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Novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) school administrators' professional development and adult learning

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Novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) school administrators' professional development and adult learning

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Content Novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) School Administrators Professional
Development and Adult Learning
By
Marcos Saul Solorzano
A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May, 2024

© Copyright by Marcos Solorzano 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Marcos Solorzano certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Dr. Alan Green, Committee Member
Dr. Gregory Franklin, Committee Member
Dr. Christina Kishimoto, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
February 23, 2024

Abstract
The purpose of the study is to explore the phenomena of how, through the lens of Social
Cognitive Theory and Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory, new Black Indigenous People of
Color (BIPOC) school administrators' experiences who serve marginalized communities can be
more intentionally prepared and continuously supported to fulfill their role by universities and
school organizations. This study explored on-the-job stressors experienced by BIPOC
administrators that are a critical contextual matter to understand. The study was conducted in Los
Angeles County and all the participants were BIPOC, serving schools in marginalized
communities. The data was collected through surveys and interviews. There were 24 survey
participants and four interview participants. The findings of the study demonstrated that there is
a need for more comprehensive professional development for BIPOC novice school leaders who
serve marginalized communities. One recommendation was for school organizations to partner
with universities that have a school leadership program to better prepare future school leaders
and support current school administrators. Additionally, the study findings identified that there
needs to be more research done on this topic.
iv

Dedication
I dedicate this study to Jesus Christ. God thank you for the guidance and discernment in my life.
“Do not remember the former things, Nor consider the things of old. Behold, I will do a new
thing, Now it shall spring forth; Shall you not know it? I will even make a road in the wilderness
And rivers in the desert.” Isaiah 43: 18-19
Three important people who have impacted my life positively and profoundly: my mother Elza,
who loved me unconditionally, my AA sponsor Mickey C., and my mother-in-law Melba. All
three passed away while I was in this program. What a bittersweet life lesson I received from
them as they were transitioning to heaven.
v

Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the most important person in my life, my wife Sheherazade,
for all her support and love. I would also like to acknowledge my family, friends, colleagues,
mentors, USC professors, and cohort members for all the knowledge and reflection they have
shared.
vi

Table of Contents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………...…iv
Dedication (Optional)..........................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………..…vi
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………–……….vii
List of Tables………………………………………………………………………..……..x
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………...….xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study……………………………………………………...1
Background of the Problem……………………………………………………….4
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….8
Purpose of the Study…….…………………………………………………….…..9
Significance of the Study………………………………………………………...10
Limitations and Delimitations……………………………………………………10
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………11
Organization of the Study………………………………………………………..13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature………………………………………………….15
Why Is It Important to Support and Develop Effective School Leaders?.............16
The Role and Responsibility of Universities in Leadership Preparation………...21
Challenges to Robust Professional Development for School Leaders……………24
Best Practices Professional Development for School Leaders and Mentor
Programs…………………………………………………………………………27
The Power of Effective Mentor Support…………………………………………32
Cultural Context of Novice Leader Training…………………………………….35
vii

A Model of Standards-Based Professional Development for School Leaders….37
Social Cognitive Theory & Andragogy Adult Learning Theory………………...39
Novice School Leader Support Conceptual Framework………………………...43
Chapter Three: Methodology…………………………………………………………….46
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………...46
Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………………..46
Selection of Population……………………………………..……………………47
Design Summary Methodology………………………………………………….48
Instrumentation and Protocols…………………………………………………...49
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………..50
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….51
Validity and Reliability…………………………………………………………..53
Summary…………………………………………………………………………54
Chapter Four: Results or Findings……………………………………………………….55
Results……………………………………………………………………………55
Participants……………………………………………………………………….55
Results for Research Question 1…………………………………………………57
Discussion for Research Question 1……………………………………………..67
Results for Research Question 2…………………………………………………68
Discussion for Research Question 2……………………………………………..75
Results for Research Question 3…………………………………………………76
viii

