader identity, and
leadership challenges. Within defining leadership, participants described leadership as standing
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up for others, taking charge, and helping others. For girls to see themselves as leaders, the data
overwhelmingly suggests a need for a strong female influence in their lives. This means they
need to draw their inspiration from a female they consider meets the definition of leadership. The
girls who could do this said they could see themselves as leaders in the future. The participants
who struggled with seeing themselves as leaders described a female influence that was contrary
to their definition.
Answering the second research question involved participants’ thinking about the
contexts in which they see themselves as leaders. All participants described school as an
opportunity to lead because they had moments in the classroom to practice their leadership.
According to the literature, leadership is a group concept (Yukl, 2013). It made sense that the
participants felt most comfortable leading group projects. The participants referred to their
teachers, who gave them these opportunities in class to lead group projects.
Answering the third research question included the factors that influenced the
participants' leadership development. My analysis of the findings reveals that although the
females’ influence was a salient point, self-confidence also emerged. The participants who were
confident in their academics and ability to lead in small groups saw themselves as leaders in the
future. Participants who struggled with self-confidence were more inclined to doubt their
leadership in the future. In conclusion, based on the findings, to perceive themselves as leaders in
the future, middle school girls of color need to be able to define leadership on their own terms,
be given opportunities to lead in the classroom, and have female role models in their lives.
Recommendations
Participants were vocal about wanting a more targeted leadership space in middle school.
They were also transparent in their recommendations for educators and trusted adults in their
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lives. They listed ways adults can help them develop as leaders. By sharing their leadership
stories, including their mistakes, they explicitly clarified for adults how to be a leader and what
motivated them. The participants agreed that leadership is essential, but they craved guidance
along their journey. In pursuit of building leadership capacity among middle school girls of
color, six recommendations are presented for educators and parents.
Development of Leadership Curriculum for Middle School Girls of Color
The first recommendation is the development of a leadership curriculum for middle
school girls of color that addresses their social-emotional needs. This scaffolded curriculum
should ask participants to reflect on their stories and build their leadership skills through group
activities. Girls can focus directly on their strengths and areas in need of improvement. This
curriculum will also provide a setting for girls to talk about leadership, which they expressed
they enjoy and wanted more spaces to do so.
Provide Intentional Identity Work in the Classroom
The second recommendation is the provision of intentional identity work in the
classroom, which will benefit everyone in the classroom. Educators focusing on identity create a
welcoming environment where students feel safe to explore leadership opportunities. This can
happen in an advisory setting that is not solely focused on academics. Students need more
explicit conversations about leadership at school and home. This recommendation specifically
came from this study’s participants. They agreed that the research questions and reflective
journaling helped them learn more about themselves. This work can happen in classrooms, afterschool programs, and at home with family.
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Provide Parents with Leadership Training
The fourth recommendation is to provide parents with leadership training partnered with
the school. Family-school partnerships are essential to a child’s success during middle school
(Hill &Tyson, 2009). More intentional parental involvement leads to more positive student
outcomes (.DQLXãRQ\Wơ äXNDXVNLHQơ. Positive parental involvement also helps children
with positive identity development .DQLXãRQ\Wơ äXNDXVNLHQơThere is a sharp decline
of parental involvement between elementary and middle school because parents feel that they
need to be involved less (Epstein & Dauber, 1991). Parental training could help parents have
more meaningful and thoughtful conversations at home about leadership. The findings were clear
about the plentiful and strategic opportunities to lead in the classroom. However, these types of
opportunities are essential to also provide at home. Parental training would help parents feel
more comfortable having these conversations, which would motivate students and push parents
to think about their own leadership journeys.
Network of Mentors
The fifth recommendation is a network of mentors who work with and visit middle
schools to help students develop a leadership plan listing ways to find leadership opportunities to
help students visualize themselves as leaders in the future. Seeing successful mentors from
similar backgrounds can foster a sense of belonging, empowerment, and leadership (Sanchez &
Colon, 2005). Building a consistent program for leadership development with mentors will help
sustain the motivation and drive for students.
Partnership with Neighborhood Councils
Lastly, partnering with neighborhood councils will give students more opportunities to
lead and engage with their communities. Being part of a community that also believes in them
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will motivate students to continue pursuing leadership in the future. Mentors can help mentees
navigate and access resources, networks, and opportunities in their communities (Sanchez &
Colon, 2005).
Future Studies
This study examined the lived experiences of middle school girls of color through their
eyes. They told their own stories about leadership. However, this is not a complete picture of
how girls see themselves as leaders. This was only a small representation of middle school girls
at a small school in one city. Researchers interested in pursuing or extending this study should
consider a longitudinal study that follows girls from elementary school to college or career in
multiple cities. Using a more diverse pool of participants would provide a more in-depth analysis
to understand what girls need to perceive themselves as leaders. Many participants emphasized
they were leaders in progress, depending on the situation. Extending this study would also
uncover influences or factors that hinder or facilitate their leadership in certain situations.
Other factors may have affected the results. The school chosen was unique in that it is a
small community where teachers are committed to project-based learning with a social-justice
focused curriculum. Many of the girls commented on the elementary and middle school size.
They also attributed the many group projects they completed in class to the context in which they
were comfortable being leaders. Every school’s mission may differ, but comparing school size
would help determine where girls may thrive as leaders. Another way to extend this study is to
focus on boys of color in the same setting to discuss their leadership perspectives. Boys and girls
learn differently and in different contexts. This can contribute to existing research on the
developmental leadership process for both boys and girls.
75
In this chapter, the implications of the findings were presented along with
recommendations for educators and others who work with middle school girls. Based on the
data, suggestions for future studies were also discussed. The girls in this study used their voices
to tell their stories and used their experiences to analyze their own leadership development. The
participants provided advice for girls who may be struggling to find their voice. Most
participants responded with “Believe in yourself” and “Don’t worry about what other people
think.” As one participant summarized,
I would say just be yourself because everything’s going to turn out the way it is and
everything’s gonna work out at the end. Don’t really care about what people think
because it’s just their opinion, not yours. It’s what you think that matters most.
In conclusion, this study aimed to advance the understanding of leader identity
development of middle school girls of color and contribute to the broader discourse on leadership
development, gender, and cultural diversity. In understanding what makes them a leader and
what makes them see themselves as leaders in the future, it became evident that mentors and role
modeling are the keys to their success and achievement. This research is vital to advance,
educate others who specifically work with our middle school girls of color, and advocate for
more mentoring funding in schools. Lastly, continuing this work also signals to our girls of color
that their stories matter, their leadership is needed, and they can affect global change for the
greater good.
76
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APPENDICES
83
Appendix A:
Her Story
Describing myself I’d use very different words at times. I have more of a harder time
describing myself because I am still finding myself. But right now I would describe myself as
emotionally wicked. What makes me emotional is my sensitivity to everything and I’m wicked
because I don’t show it, my feelings. I think that my ability to not show my feelings, but yet have
so many different kinds of feelings makes me unique. When I was younger I always knew my
rights and wrong, I figured them out by being watchful and just noticing things. I am the type of
person who likes to be alone, but will also enjoy the company of another. And as a kid right now,
of course my emotions have gotten stronger, but I still know how to control them somehow,
except for certain emotions like anger. I would say my anger comes from both parents and it’s an
issue for me. I’ve always have had a hard time with that. My middle school experiences, it has a
lot of ups and downs. It’s different from elementary because there was different things we were
into, innocent things. In middle school there’s a lot more exposure to things kids should into be
doing. There’s more pressure now in school and socially. But it’s also fun and sweet at times,
then horrible at times.
My definition of leadership is power and intelligence just those two words. My examples
of leaders are Barack Obama because he did a lot for our country and did not respond to hate, I
feel he did his job and then stood aside when his time was up. He to me is a leader because he
helped everyone he could and did not make any fuss, he made good things in many different ways
and never really fought back to anyone with hate. I think leaders are both born with and learn
their skills because some people have always been a leader since they were younger. I think
84
people are born with kindness and passion but it just depends on if that person really wants to
take a step further.
I wouldn’t say I am a very good leader because power to me is like a child because you
have to be careful with it. And I like to listen and watch not lead. If I were ever given power like
that, I’d definitely would be the best I could be but wouldn’t be perfect. What prevents me is my
thoughts, sometimes they can get the best of me and set me off. I also think I come up with great
ideas, but I have a hard time presenting them. A time I thought I was a leader was in 5th grade
and we did a play on history, and I participated for a lot of lines, I might’ve not been the best but
I’m still proud of myself for doing it because at the time I was really shy. I think I am not really
seen as a very good leader/ I do not think a lot of my classmates think of me as a leader because
a lot of them are my friends and I can sometimes goof off with them. In a lot of my experiences, I
have not been a leader and I really do regret that. I have looked back and thought about so many
different things I could have done. I own up to that and now I really am going to try and be
better. I think that I have put myself down and not actually stand up.
In my life I think a leader is my aunt, she is a leader because she’s so well put together
and independent. I think she for sure it very successful too because she didn’t mess around, she
really stuck to her own thinking. She though through her future and is doing everything she
wants. A time I felt valued as a leader was, I believe in 4th grade and there was this boy who
would always be rude to girls or everyone really and I had had enough of hearing him saying
stuff to myself and other girls, so I told him to stop but it wasn’t in the best way. I did get in
trouble which made me feel bad and not valued, but my parents were a little proud that I did
stand up for myself.
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Appendix B:
Journaling Protocol
Introduction
Hello! Thank you for participating in this study! You will each get a random numbered journal.
This journal will be confidential, and I will not who is assigned to each journal. For the next 2
weeks, you will be asked to respond to the journal prompts listed below. Please answer in the
order given. Each question should not take you longer than 15 minutes to answer. But feel free to
write more if you feel motivated! Please be honest and thoughtful in your answers.
Again, your participation is voluntary and at any point you may decline your participation. If
you have any questions about the questions, please feel free to ask me!
Thanks again!
Research Questions for this study
Ɣ How do middle school girls of color envision leadership?
Ɣ In what contexts, do middle school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders?
Ɣ What factors influence middle school girls of color leadership development?
Procedures
Ɣ Each participant will be assigned a random number.
Ɣ Participants will journal daily over a period of two months.
Ɣ Participants will keep the journal and respond to one prompt each day.
Ɣ Researcher will send the participants a daily reminder to respond to a prompt.
Ɣ At the end of the two months, participants will return journals to another teacher to
ensure they are kept confidential.
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Journal prompts: Answer the questions in order given.
1. Describe yourself. What makes you, YOU? What is unique about yourself. Tell your
story.
2. Describe your definition of leadership. Who are some examples of leaders? Describe
their leadership.
3. Based on your definition of leadership, do you think you are a leader? Why or why not?
a. If you think you are a leader, in what settings are you a leader? (home, school,
church, sports team, etc.) Explain why you think you are leader in those different
settings.
b. If you do not think you are a leader, what do you think prevents you from being a
leader?
4. Do you set goals?
a. If yes, explain the goals you have set for yourself.
b. If not, explain why you may not set goals for yourself.
5. Describe a time when you were a leader. Or describe a time when you think you could
have been a leader.
6. Do you think leaders are born with their skills or do you think they learn their skills?
Explain.
7. Who in your life do you think of as a leader? What makes that person a leader?
8. Reflect on your experiences at home, in school or another setting. Do you think you have
had leadership opportunities? Why or why not?
9. Do you think leaders ask for help? Why or why not?
87
10. Describe how your experience in school as it relates to leadership. Do you think adults
value you as a leader? Do you think your classmates value you as a leader? Describe any
experience in any grade where you either felt valued or not valued as a leader.
88
Appendix C:
Interview Protocol
Date: _______________
Time: _______________
Location: _____________________
Interviewee #: ___________________
Introduction
Hello! Thank you for your willingness to participate in my research study. I appreciate
your time. This interview should take only take 45 minutes to an hour. Is that okay with you?
Before we get started, I wanted to introduce myself. I’m currently a doctoral student at
USC. I am conducting a research study on middle school girls of color and their perceptions of
themselves as leaders. I am passionate about leadership development in young people. I’m
interested in understanding what influences the leadership development of young girls and how
middle school girls of color see themselves as leaders.
This interview is confidential. Your name and perspectives will not be shared with peers,
principals, teachers, or parents. The data for this study will be compiled and analyzed into a
report and while I do plan on using some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will
be directly tied to you. I will use a pseudonym name, which is a fake name, to protect your
confidentiality. If you are interested in the findings of my study, I am more than happy to provide
you with a copy of my study.
Do you have any questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have any
(more) questions I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. With your
89
permission, may I record our conversation? The recording is solely for my purposes so I can
accurately capture what you share with me. This recording will not be shared with anyone.
Restate Research Questions
Ɣ How do middle school girls of color envision leadership?
Ɣ In what contexts, do middle school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders?
Ɣ What factors influence middle school girls of color leadership development?
I would like to start with some background questions to understand your experience in
middle school, so far.
First, can you tell me a little bit about yourself.
Ɣ How many siblings do you have?
Ɣ Favorite food? Color? TV show? Movie?
Ɣ What do you like to do when you’re not at school?
Ɣ What’s the hardest thing about being a kid?
Ɣ What’s the easiest thing about being a kid?
My/Your story
I’m going to tell you a little about me and my experience in middle school. Then I’m going to
ask you to me a little bit about your experiences so far.
As a student, I struggled to find my voice, I was very shy and afraid of conflict. Every
teacher said the same thing, “She’s a pleasure to have in class and she’s very focused, but I
would like to see her participate more in class discussions.” I knew the answers and secretly had
a lot to say, but I always worried about whether I was right or wrong. Every time another
student said what I was thinking, I was mad at myself for not speaking up. My mom wanted to
90
make sure I was involved in other activities outside of school, so she opened my mind to new
experiences. I was in ballet, Girl Scouts, basketball, soccer, and karate. My Girl Scout years
were very impressionable on me as a young girl. I learned to avoid conflict by not speaking up.
During these years I was exposed to characteristics of a great leader: hard work, decisionmaking, and strong relationships...
Ɣ How would describe your middle school experience?
Ɣ How does it feel compared to elementary?
Now, I’m going to ask you some specific questions about how you see leadership.
Envision Leadership
Ɣ How would you define leadership?
Ɣ What are some leadership qualities?
Ɣ Do you think leaders are born with their skills or do you think they learn their skills?
Explain.
Ɣ Do you think leaders ask for help?
Ɣ Describe a time when you saw someone being a leader.
Ɣ Do you think it’s easy being a leader?
ż As a girl?
ż As a person of color?
Self-confidence
Ɣ How would you describe self-confidence? How would you describe your selfconfidence?
Ɣ Do you think your self-confidence has changed from elementary school to middle
school?
91
Now, I’m going to ask you some questions about how you see yourself as a leader.
Perceive yourself as a Leader
Ɣ Would you describe yourself as a leader? Why or why not?
ż Can you describe in what settings you think you are leader? (school, church,
sports team)
Ɣ Are there certain settings or situations where you feel like you are more of a leader, than
others?
Ɣ Describe a time when you felt like you were a leader.
Ɣ Describe a time when you wished you would have stepped up as a leader.
Ɣ Describe your experience in elementary school being a leader.
Ɣ Describe your experience in middle school being a leader.
Ɣ How do you see yourself in the future, in terms of leadership?
ż Is leadership something you want to pursue?
ż Do you see yourself holding leadership positions?
ż Do you think you will face any challenges as a leader?
Ŷ As a girl?
Ŷ As a person of color?
Lastly, I’m going to ask you some questions about what influences you as a leader.
Factors that influence your leadership
Ɣ Describe who influences you, in your life?
Ɣ Who is an example of a leader?
Ɣ Who in your life is an example of a leader?
Ɣ If you consider yourself to be a leader, what fuels you to be a leader?
92
Ɣ If you do not consider yourself to be a leader, why not?
Extra Questions
What advice do you have for a girl who is struggling with being a leader or finding her voice?
What do you wish teachers did to develop you as a leader?
What do you wish adults did to develop you as a leader?
Do you think adults believe young people can be leaders?
Thank you so much for sharing your thoughts and reflecting with me today! I really appreciate
your time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my
study and again will be confidential. Thank you again!
93
Appendix D:
Focus Group Protocol
Date: _______________
Time: _______________
Location: _____________________
Grade level: ___________________
Introduction
Hello everyone! First thank you all again for participating in my study. You all have gone
through the same process of reflecting through journaling and discussing one-on-one in an
interview with me. Today we are going to have a larger discussion about leadership with each
other. The purpose is to find common ground, share commonalities and differences. This is a
way to close this process and for you to also know you are not the only out there going through
this leadership process. Again, all of this information is confidential, and you may choose to
answer or not answer any of the questions. I will be taking notes as well as recording our
conversation. Some of the questions you may recognize from the journals and interviews.
Before we get started are there any questions? If there are no further questions, I would
like to begin with everyone going around saying their name and their favorite cereal. Then I will
take us through the procedures, and we can start with the first question.
Procedures
Ɣ Each participant will have a chance to write down their responses before answering
whole group.
Ɣ Researcher will facilitate the conversation by asking clarifying questions or asking
participants to expand on a certain question or topic.
94
Focus Group guided questions (questions will be based on responses from journal prompts
and one-on-one interviews):
1. Describe what makes you unique.
2. How did it feel to reflect and write about yourself?
a. Have you ever done that before?
b. Do you do it now?
3. WHO do you think when you think of a leader?
4. WHY did you say that person?
5. How do you envision leadership?
6. In what contexts do you perceive yourself as a leader?
7. What factors influence your leadership development?
8. Before now, has anyone asked you questions about leadership?
9. What could teachers, parents or adults do to help you with your leadership journey?
10. Has this process helped you in anyway?
95
Appendix E:
Parental Permission Form
PARENTAL PERMISSION FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Your child is invited to participate in a research study conducted by Jessyka Ramirez-Holden,
M.A. and faculty advisor Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D. from the University of Southern California.
Your child’s participation is voluntary. You should read the information below and ask questions
about anything you do not understand before deciding whether you want your child to participate
or not.
Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. Your child will also be asked her
permission. Your child can decline to participate, even if you agree to allow participation. You
and/or your child may also decide to discuss it with your family or friends. If you agree to allow
your child to participate, you will be asked to sign this form and your child will be given an
Assent Form to read and sign. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Their Voices: Middle School Girls of Color and Their Perceptions of Themselves as Leaders
The purpose of this study is to advance understanding of the leader identity development of girls
of color in middle school and to understand the factors that sustain their leader identity. Past
research has proven that leader identity development is linked to the success of being a leader.
There is a need to study this through the lens of middle school girls, which is the age when we
notice that if they do not see themselves as leaders now, then they are less likely to pursue a
future leadership position. Through their stories, they will be able to articulate if they see
themselves as leaders and what has or has not contributed to their leadership development. The
impact of this study will encourage educators and researchers to examine leadership for girls of
color through a different lens.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you and your child agree to participate, your child will be asked to participate in 3 tasks:
Ɣ Journal:
ż Journal will be provided.
ż Your child will be asked to journal continuously for 2 weeks, responding to a list
of prompts.
ż The responses should not take longer than 15 minutes to respond to
ż The journals will be kept confidential, once turned in after the 2 weeks.
Ɣ Interview
ż The interview will be one-on-one with the researcher.
ż The interview is anticipated to be 45 minutes to 1 hour long.
ż The interview will be audio-recorded, if you or your child does not want to be
audio-recorded the researcher will take hand-written notes.
ż The interview will take place in a classroom, after school.
96
Ɣ Focus group:
ż The researcher will facilitate the conversation.
ż 4 other girls in the same grade level will also participate.
ż The focus group conversation is anticipated to be 1 hour to 1.5 hours long.
ż The focus group will be audio-recorded, if you or your child does not want to be
audio-recorded, your child will not be able to participate in the focus group.
ż Your child will be able to write down responses before responding to the whole
group.
ż The focus group will take place in a classroom, after school.
*Again, participation in any of these activities is voluntary and your child may choose not to
participate in any activity at any point in the study.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no potential risks to your child’s participation; however, if your child may feel
uncomfortable answering some of the questions, your child does not have to answer any question
she doesn’t want to.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
It is hoped that your child will learn more about themselves as a leader through this reflection
process. We also hope that your child becomes more aware of their leadership development. This
research may advance knowledge about the leadership development of middle school girls of color
and help educators/researchers in how they encourage girls develop into leaders.
CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your child’s records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However,
if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about your child. The
members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
As a USC employee, the researcher is required to report any known or suspected abuse or
neglect relating to children to USC’s Department of Public Safety (DPS) and the Department
of Children and Family Services (DCFS).
The data will be stored on a password protected computer and in a locked file cabinet in the
researcher’s office for three years after the study has been completed and then destroyed. Upon
completion of the data collection and data entry, all hard copies (consent documents, notes, audiorecordings and journals) will be destroyed. When the results of the research are published, no
identifiable information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your child’s participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss
of benefits to which your child is otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time,
97
and your child may withdraw their assent, and discontinue participation without penalty. You and
your child are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of their participation in
this research study.
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact:
Principal Investigator: Jessyka Ramirez-Holden
(213) 448 9301
ramirezh@usc.edu
Faculty Advisor: Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D.
(213) 740-8845
pensaval@usc.edu
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269.
Phone (323) 223-2340 or email irb@usc.edu.
SIGNATURE OF PARENT(S)/LEGALLY AUTHORIZED REPRESENTATIVE
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to allow my child to participate in
this study. I have been given a copy of this form.
AUDIO
Ƒ I agree to allow my child to be audio-recorded
Ƒ I do not want my child to be audio-recorded /photographed
Name of Participant __________________________________________________________
Name of Parent/Legally Authorized Representative __________________________________
Signature of Parent/Legally Authorized Representative ________________________________
Date ______________________________________
98
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and his/her parent(s)/Legally Authorized
Representative and answered all their questions. I believe that the parent(s) understand the
information described in this document and freely consents to participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent ______________________________________
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent ______________________________________
Date ______________________________________
99
Appendix F:
Youth Consent Form
ASSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Jessyka Ramirez-Holden, M.A. and
faculty advisor Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D. at the University of Southern California, because you are
a middle school female that identifies as African-American, Latina, or Asian-American. Your
participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about
anything you do not understand, before deciding whether to participate. Your parent’s permission
will be sought; however, the final decision is yours. Even if your parents agree to your
participation by signing a separate consent document, you don’t have to participate if you don’t
want to. Please take as much time as you need to read this form. You may also decide to discuss it
with your family or friends. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You
will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Their Voices: Middle School Girls of Color and Their Perceptions of Themselves as Leaders
The purpose of this study is to get your perspective of what makes you unique, what it means to
be a leader, and what you think influences you as a leader. This research will help other researchers
and educators understand leadership development from your perspective. Past research has proven
that women of color in leadership positions, benefit everyone. As a result, we want to know what
makes a girl a leader in middle school and how do we continue to get women of color in leadership
positions in the future.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you and your child agree to participate, your child will be asked to participate in 3 tasks:
Ɣ Journal:
ż Journal will be provided.
ż Your child will be asked to journal continuously for 2 weeks, responding to a list
of prompts.
ż The responses should not take longer than 15 minutes to respond to
ż The journals will be kept confidential, once turned in after the 2 weeks.
Ɣ Interview
ż The interview will be one-on-one with the researcher.
ż The interview is anticipated to be 45 minutes to 1 hour long.
ż The interview will be audio-recorded, if you or your child does not want to be
audio-recorded the researcher will take hand-written notes.
ż The interview will take place in a classroom, after school.
Ɣ Focus group:
ż The researcher will facilitate the conversation.
ż 4 other girls in the same grade level will also participate.
ż The focus group conversation is anticipated to be 1 hour to 1.5 hours long.
100
ż The focus group will be audio-recorded, if you or your child does not want to be
audio-recorded, your child will not be able to participate in the focus group.
ż Your child will be able to write down responses before responding to the whole
group.
ż The focus group will take place in a classroom, after school.
*Again, participation in any of these activities is voluntary and you may choose not to participate
in any activity at any point in the study.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no potential risks to your participation; however, if you feel uncomfortable answering
some of the questions, you do not have to answer any question you don’t want to.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
It is hoped that you will learn more about yourself as a leader through this reflection process. We
also hope that you become more aware of your leadership development. This research may
advance knowledge about the leadership development of middle school girls of color and help
educators/researchers in how they encourage girls to develop into leaders.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and
will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.
The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.
The data will be stored on a password protected computer and in a locked file cabinet in the
researcher’s office for three years after the study has been completed and then destroyed. Upon
completion of the data collection and data entry, all hard copies (consent documents, notes, audiorecordings and journals) will be destroyed. When the results of the research are published, no
identifiable information will be used.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in the study, you may withdraw
at any time without any consequences. You may also refuse to answer any questions you don’t
want to answer and still remain in the study.
101
INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please contact:
Principal Investigator: Jessyka Ramirez-Holden
(213) 448 9301
ramirezh@usc.edu
Faculty Advisor: Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D.
(213) 740-8845
pensaval@usc.edu
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant you
may contact the IRB directly at the information provided below. If you have questions about the
research and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269.
Phone (323) 223-2340 or email irb@usc.edu.
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT
I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.
Ƒ I agree to be audio-recorded
Ƒ I do not want to be audio-recorded
Name of Participant __________________________________________________________
Name of Parent/Legally Authorized Representative __________________________________
Signature of Parent/Legally Authorized Representative ________________________________
Date ______________________________________
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent ______________________________________
Signature of Person Obtaining Consent ______________________________________
Date ______________________________________
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This dissertation explores how middle school girls of color perceive themselves as leaders. The study seeks to understand the factors that shape their self-perceptions, the challenges they face, and the potential impact of cultural and social influences on their leadership identity. The social identity approach grounded this study with the understanding that society influences how we see ourselves as leaders and which leadership styles are deemed acceptable. This qualitative study included an autoethnography that evolved from documentation and analysis of the researcher’s story, including obstacles and challenges to becoming a leader. Fifteen middle school girls in grades six through eighth participated and shared their stories through journaling, interviews, and focus groups. The results indicated that the process of becoming a leader is ongoing, where gender presented a significant challenge for the participants. The data showed that school was the context where the participants felt most comfortable as leaders. The data indicates female family members had the most influence on their leadership journey. The findings of this study shed light on the importance of empowering young girls of color to recognize their leadership potential. Further this study's findings inform of the important role mentors in their leadership development and contribute to the ongoing discourse on fostering diversity and inclusivity in leadership. Implied from this study’s findings is that middle school girls of color need an understanding of leadership, female role models and mentors, and practical opportunities to conceive themselves as leaders now and in the future.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Ramirez-Holden, Jessyka Dominique
(author)
Core Title
Their voices: middle school girls of color and their perceptions of themselves as leaders
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Educational Leadership
Degree Conferral Date
2023-12
Publication Date
01/18/2024
Defense Date
12/15/2023
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
girls of color,leadership,middle school girls,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceptions
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Hasan, Angela (
committee chair
), Ott, Maria (
committee member
), Pensavalle, Margo (
committee member
)
Creator Email
jramirez.holden88@gmail.com,ramirezh@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113804856
Unique identifier
UC113804856
Identifier
etd-RamirezHol-12609.pdf (filename)
Legacy Identifier
etd-RamirezHol-12609
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
theses (aat)
Rights
Ramirez-Holden, Jessyka Dominique
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(batch),
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
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Tags
girls of color
middle school girls
perceptions