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Are students better off? An analysis of administrators’ commitment to serving transitional kindergarten students in multilingually diverse communities in Central Coast California
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Are students better off? An analysis of administrators’ commitment to serving transitional kindergarten students in multilingually diverse communities in Central Coast California
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Are students better off? An analysis of administrators’ commitment to serving transitional
kindergarten students in multilingually diverse communities in Central Coast California
Maribel Ortega Garcia
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024
© Copyright by Maribel Ortega Garcia 2024
All Rights Reserved
The Committee for Maribel Ortega Garcia certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. David Cash
Dr. Maria G. Ott
Dr. Rudolph Crew, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024
iv
Abstract
This qualitative study adopts a conceptual framework comprising Bronfenbrenner's
Bioecological Systems theory and Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory. The framework underscores
the diverse contextual influences on child development, encompassing family, schools,
communities, policies, and the economy and the intricate relationships among these settings. The
purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of parents and caregivers with culturally
responsive teaching strategies while their children attended transitional kindergarten (TK) and
explore administrators’ personal commitments to serve TK students in diverse communities in a
public school district in central coast California. Purposeful sampling of surveys and semistructured interviews were utilized to collect data from 49 parents, ten elementary principals, two
administrators, and one county director. The findings indicate that parents strongly believe in the
importance of participating in their child's culturally diverse TK classroom, especially when
facilitated by bilingual teaching staff. District leaders are committed to aligning initiatives with
the vision, emphasizing the importance of continuous learning for TK teachers to create
developmentally appropriate environments. The study highlights the district's pivotal role in
supporting principals to address diverse TK student needs, with ten key themes emerging in
connection to the research questions. The study's findings reveal themes that provide valuable
insights to educational practitioners at both site and district levels. These insights focus on
culturally responsive teaching (CRT) strategies in TK classrooms, aiming to facilitate and
enhance the ongoing implementation of TK, focusing on cultural responsiveness,
multilingualism, and student-centered approaches.
v
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dissertation advisor, Dr. Rudy Crew, for his
unwavering guidance, support, and invaluable feedback throughout the entire research process. I
am also thankful for the support of my committee members, Dr. Maria G. Ott and Dr. David
Cash, whose expertise and insights enriched the quality of this work.
Special thanks go to my family and friends for their encouragement, understanding, and
patience during the challenging phases of this journey. I express my gratitude to CCUSD for
granting approval for this research. A special appreciation goes to all the participants for
generously contributing their time and knowledge, greatly facilitating the research process
Additionally, I extend my appreciation to Dr. Emilio Handall and other colleagues who
offered their feedback and encouragement. Your shared lived experiences have significantly
shaped the outcome of this dissertation.
I would like to express my deep appreciation to my two daughters, Prisella and Penelope.
Their unwavering love, patience, and understanding were my constant pillars of support during
the demanding phases of this dissertation journey. Their encouragement, smiles, hugs, and
understanding of my time commitments were a source of motivation. I am grateful for their
resilience and the joy they brought to my life, providing balance amidst academic challenges.
This achievement is dedicated to them, and I am thankful for the bond we share.
I extend my deepest gratitude to my husband, PJ, whose unwavering support, and
encouragement sustained me throughout the demanding journey of completing this dissertation.
His belief in my capabilities, his patience during late-night research sessions, and his constant
reassurance were indispensable sources of strength. His sacrifices and understanding during this
challenging period are truly appreciated, and I am profoundly grateful for his presence in my life.
vi
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter One: Overview of the Study.............................................................................................. 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 2
Statement of the Problem.................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 5
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ........................................................................ 8
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 9
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 14
Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................... 14
Early Learning Foundations.............................................................................................. 19
Children Ready for Schools.............................................................................................. 22
Nationwide Education Policies Inform Local Investments .............................................. 24
Brain Ready for School Readiness ................................................................................... 25
Economic Advantages to Investing Early in Education ................................................... 29
Enclosures of Workforce Competencies........................................................................... 35
Multilingual Learners........................................................................................................ 36
Culturally Responsive Approaches to Learning ............................................................... 39
Ecosystem of Key Partners in Education.......................................................................... 44
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 48
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 50
Sample and Population ..................................................................................................... 51
vii
Design Summary............................................................................................................... 52
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 53
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 54
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 55
Data Analysis.................................................................................................................... 56
Trustworthiness and Credibility........................................................................................ 57
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 61
Participants........................................................................................................................ 62
Results for Research Question One .................................................................................. 64
Discussion Research Question One .................................................................................. 67
Results Research Question Two ....................................................................................... 68
Discussion Research Question Two.................................................................................. 74
Results Research Question Three ..................................................................................... 75
Discussion Research Question Three................................................................................ 86
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 87
Chapter Five: Discussion .............................................................................................................. 90
Findings............................................................................................................................. 92
Limitations...................................................................................................................... 102
Implications for Practice ................................................................................................. 103
Future Research .............................................................................................................. 105
Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 107
References................................................................................................................................... 108
Tables.......................................................................................................................................... 117
Appendix A: TK Interview for District Administrators and Elementary Principals .................. 120
Appendix B: TK Survey for District Administrators and Elementary Principals ...................... 123
viii
Appendix C: TK Survey for Parents and Caregivers.................................................................. 128
Appendix D: Informed Consent/Information Sheet.................................................................... 131
ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Interview and Survey Criteria Page 52
Table 2: Research Questions and Data Collection Methods Page 54
Table 3: Participants Page 63
1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Since the introduction of kindergarten in the United States in 1856, legislators have
attempted to continuously adopt policies to accommodate the changing perspectives on children's
developmental needs and parental economic demands. Over the past several decades,
kindergarten has evolved from focusing on children transitioning smoothly from home to school
to emphasizing school readiness and academic achievement (Chang et al., 2009). Most recently,
kindergarten enrollment in 2021-22 was 469,927 students, which, was nearly a 12% decrease in
enrollment from school years 2019-20 to 2020-21 (CDE, CalEdFacts, 2022), which, is attributed
to the COVID-19 pandemic. Kindergarten students are now expected to engage in highly
structured, segmented, academic daily routines that cover reading, writing, mathematics, science,
and most recently, social-emotional learning. Since the adaptation and growth of kindergarten,
school readiness has shifted in California with the Kindergarten Readiness Act, Cal. Educ. Code
§§ 48000-48002 (2010).
The entry-age requirements for kindergarten in California public schools expanded with
the addition of transitional kindergarten (TK) in the school year 2012-2013. The Kindergarten
Readiness Act of 2010 gradually changed the TK enrollment age from December 2 to September
1, whereas children whose fifth birthday was between September 2 and December 2 were
enrolled in TK. While the state law required local education agencies (LEA) to develop TK as
the first year of a 2-year kindergarten program, the policy provided flexibility with limited
guidance. Although the addition of TK was a new approach to early learning for this age group,
administrators and teachers struggled to adapt as leaders. At the same time, parents sought to
understand the expectations (Slicker et al., 2021). In its infancy stage of implementation, LEAs
were required to provide students in TK programs with instruction in a modified kindergarten
2
curriculum that is guided by developmentally appropriate practices. As LEAs tried to adapt,
culturally responsive teaching (CRT) strategies were not applied to predominantly diverse
multilingual communities, resulting in convoluted transitions for children and their families into
the California public school system.
Background of the Problem
Transitions in the field of education are not easy. In the case of TK, when a pedagogical
foundation has never been established for this new grade level, all the less new grade span for
preschool (pre-K), TK, and kindergarten. The California Department of Education P-3 alignment
calls out horizontal and vertical alignment and coherence across grades and systems to improve
coordination of policies and practices in pre-K, across transitions to TK and Kindergarten, and
through third grade (CDE, Preschool through Third Grade (P-3) Alignment, 2023, April). While
CDE attempts to establish alignment through cross-sector work, LEAs continue to grapple with
the new grade level, with varying degrees of acceptance, which, is contrary to the work that has
been built up over 50 years for students from bilingual communities (García & Sung, 2018).
Today, educators are trying to fuse monolingual, multilingual, and cultural pedagogy issues all in
the same school day within one school year. These disjointed efforts are not as simple as
Friedrich Froebel and Maria Montessori originally intended in their play-based approach to
kindergarten.
Kindergarten has evolved from the early play-based approach, which, was originally
founded by the works of Friedrich Froebel and Maria Montessori, to the present-day rigor filled
with instructional and expanded learning opportunities. All of these seek to explore the question
of whether students are better off because of strategies that permeate from early education to
third grade. Yet, approaches to school readiness have leaned on students’ ability to assimilate
3
into kindergarten with cognitive and social-emotional skills almost fully developed (Quirk et al.,
2011). However, when social-emotional learning (SEL) is not applied to children in languagediverse communities, this is a universal problem that affects the school’s learning climate. To
equitably meet the needs of our diverse learners, a culture of care must steer clear of a
homogenous approach to SEL and consider culturally relevant, gender-aware, issues of color,
race, and ability (Durlak et al., 2011; Kennedy, 2019).
In offering a modified kindergarten curriculum, a standardized approach to address the
whole child with a teacher workforce that struggles to incorporate children’s linguistic and
cultural backgrounds. Multilingual learners come to us with richly varied backgrounds, skills,
and cultural ways of knowing. They need teachers who welcome them and recognize their
unique abilities, what they know, and what they need to learn (Magruder et al., 2013). Although
adaptation was a goal, numerous students were funneled into these early kindergarten programs
without content guidance, nonetheless a cultural pedagogy (Ball, 2000). Picower (2009) states
that almost 90% of the US K-12 teaching force represents a disparity between white teachers and
students of color since the life experiences and positionality of many white teachers often make
it challenging for them to understand the relevance of teaching from the culturally relevant
perspective. The mismatch is further exacerbated when teachers enter TK classrooms filled with
children of color without the examination of implicit racial bias (Starck et al., 2020). In this
adaptive new phase, it is a growing concern for students and education advocates concerned with
teaching from a culturally relevant perspective, that teaching strategies are respectful of
language, life experiences, and prior learning, particularly from culturally diverse communities.
CRT strategies in TK classrooms validate students’ unique language development by
accommodating language backgrounds, cultural humility, and funds of knowledge (González et
4
al., 1992). Undoubtedly, there is value in supporting the transition of parents early in their child’s
education through a cultural pedagogy aimed towards revealing community cultural values and
norms. Parents’ lived experiences are essential to our understanding of cultural responsiveness,
especially given the budding relationship between the teachers and parents of TK students.
Schools have an ongoing challenge to consistently include parents and caregivers in decisionmaking, learning, and relationship-building in schools, which, includes assessing the needs,
experiences, and perceptions of their children’s daily lives in schools (Goodwin & Long, 2023).
As LEAs adapt to incorporate new families into this new grade span, administrators are
responsible for implementing intersecting policies to engage families from culturally diverse
communities through their principals' leadership (Grissom et al., 2021).
As such, principals play a critical role in the culture of the school campus, and leverage
support for programs and student interventions (Ainscow, 2005). Principals can employ qualified
teachers and staff that reflect the diversity of the children in the school. Chief among all qualities
is the principal's ability to place students in equitably proportioned classrooms to meet their
individual needs, inclusive of abilities and language. Identifying training and ongoing
professional development for teachers to understand cultural differences, and various
backgrounds can help them better connect with the students and their families with the help and
resources they need to be successful (Khalifa et al., 2016). Principals who maintain an open
dialogue on adapting to these challenges are instrumental to culturally diverse communities.
Statement of the Problem
The implementation of TK in California public schools has no clear roadmap to serve the
diverse communities (American Institutes of Research [AIR] 2014). The new mandate requires
LEAs to offer TK to all 4-year-old students by school year 2025-2026 yet transitions for this new
5
grade level have limited directions. Administrators, principals, and teachers attempt to charter
this new grade level, lacking the adoption of a cultural pedagogy in communities with
multilingual students. Teachers cannot effectively practice culturally responsive teaching
strategies without prior knowledge about students’ cultures and languages (Ladson-Billings,
1995). Furthermore, principals, who are not equipped to navigate this new grade level with an
equity lens, are stalled in meeting the needs of growing numbers of TK students and their
families in culturally diverse communities. This issue is worthwhile because CRT strategies
connect students’ cultures, languages, and life experiences early on in school, which, raises
expectations and makes learning relevant for all students.
Purpose of the Study
This study explores administrators’ commitment to serving TK students in multilingually
diverse communities in central coast California public schools. Ladson-Billings (1995) explains
that CRT develops intellectual, social, emotional, and political learning by using cultural
reference to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes. Therefore, without first learning about the
cultures and languages of the students and examining principal and teachers’ biases, effective
CRT strategies falter. TK classrooms must implement culturally sensitive instruction while
recognizing that students bring with themculturally sensitive instruction and bring knowledge
and experiences that could be incorporated into the classroom to accelerate their learning. This
study will examine how CRT strategies may be adjusted in TK classrooms, which, may lead to
stronger relationships with the students and their families, while also reshaping the curriculum
6
and adjusting to a cultural pedagogy. The proposed shift provides the space for communicating
and facilitating student-focused and student-led learning.
This study is grounded on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory that keeps the
student in the center as learning occurs through the interaction between people, environment, and
behavior. The framework of biological systems theories of development illustrates that child
development is influenced by many different contexts settings such as family, schools,
communities, policy regimes, economy, and its relationship between these settings, some of
which, the child may have no direct effect (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). The conceptual framework
also incorporates Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, as it emphasizes the social environment as a
facilitator of development and learning (Schunk, 2019). Additionally, the theory stresses the
interaction of interpersonal, cultural-historical, and individual factors that are key to human
development. As such, learning and development cannot be disassociated from their context,
which, in this case in the TK kindergarten classroom. Expanding on Gutierrez and Rogoff’s
(2003) sociocultural perspective, suggesting that attention to the social context of teaching and
learning, sensitivity to questions of belonging, bias, inclusion, and respect for the range of
7
“repertoires of practice” that students bring to the classroom … support learning (as cited by
Nasir, S. M. et al., 2006).
Research Questions
The following research questions guide this study:
1) How do parents of primary-grade students, who attended TK, describe their experiences
with culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms?
2) How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe their efforts to strengthen
teachers' abilities to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities?
3) What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK students in linguistically
diverse communities?
This study examines CRT strategies in TK classrooms in one public school district in
central coast California. Research questions two and three will address the attitudes and beliefs
of administrators and principals’ commitments to kindergarten readiness in communities with a
predominance of multilingual learners. Principals have the largest influence on implemented
practices, professional development themes, classroom observations, policy implementations,
and advocacy for financial support for student services (Grissom et al., 2021). The ability of the
school leader to leverage resources to identify and foster a culturally affirming school
environment is paramount (Ainscow, 2005). As parents are introduced to the public school
system, these early experiences characterize their relationship with education for years to come.
As such, research question one attempts to understand the participants’ experiences with
schooling that promote student engagement, learning, and achievement by centering their
knowledge, cultural backgrounds, and everyday experiences in the TK classroom. Questions
grow from curiosity and lead to framing qualitative questions that inquire about a phenomenon,
8
understanding, or perceptions while signaling the relevance of the study to a field or discipline
(Agee, 2009).
Significance of the Study
This research study will provide insight into CRT strategies in TK classrooms to further
strengthen the ongoing implementation of TK in a cultural, multilingual, holistic approach that is
student-focused. Alongside this, teacher competencies are currently under review with the
introduction of the new PK-3 Early Childhood Education Specialist Credential to build the
pipeline for a qualified, diverse workforce of teachers working in pre-K through third-grade
public school classrooms. The demand is largely being driven by the investments of TK
expansion and investigation of teacher competencies to teach multilingual students from diverse
communities (Powell et al., 2022).
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study was limited to public schools with a predominantly large population of
multilingual learners with a transitional kindergarten experience. Interview questions to parents
and caregivers, whose children attended TK, were limited to their experiences with CRT
strategies in the TK classroom.
The delimitations of this study were limited to parents and caregivers (TK-grade 6),
administrators and principals in public schools (TK-6), geographic region (central coast
California), and the number of participants surveyed and interviewed. Malloy (2011) states that
when educators craft unique, locally driven inquiry projects that move beyond the typical data
9
that are examined in schools, better decisions about programs, interventions, and policies can
result.
Definition of Terms
21st Century California School Leadership Academy (21CSLA): An organization that
provides, high-quality, equity-centered professional learning for educational leaders of schools
and districts in California that receive Title II funds. Programs are no-cost to participants and
include leadership coaching, as well as an emphasis on improving instruction and achievement
outcomes (including through distance learning) for English Learners, students with disabilities,
low-income students, and other historically marginalized students in California
(https://21cslacenter.berkeley.edu/home, accessed January 12, 2023).
Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC): An agency in the Executive Branch of the
California State Government that was created in 1970 by the Ryan Act and is the oldest of the
autonomous state standards boards in the nation. The major purpose of the agency is to serve as a
state standards board for educator preparation for the public schools of California, the licensing
and credentialing of professional educators in the State, the enforcement of professional practices
of educators, and the discipline of credential holders in the State of California
(https://www.ctc.ca.gov/, accesed March 10, 2323).
Culturally diverse communities: Comprised of different diversity dimensions including
race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, identity, socio-economic status, age, religion, physical
and/or mental/neurological abilities, language, geographical location, veteran, and other pertinent
characteristics (Blair & Raver, 2016).
Culturally responsive teaching (CRT): Strategies that seek to empower students educationally
and to expand their capabilities in other spheres including social, emotional, and political arenas
10
by making students’ own skills, languages, and attitudes meaningful in the classroom. CRT is at
the core of diversity, equity, and inclusion (Reardon & Portilla, 2016; Ladson-Billings, 1995;
Bassok & Latham, 2017).
Dual Language Immersion (DLI): An educational approach where students receive instruction
in two languages, typically with the goal of bilingualism and biliteracy. Students are taught
academic content in both their native and target languages (often English and other languages
such as Spanish, French, Mandarin, etc.). The primary objective of dual language immersion
programs is to develop proficiency in both languages while promoting cross-cultural
understanding and academic achievement. Instruction is typically divided between the two
languages, with varying ratios depending on the program model and grade level (Magruder et al.,
2013).
Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP): An approach to teaching grounded by research
on how young children develop and learn and in what is known about effective early education.
Teaching practices are based on research on children’s development, the individual child, and
cultural appropriateness. DAP was originally coined by the National Association for the
Education of Young Children (NAEYC), an organization committed to fostering high-quality
early education for children from birth through age 8 (Montoya et al., 2022).
Ecological Systems Theory: Bronfenbrenner (1974) argued that multiple aspects of a
developing child’s life interact with and affect the child. Given the design of this study, we do
not know about the quality of students’ prior early education experiences, household dynamics,
11
parenting style, adverse childhood experiences, number of siblings, birth order, faith-based
practices, and cultural traditions (Bronfenbrenner, 1981).
Multilingual Learner (currently English Learner): A student in transitional kindergarten
through grade 12 for whom there is a report of a language other than English on the Home
Language Survey (HLS) and who, upon initial assessment in California using an appropriate
state assessment, currently the English Language Proficiency Assessments for California
(ELPAC) (Magruder et al., 2013; González et al., 1992).
Play-based learning (PBL): Child-centered and focuses on children’s academic, social, and
emotional development, and their interests and abilities through engaging and developmentally
appropriate learning experiences (Taylor & Boyer, 2019).
Preschool through Third Grade Alignment (P-3): California Department of Education is
committed to interrupting and counteracting inequities, racism, and bias and closing opportunity
gaps to ensure all children start school ready to succeed and all schools are ready to support
every child’s success.
PK-3 Early Childhood Education (ECE) Specialist Credential: Focuses on developmentally
appropriate practices, for young children in grades pre-K through 3, where teachers are expected
to design, implement, and facilitate learning activities throughout the grade span which, engage
students according to their developmental levels. Classroom learning activities need to take into
consideration and value each child’s cognitive, social, emotional, linguistic, and cultural
experiences, and other relevant background characteristics, assets, and abilities as well as any
12
area(s) of special needs (https://www.ctc.ca.gov/educator-prep/pk-3-ece-specialist-instructioncredential, accessed March 2, 2023)
School readiness: encompasses both “readiness to learn” and “readiness for school.” According
to the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, readiness to learn “involves a level of
development at which, the child has the capacity to learn specific materials” and readiness for
school “involves a specific set of cognitive, linguistic, social, and motor skills that enables a
child to assimilate to the schools' curriculum (Le et al., 2006).
Transitional kindergarten: Defined in California Education Code section 48000(d) as “the
first year of a two-year kindergarten program that uses a modified kindergarten curriculum that is
age and developmentally appropriate. “A child shall be admitted to kindergarten at the beginning
of the school year if the child will have his or her fifth birthday on or before September 1 for any
given school year. Whereas a child shall be admitted to transitional kindergarten at the beginning
of the school year if the child will have his or her fifth birthday on or after September 2
according to the school year (https://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/si/ds/tkcdscodeguidance.asp, accessed,
February 24, 2023).
Universal Design for Learning (UDL): An educational framework that aims to provide all
students with equal opportunities to access and engage in learning regardless of their diverse
learning needs and abilities. UDL is based on the principles of universal design, which,
emphasizes the creation of environments and materials that are accessible and usable by
everyone, without the need for adaptation or retrofitting
(https://mybrightwheel.com/blog/universal-design-for-learning, accessed on February 12, 2023)
Sociocultural theory: Learning tasks that are similar to those that are common to the student’s
familiar cultural settings will promote learning and transfer, as social context is a mediator of
13
learning and thinking. Providing scaffolding and assisted performance in students’ zone of
proximal development promotes developmentally appropriate instruction (Cole et al., 1978).
Organization of the Study
Are students better off? An analysis of administrators’ commitment to serving
multilingual students with a transitional kindergarten experience in central coast California
public schools is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study and
introduces data to present the inequities in implementing TK in central coast California public
schools (TK-6) and includes definitions of terms used in this study. Chapter 2 presents a
literature review in the following four areas: kindergarten foundations, investments in early
learning, cultural pedagogy, and the ecosystem of key partners in education. Chapter 3 describes
the methodology selected for this research study and includes sample and population selection,
qualitative instruments, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter 4 is a report of the research
findings. Chapter 5 is composed of a summary of findings, implications for practice,
conclusions, and recommendations. References and appendices are included in the conclusion of
this research study.
14
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review explores the complexities associated with supporting TK students
and gains multiple perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and resources identified by
administrators and elementary principals in multilingual communities. Thus, the literature review
begins with the conceptual framework to provide the context and background necessary to fully
consider the study’s research questions. Thereafter, an examination of the historical events is
presented that led to the introduction of kindergarten and education policies that enacted
transitional kindergarten in American public schools. Then, the transition of academic priorities
associated with kindergarten is addressed. Additionally, the literature review associated with the
economic advantages of investing early in education is explored. Turning the attention to
approaches to learning, defining school readiness, and then a deep exploration of the enclosures
associated with teacher competencies and practices. Subsequently, the school principal’s
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are examined. The chapter concludes with
the challenges associated with early education expectations through the lens of parents' and
caregivers’ perceptions about school transitions and cultural responsiveness.
Conceptual Framework
This study used a two-part conceptual framework as a lens to investigate perspectives on
the challenges, opportunities, and resources identified by administrators and elementary
principals. First, Erie Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems theory of development illustrates
that child development is influenced by many different contexts settings such as family, schools,
communities, policy regimes, economy, and its relationship between these settings, some in
which, the child may have no direct effect (Bronfenbrenner, 1995). Secondly, the framework is
anchored on Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, as it emphasizes the social environment as a
15
facilitator of development and learning (Schunk, 2019). Additionally, the theory stresses the
interaction of interpersonal, cultural-historical, and individual factors that are key to human
development. These two authors are instrumental in understanding how learning and
development enhance learning in systems that surround students.
Bioecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner (1979) divided the person's environment into five different systems: the
microsystem, the ecosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem. These
systems explain the ecological levels involved in human development. The microsystem is
defined as a pattern of activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations experienced in a direct
setting. As such, the family system is the most influential and proximal microsystem in children's
early learning (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), whereas interactions with other people in the classroom
are also a proximal system for children. Parents and caregivers are identified as a part of the
microsystem, as this study aims to explore their early experiences with culturally responsive
teaching strategies when their children attended TK.
Secondly, the mesosystem comprises interconnections between two or more
microsystems surrounding the child. For example, the relationship between the mother and the
schoolteachers has an impact on the child, as the connections influence one another. Other
important connections include mother-father relationship, parent-church relationships, and
sibling-parent relationships. Bronfenbrenner (1979) believed that a strong mesosystem, made up
of strongly interconnected community of people surrounding a child, helps a child's holistic
16
development. By considering the two microsystems, this study explores how the two contexts
play roles in children’s academic achievement as a mesosystem.
The third level of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems theory is composed of the
exosystem, which, contains the settings or events that the child does not actively participate in
but profoundly affects the child's development. Such external factors of include the child’s
neighborhood and school, parents' workplaces, and mass media. For example, when a teacher
decides to incorporate a new reading strategy and is met with a critical and unsupportive
principal, this situation may impact her ability to form and sustain positive relationships with her
students. The outermost layer of the bioecological model is the macrosystem that encompasses
cultural and societal beliefs, decisions, and actions that influence a child's development.
Examples of this fourth level include the education system, the law system, the cultural systems,
and the geographic location in which,, a child is raised.
Bronfenbrenner’s final layer is the chronosystem which, comprises both normative and
non-normative life transitions that focus on the role of time in shaping an individual's
development. This dimension acknowledges the influence of historical events, personal
experiences, and major life transitions on developmental processes such as sibling birth, moving
to another state, and non-normative transitions such as a car accident or parents remarrying.
Thus, the various domains are interrelated and have an impact on a child's development and are
best understood within the context of the family, educational setting, community, and broader
society (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
The bioecological systems theory keeps the student in the center as learning occurs
through the interaction between people, environment, and behavior. Key education partners
directly connected to the kindergarten classroom include the principal, teacher, staff, parents, and
17
administration. Intersectionality is a lens through which,, you can see where power comes and
collides, where it locks and intersects (Crenshaw, 1991). In the present study, the role of the
principal is defined as holding a powerful position within the conceptual framework, as they
have the largest influence on implemented practices, professional development themes,
classroom observations, policy implementations, and advocacy for financial support for student
services. The ability of the school leader to leverage resources to identify and foster a culturally
affirming school environment is paramount (Ainscow, 2005).
Overall, the framework illustrates that child development is influenced by intersecting
environments such as family, schools, communities, policies, and the economy. However, the
bioecological systems theory is limited in that it does not provide theoretical explanations for
how social interaction enhances and supports children's cognitive, linguistic, and social
development within the sequence of brain development. Gutierrez and Rogoff (2003) expand on
the sociocultural perspective, suggesting that attention to the social context of teaching and
learning, sensitivity to questions of belonging, bias, inclusion, and respect for the range of
“repertoires of practice” that students bring to the classroom … support learning (as cited by
Nasir, S. M. et al., 2006). In lieu, Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the
fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition, as his theory focuses on
the central role that community plays in “making meaning” (Vygotsky, 1978). Both theories
provide the framework and perspective to the value of understanding children’s development in
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social settings through the context of the TK classroom, parents within the school system, and
the overall impact of a school administration on a child’s development and learning.
Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory incorporates three fundamental concepts, culture,
language, and the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky suggested that culture plays an
important role in learning; by using tools and symbols, the learner’s ability to grow as
individuals and increase their knowledge base is broadened (Schunk, 2019). As such, teachers
need to understand the students from a historical point of view as well as a cultural one.
Secondly, language is an essential tool in the learning process that directly results from the
symbols and tools that emerge within a culture. A student’s ability to learn language occurs
through various social events, scenarios, and processes, which, all result in language acquisition.
Language also plays two critical roles in cognitive development as a means by which, adults
transmit information to children, whereas language becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual
adaptation (Vygotsky, 1962).
Within language, three stages of speech development occur; first, social speech is the
external communication used to talk to others, typical from the age of two. Second, private
speech is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function, which, develops from age three.
Lastly, children’s monologues are internalized to become the inner speech, which, occurs
approximately by age seven. Through social interactions, children are taught concepts by
parents, siblings, and teachers and use tools of language and symbols to internalize learning
(Schunk, 2019).
Vygotsky’s third fundamental concept revolves around the zone of proximal development
(ZPD), where instruction is designed to reach a developmental level just above the student’s
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current developmental level. As explained by Vygotsky (1978), the ZPD is the distance between
the actual development level determined by independent problem-solving and the level of
potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers. For example, if a topic is unfamiliar, teachers may want
to link that topic to what students already know to foster more advanced levels of reasoning.
There is value in a teacher’s ability to become more reflective of students’ and families’
experiences in multilingual communities, thereby providing rich experiences that encourage and
enhance student learning.
In closing, Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory proclaims that the role of social interactions
and cultural context facilitate the shaping of cognitive development. Specifically, the social
communication process is an outcome of the child’s interactions within their environment. By
definition, Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory underscores the importance of
multiple environmental systems, emphasizing the importance of social learning in
communication development. The intersection of both theories lies in that the sociocultural
theory directly points towards promoting student-centered learning by establishing learner
autonomy, in the manner that bioecological systems theory is also focused on the student.
Additionally, the framework highlights the importance of language in learning and the role of
adults in guiding children's learning. Interestingly, neither theory divides learning into stages,
rather they both offer a chronological order that builds upon each other (Morrison, 2018).
Early Learning Foundations
While theorists Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky utilized research outcomes to systematize
and decode data grounded on a scheme to generate their respective theories (N Saracho, 2022),
notable pedagogues also paved the way for early learning. Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) is well
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known for his promotion of child-directed exploration and self-discovery through play,
originating the term “kindergarten” in his school in Germany. (Wilson, 1967). The term
kindergarten can be translated as either a garden for children or a garden for children. As such,
Froebel viewed the kindergarten as an institution for cultivating family life and forming life and
humanity. Froebel prefaced his philosophy of education on the idea that children learn through
natural play, where children are free to express themselves independently and with others
(Pound, 2019). Through child-directed exploration and play, children feel joy from the
environment’s natural stimulation by following their interests.
Just as Froebel believed in child-centered play, Maria Montessori is also credited with
child-directed learning where children are free to move, choose their own work, and follow their
interests. Maria Montessori’s (1870–1952) contributions to play-based pedagogy originates from
her work with socioeconomically disadvantaged orphans in Rome around the turn of the
twentieth century (PLAY : A Theory of Learning and Change., 2017). Montessori opened her
first Montessori school, Casa dei Bambini, also known as Children’s House, on January 6, 1907.
Montessori believed children learned best when they were free to explore their interests in a
supportive environment rather than sedentary traditional approaches to early learning as
witnessed at the time. As a result of Montessori’s principles, her philosophy continues to
influence early educators and parents, emphasizing intrinsic learning and self-discovery.
Founders of Kindergarten and Play-based Learning
It is critical to understand the original pedagogical approaches to kindergarten, which,
employs a play-based approach to the chief impediments that have cropped up with transitional
kindergarten (TK) and cultural pedagogy. Friedrich Froebel valued children’s autonomy and
believed that children learned through play, a form of creativity (Shirakawa et al., 2021).
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However, with the addition of TK, there has been an ongoing debate about whether kindergarten
should be more developmental or academic in focus since Friedrich Froebel’s introduction of
kindergarten. Academic advocates argue that young children can learn academic content in
kindergarten and that academic instruction is necessary to help some students “catch up” before
formal schooling begins (Little & Cohen-Vogel, 2016).
Like Froebel, Maria Montessori continues to influence early childhood education, as the
concept of play-based active learning is the heart of a curriculum that provides opportunities for
practicing social interaction and relationship skills (Lillard, 2021). Montessori’s approach directs
teachers to instruct and empower the whole child while children enjoy active learning through
hands-on experience, investigation, and research. Montessori's history includes the early
childhood classroom model, rigorous research on its outcomes, and a culturally responsive
pedagogy that is relevant to addressing today’s social inequities (Lillard, 2021; Little & CohenVogel, 2016). Children at play learn the value of taking risks and applying an experimental
approach to learning. Through play-based learning, children set their own goals and make
connections, discoveries, and choices based on their own interests, needs, and strengths, which,
tend to affect their social-emotional development. Montessori and Froebel laid the
developmental framework for brain development. As early education continues to unfold,
administrators and teachers are strained with the play-work dichotomy while preparing students
for standardized tests (Little & Cohen-Vogel, 2016). The play-based approaches diverge from
the national education policies orchestrated decades ago.
School Readiness is Born
In 1989, President Bush and state governors across the nation held an education summit
to discuss the education goals going into the 21st century, drawing upon research around early
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brain development (Vinovskis, 1999). The participants came up with six goals that by the year
2000, all children in America would start school ready to learn. The concept of kindergarten
readiness came from the identified gap of thinking what is in place for children during the first 5
years of life to what is expected of them upon entering the K-12 public education. Soon
thereafter, the National Education Goals Panel convened in 1991 to discuss ways to strengthen
the nation's student educational performance. As such, kindergarten readiness became a national
policy agenda item by which, the panel identified readiness in a child as determined by a set of
three interdependent developmental trajectories (Williams et al., 2019).
Children Ready for Schools
The first pillar of school readiness is marked by a child’s physical well-being, sensorymotor development, including health status, social and emotional development, self-regulation,
attention, impulse control, capacity to limit aggressive and disruptive behaviors, turn-taking,
cooperation, empathy, and the ability to communicate one’s own emotions; identification of
feelings facilitates accurate communication of these feelings (Williams et al., 2019). A particular
developmental domain, which, is later explored, is a child’s which, includes learning approach,
including enthusiasm, curiosity, temperament, culture, and values. Language development
includes listening and speaking skills, literacy skills that include print awareness, writing and
early literacy and numeracy skills.
Schools Ready for Children
Williams and colleagues (2019) described school as “ready for children.” Characteristics
of these schools include a smooth transition between home and school. Additional factors of
these schools include cultural sensitivity, opportunities for parent engagement with schools, a
school’s understanding of early child development and that children learn through play and
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natural experiences. Before a child steps foot on a public school campus, an elementary school’s
ability to provide continuity between early care and education programs and intervention
services. Schools ready for children are also depicted by equipping their kindergarten programs
with high-quality, developmentally appropriate teaching practices at a rate designed to challenge
but not overwhelm a child.
Communities Ready for Children
A community that embraces a child and family is distinguished by providing excellent
prenatal care and ongoing primary care within a medical home setting that is comprehensive,
compassionate, and family-centered (Williams et al., 2019). As previously mentioned, the third
level of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems theory is composed of the exosystem, which,
contains the settings that profoundly affect the child's development, including the child’s
neighborhood and school. A supportive community provides optimal nutrition and daily physical
activity so that children arrive at school with healthy minds and bodies. In agreement with the
early learning foundations explored by the founders of kindergarten, Froebel, and Montessori, a
supportive environment cultivates family life. A model community offers equitable access to
high-quality pre-K and childcare for all children, which, is a vital first step to ensuring children
are provided an opportunity to develop SR skills, as mentioned in the first pillar. In addition to
school environments and consistent with the bioecological approach, families play a central role
in children’s development as the home environments are a child’s first classroom, and parents
are their first teachers (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Slicker et al., 2021).
The foundations of school readiness further developed and gained momentum with more
research unveiling early brain development and the importance of early education experiences on
learning. Yet despite various education report reforms over the past several decades, far too
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many students are still not receiving the services they need to narrow the achievement gap before
entering school. Gaps and academic achievement between socioeconomically disadvantaged and
minoritized students and their white and Asian counterpart peers persist across the nation
(Ladson-Billings, 2006). California, in particular, is responding with local investments to ensure
children are ready to enter kindergarten.
Nationwide Education Policies Inform Local Investments
The United States Department of Education Acts are notable to monitor and understand
the investment level in early education. While they serve America's students by promoting
student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness, their level of investment is
minor compared to state, local, and private sources. Leveraging investments would bring
equitable value to early education nationwide. The California Education Code [EC] 48000 has
refined the traditional kindergarten grade level to incorporate transitional kindergarten (TK) as
the first year of a two-year kindergarten program. California education policies are reflected in
the state education codes and have enormous bandwidth around early learning. The fact that
more than 50 different education code sections dealmore than 50 different education code
sections deal with serving younger students is an example of how significant California takes the
issue of early learning.
The responsibility does not end with the addition of TK as EC 48000[c] (c) (1) states that
as a condition of receipt of apportionment for pupils in a transitional kindergarten, LEAs must
admit a child who will have their fourth birthday by September 1. Many of these provisions
provide limited guidance on developmentally -appropriate curriculum, teacher preparation, and
equitable student access, whereasgrade-level enrollment is optional. California Master Plan for
Early Learning and Care provides a strong research-based roadmap for building a comprehensive
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and equitable early learning and care system over the next decade (California for All Kids,
Retrieved March 4, 2023). With multiple components, the plan’s primary goal is to increase
access to early learning, but it also has components aimed at supporting the whole child. In
contrast, prior education reform acts failed to address this. Historically, large state investments
are fueling the plan, which, signals the state’s continued commitment to early learning and what
it might mean for the future of California’s children.
Driven by quality, equity, and social justice, the Master Plan seeks to improve life
outcomes for all young children and all families' social and economic well-being by 2030. The
California Master Plan for Early Learning and Care goals are organized to 1) unify and
strengthen programs and services to support children's learning and development; 2) support
children’s learning and development by enhancing educator competencies, incentivizing, and
funding career pathways, and implementing supportive program standards; 3) unify funding to
advance equity and opportunity; and streamline early childhood governance and administration
to improve equity. The Master Plan goals are supported by medical research, social science, and
the economics of human development, of which, is a shift in its focus to the advancement of
whole-child development (Cannon et al, 2017). California’s investments in the Master Plan are a
sheer acknowledgement that young children’s experiences shape the architectures of their brains,
thus strengthens their cognitive, social, and emotional development, all of which, lead to school
readiness.
Brain Ready for School Readiness
To understand the correlation between school readiness and early learning opportunities,
decades of research on brain development points to these pillars. According to Dr. Bruce D.
Perry, founder of the Child Trauma Academy in Houston, Texas “While experience may alter the
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behavior of an adult, experience provides the organizing framework for an infant and child
because of brain is most plastic (receptive to environmental input) in early childhood, the child is
most vulnerable to variance of experience during this time (Perry, 2009, p.88). To further
understand brain development during infancy, the brain stem establishes a survival plan
reinforced and supported by the nurturing attachment formed with the primary caregiver.
However, suppose that attachment is not formed or severely delayed. In that case, the infant
remains in survival mode for a significant amount of time. In contrast, the longer the infant is in
this mode of survival, the longer it takes for the brain to evolve towards the development of
cognition.
Windows of Opportunity
In terms of the development of social and emotional parts of the brain, there are critical
periods known as windows of opportunity that, if missed, can leave long-lasting permanent
under development of the limbic system, which, is where emotions, behavior, motivation, and
long-term memory functions, all of which, are affected by one's relationships, are formed during
attachment. Again, referencing Dr. Perry's work (2009), in accordance with the brain
hierarchical structure, the area of the motion must be sequentially developed for full cognition
function to be realized. As such, the importance of a strong, secure family environment is a key
indicator of how a child's limbic system develops. Thus, a healthy living environment during
early childhood will provide the brain to rapidly reach its full potential.
Wired for Social-Emotional Learning
The first three years of life are the most critical for brain development, shaping the
foundational intellectual, emotional, and behavioral skills and knowledge necessary for a
successful life (Cannon et al., 2017). New advances in neurobiology reveal that brain
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development and the learning it enables directly depend on social-emotional experience
(Immordino-Yang et al., 2019). When children establish positive strong attachment with parents,
caregivers, and teachers, which, supports their ability to regulate their emotions, they manage
successful interactions with other people, which, is key for later academic performance, mental
health, and social relationships. The whole child approach is supported by brain circuitry, which,
captures the interdependencies of social-emotional experience that are paramount to their
continued development and learning.
A child’s ability to self-regulate is key to social emotional learning, which, leads to the
development of resiliency and emotional intelligence later in life. Goleman (2011) defines a
leader espouses self-regulation as the ability to control and redirect disruptive impulses and
moods. Hardly surprising that a child’s emotional intelligence could be strengthened over time
through persistence, practice, and feedback from teachers and parents. Equally important is
resilience, which, is characterized by the process and outcome of successfully adapting to
challenging life experiences, particularly through mental, emotional and behavioral flexibility
and adjustments to external and internal demands (American Psychological Association, 2023).
Therefore, students capable of effective learning can regulate their emotions and take
responsibility for acquiring and maintaining new skills. As such, students who have the
opportunity to develop self-regulating skills can compensate and overcome many challenges
under imperfect learning conditions, particularly those that do not account for their language and
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culture needs. Rueda (2011) states that students who have acquired self-regulatory abilities can
reduce the impact of less than optimal school and learning environments.
Acknowledging Inequities and Opportunities
The achievement debt in the first five years of life significantly impacts social, emotional,
cognitive, and physical development because of rapid brain development (Ladson-Billings, 2006;
Immordino-Yang et al., 2019). As previously mentioned, absent of these early skills contributes
to the achievement debt before a student’s school enrollment. Early education lays the
foundation for healthy development through educational experiences, whereas children born into
and raised in poverty often face disadvantages related to their health and education. Based on a
study by Reardon and Portilla (2016) that used data from nationally representative samples of
kindergarteners between 1998 (n = 20,220), 2006 (n = 6,600), and 2010 (n = 16,980) examined
trends in several dimensions of school readiness, academic achievement, self-control,
externalizing behavior, and a measure of students’ approaches to learning. The findings indicate
that academic achievement gaps between high- and low-income students born in the 1990s were
much larger than between cohorts born two decades earlier.
Despite the twofold increase in parent spending on early education, large achievement
gaps based on race and income persist as children enter Kindergarten (Bassok & Latham, 2017).
With rapid brain development in the five years of life, kindergarten programs are uniquely
positioned to narrow the achievement debt by centering on culturally responsive teaching
strategies early on (Reardon & Portilla, 2016; Ladson-Billings, 2006; Bassok & Latham, 2017).
Ladson-Billings (2006, as cited in Milner, 2007) stated that it is unfair and inconceivable to
expect all students to finish their education at the same performance level because some
students—such as African American and Latinx students and students from disadvantaged
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socioeconomic backgrounds—do not begin their education in the same place. Therefore,
boosting education early with cultural pedagogy classroom strategies widens the lens of
possibilities for culturally diverse communities, which, may further stimulate local economies.
Economic Advantages to Investing Early in Education
Proponents of early childhood interventions have linked school readiness to the National
economy. Research by Nobel Laureate economist James Heckman shows the value of investing
in high-quality early care and learning for historically marginalized children, which, can deliver
a 13% per annum return on investment from better education and health outcomes for children
(www.heckmanequation.org). Heckman’s research has been the foundation for showcasing how
investments in quality early education are essential for a thriving economy. Investing in
comprehensive programs for children ages birth to threeis3 is the most cost-effective, especially
with the rapid brain development and social connections previously discussed. Access to quality
early childhood education is essential for a thriving community as it produces
gains that span multiple generations (Heckman, 2006). Therefore, the return on investment lies in
students’ long-term school and life accomplishments that begin by addressing readiness gaps,
which, work towards improving our national economy. Investments in early learning services,
such as pre-K and TK, are a strategy of educational reform to mitigate costly intervention
services, fight intergenerational poverty, and strengthen our future workforce.
The Payoff: Returns on Investment Rather than Costly Intervention Services
The benefits of early education mitigate costly services in special education, grade
retention, restorative justice, and high school graduation rates (McCoy et al., 2017). Culturally
diverse communities risk costly consequences without first attending a kindergarten program,
where students could develop self-regulation skills and cognitive abilities (Blair & Raver, 2016).
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Heckman (2006) describes the critical importance of early experiences for establishing the brain
architecture that will shape future cognitive, social, and emotional development physical and
mental health. These early experiences pave the path to improved developmental skills,
compared to costly intervention services. Based on a comparative study conducted by Ladd and
colleagues (2014), community-wide effects of two state-funded initiatives on third-grade
standardized test scores were examined to explore the investment rate. Consequently, community
wide investments have a better return on investment than population-targeted programs,
indicating that early preventive intervention will be more efficient and produce more favorable
outcomes than remediation later in life (Ladd et al., 2014; Blair & Raver, 2016).
Social factors that affect a child's ability to learn and succeed could lead to a great void in
a child's readiness to begin kindergarten with factors such as poverty, low literacy rates among
family members, trauma, and violence in the home, malnutrition, and several other equally
important factors (García & Weiss, 2015). Such factors may be portrayed as the responsibility of
social services or parents and caregivers; however, schools have direct contact with children
every day and witness first-hand knowledge of how these factors contribute to children’s ability
to meet the educational expectations. The needs of children have been compartmentalized and
not viewed as impacting the child wholistically, which, affects how they acquire knowledge that
is essential to academic success. Western culture is compartmentalized by age, wealth, race,
language, education, and social class (Linda Tuhiwai Smith, 2012). Although none of these
categories should be addressed in a vacuum, children, comprise varying degrees of family
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characteristics where policies and processes foster the successes or failures of children and
families.
Compartmentalization of children's education begins with infant/toddler care and pre-K,
followed by the TK-12 public education system, to higher education institutes, vocational and
trade schools, followed by professional growth with each sector adhering to separate standards
and procedures with different funding streams and eligibility requirements. “One of the key
functions that education performs in hierarchical societies is sorting people into their respective
societal positions…in a settler colonial structure, though, education must also do the additional
unseemly work of justifying or blurring societal structures through narratives of societal promise,
constant opportunity, and self-rationalizing myths of meritocracy. These narratives mark formal
education's place in the United States” (Patel, 2016, p. 399).
Although the TK-12 public school system groups students into grade spans, all are forms of
education guided by systemic process guided by teachers and administrated by age, all of which,
have the same common thread: learning.
Patel (2016) claimed that learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills through
study, experiences prompted by intrinsic motivation. In contrast, Patel explained that education
is the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction via primary, secondary, and higher
education institutions. Yet, funding for these programs and strategies has traditionally been
siloed, making it difficult to affect any significant change to move forward with real reform and
establish a new paradigm of delivering needs. A closer look at the implementation of No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002). recognized the link
between early learning experiences and school successes, which, brought a wave of school
readiness strategies. Studies such as a Perry Preschool Project (Barnett, 1985), Chicago Child-
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Parent Centers (Reynolds et al., 2004), and The Carolina Abecedarian Project (Campbell et al.,
2002 reveal successful indicators of what collaborative solid early learning education programs
can accomplish for historically marginalized students of color. Results are associated with
improved academic performance and social outcomes, including higher rates of graduation and
lower rates of juvenile arrest (Campbell et al., 2002; Masse & Barnett, 2002; Reynolds et
al.,2004). Investments in early education opportunities throughout culturally diverse
communities play a substantial role in giving every student a fair shot at academic success, thus
narrowing the opportunity gap.
School Readiness: Early Identification and Interventions
Investment in early childhood education to promote children's school readiness (SR) has
prompted the need for clear definitions since SR is a multifaceted construct (Sabol & Pianta,
2012; Snow, 2006). As previously introduced, a body of research define school readiness as
student skills and knowledge upon kindergarten entry in developmental domains of language,
literacy, cognitive skills, and social, emotional, and physical development (Le et al., 2006; Sabol
& Pianta, 2012; Pyle, 2002; Snow, 2006). The aim of helping students succeed early in school
begins with early identification of school readiness (SR) by screening students with valid tools,
which, leads to effective educational support (Quirk et al., 2011; Duncan et al., 2020). All
children benefit from community resources to help them thrive, such as health care, quality early
learning experiences, healthy nutrition, and parent support that rallies around culturally
responsive approaches (Bronfenbrenner, 1981; Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Particularly, students from culturally diverse communities who enter kindergarten
programs have access to timely screenings and assessments that may be forgone when schools
are not attuned to their student needs. Based on a longitudinal study by Quirk and colleagues
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(2011) with 1,069 primarily Latinx students using the Kindergarten Student Entrance Profile
(KSEP) to rate students' school readiness at entry into kindergarten, reading skills measures, and
performance on state standardized assessments were collected through the end of Grade 2.
Findings show that students who performed better on the California Standards Tests (CST)
assessment (English/language arts and mathematics) at the end of second grade had significantly
higher KSEP ratings at kindergarten entry than did students with lower CST scores.
Implementing SR measures for early identification in kinder programs benefits culturally diverse
communities for timely, culturally responsive interventions.
Tenets of School Readiness
The goal of any kindergarten readiness program is to produce outcomes that support a
child's ability to meet kindergarten standards. Consequently, the primary intended outcomes are
that children are cognitively and social-emotionally ready. In contrast, the secondary outcome
strives for children who are healthy and thriving, with families that are actively engaged and
serve as a strong support for their child's learning and development. Comprehensive
kindergarten readiness assessments, such as the KSEP, measure a child's overall development
and skills before entering kindergarten (Snow, 2006; Pyle, 2002; Quirk et al., 2011). The
information revealed in these assessments do not uniformly originate from a measurement tool
but rather collaboratively from parents, teachers, and other primary caregivers who could
collaboratively provide a holistic picture of what skills need to be addressed. The holistic effort
by a collaboration of partners will enable services to be rendered dependent on the individual
children’s learning needs, all of which, provide an effective allocation of resources.
However, when collective efforts lack coordination, children will enter kindergarten with
various levels of school readiness. The bioecological approach for communities to rally around
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preparing the school readiness of their youngest citizens is demonstrated by the provision of
services to children in their communities within the context of a safe, secure, and inclusive
environment that supports student health and wellness and promotes learning (Bronfenbrenner,
1981). Chief to these collaborative efforts is the demonstration of commitment to the success of
every teacher in providing effective instruction to children and the introduction of approaches
that raise achievement, such as parent involvement and early intervention for children falling
behind. This study aims to explore the ecosystem of key early education partners as they relate to
culturally responsive teaching practices for children in TK.
A New Grade Level Brings Hope
California is expanding TK to become a universal program, to give four-year-old children
an opportunity to develop their kindergarten readiness skills with 300,000 children projected to
enroll by the 2025-26 school year (Montoya et al., 2022; Cannon & Lipscomb, 2008). Younger
students are continuously enrolled as beams of light with hopes of new-found outcomes, yet
these dark stagnant practicesdark stagnant practices continue to perpetuate these enclosures (de
Oliveira, V., 2012). With adopting the new grade level nearly a decade ago, LEAs were rapidly
catapulted into the abyss of early learning in search of technical solutions to their adaptive
challenges. In a study conducted by Mercado-Garcia and colleagues (2013) to determine how
districts implemented TK in its first year of statewide implementation, numerous methods were
applied. 89% of districts reported providing TK in 2012-13 to approximately 39,000 students,
representing approximately 70% of eligible students, whereas 57% of districts provided TK/K
combination classes due to low enrollment. Mercado-Garcia and colleagues' (2013) findings also
suggest some need to improve outreach to families. Achieving excellence on a broad scale
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requires a district-wide strategy for vision alignment, leadership to improve instruction, and an
organization that can implement it (Childress et al., 2006; Honig, 2013).
Enclosures of Workforce Competencies
The juxtaposition of BIPOC early educators well positioned to fill the new TK jobs
compared to the large percentage of white teachers in predominantly marginalized communities
of color is alarming. There is a disparity of white teachers in predominantly marginalized
communities of color with nearly 90% of the US K-12 teaching force being white, leaving no
room for CRT strategies (Carey et al., 2018; Picower, 2009). In a report from the Center for the
Study of Child Care Employment, Williams and colleagues (2019) found that California has a
diverse, qualified, and experienced population of early educators well positioned to fill new TK
jobs. Powell and associates (2022) found that while California is exploring options to staff this
change with the new creation of the PK-3 ECE Specialist Credential, an estimated 17,000 early
educators that were once deemed eligible* to teach 4-year-old students are now ineligible to
these students in public schools. Yet, school districts may waive 24 early education units for TK
teachers with a Multiple Subject Credential. Interestingly, pre-K and TK classrooms comprise
about 70% of teachers identifying as people of color, whereas 39% of the current TK-12
workforce are teachers of color.
Navigating the new grade level will require preparing TK pre-service teachers to be
critically conscious by integrating and interrogating their positionalities to support the whole
child in diverse communities (Carey et al, 2018; Douglas & Nganga, 2015). California Early
Care and Education Workforce Study reportRecently, Montoya and associates (2022) surveyed
almost 300 TK teachers in classrooms statewide about their teaching experiences, preparation,
work environments, and experiences. The number one challenge teachers identified was
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delivering developmentally appropriate practices, with an ambiguous understanding by school
and district leadership for teaching four-year-old children. Do TK teachers’ sense of belonging
impact the level of connection with students from predominantly multilingual communities?
Multilingual Learners
With California’s new mandate to offer Transitional Kindergarten to all 4-year-old
students by school year 2025, the state is tasked with serving the largest multilingual student
population in the nation, with a total of 17.7% of student enrollment for kindergarten through
grade 12 for 2020-2021 (CDE, 2021). While multilingual students are the focus for K-12, dual
language learners (DLL) are not mentioned in the figures, yet they are the youngest students
entering public education. DLL differ from students categorized as English learners in that they
are learning two or more languages simultaneously or a second language while continuing to
develop their home language (Dual Language Learning : What Does It Take? : Head Start Dual
Language Report., 2008). Although there was no formal definition for young children learning a
language different from English, Head Start formally adopted the term in 2008. The goal for
Head Start was to move away from the focus on English proficiency alone to a strength-based
terminology that acknowledges the child's learning of home languages in addition to English.
This was based on the latest research, which, demonstrated that home language supports the
development of English language skills instead of hinders. Reading knowledge gained in one
language can be transferred to another, and using one’s native language clarifies and enhances
understanding and focus…any generalizations must replicate the context in which, the learning
occurred (Verdugo & Flores, 2007).
As the population of multilingual learners continues to rise, comes the need to assess
student language proficiency at upon school entry. Annually, administrators prepare for
37
kindergarten registration with streamline approaches to English language assessment procedures
for incoming students. Often, English language assessment practices lack reliability and validity,
and produce inaccurate findings, whereas current practices in English language assessment in
early education pose challenges upon entry to kindergarten programs (Solano-Flores, 2008).
Students’ proficiency in a subject cannot be captured adequately by one-dimensional constructs
of academic competence, such as those operationalized by existing large-scale assessments
(Duran, 2008). As such, assessment approaches for multilingual learners are a first step to
validating early learner’s unique language development by accommodating language
backgrounds, cultural familiarity, and content knowledge.
Multilingual students have different experiences from birth, which, affect how much
exposure they have had to each language. These experiences and background knowledge
determine the level of support needed in the new learning environment. More so, the exposure,
opportunity to use each language, and community attitudes towards languages other than English
significantly influence the rate and pattern of development in each language (Duran, 2008). As
such, limitations and unpredictable factors related to various home languages, dialect variations,
migration histories, and different exposure to formal instruction impact student’s proficiency in
each language (Solano-Flores, 2008). Regardless of how multilingual learners are identified and
assessed, demographics are often the focus, such as age, grade at enrollment, place of birth, and
status of migration, rather than taking a wholistic approach to language proficiency in their home
language and English. Seldom language development assessments for multilingual students are
comprehensive enough to provide an accurate picture of proficiency in their home language and
English in all four modes: listening, reading, writing, and speaking (Solano & Flores, 2008). Yet,
many school districts are taking a static approach to language assessments rather than
38
considering the effect that context has on the effectiveness of testing strategies. Valid testing
cannot be achieved if we focus solely on proficiency but fail to consider the factors involved in
development, adaptation, administration, and scoring (Solano-Flores, 2008).
Pivoting to Adapt
Diagnosing the continuous learning of students requires learning new ways to interpret
what goes on around you and new ways to carry out the work (Heifetz et al., 2009). Kindergarten
program teachers are uniquely positioned for early identification and timely intervention
services. Comprehensive developmentally appropriate pedagogies are monitored to ensure the
success of every child through awareness of the needs of individual children, address the effects
of adverse childhood experiences, poverty, and racial discrimination, and attempts to meet the
special needs within the classroom while implementing individualized adaptations to support
children with disabilities (Le et al., 2006; Pyle, 2002). Equally important is the continuous
monitoring and alteration of practices and programs that do not benefit children. Thus, district
leadership has the strategic function to develop district-wide school readiness strategies for
improving teaching and learning, thus creating an organization that is coherent with the strategy
(Childress et al., 2006).
When all children benefit from a system of community resources that help them thrive in
quality early learning experiences, district leaders are at the heart of adapting organizations as
integrated systems. These interdependencies directly impact students in classrooms, as
previously discussed in the bioecological exosystem. Although students do not actively engage
in these settings, the decisions and strategies to educate them have a discernible impact on their
early development. District leaders are compelled to address the landscape early and
continuously by way of strengthening its core through the capacity building of teachers’ skills
39
and knowledge, engaging students in learning, and ensuring that the curriculum challenges
students academically (Honig, 2013; Childress et al., 2006). By providing intentional
management of seamless services for children and families, support services are consistent and
continuous,s, enhancing the quality of life in any community, especially when their culture,
language, and prior early learning experiences are recognized.
Culturally Responsive Approaches to Learning
A growing body of research has associated social-emotional learning (SEL) with positive
outcomes in achievement, whereas specifically creating a culture of care through culturally
responsive teaching approaches is crucial to advancing student outcomes. SEL has been defined
as teaching of non-cognitive factors that include self-awareness, self-management, responsible
decision-making, relationship skills, and social awareness (Kennedy, 2019). A culture of care is
defined by district leadership that prioritizes empathy and adopts a holistic approach, carefully
addressing the academic, physical, and emotional needs of both students and staff. Despite the
impact of students' attitudes and behaviors on outcomes like college readiness, career success,
mental health, and relationships, many districts struggle to implement culturally reflective action
plans addressing a culture of care (Allbright et al., 2019; Milner, 2010; Djonko & Traum, 2015).
The ongoing series of recent historical events have catapulted SEL to the forefront. From
the COVID-19 pandemic, school shootings, and racial tensions with law enforcement to a
country still healing from a white supremacist presidential administration, there continues to be
limited research about addressing the needs of diverse learners in SEL reforms. To equitably
meet the needs of our diverse learners, a culture of care must steer clear of a homogenous
approach to SEL and consider culturally relevant, gender-aware issues of color, race, and ability
(Kennedy, 2019). Adaptive school leaders are tasked with designing action plans that address a
40
collective culture of care that digresses from the white, primarily middle-class norms of language
and culture that are consistently privileged in institutions of public education despite the
presence of teachers and students of color under culturally relevant pedagogy (Aguilar, 2016;
Tuck & Gorlewski, 2016; Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Making Connections Through Culture and Language
Culturally responsive teaching (CRT) strategies involve teachers who know how to
effectively support the whole child by accounting for the child’s culture, language, and
experiences (Djonko-Moore & Traum, 2015; Magruder et al., 2013; González et al., 1992;
Milner 2010). There is value in assessing our youngest multilingual learner competencies
because teachers cannot effectively practice culturally responsive teaching strategies without first
learning about the students’ cultures and languages (Ladson-Billings, 1995; Gutierrez & Rogoff,
2003). Before teachers can employ CRT strategies, they must evaluate their biases. Neitzel
(2018) refers to implicit bias as unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect our
understanding, actions, and decision-making in daily life, resulting in inequitable outcomes for
different groups. Based on a 12-week study by Devine et al. (2012), 91 non-black students
underwent the Black–White Implicit Association Test (IAT) along with a prejudice-reduction
intervention aimed at long-term reduction of implicit race bias. The intervention produced
reductions in implicit bias that lasted up to 8 weeks and increased awareness of bias and
discrimination concerns.
Milner (2010) offers that racial differences do not have to act as roadblocks to student
learning opportunities. In a study using a survey designed with over 100 early childhood teachers
to explore the connection between diversity coursework and CRT practices, the findings
highlight efficacy and job satisfaction were significant predictors of CRT practices (Djonko-
41
Moore & Traum, 2015). Bandura (1995) defines self-efficacy aas the belief in one’s ability to
organize and execute the course of action required to manage prospective situations. Based on a
study led by Chen and colleagues (2009), a framework for thinking about CRT proposes critical
elements for teachers to re-examine their practice using a reflective self-study tool structured to
provoke thinking about attitudes, assumptions, and knowledge regarding CRT. The findings
provide teachers with a structure for an introspective process that can lead directly to changes in
practice while acknowledging that transformation is a gradual and intentional journey. To further
measure any progress, the axioms of power in education are explored to understand its effect on
public education.
Power and Privilege Unfolded in Education
Power is a key concept because it is the unequal distribution of resources in society,
whereas for one group to have power and control, another group must be less than (Domhoff,
2005; Battilana J., 2022). As people come to a critical level of understanding of the nature of
oppression and their role in it, that begins to be a systemic phenomenon that occurs. Social
change is the adjustment in transformation of systemic problems that result in inequality, as
witnessed through the nation’s waves of educational reforms (Björk et al., 2014). A closer look
at the root causes of inequality and education builds awareness, inspiration, and, ultimately, new
strategies to address those root causes. Vatterott (2015) wrote, “Three historical forces converged
to create and perpetuate traditional grading practices that are common today-the roots of
education in moral development, the use of education to sort and rank students, and the
prevalence of behaviorism in school practices.” There was a shift from acculturating students to
“Americanize” the mass of immigrants by teaching obedience and very specific skills such as
punctuality, regularity, attention, and silence necessary for fellow men in industrial and
42
commercial civilization (Feldman 2018). Behaviorism made this expectation possible, and
educators were charged with preparing students to meet the needs of the industrial and
commercial worlds.
The cultural and societal factors our youngest students experience lay the foundation for
how they relate to school. As such, when teachers, school administrators, and district offices do
not consider the student’s varied experiences and learning in a state of perpetual debt with no
relief in sight, it affects the school’s ability to address the cultural and social factors required to
address the achievement debt (Ladson-Billings, 2006; Love, 2019). In referencing one of
Vatterott’s mechanisms for sorting and ranking, the traditional grading structure is a part of
Shujaa’s (1993) concept of “schooling” versus “education. The traditional structure is in fact
“intended to perpetuate...existing power relations” and the society and culture for which, students
are brought together in their schooling is a traditionally White one. DuBois noted that Black
students’ experience with schooling often bifurcated into two potential outcomes: either to
become more assimilated into the White social order and distanced from their heritage or to not
participate in schooling in a way that finds traditional success (Tinson, 2017). Thus, teachers,
school administrators, and district offices must then work towards the overlap in “education” and
“schooling” by examining, not only the academic achievement and citizenship but the
contributions of all ethnic groups in the country and the world “to the storehouse of human
knowledge” as addressed by Lamotey, Lee, and Sujaa (1990, as cited in Shujaa, 1993). These
efforts require allowing students to present their learning in more culturally diverse ways.
Cultural Identity and Implicit Bias
The public school system continues to struggle with being reflective of the population it
serves. Several of our school norms and expectations are built upon a western culture established
43
hundreds of years ago (Picower, 2009; Webber, 2020; Utt & Tochluk, 2020). “White Americans
manifest ethnic and racial identity in mostly unconscious ways through their behaviors, values,
beliefs, and assumptions for them, ethnicity is usually invincible and unconscious because
societal norms have been constructed around their racial ethnic and cultural frameworks values
and priorities and then referred to as ‘standard American culture’ rather than ethnic identity”
(Chavez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999, p. 39). Cultural identity is invisible to those in power often
individuals may not know that actions are offensive or oppressive, as evidenced by implicit bias.
Neitzel (2018) defines implicit bias as unconscious and automatic attitudes or stereotypes that
affect our understanding, actions, and decision-making in daily life, which, develop very early
through direct and indirect messaging.
Eberhardt (2020) states that bias-based suspicion continues to shape school interactions
today, fueling disparities in discipline and academic performance. Although public schools may
not explicitly be offensive or oppressive in the delivery of education, the traditional public
school system was established by the dominant white culture where its social construct continues
to perpetuate the division of social, racial, and ethnic groups. As a result, educators are
positioned with the greatest responsibility to be aware and respectful of racial and ethnic
differences by implementing cultural norms and values for our youngest learners in their
formative years. “The struggle begins with men's recognition that they have been destroyed.
Propaganda, management, manipulation—all arms of domination—cannot be the instruments of
their dehumanization. The only effective instrument is a humanizing pedagogy in which, the
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revolutionary leadership establishes a permanent relationship of dialogue with the oppressed”
(Freire, 1978, p.68).
Culturally responsive teaching strategies consider the cultural and societal factors of our
children before entering school, allowing educators to self-examine the institution of learning
and find material that is culturally relevant to students (Gutiérrez, K. D., & Rogoff, B. (2003).
Educators that are equipped to understand the diversity of their students, can facilitate learning
for them by tending to the social context of teaching and learning. “Educators can benefit all
types of learners by creating environments that balance different cultural norms by designing
collaborative and individual tasks, encouraging reflective and discussion activities, and using
visual written relational context that students can relate to (Gardner, 1997 as cited in Chavez &
Guido-DiBrito, 1999).
Ecosystem of Key Partners in Education
Leadership at the school and district levels are crucial to support excellent teaching and learning
that spawn from principals and superintendents in building a coherent organization that enables
people at all levels to implement their piece of the strategy (Childress, et. al., 2006; Supovitz,
2006; Grissom, et. al., 2021; Bjork et al., 2018). Although Superintendents are viewed as pivotal
actors in the complex algorithm for managing districts and leading policy implementation
efforts, principals have substantively important effects beyond student achievement (Bjork, et.al.,
2018; Grissom, et. al., 2021). Implementing a districtwide strategy into practice requires the
district office to create a plan, identify and spread best practices, develop leadership capabilities
at all levels, build information systems to monitor student improvement, and hold people
accountable for results. In contrast, principals are responsible for creating conditions that enable
45
teachers and students to consistently perform at high levels. (Childress, 2006; Grissom et al.,
2018).
In addition, building a productive school climate is a central practice for the principal in
which, all individuals in the school can spend their time engaging in or supporting effective
teaching and learning. Elements typically present in a positive climate are collaboration,
engagement with data, organizational learning, a culture of continuous improvement, and a level
of optimism. Effective principals affect school climate by fostering trust with all educational
partners, which, is essential because it directly facilitates school improvement, positive student
beliefs, and positive student behavior (Adams 2014; Finnigan 2012). Building a productive
school climate goes beyond focusing on teachers and students and is extended to parents and
other community stakeholders through a culture of care.
Leading the Charge through a Culture of Care
Principals play a critical role in the culture of the school campus, and leverage support for
early learning programs and student interventions (Grissom et al., 2021; Khalifa et al., 2016;
Little et al., 2022). Creating a caring culture is a wholistic approach to leadership that purposely
attends to the academic, physical, and emotional needs of students and staff. Nearly 50% of
principals host pre-kindergarten (pre-K) programs located in the same building with K–12
education, and a whirlwind of beliefs about pre-K and the teacher preparation required to oversee
this group of students (Little et al., 2022). Practicing culturally relevant leadership implores
leaders to hire teachers and a staff that reflects the diversity of the children in the school.
Identifying training and ongoing professional development for teachers to understanding cultural
46
differences, developmental issues, and various backgrounds strengthens the connection with the
students.
The capacity of the school leader to leverage resources to identify and foster a culturally
affirming school environment is paramount (Ainscow, 2005; Fraise & Brooks, 2015). Selecting
the most innately qualified, high-potential leaders, cultivated from a growth mind rooted in
cultural pedagogy. Forging a growth mindset allows educational leaders the space to conceive
and conduct their work in practice (Keating et al., 2017; Fraise & Brooks, 2015). Liberation is
critical to transformation as one must name the problem in terms of flawed systemic
assumptions, structures, rules, or roles (Harro, B. in Adams, 2013). As California public schools
prepare themselves to serve children as young as 4 years old, elementary principals are at a
juncture with K-6 and pre-K worlds while preparing to navigate the responsibility to lead pre-K
programs (Little et al., 2022). An effective principal demonstrates effective supervision of
instruction and is successful at being a coach, mentor, and model for teachers and their efforts to
improve their practice and innovate on behalf of their students.
The principal is a key stakeholder in creating a culture of care and the most valuable
resource a district can invest in. The implication is that if a school district could invest in
improving the performance of just one adult in a school building, investing in the principal is
likely the most efficient way to affect student achievement (Grissom et al., 2021). Central to the
implementation of a culture of care begins with validating families’ unique languages and
cultural development by accommodating language backgrounds, cultural humility, and funds of
knowledge (González et al., 1992). With the addition of TK in California public schools, this
entry grade serves as the on ramp to forging a strong communication routine with parents to
bridge CRT approaches in the classroom to sharing at-home activities and practical tips to
47
providing opportunities for parent participation in the classroom. The first step in building
precision in pedagogical practices begins with a culture that fosters learning for all (Fullan &
Quinn, 2016). This requires the collaborative expertise between and among teachers, students,
and families, as this powerful trio could be even more powerful.
Culturally relevant pedagogy allows schools to learn in the manner that best fits them,
and it emphasizes several propositions that ask educators to think about and practice their work
differently. One proposed strategy that seeks to foster a culture that aligns with a culture of care
is by measuring the level of parent engagement (Fraise & Brooks, 2015). Collaborative expertise
can be augmented when educators work alongside parents to identify how parents support their
children’s education and learning” (McWayne et al., 2016). The Parent Engagement for Families
of Latinx Backgrounds (PEFL) assesses parent engagement across multiple domains including
school, home, and family outings. However, educational research often focuses predominantly
on school-based parental participation. McWayne et al. (2016) state that the heavy emphasis on
school-based engagement may unintentionally cast aside the other important ways that parents
can be involved, which, may be more accessible depending on a family’s circumstances.
The Value of Early Parental Engagement
Parent and caregivers’ experiences with education vary personally and by those
experiences with their children entering public school. Early interactions can reveal cultural
values and norms in the home environment, providing that families may also share information
about their child’s temperament, primary play partners, and home language (Goodwin & Long,
2023). Slicker and colleagues (2021) gathered data from 12,670 children and their parents and
determined that parents form into groups based on their expectations and activities during
children’s transition to kindergarten. Parent attitudes about school readiness expectations were
48
based on the level of involvement in home activities, with an increased parent spending on their
young children’s learning over time. Transitions from home to school also include consistent
school attendance. Based on a study conducted by Ehrlich and colleagues (2018), a crosssectional analysis collected data from 26,000 pre-k students and about 16,000 4-year-olds to
explore attendance patterns over four years compared to their attendance in subsequent grades.
The findings suggested that two types of interventions are needed for students who are
chronically absent in pre-kindergarten; interventions to improve attendance and extra academic
supports.
Supporting families with CRT-based practices during school transitions are prosocial
activities that benefit-based practices during school transitions, which, benefit elementary
students of color (Goodwin & Long, 2023). Based on a recent study with 131 parents and legal
guardians, findings indicated high cultural responsiveness in their child’s classroom and low
experiences of school-based discrimination were associated with the fewest concerns about their
young child’s mental health, including internalizing symptoms (Goodwin & Long, 2023). The
findings highlighted the direct and indirect benefits of culturally responsive teaching practices on
elementary students’ mental health and the well-being of their parents and legal guardians. Early
education transition practices encompass parents and children alike, as the foundation is
established for ongoing school success (Cook & Coley, 2017).
Conclusion
This literature review began with a deep exploration of the complexities associated with
supporting TK students and gained multiple perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and
resources identified by administrators and elementary principals in multilingual communities.
Then, the discussion led into the conceptual framework to provide the context and background
49
necessary to fully consider the study’s research questions. It dived into the examination of the
historical events are presented that led to the introduction of kindergarten and education policies
that enacted transitional kindergarten in American public schools. The transition of academic
priorities associated to kindergarten were addressed. The literature review focused on the
economic advantages of investing early in education, where returns on investments were
discussed. Next, the literature review moved to describe approaches to learning, defining school
readiness, and then a deep exploration of the enclosures associated with teacher competencies
and practices. Highlights included children ready for school and schools ready for children. At
the core of the literature review was the examination of the elementary principal’s knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences, followed by concerns and challenges in leading the
charge through a culture of care for the new standards. The chapter concluded with examination
into the intersection of the challenges associated with early education expectations through the
lens of parents' and caregivers’ perceptions of school transitions and cultural responsiveness.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
The implementation of TK in California public schools has no clear roadmap to serve
diverse communities (American Institutes of Research [AIR] 2014). The new State mandate
required LEAs to offer TK to all 4-year-old students by school year 2025-2026, yet transitions
for this new grade level have limited direction. Administrators, principals, and teachers
attempted to navigate change through this new grade level. Without prior knowledge about the
cultures and languages of the students, teachers cannot effectively practice culturally responsive
teaching strategies (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Furthermore, principals who were not equipped to
navigate this new grade level with an equity lens are stalled in meeting the needs of growing
numbers of TK students and their families in culturally diverse communities (Little et al., 2022).
This issue was worthy of deeper study because CRT strategies connect students’ cultures,
languages, and life experiences early in school.
The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of parents and caregivers with
CRT strategies. At the same time, their children attended TK and explored administrators’
personal commitments to serve TK students in diverse communities in central Coast California.
Ladson-Billings (1995) explains that CRT develops intellectual, social emotional and political
learning by using cultural reference to impart knowledge skills and attitudes. The following
research questions guided this study and data collection process:
RQ1: How do parents of primary grade students who attended TK, describe their
experiences with culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms?
RQ2: How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe their efforts to
strengthen teachers' abilities to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities?
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RQ3: What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK students in
linguistically diverse communities?
Sample and Population
Surveys were disbursed to parents in addition to interviewing and administrating surveys
to cabinet-level administrators and elementary principals from Central Coast Union School
District (CCUSD), a public school district in California. All research participants were chosen
through purposeful sampling. According to Lochmiller and Lester (2017), purposeful sampling
“is when a researcher selects individuals or sites based on specific criteria” (p, 141). The sample
population was made up of school-based and cabinet-level district administrators and elementary
principals at CCUSD, which, serves approximately 17,500 students in grades TK through eighth.
The study employed purposeful sampling since individuals with unique experiences and
attributes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) were needed to complete the interview regarding CRT
leader strategies used to accomplish such. One county-level administrator that supports early
learning countywide was included in the sample, with additional participant information
provided in chapter four. Elementary school principals were administered surveys to help
understand how their attitudes and beliefs influence early learners in linguistically diverse
communities. Concurrently, parents and caregivers were administered surveys as a useful data
collection method to understand the participants' attitudes and beliefs given their experiences
with culturally responsive teaching practices when their children attended TK. Table 1 displays
the survey and interview criteria for district and elementary principal leaders.
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Table 1
Interview and Survey Selection Criteria for Administrators, Principals, and Parents/Caregivers
Interviews Surveys
Elementary Principals
Serving in an elementary school with a TK
student population
Parents and caregivers of primary-grade
students with a TK experience
Cabinet-level administrators Elementary Principals
Serving in an elementary school with a TK
student population
County-level administrator Cabinet-level administrators
Interviews were conducted with five elementary principals, one cabinet-level
administrator, and one -county-level administrator, and an anonymous survey was sent to 17
elementary principals and five school-based and cabinet-level administrators to determine what
district resources they believe are required to implement and sustain CRT strategies for TK
students. Anonymous surveys were sent to 1,856 parents and caregivers of primary-grade
students whose children attended TK between 2021 and 2022 to gather their experiences in TK
classrooms.
Design Summary
This study utilized a qualitative approach to describe and clarify experiences by including
how people interact, observe, understand, or make sense of the world (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017). Connecting with district and elementary principals in their natural environment
substantiated relevant details to study the participants’ commitments to implementing a cultural
pedagogy in kindergarten programs. At the same time, survey data was gathered across multiple
elementary principals to capture additional evidence. Lochmiller and Lester’s (2017) research
study steps served to guide this study. In chapter one, the study focused on the research problem
and purpose; within chapter two, a review of the literature was presented; and in chapter three,
53
the study's methodology was discussed. The fourth and fifth chapters provided an analysis,
interpretation, and reporting of the data.
Methodology
The methodology of this study includes qualitative data from surveys of parents, semistructured interviews, and surveys of school-based and cabinet-level administrators and
elementary principals. A semi-structured interview protocol utilized flexible questions depending
on the participant's responses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Due to the complexities associated
with supporting the youngest students on an elementary campus, gaining multiple leaders’
perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and resources required at the county, district, and
elementary site levels that serve early learning programs was essential. School-based
administrators and cabinet-level efforts were explored to determine how these leaders support
access and participation in professional development for teachers to ensure equitable outcomes
and support cultural pedagogy implementation. In addition to understanding the challenges,
opportunities, and resources needed at the district and site level to serve early learning programs,
it was essential to interview a county-level support administrator to understand how they
cohesively interlaced support systems for TK students. The interview and survey questions
focused on two research questions, and a qualitative design enabled exploration into each of
these questions (Table 2).
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Table 2
Research questions aligned with data collection method, interview, and survey.
Research Question Method of Data Collection
RQ1: How do parents of primary grade students who attended TK,
describe their experiences with culturally responsive strategies in TK
classrooms?
Survey
RQ2: How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe
their efforts to strengthen teachers' abilities to serve TK students in
linguistically diverse communities?
Interview Survey
RQ3: What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK
students in linguistically diverse communities?
Interview Survey
Instrumentation
Semi-structured interviews collected qualitative data with interview questions developed
to gather information for research questions two and three. The interview protocol for District
Administrators and Elementary Principals consisted of eleven questions (see Appendix A).
Additional probing questions were included in questions 1, 2, 3, 6, and 10. Rubin and Rubin
(2012) suggested that semi--structured interviews, and follow-up questions enable the researcher
to build trust, listen to ideas, and adjust accordingly rather than imposing personal ideas. The
survey analysis plan, which, maps survey items to the topics of interest and suggests types of
analysis and presentation, was prepared during survey development (as cited by Irwin &
Stafford, 2016 in Pazzaglia et al.). For cabinet-level administrators and principals, survey items
were designed to describe their practices and beliefs about the systems and supports required to
55
increase their districts’ capacity to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities
(Appendix B).
Data Collection
Semi-structured interviews and survey responses were used to collect research data. As
stated in the previous section, purposeful sampling was used to select participants who could best
answer the research questions and address the purpose of the study. Interview participants were
contacted several weeks in advance to determine what day and time would be convenient for
them (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). During the recruitment efforts, when elementary principals and
cabinet-level administrators declined to participate in the study due to schedule conflicts,
participants were offered the option of completing the TK Survey for District Administrators and
Elementary Principals Survey (TK-SDAEP) (Appendix B). Informed consents (Appendix D)
were obtained before interviews, as participants were made aware that their responses were
confidential (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The scheduled interviews were conducted according to the
participants' preference using Google appointment scheduler. The interviews were conducted via
Zoom and in person, which, allows the researcher to build rapport with participants, gather
information, and an opportunity to interpret non-verbal cues through observation of body
language, facial expression, and eye contact and thus may be seen (Lo Iacono et al., 2016).
At the start of each interview, the study's nature and the information's confidentiality
were disclosed and explained. With permission from the participants, the interview was recorded
using Otter. IA software to ensure their perspective was accurately represented. Field notes
served to capture additional observations during interviews. Throughout the interview, active
listening was intended to ensure that participants do most of the talking (Johnson & Christensen,
2017). The interviews were planned for approximately 60 minutes, with an average duration of
56
70 minutes. Participants were asked if they could be contacted after the interview for
clarification or additional information about direct quotes to ensure their perspective was
accurately represented. Participants were also encouraged to contact the researcher if they had
any questions or required additional information regarding the research study. Upon completion
of each interview, the recording was reviewed and transcribed using ATLAS.ti. Recordings were
deleted, and transcriptions were stored on a password-protected device.
TK-SDAEP were sent to district administrators and elementary principals to collect
qualitative data, whereby items were created, stored, and analyzed using Google Forms. Site
leaders received an email containing a link to the anonymous survey with an introduction and the
stated purpose of the study, as well as the researcher’s contact information for any questions. The
TK Survey for Parents and Caregivers (TK-SPC) (Appendix C) was also sent to 1,856 parents
and caregivers to collect qualitative data. The survey was drafted, stored, and analyzed using
Google Forms. Parents and caregivers received a message via ParentSquare, in English and
Spanish, containing a link to the anonymous survey with an introduction and the stated purpose
of the study.
Data Analysis
This study utilized a qualitative approach, with qualitative data from interviews and
surveys. The interview questions were related to questions two and three, while the survey
questions were related to research question one. The research questions guided the data analysis
for the study. Merrian and Tisdell (2015) offer that qualitative research is interested in
understanding how people interpret their experiences, construct their worlds, and attribute
meaning to their experiences.
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Each data analysis stage informed the next stage, as patterns and themes gradually
emerged, and sub-categories developed. The interview data was synthesized and separated into
emerging themes using the code manager in ATLAS.ti. The researcher looked for recurring
themes in the data to align with the research questions. Categories and subcategories were
created and coded using multiple views (i.e., bar chart, donut chart, and tree map). Subcategories
were then connected to the conceptual framework. Once the data was coded, analysis was
conducted to create the findings for the study that were directly tied to the research questions. As
a final step of analysis, the survey data was analyzed and compared to themes extracted from the
interview data and triangulated with the literature review.
Trustworthiness and Credibility
This study begins with the quality of its qualitative design, given the current research
questions aimed at the problem of practice with administrators’ commitment to culturally
responsive teaching strategies in early education, specifically in central coast districts in
California. Initially, the proposed study design revealed researcher bias, therefore, the research
questions were redesigned with the intent to sample from a larger pool of participants from one
neighboring school district. As offered by Maxwell (2013), research bias can also happen when
the personal choices and preferences of the researcher have undue influence on the study.
The credibility of qualitative research depends on the researcher's ability to present data
and findings that are accurate and believable (Seidman, 2013). The data and findings presented
intend to be transferable to other situations, as deemed useful by other researchers. Similarly,
consistency, tractability, and logic of the research findings process. Consequently, the data
gathered from field notes, interviews, and survey responses, maximized trustworthiness. Patton
(2015) explains “triangulation, in whatever form, increases credibility and quality by countering
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the concern (or accusation) that a study's findings are simply an artifact of a single method, or
single source, or single investigator’s blinders” (as cited in Merrian & Tisdell, 2016, p. 674).
To further increase trustworthiness and credibility, a series of validity tests were
conducted within a condensed timeline, as offered by Maxwell (2013). By extending the survey
distribution timeline, more participants were provided the opportunity to complete the survey.
Additionally, this intended action provided the chance for responder validation in that the
researcher may solicit feedback about the data and conclusions. Lastly, to discipline researcher
sensitivity, it is important to consider cultural knowledge to accurately interpret and validate
participants' experiences within the context of the phenomenon under study (Tillman, 2002).
Reliability and Validity
In the study design, the researchers to revisit the planning phase to determine the purpose
of the study and the problem of practice to research. Once a good definition of the target
population and sampling was identified, available surveys were reviewed to examine the
sequence of items and the language variations. Robinson and Leonard (2019) suggest that
surveys are designed to gather information from a group of participants in order to acquire data
that may be unavailable through other sources, particularly pertaining to the characteristics,
actions, skills, and opinions of the respondents. Since surveys are a substantial component of this
qualitative research design, it behooves the researcher to craft an instrument that works for all
respondents and measures what it is intended to do, which, is to answer the research questions.
Central to the issue with district-wide surveys, low response rates may occur with
exhaustively long surveys aimed at answering various items with random themes. Robinson and
Leonard (2019) explain that a respondent’s willingness and ability to respond to a survey is
influenced by several factors, including the types of items and the nature of each item…how
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respondents process and answer survey questions and take into consideration their cognitive
load, as offered by the Psychology of Survey Response with a respondent’s ability to
comprehend, retrieve, judge, and respond to a survey. Particularly in the qualitative design of the
study intended, elements of memory and judgment are exercised, in which, respondents must
search their minds and memories to arrive at an answer. The survey items in the instrument
carefully included crafted language examples to provide context. Subsequently, learning about
the respondents was a critical part of preparing for the design of a culturally responsive survey.
In contrast, pilot surveys were aligned in accordance with the American Evaluation Association.
Researcher Positionality
Villaverde (2008) describes positionality as “how one is situated through the intersection
of power and the politics of gender, race, class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, language, and other
social factors” (as cited by Douglas & Nganga, 2015). While the researcher conducted the study,
an awareness of positionality as an administrator of early education in a public school district in
a predominantly multilingual community provided the opportunity to design and implement
services for its youngest students. Lochmiller and Lester (2017) state that an emic perspective
looks at things through the eyes of a member of the culture being studied. Throughout the
research process, the researcher understood how their role and knowledge of early education may
have impacted the research. Rather than attempting to eliminate bias, Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) recommend identifying and monitoring it. Maxwell (2013) suggested that biases be
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monitored by engaging in reflexivity. Thereby, field notes were reviewed to check for biases that
may have influenced the reflections and shaped the perspectives.
Summary
This study used a qualitative method approach with data from interviews and surveys.
The survey data gathered from primary grade parents and caregivers addressed research question
one: how do parents of primary grade students who attended TK describe their experiences with
culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms? The interview and survey data collected from
administrators addressed research question two: how do school-based and cabinet-level
administrators describe their efforts to strengthen teachers' abilities to serve TK students in
linguistically diverse communities? Interviews and survey data collected from elementary
principals addressed research question three: what attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about
serving TK students in linguistically diverse communities? These findings are presented in
chapter four, followed by a discussion in Chapter five.
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Chapter Four: Findings
This study aimed to examine parents' experiences with culturally responsive teaching
efforts. At the same time, their children attended TK and explored cabinet-level administrators'
and principals’ commitments to serve TK students in diverse communities in central Coast
California. Based on the data found in this study, the intent was to examine the complexities
associated with supporting TK students and gain multiple perspectives on the challenges,
opportunities, and resources identified by administrators and elementary principals in
multilingual communities. Furthermore, the objective was to understand how culturally
responsive teaching strategies may be adjusted in TK classrooms, which, may lead to stronger
relationships with students and their families, while reshaping the TK program and adjusting to a
cultural pedagogy. Three research questions guided this qualitative inquiry:
RQ1: How do parents of primary grade students who attended TK describe their
experiences with culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms?
RQ2: How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe their efforts to
strengthen teachers' abilities to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities?
RQ3: What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK students in
linguistically diverse communities?
Multiple sources of qualitative data were collected and analyzed, including interviews and
surveys, to create a rich, detailed description of the complexities involved in the successful
implementation of the TK program in multilingual communities through leadership journeys
shared by district administrators and elementary principals.
The study began with outreach to the school district for research approval to begin the
implementation of the research process. However, the school district had no research approval
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process established and therefore caused a delay in the data collection process. Once the research
approval process was developed, this research proposal was reviewed to ensure it was aligned
with the LEAs core mission:
As the unifying force that cultivates and enriches our diverse community, to ensure that
every student flourishes by discovering their passion and purpose, exercising selfdetermination, and developing the skills to reach their maximum potential through a
student-centered culture. The first responsibility of the district is the teaching and
learning that occur in the classroom, so research projects must be undertaken with that
obligation in mind. These procedures are designed to protect that responsibility and give
reasonable access to individuals and institutions to conduct approved research projects in
district schools.
The delay in the data collection required the researcher to broaden the perspective of
administrators to reach saturation. To further expand leadership voices, the local county office of
education was included to learn about the level of early education support.
The chapter begins with a description of the participants and organized by research
question. For each research question follows a brief review of the relevant literature and a
preview of the results. Next, the findings are presented with three to four themes that emerged
from each research question. A brief discussion of specific findings concludes each research
section, and a summary of the findings completes this chapter
Participants
The survey and interview participants in the study were district-level administrators and
elementary principals in Central Coast Union School District (CCUSD) in California. As
previously mentioned, to expand leadership representation of leadership voices to answer
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research question number two, the county office of education administration, which, supports
early learning countywide, was included as an interview participant. This study used a semistructured interview approach to collect data from five elementary principals, two administrators,
and one county director were interviewed (Table 3).
Table 3
Background information of survey and interview participants
Pseudonym Position in the District
Emmanuel Elementary Principal
Faith Elementary Principal
Grace Elementary Principal
Jessica Elementary Principal
Victoria Elementary Principal
Patrick District Administrator
Mercedes District Administrator
Carolina County Administrator
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This study also utilized an anonymous survey, TK Cabinet-Level Administrators and
Principal Survey (TK-CLAPS), sent to all district administrators and elementary principals in
CCUSD. A total of six participants completed the TK-CLAPS, five of whom were elementary
principals, and one was a district administrator. The purpose of the survey was to triangulate the
research findings and to gain multiple perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and
resources identified to ensure equitable student outcomes in a multilingual community.
Additionally, parents of children who attended TK between 2021 and 2022 were invited
to participate in the survey. Forty-nine total participants completed the TK Parent and Caregiver
Survey (TK-PCS), with no identifying data was collected from participants. Of the 49
participants that were randomly sampled from 1,856 parents whose children had a TK
experience, 78% selected to complete the survey in English, whereas 22% selected to complete
the survey in Spanish. A total of 96% of participants identified as mothers, whereas 4% of
participants identified as fathers. Although other relationship options included grandmother,
grandfather, legal guardian, and others, only options for mother and fathers. Only mother and
father options were selected. Parent education levels ranged from about 40% having completed
some college or vocational school, with nearly 30% of parents indicating college completion.
The percentage of parents with a high school degree and graduate degree was equal to 12%. Of
the 49 participants, 76% of parents identified as Latinx, 13% identified as White, 4% identified
as Asian, 2% identified as Pacific Islander, 2% identified as multi-ethnic, while 2% identified as
other, and 1% preferred not to provide an answer.
Results for Research Question One
The study’s first question explores parents' and caregivers' lived experiences when their
child attended TK. Examining their lived experiences are essential to understanding the cultural
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responsiveness between teachers and parents. This section focuses on the results of the question:
How do parents of primary-grade students, who attended TK, describe their experiences with
culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms?
Responses to this question ranged widely, encompassing both positive and negative
aspects of self-reported experiences, with some parents expressing a strong belief that teachers
helped them support their child’s learning at home and all participants citing a level of inquiry
from teachers regarding their family’s language and culture. Some parents shared challenges
regarding the opportunities to cultivate relationships among the families, specifically visiting the
classroom to observe teaching and learning. Several themes emerged, including cultural diversity
and inclusion in the classroom, respect and empathy among students and parents, and teaching
staff qualities.
Experience - Cultural Diversity and Inclusion in the Classroom
Parents identified potential opportunities in the classroom that could strengthen their
child's cultural identity. For example, one parent expressed, “teaching students about other
cultural holidays would give children insight to different cultures via movies, books, displays,
food, and guest speakers to talk about their culture.” Another opportunity to expand cultural
diversity is to celebrate heritage months throughout the school year. As one parent stated, “it is
important for children to know that there are many different cultures, and not everyone’s family
looks the same, or has the same beliefs and holidays.” Regarding inclusivity in the classroom,
they stated, “school culture should validate differences such as culture and their language so that
students are proud of who they are. Create activities that are developmentally appropriate and
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teach different cultures and abilities.” To teaching and learning about cultural diversity, one
parent stated,
use diverse books and images, anti-racist curriculum that respects all cultures. We should
teach them that all people are equal, regardless of their origin or culture. Students need to
see themselves reflected in books they read, posters they see, projects they work on in
class, the history being taught, and to have others that do not speak English as their first
language be validated and not seen as a negative [quality].
Although 67% of the parents expressed that they were not invited to visit or participate in their
child’s TK classroom, they stated classroom environments must include “books that teach
different cultures, flags around the classroom, names of countries around the world, dolls, and
posters of children with different color skin that look like them. Posters and books of important,
influential people from diverse backgrounds.” Culturally responsive teaching strategies empower
teachers to honor and affirm the cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds of their
students, thereby supporting the holistic development of the whole child (Djonko-Moore &
Traum, 2015; Magruder et al., 2013; Milner 2010).
Experience - Respect and Empathy among Students and Parents
Parents described their experiences and opportunities that supported respect and empathy
among students. For instance, one parent expressed, “Equality, respect and no favorites!”
Providing opportunities in the classroom for children to learn about these qualities is modeled by
the adults in the classroom. One parent described a teacher in detail at one elementary school,
“Mrs D. was the epitome of support. Kind and great listener, encouraged acceptance of all and
taught all the kids to call each other friends, and help one another.” A parent identified the value
of students developing social emotional development, “it would be great for children to learn and
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socialize with other children”. Although 43% of parents believed that the TK classroom provided
opportunities to strengthen their child's cultural identity, 41% of parents shared a belief that
teachers cultivated relationships among parents who do not share the same home language and
culture. Bronfenbrenner (1979) states that the family system is the most influential and proximal
microsystem in children's early learning, however, interactions with other people in the
classroom are also a proximal system for children.
Experience - Teaching Staff Qualities
Parents expressed their beliefs about the qualities of teaching staff that could support
their children in a multilingual community. One parent commented, “a strong team made up of
bilingual teachers and aides. Teachers and aides communicate in students’ primary language.
The ability to have an adult who can understand their language if they [student] are still learning
English.” A parent identified the importance of communication for parent engagement,
“communication between teachers and parents and sometimes being able to attend my child’s
class and participate with them.” Of the 49 parents, a total of 53% shared a strong belief that
teachers helped parents support their child's learning. Carey et al. (2018) and Douglas & Nganga
(2015) emphasize the importance of interrogating teacher positionality to support the whole child
in diverse communities.
Discussion Research Question One
TK-SPC data indicated that CCUSD parents shared a belief that opportunities to
participate in their child’s classroom that values cultural diversity, inclusion, respect, and
empathy among students and parents with a bilingual teaching staff is ideal. Despite a substantial
percentage of parents who believed they were not invited to their child's TK classroom, nearly
80% shared that teachers treated parents as equal partners in educating their children. Along the
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same beliefs and assumptions, 86% of parents believed that teachers helped them support their
child's learning while in TK. By creating opportunities for cultural exchanges in the classroom,
students, parents, and teachers could learn about their family traditions, language, and heritage,
which, creates a community that practices empathy and respect for different perspectives.
Culturally responsive teaching strategies empower teachers to honor and affirm their students'
cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds, thereby supporting the holistic development of
the whole child (Carey et al, 2018; Douglas & Nganga, 2015). By embracing diversity and
promoting cultural competence, teachers can create inclusive learning environments where all
students can thrive academically, socially, and emotionally. Williams and colleagues (2019)
characterize schools that are ready for children, include strategies that address cultural
sensitivity, and provide various opportunities for parent engagement.
Results Research Question Two
The study’s second question seeks to explore the beliefs of district and county
administrators and describe those efforts in sustaining CRT strategies for TK students in
CCUSD. Understanding the leadership actions, resources, and supports undertaken to promote
equity and inclusionis fundamental for the academic success of TK students in linguistically
diverse communities (Khalifa, M. A., Gooden, M. A., & Davis, J. E. (2016). Research question
two asked: How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe their efforts to
strengthen teachers' abilities to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities?
The interview responses provided a detailed insight into district and county leaders'
efforts to strengthen the abilities of TK teachers in a large rural school district. There were
common responses from district and county leaders regarding their efforts to support teacher
preparation programs and offer professional development opportunities aligned with the district
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mission. Attending comprehensive webinars offered by statewide education organizations
offered them useful guidance with TK implementation and P-3 alignment. The county leader
empathized with the role principals play in implementing TK programs and the unique needs of
4-year-old students, along with the increased level of support that is required in designing
classroom environments that holistically supports TK students, while also recognizing the
decline of their participation on county-sponsored webinars. Several themes emerged, alignment
with district vision and mission, including teacher preparation and residency programs,
professional development, and early education networks, with self-professional learning, studentcentered instruction and cultural sensitivity, and developmentally appropriate classroom
environments.
Effort - Alignment with District Vision and Mission
Cabinet-level administration identified that CCUSD recently underwent rebranding that
included community input that was communicated through a new logo, mission statement, and
website. For example, Patrick stated “stakeholders at all levels identify what the district stands
for, values, beliefs…not done in isolation.” Childress et al. (2006) and Honig (2013) describe
that to achieve large scale excellence, a district strategy is required for vision alignment,
leadership to improve instruction, and an organization equipped to implement and measure
student outcomes. Regarding hiring bilingual teachers in a diverse community, Patrick stated,
it is a team effort across the district to ensure qualified applicants align with our vision
and mission and that of the school site. For DLI, it is always a challenge because that is a
specialized program that is unique, and finding people who are truly invested in serving
students by following the 50/50 or maybe 90/10 model, can be challenging. We must
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understand what it means to be culturally relevant and integrate those types of questions
into our interview process and practice.
As preservice teachers prepare themselves to instruct in multilingual communities, they must
actively integrate and examine their positionalities to bolster the holistic development of each
student. (Carey et al., 2018; Douglas & Nganga, 2015).
Teacher Preparation and Residency Programs
Teacher preparation programs play a crucial role in preparing future educators to meet
the diverse needs of students and succeed in the teaching profession (Little et al., 2022).
Specifically on teacher preparation programs, Patrick mentioned,
I do not think our university system or teacher preparation programs have fully embraced
meeting the needs of diverse students. Teachers who went through private teaching
programs had a much stronger foundation and felt the most prepared coming out of their
program to work with students in diverse populations.
Expanding about residency programs “on a bigger scale, we work with our local universities and
communicate our vision, mission, and current classroom needs; what we are looking for now, not
five to seven years ago, so we could influence their teaching programs.” Honig (2013) suggested
that district leaders are obligated to tackle the educational environment proactively and
consistently by enhancing its foundation by developing teachers' expertise and understanding,
involving students in meaningful learning experiences, and guaranteeing that the curriculum
fosters academic rigor.
Effort - Professional Development and Early Education Teacher Networks
To support the P-3 continuum, professional development is provided to convene pre-K,
TK, and kindergarten teachers to discuss topics focused on children’s academic, social, and
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emotional development, and child-centered interests and abilities that are engaging and
developmentally appropriate learning experiences (Taylor & Boyer, 2019). Pointedly, Carolina
expressed,
it is up to us as a system to provide the time for teachers to collaborate with one another,
to become a team of teachers that can learn from one another, and also support them with
other professional development opportunities that they are passionate about.
In respect to principals, Carolina added,
it is a state concern that we are not getting principals to be more aware of the concepts
needed in TK…giving them pieces of a mindset cannot be built over a two-hour virtual
professional development, they have to be in TK classrooms to experience it.
Two administrators shared their beliefs about the efforts that are required to build early education
teacher networks, stating, “TK could set that tone for a lot of those foundational skills going
forward. Kindergarten teachers are going to rely on the TK teacher, and it just snowballs and
rolls from there.” Regarding the active role of the elementary principal within these networks,
“reminding administrators to recognize the expectations in supporting a solid, rigorous TK
program that meets the needs of the students and help them be prepared to roll into kindergarten
and first grade and beyond.” Recognizing the importance of providing teachers with training and
continuous professional development opportunities to enhance their understanding of cultural
diversity, developmental needs, and diverse backgrounds strengthens the relationship between
educators and students (Ainscow, 2005; Fraise & Brooks, 2015).
Self-Professional Learning
When administrators were asked about how they stay informed about early learning,
Carolina added, “as an administrator, now I have time to learn at weekly webinars via WestED,
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CDE, and most recently through the 21st Century California School Leadership Academy
(21CSLA) whose focus was on play-based learning with equity leadership and inclusion.”
Additionally, Mercedes mentioned that she is extremely familiar with early education since she
attends more than 12 webinars and meetings dedicated to TK. While Patrick mentioned “I am a
part of list serves and keep up on credentialing changes through the California Commission on
Teacher Credentialing (CCTC), I attend conferences and webinars, where the most informative
has been through School Services of California.” Keating et al. (2017) and Fraise & Brooks
(2015) assert that developing a growth mindset gives educational leaders the flexibility to
envision and implement their work effectively.
Effort - Student-Centered Instruction and Cultural Sensitivity
A pillar of culturally responsive teaching requires teachers who know how to support the
whole student effectively. Assessing the competencies of our youngest multilingual learners
holds significance because without understanding students' cultures and languages, teachers
cannot proficiently implement culturally responsive teaching strategies (Ladson-Billings, 1995).
Administrators described their beliefs about the competencies of TK teachers that are equipped
to support multilingual TK students, Patrick described,
understanding the foundational skills is necessary in working with multilingual students,
the UDL (universal design for learning) framework, and be culturally and linguistically
responsive. It is a part of their makeup or mindset, that as an educator, I [teacher] am here
to serve the needs of all my students, includes culturally relevant teaching practices and
being aware what that it is not just bringing in a book. They believe that every child is
competent and capable, regardless of color, regardless of language, that they truly believe
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that this child can and will. I need to feel that and see that. And then when you have that
mindset, nothing's going to get in the way.
Recognizing implicit bias is a tenant of culturally responsive teaching. In Neitzel's (2018)
perspective, implicit bias is described as unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence our
comprehension, behaviors, and decision-making in everyday life, leading to inequitable
outcomes for various groups.
Developmentally Appropriate Classroom Environments
The responses were a mix of academic and play-based approaches to supporting TK
students in developmentally appropriate classroom settings. Mercedes indicated what an ideal
TK classroom should embody, “the classroom and environment should be reflective and
supportive of students’ culture and language. There should be hands-on learning, lots of visual
representations, and differentiated and scaffolded language and instructional support”. In support
of leading with developmentally appropriate practices for TK students, Carolina described her
experience as a Kindergarten, “it became so standardized and assessment-driven, that I still had a
pulse on what was right, and I continued to lead with pre-K concepts.” Another belief about TK
classroom ideation, “TK classrooms that don't mimic a kindergarten classroom, and that mimic
more of a pre-K…with common language of what is developmentally appropriate for TK.”
Alternatively, Patrick mentioned “reminding the administrators that TK is not nap time and
playtime…there are a lot of skills that go in there…it's not TK from 5 years ago, it is a lot more
rigorous.” Little and Cohen-Vogel (2016) discussed that as early education evolves,
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incorporating play-based approaches is essential in developing culturally responsive teaching
strategies within TK programs.
Discussion Research Question Two
Interview and survey data indicated that district and county administrators experienced
significant challenges and opportunities in strengthening the abilities of TK teachers at CCUSD.
District leaders prioritized aligning their efforts with the overarching vision and mission of the
school district, as evidenced by the recruitment, hiring, and support provided for early education
programs geared towards advancing the district's educational goals. Childress et al., (2006)
identifies that district offices play a crucial role in carrying out strategic functions to improve
teaching and learning district-wide. There was a concerted effort to support TK teachers through
teacher preparation programs and professional development opportunities, as these efforts aim to
enhance the skills and knowledge of teachers to effectively meet the unique needs of TK
students. Cohesively, all leaders leverage external resources, such as comprehensive webinars
offered by statewide education organizations, to gain valuable guidance and insights into TK
implementation and alignment with P-3, demonstrating a proactive approach to seeking out best
practices and expertise from broader educational networks.
Interview and survey data recognized the importance of continuous learning and
development for self-directed professional learning activities that embrace best practices and
emerging trends in early childhood education. Creating developmentally appropriate classroom
environments was highlighted as a key theme for all administrators, as they recognized the
increased level of support required to accommodate the holistic needs of TK students. The
responses were consistent with most administrators’ efforts to provide teachers with activities
that align with TK students' cognitive, social, and emotional needs for kindergarten readiness.
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Chief, among administrators, emphasized the district’s role in supporting elementary principals
to develop TK programs and classroom environments that are student-centered and culturally
sensitive. This reflects a commitment to meeting the diverse needs of TK students in
linguistically diverse communities. Research question three will examine the attitudes and beliefs
of principals serving TK students in their schools.
Results Research Question Three
The study’s third research question explores the experiences and commitments of
elementary principals to serve TK students in CCUSD. Principals wield significant influence
over the culture of their school campuses and are pivotal in garnering support for early learning
programs (Khalifa et al., 2016; Little et al., 2022). Their leadership sets the tone for the entire
campus, influencing staff and students' attitudes, behaviors, and interactions. Research question
three asked: What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK students in
linguistically diverse communities?
Interview and survey responses provided a rich and detailed perspective into principals'
attitudes and beliefs about serving TK students on their elementary campuses. There were
common responses from all principals regarding their vision in creating active and engaging
classroom environments that recognize multilingual students and their families with experienced
bilingual staff that provide developmentally appropriate activities. The pathways to professional
development for principals and teaching staff varied based on their level of knowledge in early
childhood development, self-efficacy, and support provided by internal and external district
supports. Several themes emerged: vision coherence and navigating an unchartered grade level,
with differentiated guidance without a defined roadmap, pathways to professional development
and career transitions, networks connected to observation and communication, ideal classroom
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environments and social-emotional learning, including multilingualism and culturally responsive
celebrations, and engagement of parents from diverse backgrounds and learning environments.
Belief - Vision Coherence and Navigating an Unchartered Grade Level
Several principals, when asked about their experiences implementing TK at their
sites, began their discussion by expressing their vision of an ideal TK program and mentioned
the challenges as they navigated the grade level without a clear map. As evidenced by the
American Institutes of Research [AIR] (2014) research, California's public schools are not only
grappling with the task of implementing TK with scant guidance, but they also lack a definitive
plan to serve the needs of their diverse communities effectively. The shared vision for TK was
often described as an active and engaging classroom environment that celebrates diverse cultures
and includes bilingual staff. One principal openly expressed her ambition to lay a robust
groundwork for students' future achievements, emphasizing fostering the language skills
essential for kindergarten readiness. Bandura (1995) indicated that high self-efficacy is
associated with greater motivation, resilience, and perseverance in the face of challenges, which,
involves setting achievable goals, gaining relevant experience, and receiving positive feedback.
Grace stated,
TK is an area that I really, really want to develop more next year because it's my passion,
that early learning. TK is going to be critical for developing those language skills and
giving them that foundation so that they are ready when they start kindergarten.
A sense of teacher belonging resonated deeply with Emmanuel, who expressed,
TK has always been an area that I try to pay particular attention to because I think they
[teachers] feel left out of things…because they have specific activities such as rest time
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that gives the illusion that they shouldn't be the same as everyone else…very valuable
group of teachers.
Differentiated Guidance without a Defined Roadmap
Principals expressed their concerns about the insufficient guidance from the California
Department of Education regarding implementing TK at the school level, highlighting the need
for a clear roadmap to ensure effective implementation. For example, Emmanuel stated,
I would love the opportunity to have training or webinars that can lay it out for me, to
help me come to a place where I say, Okay, this is how we're going to do things. This is
what TK is meant to be, or at least this is where TK is going in these next 3 to 4 years.
Grissom et al. (2021) suggested that the principal is not only a crucial figure in fostering a
culture of care, but also the most valuable asset for a district to prioritize investment in. Thus, if
school districts focused on enhancing the effectiveness of just one individual within a school,
directing resources toward the principal would likely yield the most significant impact on student
achievement. Regarding teaching standards, they stated,
I marvel at them [TK teachers], because they do more with less than I think anybody
else? And when I mean less, I don't know that they have the direction, the clarity of
what's expected of them where their students should be. Are there TK standards? Or are
there objectives? And if that's the case, is that because of a framework? Or is that because
of your just backwards mapping from Kinder?
Grace added, “There is a curriculum that our district has provided, based on state standards, but
we, as the administrators, have never been sent the actual curriculum, so we're waiting to get that
curriculum ourselves.” Interview participants acknowledged the efforts of the district office
regarding the support provided by stating, “There were a lot of meetings with central district
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office, personnel, administrators to make sure that we're making these changes correctly. The
district’s program specialist focused on P-3 alignment and communicated about the standards we
need to address.” In respect to setting up the classroom environment, Jessica stated, “we have
very ideal classroom these days because our district set them up huge, I mean, they got kidney
tables, they got tables, they got so many chairs!” The interview responses point to how the
California Master Plan for Early Learning and Care, in its research-based approach, will act as a
guiding framework for constructing a thorough and equitable early learning and care system over
the upcoming decade. (California for All Kids, Retrieved March 4, 2023).
Belief - Pathways to Professional Development and Career Transitions
Interview and survey participants stated that professional development was important for
principals to become more aware of the concepts needed in TK. The county administrator
acknowledged that building a mindset about early learning cannot be accomplished overnight.
Victoria stated,
It's a state concern that we are not getting principals to be more aware of the concepts that
are needed in TK. And we're giving them bits and pieces of a mindset that you can't build
over a two-hour professional development virtual performance. They must live it, they
must see it, they must be in TK classrooms to experience it.
The P-3 continuum is supported through professional development by bringing pre-K, TK, and
kindergarten teachers together. Jessica mentioned, “Last year, I went to like an all-day training
on dramatic play with more hands-on experience, and helping teachers understand the DRDP and
facilitating meetings for them.” Emmanuel added, “We ask BIAs (Bilingual Instructional
Assistants) what training they need as they have good feedback about it, so anytime that
something comes up with the district, we're sharing that information and making sure that they're
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attending.” Principals shared their experiences with the implementation of TK, following the
district’s decision to discontinue pre-K services to offer TK to age eligible students. Faith
recalled,
There were a lot of meetings with central district office, personnel, administrators to
make sure that we're making these changes correctly. The whole process of getting rid of
pre-K, starting TK, half day option or full day option, why is it TK? Why is it not kinder?
In offering those [district meetings] I learned more about it just being able to answer
parents’ questions, we offered a lot of opportunities for them to come and learn about
that.
In respective to teacher competencies in delivering developmentally appropriate practices, Grace
added, "We don't want to rush that piece. Because when you rush that piece, you're taking away
a really important part of their development so that they can be successful when they get to that
part." Transitioning pre-K staff into teaching roles and building up the workforce represented
significant career shifts for these individuals. Some principals expressed,
There were meetings with some of the pre-K teachers because we got rid of pre-K in our
district. So, a lot of those teachers chose to pursue their credential so that they could teach
TK. One was a pre-K teacher, and one is finishing up her credential and working on the
RICA (Reading Instruction Competence Assessment) exam. They [teachers] are provided
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with education classes outside their full-time job. We wanted our veterans to take the full
day [sessions] versus the new teachers to ease into it and start in half-day [sessions].
Douglas and Nganga (2015) states that navigating the new grade level will require preparing preservice teachers to be critically conscious by integrating and interrogating their positionalities to
support the whole child in diverse communities.
Belief - Networks Connected to Observation and Communication
Interview participants shared their experiences and beliefs about what effective grade
level communication should entail to support the diverse needs of TK students in their
elementary sites. When asked about the levels of support provided for teachers, Emmanuel
stated, “I check in with teachers by asking ‘How are you [teachers] recording the DRDP
information?’ so that they can exchange ideas and be more efficient that way. Teachers are
allowed to do PLC every other Thursday during instructional day.” Some principals added,
our teachers and aides have professional learning and collaboration time weekly,
including connections with kindergarten teachers. Teachers have the flexibility to either
do the learning together with their grade level on Thursdays instead of a staff-directed
PD, or they could do it on their own.
Site level networks are also tenets of collaboration among teachers that aid in the support of the
youngest learners on campus. Faith indicated, “Third grade buddied up with a TK class to get the
students interacting together. But it also gives the teachers the opportunity to see classroom
management through a different lens.” More on professional learning communities, Grace added,
there's somebody supporting each grade level, and then they come back to the Guiding
Coalition. So, there's excellent communication going on between what's happening as a
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whole school as we go over how to write goals, how to monitor and assess for growth,
and using data, analyzing data, and so forth.
Efficient principals showcase adept supervision of instruction and excels as a coach, mentor, and
role model for teachers, aiding them in enhancing their teaching methods and fostering
innovation to benefit their students across a growth mindset (Keating et al., 2015; Little et al.,
2022).
Belief - Ideal Classroom Environments and Social Emotional Learning
Principals shared their beliefs about what embodies optimal classroom environments that
are conducive to fostering social-emotional learning in students. These environments prioritize
emotional safety, collaboration, and empathy, providing students opportunities to develop selfawareness, self-regulation, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decisionmaking. When asked about the ideal TK classroom, Victoria stated, “Every child could have the
possibility of whatever it is that they wanted; it [classroom] was so well-structured that students
would be able to manage and transition from one activity to the next, knowing the expectations
of the setting.” An exemplary TK classroom is also characterized by a warm and inviting
atmosphere that is language-rich with play-based learning that allows students to explore,
experiment, and discover at their own pace. Jessica added,
an ideal classroom has different center stations; a dramatic play area, kitchen area,
library, a carpet space, interactive boards, and lots of manipulatives, everything's very
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visual. They use a lot of songs to encourage that language and repetition. Sand tables for
outside.
On leveraging teacher strengths and interests to develop an ideal outdoor classroom, Grace
mentioned,
we might have a teacher who's amazing at gardening, and they might be able to do an
outdoor lesson, or gardening, or just leverage more of what they bring with various
projects, and manipulatives for students to work on and change weekly.
The belief that children learn best through unstructured play, Froebel emphasized the importance
of natural exploration and self-expression, as he advocated for environments where children are
free to engage independently and interact with others, allowing them to follow their interests and
experience joy through the stimulating environment (Pound, 2019).
Based on the collective interview responses from many principals, there was an overall
sense that characteristics of an ideal classroom environment include appropriate seating
arrangements, small group setups, eye-level materials, center stations, active and engaging
atmosphere, a celebration of diverse cultures, ample space for TK students, language-rich
environment, opportunities to build vocabulary through visuals, songs, and chants. Several
principals stated, “The ideal TK classroom is active and engaging, full of laughter and love. The
curriculum and classroom visuals should celebrate the diverse cultures of the students, at least
one bilingual adult in the room. Caring, calm, playful, music, dance, art, outdoor play, focus on
developing friendships and social skills.” Principal survey responses captured,
The Ideal TK classroom has multilingual teachers/paraprofessionals and is in a
neighborhood not necessarily on an elementary school campus so ample space can be
given to the TK students, and they can be walked to school. Language-rich with many
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opportunities to experience learning through play both, inside and outside the classroom.
Opportunities to engage families in learning experiences throughout the year.
Multilingualism and Culturally Responsive Celebrations
Interview and survey responses provided context to the importance of addressing
multilingual students and families in the communities they serve, as it was evident that the
district emphasizes the term "multilingual language learners" and believes that every child is
competent and capable, regardless of language. Victoria explained, “The term that is being used
is multilingual, even biliterate, as it encompasses the many languages that we are fortunate to
have in a school setting.” Faith added, “Our district has emphasized the term multilingual
language learners.”
When asked about the ways their school site recognizes and teaches children about
different languages and culture, Emmanuel stated, “We celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month,
Black History Month, Women's History Month, with videos that we share every school day of
the month, for that month.” Grace added, “We have multicultural assemblies and diverse
performers to learn about different cultures. Family Engagement nights, art activities and many
bilingual books.” Goodwin and Long, state that supporting families with culturally responsive
prosocial activities benefit elementary students of color, thus by recognizing and respecting the
cultural diversity within families, educators can create inclusive learning environments that
honor and celebrate the unique backgrounds and identities of all children (2023). Victoria
described, “Rather than Americanized fall festivals, we held a family fiesta with ballet folkloric
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and the local high school marimba band, and we sold tacos and traditional Mexican food items.”
In terms of home language supports, Victoria reflectively asked,
but why isn't home language requirements? And the beauty of what that would look like?
If we are required to teach English for 30 minutes? Why are we not required to teach 30
minutes of their home language? And how many more students would benefit from being
able to speak their home language or gain additional skills within their home language?
Patrick also added self-reflective questions,
Rather than one size fits all, how are you [teachers] designing lessons, how are they
meeting the needs of BIPOC ((Black, Indigenous, and People of Color) students, and how
do they meet the needs of students from different socio-economic backgrounds.
All leaders emphasized the importance of developing environments that support children's
growth and development across all domains, with supportive relationships with teachers and
peers, students can thrive academically, emotionally, and socially in these settings.
Engagement of Parents from Diverse Backgrounds
Principals shared their beliefs about engaging parents and identified that most parents are
doing their best and that their actions are influenced by their own knowledge and understanding.
They also believe in understanding and respecting the priorities and cultural backgrounds of
families, as well as maintaining open communication and building relationships with parents.
Faith stated,
98% of the parents you deal with are doing the very best that they know how to do. I
think there's so much to be said for understanding family's priorities, whether those be
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culturally bound or not, especially if you’re teachers and you didn't grow up in that same
culture or did but didn't grow up with those priorities - it has a big impact.
Additional collective responses regarding parent priorities, while cultivating an open and inviting
atmosphere is also extended to parents. Jessica mentioned
It's hard when you see an adult looking at a child and maybe holding them accountable
for their behavior when their behaviors a direct result of their parenting. It's not their
fault. That's how they've been trained, or that's what the family's priorities are.
Jessica elaborated further on the importance of parental engagement and the value of maintaining
open communication with parents.
Just having that welcoming environment, being supportive to parents, because parents are
their first teachers and making sure to communicate. You see them at a pickup, you see
them at drop off, and you must be open and talk to parents because they [children] are so
little.
Victoria described the crucial role that parent involvement plays in shaping children's attitudes
towards education, promoting positive self-esteem, and enhancing their social skills by adding,
We're in the business of servicing children and families. I've always been passionate
about bringing families in, most importantly, having their voice be heard and to
understand that their role as parents is huge. Lifting other ways parents could support
their child, not just about just homework.
When asked about the ways they connect with parents, principals collectively stated,
TK teachers create Google Classroom with resources: letters, days of the week,
calendars, resources to bridge to Kinder. Weekly ParentSquare posts. Creating packets
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for parents to support their child's learning and prevent regression over the summer is a
proactive step to ensure children are prepared for kindergarten.
Parents are a child's first and most influential teachers and engaging parents in TK helps them
understand the curriculum, learning goals, and strategies used in the classroom, enabling them to
reinforce learning at home (Goodwin & Long, 2023).
Discussion Research Question Three
Interview and survey data indicated that principals shared common beliefs and attitudes
about how to best implement TK in CCUSD. With the adoption of the new grade level nearly a
decade ago, principals found themselves swiftly navigating the complexities of early learning,
facing adaptive challenges that demanded innovative solutions (Heifetz et al., 2009; MercadoGarcia et al., 2013). Principals shape the school culture and foster an environment conducive to
learning and growth, thus serving as the linchpin of the school community.
Interview and survey responses recognized the diverse backgrounds and experiences that
each principal experienced in their differentiated ability to support the adoption and expansion of
TK within the context of their elementary campus. There were common responses from all
principals toregarding their shared visioof creating active and engaging yet inclusive classroom
environments that prioritize multilingual students and their families. Key aspects included the
presence of experienced bilingual staff and the implementation of developmentally appropriate
activities. Pathways to professional development for both principals and teaching staff varied,
influenced by factors such as their understanding of early childhood development, self-efficacy,
and the level of support provided by internal and external district resources. Several recurring
themes surfaced throughout these discussions, including the importance of vision coherence and
articulation across the early learning grade span amidst navigating an unfamiliar grade level. The
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need for differentiated guidance in the absence of a clear roadmap and the significance of teacher
observation and communication networks emerged as a valuable support to all principals.
Additionally, there was an emphasis on fostering ideal classroom environments that prioritize
social-emotional learning, multilingualism, and culturally responsive practices. Lastly,
engagement of parents from diverse backgrounds was underscored as a critical component in
supporting student success and creating inclusive learning environments.
Summary
Key findings from this chapter examine the experiences of parents with culturally
responsive teaching efforts. At the same time, their children attended TK and explore cabinetlevel administrators' and principals’ commitments to serve TK students in diverse communities
in central Coast California. Research question one focused on the lived experiences of parents
when their child attempted TK. The survey findings indicated that parents strongly believe in the
importance of opportunities to participate in their child's classroom, which, values cultural
diversity, inclusion, respect, and empathy among students and parents, especially with a bilingual
teaching staff. Despite a significant percentage of parents feeling they were not invited to their
child's TK classroom, an equivalent percentage believed that teachers treated parents as equal
partners in their child's education. Schools that are ready for children prioritize strategies that
address cultural sensitivity and provide various opportunities for parent engagement, as Williams
and colleagues (2019) identified. Creating opportunities for cultural exchanges in the classroom
can foster a community that practices empathy and respect for different perspectives as students,
parents, and teachers learn about each other's family traditions, language, and heritage. These
findings are consistent with existing literature on culturally responsive teaching strategies that
honor and affirm students' cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds and are crucial for
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supporting the holistic development of the whole child (Carey et al, 2018; Douglas & Nganga,
2015).
Research question two described the efforts of district and county administrators at
encountering significant challenges and opportunities in enhancing the abilities of TK teachers.
District leaders at CCUSD prioritize aligning their efforts with the district's vision and mission
by supporting early education programs that advance educational goals, which, aligns with
existing literature, as highlighted by Childress and colleagues (2006). Interview and survey data
underscored the importance of continuous learning and development for TK teachers, focusing
on creating developmentally appropriate classroom environments aligned with TK students'
cognitive, social, and emotional needs. Last, there was an emphasis on the district's role in
supporting elementary principals in developing TK programs and culturally sensitive classroom
environments, reflecting a commitment to meeting the diverse needs of TK students.
Research question three explored the experiences and commitments of elementary
principals who served TK students at CCUSD. Interview and survey responses from elementary
principals acknowledged the diverse backgrounds and experiences that shaped their ability to
support the adoption and expansion of TK within their respective elementary campuses. Despite
differences, commonalities emerged in their vision for creating inclusive classroom
environments prioritizing multilingual students. Key aspects included experienced bilingual staff
and developmentally appropriate activities. Pathways to professional development varied based
on an understanding of early childhood development and support from district resources.
Findings emphasized the importance of vision coherence, differentiated guidance, teacher
networks, and fostering ideal classroom environments. Engagement of parents from diverse
backgrounds was seen as crucial for student success and inclusivity. These findings are
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consistent with Goodwin and Long (2023), who state that supporting families with culturally
responsive teaching practices during school transitions is a prosocial activity that benefits
elementary students of color.
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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five provides a comprehensive overview of the research findings about the
experiences of parents whose children attended TK and their encounters with culturally
responsive teaching efforts. Additionally, the study sought to explore the commitments of
cabinet-level administrators and elementary principals in Central Coast California to serve TK
students in diverse communities. Drawing from the data gathered, the study aimed to provide a
detailed examination of the complexities inherent in supporting TK students by offering multiple
perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and resources identified by administrators and
principals within multilingual communities. Furthermore, the chapter extends beyond mere
analysis by offering implications for practical recommendations and underscores the ongoing
need for empirical inquiry in this critical area.
This study focused on introducing TK in California public schools, which, lacks a clearly
defined roadmap toserve diverse communities effectively, as highlighted by the American
Institutes of Research (AIR, 2014). Despite the statewide mandate requiring LEAs to offer TK to
all 4-year-old students by the 2025-2026 school year, the transition to this new grade level is
marked by a dearth of guidance. Administrators, principals, and teachers are grappling with
navigating this new educational landscape without the guidance of a cultural pedagogy,
particularly in communities with multilingual students. The absence of a cultural pedagogy poses
significant challenges, as teachers find themselves ill-equipped to implement culturally
responsive teaching strategies effectively, as noted by Ladson-Billings (1995). This study aimed
to examine how CRT strategies may be adjusted in TK classrooms, which, may lead to stronger
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relationships with the students and their families while also reshaping the curriculum and
adjusting to a cultural pedagogy. The following questions guided this research:
1. How do parents of primary-grade students, who attended TK, describe their experiences
with culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms?
2. How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe their efforts to strengthen
teachers' abilities to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities?
3. What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK students in linguistically
diverse communities?
This study employed a qualitative methodology, incorporating qualitative data
obtained from interviews and surveys from one public elementary school district located on
California’s central coast. The qualitative design gathered multiple sources of data to create a
rich, detailed description of the complexities involved in implementing TK programs in
multilingual communities through the course of parent experiences and leadership journeys
shared by district administrators and elementary principals. Merrian and Tisdell (2015) suggest
that qualitative research explores how individuals interpret their experiences, construct their
realities, and assign meaning to their encounters. Furthermore, it was crucial to incorporate the
contributions of a county-level support administrator to gain a comprehensive understanding of
the myriad challenges, opportunities, and essential resources needed at district and site levels for
the effective delivery of early learning programs. This action was vital in acquiring insights into
their strategic integration of support systems for TK students, guaranteeing a unified approach
across the educational landscape. Qualitative analysis was performed to generate findings that
directly addressed the research questions. As a concluding phase of analysis, the survey data was
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examined and juxtaposed with themes derived from the interview data, thereby triangulating the
results with insights gleaned from the literature review.
Findings
This study's results indicate a robust parental belief in the significance of participating in
their child's classroom, characterized by cultural diversity, inclusion, respect, and empathy,
particularly when facilitated by bilingual teaching staff. Despite some parents feeling excluded
from their child's TK classroom, an equivalent proportion expressed confidence that teachers
treated them as equal partners in their child's education. District leaders are committed to
aligning their initiatives with the district's vision and mission, prioritizing support for early
education programs that align with educational objectives. The findings also underscore the
importance of continuous learning and development for TK teachers, focusing on establishing
developmentally appropriate classroom environments that accommodate TK students' cognitive,
social, and emotional needs. Lastly, the study emphasizes the district's pivotal role in supporting
elementary principals in developing TK programs and culturally sensitive classroom
environments, highlighting a dedication to addressing the diverse needs of TK students. Ten key
themes emerged in connection to the three research questions explored in this study. This section
provides a condensed overview and analysis of the study's discoveries with existing literature
and contemporary practices.
Research Question One
Research Question One examined How parents of primary grade students who attended
TK and parents of primary grade students who attended TK describe their experiences with
culturally responsive strategies in TK classrooms. Qualitative data related to Research Question
One produced three findings. The first finding that emerged in relationship to Research Question
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One was parents’ shared encounters with classroom initiatives to enrich their child's cultural
identity. Suggestions include teaching about various cultural holidays through movies, books,
displays, food, and guest speakers. Additionally, they propose celebrating heritage months
throughout the school year to expose children to different cultures. Emphasizing inclusivity,
parents stress the importance of validating cultural and linguistic differences in the school culture
and fostering student pride. The survey responses advocated for developmentally appropriate
activities that teach about diverse cultures and abilities. A large proportion of responses from
parents found that although they were excluded from their child's TK classroom, they
emphasized the need for inclusive classroom environments paired with culturally responsive
teaching strategies that promote, recognize, and affirm students' cultural, linguistic, and
experiential diversity. This finding follows established literature and educational practices of
Djonko-Moore & Traum (2015), Magruder et al. (2013), and Milner (2010), which, recognize
culturally responsive teaching strategies as crucial for the comprehensive development of the
whole child.
The second finding that emerged in relation to Research Question One is that it provides
opportunities in the classroom for children to learn about respect and empathy that is modeled by
the teaching staff. The survey responses from parents emphasized the significance of values such
as equality, respect, and impartiality as essential elements in shaping a positive learning
atmosphere. Teachers were recognized for actively promoting acceptance and friendship among
students and cultivating connections among parents from varied cultural backgrounds. The
survey responses highlighted the collective effort to instill these values in the student body and
the broader school community. Drawing from Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological systems
theory, which, highlights the family as the most influential microsystem in a child's early
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learning, parents acknowledged the importance of interactions within the classroom as another
proximal system for children. This dual influence accentuates the collaborative effort required
between families and educators to create a supportive and inclusive educational environment.
The third finding that emerged in relation to Research Question One conveyed parent
perspectives on the qualities they deemed important in the teaching staff to support their children
effectively in a multilingual community. Parent responses highlighted the significance of having
a robust team comprising bilingual teachers and aides, emphasizing the importance of
communication in the student's primary language, particularly for students learning English. This
finding is consistent with the works of Carey et al. (2018) and Douglas & Nganga (2015),,
which, emphasize the need to examine teacher positionality to support the holistic development
of children in diverse communities effectively. Parents further emphasized the significance of
communication in fostering parent engagement, expressing the need for effective dialogue
between teachers and parents.
Research Question Two
Research Question Two inquired, How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators
describe their efforts to strengthen teachers' abilities to serve TK students in linguistically diverse
communities? Triangulation of district and county administration interviews and survey data
related to Research Question Two produced three findings. The first finding that emerged in
relationship to Research Question Two was in connection with the alignment with the district
vision and mission, which, emphasized the importance of involving stakeholders at all levels in
defining the district's values, beliefs, and overarching principles, highlighting the collaborative
nature of this process. The finding is supported by the work of Childress et al. (2006) and Honig
(2013), which, found that achieving excellence on a large scale requires a district-wide strategy
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focused on aligning vision, providing leadership for instructional improvement, and establishing
an organization capable of implementing and measuring student outcomes. Administrators
underscored the necessity of a district-wide collaborative effort to ensure that qualified
candidates align with the district's vision, mission, and the specific goals of individual school
sites.
Interview responses from district administration highlighted the importance of
incorporating questions about cultural relevance into the interview practices to ensure a
comprehensive understanding of the candidates' dedication to serving students. This finding was
consistent with the work of Carey et al. (2018) and Douglas & Nganga (2015), which, stressed
the importance of preparing preservice teachers for instructing in multilingual communities and
was further underscored by emphasizing the need for active integration and examination of their
positionalities. This process is crucial to enhance the preservice teachers' awareness of their
cultural perspectives and biases, fostering a more inclusive and effective approach to education
in diverse linguistic settings. Furthermore, Little et al. (2022) confirmed that teacher preparation
programs play a pivotal role in equipping future educators with the necessary skills and
knowledge to address the diverse needs of students effectively and thrive in the teaching
profession.
The second finding concerning Research Question Two focused on exploring the impact
of professional development networks that unite educators across the grade span from pre-K to
kindergarten. These networks specifically target children's academic, social, and emotional
development. Taylor and Boyer (2019) emphasized creating engaging and developmentally
appropriate learning experiences aligned with child-centered interests and abilities. County
administration stressed the need for systemic support to allow teachers time for collaboration,
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fostering a collaborative team that learns from one another. Moreover, responses highlighted the
importance of providing principals with direct experiences in TK classrooms, which, is crucial,
surpassing the effectiveness of brief virtual professional development sessions. This finding was
consistent with the work of Ainscow (2005) and Fraise and Brooks (2015), which, acknowledge
the significance of offering teachers training and ongoing professional development
opportunities to improve their comprehension of cultural diversity and developmental needs, all
of which, fortify the bond between educators and students.
Additional interview responses from administrators revealed that professional
development networks played a crucial role in providing essential support for TK teachers,
particularly in establishing the foundation for fundamental skills, thus establishing the reliance of
kindergarten teachers on the expertise of TK educators. Specifically, data revealed that district
and county administrators highlighted the importance of elementary principals actively
participating in these networks, reminding them of the expectations for supporting a robust TK
program that prepares students for kindergarten and beyond. This finding is consistent with the
work of Keating et al. (2017) and Fraise & Brooks (2015), who emphasized the importance of
cultivating a growth mindset and that educational leaders possess the flexibility to envision and
implement their work effectively in practice.
The third finding that emerged in relation to Research Question Two focused on
examining student-centered instruction and cultural sensitivity, which, are tenets of culturally
responsive teaching practices that enable teachers to support the student holistically. This finding
is consistent with the work of Ladson-Billings (1995), which, states that evaluating the
competencies of our youngest multilingual learners is crucial because, without a comprehensive
understanding of students' cultures and languages, teachers cannot proficiently implement
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culturally responsive teaching strategies. Interview and survey responses outlined their beliefs
about TK teacher competencies as capable of supporting multilingual students. As such, teachers
should understand foundational skills necessary for working with multilingual students, be
familiar with the UDL framework, and demonstrate cultural and linguistic responsiveness. The
administrators emphasized the importance of having a mindset that views educators as dedicated
to serving the needs of all students, incorporating culturally relevant teaching practices. They
emphasized the need for educators to believe in each child's potential and competence genuinely.
This finding is aligned with the work of Neitzel (2018), which, refers to implicit bias as the
unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence our understanding, behaviors, and decisionmaking in everyday life. These biases can lead to inequitable outcomes for various groups, as
they operate unconsciously, impacting our perceptions and actions without our conscious
awareness.
Interview responses varied from the three district and county administrators regarding the
importance of play-based approaches and the need for developmentally appropriate practices in
TK. Mercedes emphasized the TK classroom should reflect and support students' culture and
language with interactive learning and the incorporation of differentiated and scaffolded
language with instructional support. Reflecting on her experience in Kindergarten, Carolina
expressed apprehension regarding the shift toward standardized and assessment-driven practices.
As a result, she continued to prioritize pre-K concepts that are deemed developmentally
appropriate for TK students. These findings are aligned with the work of Shirakawa et al, (2021),
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which, describes the philosophy of Friedrich Froebel, who valued children’s autonomy and
believed that children learned through play, which, is a form of creativity.
On the contrary, Patrick highlighted the misconception that TK is synonymous with nap
time and playtime, emphasizing its rigor, the diverse skills involved, and the need to dispel the
notion of TK as it was five years ago, indicating a more demanding educational landscape. This
finding is consistent with the work of Little and Cohen-Vogel (2016), who described an ongoing
tension between play and academic preparation in early education. Administrators and teachers
navigate this dichotomy as they strive to balance fostering a play-based environment and
meeting academic preparation requirements.
Research Question Three
Research Question Three inquired, What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about
serving TK students in linguistically diverse communities? Triangulation of principal interviews
and survey data related to Research Question Three produced four findings. The first finding that
emerged in relation to Research Question Three was that a principal’s ability to navigate an
uncharted grade level with the vision of an ideal TK program was moderately common for the
school district. This finding is consistent with the research conducted by AIR (2014), which,
found that California public schools are facing significant challenges in implementing TK
without clear guidance. Principals express a ,solid commitment to developing essential language
skills for kindergarten readiness, characterized by an active and engaging classroom environment
that celebrates diverse cultures, including bilingual staff. These findings are aligned with the
work of Bandura (1995), which, identifies high self-efficacy as associated with increased
motivation, resilience, and perseverance and achieved through setting achievable goals, gaining
relevant experience, and receiving positive feedback. Additionally, Emmanuel acknowledged the
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importance of fostering a sense of belonging among TK teachers who often experience exclusion
due to specific activities unique to their classrooms, such as student rest time. This finding is also
supported by the work of Montoya and colleagues (2022), which, identified that the number one
challenge teachers identified was delivering developmentally appropriate practices, with an
ambiguous understanding by school and district leadership for teaching four-year-old children.
Principal interview responses consistently expressed concerns about the lack of clear
guidance from the CDE for implementing TK at the site level, emphasizing the desire for
training that provides a comprehensive roadmap. The interview participants also acknowledged
the efforts of the district office in supporting the changes, particularly in P-3 alignment and
addressing standards. This finding is consistent with the work of Grissom et al. (2021), which,
affirms that the principal plays a vital role not only in nurturing a culture of care but also as the
district's most valuable asset worthy of prioritized investment, suggesting that concentrating
resources on enhancing the effectiveness of the principal, as a key figure, would likely yield the
most substantial impact on student achievement within school districts.
The second finding that emerged in connection to Research Question Three were the
district's professional development and career transition pathways that educated leaders and
teaching staff about the foundations of early childhood. Carolina emphasized the gradual nature
of building a mindset around early learning, stating that it cannot be achieved overnight,
stressing the need for a greater immersive experience in TK classrooms rather than brief virtual
professional development sessions. This finding is consistent with the work of Honig and Rainey
(2020) state that learners cultivate self-regulating behaviors through leading their learning,
enabling them to comprehend and engage with new material actively. Without this active
involvement, meaningful changes in behavior are unlikely to occur. Several principals shared
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experiences with TK implementation after discontinuing pre-K services. They emphasized the
significance of district meetings to effectively address changes and create opportunities for
parents to gain insights into the TK program. Honig (2013) recognizes that central office staff
must consistently diagnose problems and assess their progress, aiming to create models that
enable them to meet the demands of improving teaching and learning district wide. Principals
noted that the transition of pre-K staff into teaching roles represented significant career shifts,
with meetings held to support teachers pursuing credentials for TK instruction. This finding is
also in keeping with the work of Douglas and Nganga (2015) who emphasize the importance of
preparing pre-service teachers to be critically conscious, integrating and interrogating their
positionalities.
The third finding that emerged in connection to Research Question Three was aligned to
effective grade-level communication to support the diverse needs of TK students within the
principal’s school sites. This finding is consistent with Keating et al., (2015) and Little et al.
(2022), who describe efficient principals as adept in supervising instruction and functioning as
coaches, mentors, and role models for teachers. This role helps teachers enhance their teaching
methods and fosters innovation, aligning with a growth mindset. Principal responses showcased
the importance of supporting teachers with implementing new student monitoring assessments
and facilitating regularly scheduled PLCs.
The fourth finding that emerged in connection to Research Question Three was a shared
belief about what embodies optimal classroom environments conducive to fostering students'
social-emotional learning. Interview and survey responses prioritized learning environments
equipped with emotional safety, collaboration, empathy, and opportunities for students to
develop self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible
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decision-making. This finding is aligned with the work of Immordino-Yang et al., (2019) and
Cannon et al., (2017) which, outline that the early years of life are deemed critical for brain
development, playing a pivotal role in shaping foundational intellectual, emotional, and
behavioral skills essential for lifelong success, with recent insights from neurobiology emphasize
the profound impact of social-emotional experiences on brain development and the learning
processes that follow. An analysis of TK classroom ideation revealed that principals' beliefs were
characterized by a warm, inviting, language-rich atmosphere with play-based learning that
allows students to explore, experiment, and discover at their own pace. This finding is aligned
with the work of Pound (2019), which, highlights the significance of natural exploration,
aligning with Froebel's (cite) belief that children learn most effectively through unstructured play
and self-expression. Thus Froebel advocated for environments that afford children the freedom
to engage independently, interact with others, follow their interests, and experience joy within a
stimulating environment.
Interview and survey responses underscore the importance of addressing multilingual
students and families within the educational communities, with the district prioritizing the term
"multilingual language learners," emphasizing the belief that every child is capable regardless of
language. This finding further confirms that celebrating cultural heritage months, organizing
multicultural assemblies, engaging in diverse activities, and promoting bilingual books are all
site-level efforts that recognize and teach children about different languages and cultures. This
conclusion is aligned with the work of Goodwin and Long (2023), which, describe that
supporting families with culturally responsive prosocial activities benefits elementary students of
color, thus by recognizing and respecting the cultural diversity within families, educators can
create inclusive learning environments that honor and celebrate the unique backgrounds and
102
identities of all children. The interview findings regarding principal beliefs about engaging
parents from diverse backgrounds revealed consistent responses. Most principals acknowledged
that parents, regardless of their background, are doing their best, and their knowledge and
understanding influence their actions. Additionally, the work of Goodwin and Long (2023)
emphasizes engaging parents in TK is essential as it helps them comprehend the curriculum,
learning goals, and strategies employed in the classroom. This engagement empowers parents to
reinforce learning at home, fostering a collaborative and supportive learning environment for the
child.
Limitations
Limitations of this study findings reside in two realms: generalizability given the
contextual specificity of the sample site and small sample size; and internal validity given the
reliance on self-reported data and modification of qualitative instruments. Changing the
interview instrument from the original protocol could impact the assignment of established
reliability from the original protocol to the modified one. The researcher did preserve the
essential characteristics of the original protocol regarding item categories, item statements, and
item proportions within each category. Furthermore, because this study relied on self-reported
data (surveys, interviews), limitations could consist of respondent validity. Triangulation of
findings assisted in overcoming this threat to validity. The inability to generalize study findings
may constitute a delimitation of this study due to the size and scope of the sample population.
However, the purpose of this research was not to generalize. Rather, this study intended to
provide a rich description of parents' experiences with CRT strategies while their children
attended TK and explore administrators’ commitments to serve TK students in diverse
communities in a public school district in Central Coast California. Although not universally
103
applicable across all educational contexts, these descriptive findings enable contextual inference
and applicability due to their detailed description.
Implications for Practice
This study examined the experiences of parents and caregivers with CRT strategies. At
the same time, their children attended TK, and it explored the commitments of administrators to
serve TK students in diverse communities in central coast California. The study's findings
identified themes that offer insights to educational practitioners at both the site and district levels
by providing valuable information and insights into CRT strategies in TK classrooms.
Specifically, the findings facilitate and enhance the ongoing implementation of TK within a
culturally responsive, multilingual, and student-focused approach.
The first implication for practice by elementary principals and school district leaders
illustrates the significance of creating TK classroom environments that provide opportunities for
family involvement. Despite a significant percentage of parents feeling unwelcome to visit their
child's TK classroom, a large percentage of parents believed that teachers treated them as equal
partners in their child's education by supporting their child's learning while in TK. Study findings
suggest that leadership can foster inclusive learning environments where all students can excel
academically, socially, and emotionally by embracing diversity and promoting cultural
competence. Therefore, it seems advantageous for principals and TK teachers to cultivate a
thorough understanding of designing TK classrooms that integrate strategies emphasizing
cultural sensitivity and provide diverse avenues for parent engagement.
The second implication for practice by school district and county education leaders
addresses the importance of providing opportunities to strengthen the competencies of TK
teachers in a linguistically diverse community. One district administrator discussed the
104
importance of expanding teacher residency programs through partnerships with local universities
while communicating the district’s vision, mission, and current classroom needs. The county
administrator described that the scheduling of grade-level collaborations relies on the site's
capacity to allocate time for these endeavors. Additionally, she acknowledged the significance of
providing professional development opportunities that enhance the understanding of cultural
diversity, developmental needs, and diverse backgrounds, strengthening the relationship between
educators and students while tailoring it to teachers' interests and passions. Administrators
incorporating play-based approaches is essential in developing culturally responsive teaching
strategies within TK programs. Study findings suggest that the district has an essential role in
supporting principals with developing TK programs and learning environments that are studentcentered and culturally sensitive. As such, it seems beneficial to incorporate play-based
approaches when developing culturally responsive teaching strategies within TK programs.
The third implication for practice by elementary principals emphasizes the pivotal
responsibility of elementary principals in addressing the holistic needs of TK students, families,
and teaching staff. Principals shared the challenges of implementing TK without a
straightforward framework, adding that the TK is one grade level among eight. As such,
Emmanuel and Grace confirmed the importance of developing a culture that promotes a sense of
belonging for TK. Principals shared the benefit of maintaining strong communication with the
district office for continued support with the ongoing expansion of TK. County administration
urged principals to spend time in the TK classrooms to experience the learning that unfolds.
105
Principals with early childhood backgrounds emphasized the value of utilizing developmental
assessments that accurately gauge student growth rather than district and state-wide assessments.
Principals shared their beliefs about what embodies optimal classroom environments
conducive to fostering social-emotional learning in students. Triangulated study findings appear
to support that the school district and principals prioritize multilingual students and their families
in the communities they serve by lycontinuously referencing students as multilingual learners.
Carolina and Jessica emphasized that parents play a crucial role as their child's primary
educators, advocating for alternative methods of support beyond homework and involving them
in TK helps deepen their understanding of the curriculum, learning objectives, and classroom
strategies, facilitating effective reinforcement of learning at home. Hence, it appears beneficial
for principals to explore diverse avenues through which, parents can contribute to their children's
education and learning rather than solely focusing on engagement within the school setting.
Future Research
The literature review in this study highlighted a gap in research concerning specific
leadership practices to address the implementation of TK in linguistically diverse communities.
While the current study contributed to a contextual understanding of processes and practices
supporting district administration and elementary principals in this context, further research is
warranted. Recommendations for additional research are suggested to explore three specific
areas related to this study.
The first recommendation for future research is to replicate the current study with another
school district that serves students of different socioeconomic status, geographic regions, and
philosophy of education to reveal a broader vision of how parents and administrators think about
implementing TK in their communities. Also, incorporating the beliefs and assumptions of
106
teachers would be judicious. The study findings indicate that the classroom experiences
recognized by parents and the school site’s inclusive approaches of TK teachers, as observed by
principals, positively impact the overall school culture. Future research could provide valuable
insights by delving deeper into the correlation between principal leadership practices, their
support for teachers, and the expansion of a culturally responsive TK program that actively
involves families in the classroom.
The second recommendation for future research is to further examine the role of school
district administration in guiding elementary principals in implementing culturally responsive yet
developmentally appropriate practices for TK students that produce strong student outcomes.
While this study acknowledges that early education background knowledge served as an asset for
principals, investigating additional contexts would strengthen the applicability of implications
for practice. An expansion of qualitative data collection involving district administration,
principals, and teachers could allow further inference regarding the correlation between students
prepared for kindergarten and beyond. Broadening the qualitative teacher sample to investigate
the collaborative expertise developed within school sites could yield valuable insights into
effective teacher leadership models. Strengthening these data relationships, irrespective of
contextual diversity, can enhance the applicability of findings for practitioners.
The third recommendation for future research is to explore in depth the role of school site
leadership in transitioning from diagnosing technical challenges to recognizing the adaptive
challenges associated with serving students from historically marginalized backgrounds. While
this study’s strength resided in the triangulation of data across ten contexts of principal
leadership, practitioners could benefit from a more in-depth analysis of specific contexts through
a case-study design. Expansion of qualitative data collection involving principals could allow
107
further inference regarding specific principal leadership practices. More precisely, increasing the
size of the qualitative principal sample within a school district could enhance the connection
between adaptability domains recognized by principals and the corresponding leadership
practices exhibited by principals.
Conclusions
Study findings suggest that parents strongly believe in the importance of opportunities to
participate in their child's classroom, which, values cultural diversity, inclusion, respect, and
empathy among students and parents, especially with bilingual teaching staff. Schools that are
ready for children prioritize strategies that address cultural sensitivity and provide various
opportunities for parent engagement (Williams et al., 2019). Study findings also suggest that
district leaders prioritize aligning their efforts with the district's vision and mission by supporting
early education programs that advance educational goals and promote culturally sensitive
classroom environments. Findings further suggest that principals’ knowledge of early childhood
plays a vital role in their ability to support the expansion of TK within their respective
elementary campuses. This study offers educational leaders the implications of creating
environments that support children's holistic growth and development, highlighting the crucial
role of supportive relationships with teachers and peers for academic, emotional, and social
thriving. Futhermore, California's robust investment in TK serves as a beacon of forwardthinking education policy, poised to revolutionize early childhood education. By prioritizing the
preparation and empowerment of leaders, California is laying the groundwork for TK to fully
maxime its potential and impact. By investing in leadership preparation, California can ensure
that TK programs are implemented with fidelity, supported by evidence-based practices, and
responsive to the diverse needs of students and communities.
108
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Tables
Table 1
Interview and Survey Selection Criteria for Administrators, Principals, and Parents/Caregivers.
Interviews Surveys
Elementary Principals
Serving in an elementary school with a TK
student population
Parents and caregivers of primary grade
students with a TK experience
Cabinet-level administrators Elementary Principals
Serving in an elementary school with a TK
student population
County level administrator Cabinet-level administrators
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Table 2
Research questions aligned with data collection method, interview, and survey.
Research Question Method of Data Collection
RQ1: How do parents of primary grade students, who attended TK,
describe their experiences with culturally responsive strategies in TK
classrooms?
Survey
RQ2: How do school-based and cabinet-level administrators describe
their efforts to strengthen the abilities of teachers to serve TK students
in linguistically diverse communities?
Interview Survey
RQ3: What attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK
students in linguistically diverse communities?
Interview Survey
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Table 3
Background information of interview participants
Pseudonym Position in the District
Emmanuel Elementary Principal
Faith Elementary Principal
Grace Elementary Principal
Jessica Elementary Principal
Victoria Elementary Principal
Patrick District Administrator
Mercedes District Administrator
Carolina County Administrator
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Appendix A: TK Interview for District Administrators and Elementary Principals
Dear Mr./Ms.__________,
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside
to answer my questions. As I mentioned when we last spoke, the interview should take
approximately 1 hour. Does this still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study, the overview for which, was
provided to you in the Study Information Sheet and answer any questions you might have about
participating in this interview. I am a student at USC, and I am conducting a study on how
administrators describe their practices and beliefs about the systems and supports required to
increase their district's capacity to serve TK students in linguistically diverse communities. I am
specifically examining what attitudes and beliefs do principals hold about serving TK students in
linguistically diverse communities, I am talking to multiple principals to learn more about this.
Furthermore, I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher today. What
this means is that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not be making any
judgments on how you are performing as a principal.
As previously stated in the Study Information Sheet I provided to you, this interview is
confidential. What that means is that your name will not be shared with anyone outside the
research team. I will not share them with other colleagues, teachers, administration, or the
district. The data for this study will be compiled into a report and while I do plan on using some
of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I will use a
pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will disidentify any of the data I gather from you.
I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested.
Aside from recording on zoom, I have brought a recorder with me today so that I can accurately
capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for my purposes to best capture your
perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the research team. May I have your
permission to record our conversation? Also, at any point during the interview, you may ask to
stop the recording, pause, and take a break. Would this be okay with you?
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
1. What is your current job title and how many years have you served in that capacity?
a. What other roles have you served in education (Paraprofessional, Teacher)?
2. Tell me about your cultural background.
a. What languages are spoken in your home?
b. In what country (or state) were you born?
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3. Tell me about your experiences with early education (preschool, TK, Kindergarten).
a. What is your level of knowledge with early learners, preschool to kindergarten
age students?
b. What do you do to stay abreast of how young children learn?
Now, I’d like to ask you some questions about how students of color are supported at your
district/school.
4. If someone were to ask you, what are some ways that you support the addition of TK to
K-6 education, what would you say to them?
5. If someone were to ask you, what are some ways that a school supports students of color,
what would you say to them?
6. Tell me about the supports you provide to TK teachers?
a. Think about an interaction in which, you supported a TK teacher in a child’s
learning? Describe that interaction.
Next, I’d like to ask you some questions about TK teachers.
7. What role do you believe a TK teacher plays in the school?
8. What do you perceive to be the qualities of TK teachers that support students of color?
9. What do you perceive to be the qualities of TK teachers that DO NOT support students of
color?
Now we’re going to switch gears and talk about TK classrooms in general.
10. Tell me about the languages and cultures at your district/school.
a. Are there any ways that you feel language and culture could be recognized in
these classrooms?
a. What are some ways your district/school recognizes and teaches children about
different languages and cultures?
122
11. If you could create the ideal TK classroom that supports students of color, what would
that look like?
Closing Question:
This concludes the interview questions I wanted to ask you. What other insight would
you like to share about our conversation about ways that a TK classroom, and a district/school in
general, could support students of color? Insert content here. Note that appendices with lots of
text are formatted using the levels of heading as within the body of the manuscript. Insert page
breaks so additional Appendices start atop a new page.
Appendix sections should reasonably continue to follow APA style and checklist
requirements. Do your best. Particularly, your lists, tables, and figures should continue to follow
APA. Double-spacing with before and after spacing set to 0 is also expected for most appendix
sections. The USC IRB page is flexible.
123
Appendix B: TK Survey for District Administrators and Elementary Principals
Dear District Administrator/Elementary Principal,
My name is Mari Garcia, and I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education. I have been approved to conduct my research study through your
school district. With the recent statewide expansion of Transitional Kindergarten (TK), I am
interested in exploring administrators’ experiences and commitments to serve TK students in
diverse communities such as the Central Coast. The goal of this study is to understand the
complexities associated with supporting TK students and gain multiple perspectives on the
challenges, opportunities, and resources identified by administrators and elementary principals in
multilingual communities. Therefore, I will explore some possible solutions for TK programs,
which, may lead to stronger relationships with students and their families, while also reshaping
the curriculum and adjusting to a cultural pedagogy.
Thank you for your participation.
Respectfully,
Mari Garcia, Ed.D Candidate in Educational Leadership
1. What is your current job title? ● Elementary Principal
● District level administrator
● cabinet-level administrator
● Other_______
2. How long have you been working in Santa
Barbara County as an educator?
● 1-5 years
● 6-10 years
● 11-16 years
● 17 years or more
124
3. In what capacities have you served as an
educator?
● Paraprofessional
● Teacher
● Assistant Principal
● Principal
● school-based administrator
● cabinet-level administrator
● Other_______
4. How would you best describe yourself?
Select all that apply
● Asian
● Black, African American
● Hispanic, Latinx
● Middle Eastern
● Native American, Alaska Native
● Pacific Islander
● White
● Other (Please specify)
● Prefer not to answer
5. What languages are spoken in your home? ● English
● Spanish
● Chinese
● Japanese
● Tagalog
● Other _____
● Prefer not to answer
125
For the next few questions, tell me about your experiences with TK.
6. What is your level of familiarity with early
education (preschool, TK, kindergarten)?
1 – not at all familiar
2 – Slightly familiar
3 – Somewhat familiar
4 – Moderately familiar
5 – Extremely familiar
7. If someone were to ask you, what are some
ways that you support the addition of TK to
K-6 education, what would you say to
them?
8. Estimate the number of webinars, sessions,
or meetings you have attended in the last
12 months regarding TK?
● 0-3
● 4-7
● 8-11
● 12 or more
● Prefer not to answer
9. What do you perceive to be the qualities of
a TK teacher that supports multilingual
students?
126
10. What level of influence does a school
administrator have on supporting a diverse
school thrive?
1 – not at all influential
2 – slightly influential
3 – somewhat influential
4 – very influential
5 – extremely influential
Prefer not to answer
127
11. How often do you provide efforts to
strengthen teachers’ abilities to serve TK
students in linguistically diverse
communities?
1 – Never
2 – Rarely, in less than 10%
of the chances when I could
have
3 – Occasionally, in about
30% of the chances when I
could have
4 – Sometimes, in about
50% of the chances when I
could have
5 – Frequently, in about 70%
of the chances when I could
have
6 – Usually, in about 90% of
the chances I could have.
7 – Every time
Prefer not to answer
12. If you could create the ideal TK
classroom that supports students in
multilingually diverse communities, what
would that look like?
128
Appendix C: TK Survey for Parents and Caregivers
Dear parent/caregiver,
My name is Mari Garcia, I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California, and I
am conducting a study on how parents might be a vehicle to better understand children's
transitional kindergarten experiences with instruction. Thank you for agreeing to participate in
my study and setting time aside to answer my questions. You can stop any time or skip questions
that you prefer not to answer. The survey should take about 30 minutes to complete.
The focus of my study is to better understand what is happening in transitional kindergarten
classrooms, specifically culturally responsive teaching strategies and the learning conditions
teachers create in the classroom. Please note that multiple parents and caregivers will also
receive this survey. I will not share your responses with other participants, colleagues, teachers,
administrators, or the school district. The data for this study will be compiled into a report, and
none of this data will be directly attributed to you. No one will know how you answered, and
there will be no follow-up contact from the school. Please think about your child(ren) who attend
this school as you respond. Again, thank you for your participation.
1. What is your relationship to this child? ● Mother
● Father
● Grandmother
● Grandfather
● Legal guardian
● Other (Please specify)
● Prefer not to answer
2. What is your highest level of education
completed?
● 11th grade or less
● High school graduate or GED
● Some college or vocational school
● College graduate
● Some graduate
● Graduate degree
● Prefer not to answer
129
3. How would you best describe yourself? Select
all that apply
● Asian
● Black, African American
● Hispanic, Latinx
● Middle Eastern
● Native American, Alaska Native
● Pacific Islander
● White
● Other (Please specify)
● Prefer not to answer
4. How often during the school year did you and
your child's TK teacher communicate about
your child's learning at school (in person, in
writing, or by phone)?
● 0
● 1-3
● 4-6
● 7-9
● 10 or more
5. How often did your child's TK teacher gather
information about your family’s language and
culture?
● Never
● Very rarely
● Occasionally
● Frequently
● Very Frequently
● Prefer not to answer
6. I was invited to visit my child’s classroom to
observe teaching and learning.
● Never
● Very rarely
● Occasionally
● Frequently
● Very Frequently
● Prefer not to answer
7. Did your child's TK classroom display
pictures or posters of people from diverse
cultural backgrounds?
● Yes
● No
● Prefer not to answer
8. I was invited to visit my child’s TK classroom
to observe teaching and learning.
● Never
● Very rarely
● Occasionally
● Frequently
● Very Frequently
● Prefer not to answer
130
9. My child's TK classroom provided
opportunities to strengthen my child's cultural
identity.
● Strongly Disagree
● Disagree
● Neither agree or disagree
● Agree
● Strongly Agree
● Prefer not to answer
10. My child's TK teacher treated parents and
caregivers as equal partners in educating
children.
● Strongly Disagree
● Disagree
● Neither agree or disagree
● Agree
● Strongly Agree
● Prefer not to answer
11. My child's TK teacher helped me understand
what I can do to help my child learn.
● Strongly Disagree
● Disagree
● Neither agree or disagree
● Agree
● Strongly Agree
● Prefer not to answer
12. My child's TK teacher helped me to build
relationships with families who SHARE my
home language and/or culture.
● Strongly Disagree
● Disagree
● Neither agree or disagree
● Agree
● Strongly Agree
● Prefer not to answer
13. My child's TK teacher helped me to build
relationships with families who DO NOT
SHARE my home language and/or culture.
● Strongly Disagree
● Disagree
● Neither agree or disagree
● Agree
● Strongly Agree
● Prefer not to answer
13. What would an ideal TK classroom, that
supports students from diverse cultural
backgrounds, look like?
131
Appendix D: Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Are students better off? An analysis of administrators’ commitment to serving transitional
kindergarten students in multilingually diverse communities in central coast California.
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to explore administrators’ commitment to serving TK students in
multilingually diverse communities in central coast California public schools. Ladson-Billings
(1995) explains that culturally responsive teaching (CRT) develops intellectual social emotional
and political learning by using cultural reference to impart knowledge skills and attitudes.
Therefore, without first learning about the cultures and languages of the students, and examining
principal and teachers’ biases, effective CRT strategies falter. This study will examine how CRT
strategies may be adjusted in TK classrooms, which, may lead to stronger relationships with the
students and their family, while also reshaping the curriculum and adjusting to a cultural
pedagogy. The proposed shift provides the space for communicating and facilitating student
focused and student led learning.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60 minutes semistructured one-on-one interview, and a 30 minute one-on-one follow-up interview (if necessary).
All interviews will be audio-taped. You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to
during the interviews. If you do not want to be taped during the interview, handwritten notes will
be taken. You will also be asked to respond to researcher-constructed documents in the form of
short journal prompts at three randomly selected dates during this study. These prompts will be
sent to your work email at the end of workday on the randomly selected dates. You do not have
132
to answer any questions that you do not want to answer when you receive the journal prompts, and
your responses will be anonymous and confidential.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
whether you participate or not in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Mari Ortega Garcia will be the Principal Investigator of this study. Any identifiable information
obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your interview responses will be
coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. You will have the right to review
and edit the audio recordings or transcripts of the one-on-one interviews. All audiotapes related
to this study will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. The transcripts will be stored on
a password protected computer, which, only the Principal Investigator can access.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following individuals:
Principal Investigator
Mari Ortega Garcia
Faculty Advisor
Dr. Rudy Crew
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This qualitative study adopts a conceptual framework comprising Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Systems theory and Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory. The framework underscores the diverse contextual influences on child development, encompassing family, schools, communities, policies, and the economy and the intricate relationships among these settings. The purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of parents and caregivers with culturally responsive teaching strategies while their children attended transitional kindergarten (TK) and explore administrators’ personal commitments to serve TK students in diverse communities in a public school district in central coast California. Purposeful sampling of surveys and semi-structured interviews were utilized to collect data from 49 parents, ten elementary principals, two administrators, and one county director. The findings indicate that parents strongly believe in the importance of participating in their child's culturally diverse TK classroom, especially when facilitated by bilingual teaching staff. District leaders are committed to aligning initiatives with the vision, emphasizing the importance of continuous learning for TK teachers to create developmentally appropriate environments. The study highlights the district's pivotal role in supporting principals to address diverse TK student needs, with ten key themes emerging in connection to the research questions. The study's findings reveal themes that provide valuable insights to educational practitioners at both site and district levels. These insights focus on culturally responsive teaching (CRT) strategies in TK classrooms, aiming to facilitate and enhance the ongoing implementation of TK, focusing on cultural responsiveness, multilingualism, and student-centered approaches.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Garcia, Maribel Ortega
(author)
Core Title
Are students better off? An analysis of administrators’ commitment to serving transitional kindergarten students in multilingually diverse communities in Central Coast California
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Degree Conferral Date
2024-05
Publication Date
03/15/2024
Defense Date
03/04/2024
Publisher
Los Angeles, California
(original),
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
culturally responsive teaching,early childhood education,early learning,Educational Leadership,multilingual learner,OAI-PMH Harvest,P-3,play-based learning,school readiness,transitional kindergarten
Format
theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Crew, Rudolph Franklin (
committee chair
), Cash, David (
committee member
), Ott, Maria (
committee member
)
Creator Email
marigarcia805@gmail.com,mgarcia4@usc.edu
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113851024
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UC113851024
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Tags
culturally responsive teaching
early childhood education
early learning
multilingual learner
P-3
play-based learning
school readiness
transitional kindergarten