Discussion for Research Question 3……………………………………………..84
Chapter Five: Discussion………………………………………………………………...86
Findings………………………………………………………………………….87
Limitations ………………………………………………………………………92
Research Positionality……………………………………………………………93
Recommendations and Implications for Practice………………………………..93
Future Research………………………………………………………………….95
Conclusions………………………………………………………………………96
References………………………………………………………………………………..98
Appendix A: Informed Consent Form………….………………………………………114
Appendix B: Participant Study Sheet…………………………………………………..117
Appendix C: Interview Protocol………………………………………………………..120
Appendix D: Survey Introduction Email.…...………………………………………….124
ix

List of Tables
Table 1.1 Survey and Interview Demographics…………………………………...…….56
Table 1.2 Interview Participants Demographics…………………….……………...……57
Table 1.3 How effective was your university administrative program process in preparing
you for your current role?...……………………….……………………………………..60
Table 1.4 Based on your onboarding process, how well-defined were your duties and
tasks?……………………………………………………………………………………..63
Table 1.5 Estimate the number of professional development sessions you have attended in
the last 12 months for your leadership development…………………………………….65
Table 1.6 How would you rate your work-related stress?……………………………….70
Table 1.7 Do you feel competent in your role as a school administrator?……………….72
Table 1.8 How often does someone mentor or coach you?...............................…………79
Table 1.9 Does the professional development offered by your school organization assist
you with your job competency?.....................................................................................…81
Table 1.10 In the last 12 months, how often has someone sat with you to review your
areas of strength and growth in your current role?...............................................……….83
x

List of Figures
Figure 1 Novice School Leader Support Conceptual Framework…………….…………43
Figure 2 Triangulation of Data……………………...…………………………………………52
xi

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Education is supposed to be a great equalizer for people who live in poverty (Growe &
Montgomery, 2003). This has not been the case in most communities that have had a history of
being marginalized. In Los Angeles County, for example, over the last thirty years, Black
Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) have made up the largest percentage of people who live in
poverty-stricken and crime-ridden communities with failing schools. Additionally, in the year
2023, we live in an unprecedented time of politicized turmoil in all aspects of our society. There
is widespread mistrust of all major institutions. There is eroding trust in the government, media,
educational institutions, religious organizations, and medical entities (Saad, 2020).
Students from marginalized communities do not have an achievement gap; they have an
education debt, similar to the United States national debt that has accrued over time
(Ladson-Billings, 2006). There is also a cumulative effect over time on generations of families
and communities, not just the children. Like the United States debt, this problem has existed for
many decades and there is no quick or overnight fix. For a glimpse into this adaptive problem in
California, the Smarter Balanced Assessment Data (SBAC) provides compelling evidence.
SBAC is the system used to test what students know, based on a prescribed set of learning
standards. Based on the 2022 SBAC results, economically disadvantaged students dropped in
overall performance compared to students from affluent communities. In the English component
of the test, only 35% of students achieved “Standard Met or Standard Exceeded,” while 65% of
low-income students achieved “Standard Not Met or Standard Nearly Met.” In Math, 33% of
students achieved “Standard Met or Standard Exceeded,” while 67% of students rated “Standard
Not Met or Standard Nearly Met” (SBAC SYSTEM). In Los Angeles County, an estimated

2
419,142 students live below the poverty line (LAALMANAC). The biggest district in Los
Angeles County, the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), reports that 80% of its
students are economically disadvantaged (LAUSD). The data demonstrate that in Los Angeles
County, there is a critical need to have schools that are designed for the educational support and
empowerment needs of marginalized communities. The school administrator and school staff are
tasked primarily with leading this adaptive challenge.
It is urgent for schools to have leaders who can guide and transform schools and
communities into centers of culture and revitalization. According to Allan Bloom (1985),
“Education can become the movement from darkness to light.” This transformation can only
occur if the school leaders are prepared and developed to lead their schools and provide students
with rudimentary skills and tools. This intentional leadership preparation is not occurring in
schools that serve marginalized communities. Instead, the school leaders are thrown into the
ocean of historical gaps and problems with little or no preparation. How can school leaders
transform schools and communities when they are in survival mode?
Current research indicates that the lack of principal preparation and professional
development negatively impacts students’ learning in schools (Mathibe, 2007). This is very
important because school leaders in marginalized communities have the highest positive
influence on student learning compared to more stable demographics (Holmes et al., 2019).
There is a need however for more research on what specific skills school leaders need and how
to develop them to close the preparation gap in school leadership development (Grissom &
Harrington, 2010). Although there have been increased efforts to better prepare school leaders
for their roles in recent years, most school administrators are still unprepared (Israel & Fine,
2012). This lack of comprehensive capacity development structure becomes even more critical

3
when school leaders are serving marginalized communities. Schools that are marginalized
generally serve students who are the most vulnerable historically.
Despite this deficit, there are some examples of good research-based practices in
leadership development. Features of exemplary principal preparation programs include a cohort
structure, access to mentoring from experienced practitioners, sustained internship time in
schools, active learning, a coherent and aligned curriculum, standards-based assessment, ample
time for reflection, and a program designed around leadership for school improvement (Huang et
al., 2012). Mentoring in particular has been identified in research as a high-leverage approach for
the development of school leaders (Rodriguez et al., 2021; Liang & Augustine, 2016).
Well-prepared leaders can move learning in a positive trajectory in low-income neighborhoods.
Leaders who exhibit transformational leadership characteristics empower their staff to take
leadership roles and see their own role as one of developing the capacity to assist their school
staff to move uniformly towards the goal of servicing the learning community (Bryant et al.,
2017).
Principals in marginalized communities tend to have a greater impact on student
outcomes than principals in less challenging communities (Holmes et al., 2019). The ultimate
goal of a school leader is to create systems that support staff members in their mission to
effectively serve students. This system needs to be contextualized to the community being
served. Therefore, a school leader's primary responsibility is to inspire and galvanize their
educational teams to create tailored systems in the schools that maximize student learning based
on who the students are in school districts and within the context of their community. While
principals serve an important role in developing high-performing schools, the research on what

4
knowledge, skills, and abilities principals need to be successful is not well developed (Grissom
& Harrington, 2010).
Background of the Problem
School leaders in low-income neighborhoods have to take on the enormous task of
addressing the decades of inequalities in the United States that affect learning access and success.
The conditions of the districts they serve are usually not supportive of them or their students.
According to Levin (2020), school principals in marginalized communities are 25% more likely
to leave or plan to leave their schools compared to principals in more stable communities. The
United States has historically kept BIPOC populations and students on the fringes of robust
educational, social, and political systems (Ladson-Billings, 2006). This problem continues to this
day. Students who are BIPOC traditionally attend schools that lack the resources to be able to
support them and the structures necessary to provide equitable access to education and career
success. The math and reading test score disparity between poor students compared to more
affluent students has more than doubled in the last twenty years (Duncan & Murnane, 2011).
Students who are poor score lower on standardized tests compared to more affluent students.
According to Beech et al. (2021), in the United States, poverty is determined by the federal
poverty level (FPL). In 2022, the FPL income for a single-person household was $12,760. Based
on this figure, 24.2 % of American Indian/Alaska Natives, 21.2 % of Blacks, 17.2% of
Hispanics, 9.7% of Asian/Pacific/Native Hawaiians, and 9% of White Americans are below the
FPL. The poverty levels paint a clear picture of racial groups on the fringes of economic security
in American society. School leaders who serve BIPOC communities have an especially difficult
task of creating a system to empower their communities to change the narrative of their historical
inequalities.

5
An effective school administrator in a marginalized community can positively influence
student learning. School administrators have a higher impact on students in schools with high
rates of poverty compared to schools in more stable communities (Holmes et al., 2019). The
school administrator role is very challenging. The challenges and stress on a school site
administrator in marginalized communities are exponentially higher than in more stable
communities. Some of the reasons these school administrators have more challenges than those
in stable communities are due to the administrator having to navigate through the challenges of
decades, and sometimes centuries, of trauma. There is a correlation between high teacher
turnover and the negative effects on the functioning of a school: schools with high staff turnover
rates typically serve low-income communities (Guin, 2004). High administrative turnover in
marginalized communities is another variable that afflicts schools. Another factor faced by
administrators in marginalized communities is the lack of parent involvement. Lack of job
flexibility in low-income communities impedes parents' participation in their children's education
process (Applyrs, 2018). All these factors impact student learning, and the school leader needs to
create systems to address the different challenges of a marginalized community.
BIPOC Administrators can often relate to the struggles of growing up poor in
traditionally marginalized communities and most of the time, they are also products of the same
school district. Administrators who have cultural similarities with students from the same
background are better able to help connect with students (Murakami et al., 2018). A sense of
belonging is very important for students who have traditionally been marginalized. Having a
school administrator who understands the struggle of growing up in the community empowers
students through role models who understand and appreciate their community.

6
A school leader has an important role in reducing and stabilizing staff turnover.
Administrative support is a big factor in the retention of teachers in hard-to-staff schools
(Hughes et al., 2015). A leader who creates a culture of support in a school is more likely to
reduce turnover at the school. This is very important for schools that have high turnover rates,
which are often found in low-income neighborhoods (Hughes et al., 2015). A leader with a
supportive leadership style and a well-designed system of support will help students avoid a
revolving door of staff turnover.
There has historically been a need for continuous professional development for
school-based leaders. Yet, research on school professional development has been lacking in the
last 20 years (McCarthy & Forsyth, 2009). Lack of research causes a gap in the creation of
coherent and robust practices of what type of training and ongoing professional development
school administrators need. Research demonstrates that administrators need a range of
contextualized knowledge and skills to be successful leaders (Levin et al, 2020). School
administrators who do not receive adequate professional development embedded in their work
roles face stagnation and regression of essential skills and knowledge. This is even more
important in senior K-12 administrative positions because it is the school administrator who
shapes the ethos and direction of the school, the effective management of the school district, the
allocation of resources, and ultimately, student learning (Smith, 2016).
A high turnover rate among school administrators today is the norm. This is highly
disruptive to communities and harms students. Approximately 40% of principals in a recent
research study are contemplating leaving their current positions, and about 1 in 5 are considering
leaving the profession altogether (Levin, & Bradley, 2019). One of the causes of school
administrators wanting to leave the profession is stress, and a primary cause of stress is that

7
school administrators are not well trained in different areas of a school system in the context of
our complicated structure of getting work done today. There are seven major departments in
which school administrators are required to be proficient: instruction, student behavior
management, staff professional development, special education, student health and human
services, safety procedures, and operational maintenance of the building facility. Most school
administrators are promoted with experience in only one or two of the major departments. New
school administrators face a huge challenge when they transition from teacher to school
administrators in the development of appropriate skills, socially adapting to a new role,
emotionally dealing with the stress of school leadership, and in some instances lack of
organizational support (Armstrong, 2012). Most of the learning is on the job. The problem with
on-the-job training is that by the time school administrators become proficient in the areas they
oversee, they tend to leave for a school with more stable demographics, and the cycle starts
again. A new school leader in a marginalized community often has to learn on the job and on
their own. This is one reason why it is important that school organizations have robust
professional development to be able to train and retain their staff. Research is clear that school
organizations should develop leaders early in the educator's career (Gajda & Militello, 2008).
The problem is that the process of learning new roles is typically delayed or stagnant, and this
stagnation causes students to miss out on high-quality instruction and school experience.
Because of these issues, this research study explored the components necessary for an
innovative professional learning design to better prepare novice Black Indigenous People of
Color (BIPOC) leaders for their accountability to meet the needs of historically marginalized
students. This study will explore what research indicates is being done regarding professional
development and preparing administrators for their leadership roles in marginalized communities

8
and what more needs to be done. The study will be conducted through a Social Cognitive Theory
lens and Andragogy as a means to interrogate applied Adult Learning Theory.
For this study, professional development will be a conflation of Social Cognitive Theory,
Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory, and California Professional Standards for Education
Leaders (CPSEL). The CPSEL (2014) “identifies what an administrator must know and be able
to do in order to move into sustainable, effective practice” (p.1). The six CPSEL (2014)
standards are 1) Development and Implementation of a Shared Vision; 2) Instructional
Leadership; 3) