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Human trafficking prevention education and public school leadership: an exploratory study

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Human trafficking prevention education and public school leadership: an exploratory study

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Content HUMAN TRAFFICKING PREVENTION EDUCATION AND PUBLIC-SCHOOL
LEADERSHIP: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
by
Holly Priebe Sotelo
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(POLICY, PLANNING, and DEVELOPMENT)
May 2024
Copyright 2024 Holly Priebe Sotelo

ii
DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to the hundreds of children, youth, and their families whom I
served over the past 33 years as a social worker and to all the children and youth whom I may
have missed due to my lack of knowledge or resources about the topic of human trafficking. I
also dedicate this study to all the teachers, social workers, law enforcement agents, health care
providers, and public policy leaders so that they may embrace this topic with empathy and
courage and develop a call to action to create a society that invests in families, and policies that
uplift our society in equitable ways.
Finally, I dedicate this study to my family, including my siblings, nieces, and nephews,
especially my daughter, Haley, and my husband, Larry. To my father, David, who dedicated his
life to raising our family in a neighborhood that was not the safest, but it taught us courage and to
think critically. Lastly, to my mother, Maria, “Amparo,” whose name translates from Spanish to
English to mean refuge or shelter. The irony is that she was orphaned at 10 years old in a small
town in Mexico, separated from her five siblings to live in a Catholic convent, and later came to
the United States as a teenager to find refuge and a place to call home. During her 62 years on
earth, she never stopped serving others or her community. She often opened our family’s doors
to shelter the unhoused and feed the hungry, and she loved all her neighbors unconditionally.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The list of acknowledgments for this doctoral journey is endless. I want to spotlight a few
champions, beginning with my dissertation committee. To my Committee Chair, Dr. Deborah
Natoli, thank you for guiding me through this journey with grace, positivity, and wisdom and
teaching me to “lean into the corn.” To Dr. Judy Chiasson, thank you for encouraging me to
apply to the doctoral program, to seek the administrative credential, and to buy a wedding dress.
Your mentorship throughout the past two decades has been priceless, and there are no words to
repay you. To Dr. Devon Brooks, thank you for leading the USC Suzanne Dworak-Peck School
of Social Work with excellence, compassion, and cutting-edge research!
I would also like to thank Dr. Marleen Wong and Dr. Suh Chen Hsiao for their
leadership, mentorship, and inspiration to join the USC social work family. To LA School Police
Chief Steven Zipperman, former LAUSD Board Member Monica Garcia, and retired LAUSD
General Counsel David Holmquist, thank you for believing in me and writing letters of
recommendation on my behalf. Your legacies to protect and educate children will continue to
burn bright for generations.
To my family and friends, thank you for your patience and understanding of why I put
my life on hold for five years and had to miss many events. For Haley, my daughter, thank you
for being my inspiration. Because of her, I want to make this world safer for all children. Finally,
I want to thank my best friend, cheerleader, and soulmate, Larry. None of this would have been
possible had he not cleared the path for me to have everything I needed to make this possible,
including a quiet space to work, office supplies, and a glass of wine at the end of a long day.
Thank you for your patience, support, and unwavering love. I love you beyond words!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication....................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter 1: Introduction....................................................................................................................1
Background of the Study ............................................................................................................ 1
Prevalence of Human Trafficking........................................................................................... 2
The Role of Government: Federal and State........................................................................... 3
The Role of Schools................................................................................................................ 5
Empirical Gaps in Schools to Address Human Trafficking.................................................... 8
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 8
Research Questions..................................................................................................................... 8
Research Methods....................................................................................................................... 9
Contributions to Practice............................................................................................................. 9
Summary..................................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review.........................................................................................................11
Definition of Human Trafficking and Varying Interpretations................................................. 11
Definitions of Human Trafficking ........................................................................................ 11
Interpretation of Sector-Specific Vernacular........................................................................ 12
Varying Interpretations of the Definitions............................................................................ 13
Definition of Human Trafficking: The Public Health Perspective ....................................... 16
Risk Factors .............................................................................................................................. 17
Demographics as Risk Factors.............................................................................................. 18
Prior History of Abuse and Trauma as Risk Factors ............................................................ 18
Running Away and Homelessness........................................................................................ 19
Societal and Environmental Risk Factors............................................................................. 20
Trauma: Physical and Psychological Impacts........................................................................... 21
Adverse Childhood Experiences........................................................................................... 22
Responses to Trauma ............................................................................................................ 24
Systems Responses to Trauma.............................................................................................. 25
Legislation and Policies Related to Public Schools and Human Trafficking ........................... 30
Overview of the Enactment of Laws and Schools................................................................ 33
Educational Frameworks and Limitations................................................................................ 34
Promising School Frameworks............................................................................................. 34
Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child ................................................................ 36
Health Education as a Framework ........................................................................................ 38
Challenges in Schools........................................................................................................... 40
Summary................................................................................................................................... 40

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Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................................43
Design of the Study................................................................................................................... 43
The Researcher...................................................................................................................... 44
Research Instrument and Data Collection............................................................................. 46
Interviews.............................................................................................................................. 54
Procedures Followed............................................................................................................. 54
Data Analysis............................................................................................................................ 56
Ethical Concerns and Trustworthiness...................................................................................... 57
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 58
Chapter 4: Presentation of Data .....................................................................................................60
Section 1: Understanding the Participants’ Professional Backgrounds and Experiences......... 61
Summary of Section 1............................................................................................................... 71
Section 2: Understanding The Participants’ Knowledge and Training About the Topic of
Human Trafficking.................................................................................................................... 71
Summary of Section 2............................................................................................................... 86
Section 3: Understanding The Participants’ Roles in Training Others on General Topics
(Non-Human Trafficking Topics)............................................................................................. 87
Summary of Section 3............................................................................................................... 95
Section 4: Staff Training/Professional Development ............................................................... 95
Summary of Section 4............................................................................................................. 109
Section 5: Training Students................................................................................................... 110
Summary of Section 5............................................................................................................. 128
Section 6: Training and Educational Curriculum and Supplemental Material....................... 129
Summary of Section 6............................................................................................................. 141
Section 7: Best Practices......................................................................................................... 142
Summary of Section 7............................................................................................................. 158
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 159
Chapter 5: Discussion, Implications, and Conclusion .................................................................162
Findings................................................................................................................................... 162
District Departments and Personnel Responsible for the Implementation ......................... 162
Interpretation of the District’s Human Trafficking Education Laws and Policies ............. 164
Student Education ............................................................................................................... 165
Identifying the District Policies .......................................................................................... 165
Strengths of the District ...................................................................................................... 165
Gaps, Challenges, and Barriers........................................................................................... 166
Limitations.............................................................................................................................. 167
Delimitations........................................................................................................................... 168
Recommendations and Best Practices .................................................................................... 168
Adapted Model........................................................................................................................ 170
Tier 1: Personal Safety........................................................................................................ 171
Tier 2: Responding to Suspected Human Trafficking and High Risk ................................ 173
Tier 3: Identified Victims/Survivors................................................................................... 174
Contribution to Practice .......................................................................................................... 175
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 176

vi
References....................................................................................................................................178
Appendices...................................................................................................................................197
Appendix A: Informed Consent for Research .........................................................................191
Appendix B: Redacted PowerPoint .........................................................................................194
Appendix C: Email to Potential Participants Template ...........................................................203
Appendix D: Resources/Toolkits for Schools .........................................................................204
Appendix E: Legislation from 2014–2018 ..............................................................................211

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Summary of California Legislation Related to Human Trafficking Prevention
Education of Youth in Public Schools...........................................................................................32
Table 2: Professional Titles and Positions Within the District......................................................62
Table 3: Length of Time in Positions ............................................................................................63
Table 4: Mean, Mode, and Median Length of Time in These Positions .......................................64
Table 5: Professional Credentials ..................................................................................................65
Table 6: Direct Responsibilities.....................................................................................................66
Table 7: Departments Represented ................................................................................................67
Table 8: Other Professional Positions in Schools and With Children and Youth .........................68
Table 9: Total Years of Professional Experience Working With Children and Youth .................69
Table 10: Mean, Mode, and Median Years of Total Professional Experience ..............................69
Table 11: What Else Should Be Known About You?....................................................................71
Table 12: Definition and Understanding of the Term “Human Trafficking” ................................74
Table 13: Hours of Human Trafficking Training ..........................................................................75
Table 14: Mean, Mode, and Median Of Training Hours = 608.....................................................75
Table 15: Trained by Internal or Experts.......................................................................................76
Table 16: Familiarity With Federal, State, and Local Legislation and Policies Related to
Human Trafficking Prevention Education .....................................................................................77
Table 17: How Are These Policies Are Being Interpreted? ..........................................................79
Table 18: What Is the District’s Policy for Human Trafficking Prevention Education?...............82
Table 19: Could or Should Schools Play a Role in Solving Human Trafficking? ........................84
Table 20: What Else Should Be Known About Your Human Trafficking Training and
Background That Wasn’t Asked? ..................................................................................................86
Table 21: Do You Provide Training on the Topic of Human Trafficking? ...................................89
Table 22: Are All District Staff Trained? ......................................................................................91

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Table 23: If Not All Staff Are Trained, Who Is Trained? .............................................................91
Table 24: Do All Schools Receive Human Trafficking Training? ................................................92
Table 25: Other Topics That Participants Offer ............................................................................93
Table 26: What Else Should Be Known About This Category, of Understanding the
Participants Roles in Training Others on General Topics?............................................................94
Table 27: Are All Staff Trained? ...................................................................................................96
Table 28: Human Trafficking Training Mandated or Recommended? .........................................97
Table 29: What Is the Expectation of Staff After They Are Trained?...........................................98
Table 30: Are Staff Allowed to Opt Out of the Training?.............................................................99
Table 31: How Often Do You Train Others on the Topic of Human Trafficking? .....................100
Table 32: How Training Is Conducted.........................................................................................101
Table 33: Settings of Where Training Is Conducted ...................................................................102
Table 34: How Many Trainings Have You Personally Taught?..................................................103
Table 35: How Many (Estimated) Staff Have You Trained? ......................................................103
Table 36: How Many Human Trafficking Staff Trainings Have You Coordinated? ..................104
Table 37: How Long Are Each of the Training for Staff?...........................................................105
Table 38: How Many Staff Are Trained At One Time? ..............................................................106
Table 39: Are Follow-Up Training or Resources Available After the Initial Training? .............107
Table 40: What Else Should Be Known About Training Others on The Topic of Human
Trafficking That Was Not Asked?...............................................................................................108
Table 41: How Are Students Educated About Human Trafficking Prevention?.........................111
Table 42: Are All Students in The District Educated About Human Trafficking Prevention? ...112
Table 43: What Is the Process for Educating Students on Human Trafficking? .........................113
Table 44: Can Students Opt Out of the Training? .......................................................................113
Table 45: Who Delivers Human Trafficking Education to the Students? ...................................114
Table 46: In What Environment or Setting Are Students Educated? ..........................................115

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Table 47: Methods Through Which the Students’ Training Is Provided.....................................116
Table 48: The Objectives of the Student Human Trafficking Education ....................................117
Table 49: Pedagogies Used to Deliver Human Trafficking Objectives.......................................118
Table 50: Amount of Time Students Receive on the Topic of Human Trafficking ....................119
Table 51: Expectations Following Student Education.................................................................120
Table 52: If the Student Misses the Human Trafficking Education, Are There Make-Up
Sessions? ......................................................................................................................................121
Table 53: Policies or Protocols if a Student Is Suspected of Being a Victim of Human
Trafficking ...................................................................................................................................122
Table 54: What Other Resources Available for Students Who Identify As High Risk for
Human Trafficking?.....................................................................................................................123
Table 55: Level of Confidence About Educating Students on This Topic ..................................124
Table 56: Other District Efforts to Educate Children About This Topic.....................................125
Table 57: What Else Should Be Known About This Category of Educating Students That
Was Not Asked? ..........................................................................................................................127
Table 58: Specific Training Curriculum or Materials..................................................................130
Table 59: Is the Curriculum Evidence-Based, Based on Research, or Does It Use Other
Theoretical Frameworks?.............................................................................................................131
Table 60: How Was the Curriculum Selected?............................................................................133
Table 61: Is There a Cost Associated With This Program?.........................................................133
Table 62: For the Trainers of This Curriculum or Program, How Much Preparation Time Do
They Receive on the Material? ....................................................................................................134
Table 63: Is There a Separate Curriculum for the Students and Staff? .......................................135
Table 64: If Different, What Are the Objectives of the Training for Staff? ................................136
Table 65: How Do You Measure the Outcomes of the Staff Training(s)? ..................................137
Table 66: How Do You Measure the Outcome of the Student Training? ...................................138
Table 67: What Do You Do With the Information You Collect?................................................139

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Table 68: Are There Supplemental Materials and Resources Needed for the Training? If So,
What Are They, and Can I Review Them?..................................................................................139
Table 69: What Other Information Should Be Known About This Section of Training
Material, But Did Not Ask? .........................................................................................................140
Table 70: What Are the Best Practices For Providing Human Trafficking Education to Staff? .144
Table 71: What Are the Best Practices for Providing Human Trafficking Education to
Students? ......................................................................................................................................146
Table 72: What Are the Needs or Challenges In Providing Human Trafficking Education to
Staff? ............................................................................................................................................148
Table 73: What Are the Needs or Challenges in Providing Human Trafficking Education to
Students? ......................................................................................................................................150
Table 74: What Are the Barriers to Delivering Human Trafficking Training to Staff? ..............152
Table 75: What Are the Barriers to Delivering Human Trafficking Education to Students?......153
Table 76: What Else Is Needed to Protect Children/Youth From Human Trafficking?..............155
Table 77: What Else Do You Think Schools Need or Can Do to Protect Students From
Human Trafficking?.....................................................................................................................157
Table 78: What Else Should Be Known About Best Practices or Needs for Research That
Was Not Asked? ..........................................................................................................................158

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: AMP Model....................................................................................................................16
Figure 2: Support Tiers..................................................................................................................35
Figure 3: The Whole School, Whole Community, and Whole Child Model ................................37
Figure 4: Familiarity With Legislation or Policies........................................................................78
Figure 5: How Are Human Trafficking Policies Being Interpreted?.............................................80
Figure 6: What Is the District’s Human Trafficking Policy?.........................................................82
Figure 7: Model for Incorporating Human Trafficking Education Into a District’s School
Environment.................................................................................................................................171
Figure D1: Whole Child Local Control Funding Formula Resource Map ..................................205

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
On December 28, 2016, Uber driver Keith Avila picked up three customers, two women
and a young girl, in Oak Park, Sacramento, California (Resnik, 2016). The women requested to
be taken to the Holiday Inn in Elk Grove, which was about 20 minutes away. While in transit,
Avila became uncomfortable about the situation. He noticed the young girl was not dressed
appropriately for her age. The discussion between the women and the girl made him even more
suspicious. The women coached the girl to “pat down and get the donation first…before you start
touching him” (Resnik, 2016, para. 13). Avila knew something was wrong and immediately
alerted the police after dropping them off. The police responded and found the young girl
involved in unlawful sexual activity with Disney Vang, a 20-year-old man (Resnik, 2016). The
girl was a minor who had been reported missing. The two women were arrested and charged
with felony child abuse, pimping, pandering, soliciting an act of prostitution, human trafficking,
and conspiracy (Lundahl, 2017; Resnik, 2016). This event is one example of the 22,326 victims
and survivors identified nationally through contacts with the National Human Trafficking
Hotline in 2019, of whom at least 5,359 were under 18 (Polaris Project, 2020).
Professional drivers and flight attendants have made the news for efforts to rescue a child
from human trafficking. While they may not have been familiar with the legal term of human
trafficking, its historical context, or the physical and psychological trauma that an abused child
may endure, they recognized the warning signs that a child was in danger.
Background of the Study
Human trafficking is a global phenomenon from which no country is exempt and is often
referred to as modern-day slavery. Victims of human trafficking are exploited in every region of
the world, compelled into service for labor or commercial sex in the real world of industry and

2
on the pages of the internet (U.S. Department of State, 2018, p. 2) and where one-third of all
victims are minors (ECPAT International, 2017; Prensa Latina, 2021; Rizo et al., 2019; United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNDOC], 2020).
The U.S. Department of State coined the term “human trafficking” in 2000 via the
Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) of 2000, as amended:
It defines “severe forms of trafficking in persons” and sex trafficking as a commercial sex
act and is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform
such an act has not attained 18 years of age; or the recruitment, harboring, transportation,
provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud or
coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or
slavery. (U.S. Department of State, 2021, p. 9)
Human trafficking of minors refers to victims under 18 years of age, involving acts of sex
and labor exploitation. It has also been described as commercial sexual exploitation of children
(CSEC), domestic minor sex trafficking, or acts of child abuse: acts of violence against children
and youth (Barnert et al., 2017; Clayton et al., 2013). Human trafficking of minors is often a
misunderstood and unaddressed form of child abuse (Clayton et al., 2013) and places youth at
risk of long-term adverse physical and mental health problems (Harper et al., 2019).
Prevalence of Human Trafficking
Globally, the most common form of human trafficking (79%) is sexual exploitation,
wherein the victims are predominately women and girls, and 20% are children (UNDOC, 2020).
In 2017, the International Organization for Migration estimated that 41% of child trafficking
experiences are facilitated by family members and/or caregivers (U.S. Department of State,
2021). It is also estimated that 168 million children are trafficked for labor worldwide, with half

3
working in hazardous conditions. In addition, children who are trafficked for labor may be
removed from their families and forced to perform domestic household services or work in
factories or agriculture (U.S. Department of Labor, n.d.).
Nationally, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) in 2021
received more than 17,200 reports of child sex trafficking from all 50 U.S. states, Washington,
D.C., and Puerto Rico (NCMEC, 2022). Of the 25,000 children reported missing and who had
allegedly run away from home, it was estimated that one out of six were likely victims of sex
trafficking (NCMEC, 2022). Further, the 19% who ran from out-of-home placements or social
services were presumed to be victims of sex trafficking (NCMEC, 2022). Nationally, there
appear to be inconsistencies and an incomplete picture of the total number of human trafficking
cases due to the lack of a central database to track and analyze trafficking-related information
because trafficking and sexual exploitation are an illegal underground industry (Franchino-Olsen
et al., 2022; Raphael et al., 2020). However, the Polaris Project’s’ National Human Trafficking
Data Report and the National Human Trafficking Hotline (NHTH, 2021) captured data on sex
and labor trafficking statistics in the United States for the purpose of supporting trafficking
victims and survivors. Since 2007, the NHTH has identified 12,696 cases of human trafficking
involving 24,046 victims; cases of trafficking can involve one or more potential victims or
survivors. In 2021, 1,334 cases were identified in California involving 2,122 victims, of which
77% were sex trafficking cases and half involved children; males tended to be trafficked for
purposes of labor (NHTH, 2021).
The Role of Government: Federal and State
The federal government and community partners collaborated to take action to address
human trafficking. One example of this collaboration is the U.S. Department of Homeland

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Security’s Blue Campaign, which works closely with law enforcement and other partners to
implement campaigns for industries best positioned to encounter traffickers, such as the hotel,
medical, education, and transportation sectors (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2021).
Another example is the U.S. Department of Justice’s Project Safe Childhood. This project
advances and expands several efforts to protect the nation’s children from internet predators,
hold perpetrators accountable, and help victims reclaim their lives (U.S. Department of Justice,
2016). Another example is that of the Office of Safe and Supportive Schools (OSSS, 2021),
which developed a guide, Human Trafficking in America’s Schools: What Schools Can Do to
Prevent, Respond, and Help Students to Recover from Human Trafficking, in recognition that
schools should be safe places for students. This guide will be discussed further in Chapter 2.
At the state level, in California, legislators passed laws to educate students and staff on
how to recognize and report human trafficking and learn skills to prevent it. In 2016, the
California Healthy Youth Act (CHYA; California Legislative Information, 2015b) was enacted,
previously named the California Comprehensive Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Prevention
Education Act. This law integrated the instruction of comprehensive sexual health education and
HIV prevention education. It also required school districts to ensure that all pupils in Grades 7 to
12 receive comprehensive sexual health education and HIV prevention education, including sex
trafficking (California Legislative Information, n.d.-b, n.d.-g). In 2017, the CHYA was expanded
as the state enacted the Human Trafficking Prevention Education and Training Act (HTPETA).
This was the first state law in the nation to mandate anti-human trafficking and to include labor
trafficking education in Grades 7 to 12 in the public school curriculum (California Legislative
Information, n.d.-a; Salas & Didier, 2020).

5
While legislators often pass laws for others to follow, how are these laws and policies
being interpreted and implemented in the schools? What are the barriers to implementing these
laws and policies in schools, if any? This study sought to gain a deeper understanding of how
school leaders perceive their actions to comply with these laws and policies to educate youth
about human trafficking prevention. This study discusses these findings in Chapters 4 and 5.
The Role of Schools
School systems have historically served as the epicenter for creating significant societal
discourse, such as desegregation, supporting LGBTQ2s+ inclusivity, and educating youth to
protect themselves from contracting HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. School
personnel are experienced in addressing sensitive topics and being agents of change, and their
access to children puts them in a unique position to interrupt abuse and the trafficking cycle of
children and youth (Lesak et al., 2021; Rizo et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2020).
Schools are ideal settings to provide education for minors on the prevention and
intervention of human trafficking for two reasons. The first is that youth spend significant time in
school, and the second is that they are often recruited into human trafficking at school and via the
internet (Carpenter & Gates, 2016; Clayton et al., 2013; Office of Safe and Healthy Students,
2015; Reid, 2016; Rizo et al., 2019; Salas & Didier, 2020). Schools can play a significant role in
protecting children and youth from human trafficking, whether by teaching them to be social
justice activists through their social studies courses (Moore, 2018; Zhu et al., 2020) or by
developing their social-emotional skills through health education courses (Lesak et al., 2021).
Schools are being recognized for their influence in building resistance to prevent human
trafficking. A survey of 260 trafficked youth found that 55% of children continued to attend
school while they were trafficked, 26% attended irregularly, 15% attended most of the time, and

6
14% attended the entire time. Several survivors reported that school could have played a more
prominent role in identifying their victimization and intervening on their behalf. They also
reported that schools should do more to prevent child sex trafficking (Thorn, 2018).
The public education system interacts with 90% of all school-age children in the United
States (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). School personnel are trained to identify
vulnerabilities and challenges of children and provide protective interventions and instruction,
which may reduce opportunities for traffickers to groom and recruit them (Williamson & Flood,
2021). School personnel also continue to be the highest reporters of child abuse and neglect, as
they are trained to look for signs of distress, many of which overlap with those present in victims
of human trafficking or those at risk (Administration for Children and Families, 2020; Asefnia et
al., 2021; National Human Trafficking Resource Center, 2011; U.S. Department of Education
[U.S. DOE], 2021; Weist et al., 2018).
This study recognizes schools as a significant system and community partner that can
prevent human trafficking of children and youth by empowering youth through education and
teaching social-emotional skills that also build their protective factors. Protective factors are
individual or environmental characteristics or conditions that promote children’s and
adolescents’ health and emotional well-being (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC], 2023a, 2023b, 2023c; Children’s Bureau, 2023; Kipke, 1999). Protective factors can help
children and youth engage in positive health behaviors and avoid many risky behaviors (Henson
et al., 2017; Resnick et al., 1997). Many educators regularly teach social-emotional skills in
health education classes and beyond, not knowing that these same skills serve to prevent human
trafficking. Such examples include teaching children and youth how to recognize the differences
between healthy and unhealthy relationships, help-seeking, refusal, and healthy coping skills

7
(Lesak et al., 2021). Lastly, school personnel can also act by reporting suspicious behavior to the
proper authorities and or referring children and their families to appropriate resources. Experts
also recognize that minors impacted by human trafficking or other forms of abuse often
demonstrate challenges in learning (Harper et al., 2019; Kendall-Tackett et al., 1993; Zhu et al.,
2020). Ultimately, when school personnel understand how childhood trauma or adverse
childhood experiences (ACEs) and social-emotional skills impact youth development and school
success, the assumption is that school personnel can and will act.
Adverse Childhood Experiences
Harmful and traumatic events occurring during childhood and adolescence may put
children at risk for chronic health problems, mental illness, and substance use in adulthood
(CDC, 2019a). These harmful experiences are known as Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
(CDC, 2023b, 2023c; Felitti et al., 1998). ACEs can occur with the individual, family, or
community. Examples of ACEs may include being directly or indirectly impacted or exposed to
violence, having a family member attempt or die by suicide during childhood, or experiencing
community violence such as bullying and intimate partner violence (CDC, 2019a; Felitti et al.,
1998). Ultimately, “as the number of ACEs increases, the number of risk outcomes increases,
including the risk of human trafficking” (Office on Trafficking in Persons, 2022, p. 3).
Since violence is preventable, efforts can be made to address and prevent this problem
(CDC, 2023c). Violence prevention through education is key. Teaching young people socialemotional skills, such as communication, stress management, conflict resolution, and emotional
and behavior regulation, can protect them from multiple forms of violence, substance abuse, and
other negative health outcomes (Basile et al., 2016; CDC, 2019a, 2019b; David-Ferdon et al.,
2016; Fortson et al., 2016; Niolon et al., 2017; Stone et al., 2017). Chapter 2 will expand on the

8
discussion of ACEs and their connections to schools. Trauma and ACEs and their connections to
schools will be further discussed in Chapter 2.
Empirical Gaps in Schools to Address Human Trafficking
While school settings may be the ideal place to deliver prevention education on human
trafficking, empirical gaps persist, as noted in the literature and the findings from this qualitative
study of 12 interviews with school administrators. Such gaps include how laws and policies are
being interpreted and implemented in schools, the lack of infrastructure to effectively deliver
human trafficking prevention content during the instructional day, navigating school bureaucracy
of the day-to-day school day tasks and instructions, and the lack of the inclusion of labor
trafficking in the literature.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this research was to study the perceptions of 12 administrators from a
non-disclosed school district in California in terms of how they interpret and implement human
trafficking legislation and policies. The aim of this study was to identify best practices and needs
for schools to deliver human trafficking prevention education to children and youth.
Research Questions
Two core research questions guided this study:
● What are the perceptions of how the leadership of a public school district in California is
interpreting and implementing human trafficking education legislation and policies in
schools?
● What are the best practices, needs, and gaps for schools to implement human trafficking
prevention education to students?

9
Research Methods
The methods used in this study were qualitative, exploratory, and descriptive. The
participants were 12 school district administrators and support staff responsible for the
districtwide implementation of human trafficking prevention education. No children participated
in this study.
When I sought permission to conduct the study from the school district’s institutional
review board (IRB), administrators stipulated that while the district recognized the value of
studying the topic of human trafficking and schools, the IRB requested the district’s name and all
identifying information be omitted. They provided no specific reason for requesting anonymity,
but I accepted the conditions in anticipation that their anonymity could allow for a deeper
discussion and unfiltered responses to understand their actions and the intentions behind the
various policies. Chapter 3 further discusses this study’s methodology.
Contributions to Practice
The expected contribution to practice is to gain a deeper understanding of how public
school district leaders and staff personnel in a major school district might better address policy
requirements and enact human trafficking prevention education in their school system. The
ultimate aim of this study, however, is to expand awareness and contribute scholarship and
frameworks to support local and national conversations and collaborations among K-12
educators so they can more fully participate and engage in the design of programs and generation
of curricula to educate, empower, and protect students and facilitate their emotional and
developmental wellbeing.
Summary
This research sought to understand the depth of the problem of human trafficking of
children and youth, including its prevalence and the psychological impacts on children and

10
youth, and to highlight the roles of government and schools in disrupting and preventing it. This
study further sought to study the participant’s perceptions of how a public school district in
California interpreted and implemented human trafficking education policies and legislation. The
contribution to practice is to present best practices and gaps for implementing human trafficking
programs in public schools. While schools alone cannot solve the problems of human trafficking,
they can be part of the solution.

11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The topic of human trafficking has remained outside the scope of school districts until
recently when legislatures passed laws requiring public schools to teach students skills to
recognize, report, and ultimately prevent it. This literature review presents scholarship to expand
the scope for educators to recognize the intersection of various systems and expose gaps in
empirical knowledge and educational practices that underpin the need for an exploratory
investigation into the human trafficking of children and schools’ involvement. This chapter
covered the following themes: (a) the definition of human trafficking and the varying
interpretations, (b) the risk factors causing youth to be vulnerable to human trafficking, (c)
trauma, the physical and psychological impact of human trafficking on children and youth, (d)
legislation to address human trafficking in California schools, and (e) educational frameworks
and limitations of addressing human trafficking in public schools.
Definition of Human Trafficking and Varying Interpretations
While enslavement and forced labor date back thousands of years, the term “human
trafficking” was adopted in the United States in 2000 (U.S. Department of State, 2023). The
literature reveals various perspectives on its definitions and interpretations across professional
sectors. This section will highlight various perspectives and interpretations of human trafficking.
Definitions of Human Trafficking
The global and most widely cited definition of human trafficking comes from the United
Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (United Nations Office
of the High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR], 2000):
The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of
the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception,

12
of the abuse of power or a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of
payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another
person, for the purpose of exploitation. (para. 16)
Further, the U.S. Department of State (2023) defined human trafficking in the TVPA of 2000:
The TVPA defines “severe forms of trafficking in persons” as sex trafficking in which a
commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced
to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age; or the recruitment, harboring,
transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of
force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage,
debt bondage, or slavery. A victim need not be physically transported from one location to
another for the crime to fall within this definition. (p. 12)
Additionally, the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2019b) defined human trafficking as
a form of modern slavery and includes both sex trafficking and labor trafficking. Sex
trafficking is recruiting, harboring, transporting, providing, or obtaining someone for a
commercial sex act, such as prostitution, pornography, or stripping. Labor trafficking is
forced labor, including drug dealing, begging, or working long hours for little pay.
Although human trafficking includes victims of any sex, age, race/ ethnicity, or
socioeconomic status, children involved in child welfare, including children who are in
out-of-home care, are especially vulnerable (pp. 1-4).
Interpretation of Sector-Specific Vernacular
Depending on the professional sector one is associated with, whether law enforcement,
social work/child welfare, public health, or education, every profession has a specific vocabulary
and set of policies they are to follow about how to manage a significant social issue. Every sector

13
identifies and addresses human trafficking through its own scope and possesses specific training
and authority to act. The penal code guides law enforcement, which views human trafficking as a
crime and security matter. Science and medical models guide medical practitioners, who view
human trafficking as a public health crisis. Welfare institution codes, psychology, and human
development theories guide social workers, who view human trafficking of children as child
abuse. The education code and pedagogy guide teachers and school district administrators. While
many public-serving sectors have a plan for addressing human trafficking, school districts, until
recently, have not been a part of the national plan for intervention. Although there is no
expectation for teachers and school officials to fight crime or provide clinical treatment,
educators play a critical role in supporting the whole child and toward solutions for building
protective factors against human trafficking (Lemke, 2019; Lesak et al., 2021; Moore, 2018;
Rizo et al., 2019; Salas & Didier, 2020; Zhu et al., 2020).
Varying Interpretations of the Definitions
While human trafficking is a crime and a form of modern-day slavery, it is also a unique
form of child abuse when the victims are underage (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2019b).
Until recently, human trafficking was solely defined and addressed using a criminal justice lens
and strategies. While the criminal justice approach is essential, the crimes are often unresolved
primarily because much of the legal process relies on the victim’s testimony against their
trafficker, and when victims fail to cooperate with law enforcement, the crimes go unpunished or
unresolved (National Human Trafficking Training and Technical Assistance Center, 2023).
Recently, the public health and educational sectors joined the national efforts to address the
concerns of human trafficking by identifying root causes, risk factors, prevalence, and strategies
for intervention and prevention.

14
In 2011, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the National Research Council (NRC)
formed a committee to study the commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in
the United States. With the support of the U.S. Department of Justice’s Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention, this committee found that the work of addressing minor sex
trafficking “calls for a paradigm shift from treating victims and survivors of commercial sexual
exploitation and sex trafficking of minors as criminals to understanding and recognizing
commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors as forms of child abuse” (Clayton
et al., 2013, p. 373). Safe harbor laws were created because of the IOM and NRC
recommendations that stated,
All national, state, local, tribal, and territorial jurisdictions should develop laws and
policies that redirect young victims and survivors of commercial sexual exploitation and
sex trafficking from arrests and prosecution as criminals or adjudication as delinquents to
systems, agencies, and services that are prepared to address their needs. Such laws should
apply to all children and adolescents under 18. (Green et al., 2018, p. 4)
Safe harbor laws acknowledged that minors involved in prostitution were not in violation of any
rule or law but rather victims of abuse, an approach that is consistent with child protection
principles and goals of federal and state laws regulating the treatment of minors (Clayton et al.,
2013; Green et al., 2018).
Child and youth sex trafficking has been characterized as one of the most complex and
least understood forms of child abuse. Part of the confusion about this crime lies in the varying
terms used to describe it, such as “trafficking in persons,” “human trafficking,” “modern-day
slavery,” CSEC, and “domestic minor sex trafficking.” All these phrases are umbrella terms used
interchangeably to refer to a crime whereby a trafficker exploits and profits at the expense of

15
adults or children by compelling them to perform labor or engage in commercial sex. In sex
trafficking cases, when victims are under the age of 18, courts of law do not require the
prosecution to prove that the exploiter used force, fraud, or coercion to lure their victims for the
sex acts because minors in California do not have the legal authority to consent to sex. As for
labor trafficking, there must be evidence that force, fraud, or coercion was used for the act to be
considered a crime (U.S. Department of State, 2021).
To simplify the definition of human trafficking, the Polaris Project developed the Action
Means Purpose (AMP) Model (Figure 1) to serve as a formula to clarify whether a case qualifies
as human trafficking. The AMP model explains the definition as follows:
Human trafficking occurs when a perpetrator, often referred to as a trafficker, takes any
one of the enumerated Actions and then employs the Means of force, fraud, or coercion
for the Purpose of compelling the victim to provide commercial sex acts or labor or
services [emphasis in original]. At a minimum, one element from each column must be
present to establish a potential situation of human trafficking. The presence of force,
fraud, or coercion indicates that the victim has not consented to his or her free will
(Polaris Project, 2012, p. 1).
All minors involved in commercial sexual exploitation are considered victims “regardless of
force, fraud, or coercion” (Polaris Project, 2012, p. 1).

16
Figure 1
AMP Model
Note. From The Action Means Purpose “A-M-P” Model by Polaris Project, 2012. Copyright
2012 by Polaris Project.
Definition of Human Trafficking: The Public Health Perspective
The public health approach to human trafficking recognizes that while criminal justice
efforts are essential, it only serves one part of the problem. The primary approach the criminal
justice system uses is government-based: uphold the U. S. Constitution, identify victims and
perpetrators, punish the offenders or traffickers, and protect the innocent. The primary focus of
public health departments is to advance individual and public health. It views those impacted as
clients or patients, not criminals or victims. Its focus is on long-term solutions to prevent and
treat harm and support individuals, families, and communities across generations. A public

17
health approach complements the criminal justice approach (Chisolm-Straker & Chon, 2021;
National Human Trafficking Training and Technical Assistance Center, 2023).
Dr. Joshua M. Sharfein, vice dean of public health practice and community engagement
at Johns Hopkins University, described human trafficking as a public health matter and
a profound violation of human rights, a reflection of deep prejudice, racism, and
inequality, and the source of immense injustice and suffering. Human trafficking is, in a
word, so evil that many seek to counter this practice without understanding it, to demand
its end without appreciating its origins. (Chisolm-Straker & Chon, 2021, p. vii).
The World Health Organization’s (WHO) constitution described human trafficking as a
public health issue that denies millions of people the opportunity to achieve the highest attainable
standard of health and defined health as the “state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 2023a, para. 1). Sharfstein
asserted that public health challenges must be investigated, understood, analyzed, and exposed.
He also believed that at the center of public health is the principle of primary prevention, “to
keep something terrible from happening, and the antidote is understanding” (Chisolm-Straker &
Chon, 2021, pp. vii-viii).
Risk Factors
There is no specific profile that identifies a child trafficking victim, but research
demonstrates that some children are more susceptible to being trafficked than others (National
Center for Safe and Supportive Learning Environments, 2023). The literature on what increases
the risk that a child may be trafficked resulted in identifying four categories of risk factors:
demographics, prior history of abuse and trauma, running away from home and homelessness,
and societal and environmental issues.

18
Demographics as Risk Factors
While children from every demographic have experienced sex trafficking, girls and
children who identify as Black, Indigenous, and other people of color (BIPOC) and/or lesbian,
gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, Two-Spirit, and other (LGBTQ2S+) are
overrepresented among victims (Choi, 2015; Clayton et al., 2013; D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al.,
2018; Murphy, 2017; Swaner et al., 2016; Williamson & Flood, 2021). Boys are under-identified
in the literature as survivors of sex trafficking and need further research.
Prior History of Abuse and Trauma as Risk Factors
The National Center for Safe and Supportive Learning Environments (2023) found that
children and youth with a history of maltreatment, sexual abuse, low self-esteem, and lack of
social support were at higher risk for both sex and labor trafficking. A history of child abuse is
one of the strongest risk factors for sex trafficking, with evidence also highlighting the
association of out-of-home placements with trafficking (Choi, 2015; Clayton et al., 2013;
D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al., 2018; Reid et al., 2017). Youth at most risk have complex histories
of abuse and deprivation, including childhood physical and sexual abuse, family violence,
substance use, juvenile justice, and child welfare involvement (D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al.,
2018; Kinnish et al., 2021; Moore et al., 2021; National Childhood Trauma Stress Network
[NCTSN], 2023). While all forms of child abuse place a youth at risk, sexual abuse is
consistently associated with trafficking in studies where adolescents are involved in running
away, homeless, or consumers of a social service program (Fedina et al., 2019; Roe-Sepowitz et
al., 2017; Ulloa et al., 2016).

19
Running Away and Homelessness
The term “runaway” has been used to describe children who leave their homes on their
own accord but without permission (Williamson & Flood, 2021). This term often implies that a
child left their place of residence willingly without accounting for the fact that research has
repeatedly demonstrated that children often run away or are kicked out of their homes due to
various traumas, including sexual abuse, homophobia and transphobia, and poverty (Baker,
2018; Williamson & Flood, 2021) and become homeless (Covenant House, 2013). According to
a national study wherein over 26,000 youth were interviewed and surveyed, 1 in 30 youth aged
13 to 17 experienced homelessness in a single year (Morton et al., 2017). Youth who reported
less than a high school diploma or GED had a 346% reported higher risk of homelessness;
unmarried parenting youth reported a 200% higher risk of homelessness; youth who identified as
LGBTQ2S+ had a 120% reported higher risk of homelessness; Black and African-American
youth were 83% reported homelessness; and Hispanic or non-White reported 33% higher risk of
homelessness (Morton et al., 2017). Significant scholarship demonstrated the correlation
between running away and child sex trafficking (Choi, 2015; D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al., 2018;
D. A. Gibbs, Henninger, et al., 2018).
Traffickers often prey on homeless youths’ lack of shelter and other basic needs.
Trafficked youth have reported that traffickers often loiter where homeless youths gather, telling
them shelters are full and offering them a place to stay (Covenant House, 2013). Homeless
youths who identify as LGBTQ2S+ are particularly vulnerable to trafficking victimization. One
10-city study found that 24% of homeless youths who identified as LGBTQ2S+ were trafficked
for sex, compared to 12% of their heterosexual and cisgender peers (Murphy, 2017).

20
As previously discussed, most youth who enter foster care due to family abuse are at an
increased risk of being trafficked. This risk is compounded when that youth runs away from
foster care, increasing their vulnerability to sex trafficking and its dangerous health and mental
health consequences (Administration for Children, Youth, and Families, 2013). Lastly, some
homeless youth remain in the educational system, which offers a critical opportunity for
prevention and early intervention. During the 2016–2017 school year, state educational agencies
reported serving over 1.3 million homeless youths (National Center for Homeless Education,
2019). Providers working with runaway and homeless youth can also play a critical role in
preventing trafficking and supporting the identification of and service provision to children
trafficked. Research suggests that a supportive adult in a homeless youth’s life can help mitigate
the risk of trafficking victimization (Chisolm-Straker et al., 2019).
Societal and Environmental Risk Factors
While trafficking occurs among all socioeconomic classes, races, ethnicities, and gender
identities in urban, suburban, and rural communities and land-based nations and other tribal
communities across the United States, some youths are at an increased risk due to a complex
interplay of societal, environmental, relationships, and individual factors. Some of the societal
factors include the sexualization of children and youth in the media and pop culture, genderbased violence, strict gender roles, homophobia and transphobia, tolerance of the marginalization
of others, lack of awareness of child trafficking, lack of resources for exploited youth, social
injustice, structural racism, and tolerance of community and relationship violence (Kinnish et al.,
2021; NCTSN, 2023).
The environmental and community risk factors include under-resourced schools and
neighborhoods, community violence, community social norms, gang presence, commercial sex

21
in the area, transient male populations, poverty, and lack of employment opportunities (Kinnish
et al., 2021; NCTSN, 2023). Further, children and youth who are involved in child protection and
juvenile justice systems or who recently migrated or relocated to another country are at a
heightened risk for labor trafficking (Kinnish et al., 2021; NCTSN, 2023). Research also
emphasized that the absence of these risk factors does not translate into a child not being
trafficked (National Center for Safe and Supportive Learning Environments, 2023). Traffickers
prey on the marginalized and impoverished people and communities. Cases examined by the
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes (2020) found that at least half of the victims were
targeted because of economic need.
The relationship risk factors include having friends/family involved in commercial sex,
family dysfunction, intimate partner violence, caregiver loss or separation, lack of awareness of
child trafficking, poverty, and unemployment (Kinnish et al., 2021; NCTSN, 2023). The
individualized risk factors include having an intellectual or developmental disability, truancy
from school, unmonitored/risky and social media use, behavioral or mental health concerns,
substance use, and unaccompanied minor migration status (Kinnish et al., 2021; NCTSN, 2023)
Trauma: Physical and Psychological Impacts
According to the National Childhood Trauma Stress Network (NCTSN), a traumatic
event is a frightening, dangerous, or violent event that threatens a child’s life or bodily integrity.
When a child feels intensely threatened by an event and is involved in or witnesses it, it is called
trauma (NCTSN, 2023). Witnessing events that threaten the life or physical security of a loved
one can also be traumatic. This is particularly important for young children as their sense of
safety depends on the perceived safety of their attachment figures (NCTSN, 2023).

22
Child and adult victims of trafficking experience multiple physical and psychological
health injuries that can result in long-term health conditions. These injuries may occur due to
violence and include reproductive health problems, infectious diseases like HIV, other sexually
transmitted diseases, and unplanned pregnancies (D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al., 2018). Survivors
of sexual abuse, whose experiences are like those of sex trafficking survivors, have been
identified as having longer-term health issues, including cardiovascular problems,
gastrointestinal issues, headaches, and other pain syndromes (D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al.,
2018).
The psychological impacts on young trafficking survivors include elevated rates of
mental health concerns like depression, anxiety, and self-destructive behavior, including
substance abuse and suicidality (D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al., 2018). In addition,
Children who have experienced trafficking can be at increased risk of re-exploitation
because of isolation from family, entanglement with exploiters, lost educational
opportunities, and stigma associated with trafficking that creates barriers to seeking
services. In addition, the physical and health effects of prior childhood maltreatment may
exacerbate the effects of subsequent trafficking victimization. (D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et
al., 2018a, p. 1-13)
Trauma and ACEs, as previously mentioned, are interconnected in that children and adolescents
who have been exposed to trauma are at an increased risk for chronic health problems, mental
illness, and substance use in adulthood (CDC, 2019a).
Adverse Childhood Experiences
From 1995 to 1997, the CDC and Kaiser Permanente conducted one of the most
extensive investigations of child abuse and neglect and their connections to long-term health

23
problems, known as the ACEs study (Felitti et al., 1998). This study involved over 17,000
interviews and surveys with members from health maintenance organizations in Southern
California (Felitti et al., 1998). The findings transformed and strengthened the work of experts in
the field of child welfare. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are defined as potentially
traumatic events that occur in childhood (0–17 years), such as neglect, experiencing or
witnessing violence, or having a family member attempt or die by suicide. ACEs may also
include aspects of a child’s environment that can undermine their sense of safety, stability, and
bonding, such as growing up in a household with substance use, mental illness, or instability due
to parental separation or incarceration of a parent, sibling, or other members of the household
(Felitti et al., 1998).
The study revealed that ACEs are strongly correlated to the development of risk factors
for disease and well-being throughout one’s lifespan (Felitti et al., 1998). They have also been
linked to chronic health problems, mental illness, and substance misuse in adulthood. Further,
toxic stress from ACEs has also been found to change brain development and affect how the
body responds to stress (Felitti et al., 1998).
There is a significant correlation between childhood trauma, increased risk of being
trafficked, and school success and dropout. A statewide study by Naramore et al. (2017) of
juvenile offenders in Florida, where children were still arrested for prostitution until 2016, found
that these children were more likely than both the general population and other incarcerated
children to have had almost all the ACEs (Naramore et al., 2017). Further, children with histories
of sexual abuse are 2.5 to 3.23 times more likely than those without to experience sex trafficking
(De Vries & Goggin, 2020; Ulloa et al., 2016), and there may be a correlation between

24
experiencing multiple types of childhood abuse and increased risk for sex trafficking (Choi,
2015; D. A. Gibbs, Henninger, et al., 2018b; Reid & Piquero, 2014).
Responses to Trauma
When people experience danger, their bodies engage in an automatic and natural stress
response: fight, flee, or freeze (or faint). This physiological and hormonal response is designed to
protect the body. Usually, when the danger passes, the body will return to its natural state (Van
Der Kolk, 2015). However, Van Der Kolk (215) found that children who experience danger and
whose trauma is not identified or treated can have their bodies’ regulatory processes permanently
disrupted. This can lead to physical manifestations such as difficulty sleeping and concentrating,
headaches, oversensitivity to touch and sound, and unexplained pain. Van Der Kolk also found
that trauma may manifest in difficulty processing language and in impaired memory, decisionmaking, fine motor skills, and conceptual reasoning skills. Without the proper identification and
healthy coping skills, children may engage in self-harming behaviors such as cutting, hitting
themselves, pulling out their hair, or self-soothing such as rocking and excessive masturbation.
They may also act out or withdraw. Without appropriate clinical treatment, these maladaptive
behaviors are more likely to continue into adolescence and adulthood (Van Der Kolk, 2015).
Numerous researchers described how the effects of childhood trauma are often
demonstrated in school. Children with higher ACE scores are more likely to have language
delays, fail grades, require special education, and be suspended and expelled (Balfanz et al.,
2014; Brunzell et al., 2016; Williamson & Flood, 2021). Even though almost half (approximately
45%) of all children experience at least one ACE, most schools do not implement traumainformed curricula or have sufficient counselors and social workers to appropriately identify and
address the trauma in their student body populations (Mann et al., 2019).

25
Systems Responses to Trauma
Some systemic responses to trauma have come in the form of intervention programs in
schools, such as Cognitive Behavioral Intervention for Trauma in Schools (CBITS). This schoolbased program provides group and individual intervention using cognitive-behavioral techniques
designed to reduce symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and behavioral
problems and improve functioning, grades, attendance, peer and parent support, and coping skills
(CBITS, 2023).
Schools are also recognized as more effective settings to provide services for children
and youth and may contribute to their protective factors and healthy development through
various models (CDC, 2023b). One example of a model is the Whole School, Whole
Community, and Whole Child (WSCC) Framework. This model focuses on the individual and
environmental protective factors that can positively affect health behaviors and social
determinants of health, improve emotional well-being, and be modified through public health
and educational approaches. Social determinants of health are
the nonmedical factors that influence health outcomes. They are the conditions in which
people are born, grow, work, live, and age, and the broader set of forces and systems
shaping the conditions of daily life. These forces and systems include economic policies
and systems, development agendas, social norms, social policies, racism, climate change,
and political systems” (WHO, 2023b, para. 1).
Additional educational frameworks for schools will be discussed further in this chapter under the
section on schools in the United States.

26
Child Welfare System
In response to children and youth experiencing trauma caused by their families, in 1962,
the government initiated child protective services in the United States following the outcry
related to the publication of The Battered-Child Syndrome by pediatrician Henry Kempe and
colleagues (Kempe et al., 1962; Myers, 2008; Williamson & Flood, 2021). This publication
addressed children who were victims and survivors of abuse and neglect and marked the
beginning of children being introduced to the child welfare system. That same year, Congress
amended the Social Security Act to identify child protective services as part of all public child
welfare and required states to make child welfare services available statewide (Myers, 2008;
Williamson & Flood, 2021).
In 1974, Congress passed the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA),
which provided federal funding to states for preventing, identifying, and treating child abuse and
neglect. Regardless of the research dating back to the 1960s and 1970s demonstrating the impact
of social determinants on child abuse and neglect, advocates of CAPTA intentionally shifted the
paradigm for understanding child abuse and neglect away from racial and social inequality and
toward parental mental health (Raz, 2017). By not addressing the social determinants impacting
child abuse and neglect, policymakers destabilized the child welfare system’s ability to meet
their often-conflicting goals of child protection and family preservation. There is a general
agreement on the correlation between poverty, race, and child welfare involvement. The debate,
however, continues regarding whether the child welfare system is protecting the most vulnerable
from maltreatment or exploiting populations already oppressed and disenfranchised (Cooper,
2013).

27
Following CAPTA, Congress passed numerous other child welfare laws with the goal of
mitigating racial disparities and the number of children brought into the foster care system. In
2018, Congress passed the Family First Prevention Services Act, which responded to the
increasing number of children placed into foster care predominantly due to parental substance
and opioid use. This law focused on reforming the child welfare system by allowing federal
money for prevention and services to reduce the number of children entering care. It also limited
the federal funding that can be used to house children who enter care in group and residential
placements (Lindell et al., 2020). Focusing on preventing children from entering the child
welfare system, the Family First Prevention Services Act recognized that, even when traumainformed services such as the Child Advocacy Centers are used, system interactions in and of
themselves can be traumatizing (American Bar Association, 2019).
The child welfare system has a unique and critical role to play in the prevention and early
intervention of the sex trafficking of children. Recognizing this, Congress passed the Justice for
Victims of Trafficking Act (PL 114-22) and the Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening
Families Act (PL 113-183). These legislations required state child welfare agencies to develop
policies and procedures to identify children at risk for or experiencing sex trafficking, assess
their needs, and provide appropriate services. Despite the passage of this legislation, as of 2019,
only 41 states and the District of Columbia define child abuse and neglect to include sex
trafficking (D. A. Gibbs, Feinberg, et al., 2018b; Shared Hope International, 2019).
Juvenile Justice System
The juvenile justice system was another government-initiated child-serving system
created to provide services to children and youth who were deemed delinquent (Williamson &
Flood, 2021), which has also been linked to childhood trauma. The origins of the juvenile justice

28
system date to the establishment of the New York House of Refuge in 1825, which was
developed to provide discipline and education to poor children who were labeled delinquent.
Legislation passed during the same time contributed to the development of the juvenile justice
system and allowed children to be held against their will for crimes related to poverty, crimes
such as soliciting charity, now called panhandling (Bell, 2016; Pasko, 2010). These facilities
were shut down after reports of abusive and exploitative discipline in houses of refuge emerged.
They were replaced by juvenile courts, which first opened in 1899 with a focus on providing
protective supervision and rehabilitation (Bell, 2016; Williamson & Flood, 2021)
During the 1990s tough-on-crime era, there was a renewed focus on juvenile delinquency
and incarceration. The media often depicted children who identify as BIPOC as super-predators.
This occurred even though, starting in 1993, juvenile offender crime decreased by 67% over the
next decade. In 1994, Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act and
the Gun-Free Schools Act to curb youth violence through punitive responses. Some lawmakers
later determined this was ineffective, and some states repealed it. Efforts at the state level to
reduce the number of incarcerated children have been supported by U.S. Supreme Court
decisions (e.g., Roper v. Simmons and Graham v. Florida), which have repeatedly recognized
that adolescents are developmentally different from adults and, as a result, should not be held to
the same legal standards or consequences (Mallett & Tedor, 2018).
As with the child welfare system, there is a strong correlation between involvement in the
juvenile justice system and child sex trafficking (Connor, 2016; Gruber et al., 2016; Naramore et
al., 2017; Swaner et al., 2016). As of 2019, only 30 states prohibited the criminalization of
minors for prostitution, and 20 states continue to allow children to be incarcerated for their
experience of being sex trafficked. In addition, 18 states extend non-criminalization protections

29
to child sex trafficking survivors for offenses beyond prostitution, such as legal offenses like
shoplifting that children commit because of sex trafficking (Shared Hope International, 2019).
As with the child welfare response to trauma, the juvenile justice response
disproportionately harms girls, children who identify as BIPOC, and children who identify as
LGBTQ2S+. For example, 32% of Latinx children, 30% of Black children, and 26% of
Indigenous children with delinquency cases are detained, compared to only 21% of White
children (Sawyer, 2019). While only 14% of children in the United States are Black, 42% of
boys and 35% of girls in juvenile facilities are Black (Sawyer, 2019). Burrell (2013) argued that,
unlike the child welfare system, the juvenile justice system was not established to address trauma
or care for the safety and well-being of children; it was meant to punish and rehabilitate juvenile
offenders. Many policies and practices used in juvenile facilities can be traumatizing, especially
for children with prior trauma histories. Solitary confinement, for example, is routinely used in
juvenile institutions and results in extreme mental health harm (Burrell, 2013).
The period when minors involved in sex trafficking were prosecuted and charged as
criminals instead of as victims led to many states claiming to have enacted safe harbor
legislation, a catch-all phrase widely used to convey any attempt to reduce the criminalization of
minors for prostitution (Raino & Roeck, 2017). Safe harbor legislation, however, may lead to an
increase in the number of trafficked youths arrested, as law enforcement arrests them for
offenses resulting from their victimization (e.g., loitering, curfew violations, and nonviolent
misdemeanors) and extends the length and restrictive conditions of involuntary commitment to
protect them (Connor, 2016; Williamson & Flood, 2021).

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Legislation and Policies Related to Public Schools and Human Trafficking
The federal government’s role in education is primarily to “promote student achievement
and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring
equal access” and to ensure equal rights and access to education and civil rights enforcement
(U.S. DOE, 2021, para. 10). While the federal government's role is important, public schools are
led and led at the state and local levels (U.S. DOE, 2021). Laws and policies are passed at
multiple levels, and school administrators are expected to comply. The literature does not
consider how these laws are interpreted and implemented at the local levels. Thus, the next
discusses the laws that direct California’s public schools to address the issue of human
trafficking.
The Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) is a federal law established in 2000 and
was designed to protect victims, prevent future exploitation, and prosecute human traffickers
(U.S. Department of State, 2021). Since 2000, the TVPA has been reauthorized eight times
(2003, 2005, 2008, 2013, 2015, twice in 2017, and 2018), the Fredrick Douglass Trafficking
Protection Reauthorization Act of 2018 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2023). Each reauthorization
strengthened the original TVPA, and in 2008, the passing of the William Wilberforce Trafficking
Victims Protection Reauthorization Act added the Secretary of Education to the President’s
Interagency Task Force. Over time, while the TVPA continued to strengthen efforts, schools
were not completely part of the dialogue of human trafficking prevention and response until
2014 (U.S. Department of Justice, 2023).
In 2014, the California Senate passed Senate Bill (SB) 1165 (Pupil Instruction: Sexual
Abuse and Sex Trafficking Prevention Education), which recommended sex trafficking
prevention education in public school classrooms and required the inclusion in future public

31
health curriculum framework. That same year, California Senate Bill (SB) 855 passed the CSEC
Program. The CSEC Program shifted the perception and services from criminalizing minors
impacted by CSEC to serving them as victims of child abuse. It also prohibited the arrest of
minors involved in acts of prostitution and recognized that there is no such thing as a child
prostitute. It also created the CSEC Program by providing funding for counties that opted to
engage in multidisciplinary approaches.
In 2015, the California Healthy Youth Act (CHYA) required schools to provide
comprehensive sexual health education in Grades 7 through 12, including education on sexual
harassment, sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and sex trafficking (California Legislative
Information, n.d.-b).
In 2018, AB-1227, also known as Human Trafficking Prevention Education and Training
Act (HTPETA), became effective. This required public schools in California to teach students in
Grades 7 through 12 how to recognize and report human trafficking for both sex and labor
trafficking and learn skills to prevent it. It also directed collaboration between schools, law
enforcement, and other key stakeholders (PolicyEngage, 2023).
Fourteen years after the establishment of the TVPA, California school-based legislation
joined the public safety efforts in protecting and preventing children from human trafficking.
From 2014 to 2018, California’s legislature passed seven acts to address human trafficking of
minors and schools. Table 1 provides a synopsis of each of these laws. For more information
about each law, refer to Appendix E.

32
Table 1
Summary of California Legislation Related to Human Trafficking Prevention Education of Youth
in Public Schools
Law Summary
SB-1165 of 2014: Pupil
Instruction: Sexual Abuse and
Sex Trafficking Prevention
Education, formerly California
Comprehensive Sexual Health
and HIV/AIDS Prevention
Education Act
Recommended sex trafficking prevention education in
California public school classrooms and required the
inclusion in future public health curriculum framework.
SB-855 of 2014: The Commercial
Sexual Exploitation of Children
(CSEC) Program
Shifted perception and services from criminalizing minors
impacted by commercial sexual exploitation to serving
them as victims of child abuse. It recognized that there
is no such thing as a child prostitute. It created the
CSEC Program by providing funding for counties that
opted to engage in multidisciplinary approaches.
AB-1432 of 2015: Mandatory
child abuse training for LEAs
All local educational agencies must train to identify and
report suspected child abuse and neglect.
AB-329 of 2015: California
Healthy Youth Act (CHYA)
Required schools to provide comprehensive sexual health
education in Grades 7–12, including education on
sexual harassment, sexual assault, intimate partner
violence, and sex trafficking.
SB-1322 of 2016: Mitchell:
Commercial Sex Acts with
Minors
Decriminalized prostitution and loitering crimes for a
child under age 18; instead of an arrest, the child may
be dependent on the juvenile court.
AB-1227 of 2018: Human
Trafficking Prevention
Education and Training Act
(HTPETA),
Effective January 1, 2018, required public schools to teach
California students in Grades 7–12 how to recognize
and report human trafficking (sex and labor) and learn
skills to prevent it; also directed collaboration between
schools, law enforcement, and other key stakeholders.
SB-1104 of 2018: Roth-Pupil
Safety - Notifying Parents
Required the governing board of a school district or
charter school to identify the most appropriate methods
of informing parents in Grades 6–12 of human
trafficking prevention resources.

33
Overview of the Enactment of Laws and Schools
History has demonstrated that passing laws alone does not change behavior. Just as legal
integration of races has not prevented the practice and persistence of racial discrimination and
segregation and other significant systemic changes. Such societal attempts require long-term
attentiveness and bottom-up approaches (Chisolm-Straker & Chon, 2021). Further, studies found
that there must be a comprehensive way to collect data, focus on changing the societal perception
of how minors who are victims of sex trafficking are viewed, from criminals of child prostitution
to victims of child sexual abuse, and there is a need to address the breakdown and failures of
overlapping justice and social service systems. Each challenge contributes to and reinforces the
others (Parsons et al., 2014).
In 2015, a national study was conducted to understand the impact of mandatory reporting
laws on the efforts to address child trafficking. This study found that 10 states modified their
child abuse reporting laws to include sex and labor trafficking, and an additional four states only
covered sex trafficking (Todres, 2016). While well-intentioned, the study found that expanding
the mandatory child abuse laws might not have the intended impact without additional action.
Adding sex trafficking might not significantly change the practices of mandatory reporters as
existing law already prompts them to look for many of the traditional forms of abuse. Adding
labor trafficking to the existing mandatory reporting laws presents more challenges, as labor
trafficking is typically less visible and does not appear to meet the traditional forms of child
abuse. Therefore, mandatory reporters may not recognize it (Todres, 2016). Finally, with respect
to all forms of trafficking, without mandates and funding for training and further support for the
child welfare system, expanding mandatory reporting laws alone will not be enough to advance
anti-trafficking efforts (Atkinson et al., 2016; Todres, 2016).

34
Educational Frameworks and Limitations
Schools have historically functioned as one of the primary institutions from colonial
America to the 21st century to convey knowledge and cultural values across generations. Early
in their history, schools reflected the interests of local communities, but in the 19th century, they
also began to serve national interests, and today, they increasingly address international issues
(Mendez et al., 2017). Teaching youth about the prevention of human trafficking is a topic most
educators believe they have not been prepared for or are not comfortable with. However, many
educational curricula, frameworks, and practices are already in place that can dually serve to
build youth protective factors and resilience from traumatic events while protecting youth from
human trafficking. This section highlights literature about promising educational frameworks
and practices for creating safe and healthy school environments, teaching about sensitive topics,
and reaching vulnerable populations. It will also identify literature that describes limitations and
challenges within school systems that may interfere with accomplishing the objectives of
teaching about human trafficking prevention.
Promising School Frameworks
To address human trafficking prevention in schools, the U.S. DOE recommends using the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services paradigm approaches of the three-tiered
framework similar to Positive Behavior Interventions Supports (PBIS), Response to Intervention
(RtI), and Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS). This recommended approach breaks down
the problem of human trafficking into three categories or tiers. The primary or universal tier
requires developing environments and fostering skills in children and youth that prevent
victimization and build protective factors. The secondary tier focuses on identifying victims,

35
protecting them from further harm, and offering immediate support. The tertiary tier addresses
long-term support to those affected by trafficking (Figure 2; U.S. DOE, 2021).
Figure 2
Support Tiers
Note. From What Schools Can Do To Prevent, Interrupt, and Help Students Heal From
Trafficking by Office of Safe and Supportive Schools, 2021, p. 11. Copyright 2021 by U.S.
Department of Education

36
Positive Behavior Interventions Supports (PBIS) is an evidence-based tiered framework
schools use to support students’ behavioral, academic, social, emotional, and mental health. It
also improves school culture and promotes a safe environment for learning (Center on PBIS,
2023). Response to Intervention (RtI) is a multi-tiered approach to identifying and supporting
students with learning and behavior needs (CDE, 2023b). The RtI process begins with highquality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom.
Students who experience learning difficulties are provided with interventions at increasing
intensity levels to accelerate their learning rate (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2023).
Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) grew from integrating two other intervention-based
frameworks: RtI and PBIS. The MTSS framework helps educators to provide academic and
behavioral strategies for students with various needs. MTSS provides a basis for understanding
how California educators can work together to ensure equitable access and opportunity for all
students to achieve the Common Core State Standards (CDE, 2023b). All these frameworks
serve as models to support the educational and social-emotional needs of students.
Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child
Another educational framework schools use to contribute to the protective factors and
healthy development of youth is the WSCC framework (CDC, 2023d). This model is studentcentered and focuses on addressing health in schools and provides individual and environmental
protective factors that can positively affect youth behaviors and social determinants of health,
improve emotional well-being, and be modified through public health and educational
approaches (CDC, 2022). Teachers can contribute to a student’s individual characteristics by
helping the child or youth gain positive self-worth, high self-efficacy, social and emotional
competence, positive relationships, sound decision-making, self-control, and planning and goal

37
setting. Schools also contribute to environmental characteristics by supporting parent
engagement, creating social supports, school connectedness, and safe and caring communities
(CDC, 2023b). Figure 3 presents the WSCC model (CDC, 2023d).
Figure 3
The Whole School, Whole Community, and Whole Child Model
Note. From Whole School, Whole Community, and Whole Child by Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 2023. Copyright 2023 by U.S. Department of Health & Human Services.

38
The California Department of Education (CDE, n.d.) has also embraced the whole child
concept by identifying and hosting resources on its website to promote a school environment
where all students are safe, engaged, supported, challenged, and healthy. This model suggests
that if schools are more intentional with their actions and policies, all students, including the
most vulnerable, will have protective factors from trafficking.
Health Education as a Framework
Children and adolescents learn essential eating habits as well as health and socialemotional skills and habits from various sources, including their parents, families, peers, the
community, the media, and schools (Kelder et al., 2015; Mahmood et al., 2021). They also learn
how to navigate relationships, whether emotionally nurturing or violent, about smoking, vaping,
consuming drugs, or alcohol, and how to care for their mental, physical, and reproductive health
by learning or observing the behaviors of others (Kelder et al., 2015). Young people learn many
healthy or unhealthy habits and biases at an early age and often carry them indefinitely unless
disrupted through education or other sources (Bierman & Sanders, 2021; Chung & McBride,
2015; Kelder et al., 2015; Mahmood et al., 2021).
The World Health Organization (WHO) (2023a) broadly defined “health” as a “state of
complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity” (para. 1). Health education is an essential and critical subject in schools that provides
young people with knowledge and skills of health as a science, not from urban legends or
cultural or political bias (CDE, 2018). Social and emotional learning (SEL) is defined as the
process through which children and adults acquire and effectively apply the knowledge,
attitudes, and skills necessary to understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive
goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make

39
responsible decisions. Social and emotional learning can serve as a lever to enhance equity, build
a positive climate and culture, and foster a sense of belonging among all community members
(CDE, 2018).
Nationally, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (2023a) provides a framework for
establishing national standards for health education. This framework ensures curricula and
instruction are designed to establish, promote, and support health-enhancing behaviors for all
grade levels, emphasizing planned, sequential learning from pre-kindergarten through Grade 12.
Health education standards outline what students should know and be able to do by the end of
specified grades. These standards serve as a valuable tool for schools in selecting, designing, or
revising curricula, including curricula to teach about human trafficking prevention. The CDC
also provides a health education curriculum analysis tool (HECAT). This tool provides guidance
to improve curriculum selection and development (CDC, 2021).
At the state level, the CDE (2023a) provides content standards as another framework
designed to encourage the highest achievement of every student by defining the knowledge,
concepts, and skills that students should acquire at each grade level. According to the health
education content standards for California public schools, health education is a continuum of
learning experiences that enables students, as individuals and as members of society, to make
informed decisions, modify behaviors, and change social conditions in ways that are healthenhancing and increase health literacy (CDE, 2009). The California Health Education
Framework aligns with the 2008 California health education content standards, which support
the development of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in eight overarching standards: essential
health concepts; analyzing health influences; accessing valid health information; interpersonal
communication; decision-making; goal setting; practicing health-enhancing behaviors; and

40
health promotion in six content areas of health education: nutrition and physical activity; growth,
development, and sexual health; injury prevention and safety; alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs;
mental, emotional, and social health; and personal and community health (CDE, 2023a).
Challenges in Schools
While literature was limited in identifying how administrators interpret and implement
legislation and policies, one national study exploring principals’ perception of school violence
prevention programs found that implementing a school-based program depends significantly on
whether the principal perceives it to be needed (Price & Everett, 1997; Rizo et al., 2021).
Another study explored recommendations for educating youth about sex trafficking in North
Carolina and recommended that the content focus on healthy and unhealthy relationships,
general information about sex trafficking, and identification of safe people and needed resources
(Lesak et al., 2021). This same study identified implementation challenges and related strategies
connected to lack of time and space in the school curriculum, parents’ discomfort with educating
their children about sex trafficking, and buy-in from school administrators (Lesak et al., 2021).
Summary
Human trafficking is a form of modern slavery and includes both sex trafficking and
labor trafficking. It occurs when a person or group has been induced by another using force,
fraud, or coercion to gain something of value. However, to qualify a crime where the victim is
under age 18 as trafficking, prosecutors do not need to prove that force, fraud, or coercion was
used. In California, minors are unable to legally consent to sex. This chapter identified literature
describing the varying interpretations of the definition of human trafficking, including that
trafficking minors is a form of child abuse.

41
This chapter also identified literature about the risk factors causing youth to be vulnerable
to human trafficking and identified four categories of risk factors. The first is demographics.
While every demographic has experienced sex trafficking, girls and children who identify as
BIPOC and or LGBTQ2S+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, Two-Spirit,
and other) are significantly overrepresented among the victims of human trafficking. The second
category of risk factors was about persons with a prior history of abuse and trauma. The
literature revealed that youth at most risk for experiencing sex trafficking typically have complex
histories of abuse and deprivation, including childhood sexual abuse, family violence, substance
use, and involvement with the juvenile justice and child welfare systems. The third category of
risk factors identified was that of minors who run away from home or who experience
homelessness. The final category identified societal and environmental factors. Examples include
the sexualization of children and youth, strict gender roles, homophobia and transphobia,
tolerance of the marginalization of others, lack of awareness of child trafficking, lack of
resources for exploited youth, structural racism, and tolerance of community and relationship
violence. Other examples are having relationships with others also involved in the sex trade or
individualized risk factors of being a minor with a disability or being an unaccompanied minor
for migration purposes. All of these have been identified as putting youth at risk of trafficking.
The literature on trauma described the significance of ACEs and their relation to having
long-term physical and psychological effects on others impacted by human trafficking. This
chapter also sought to highlight legislation and policies specifically related to youth and public
schools. While the TVPA was established in 2000, schools did not have specific laws or policies
about human trafficking until 2014, when they were required to integrate sex trafficking
prevention education in Grades 7 through 12. In 2018, the HTPETA required California public

42
schools to teach students in Grades 7 through 12 how to recognize and report human trafficking
for both sex and labor trafficking but did not provide additional funding or specific instruction on
how to do so.
This chapter also identified literature about educational frameworks and empirical gaps in
implementing human trafficking prevention in public schools. The U.S. DOE encouraged
schools to use a three-tiered approach to preventing and responding to human trafficking. The
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services adapted this approach (Figure 2). Tier 1
recommends universal strategies for students, staff, and policy development. Tier 2 recommends
strategies for responding to trafficking, and Tier 3 recommends treatment, recovery, and
reintegration of survivors. This section also highlighted the CDC’s WSCC model (Figure 3) and
health education as a farmwork for educating children and youth as a form of human trafficking
prevention.
Finally, the challenges and empirical gaps identified a lack of literature on how schools
implement human trafficking programs. One study found that the principal’s perception of
school violence prevention programs contributes significantly to whether the principal deems it
important and needed. Another challenge found for schools was related to lack of time and space
in the curriculum, parents’ discomfort with the topic and curriculum, and lack of buy-in from
administrators. There was also a lack of literature on the topic of labor trafficking of children and
youth and how to teach about recognizing it.

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the methodology used to conduct an
exploratory-descriptive qualitative study to examine participants’ perceptions of how their school
district interprets and implements human trafficking legislation and policies. Two core research
questions guided this study:
● What are the perceptions of how the leadership of a public school district in California is
interpreting and implementing human trafficking education legislation and policies in
schools?
● What are the best practices, needs, and gaps for schools to implement human trafficking
prevention education to students?
The aim of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of the topic to identify best practices
and needs for schools to deliver human trafficking prevention education to children and youth.
This chapter will further describe the study’s design, participants, procedures, analysis method,
and ethical concerns.
Design of the Study
I used an exploratory-descriptive qualitative design since I sought to explore a specific
goal. These methods are recommended when the concepts under study are vague, and the
qualitative interviews are analyzed using descriptive methods (Hunter et al., 2019; Lederman,
1993). A qualitative exploratory design allows for an examination of a topic with limited
coverage in the literature and allows the participants of the study to contribute to the
development of new knowledge in that area (Hunter et al., 2019; Reid-Searl & Happell, 2012).
I also approached this work using a transformative worldview, which holds that research
inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political change agenda to confront social

44
oppression at whatever levels it occurs (Creswell, 2018; Mertens, 2010). This approach
proceeded collaboratively with the participants to help collect data, analyze information, and
gain the benefits of the research. It also helped to raise the consciousness of the participants and
provided them with a voice to improve the lives of others for reform and change (Creswell,
2018).
The Researcher
I am a practitioner of social work and public child welfare with 32 years’ experience.
During this time, I spent 18 years in public education working at multiple levels, from being a
school social worker at several schools, coordinating school crisis teams and health and human
services programs, to ultimately advancing to the executive level of the school district’s school
operations department and policy development for student health and human services. Prior to
this, I spent 7 years working in child protection services and 7 years teaching various graduatelevel social work practicum courses for the University of Southern California.
Throughout my 32 years of social work experience, I simultaneously interned and
volunteered with various organizations and sectors, including juvenile justice and youth
diversion programs, mental health, and specialized sexual abuse units for children and their
families. I hold a Bachelor of Science in Rehabilitation Counseling, a Master of Social Work,
credentials in educational administrative services, pupil personnel services, and certificates in
child abuse and family violence and human trafficking. I served as a human trafficking
consultant with the Los Angeles County Office of Education and the Los Angeles Unified
School District. I am also an active member of the Los Angeles Regional Human Trafficking
Task Force and the Long Beach Human Trafficking Task Force. I have presented at national and
local conferences as a recognized leader in public child welfare and school social work. I also

45
serve as a committee member with the National Association of Social Workers - Child Welfare
specialty practice section.
I have been trained in the skills to carry out the designed study and have experience
interviewing others as an investigator, clinician, and administrator in various capacities since
1991. I have also completed the various requirements for conducting qualitative and behavioral
science research through the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) program and
received approval from the school district and the university’s internal review boards.
Participants
The sample of 12 participants came from one California school district. The participants
were preselected based on their professional positions and roles within the district. The primary
participants were administrators directly responsible for human trafficking education in the
district. The secondary participants were administrators who worked in different departments in
the school district in collaboration with student wellness, child protection, and human trafficking
prevention efforts. The participants were either preselected or identified based on their
departments and or professional roles as identified on the district’s website and by asking those
in the district who would be the most knowledgeable and responsible for this work. Once names
and emails were identified, I approached these individuals via email or phone to confirm their
roles and responsibilities related to serving, protecting, or educating children and youth related to
human trafficking. If they were determined to have some direct or indirect administrative
responsibilities related to human trafficking education and policy implementation, I invited them
to participate in this study.
I informed the invited participants of the goals of the study and provided proof in writing
that the district’s IRB preapproved the study. Those who agreed to participate received the

46
university’s preapproved informed consent document (See Appendix A), along with the
interviewing instrument with all the questions I would ask them. I required a signed informed
consent document for each participant prior to the interview. After the individuals agreed to
participate, I asked their availability to be interviewed. Due to the continued public health
restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic, the interviews were conducted virtually.
I anticipated approximately 12 to 15 participants. The sampling pool was limited due to
the specific requirements for the study: administrators with specific skills and responsibilities. In
all, I determined 12 participants to be sufficient for saturation.
The participants represented four different district departments. Due to the school
district’s request to maintain anonymity, I assigned the participants a number from 1 to 12 and
kept their names in a separate confidential file. In Chapter 4, the first section provides further
information on the participants’ educational backgrounds and professional experiences.
Research Instrument and Data Collection
As a professional with previous content knowledge in the field of human trafficking and
other child welfare topic, I served as an instrument for data collection. The other instrument was
a semi-structured interview protocol. I gathered information by interviewing the participants and
interpreting the data. Each participant received, in advance, the interview protocol, which
contained a list of themes and questions.
The interview protocol consisted of seven sections. Each section contained various open
and closed-ended questions, for a total of 80 questions. The sections were identified as follows:
(a) Who are you? (b) Your knowledge about human trafficking; (c) Training staff on general
topics; (d) Training staff on the topic of human trafficking; (e) Training and educating students
on the topic of human trafficking; (f) the training and educational curriculum and supplemental

47
material used; and (g) the best practices and needs for implementing and interpreting human
trafficking prevention education. The questions in this last section were designed to elicit
responses to aid in understanding the interviewees’ perceptions of what is working well and what
they perceive as gaps or barriers to delivering education on human trafficking. The following
sections present the purpose of each section in the interview protocol.
Section 1: Who Are You? Identification of the Interviewees
This section sought to understand the participants’ professional roles, experiences, and
educational credentials to establish their credibility. The questions in this section were as
follows:
1. What is your name? (Later assigned a number)
2. Date of interview.
3. Location of interview.
4. Mode of interview: in-person, virtual, etc.?
5. What is your professional title for your current position?
6. How long have you been in this position?
7. What are your professional credentials?
8. What are you directly responsible for? (What programs or work within the district do you
support or serve?)
9. What other professional positions have you held related to schools and working with
children/youth?
10. How long did you do this work?
11. What else should I know about you as related to your professional background?

48
Section 2: Your Knowledge About Human Trafficking
This section aimed to understand the participants’ perceptions and interpretation of the
definition of human trafficking and the laws and policies related to human trafficking prevention
education. The questions were as follows:
1. How do you define human trafficking (HT)?
2. What is your understanding of HT?
3. How many hours (estimated) of training on the topic of HT have you received?
4. How was the training(s) conducted in person, virtual, or both?
5. Who or which agency(s) trained you, internal district experts/personnel, external experts
(law enforcement, medical or mental health, etc.), persons with lived experience, or a
combination?
6. Are you familiar with the federal, state, and or local policies or legislation related to HT
education? Explain.
7. How are you interpreting these policies? What do these policies mean to you?
8. What is the district’s policy about human trafficking prevention education?
9. Do you believe human trafficking of minors is a social issue that schools could or should
play a role in solving? Explain.
10. What else should I know about your HT training or background that was not asked?
Section 3: Training staff – general topics. This section sought to understand the depth of
expertise of training staff on human trafficking and other intersecting topics such as foster care
and mental health. The questions were as follows:
1. Do you provide training on human trafficking for the district?
a. If yes, who do you train or educate (other staff, students, parents, etc.)?

49
b. If not, what is your role with the human trafficking training to staff and education
to students?
2. Are all district staff trained on human trafficking?
a. If not, please clarify who receives training.
3. Do all schools (staff and students included) receive training on human trafficking
prevention?
a. If not, how are schools selected to receive training?
4. What other topics do you provide training on?
5. What else should I know about this category but did not ask?
Section 4: Training Staff on the Topic of Human Trafficking
This section sought to understand the logistics of how staff training was implemented and
evaluated. The questions were as follows:
1. Of the schools that receive the training, are all staff (including teachers, administrators,
support staff, or other classified staff) trained?
a. If not, what are the criteria for selecting the staff to be trained?
2. Is the training mandated or recommended?
3. What is the expectation of the staff after they are trained?
a. Are the staff then expected to train/educate others? If so, who do they
train/educate?
b. Explain
4. Can staff opt out of the training?
5. How often do you or your staff provide HT training to others?
6. How are these pieces of training conducted, in-person, virtually, via webinar, etc.?

50
7. In what settings do you train participants, in the classroom, in auditorium style, etc.?
8. So far, how many staff trainings have you personally taught?
9. How many staff have you trained (estimated)?
10. How many staff trainings did you coordinate for someone else to teach?
11. How long is each training for staff (number of days, hours, minutes)?
a. Is it a one-time event or a series of training?
12. How many staff are trained at one time?
a. What is the minimum number of staff trained at one time?
b. What is the maximum number of staff trained at one time?
13. Are follow-up training or resources available to the staff and students after the initial
training?
a. If so, explain.
14. How do you measure the outcomes of the staff training?
a. Am I able to review this information?
15. What is done with the information after it is collected?
16. How confident do you feel about training staff on this topic (on a scale from 0 – 5, 0 =
not confident at all, 5 = very confident)?
17. What else should I know about this category that was not asked?
Section 5: Training and Educating Students on the Topic of Human Trafficking
The purpose of this section was to gain a thorough understanding of the logistics of how
student training was implemented and evaluated. The questions were as follows:
1. How are students educated about HT? Please explain.
2. Are all students in the district educated on the prevention of HT?

51
a. If not, is there a specific criterion or process for which students are identified,
such as grade levels, class subjects, students with high absences, foster youth,
etc.?
3. What is the process for educating students on HT?
a. Is parental consent needed prior?
b. If so, what type of consent is required?
4. Can students opt out of the training?
5. Who delivers the HT education to the students (teachers, internal district experts, external
experts, etc.)?
6. In what environment or setting are students educated (in the classroom, auditorium, etc.)?
7. In which methods is the student training provided (in person, virtual, webinar, etc.)?
8. What are the objectives of the student HT education? Explain.
9. Which pedagogies are used to deliver the HT objectives to the students (authority/lecture
style, collaboration, feedback and reflection, demonstrator or coach style, facilitator or
activity style, interactive activities, explicit/learning from the expert, etc.)?
10. How many hours are students educated on the topic of HT?
11. After the student’s education, what follows? Are the students required to complete an
assignment, class project, etc.?
12. If a student misses the HT education, are there make-up sessions? Explain.
13. What policies or protocols are in place if a student is suspected of being a victim of HT?
14. What other resources are available for students who identify as high risk for HT?
15. How confident do you feel about educating students on this topic (on a scale from 0 – 5,
0 = not confident at all, 5 = very confident)?

52
16. What other efforts has the district taken to educate children about this topic? Please
explain.
17. What else should I know about this category that was not asked?
Section 6: The Training, Educational Curriculum, and Supplemental Material Used
This section sought to identify and understand the purpose of the instructional materials
used to deliver human trafficking prevention education and how this material was selected. The
questions were as follows:
1. Is there a specific curriculum used to train others on the topic of HT?
a. If so, what is the name of the curriculum or program?
b. Who are the authors of this curriculum?
2. Is the curriculum evidence-based, based on research, or another theoretical framework?
Explain.
a. Or was the program created by district experts? Explain.
3. How was this curriculum selected?
4. Is there a cost associated with this program?
5. For the trainers of this curriculum or program, how much preparation time do they (staff)
receive on the material?
6. Is there a separate curriculum for the students and staff?
a. If different, what are the objectives of the training material for staff?
b. Students?
7. How do you measure the outcomes of the staff training(s)?
8. How do you measure the outcomes of the student training(s)?

53
9. What do you do with this information you collect? If so, am I able to review a blank
evaluation tool? Or is there a summary of the data or compiled report that I may review?
10. Are there supplemental materials and resources needed for the training? If so, what are
they, and can I review them?
11. What other information should I know about this section of training material but did not
ask?
Section 7: The Best Practices and Needs for Implementing and Interpreting Human
Trafficking Prevention Education
This section aimed to understand better the best practices for implementing and
evaluating the human trafficking prevention program policies and to determine if there were any
needs or gaps in service or policy. The questions were as follows:
1. What are the best practices for providing HT education to staff?
2. In your opinion, what are the best practices for providing HT education to students?
3. In your opinion, what are the needs or challenges in providing HT education to staff?
4. In your opinion, what are the needs or challenges in providing HT education to students?
5. What are the barriers to delivering HT training to staff?
6. What are the barriers to delivering HT education to students?
7. In your opinion, in general, what else is needed to protect children/youth from human
trafficking?
8. What else do schools need or can do to protect students from human trafficking?
9. What else should I know about best practices or needs for research that was not asked?

54
Prior to conducting the interviews, I prepared PowerPoint (PPT) slides with the themes
and questions from the interviewing instrument. To ensure consistency in asking the questions, I
displayed the slides during the entire interview. Appendix B presents the PPT slides.
Interviews
The interviews took place between February 24, 2022, and March 21, 2022. The
interviews were conducted virtually due to the state and county health restrictions of not having
in-person contact related to the COVID-19 pandemic. The virtual platform used was Zoom. With
permission from the participants, I recorded the interviews using the Zoom recording features.
All participants were on camera during their entire interviews. I transcribed each interview and
provided the transcripts to the participants to review for accuracy and validity.
Procedures Followed
I sought the approvals from the IRB at the University of Southern California and the
school district. Once both institutions granted approval, I contacted the district’s office of the
superintendent to request the names and contact information of the individuals who would be the
most knowledgeable and responsible for implementing education on human trafficking
prevention policies in schools. I received two people’s names and contact information. I
followed up by contacting the identified parties via email and invited them to participate in the
study. Appendix C presents the email invitation template.
Before each interview, I ensured I received the consent forms and reminded the
participants that the interviews were voluntary, anonymous, and confidential and that they would
be recorded for both voice and video to capture accurate information. I also reminded them of
the designated time allotted, which was an hour, and asked if they would be able to extend their

55
time if needed. I also reminded the participants of the data collection process and the next steps.
There were no objections to the process.
At the end of each interview, I asked if they could recommend additional professionals in
their district who are either leaders, administrators, or support staff knowledgeable and
responsible for implementing human trafficking prevention education to students. This process
led to the identification of additional interviewees.
During each of the virtual interviews, I displayed the PPT slides throughout the
discussion, with one question displayed at a time. I paused throughout the interview to review
the time and offered breaks if needed. Most participants took the designated hour; others went
over time, from 15 to 30 minutes. One participant had a second interview for 2 hours due to the
abundance of content.
Immediately following each interview, I reminded the participants that they would
receive a written transcript of their responses along with the Zoom recording link within 2 to 4
weeks. I instructed them that after receiving the transcript, they would have 2 weeks to review it
for accuracy and to submit any recommended edits to me. Finally, I informed them that they
would receive an electronic gift card in the amount of $50.00 for their time. This dollar amount
was based on an arbitrary number.
Between 24 and 72 hours after each interview, I transcribed each session using the Zoom
recording and handwritten notes and typed the participant’s responses into a Word document.
Although Zoom has a transcription feature, it does not accurately capture all the words or
concepts. Therefore, I carefully replayed the videos, frame by frame, multiple times to document
the dialogue and their answers word for word correctly. After transcribing two interviews, I
determined that it was not conducive to capture all the “ums,” “uuhhs,” stuttering, or repeated

56
words. After cleaning each transcript, I emailed them to the individual participants along with the
Zoom recording link and reminded them to review these for accuracy and to submit any edits
within 2 weeks. One participant responded and corrected her title. I saved the transcripts and
stored them in a password-protected file. I stored all handwritten notes and diagrams in a locked
cabinet marked “confidential dissertation interviews and notes.” I did not review any documents.
Data Analysis
For this study, I used methods recognized by Strauss and Corbin (2015) to analyze the
data from the interviews. The methods used to analyze the data consisted of coding for analysis.
“Coding” and “analysis” are often used interchangeably when discussing data analysis, but they
are not the same (Strauss & Corbin, 2015). Strauss and Corbin noted that coding is about going
through data and denoting concepts to interpret information, and the results are a set of codes.
They stated that analysis refers to both the concept and thought processes that go into assigning
meaning to data. It is exploratory, considers different meanings to data, and then documents the
thought that occurred before arriving at a possible meaning. The thought process is noted as a
memo, which is a dynamic and evolving process. Meanings are assigned and reassigned based on
the association with incoming data (Strauss & Corbin, 2015). Creswell (2018) defined coding as
organizing data by bracketing chunks (text or image segments) and writing a word representing a
category in the margins. The process involves examining the text or comments and labeling
those categories with a term, often based on the actual verbiage of the participant, called an in
vivo term (Creswell, 2018).
In preparing to analyze the data, the transcripts were carefully reviewed and interpreted
using key terms and notes in the margins using the “new comment” Word feature. These notes
consisted of arising and repeated themes, literature, concepts, and legislation to be explored and

57
considered for incorporation. I used the analysis and coding process, as Strauss and Corbin
(2015) described, to interpret meaning, themes, and frequencies. The coding was completed in
sequence when the interviews were conducted. After I cleaned all the transcripts and synthesized
the notes, I carefully combed through each transcript again to crystalize the themes, patterns,
significant revelatory moments, and assigned meaning. I did this for each of the each of the
seven sections of the interviews.
Seven separate worksheets were created to correspond to each of the sections. The first
worksheet combined all the responses and themes from Section 1, Questions 1 through 11, and
labeled “Part 1 notes and themes.” The second worksheet repeated the process of combining all
the responses and themes from Section 2, Questions 1 through 10, and labeled it “Part 2 notes
and themes.” I repeated this process for all seven sections. Once I coded all sections for themes
and other findings, I created an excel spreadsheet to organize the data by sections and themes. I
created seven tabs in the Excel spreadsheet, one for each interview section. Each tab contained
rows and columns corresponding to individual questions and answers. This process helped to
crystalize further the frequency of how often the themes were mentioned. I later used this
information to create the charts presented in Chapter 4.
The participants were not part of analyzing, writing, or editing the analysis and results.
The participants did not have access to any of the other interview content.
Ethical Concerns and Trustworthiness
I ensured ethics and trustworthiness remained a top priority for the study. The methods
discussed earlier in this chapter were significant to ensure validity and reliability. Qualitative
validity means that the researcher checks the accuracy of the findings by employing specific
procedures, whereas qualitative reliability indicates that the researchers’ approach is consistent

58
across different researchers and among different projects (Creswell, 2018; G. R. Gibbs, 2007).
The examples of how the transcripts were carefully processed and returned to the participants for
their review were part of ensuring the ethical and trustworthiness of the study.
I completed the prerequisites for conducting qualitative and behavioral science research
through the CITI program and received approval from both the university and school district’s
IRBs. I provided the informed consent forms and the interviewing tool to each participant in
advance. Prior to each interview, I ensured that the consent was signed and received and that the
information was verbally reviewed. To ensure that I consistently asked the same questions to
each of the participants, I provided the questions on PPT slides displayed to the participants
throughout the interview. I had no relationships with any participants that represented a conflict
of interest, such as a reporting relationship.
Conclusion
I used an exploratory-descriptive qualitative methodology to interview 12 administrators
from a public school district in California to understand how they interpret and implement laws
and policies related to human trafficking prevention education of students. This study also sought
to understand the perceptions of the school administrators’ thoughts about best practices and
barriers, if any, in the delivery of services to the students. I also used a transformative worldview
as the research related to politics and a political change agenda to confront the social issues of
human trafficking of children and youth as a global and local issue.
I sought the appropriate approval from the university and school district’s IRBs, but as a
condition for conducting the study, the school district leaders requested that the district’s name
remain anonymous. Therefore, I agreed, as their anonymity would hopefully encourage
unfiltered responses. With the support of the office of the superintendent’s administrative team, I

59
identified 12 administrators who were either directly responsible for or who supported the human
trafficking prevention education programs. I used a semi-structured interview protocol as a tool
to collect the data from the virtual interviews. Informed consent forms were collected and stored
in safe locations.
I carefully transcribed the interviews and analyzed them using the methodologies set
forth by Strauss and Corbin (2015): coding and using memos to comb through the information to
identify themes and patterns. The data were then quantified and described in tables presented in
Chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION OF DATA
This study investigated the perception of 12 administrators from one district in California
to learn how they interpret and implement human trafficking prevention education laws and
policies for students. This study also sought to identify their best practices and any gaps or
barriers in delivering this education. I anticipated that this investigation would clarify and
enhance future interpretation and implementation for other school districts to prevent human
trafficking of children and youth through education. The interviews took place between February
24, 2022, to March 21, 2022. The participants were conducted via video conferencing and were
allowed to skip questions if they did not know the answers.
I analyzed the interview using the methodologies described in Chapter 3 to discover the
core themes that emerged from each of the seven categories investigated. The sections were as
follows: (a) the participants’ professional backgrounds and experiences, (b) their training and
knowledge about the topic of human trafficking and the related laws and policies, (c) their
training and expertise on other topics that may also intersect with the topic of human trafficking,
(d) the logistics of how staff receive human trafficking training, (e) the logistics of how students
receive human trafficking training or education, (f) the curriculum and supplemental materials
used for training and education, and (g) the best practices, gaps, and or barriers to educating
students and staff on the topic of human trafficking.
The first section will examine the 12 participants’ professional backgrounds and
experiences. This section aimed to identify themes or patterns in their professional training,
roles, and responsibilities. The second section will examine the participants’ training and
knowledge about the topic of human trafficking and relevant policies related to schools. The
expectation was that the participants had some knowledge about the topic, and it was important

61
to understand their comprehension of this topic. The third section will examine the participants’
training and expertise in other topics. Human trafficking is a new topic to many school districts,
and it was essential to understand the intersections of their other roles and expertise with this
topic. The fourth section pertains to what is offered or provided to the staff in terms of human
trafficking training. What are the policies, if any, to train staff on human trafficking? The fifth
section is to understand what is offered or provided to the students in terms of human trafficking
prevention education. The sixth section is to identify the specific curriculum, resources, or
supplemental materials used to deliver this training and education to others. Finally, the seventh
section was designed to capture themes in the best practices, barriers, or gaps in services in
delivering human trafficking education to students and staff. For this study, the term “staff” is
used interchangeably to describe a school district’s certificated and classified employees.
However, all of this study’s participants were certificated.
Section 1: Understanding the Participants’ Professional Backgrounds and Experiences
The first section presents the group data and core themes of the 12 participants’
professional backgrounds and experiences. This section aimed to determine the baseline of their
education and work experience. As described in Chapter 3, the participants were preselected
based on their professional roles in the school district. The data are presented in the sequence of
the interview questions. The subsequent charts present the emerging core themes. The first
section had 10 questions regarding the interviewee’s name, date, and location. The numbering
sequence for this section begins at 1.4 to follow the sequence of questions from the interview
protocol, as questions 1.1 through 1.3 asked for their names, the date of their interviews, and
their locations.

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Question 1.4 asked, What is your title or position within the district? Most of the
participants held titles as Coordinators six (50%). Other titles included Executive Director,
Director, Interim Director, Facilitator, and Specialist.
Table 2
Professional Titles and Positions Within the District
Core Themes # of respondents % of total
Coordinators 6 50%
Directors 2 17%
Executive Director 1 8%
Interim Director 1 8%
Facilitator 1 8%
Specialist 1 8%

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Question 1.5 asked, How long have you been in this position? The average time the
participants spent in these specific positions was 4.58 years (Table 3). Table 4 presents the mean,
mode, and median length of time in these positions.
Table 3
Length of Time in Positions
Core themes # of respondents
15 Years (180 months) 1
12 Years (144 months) 1
9 Years (108 months) 1
6 Years (72 months) 1
5 Years (60 months) 1
3.5 Years (42 months) 1
3 Years (36 months) 3
2.5 Years (30 months) 1
2 Years (24 months) 1
3 Months (3 months) 1

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Table 4
Mean, Mode, and Median Length of Time in These Positions
Mean 5.35 Years
Mode 3 Years
Median 3.5 Years
Question 1.6 asked, What are your professional credentials? All participants earned at
least one graduate degree and had at least one credential in either pupil personnel services,
teaching, or educational administration. Nine (75%) held an administrative services of education
credential; eight (67%) had a pupil personnel services credential, of whom three had a
specialization in child welfare and attendance; and two (17%) had teaching credentials. Seven
participants (58%) had dual graduate degrees (two master’s degrees or a master’s and a
doctorate.) Three (25%) had doctorate degrees in social work, educational leadership, and
education, policy, or planning. For those with dual master’s degrees, five (42%) had degrees in
social work; three (25%) in counseling, marriage family therapy; and one (8%) had psychology,
educational leadership, and educational policy and planning. Six (50%) had clinical licenses, of
whom four were licensed clinical social workers. Two were licensed marriage and family
therapists.

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Table 5
Professional Credentials
Core themes # of respondents % of total
Master’s degree and credential 12 100%
Administrative Services of education credential 9 75%
Pupil personnel services credentials 8 67%
Dual graduate degrees 7 58%
Clinical licenses 6 50%
Graduate degrees in social work 6 50%
Graduate degrees in education 5 42%
Graduate degrees in school counseling 3 25%
Doctorate degrees 3 25%
Graduate degrees in marriage and family therapy 2 17%
Teaching credential 2 17%
Question 1.7 asked, What are you directly responsible for in the district? All participants
reported being responsible for the implementation of various district policies. Six (50%) reported
that they coordinate health and human services and training for school staff only, and five (42%)
provided executive oversite, quality assurance, and compliance services, including for student
health and human services, child abuse mandates, student equity and non-discrimination, crisis
management, and other non-instructional matters. Two (17%) provided direct services to
students, including youth identified as in foster care, on probation, or unhoused. One (8%)
provided instructional training for staff and students, which included HIV and AIDS for health
education programs. Others coordinated crisis response for students and staff and coordinated

66
human trafficking awareness training for staff. The participants represent four different district
departments: student health and human services, office of instruction, office of general council,
and school operations. Nine (75%) participants were from the department of student health and
human services (Table 6).
Table 6
Direct Responsibilities
Core themes # of
respondents
% of totals
Policy implementation 12 100%
Coordination of health and human services 6 50%
Executive oversight and compliance with policies 5 42%
Direct services to high-risk students 2 17%
Coordinate health education programs 1 8%
Coordinate human trafficking awareness training 1 8%
Coordinate crisis response training and services 1 8%

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Table 7
Departments Represented
Core Themes # of
respondents
% of totals
Student health and human services 9 75%
Office of instruction 1 8%
Office of general counsel 1 8%
Office of school operations 1 8%
Question 1.8 asked, What are other professional positions you have held related to
schools and working with children and youth? All participants (100%) reported working directly
with children and youth. Ten (83%) reported working with high-risk youth, including those
incarcerated or on probation, in foster care, or homeless, and youth with special needs, including
those with physical, emotional, or learning disabilities. Four (33%) others’ professional
experiences included mental health clinicians, school attendance, and college counseling. Three
(25%) were community organizers, two (17%) were schoolteachers, and one (8%) had
experience as a child protection services investigator, school principal and assistant principal,
and sports coach.

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Table 8
Other Professional Positions in Schools and With Children and Youth
Core themes # of
respondents
% of total
Direct services 12 100%
Direct service with high-risk youth 10 83%
Mental health clinicians 4 33%
School attendance and college counseling 4 33%
Community organizer 3 25%
School teacher 2 17%
Child protection services/investigator 1 8%
Special education 1 8%
School principal and assistant principal 1 8%
Sports coach 1 8%
Question 1.9 asked, Overall, how long have you worked in this field? The term “field”
refers to the previous question of exploring how long they worked with youth and schools in a
professional capacity. The average (mean) length of time was 25.5 years. The mode was 22
years, and the median was 23.5 years.

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Table 9
Total Years of Professional Experience Working With Children and Youth
Common themes # of respondents % of total
22 Years 4 33%
28 Years 2 17%
20 Years 2 17%
25 Years 1 8%
34 Years 1 8%
32 Years 1 8%
30 Years 1 8.%
Table 10
Mean, Mode, and Median Years of Total Professional Experience
Mean 25.5 Years
Mode 22 Years
Median 23.5 Years

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Question 1.10 asked, What else should be known about your professional background
that was not asked? Five (42%) perceived themselves as experts in their fields; three (25%) felt
passionate and committed to their work; two (17%) recognized that schools were beginning to
shift their perspectives from focusing solely on instruction to working more with the whole child.
They attributed this shift in perspective to research that intersects the social-emotional needs of
youth with academic success, citing the study conducted by the CDC on ACEs and the
significance of being a trauma-informed school district. One interviewee summarized this
sentiment in the following way: “If kids are not mentally healthy, they will not do well
academically.”
Other comments were interesting but tangential, such that a participant celebrated that the
department of student health and human services is beginning to incorporate classroom teachers
more into programs and services and creating new positions to focus on students and families.
Other participants highlighted their experience of working in non-public schools, another
authored and published a book about therapeutic strategies for working with youth, and another
reported being politically active.

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Table 11
What Else Should Be Known About You?
Common themes # of respondents % of totals
Perceived themselves as an expert 5 42%
Passionate and committed to this work 3 25%
Schools beginning to shift perspective 2 17%
Nothing more to add 2 17
Non-public schools and charter schools 1 8%
Authored and published a book 1 8%
Politically active 1 8%
Summary of Section 1
This first section identified the scope of experiences of the participants, including all 12
of the participants possessing formal graduate degrees, many with multiple graduate degrees,
clinical licenses, and doctorates. They have an average of 25.5 years of professional experience
working with children, youth, and schools. The participants represent four different departments
within the district, and they perceived themselves as experts in their field, passionate and
committed to children, youth, and schools.
Section 2: Understanding The Participants’ Knowledge and Training About the Topic of
Human Trafficking
This section presents the data for category two, where the objective is to gain a better
understanding of the participant’s knowledge and perceptions about the topic of human
trafficking and its laws and policies related to schools. This section had 10 questions.

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Question 2.1 asked, How do you define human trafficking? The participants answered the
question by describing and giving examples of what human trafficking means to them, which is
part of Question 2.2: What is your understanding of human trafficking? For Questions 2.1. and
2.2, all participants recognized that human trafficking causes trauma to children, and three (50%)
were able to identify five to six of the nine significant markers of the definition. Those markers
are commercial sex, involuntary servitude, labor, force, fraud, coercion, crime, child abuse, and
the exchange for money or something of value. Three participants (25%) identified at least four
markers of human trafficking, two (17%) identified at least 7 or 8, and one (8%) identified two.
Further, nine (75%) participants identified that sex, sexual exploitation, or sexual abuse are part
of the definition of human trafficking. In contrast, only four (33%) identified that labor is also
part of the definition. The participants described behaviors by exploiters, discussed the impact
that human trafficking has on children, or provided warning signs that a child is being exploited
that one should be aware of. The participants also described human trafficking as a dangerous
and illegal activity. Participant responses evidenced their understanding of human trafficking.
One stated, “Using force, fraud, or coercion to force someone into some type of labor or
commercial sex act and holding them [victims] against their will.” Another said,
There are two types: labor and sex. It happens in the [United States]. Labor examples
include agriculture with indentured servitude and the garment district. With sex
trafficking, specific youth are targeted: homeless, foster youth, peers in schools, and
LGBTQ. Some youths do it for popularity, and others recruit other victims to take their
place so they can get out.
A third interviewee offered,

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The exploitation of someone for a type of good, money, or service. [CSEC] is a form of
human trafficking. There are many ways of entry. Some enter willfully or by force. They
(victims) can be entering from other countries. It is a form of modern-day slavery. It
happens around the world, and anyone can be trafficked: adults, children, men, and
women.
A fourth stated,
Using other humans for free or forced labor and sex. Traumas and abuses are caused by
others. This can affect adults and children. They may also have some connection to home
environments, or the victims could be from loving homes. Human trafficking is
dangerous and hard to get out of. They (victims) sometimes do not get out for fear and
not knowing what to do.
Lastly, one interviewee said, “This happens in the United States. It is multi-layered and multidimensional, and sometimes, they give consent and others without consent. The recruitment
process (of exploiters) varies. There are a lot of traumas inflicted on the victims.”

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Table 12
Definition and Understanding of the Term “Human Trafficking”
Core themes # of respondents % of total
Causes trauma 12 100%
Involves sex abuse or sexual exploitation 9 75%
Identified 6–5 markers of the definition 6 50%
Involves labor and sexual exploitation 4 33%
Identified four markers of the definition 3 25%
Identified 7–8 markers of the definition 2 17%
Identified two markers of the definition 1 8%
Question 2.3 asked, How many hours (estimated) of training on the topic of human
trafficking have you received? The participants completed an average (mean) of 50.23 hours of
human trafficking awareness training, a mode of 40 hours, and a median of 34 hours.

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Table 13
Hours of Human Trafficking Training
Estimated hours # of respondents % of total
40–50 hours 3 25%
30–40 hours 3 25%
20–30 hours 3 25%
10 hours or less 1 8%
80–100 hours 1 8%
100–200 hours 1 8%
Table 14
Mean, Mode, and Median Of Training Hours = 608
Mean 50.23 hours
Mode 40 hours
Median 34 hours

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Question 2.4 asked, How was the training(s) conducted? In-person, virtual, or both? All
(100%) participants received training in person and virtually. The training consisted of attending
conferences, webinars, and online discussions. No chart was created for this question since the
responses were unanimous. Question 2.5 asked, Who or which agency(s) trained you, internal or
external experts (law enforcement, medical or mental health, etc.), persons with lived
experience, or combination? Ten (83%) participants received training from internal and external
experts, and two (17 %) from external experts only, primarily by the department of probation and
law enforcement.
Table 15
Trained by Internal or Experts
Core themes # of respondents % of total
Internal and external experts 10 83%
External experts only 2 17%

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Question 2.6 asked, Are you familiar with the federal, state, and or local policies or
legislation related to human trafficking education? Explain. Five interviewees (42%) reported
that they were not familiar with these policies but were familiar with the district’s board of
education resolution to train staff on human trafficking awareness. One respondent deferred to
the district’s experts. Four (33%) identified the district’s health education programs as the
district’s policy to educate youth. Those who responded in the affirmative of being familiar with
the federal and state legislation and policies identified the district board of education’s resolution
and the CHYA, and some referenced the health education program’s requirements about sex
education, HIV and AIDS prevention, and child abuse.
Table 16
Familiarity With Federal, State, and Local Legislation and Policies Related to Human
Trafficking Prevention Education
Core themes # of respondents % of total
No, but recognized the district’s board resolution 5 42%
Yes, health education programs 4 33%
No, but recognized that human trafficking is a crime 2 17%
No, but is familiar with the child abuse laws 1 8%
Defer to district staff 1 8%

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Figure 4
Familiarity With Legislation or Policies
Question 2.7 asked, How are you interpreting these policies? What do these policies
mean to you? Nine (75%) of the respondents recognized that the objectives are to provide more
awareness, training, and education to students and staff. They also recognized that within the
district, the department of student health and human services’ primary function is to train staff,
and the department of health education programs is to educate students. They were also aware
that there are designated staff assigned to support these efforts. One interviewee stated,
Initially, AB-329, the [CHYA], only talked about sex trafficking. It now includes labor.
The policies mean we need to help teachers and district leaders to be aware. We now
38%
31%
15%
8%
8%
No, but familiar with Board Resolution
Yes, Health Education Programs
No, but recognizes it as a crime
No, but knows Child Abuse laws and policies. HT is a form of child abuse
Defer to others

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have a designated person in student health and human services [SHHS] who trains SHHS
staff (social workers, etc.) Initially, we were targeting specific schools, but we have now
decided on two things: SHHS will train all schools through SHHS staff, and the health
education programs will train schools. We now have an online part and an in-person part.
Three (25%) believed these policies recognize human trafficking as a form of child abuse and
represented a mandate under the mandated reporting laws. One interviewee said,
We’re mandated reporters. Students receive it [human trafficking education]in middle
school classes. It’s offered in a day or over several weeks. Health Education is a onesemester course, and the topic is framed as healthy relationships. Our role is to report it if
we suspect child abuse. Our lead human trafficking expert works closely with the
Superior Courts, the County’s child protection services, and probation.
Another participant said, “Ensuring that schools understand that the kids have rights and know
that these kids are victims. Even though they sometimes act as perpetrators by recruiting others
from schools. They are just repeating the cycle. They are all victims.”
Table 17
How Are These Policies Are Being Interpreted?
Core themes # of respondents % of total
Provide more awareness training/education 9 75%
Incorporate into the child abuse policy 3 25%
Skipped, did not answer 2 17%

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Figure 5
How Are Human Trafficking Policies Being Interpreted?
Question 2.8 asked, What is the district’s policy about human trafficking prevention
education? The board of education resolution, the child abuse policy, and the sexual health
education curriculum serve as the formal policies on human trafficking prevention education.
There is no separate or free-standing policy on human trafficking prevention education. Most
participants highly regarded and recognized the board resolution, which calls for training all
secondary school staff to raise their awareness about human trafficking. One interviewee
mentioned,
There’s not a specific policy on human trafficking, but there’s a board resolution that
requires the training of all secondary school educators to know the warning signs, how
kids are lured and forced into it, its typology, and resources available. Same for students.

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Outside the board resolution, there’s no human trafficking policy, except for the child
abuse policy and training. A scenario is part of it, but we need to make it broader than
just CSEC.
A second added,
The sexual health policy is the human trafficking policy, even though it does not mention
the law in that policy. The health education program is now under the Division of
Instruction. The curriculum builds skills, which is built into their sex education policies.
Some major school districts in California do not have a health education department but
are trying to get it back.
A third participant said,
This would fall under the child abuse policy. I have monthly threat assessment meetings,
and threat response partners include law enforcement and mental health. It’s hosted at
[one] office. The purpose of the meeting is to discuss homicidal and mental health issues.
Lastly, one interviewee mentioned,
We are seeing more cases of sexual abuse, and the concern is that they (youth) are being
trafficked. We always file a child abuse report with XXX (child protection services),
even if there’s an already open case. It is in alignment with the district’s policy. Anything
related to human trafficking, we report.

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Table 18
What Is the District’s Policy for Human Trafficking Prevention Education?
Core themes # of respondents % of total
The board resolution 6 50%
Combination of board resolution and child abuse 2 17%
Combination of health education and child abuse 1 8%
The child abuse policy is the human trafficking policy 1 8%
Health education programs 1 8%
Skipped - deferred to the health education program 1 8%
Figure 6
What Is the District’s Human Trafficking Policy?

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Question 2.9 asked, In your opinion, do you believe human trafficking of minors is a
social issue that schools could or should play a role in solving? Please explain. All (100%)
participants agreed that schools play a significant role and hold a professional responsibility to
keep children and youth safe. They agreed that students spend significant time in schools and
that educators and other school staff build relationships with children and youth. Therefore,
when there are concerns of neglect or abuse, historically, school staff are the primary reporters of
suspected child abuse reports (Administration for Children and Families, 2020). Most
participants reported that while unaware of the exact solutions to ending human trafficking, they
recognized the importance of collaboration, especially with law enforcement, child protection
services, and other service providers. Some participants stated that term “solving” may be
unrealistic but agreed that schools are key partners. They also agreed that school staff must
protect youth and involve and educate parents about this topic. Finally, the consensus is that
children and youth involved in human trafficking are not criminals but victims. One interviewee
said, “Yes, definitely! Educators play a pivotal role in children’s and family’s lives. We have a
responsibility to children and to protect them, to report, and intervene. We’re mandated
reporters, as human trafficking is a form of child abuse.” Another added,
Schools are involved in multiple issues, but we cannot turn a blind eye. We need to
support the social-emotional needs of children. Schools play a significant role in safety.
Some parents don’t know what to do when their child is trafficked. Sometimes, the
trafficked kids don’t answer our questions, and there’s no disclosure, and the kids are
brainwashed. How do we engage with those children who are being trafficked? If we
send the police, it criminalizes the kids instead of helping them. We have made a shift not
to criminalize minors.

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One participant identified the issue as a public health problem and not a social problem:
It’s more of a public health issue that schools can play a role in. Students spend a
significant portion of their day in school, and we establish relationships with them.
During the pandemic, there was a decrease in suspected child abuse reports because
teachers were not able to see the students. We identify and support youth. We create a
safety net for them. We help with prevention. We ensure that parents are aware, too, and
intervene.
Another participant reported that school personnel are burdened with too many mandates and
suggested that, as a society, we need to examine the root causes of this problem: “Solving? No.
It’s a hidden problem. There are so many burdens on school personnel. We need to look at the
root causes. We can address it, but I don’t think schools can solve it.”
Table 19
Could or Should Schools Play a Role in Solving Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of respondents % of total
Agree that schools play a significant role 12 100%
Yes, schools as a multidisciplinary response 11 92%
No, schools alone cannot solve this problem 1 8%

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Question 2.10 asked, What else should be known about your human trafficking training
or background that was not asked? Respondents who worked with incarcerated or formerly
incarcerated youth reported that most were involved in trafficking. Still, they did not use the
terms “human trafficking” or” CSEC” formally to describe their experiences. A different
participant recalled how, during the 1970s and 1980s, the terms “domestic violence” and “child
abuse” were also considered new terms and a new phenomenon that society did not understand.
The participant shared that in today’s policies, many survivors of domestic violence and child
abuse would now be identified as victims of human trafficking.
Another participant reported that many parents, educators, and other adults are still in
denial that human trafficking exists, and perhaps adding survivor testimonials to training would
help to raise awareness and end the denial. A different participant stated that while they
commend the efforts by the board of education to pass a resolution to raise awareness of human
trafficking in schools, there was no funding allocated to do this work, leaving many
administrators feeling frustrated and overwhelmed by the additional mandates impacting schools.
Some participants reported that the district had a specific program that worked with high-risk
youth who were living in foster care, unhoused, or on probation, the population identified as the
most vulnerable and highest risk for human trafficking. The program ended and was absorbed
into a different program within the district. The participants further shared how most of the
counselors of the original program were trained to use a specific human trafficking prevention
curriculum. Still, it was discontinued even though they felt it was helpful.

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Table 20
What Else Should Be Known About Your Human Trafficking Training and Background That
Wasn’t Asked?
Core themes # of
respondents
% of total
Need specialized training 3 25%
Continued advocacy 2 17%
Societal shift in perspective and language 2 17%
Former CSEC prevention programs ended 2 17%
Funding must be attached to legislation, policies, and mandates 1 8%
Denial still exists amongst staff and parents 1 8%
Moral obligation to protect children 1 8%
Summary of Section 2
This section explored the depth of the participants’ understanding of human trafficking
and the policies that guide the work. All participants recognized human trafficking as a form of
abuse that causes trauma to the children and youth impacted. All received training on the topic,
with the average being 50 hours of training. The depth and breadth of their understanding of the
federal, state, and local legislation and policies varied. Half of the participants (50%) identified
the board resolution as the formal district policy that guides their work on human trafficking
prevention education in schools, specifically on the topic of CSEC. Four (33%) recognized
federal and state requirements for providing human trafficking prevention education in schools.
Still, they highlighted health education programs as the primary source of where children and

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youth receive this information. A minority (17%) of the participants recognized human
trafficking of children as a form of child abuse.
The interviewees made the argument that the guiding policy for human trafficking
prevention education is a combination of the district’s child abuse policy and the board
resolution. Individual participants reported different variations of what they believed the policy
should or should not be. The variation ranged from no specific human trafficking policy. Still, it
recognized the district’s child abuse policy as the lead policy to a combination of the health
education programs, the child abuse policy, and the policy guided by the health education
program and sexual health curriculum. While the participants were not in total agreement about
the specific policies that guide this work, 100% agreed that schools play a significant role in the
lives of children and youth, and 11 (92%) believe that school personnel working collaboratively
with other key community partners, such as law enforcement, can help solve human trafficking.
Section 3: Understanding The Participants’ Roles in Training Others on General Topics
(Non-Human Trafficking Topics)
The objective for Section 3 was to present the data and identify themes related to who or
which district roles provide and receive training on the topic of human trafficking and to identify
other topics of expertise of the participants. There were five questions in this section.
Question 3.1 asked, Do you provide training on the topic of human trafficking? If yes,
who do you train or educate? If not, what’s your role with the human trafficking training to staff
and education to students? Most participants reported that while they do not directly train others
on human trafficking, others within the district do. They reported that they often coordinate
professional development training and consult with administrators and other staff about noninstructional topics they supervise, such as mental health and crisis response. Of the participants

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who provided training, they clarified that they only train staff (certificated and classified), no
students. They also described that health teachers are trained using a specific curriculum, and
administrators are invited to attend. Parents receive training and education through the health
education program through a third-party contracted organization. Parents are indirectly taught
about human trafficking prevention using an evidence-based intervention that discusses topics
related to healthy relationships and healthy behaviors. A parent summit was planned but was
canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Two respondents (17%) reported how they used to provide training and support to youth
on human trafficking when they were part of another program within the district, but that
program was dissolved a few years before this study. The program they referenced was
specifically related to working with youth identified as being in foster care, homeless, or on
probation. They added that an outside source provided a specific curriculum, but it was no longer
used. They felt the program was useful and effective, but when the program was dissolved, the
curriculum went away, too. One interviewee said, “For 3 years, we tried to train others based on
the board resolution, but the training stopped, but now it’s back. We only focused on high
schools and middle schools. People come and go. Not sure of the numbers.”

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Table 21
Do You Provide Training on the Topic of Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of participants % of total
No, but others within the district do. 5 42%
Yes, but training is specifically for staff. 3 25%
Not anymore. 2 17%
No, there’s an online module for the annual child abuse. 1 8%
No. 1 8%
Question 3.2 asked, Are all district staff trained on human trafficking? If not, please
clarify who receives training. Seven (58%) reported that not all schools receive training for
various reasons, including that human trafficking is not mandated and only secondary schools are
targeted. Another reason is the high staff turnover; therefore, many staff members do not receive
training. However, the training is available for any school and district department upon request.
One interviewee said,
No. Currently, we’re focusing on secondary schools. Initially, we were doing training in
person. A lot of resources were developed, but due to COVID, everything was moved to
online training. This will be available to all staff. We have a plan to assign staff at
secondary schools and offer the option of in-person or online. We want to include
elementary schools, as we are aware that the lowest age of CSEC was 10 years, so we
want to start earlier. We are working on this now.
Another mentioned,

90
No. All staff should be trained, but they are not, due to high turnover. We have under 200
schools left. Initially, we identified 20 high-risk schools. But now those schools have new
staff. This training is not for elementary schools, only secondary.
Two participants (17%) indicated that all staff receive training on whether human trafficking is
considered child abuse. Child abuse is mandated training. Therefore, if human trafficking is
defined as a form of child abuse, then all staff and employees should receive training. One
participant described this reasoning:
Guessing no. Human trafficking is not mandated. Any mandated training is related to the
Ed Code, such as the California ED Code 215, which mandates suicide prevention and
awareness training, and so far, 92% have been trained, and it’s all virtual. Child abuse is
mandated. It’s part of a WIC Code. Child abuse is so important that there’s a penalty for
failure to report it. In summary, child abuse, suicide prevention, and sexual harassment
are all mandated training. I’m not familiar with legislation that mandates human
trafficking, but we do offer implicit bias and trauma-informed school training.
It depends on the definition of “train.” The training is for child abuse awareness and what
to do. It’s not human trafficking training. It’s not comprehensive enough. It’s an attempt
to integrate human trafficking.
The other respondents did not know the answer and deferred to someone else.

91
Table 22
Are All District Staff Trained?
Core themes # of
respondents
% of total
No, human trafficking is not mandated, but it’s available. 7 58%
Yes, indirectly through the mandated child abuse training 2 17%
I don’t know. 2 17%
Skip, defer to others 1 8%
Question 3.2(1) asked, If not all trained, who is trained? Nine (75%) skipped or deferred
to their previous answers. One respondent said that all schools have access to the training
through the online portal, and another respondent reported that most of the schools offer
elements of the training through the health education courses and that only schools identified as
high-risk receive the training.
Table 23
If Not All Staff Are Trained, Who Is Trained?
Core themes # of respondents % of totals
Skipped or deferred to others 9 75%
The training is available to all schools by request 1 8%
Health education 1 8%
High-risk schools only 1 8%

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Question 3.3 asked, Do all schools receive human trafficking training? Six (50%)
skipped this question or deferred to their previous answer; four (33%) reported that not all
schools receive the training because human trafficking is not mandated but indicated that the
training is available upon request or can be accessed via the online portal. Further, they indicated
that secondary schools or schools with the highest percentage of students identified as being in
foster care, unhoused, or on probation were prioritized over other schools. One respondent (8%)
stated that if human trafficking is considered a form of child abuse, then by default, all schools
have been trained since child abuse is mandated.
Table 24
Do All Schools Receive Human Trafficking Training?
Core themes # of respondents % of total
Skipped or deferred to others 6 50%
No, human trafficking training is not mandated 4 33%
No, but there is a plan, and it’s available 1 8%
Yes, if human trafficking is defined as child abuse 1 8%

93
Question 3.4 asked, What other topics do you provide training on? Seven (58%) reported
providing training on various non-instructional topics. These topics include mental health,
suicide prevention, anxiety, threat assessment, safe school plans, student discipline and
expulsions, crisis response, child welfare, attendance, and working with special populations
(those in foster care, unhoused, or on probation.) Two (17%) reported that in the past, they
provided training on various topics. Still, they provide administrative oversight, support, and
updates to the Board of Education, the Superintendent, and other district executives. One
respondent (8%) reported that their primary topic of training is CSEC and human trafficking. A
separate participant reported training on the topic of CSEC in addition to other SHHS topics.
Another participant (8%) conducts training regarding compliance and legal matters related to
student equity topics such as Title IX, non-discrimination, harassment, 504, and gender identity
and expression.
Table 25
Other Topics That Participants Offer
Core themes # of participants % of total
Multiple non-instructional topics 7 58%
Human trafficking and CSEC 2 17%
Provide reports to the Board and Superintendent 2 17%
Legal and educational equity matters 1 8%
Skipped 1 8%

94
Question 3.5 asked, What else should I know about this category, about training others,
but didn’t ask? Seven (58%) skipped this question. Two (17%) reported that the district’s
designated human trafficking expert provides a monthly update to the board of education and
district leadership. One participant reported that the department of SHHS was developing a plan
to cross-train other divisions. Another participant expressed that the best practice for
communicating non-instructional matters to school administrators is through the division of
school operations, which tends to have the attention of school administrators. A different
participant discussed the need to educate students and parents, and another felt that they
contributed to the original human trafficking education plan to train youth on this topic.
Table 26
What Else Should Be Known About This Category, of Understanding the Participants Roles in
Training Others on General Topics?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Skipped question 7 58%
Provides monthly updates about the training 2 17%
Plan to expand training to the office of instruction 1 8%
Gap in training, need to educate students and parents 1 8%
Communication to schools through school operations 1 8%
Contributed to the human trafficking training for the district 1 8%

95
Summary of Section 3
Most participants reported that while they did not directly train others on human
trafficking prevention, they acknowledged that the district has designated experts who
specifically train and coordinate these services. Of the participants who provide training, they
clarified that they only train staff (certificated and classified), not students. Most of the
participants provide or coordinate training on various non-instructional topics. These topics
include mental health, suicide prevention, anxiety, threat assessment, safe school plans, student
discipline and expulsions, crisis response, child welfare and attendance, and working with
special populations. Not all schools receive stand-alone human trafficking prevention training, as
it is only required for secondary schools. However, staff training is available for any school and
department upon request. Lastly, when exploring whether all staff receive the stand-alone human
trafficking training, the interviewees clarified that only secondary school staff or those who work
within the departments of SHHS and HEP receive this training. Some participants stated that
since human trafficking is a form of child abuse, then all staff and employees have been trained,
as they identify the child abuse policy as a mandated training, but the stand-alone human
trafficking prevention training is not mandated.
Section 4: Staff Training/Professional Development
The objective of this next section was to understand how school personnel are being
selected and trained on the topic of human trafficking prevention, and how the participants are
interpreting and implementing these efforts. There are 17 questions in this section.
Question 4.1 asked, Of the schools that receive human trafficking training, are all staff
(including teachers, administrators, support staff, or other classified staff) trained? Four (33%)
replied “yes,” provided that human trafficking is defined as a form of child abuse, and given that

96
the child abuse policy and training are mandatory, all staff are trained. Three (25%) reported that
this is the goal: to train all staff. However, the school administrators decide who attends the
training. Further, the classified and certificated staff often receive training separately, which can
create a barrier. Two (17%) identified that all secondary school staff members are targeted to be
trained. This is in response to the board resolution mandate/requirement. Of the parties who
identified that all secondary school staff members are trained, one participant reported that the
training is mandatory, and the other reported that it is a requirement. Others reported that they
did not know and deferred to others (17%). The interviewees also reported that, for the schools
that received training, the session was for the entire staff.
Table 27
Are All Staff Trained?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Yes, since human trafficking is defined as a form of child
abuse.
4 33%
This is the goal, to train all staff. 3 25%
Board resolution calls for all secondary school staff. 2 17%
I don’t know. 2 17%
Board resolution mandates all secondary school staff. 1 8%
Board resolution requires all secondary school staff. 1 8%
No, but for the schools trained, it was for the entire staff. 1 8%
Question 4.2 asked, Is the human trafficking training mandated or recommended? Six
(50%) reported that the training is recommended for some schools but mandated for specific
schools and departments. Five (42%) reported that the training is mandated or required, as stated

97
in the board resolution. One participant (8%) stated that it is a mandate in accordance with the
child abuse policy, and another (8%) stated that it depends, explaining that in the past, staff were
required to attend all professional development training.
Table 28
Human Trafficking Training Mandated or Recommended?
Core themes # of
participants
% of totals
Recommended for some schools but mandated for others 6 50%
Mandate or requirement as directed by the board resolution 5 42%
Mandate as required by the child abuse policy 1 8%
It depends on past policies to attend all training 1 8%

98
Question 4.3 asked, What is the expectation of the staff after they are trained? Are they
expected to train/educate others? If so, who do they train/educate? Nine (83%) reported that the
objective of the training is to raise awareness of human trafficking and to know the protocols of
how to respond. Two (17%) reported that they are not aware, and one participant (8%) reported
that the expectation is to get involved and provide resources and information to others.
Table 29
What Is the Expectation of Staff After They Are Trained?
Core themes # of participants % of totals
Awareness and protocols only 9 83%
I don’t know/skipped 2 17%
To provide feedback, get involved, and provide resources and
information
1 8%

99
Question 4.4 asked, Can staff opt out of the training? Six (50%) stated that specific staff
members cannot opt out of training, especially those representing the department of SHHS, as it
is required as part of their job. Further, they clarified that if human trafficking is considered a
form of child abuse, they cannot opt out of the training. However, if staff are feeling triggered
during the training, they are welcome to take a break and walk out. Five (42%) stated that they
were unclear but guessed that it was possible to opt out of the training, stating that it is not
mandatory. Three (25%) reported confidently that the training was voluntary.
Table 30
Are Staff Allowed to Opt Out of the Training?
Core themes # of
respondents
% of total
Not, for specific groups, or if it is considered child abuse 6 50%
I don’t know. Guessing various answers. 5 42%
Yes, they can opt out. The training is voluntary. 3 25%
Skipped 1 8%

100
Question 4.5 asked, How often do you or your staff provide HT training to others?
Thirty-three percent (33%) reported that training is conducted annually and that they personally
do not conduct the training, but there is the designated staff who do. Four (33%) skipped this
question or deferred to others, and two (17%) reported that training is conducted monthly by
request. Since the pandemic, all the training is now available virtually via the district’s portal or
website. Two (17%) reported not providing training on human trafficking.
Table 31
How Often Do You Train Others on the Topic of Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of participants % of totals
Annually, but the training sessions are conducted by
others.
4 33%
Skipped or deferred to others 4 33%
I do not train others on the topic of human trafficking 2 17%
Monthly, by request, or available via the district’s portal 2 17%
Question 4.6 asked, How are these trainings conducted, in-person, virtually, webinar,
etc.? Six (50%) skipped this question or deferred to others. Four (33%) reported that all the
training sessions are now virtual, but pre-COVID, they were all in-person. Two (17%) reported
that the training is in-person and virtual.

101
Table 32
How Training Is Conducted
Core themes # of participants % of totals
Did not answer, skipped question, or deferred to others 6 50%
Virtual; in past, they were conducted in person 4 33.3%
Combination of in-person and virtually 2 17%
Question 4.7 asked, In what settings do you train participants, in the classroom,
auditorium, etc.? Seven (58%) skipped this question or deferred it to someone else. Three (25%)
reported that all the training sessions were virtual, but pre-pandemic, they were all in-person, and
two (17%) reported that they are conducted in various ways, including in-person in large school
settings and virtually.

102
Table 33
Settings of Where Training Is Conducted
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred to others 7 58%
Virtually 3 25%
Virtually and in-person in large school settings 2 17%
Question 4.8 asked, So far, how many staff trainings have you personally taught? Eight
(67%) skipped this question or deferred to others. One participant (8%) reported having
conducted at least 30 training sessions, another reported having conducted at least 20 training
sessions, and another conducted eight. One participant reported zero but stated she coordinated
training for others.

103
Table 34
How Many Trainings Have You Personally Taught?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred to others 8 67%
At least 30 1 8%
Maybe 20 1 8%
8 1 8%
0, but coordinated training 1 8%
Question 4.9 asked, How many (estimated) staff have you trained? Nine (75%) skipped
this question or deferred to others. Two (17%) reported training approximately 2,000 staff, and
8% reported training approximately 500.
Table 35
How Many (Estimated) Staff Have You Trained?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred to others 9 75%
2000+ 2 17%
400–500 1 8.3%

104
Question 4.10 asked, How many human trafficking staff trainings have you coordinated?
Seven (58%) deferred to the human trafficking prevention coordinator from the department of
SHHS to respond. Two (17%) reported that they coordinated fewer than five training sessions.
Two (17%) reported that they coordinated training for other departments that may include the
topic of human trafficking but that it is not the primary focus of the training, and one (8%)
reported that they coordinated at least 300 training sessions.
Table 36
How Many Human Trafficking Staff Trainings Have You Coordinated?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Defer to SHHS Coordinator, HT coordinator 7 58%
Less than 5 2 17%
Coordinate training for other departments 2 17%
Approximately 300 1 8%

105
Question 4.11. asked, How long is each of the trainings for staff (# of days, hours,
minutes)? Is it a one-time event or a series of trainings? Six (50%) skipped this question. Five
(42%) reported that the training ranged from 60 to 120 minutes. One participant (8%) reported
that there have been special events where the training has been six hours a day over 2 days.
Table 37
How Long Are Each of the Training for Staff?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped 6 50%
Range between 60 and 120 minutes 5 42%
Special events, 6 hours over 2 days 1 8%

106
Question 4.12. asked, How many staff are trained at one time? Six (50%) skipped this
question or deferred to others. Four (33%) reported that the training may vary between six to
three hundred and 20 participants. One participant (8%) reported that they can train up to 3,000
participants when conducting the training virtually. Another participant (8%) reported that it
depends on the school’s size.
Table 38
How Many Staff Are Trained At One Time?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred to others 6 50%
Participants vary from 6–320 4 33%
Virtually up to 3000 1 8%
Depends on school size 1 8%

107
Question 4.13 asked, Are there follow-up training or resources available after the initial
training? Six (50%) reported that resources are provided and available following the training.
Six (50%) skipped or deferred this question to others. Two (17%) reported that follow-up
training is available upon request and resources are on the website. Two (17%) reported that
follow-up training and resources are available, and one participant reported that follow-up
training is not required but could be requested.
Table 39
Are Follow-Up Training or Resources Available After the Initial Training?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Yes, resources are provided and available 6 50%
Skipped or deferred to others 6 50%
Yes, follow-up training and resources are also available 2 17%
No, follow-up training is required but can be requested 1 8%

108
Question 4.14 asked, What else should be known about training others on human
trafficking that was not asked? Four (33%) skipped this question. Three (25%) reported that
additional training is planned, including launching a webinar series. Some training sessions were
disrupted due to other priorities related to COVID. One participant (8%) reported no funding to
carry out the training, yet they are accountable. The designated person who provides human
trafficking training also has other duties and responsibilities. Another participant reported that
the child abuse training is a mandated annual training, and it is expected that all administrators
provide the training to all their employees. Different participants reported a need to work
collaboratively with law enforcement, parents, and students. Lastly, one participant stated that
they helped to create content for the human trafficking training.
Table 40
What Else Should Be Known About Training Others on The Topic of Human Trafficking That
Was Not Asked?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Skipped or deferred to others. 4 33%
Additional training is planned to include a webinar series. 3 25%
No funding. The human trafficking coordinator has many
duties.
1 8%
Child abuse is an annual mandated training. 1 8%
Need to work with law enforcement. 1 8%
Need training for parents and students. 1 8%
Helped create content for the human trafficking training. 1 8%

109
Summary of Section 4
The goal of this section was to understand how district leaders, perceive how school staff
are being selected and trained on the topic of human trafficking prevention. Most participants
reported that not all staff are trained in the human trafficking prevention as a stand-alone
training because it is not considered a mandate that is sanctioned by law such as the child abuse
policy. A few participants (33%) argued that since they perceive human trafficking as a form of
child abuse, all staff are trained in human trafficking prevention. Further, while the goal is to
train all staff on human trafficking, the primary targets are secondary school staff, as the board
resolution requires. There were also varying degrees of interpretation between the terms district
mandate and district requirement. When exploring their interpretation of the terms mandated
versus recommended, six (50%) reported that training is recommended for some schools and
departments but mandated for others. Others interpreted the board resolution as a mandate but
did not carry the same consequences or penalties for non-compliance as the child abuse training
would.
When staff receive training, the objectives are to raise their awareness and learn about
protocols for reporting. There is no expectation that they will train others. Further, half of the
participants interpreted that staff cannot opt out of this training but can step out if they feel
triggered by the content. Pre-pandemic, all training took place in person, but now training is
available virtually, which has been a benefit in reaching larger audiences. From the date of the
interviews, it was estimated that over 2,000 employees had received training on human
trafficking, and 17% of the participants either conducted or coordinated those training sessions.
The staff training averages 60 to 120 minutes and can be customized from small groups of 6 to
3000 at any given time, depending on the space and virtual capacity.

110
Section 5: Training Students
The objective of this section was to understand how schools are training/educating
students on human trafficking prevention, to understand their policies, if any, and how the
district is interpreting, implementing, and evaluating these efforts. There were 17 questions in
this section.
Question 5.1 asked, How are students educated about human trafficking prevention?
Please explain. Eight (67%) of the participants reported that students receive this education
through their health education courses or deferred to the health education programs coordinator
to respond. Three (25%) reported that students receive support through the district’s health and
human services counselors through various activities, including the foster youth leadership
council. Two (17%) reported not knowing the answer but recognized that there is a counseling
program to support youth. One participant (8%) reported that students learn through MTSS
approaches. The participant further explained that Tier 1 is the health education textbook, which
is considered content-heavy but not skill-heavy. Tier 2 is an evidence-based intervention
program from Positive Prevention Plus. Finally, Tier 3 uses the Nest Foundation curriculum that
provides supplemental material specific to human trafficking.

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Table 41
How Are Students Educated About Human Trafficking Prevention?
Core themes # of
Participants
% of total
Health education courses 8 67%
Through health and human services counselors 3 25%
I don’t know, but counseling is available to support youth 2 17%
Multi-tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) approach 1 8%
Question 5.2 asked, Are all students in your district educated on the prevention of human
trafficking? Three (25%) reported that only secondary students receive education about human
trafficking prevention through health education classes. Three (25%) deferred this question to the
coordinators of health education programs and SHHS. Three (25%) reported that they did not
know. One participant reported that youth identified as high-risk due to being in foster care, on
probation, or unhoused receive education about this topic.

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Table 42
Are All Students in The District Educated About Human Trafficking Prevention?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Through health education classes, secondary only 3 25%
Defer to health education program (HEP) and SHHS
designated person
3 25%
I do not know 3 25%
Only high-risk youth 1 8%
No, but in elementary school, they learn about safety 1 8%
This is the goal. 1 8%
Question 5.3 asked, What is the process for educating students on human trafficking?
Seven (58%) either skipped this question, stated they did not know, or deferred to department
lead coordinators. Three (25%) reported that youth identified as being in foster care receive
education and support through different activities. They further clarified that the students receive
specific training in awareness and prevention of CSEC. One interviewee stated,
I do not know. But I ran groups with foster youth, and one day, we spoke about it
[commercial sex.] We didn’t call it human trafficking. We called it CSEC. Some kids did
it [exchanged sex for goods], and it was consensual in their minds.
One participant (8%) reported that this topic falls under the category of violence prevention, and
students are not allowed to opt out of this training/education. Another participant reported that
students learn about this topic in classroom settings taught by teachers and on occasion during a
special event with experts on this topic.

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Table 43
What Is the Process for Educating Students on Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Skipped, don’t know, or deferred to department leads 7 58%
Foster youth receive CSEC prevention education and support. 3 25%
It is a form of violence prevention, and they cannot opt out. 1 8%
Classroom lesson led by teachers and special expert guests. 1 8%
Question 5.4 asked, Can students opt out of the training? Eight (67%) skipped this
question or reported they did not know and defer to other experts. Four (33%) reported that no
consent is required. One interviewee clarified this point:
No parental consent is required. California is a passive-consent state. We notify parents
through the parent-student handbook. Parents can pull kids out of sex education. Our
policies require sex ed in Grades 7 and 9 through their health course. Not all districts
offer health education.
Table 44
Can Students Opt Out of the Training?
Core themes # of participants % of total
I do not know, skipped, or deferred to district experts 8 67%
No consent required. 4 33%

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Question 5.5. asked, Who delivers human trafficking education to the students (teachers,
internal or external experts, etc.)? Four (33%) reported that teachers deliver this education to
students. Three (25%) deferred to the health education and SHHS leads. Three (25%) skipped
this question, and two (17%) reported that counselors from SHHS provide education to students.
Table 45
Who Delivers Human Trafficking Education to the Students?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Teachers 4 33%
Deferred to others 3 25%
Skipped 3 25%
Counselors from SHHS 2 17%

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Question 5.6 asked, In what environment or setting are students educated (in the
classroom, auditorium, etc.)? Four (33%) reported that students are educated in classroom
settings and sometimes in large settings during student orientations when sexual harassment is
covered, which indirectly may cover human trafficking. Three (25%) deferred to the health
education and SHHS leads. Three (25%) skipped this question, and two (17%) reported that
students are educated in small groups on campus during lunch as a social activity.
Table 46
In What Environment or Setting Are Students Educated?
Core themes # of participants % of total
In classrooms and, on occasion, larger settings 4 33%
Deferred to other department leads 3 25%
Skipped 3 25%
Small groups during lunch 2 17%

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Question 5.7 asked, In which methods is the student training provided (in person, virtual,
webinar, etc.) Eight (67%) reported they did not know and deferred to others. Four (33%)
reported that the education occurs in person, but there are some virtual options.
Table 47
Methods Through Which the Students’ Training Is Provided
Core themes # of participants % of total
Not sure, deferred to others 8 67%
In person, but some virtual options 4 33%

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Question 5.8 asked, What are the objectives of the student human trafficking education?
Explain. Five (42%) reported that they did not know or skipped this question. Four (33%)
deferred to the health education coordinator. Two (17%) reported that the objective is for
students to become more aware of human trafficking. Another participant reported that
prevention is the objective, including understanding signs of unhealthy relationships and building
refusal and coping skills.
Table 48
The Objectives of the Student Human Trafficking Education
Core themes # of participants % of total
I do not know or skipped 5 42%
Deferred to HEP coordinator 4 33%
Awareness 2 17%
Prevention and building skills 1 8%

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Question 5.9 asked, Which pedagogies are used to deliver the human trafficking
objectives to the students (authority/lecture style, collaboration, feedback and reflection,
demonstrator or coach style, facilitator or activity style, Interactive activities, explicit/learning
from the expert, etc.)? Six (50%) reported that they did not know. Four (33%) deferred to the
health education coordinator, and two (17%) reported that pedagogies combine lecture and
interactive learning. The interaction activities consist of role-playing, discussions, watching
videos, and providing feedback.
Table 49
Pedagogies Used to Deliver Human Trafficking Objectives
Core themes # of participants % of total
I do not know 6 50%
Deferred to HEP 4 33%
Lecture, interactive activities, and discussions 2 17%

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Question 5.10 asked, How many hours are students educated on the topic of human
trafficking? Five (42%) skipped this question or stated they did not know. Four (33%) deferred
to the health education, student health, and human services experts and leads. One participant
(8%) reported that students receive education for 1 hour, and another (8%) reported that students
receive 3 to 5 hours of instruction, but this also depends on how much training the teacher has
used the specific curriculum.
Table 50
Amount of Time Students Receive on the Topic of Human Trafficking
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or I don’t know 5 42%
Deferred to district experts 4 33%
1 hour 2 17%
3–5 hours 1 8%

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Question 5.11 asked, After the student’s education, what follows? Are the students
required to complete an assignment, class project, etc.? Seven (58%) either deferred to the lead
coordinators for health education and SHHS or skipped the question. Two (17%) said it depends
on the individual teachers. Another participant (8%) reported that resources are available on the
website, and there are targeted awareness campaigns for youth in foster care. One participant
(8%) stated that students review and discuss scenarios, and another said there are no follow-up
requirements.
Table 51
Expectations Following Student Education
Core themes # of participants % of total
Defer to others or skipped 7 58%
Depends on the teacher 2 17%
Resources and targeted campaigns 1 8%
Students review scenarios 1 8%
No requirements 1 8%

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Question 5.12 asked, If a student misses the human trafficking education, are there makeup sessions? Explain. Ten (83%) responded that they did not know, skipped, or deferred to other
experts. One participant (8%) reported that students have access to books and information, and
another participant (8%) reported that there are individual make-up sessions.
Table 52
If the Student Misses the Human Trafficking Education, Are There Make-Up Sessions?
Core themes # of participants % of total
I don’t know, skipped, or deferred to other experts 10 83%
Students have access to books and information 1 8%
Yes, individually 1 8%

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Question 5.13 asked, What policies or protocols are in place if a student is suspected of
being a victim of HT? Five (42%) referred to the child abuse policy and followed up with the
district lead experts. Four (33%) deferred to the health education and SHHS leads. Three (25%)
skipped this question.
Table 53
Policies or Protocols if a Student Is Suspected of Being a Victim of Human Trafficking
Core themes # of participants % of total
Child Abuse policy and consult with district experts 5 42%
Deferred to the department experts 4 33%
Skipped 3 25%

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Question 5.14 asked, What other resources are available for students who identify as
high risk for human trafficking? Five (42%) reported that district staff and resources are
available to serve as support. Four (33%) deferred to district leaders to respond. Two (17%)
skipped this question, and one participant (8%) reported that other non-approved district
curricula exist, but there’s been resistance to teaching them in schools.
Table 54
What Other Resources Available for Students Who Identify As High Risk for Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of participants % of total
District staff and resources are available 5 42%
Defer to district leaders to respond 4 33%
Skipped 2 17%
Other non-approved curricula that exist 1 8%

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Question 5.15 asked, How confident do you feel about educating students on this topic
(on a scale from 0 – 5, 0 = not confident at all, 5 = very confident)? Eight (58%) skipped or
deferred this question to others. Three (25%) reported feeling a comfort level of 4, and two
(17%) reported a comfort level of 5.
Table 55
Level of Confidence About Educating Students on This Topic
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred 8 58%
Confidence of level 4 3 25%
Very Confident of level 5 2 17%
Note. Scale From 0–5, 0 = Not Confident At All, 5 = Very Confident

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Question 5.16 asked, What other efforts has the district taken to educate children about
this topic? Please explain. Eight (67%) either skipped this question, reported that they did not
know, or deferred to other experts. Two (17%) reported that there are resources on the district’s
website, there are peer projects, and a third-party sexual health website that is available to
students that provide indirect information and resources about human trafficking. A participant
(8%) reported that the board of education is hesitant to educate students on this topic but prefers
to train staff. One participant (8%) reported being aware of the resources available for foster
youth. Another participant (8%) reported that there is a cadre of experts within the district.
Table 56
Other District Efforts to Educate Children About This Topic
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Skipped, do not know, or deferred to other experts 8 67%
Resources on website, peer work, & sexual health website 2 17%
The Board is hesitant to educate youth, prefers staff training 1 8%
Resource available through the foster youth program 1 8%
Cadre of staff/experts available throughout the district 1 8%

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Question 5.17 asked, What else should I know about this category that was not asked?
Seven (84%) skipped this question or deferred it to the department experts. Three (25%) of the
participants reported that various barriers exist. These barriers include the bureaucracy of how a
curriculum is selected, denial from staff that human trafficking exists, political barriers, and
misinformation shared about how students learn about this topic, and there appears to be an antisex education movement in schools. Lastly, there is a lack of research and data to understand the
correlation between gangs, probation youth, and human trafficking.
Three (25%) offered various solutions. The solutions included ideas to designate a school
week to educate youth about human trafficking, like the Say No to Drugs movement. Another
solution is to help youth understand the importance of consent. Another solution was helping
young people learn about the differences between healthy and unhealthy relationships and to
learn help-seeking behaviors. Finally, district staff and youth need to know who to contact when
there is a problem. One interviewee covered multiple topics:
The majority of people are in denial. They lack the vocabulary and confidence to deal
with this problem. We also need to talk more about consent. There are some unfounded
movements where people are saying teaching consent is regulating, which I do not agree
with. Someone said, “Teaching consent was like policing.” This is unfounded. Teaching
consent is teaching that you have the ability and self-efficacy to say “no.” Kids should be
able to understand boundaries [and] understand the signs and symptoms of what is
healthy and what is not healthy. There are some anti-sex education movements out there.
Two (17%) felt the district is not doing enough to warn young people about the dangers
of social media and how it is used to groom and recruit young people into false employment
opportunities. Further, it specifies that young people from families experiencing poverty are at

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the highest risk as they often want to work to earn money to support their families. Another
interviewee also covered multiple topics:
There should be a designated week or month to raise awareness and call it “to consent or
not to consent.” I don’t know if the district is educating the kids, but they are educating
the adults. We need to make youth aware of the dangers and share them on social media.
Table 57
What Else Should Be Known About This Category of Educating Students That Was Not Asked?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped question, or deferred to HEP or SHHS 7 84%
Many barriers to educating youth 3 25%
Offered solutions 3 25%
District is not doing enough to warn young people 2 17%

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Summary of Section 5
Most of the participants throughout this section reported that students receive human
trafficking prevention education through their health education courses but were not aware of the
details and deferred most of their subsequent answers for this section to the health education
programs (HEP) coordinator.
The HEP coordinator provided detailed information about how students learn about this
topic, including the materials used, which students are targeted, whether parental consent is
required, and other issues. In summary, health teachers instruct students using a MTSS approach.
This approach includes three tiers. Tier 1 uses the health education textbook, which is contentheavy and covers multiple topics but does not teach skills. Tier 2 uses an evidence-based
intervention program from Positive Prevention Plus. This program teaches coping, refusal,
negotiating, condom use, and other topics. Tier 3 uses The Nest Foundation’s curriculum,
providing supplemental material for human trafficking education. The district’s policy requires
that students in Grades 7 and 9 receive this information in their health courses, and consent is not
required as California is a passive parent consent state. The pedagogies used to deliver the
content are through interactive specific programs, including watching videos and discussions.
Students may also receive additional support from the district’s health and human
services counselors and social workers. These individuals coordinate social-emotional activities
and counseling support for the youth identified as high-risk, including those living in foster care,
on probation, or unhoused. Mental health resources are readily available in most schools or
through the central district offices.
Five (42%) reported that if students are suspected of being victims of human trafficking,
the district’s child abuse policy for mandatory reporting is the primary policy that must be

129
adhered to. Four (33%) reported that they would defer to the district’s content experts for
guidance.
This section briefly discussed barriers and solutions. While there is a plan to educate
students on human trafficking, three (25%) of the participants identified barriers to educating
youth. These barriers include the bureaucracy of how a curriculum is selected, denial that human
trafficking exists, politics, and the spread of misinformation about how students learn about this
topic, including an anti-sex education movement in schools and lack of research to understand
the correlation between gangs, probation youth, and human trafficking. The interviewees also
provided solutions for educating students on this topic, such as offering schoolwide awareness
campaigns, teaching and empowering students about consent and healthy personal boundaries,
teaching skills to help youth stay safe using social media, and help-seeking behaviors of knowing
whom to contact when they are in danger.
Section 6: Training and Educational Curriculum and Supplemental Material
The objectives of this section are to identify the specific curriculum, resources, or
supplemental materials used to deliver this training and education to others. There are 11
questions in this section.
Question 6.1 asked, Is there a specific curriculum used to train others on human
trafficking? If so, what’s the name of the curriculum or program? Who are the authors of this
curriculum? Four (33%) of the participants deferred to the district experts. Three (25%) stated
that there is no specific curriculum. Two (17%) reported using a curriculum called Word on the
Street in the past, but it’s no longer used. One participant (8%) reported that the district uses an
MTSS Tier 1 health education textbook. Tier 2 is Positive Prevention Plus, and Tier 3 is the Nest
Foundation. Another participant (8%) reported that online training is being developed and will be

130
available for all employees. Another participant (8%) reported being unaware of a specific
curriculum but considered they were already a content expert.
Table 58
Specific Training Curriculum or Materials
Core themes # of participants % of total
Deferred to district experts 4 33%
No specific curriculum 3 25%
Used Word on the Street 2 17%
Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS) 1 8%
Online training being developed for employees 1 8%
Not aware, but is a content expert 1 8%

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Question 6.2 asked, Is the curriculum evidence-based, based on research, or another
theoretical framework? Explain. Or was the program created by internal district experts?
Explain. Nine (75%) of the participants reported that they did not know and deferred to other
district experts. Two (17%) reported that their training curriculum is evidence-based and based
on research. Another participant reported that the health education from Positive Prevention Plus
and the Nest Foundation is research-based.
Table 59
Is the Curriculum Evidence-Based, Based on Research, or Does It Use Other Theoretical
Frameworks?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
I do not know, deferred to district experts 9 75%
Yes, curriculum and resources 2 17%
Yes, the health education textbook and materials are 1 8%

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Question 6.3 asked, How was this curriculum selected? Six (58%) reported that they did
not know or deferred to the district leaders. Two (17%) reported that district experts created the
curriculum internally. One participant (8%) said there is a review committee and a cooperative
agreement with the district to require evidence-based interventions. This interviewee state,
There’s a review committee and a cooperative agreement with the district that’s been in
existence for over 20 years, which requires programs to have evidence-based
interventions. There’s a difference between evidence-based and evidence-informed.
There were some curricula that manipulated the system to tweak their results to become
accepted on the list. The list is a national registry for evidence-based intervention
programs called [the National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices].
During the Trump Administration, he put people in charge at the [CDC] and Substance
Abuse Mental Health Services that were anti-sex education. Trump put the secretary of
health, who was the lead for the National Abortion Coalition, an anti-abortion program,
in charge. There were a lot of controversies, so they changed their name to ASCEND, an
anti-sex education and anti-health education organization. The Nest is part of a pilot
program the district is using.
One participant (8%) reported that the district’s office of general counsel approves
everything, and a separate participant (8%) reported that the district’s human trafficking task
force recommended it.

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Table 60
How Was the Curriculum Selected?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Not sure, skipped, or deferred to district coordinators 7 58%
Internally created 2 17%
Review committee. There’s a cooperative agreement with
the district requiring evidence-based interventions.
1 8%
Office of general counsel approved 1 8%
Taskforce recommended 1 8%
Question 6.4 asked, Is there a cost associated with this program? Eight (67%) reported
that they did not know or deferred to district experts. Three (25%) reported staff time from the
general fund. No extra funds are provided. One participant (8%) reported a cost for the health
textbooks, the program portal, and the work from the Nest Foundation, which also provides
support.
Table 61
Is There a Cost Associated With This Program?
Core themes # of participants % of total
I do not know or deferred to district experts. 8 67%
No, but staff time comes from general funds. 3 25%
Yes, cost for the health textbooks and extra programs 1 8%

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Question 6.5 asked, For the trainers of this curriculum or program, how much
preparation time do they receive on the material? Eight (67%) reported that they did not know or
deferred to the district experts. Two (17%) reported that they received two full days or 16 hours
of training. One participant (8%) reported receiving 4 hours for the training of trainers. Another
participant (8%) reported possibly 6-to-8 hours of preparation time. One interviewee offered the
following information:
Planned Parenthood offers training on sexual violence and healthy relationships. Nest is 6
hours. There is a lot of free online training, but many of those programs base their work
on shaming and misinformation. But would recommend the 3Rs Program: Rights,
Respect, and Responsibility.
Table 62
For the Trainers of This Curriculum or Program, How Much Preparation Time Do They Receive
on the Material?
Core themes # of participants % of total
I do not know or deferred to district experts 8 67%
2 full days, 16 hours 2 17%
4 hours for training of trainers 1 8%
Maybe 6-8 hours 1 8%

135
Question 6.6 asked, Is there a separate curriculum for the students and staff? Eight
(67%) reported that they either did not know or deferred to the district experts. Two (17%)
reported separate curricula for students and staff. One participant (8%) reported that HEPs teach
students. Another participant (8%) reported that adults and students get the same information
because the material is based on facts, theories, and behavior change. The same participant said
that teachers get a handbook and students get the PPT and handouts.
Table 63
Is There a Separate Curriculum for the Students and Staff?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
I do not know or deferred to district experts 8 67%
Yes 2 17%
Students educated using HEP 1 8%
Same for both 1 8%

136
Question 6.6(a) asked, If different, what are the objectives of the training material for
staff? Ten (83%) skipped this question or deferred to the district staff. One participant (8%)
reported that there are different objectives, and a different participant reported that the objectives
are to recognize human trafficking, understand recruitment methods, and teach help-seeking
behaviors and the prevalence of human trafficking.
Table 64
If Different, What Are the Objectives of the Training for Staff?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Skipped or deferred to district experts 10 83%
Different objectives (incomplete answer) 1 8%
Awareness and recognizing human trafficking 1 8%
Question 6.6 (b) asked, If different, what are the objectives of the training material for
students? All (100%) of the participants skipped this question.
Question 6.7 asked, How do you measure the outcomes of the staff training(s)? Seven
(58%) reported that they either did not know or deferred to district experts. Five (42%) reported
that they collect pre- and post-evaluations.

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Table 65
How Do You Measure the Outcomes of the Staff Training(s)?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
I do not know or deferred to district experts 7 58%
Evaluations, some pre and post-tests 5 42%
Question 6.8. asked, How do you measure the outcomes of the student training(s)? Ten
(83%) either skipped or deferred to the district experts. Two (17%) reported that pre- and postsurvey evaluations were collected.

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Table 66
How Do You Measure the Outcome of the Student Training?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred to district experts 10 83%
Pre- and post-surveys 2 17%
Question 6.9 asked, What do you do with the information you collect? Eight (67%)
skipped this question or deferred to district experts. Two (17%) reported that staff evaluations
are reviewed. One participant (8%) reported that there is an internal summary report used to
gauge shifting policies. Another participant (8%) reported that the organization that sponsored
the WOTS curriculum has the information.

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Table 67
What Do You Do With the Information You Collect?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Skipped or deferred to district experts 8 67%
Staff evaluations are reviewed. 2 17%
Internal report to gauge policies 1 8%
The organization WOTS has the information. 1 8%
Question 6.10 asked, Are there supplemental materials and resources needed for the
training? If so, what are they, and can I review them? Eight (67%) skipped this question or
deferred to district experts. Four (33%) reported that the district’s website contains resources and
other materials.
Table 68
Are There Supplemental Materials and Resources Needed for the Training? If So, What Are
They, and Can I Review Them?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Skipped or deferred to district experts 8 67%
District website 4 33%

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Question 6.11 asked, What other information should be known about this section of
training material but did not ask? Eleven (91.67%) reported that there was nothing more to
report. One participant (8%) reported that everything taught must be intentional. There is a
difference between teaching content and teaching a skill. Youth need to learn and practice skills.
One participant described it in the following manner:
Everything that is taught must be intentional. For example, when the California
Healthy Youth Act came out, we had a lesson on relationships and did an
activity that mentioned human trafficking on one level. But you must understand the
difference between teaching a skill and teaching content. When you teach content only,
it’s not going to change behavior. That’s why we revert to skill-based lessons versus just
content. Some schools just hand out materials without teaching them to practice. Think
about being a teenager. If an adult is grooming you and giving you things your family
can’t give you, that would be difficult, and that’s why it’s important to practice skills.
Table 69
What Other Information Should Be Known About This Section of Training Material, But Did Not
Ask?
Core themes # of participants % of total
Nothing more 11 92%
Need skill-based lessons and practice 1 8%

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Summary of Section 6
Thirty-three percent of the participants had limited knowledge about the specific
curricula and educational materials used to train and educate others on human trafficking, but it
was also not part of their primary roles to know this information. However, they recognized that
the district has designated experts who specifically coordinate these efforts. One participant had
significant knowledge about the curriculum for students, while a different administrator had
significant knowledge about the staff curriculum. There are three different curricula depending
on the audience: one for students (age-appropriate and grade-specific), one for staff, and another
for parents.
An MTSS approach is used to teach students about human trafficking awareness and
prevention. Tier 1 used the third edition of the Comprehensive Health Skills health education
textbook (Sanderson et al., 2021). Tier 2 used the 2021 edition of an evidence-based intervention
program called Positive Prevention Plus, Comprehensive Sexual Health for California’s Youth,
Middle and High School Curriculum (Clark & Ridley, 2021). This program taught coping,
refusal, negotiating, condom use, and other topics. Tier 3 used The Nest Foundation’s
curriculum, which provided in-depth education about healthy relationships and human
trafficking. The costs are associated with the textbooks, the online portal program, and
monitoring the information.
Parents and caregivers may be able to receive information and training on the topic of
human trafficking in two ways. The first is that the HEP coordinates training on sexual violence
and healthy relationships. A third-party nonprofit organization called Planned Parenthood
provides this training. Second, parents may request optional training to be delivered by experts

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from the district’s SHHS. The district website also provides information to parents and
caregivers.
For staff, internal experts create content based on research and evidence-based practices,
including survivor testimonials. Most resources are from approved open-sourced government
websites such as the U.S. DOE, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and other
credible nonprofit organizations that offer their information at no cost.
The health education curriculum is grant-funded and is not part of the district’s general
funds. The student curriculum is selected by a review committee using a preapproved list
identified by the National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices. The Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration sponsors this registry. For the district’s SHHS
department, which provides staff and parent training, no specific funding is allocated for
curriculum and resources.
Section 7: Best Practices
The objective of this next section is to identify the best practices or what is working well
and the gaps or barriers to educating students and staff on human trafficking. There were nine
questions in this section.
Question 7.1 asked, In your opinion, what are the best practices for providing human
trafficking education to staff? Eleven (92%) reported that district leaders and educators need
awareness training, resources, and practical tools to respond. Three (25%) reported that the
training must be mandated and cannot be optional. Two (17%) reported a need for different
styles and methods to educate students, including using a multi-tiered response, addressing the
whole child concept, being trauma-informed, and empowering and teaching youth skills. Two
(17%) reported a need to embed human trafficking into the child abuse policy and annual

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training. Two (17%) reported that the district needs teams of experts in schools who can support
students and staff. One participant (8%) reports the need to involve parents more and that the
messenger to deliver information must be someone of influence. Another participant (8%)
reported that the district needs to focus on the wellness of teachers, administrators, and other
school staff. Many staff are overwhelmed by too many mandates. Several interviewees
mentioned multiple themes. For example, one said,
Need to embed it into the child abuse training. Human trafficking can also be offered as a
separate training. … It is topic-specific and does not apply to everyone. The crisis teams
need this information because of the high-risk clients. Everyone else needs to learn the
warning signs and know what to do. We need to identify people on campus. Hopefully,
it’s not so much for elementary, but someone they can call. Need to engage people in
mandated asynchronous training to learn about warning signs and what to do. We want to
prevent teachers from getting too involved, which could lead to inappropriate matters.
A second interviewee stated,
We need to start with some general foundational knowledge. … We discuss ACES, …
what happens in the home … and the community. It’s multi-layered and multidimensional. We must look at the whole child. This can be overwhelming for teachers. …
Teachers have a lot of students to support. … I think we ask too much of teachers, and as
you can see, teachers are leaving the profession. It’s an impossible job. To ask teachers to
know this and manage 20 to 40 students per class a day is overwhelming. … Now that we
are coming out of the pandemic, we need to protect teachers. We need a team approach
and support teams in the school sites.

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A third participant said,
It must be a tiered approach. District leaders need to understand the issues. Need to train
schoolteachers and staff to identify and assess. They also need tools and resources.
Students need skills to be empowered for their own health and refusal skills.
Lastly, one interviewee discussed parental responsibilities:
Best practices for students must come from parents. Parents have the power. Also, board
members carry a lot of weight. … Who is the messenger that can speak the loudest on
this topic? Things are picked up by influencers, and that’s how things come down the
pike. For staff, there is so much on their plates in terms of instruction, training, or
allowing time for training. If something is optional, it doesn’t happen.
Table 70
What Are the Best Practices For Providing Human Trafficking Education to Staff?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Leadership and educators need awareness and protocols. 11 92%
Mandate the training. 3 25%
Need different styles and methods to teach about the topic 2 17%
Embed human trafficking into the child abuse policy. 2 17%
Need teams of experts in schools 2 17%
Involve the parents more, and a messenger of influence. 1 8%
Focus on the staff wellness. Too many mandates. 1 8%

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Question 7.2 asked, In your opinion, what are the best practices for providing human
trafficking education to students? Three (25%) reported the importance of teaching skills, not
just awareness and teaching in the classroom or in small groups. Three (25%) reported the need
to support youth-led or peer-to-peer programs to empower youth to empower other youth and to
include schoolwide campaigns. One interviewee said,
The focus should be safety and how to care for oneself and help a friend. They need to
learn about resources. … Need student leaders. Need one person in the district who
coordinates for the entire district. Help student leaders discover their voice about this. …
Maybe creating a peer-to-peer program for the youth to be ambassadors to train other
youth.
Another offered,
Like adults, we need to offer annual training, just enough information to be aware of the
problem. People are uncomfortable with this topic. … Like the saying no to drugs
campaign, people were hesitant about this topic at first, but now it’s celebrated with
ribbons, and there are schoolwide events.
Three (25%) interviewees reported that the training should be mandated and annual
training. Two (17%) reported that the focus should be on safety as a universal topic. Two (17%)
reported that education must be age-appropriate and need a contingency plan. Two (17%)
reported the need for ongoing resources and dialogues, and one participant (8%) reported
teaching youth beginning in fifth grade to focus on personal safety.

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Table 71
What Are the Best Practices for Providing Human Trafficking Education to Students?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Teach students skills in small settings 3 25%
Youth-led programs and schoolwide campaigns 3 25%
Mandate annual training 3 25%
Focus on safety as a universal topic 2 17%
Age-appropriate and need a contingency plan 2 17%
Ongoing resources and dialogues 2 17%
Teach youth beginning in fifth grade and focus on personal
safety
1 8%
Question 7.3 asked, In your opinion, what are the needs or challenges in providing
human trafficking education to staff? Six (50%) reported that bureaucracy is the most significant
challenge. The district is too large and always onboarding new people and the power and control
of the teacher’s union and school administrators. One interviewee said,
Bureaucracy and denial. Adopting the topic because it’s controversial. We are leaving
parents out, as they need to be trained, too. Also, the staff is already inundated with
requirements and mandates. We need a department to focus on this. The openness to
recognize this as a problem.
Forty-two percent (42%) reported that lack of time is a primary challenge: lack of
instructional time during the school day. There are too many competing mandates, topics, and
programs. One interviewee said,

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The Number 1 challenge is the lack of time. There are a lot of mandated trainings.
Number 2, establishing relevance and importance for staff. Once people are invested,
they will support it. Number 3, the district is too big and has a lot of programs, … we
need others to help.
Three (25%) reported that other personnel are in denial about the topic, stating that it is
too controversial and that some feel that it is not relevant for schools. Three (25%) also reported
that teacher wellness and unrealistic expectations of teachers are a challenge. Teachers are a
unique audience and do not have the training to be first responders. Teachers are not doing well
and are leaving the profession.
Two (17%) reported that lack of funding and many unfunded mandates are problems.
Two (17%) reported that human trafficking education is not mandated, and there is no policy. It
is not viewed as part of the child abuse policy. Two (17%) reported that when training adults
(staff and parents), it is important to teach skills and provide resources; the in-person training
was a challenge until everything shifted to online due to the pandemic. Two (17%) reported that
parents have been left out and need help to be part of the solution. One interviewee said,
“Funding! We can’t do this work effectively without the funding. Policy and practice are other
barriers. … It’s a practice we do, but there’s no policy in place. If the Board of Education
requires it, there should be funding.” Another stated,
Add human trafficking to the existing child abuse training. Too many mandates and the
staff are not doing too well. The staff also are struggling with stress and mental health
due to outside influences, including the war in the Ukraine, COVID-19, returning to
work, an increase in homicides, and discrimination in the community, and the staff are
still grieving. We are seeing more challenges in adult staff and kids.

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One participant (8%) reported that other challenges are a poor relationship and mistrust of law
enforcement.
Table 72
What Are the Needs or Challenges In Providing Human Trafficking Education to Staff?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Bureaucracy 6 50%
Time; lack of time during the school day 5 42%
Denial about topic 3 25%
Teacher wellness and unrealistic expectations of teachers 3 25%
No funding; unfunded mandates. 2 17%
Human trafficking education is not mandated, and no policy 2 17%
Training for adults (staff & parents); need skills and resources 2 17%
Parents have been left out and need help 2 17%
Poor relationship with law enforcement 1 8%

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Question 7.4 asked, In your opinion, what are the needs or challenges in providing
human trafficking education to students? Six (50%) reported that bureaucracy, lack of funding,
and policies are the primary challenges. Further, there is no time to carry out this instruction
during the instructional day. There also needs to be a careful roll-out of the program, and there
are too many mandates. Two (17%) reported that the focus should be on safety and that youth
need more awareness, access to resources, and learning skills to prevent, respond to, and correct
past concerns. Another two (17%) reported that student and staff wellness is a challenge, stating
that students and educators are “overwhelmed and not well.” Many external factors are
interfering and causing stress, including COVID-19 and returning to school, mental health,
increased crime, and high transiency. Two (17%) reported that parents and caregivers need to be
trained and involved and that students need age and developmentally appropriate resources.
One (8%) reported that it is important that this topic is not mandatory, and it needs to be
added to the existing child abuse policy. A separate participant (8%) reported a need for more
youth leadership programs. Lastly, another participant (8%) reported that the board of education
is fearful and hesitant to move forward with this topic as they consider it too controversial and
not appropriate for younger children. Some quotes overlapped many themes. For example, one
interviewee said, “The most vulnerable students have high transiency rates.” Another mentioned,
The focus should be safety. How to care for themselves and to help a friend. They need to
learn about resources and need student leadership programs. There should be one person
in the district to coordinate this for the entire district… help student leaders discover their
voice about this. Maybe creating a peer-to-peer program for the youth to be ambassadors
and to train other youth.
A third participant added,

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Reaching elementary school-aged children will be a problem. We need to train and
involve parents. Maybe examine other controversial campaigns such as Say No to Drugs.
In the 80s, this concept was met with a major push-back, but over time, parents and
schools embraced it, and it’s still popular and well received with red ribbon week.
Table 73
What Are the Needs or Challenges in Providing Human Trafficking Education to Students?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Bureaucracy, lack of funding, and policies 5 42%
Focus on safety 2 17%
Wellness: students and educators are overwhelmed and not
well.
2 17%
Involve parents and caregivers 2 17%
Need developmentally appropriate resources for students 2 17%
Topic is not mandatory; add to the existing child abuse policy 1 8%
Need youth leadership programs 1 8%
Hesitation by the board of education; topic is too controversial 1 8%

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Question 7.5 asked, What are the barriers to delivering human trafficking training to
staff? Six (50%) reported that bureaucracy and lack of time are the primary barriers. Teachers’
unions impose limitations on the content and time allotted for professional development. There is
also a lack of funding and resources. Further, too many competing mandates exist, and human
trafficking training is not mandated. If topics are not viewed as instructional or mandated, then
they are not prioritized. Four (33%) reported a denial about this topic among staff and school
personnel, or it is not viewed as relevant for schools. Four (33%) provided solutions rather than
listing barriers, such as making human trafficking part of child abuse policy, needing more
student leadership programs, needing to focus on safety, and educating others in smaller groups.
Two (17%) skipped this question. One participant (8%) reported that the staff is overwhelmed,
and there’s a need to focus on staff wellness. Another participant (8%) reported that training staff
had not been a problem. One said, “Staff does not prioritize it. There are other conflicting items
on the [professional development] calendar.” Another stated, “There are so many mandated
trainings that the students & staff are supposed to have every year. Time and resources are other
barriers. Human trafficking is not spelled out as mandatory, so it is not trained with fidelity.” A
third interviewee mentioned,
Adults are being injured by kids who have behavior problems. Adding more to the staff’s
plate is a barrier. Human trafficking should fall under the umbrella of child abuse. Then,
having people identified in the schools to manage these things. We still need clarity about
who we go to. We need a specific protocol as we have for suicide. Teachers are
overwhelmed. Too many mandates. Teachers just want to teach. After the holidays and
return-to-school orders after COVID, the number of mandates and protocols schools were
required to do was outrageous. Impossible. It is not humanly possible to identify every

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single contact a child has. There are unrealistic expectations of the school staff. We have
school administrators who are becoming suicidal. As a matter of fact, in the news today,
there was a story of an administrator in [city name] who died by suicide.
A fourth participant discussed the limitations that unions impose: “Schools are restricted by how
much training they can receive, allotted time, etc. The solution could be to have video training
that teachers and staff can complete when they have time.”
Table 74
What Are the Barriers to Delivering Human Trafficking Training to Staff?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Bureaucracy and lack of time. Too many mandates. 6 50%
Denial: it’s not viewed as a priority 4 33%
Solutions: embed into child abuse policy, more programs 4 33%
Skipped 2 17%
Unrealistic expectations of staff and staff wellness 1 8%
No barriers to providing training to staff 1 8%

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Question 7.6 asked, What are the barriers to delivering human trafficking education to
students? Four (33%) reported that starting with awareness as early as possible is important and
focusing on personal safety instead of human trafficking for younger children. Three (25%)
reported needing age-appropriate materials for all grade levels. Another three (25%) reported
that the content needs to be delivered in smaller groups. Two (17%) reported needing training
and resources for all, not just for some groups, and that there should be schoolwide campaigns.
One participant (8%) reported that there needs to be a specific curriculum in the classrooms.
Another participant (8%) stated that there is a need for a district coordinator for peer safety and
leadership programs, and another participant (8%) skipped this question.
Table 75
What Are the Barriers to Delivering Human Trafficking Education to Students?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Begin awareness earlier and focus on personal safety 4 33%
Need age-appropriate material for all grades 3 25%
Need to deliver content in smaller groups 3 25%
Need schoolwide campaigns and training for all 2 17%
Need a specific curriculum in classrooms 1 8%
Need a coordinator for youth safety and peer leadership 1 8%
Skipped 1 8%

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Question 7.7 asked, In your opinion, in general, what else is needed to protect
children/youth from human trafficking? Six (50%) reported that prevention, funding, resources,
and training are needed to strengthen families and to create protective factors for children;
prevention should focus on personal safety for youth and parents. Four (33%) reported that there
needs to be more collaboration with law enforcement and other community partners. Three
(25%) reported the need to involve the youth and parents more, and three (25%) skipped this
question. One participant (8%) stated that we need to focus on the demand for human trafficking.
One interviewee said,
Reverse our funding opportunities. We need to invest in children from when they are
born to have safe and protective homes. Children need to have protective factors in their
families and community. I’m thinking of the recent girl found dead on the road. She fell
through the cracks. As a society, we fund foster care, psychiatric care, and emergency
services, but we need to fund families. We need backward funding.
Another interviewee said,
We are called to fill the buckets of the students every day to provide them with the
protective factors so they are ready to learn. We need to know their names and to see
them. Sometimes, seeing them and accepting them for who they are means we adults
need to be willing to see ourselves, which is difficult for teachers and administrators. We
need to create a culture of safety where every child feels that we accept them and will
protect them. “This is home. This is where we’ve got you. We’ve got all of you.”
Everyone, from admin to cafeteria workers, we’ve got the kids.” Missing the parents. We
have the staff covered. How are we making parents aware and more comfortable about
this topic?

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Table 76
What Else Is Needed to Protect Children/Youth From Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of
participants
% of total
Prevention, funding, resources, and to strengthen families 6 50%
Collaborate with law enforcement and community partners 4 33%
Need to involve the youth and parents more 3 25%
Skipped 3 25%
As a society, need to focus on the demand 1 8%
Question 7.8 asked, In your opinion, what else do you think schools need or can do to
protect students from human trafficking? Six (50%) of the participants reported that we need
education and ongoing awareness of protective factors, prevention, and resources. Five (42%)
reported the need for continued research and data about this topic. To utilize research, data, and
evidence-based interventions to support families and children; conduct assessments of assets and
liabilities and collect and review data. Four (33%) reported that they need to collaborate with
internal and external partners, including law enforcement, community partners, and society; they
need wraparound services. Three (25%) reported the need for a policy with a plan to respond and
include it in the child abuse policy. Three (25%) skipped this question. One participant (8%)
stated that as a school system, we need hope, and the kids must have hope, too, and believe in
themselves. Another participant (8%) reported that we need to focus on building staff wellness.
Lastly, another participant (8%) reported that we must focus on involving parents and caregivers
more.

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One interviewee said,
We need healthy schools. When schools are healthy kids, students do well. Need to
assess assets and liabilities of school culture and need continued communication. Should
have external partnerships with law enforcement to protect children. Need interwoven
community, asset mapping, and continuous communication for safety collaboratives and
safe passages. People need to know their communities. We need proper funding.
Another added,
We can look at data to start. But data only helps to a point. After data identifies the
problem, then we need a plan. Like the triangle, what are the needs at every level? Need
to look at schools like a family with multiple children. Always assessing and
recalibrating. Study best practices and ask the expert. Looking at our resources. Asking,
what do we have? What do we need? Need coaches, mentors, and counselors, and they
don’t talk to each other because they are in charge of so many different things. Need to
coordinate services. How do we use our community influencers and social media? Kids
need to believe that we will support them. We all need to believe this. We also need to
take care of the employees. When employees aren’t well, they cannot take care of the
students.

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Table 77
What Else Do You Think Schools Need or Can Do to Protect Students From Human Trafficking?
Core themes # of
participants
% of totals
Education 6 50%
Research, data, and evidence-based interventions 5 42%
Collaboration – with internal and external partners 4 33%
Policy – include it in the existing child abuse policy 3 25%
Skipped 3 25%
Hope – school system and children need hope 1 8%
Staff wellness – Build and support staff wellness 1 8%
Parents and caregivers – Need to train and involve parents 1 8%
Question 7.9 asked, What else should I know about best practices or needs for research
that was not asked? Four (33%) reported a need for a human trafficking policy and a protocol
about what to do. Four (33%) of the participants skipped this question. Three (25%) reported a
need for more public awareness and collaboration. Two (17%) reported a need for more genderbased services to address females and males separately. One (8%) reported that the district needs
specialized resources for schools, support for staff wellness, to start human trafficking awareness
education earlier with age and developmentally appropriate curriculum, and to track data.

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Table 78
What Else Should Be Known About Best Practices or Needs for Research That Was Not Asked?
Core themes # of participants % of totals
Need a human trafficking policy 4 33%
Skipped or nothing more to add 4 33%
Public awareness and collaboration 3 25%
Gender-based services and education 2 17%
Specialized resources 1 8%
Staff wellness: Systems are overwhelmed 1 8%
Start earlier to educate students. 1 8%
Track data. 1 8%
Summary of Section 7
This section sought to understand the participants’ perspectives on the best practices and
barriers or gaps in service for educating staff and students on human trafficking prevention
education. Eleven (92%) of the participants agreed that the best practice for educating staff is to
provide awareness training, resources, policies, and protocols to all district leaders and educators.
There was an agreement among three (25%) of the participants that training for staff must be
mandated for all staff. Other best practices include embedding more human trafficking
information into the existing child abuse policy and training, having more experts accessible in
schools to address concerns, involving parents, and focusing on staff wellness. They believed the
best practice for educating students includes teaching coping, refusal, and help-seeking skills.
Other best practices for students are to invest in peer-to-peer youth leadership programs, mandate
training for youth, focus on safety as a universal topic, use age and developmentally appropriate

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language and content, have ongoing resources and dialogues, and start this education in the 5
th
grade, but again to focus on personal safety as the topic, it does not need to be specific to human
trafficking.
Bureaucracy was identified as the Number 1 barrier to educating students and staff. Six
(50%) of the participants agreed that some elements of bureaucracy are the lack of time during
the instructional day to cover all content, too many competing mandates, employment union
restrictions, a lack of funding, and certain policies. Other barriers to educating staff included
denial about human trafficking and its relevance to schools; six (50%) of the participants
reported that human trafficking is not a priority for schools and is not mandated. Other barriers
include unrealistic expectations of teachers, administrators, and other staff. The barriers to
educating students include challenges to helping students feel safe and to access resources.
Students are fearful and do not always trust adults and other key partners such as law
enforcement. Other barriers for students included poor student wellness and mental health.
Participants reported an increase in student stress, as exacerbated by external factors, including
crime, poverty, and health concerns.
Conclusion
The purpose of this data collection and analysis was to understand how a school district
in California is educating school-aged youth about human trafficking and to comprehend better
how district administrators are interpreting and implementing school-related laws and policies, to
understand what is working well and if there are gaps in services and the literature. The
highlights from the data identified key findings from each of the seven sections.
The first section identified the depth of experiences of the participants, including 100% of
the participants possessing formal graduate degrees, many with multiple degrees, clinical

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licenses, and doctorates, with an average of 25.5 years of professional experience working with
children, youth, and schools. The second section examined the participants’ depth of knowledge
about human trafficking, its legislation, and policies. While the participants agreed that human
trafficking is a form of abuse and causes trauma to children and youth, there were varied
perspectives about whether stand-alone human trafficking training is mandated or recommended
within the district.
The third section explored the participants’ roles in training others on human trafficking
and other topics. This section found that education code standards do not mandate stand-alone
human trafficking training and are only recommended through a board resolution and other
legislation. Further, these recommended training sessions are only provided to specific secondary
schools identified as high-risk. The fourth section sought to understand how policies are
interpreted and implemented to train staff and school personnel. This section found discrepancies
in how participants interpreted and implemented the policies. Some identified the board
resolution as the primary policy requiring all secondary staff to be trained, others identified the
child abuse policy as the primary policy, and others interpreted that there is no specific standalone human trafficking policy.
The fifth section pursued understanding how students are educated on human trafficking.
This section found that students primarily learn about this topic during Grades 7 and 9 during
their health education classes. Students learn about this topic using an MTSS approach. The sixth
section sought to identify specific curricula and resources used to educate others. This section
found formal textbooks and resources available for students paid for through a grant. This
section also found that the educational materials used for staff training are created by staff and
community experts. No specific funding is allotted for staff training, and the one designated staff

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person leading and coordinating the staff training is paid from general funds and is responsible
for multiple programs in addition to human trafficking.
Finally, Section 7 explored the best practices and barriers to delivering human trafficking
prevention education to students and staff. This section found that the best practices included
continued awareness training for all staff and district leaders. School district leadership
prioritizes their efforts based on what’s mandated, and currently, district administrators and
educators are overwhelmed with the existing mandates. For students, the best practice is to focus
on the universal topic of personal safety and to teach skills in addition to content. Overall, the
barriers identified for educating students and staff include district bureaucracy, too many
mandates, denial of human trafficking as a problem impacting school-aged children and youth,
and lack of clear policies and procedures.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate and seek a deeper understanding of how a
group of 12 administrators from one California school district interpreted and implemented
human trafficking prevention laws and policies for educating students and to identify best
practices, gaps, and barriers to delivering this education. This study addressed two core research
questions:
 What are the perceptions of how the leadership of a public school district in
California is interpreting and implementing human trafficking education legislation
and policies in schools?
 What are the best practices, needs, and gaps for schools to implement human
trafficking prevention education to students?
The presentation of data in Chapter 4 yielded significant findings, including the limitations and
delimitations of this study, its strengths, challenges, and recommendations for the next steps.
Findings
The findings are identified in the following categories: (a) the district departments and
personnel responsible for implementing the human trafficking prevention policies; (b) the
interpretation of the district’s human trafficking policy; (c) the implementation of how students
are educated of human trafficking prevention; (d) the strengths of the district; (e) the gaps or
barriers to delivering human trafficking education; (f) the limitations of the study; and (g) the
recommendations.
District Departments and Personnel Responsible for the Implementation
The personnel responsible for the implementation of the human trafficking prevention
education work in two district departments. The department of student health and human services

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(SHHS) is responsible for the stand-alone human trafficking training for staff, and the
department of Health Education Programs (HEP) is responsible for the education of students.
There is one coordinator for each department, and together, they implement human trafficking
education throughout the district.
The SHHS human trafficking prevention coordinator holds a doctorate in social work, a
master’s in school counseling, and credentials in school administration and pupil services and
attendance. This person is an expert in human trafficking and all child welfare matters. While
this coordinator has over 22 years of professional experience, this person has led the district in
raising awareness of human trafficking for 6 years by providing in-person and virtual training,
creating web-based resources, hosting conferences, and collaborating with the community to
address human trafficking of children on a grander scale. All interviewees were familiar with this
position and often deferred their answers to this person. This position is housed under SHHS.
The HEP coordinator oversees student learning for all the health education classes. This
person has degrees in business international finance and organizational design, a master’s in
education, and credentials in teaching and school administration. Overall, this person has over 30
years of experience in schools, and the HEP coordinator is responsible for selecting the
curriculum, training health teachers, monitoring progress, and meeting the health education grant
requirements. This coordinator is an expert in health education, including sexual education, HIV
and AIDS prevention, and human trafficking. This position is housed under the district’s office
of instruction. Together, the coordinators from SHHS and HEP are a powerful duo leading the
district with education and resources for human trafficking prevention that other school districts
could replicate.

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Interpretation of the District’s Human Trafficking Education Laws and Policies
Another important finding came in the form of interpreting the definition of human
trafficking. The data revealed that most participants (75%) recognized that human trafficking
involves sexual abuse or sexual exploitation, but only 33% included labor exploitation as part of
the definition. It is important to note that the definition of human trafficking includes both labor
and sexual exploitation. It is also important not to miss the signs of labor trafficking.
While there was a unanimous desire to protect all children and youth from harm,
violence, and abuse, there was a significant variation of interpretation about how specific
policies and protocols are defined and enacted. Less than half (42%) of the participants reported
that they were unclear about all the federal and state laws and policies but reported that they
were familiar with the district’s board resolution, which serves as the primary human trafficking
prevention policy.
When asked what the district’s human trafficking policy was, 50% of the participants
identified the district’s board resolution as the formal policy; 17% identified the child abuse
policy and board resolution together as the human trafficking policies; 8% reported it is the HEP
only; 8% reported it was child abuse policy only, and 8% skipped this question.
Another significant finding was the interpretation of the terms mandated, required, and
recommended. Seven (58%) participants reported that not all schools and staff receive training
because the district does not mandate it for everyone. They emphasized that school personnel
will prioritize mandatory training. Lastly, another significant finding was inconsistencies in the
interpretation of human trafficking as a form of child abuse. There were variations in how they
interpreted the term and whether it qualified as a form of child abuse.

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Student Education
Students primarily receive information on human trafficking during Grades 7 and 9
during their health education classes. The content is delivered by certificated teachers using
developmentally appropriate language, scientifically sound concepts and terminology, and an
MTSS approach. The objective of the human training lessons was to raise their awareness about
human trafficking and for students to learn and practice critical thinking skills for prevention and
help-seeking behaviors. The health teachers used textbooks and workbooks that are districtapproved and in accordance with the laws and with a grant that supports this work. Parents can
remove their children from specific educational lessons or opt out if desired.
Identifying the District Policies
While multiple policies are in place to keep children and youth safe, there appear to be
some inconsistencies about which district policies precede addressing human trafficking. There
is no stand-alone human trafficking policy in the district. However, the interviewees recognized
the board resolution as the primary policy requiring secondary school staff training to raise their
awareness about human trafficking. There is a human trafficking scenario in the annual child
abuse training. The participants suggested expanding the child abuse policy and training to
deepen the understanding of human trafficking as a form of child abuse.
Strengths of the District
The district has been enacting human trafficking prevention and awareness training for
staff since 2015, prior to the passage of the HTPETA. The district was proactive and enacted
policies to educate others without additional funding because they believed it was their
responsibility to protect children and youth. Further, the district’s board resolution stood out as

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the most significant and influential policy addressing this topic. This finding speaks to the
positive influence of internal policies.
The commitment from the staff is beyond noble and admirable. When asked Question 2.9
about their beliefs as to whether schools should be involved or serve a role in addressing human
trafficking, all agreed that schools already play a significant role in the safety and socialemotional development of children and youth. Further, they agreed that children are not
criminals but are sometimes misguided and need empowerment and support.
Another strength of the district was its ability to capitalize on the COVID-19 pandemic
when learning transitioned to a virtual platform to expand its human trafficking education using
virtual and web-based platforms. Pre-pandemic, all training was conducted in person, limiting
their capacity to reach everyone. Now, all or most training is virtual or web-based, allowing a
broader reach of participants, including schools that were not on the list to be trained and the
school communities.
Gaps, Challenges, and Barriers
Anyone working in a public school for any length of time would know that many great
things occur daily in schools but that there are also significant challenges. Some of the
challenges for delivering human trafficking education to students and staff consisted of the
following, which is not an exhaustive list:
● School personnel are overwhelmed with too many mandates.
● Lack of instructional time during the school day to deliver all the content to students.
There are limited minutes allowed for specific subject matters.

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● Educational code standards do not mandate human trafficking training and are only
recommended through a board resolution and other legislation. Recommended
training is not held to the same urgency as mandated training.
● Child abuse training is mandated for all employees via the education code and is held
to be one of the highest priorities in the district. The district has started to incorporate
human trafficking into the annual mandatory training by incorporating a human
trafficking scenario as a discussion point. The participants recognized that human
trafficking is not comprehensively covered during the child abuse training but
recognized that it is a start.
● Lack of funding to hire support staff to carry out training and support services for
students, parents, and staff.
● Staff wellness is on the decline. According to district leadership, educators are
leaving the profession due to high stress, low pay, and other environmental factors.
● Recommended training is for secondary schools only or students identified as highrisk. Elementary school-aged children and their parents are left out of the human
trafficking dialogue.
Limitations
While I made attempts to increase the validity of the study by allowing the participants to
review and correct the raw data prior to its analysis and was aware of my own biases of having
preexisting professional experience in a large school district, internal and external limitations
exist. Some of the internal limitations included not having many data sources to triangulate the
information. Triangulation of data occurs by examining evidence from the sources and using it to
build a comprehensive justification for themes (Creswell, 2018). I only had access to the

168
participants’ verbal reports and did not have access to the training evaluations and limited access
to the training material. This study was also limited to district administrators. The study could
have been strengthened by interviewing classroom teachers, students, parent leaders, and school
resource officers. Nonetheless, this study could serve as a pre-exploratory study to inspire
follow-up studies. The external limitations included not having an external auditor to review the
entire project or to cross-reference the interpretation of the raw data. Other limitations included
having too many questions, many of which could have been eliminated or consolidated for the
interview. While some participants chose to skip questions, many of the participants often
responded by saying, “I don’t know the answer, but I should know.”
Delimitations
Delimitations of a study are its boundaries, which also reflect the choices made regarding
the focus and scope of the research goals and questions. This study was limited by virtue of the
fact that district leaders only agreed to allow the study if its name remained anonymous. This
limited me from discussing the historical context of the district, the demographics of the students
it served, its budget to determine priorities, and its strengths and challenges.
Recommendations and Best Practices
This study recognized 11 best practices and recommendations for delivering human
trafficking prevention education to students. School administrators and educators must recognize
and understand that the human trafficking of minors is a form of child abuse. They must
recognize the warning signs, know how minors are groomed and recruited, and how to report it
to the appropriate authorities. School districts should expand their child abuse policies and
training to incorporate trauma-informed practices and culturally relevant terminology, and they
must incorporate scenarios from persons with lived experiences.

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In addition, all school personnel, including at elementary schools, must learn to recognize
signs of distress and grooming. Educators and administrators can use a multi-tiered approach to
provide universal strategies to teach children and youth, using age and developmentally
appropriate social-emotional strategies, about personal safety, healthy relationships, help-seeking
behaviors, coping skills, and other life skills.
State leaders must fund schools appropriately to implement mandates as stipulated in
laws and policies. Legislatures or boards of education should consider the financial and human
costs and hardships associated with new school policies. State leaders could strengthen public
school district infrastructures by auditing all the competing mandates required of educators and
administrators during the allotted instructional day or school year. Then, they should align the
budget to fund schools accordingly. The participants reported that educators and administrators
are overwhelmed and there is a high turnover rate of school personnel who allege that the job is
unrealistic.
Furthermore, there is a need for ongoing collaboration with community partners
including law enforcement, child protection services, medical and public health practitioners,
mental health and social service providers, local businesses, parents, and local and national
legislators. Schools could host or participate in regular safe school task force meetings to
examine relevant data to identify problem areas within the school community and make
resources accessible to youth and their families.
Parents and community-based efforts also require support. School leaders must engage
parents and families early to support their understanding of how ACEs may affect children’s
long-term health outcomes and increase their risk of being trafficked. These leaders can also
leverage community-based health efforts to strengthen families to gain access to resources,

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especially for families experiencing homelessness, food insecurity, a history of familial violence,
mental illness, and substance abuse. Schools can help destigmatize help-seeking behaviors and
create pathways for families to receive the support they need to thrive and raise safe and healthy
young adults.
Lastly, school leaders must regularly collect and examine data on internal suspicion of
human trafficking victims and perpetrators. They should also continue to collaborate with local
and national legislators to address what makes people vulnerable in the first place and provide
protective factors that reduce their risk of trafficking. It is also crucial to engage parents early
with accurate and age-appropriate information to support their child’s social-emotional
development and well-being.
Adapted Model
Figure 7 displays this author’s model about how to incorporate human trafficking
education into a district’s curriculum, as adapted from the U.S. Department of Education’s
model. For additional best practices and resources, refer to the resources in Appendix D.

171
Figure 7
Model for Incorporating Human Trafficking Education Into a District’s School Environment
Note. Created by this author, Holly Priebe Sotelo. This is not an exhaustive list but serves as
ideas for creating a safe school environment free from human trafficking.
Tier 1: Personal Safety
● Adopt, model, and embrace an environment of respect, inclusion, diversity, and nonviolence.
● Establish schoolwide expectations of respectful and responsible behavior embedded into
all classrooms, offices, workspaces, school buses, hallways, restrooms, locker rooms,
cafeterias, lounges, etc. Reinforce that these expectations include before and after school
and during all school-sponsored activities.
● Train all staff, parents, and school volunteers to recognize signs of child abuse, including
human trafficking, and how to report it.

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● Support ongoing student-led schoolwide campaigns to promote ally-building, kindness,
and healthy problem-solving.
● Provide internet safety training to all students and parents.
● Communicate regularly and clearly with all stakeholders using multiple sources (P.A.
Announcements, signage, murals, newsletters, etc.) Positive messaging should be
embedded into everything that celebrates and promotes kind, respectful, and inclusive
behavior.
● Create, host, or expand the Safe School Collaborative to promote a safe, respectful, and
responsible school community. Stakeholders should include local law enforcement, child
protection agencies, social service agencies, parent leadership, local business owners,
faith-based organizations, local political leaders, universities, and colleges.
● Community Mapping: Identify safe locations within the community where students and
parents can stop to ask for help en route to and from schools (e.g., fire stations, police
stations, and churches).
● Establish a buddy system for new students to become acquainted with others and the
school environment.
● Create a robust parent volunteer group.
● Consult with course leads to explore creative ways to incorporate lessons on human
trafficking prevention into all courses.
● Establish and invest in formal student leadership as a regular club on campus.
● Develop community resource guide and make it available to students and families.

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Tier 2: Responding to Suspected Human Trafficking and High Risk
● Train all school personnel and volunteers to recognize signs of grooming and human
trafficking.
● Identify missing children and youth or chronic truants or with high absentee rates.
● Follow-up on missing children and youth, or those new to the school, known to be
unhoused, in foster care, recently released from juvenile detention, a psychiatric hold, or
medical stay.
● Conduct home calls to visit with children and families who may be absent or isolated.
● Report suspected human trafficking of minors as child abuse to your local child
protection services agency and cross-report it to law enforcement. If a child is in
immediate danger, always call 911.
● Work collaboratively with the parents or caregivers of children who may also have
histories of abuse and exploitation.
● Report suspected foul play of a missing child to law enforcement, child protection
services, and the NCMEC.
● Refer high-risk students to school social workers or counselors for support and referrals.
● Instruct children and youth to remove specific images and content from the internet,
making them vulnerable to predators.
● Develop individual safety plans for high-risk students.
● Attend local human trafficking task force collaboratives to consult about specific
concerns.

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● Know your community. Conduct a community assessment to map and identify hot spots
and vulnerable locations within the community (e.g., abandoned homes and property,
non-mobile recreational vehicles, motels).
● Map sexual predators in your area. Know where registered sex offenders live in
proximity to your student’s pathway to and from school. Refer to Megan’s Law website
for details.
● Assign a special mentor or buddy to connect with vulnerable children or youth. This
could be a school personnel or student leader.
Tier 3: Identified Victims/Survivors
● Consult with Child Protective Services (CPS) about special instructions, living
arrangements, who has permission to pick up the child/youth.
● Be aware of the student’s transportation plan to and from school. Many traffickers have
been known to meet the child/youth outside school to control their movement.
● Refer students to a school-based social worker or support staff to provide regular checkins and ongoing support.
● Host student success team meetings to address educational and social-emotional needs.
● Identify community-based resources such as mental health and medical providers,
housing, etc.
● Provide referrals for assistance to remove questionable activity from the internet. The
NCMEC, local law enforcement, or the Federal Bureau of Investigations can provide
guidance.

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Contribution to Practice
This study contributed to the practice in several ways. The first is by producing findings
to gain a deeper understanding of how school administrators from a public school district in
California interpreted and implemented human trafficking prevention education laws and
policies. The findings can serve as a guideline for policy makers to consider when proposing new
legislation for schools. New legislation for school programs should be accompanied by a budget
and clear language about its expected outcomes. There was some confusion about how to
interpret the policies and whether they were mandated, required, or strongly encouraged, which
translated into different levels of compliance. While schools may be the ideal setting to teach
children and youth about current health and safety matters, it is critical to consider the challenges
and limitations within the educational infrastructure to comply with policy outcomes. The time
allotted during the average school day for administrators and educators to meet all the
expectations appears to be unrealistic and met with many limitations. However, all the
participants conveyed a deep commitment to serving children and their school communities and
were willing to do what it took to get the job done.
Another contribution to practice came from the clarity that human trafficking of children
and youth is a form of child abuse and should be incorporated into other child abuse policies and
practices. According to the federal CAPTA, as amended and reauthorized by the CAPTA
Reauthorization Act of 2010, child abuse and neglect is defined at a minimum as
any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death,
serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation (including sexual abuse
as determined under section 111), or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent
risk of serious harm (42 U.S.C. 5101 note, § 3).

176
Additionally, CAPTA stipulates,
A child shall be considered a victim of “child abuse and neglect” and of “sexual abuse” if
the child is identified, by a State or local agency employee of the State or locality
involved, as being a victim of sex trafficking (as defined in paragraph (10) of section
7102 of title 22) or a victim of severe forms of trafficking in persons described in
paragraph (9)(A) of that section (42 U.S.C. § 5106g(b)(2)
According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway (2023), states must have provisions
and procedures in place as part of their CAPTA state plans, which require identifying and
assessing reports of children who are known to be or whom they suspect to be trafficking
victims. Also, CPS workers must receive training on how to best identify, assess, and help
victims.
The ultimate aim of this study was to raise awareness about the long-term implications of
human trafficking on the lives of children. It also sought to contribute to a national framework
for incorporating human trafficking prevention strategies into educational frameworks to
recognize the risk factors and be more intentional about addressing this issue and protecting
children and youth. Figure 3 could be incorporated into schoolwide efforts to protect children
and youth from human trafficking.
Conclusion
Human trafficking of school-aged children and youth is a form of child abuse, and
creating an effective identification, protection, and prevention program is critical. Child abuse
includes severe physical, emotional, and psychological trauma, all of which interfere with the
exploited child’s learning environment. The study highlighted the importance of educators’
ability to recognize problematic behaviors as possible warning signs of abuse and exploitation.

177
Finally, in accordance with the U.S. Supreme Court, education is “perhaps the most important
function of state and local government,” and the 10th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
generally reserves the states the authority over education curriculum and policy (Didier & Salas,
2020; U.S. CONST. amend. X.; U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, 2023).
Schools are a microcosm of their communities. Schools are the center of their community
for many children and families, where youth learn to read and write and receive a warm meal.
Schools are also where many children and youth receive a medical exam, including an eye exam,
dental screening, mental health assessment, or new shoes and a backpack. Schools have been
used as community centers, after-school programs, childcare, and summer enrichment programs.
For many children and youth, it is the safest place in their community. While human trafficking
is still a new topic for many educators and district leaders, it is critical that we not turn a blind
eye to the realities of our society. Children and youth are actively being recruited into the life of
sex or labor trafficking every day while children complete homework using the internet or while
walking to and from school.
If you are a school leader or teacher reading this dissertation and thinking to yourself,
“What can I do? This problem is much larger than one person can manage.” I would like you to
take comfort in knowing that what you do daily matters. When teachers greet children and youth
daily using their names and recognize when they are having a bad day … matters. When teachers
establish positive social norms daily in the classroom and beyond … matters. Every day, a
teacher intervenes with schoolyard bullies … matters. Every day that a teacher notices that a
child is absent or sleeping in class because they may not have a warm place to sleep at night …
matters. All that teachers and school personnel are already doing to create safe spaces … matters.

178
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APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FOR RESEARCH
University of Southern California
Sol Price School of Public Policy
650 Childs Way, Los Angeles, CA 90089
Study Title: Human Trafficking Prevention Education and Public-School Leadership: An
Exploratory Study
Principal Investigator: Holly Priebe Sotelo
Department: University of Southern California, Sol Price of Public Policy
INTRODUCTION
We invite you to take part in a research study. Please take as much time as you need to
read the consent form. If you decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. A
copy of the signed form will be provided to you for your records.
KEY INFORMATION
The following is a short summary of this study to help you decide whether you should
participate. More detailed information is listed later in this form.
1. Being in this research study is voluntary-it is your choice.
2. You are being asked to take part in this study because of your professional position
with --. The purpose of this study is to conduct a qualitative study to understand how
the key leadership of a school district is enacting human trafficking prevention
policies and interpreting and implementing said policies. Your participation in this
study will last no more than 2-hours. Procedures will include an interview to explore
your work related to human trafficking prevention education and to review
documents used for the human trafficking prevention.
3. There are little to no risks from participating in this study.
4. You may not receive any direct benefit from taking part in this study. However, your
participation may contribute to a national framework to deepen the understanding of
how districts can protect and educate children from human trafficking through
education.
5. If you decide not to participate in this research, your other choices may include provide a
brief statement of the alternatives to participating, or to refer the researcher to an
alternative professional within - - who may be able to support this effort.

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DETAILED INFORMATION
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to conduct a qualitative study to understand how the key
leadership of a school district is enacting human trafficking prevention policies and
interpreting and implementing said policies. The intention of the s to identify effective
strategies for best practices. We hope to learn how the ____district leadership is enacting
human trafficking prevention education. To learn how the human trafficking prevention
policies are being interpreted and implemented, and how -
is evaluating its outcomes. Further, this research seeks to understand the barriers, if
any, in the delivery of services to the students.
You are invited as a possible participant because of your professional position with
- About 10 - 12 participants will take part in the study.
PROCEDURES
Participates would be interviewed individually using a semi-structured questionnaire. You will
be provided the questionnaire 30 days in advance to help you prepare for the interview. The
interview will be conducted via Zoom and recorded to capture the information accurately. You
can decline to be videotaped, but I would like to have an audiotape, if possible, for accurate
transcription. The data will be stored in a safe and the information will be confidential and only
reviewed by this researcher. The interview may take up to 1.5–2 hours, depending on the level
of information shared by the participant. The data collection will occur outside of paid worktime.
If you decide to take part, you will be asked to select a few dates and times in February of
2022 that would be best for your schedule. The audio from the interviews will be transcribed for
data analysis and reporting. You will also be provided with a copy of the transcription from your
interview for review.
Participants may withdraw consent at any time.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION A gift card in the amount of
$50.00 will be provided to you following your interview as a form of recognition for your
contribution to this study. The gift card will be sent to you electronically.
CONFIDENTIALITY The members of the research team, and the University of Southern
California Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and
monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. When the
results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable information
will be used. This researcher will abide by the codes of ethics that will govern this research as
recognized by the American Educational Research Association: Ethical Standards of the
American Educational Research Association, 2011 (www.aera.net/AERA/AERA-RulesPolicies/Professional-Ethics) and the American Psychological Association Code of Ethical
Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, including the 2010 Amendments

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(www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx). The identity of the participants will be kept confidential,
with no names being written in the final report, but it is understood that the data gathered will
be from key stakeholders from ------unless - -- does not want to be named at all. The data will
be kept indefinitely and stored in a safe. If you allow a recording of the interview, you will have
the right to review and edit the recordings and transcripts. Your name and any other identifying
information will be removed from the report.
VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION
It is your choice whether to participate. If you choose to participate, you may change your mind
and leave the study at any time. If you decide not to participate, or choose to end your
participation in this study, you will not be penalized or lose any benefits that you are otherwise
entitled to.
CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, the principal investigator, Holly Priebe Sotelo at
hsotelo@usc.edu or ------------ or Deborah Natoli, PhD at natoli@price.usc.edu.
This research has been reviewed by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRS). The IRS is a
research review board that reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and
welfare of research participants. Contact the IRS if you have questions about your rights as a
research participant or have complaints about the research. You may contact the IRS at (323)
442-0114 or by email at irb@usc.edu.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.
STATEMENT OF CONSENT
I have read (or someone has read to me) the information provided above. I have been given a
chance to ask questions. All my questions have been answered. By signing this form, I am
agreeing to take part in this study.
Print Name of Research Participant Signature Date Signed

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APPENDIX B: REDACTED POWERPOINT

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APPENDIX C: Email to Potential Participants Template
Dear XXX,
My name is Holly Priebe Sotelo, and I am a doctoral candidate at the USC Sol Price School of
Public Policy. Your name and contact information were provided to me by representatives from
the District’s Office of the Superintendent due to your professional role and expertise related to
the topic of human trafficking prevention education.
I am inviting you to participate in a qualitative doctoral study. The purpose of this study is to
conduct a qualitative study to understand how the key leadership of a school district is enacting
human trafficking prevention policies and interpreting and implementing said policies. The
intention of the study is to identify effective strategies for best practices. We hope to learn how
your district’s leadership is enacting human trafficking prevention education. To learn how the
human trafficking prevention policies are being interpreted and implemented. Further, this
research seeks to understand the barriers, if any, in the delivery of services to students.
I also received permission from your district’s Internal Review Board to proceed with this study.
For more information about the study, please refer to the attached consent form. I look forward
to hearing from you and learning more about your role and expertise.
Thank you in advance.
Holly Priebe-Sotelo, MSW, PPSC
Doctoral Candidate

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APPENDIX D: RESOURCES/TOOLKITS FOR SCHOOLS
After a school district has recognized the urgency of taking action to address human
trafficking prevention in schools, the next step is to assess your internal and external resources,
including funding. The local control funding formula (LCFF) is often an excellent place to start.
The LCFF has been referred to as the hallmark legislation that fundamentally modified how all
local educational agencies in the state are funded and how they are measured for results. The
services and support they receive allow all students to succeed to their greatest potential (CDE,
2023).
The whole child local control funding map (Figure D1) serves as an interactive resource
map that identifies LCFF priorities and resources to support and guide local educational
agencies, schools, and families to serve the needs of the whole child. Each ray in the circle
represents a priority for the LCFF, such as student engagement, foster youth, and basic needs.
Schools could use this as a map to guide their work and access LCFF funding to address human
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Figure D1
Whole Child Local Control Funding Formula Resource Map
Note. From LCFF Priorities/Whole Child Resource Map by California Department of Education,
2023c. (https://www.cde.ca.gov/eo/in/lcff1sys-resources.asp). Copyright 2024 by California
Department of Education.
The following resources have been developed by multidisciplinary experts in public
safety, public health, academics, educators, survivors of human trafficking, service providers,
community-based organizations, and beyond. The following is not an exhaustive list; it has been
identified as evidence-based, based on research, trauma-informed, and culturally relevant.
U.S. Department of Education - Human Trafficking - Combatting Human Trafficking in
America’s Schools provides a dedicated webpage with federal resources for administrators,
teachers, specialized instructional support personnel, parents, caregivers, and students to combat
trafficking (U.S. DOE, 2023).
The National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE) Featured
Resources is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Supportive

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Schools to the American Institutes for Research. This website provides extensive resources
specifically designed for schools (U.S. DOE, 2023).
The National Center on Safe and Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE) - Human
Trafficking Webinar Series presents information and experiences to address the growing
response of America’s schools to child trafficking. The series draws attention to the significant
efforts underway in our nation’s education community to address both sex and labor trafficking.
NCSSLE Addressing Human Trafficking in America’s Schools: Staff Development
Series - 2022 includes three brief videos that provide information key to identifying potential
trafficking, generating appropriate school-level responses, and efforts to prevent trafficking of
students. Training collateral in supportive posters and social media/website graphics are also
available to promote information from the series with staff members.
The National Human Trafficking Training and Technical Assistance Center (NHTTTAC)
- SOAR Online is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and
Administration for Children and Families and provides free training and technical assistance to
inform and enhance public health responses to human trafficking. SOAR is a recommended
framework for online training. It is designed to educate health care providers, social workers,
public health professionals, and behavioral health professionals on identifying and responding
appropriately to individuals at risk of or who have experienced trafficking. There is a specific
training module for school personnel (U.S. DHHS, 2023).
The National Human Trafficking Training and Technical Assistance Center (NHTTTAC)
Human Trafficking School Safety Toolkit (2022) provides a step-by-step guide to help schools
(1) identify students who may be experiencing trafficking or may have an increased risk for
trafficking, (2) ensure educators and other staff comply with mandatory reporting laws, (3)

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ensure the safety of students, educators, and other staff when reporting human trafficking and
other forms of violence, and (4) help students connect to service providers and programs
intended to reduce further exposure to violence and victimization. (U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, website, 2023).
NCCSLE Human Trafficking in America’s Schools: What Schools Can Do To Prevent,
Respond, and Help Students To Recover From Human Trafficking, Second Edition (2021)
provides awareness of the current prevalence of child trafficking and the forms it takes and
explains what schools can do to prevent, respond, and help students to recover from human
trafficking.
Human Trafficking in America’s Schools: How Schools Can Combat Human Trafficking
in Partnership With People With Lived Experience (2022) describes ways schools can partner
effectively with people with lived experience of trafficking and explores some of the unique
benefits these consultants offer.
General Public Awareness Resources
Blue Campaign - Department of Homeland Security (2023) (2023). The Blue Campaign
is a national public awareness campaign designed to educate the public, law enforcement, and
other industry partners to recognize the indicators of human trafficking and how to respond to
possible cases appropriately.
Resources to Prevent Child Abuse and Neglect
Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect: A Technical Package for Policy, Norm, and
Programmatic Activities - Centers for Disease Control (2016) -This technical package identifies
strategies to help prevent child abuse and neglect. These strategies include strengthening
economic support to families, changing social norms to support parents and positive parenting,

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providing quality care and education early in life, enhancing parenting skills to promote healthy
child development, and intervening to lessen harm and prevent future risk. These strategies range
from a focus on individuals, families, and relationships to broader community and societal
change.
Essentials for Childhood - Centers for Disease Control (2021) - This report identifies a
framework of strategies and detailed approaches that can create the context for healthy children
and families and prevent child abuse and neglect (Fortson et al., 2016).
Resources to Address Minor Sex Trafficking
Addressing the Growing Problem of Domestic Sex Trafficking in Minors through
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports - Center on PBIS (2021) highlights the broader
issue of domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) and suggests a framework for integrating
school-based prevention and intervention strategies through Positive Behavioral Interventions
and Supports (PBIS).
National Advisory Committee on the Sex Trafficking of Children and Youth in the
United States Best Practices and Recommendations for States (2020), sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services’ Office of Administration of Children and Families
(ACF), this report provides recommended best practices for addressing child sex trafficking. The
report has a dedicated section on child welfare with 19 recommendations, supporting resources,
and examples that states may consult as they work to improve their response to the sex
trafficking of children and youth.
National Registry of Evidence Based Programs and Practices (NREPP) - Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) hosts the Evidence-Based
Practices Resource Center (formerly the National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and

209
Practices or NREPP). The Resource Center is a searchable compendium of evidence-based
mental health and substance abuse interventions. Users can search by topic area, substance, or
condition as well as resource type (e.g., toolkit, treatment improvement protocol, guideline),
target population (e.g., youth, adult), and target audience (e.g., resource for clinicians, prevention
professionals, patients, policymakers).
SchoolSafety.gov - Child Exploitation Resources - SchoolSafety.gov prepared the
recommended resources to initiate learning about child exploitation. These resources help
prevent, identify, and respond to child exploitation.
Trauma-Informed Resources for Schools
Trauma-Informed Schools - National Education Association (NEA) (2023) recognizes
that supporting students who suffer from childhood trauma requires whole-school involvement
and transformation. The NEA and its partners are actively identifying ways for schools and
educators to address the issue of trauma and its implications for learning, behavior, and school
safety. The emphasis is to focus on education that fosters a school climate where students feel
safe and confident in their ability to learn, can differentiate between trauma-induced behavior
and appropriate behavior, and connect with adults and peers in a positive manner (2023).
Resources for Parents
Child Sex Trafficking in America - Missing and Exploited Children This guide offers
information for parents and guardians on child sex trafficking, including an overview of the
victims and perpetrators, tips for keeping children safer, and warning signs.
Internet Safety Resources
Internet Safety - Keeping Kids Safe by Department of Justice
NetSmartz Keeping Kids Safe Online - by Missing and Exploited Children

210
Missing Children Resources
National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) (2023), is a nonprofit
501(c)(3) corporation whose mission is to help find missing children, reduce child sexual
exploitation, and prevent child victimization. The website contains free educational materials.

211
APPENDIX E: LEGISLATION FROM 2014–2018
Senate Bill (SB)-1165 of 2014 - California Senate Bill 1165, Ch. 713. (2014) - Pupil
Instruction: Sexual Abuse and Sex Trafficking Prevention Education - formerly California
Comprehensive Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Prevention Education Act (Cal. Ed Code
51950(b). This bill required the Instructional Quality Commission to consider including a
distinct category on sexual abuse and sex trafficking prevention education, as specified, when the
health framework is revised after January 1, 2015. The existing law, the California
Comprehensive Sexual Health and HIV/AIDS Prevention Education Act (retitled in 2015 to
CHYA), authorized school districts to provide comprehensive sexual health education, as
defined, in kindergarten and grades 1 to 12, inclusive and required school districts to ensure that
all pupils in grades 7 to 12, receive HIV/AIDS prevention education unless the pupil is excused,
as specified. This bill also authorized a school district to provide sexual abuse and sex trafficking
prevention education. The bill encouraged school districts to collaborate with outside
consultants, including law enforcement, with expertise in sexual abuse and sex trafficking
prevention education to create school safety plans to address these issues” (California SB 1165,
2014 – Track Bill Website).
Senate Bill (SB)-855 of 2014, The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children
(CSEC) Program California Legislative Information. This bill provided funding for counties
to opt in and establish a commercially sexually exploited children (CSEC) program. The bill
established that the program would be administered by the Department of Social Services (DSS)
or CPS in order to serve children who have been sexually exploited. It authorized funds to
participate in the program for specific prevention and intervention activities and services to
children who are victims, or at risk of becoming victims, of commercial sexual exploitation. For

212
counties that opted in, DSS and CPS required training for county children’s services workers to
identify, intervene, and provide case management services to children who are victims of
commercial sexual exploitation and the training of foster caregivers to prevent and identify
potential victims. The bill also required these counties to establish an interagency protocol to
serve sexually exploited children adjudged to be dependent children of the juvenile court
(California Legislative Information, 2014). Prior to this law, most CSEC and youth faced arrest
for prostitution and were directed through the juvenile justice system instead of child welfare
agencies. The CSEC Program is optional, yet most counties in California have chosen to opt in
(47 of 58) (National Center for Youth Law, 2022).
Assembly Bill (AB)-1432 (2015) and Mandatory Child Abuse Reporting California
Department of Education (CDE) - Child Abuse Identification and Reporting Guidelines:
Effective January 1, 2015, this bill required that all Local Educational Agencies (LEAs) must
train all employees each year on how to identify and report suspected cases of child abuse and
neglect. “All employees” includes anybody working on the LEA’s behalf, such as teachers,
paraprofessional teachers, classified employees, and any other employees whose duties bring
them into direct contact with and supervise students. LEAs must also develop a process to
provide proof that employees received training (California Department of Education, 2023;
California AB-1432, 2015).
Assembly Bill (AB)-329 (2015) California Healthy Youth Act - Weber. Pupil
Instruction: Sexual Health Education (2015): The California Comprehensive Sexual Health
and HIV/AIDS Prevention Education Act, enacted in 2004 and renamed the CHYA, Education
Code 51930-51939, on January 1, 2016. It modified the provisions to integrate the instruction of
comprehensive sexual health education and HIV prevention education. This bill required

213
California public schools, including charter schools, to provide comprehensive sexual health
education to all pupils in Grades 7 to 12. It also required public schools to provide students with
medically accurate, unbiased, inclusive of LGBTQ people, comprehensive sexual health
education at least once in middle school and again in high school. Further, the education must
include information about pregnancy, sexual harassment, sexual assault, healthy relationships,
and human trafficking (California Healthy Youth Act, 2015; California Department of
Education, 2021; ACLU California, 2021; California Legislative Information, 2015).
Senate Bill (SB)-1322 (2016) - Mitchell. Commercial sex acts: Minors. This bill
decriminalized prostitution for those under 18 years of age. It also specified that the statutes that
make solicitation of prostitution and loitering with intent to commit prostitution misdemeanors
do not apply to a child under 18 years of age who is alleged to have engaged in such conduct to
receive money or other payment. It also stated that a commercially sexually exploited child may
be taken into temporary custody if left unattended and poses an immediate threat to the child’s
health or safety or other specified criteria (California Senate Bill (SB) 1322 Bill Analysis,
(2016); California SB 1322. (2015-2016).
Assembly Bill (AB)-1227 (2017) - Bonta Human Trafficking Prevention Education
& Training Act (HTPETA) - On October 7, 2017, Governor Brown signed groundbreaking
legislation making California the first state to adopt human trafficking prevention education
training for teachers and students, also referred to as Human Trafficking Prevention Education
and Training Act (HTPETA). Effective January 1, 2018, HTPETA requires school districts to
include human trafficking prevention education in grades 7-12 (at least once in middle school
and once in high school) as part of comprehensive sexual health education. This bill broadened
the training to include human trafficking, which includes labor trafficking, not just sex

214
trafficking. It also added requirements to the Education Code regarding the training of educators
and students about human trafficking. This bill also allows a parent or guardian to excuse their
child from all or part of human trafficking prevention education, as specified by current law.
The bill also makes continuation training required versus permissive and includes training as part
of satisfying requirements in current law that education be provided by trained instructors in the
appropriate courses and include topics related to human trafficking. Lastly, this bill encourages a
school district to include training on early identification of human trafficking of pupils and other
minors (California Legislature Assembly Bill [AB] 1227, (2017-2018); California AB-1227,
2017).
Senate Bill (SB) -1104 (2018) Roth. Pupil Safety, Section 49381, added to the
Education Code on September 27, 2018, to inform parents and guardians of minors in grades 6 to
12 of human trafficking resources. It further specified that a school district’s and charter
school’s governing boards shall work with their schools that maintain students in grades 6 to 12
to identify the most appropriate methods of informing parents and guardians of human
trafficking prevention resources. Further, the governing board of a school district and a charter
school shall implement the methods identified in their schools that maintain grades 6 to 12 by
January 1, 2020. Lastly, this bill describes how school districts may be reimbursed for those
costs pursuant to Part 7 (commencing with Section 17500) of Division 4 of Title 2 of the
Government Code (California Legislative Information SB 1104, 2018).

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Victims of human trafficking are exploited in every region of the world, forced into service for labor or commercial sex, and one-third of all victims are minors. In the United States, persons under the age of 18 who are exploited for human trafficking are also classified as victims of child abuse but are often overlooked, misunderstood, and unaddressed. School personnel are mandated reporters and trained to identify signs of distress in children and youth. They can also play an important role in educating and protecting students about the potential harms of human trafficking. The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the perceptions of twelve district administrators from a non-disclosed school district in California to understand how they interpreted and implemented human trafficking legislation and educational policies. This study also sought to identify best practices and needs for schools to deliver human trafficking prevention education to children and youth. Finally, this study strived to expand human trafficking awareness and contribute to existing educational frameworks to support local and national conversations among K-12 educators so they can more fully participate and engage in the design of programs and curricula to educate, empower, and protect students and facilitate their emotional and developmental wellbeing. The findings from the study identified seven key areas of how the district leaders interpreted and implemented human trafficking prevention education in their school district.

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Creator Sotelo, Holly Priebe (author)

Core Title Human trafficking prevention education and public school leadership: an exploratory study

School School of Policy, Planning and Development

Degree Doctor of Policy, Planning & Development

Degree Program Planning and Development,Policy

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 03/04/2024

Defense Date 10/19/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag commercial sexual exploitation of children and youth,CSEC and schools,human trafficking and schools,human trafficking prevention education,OAI-PMH Harvest,public school leadership and human trafficking prevention,public schools and human trafficking

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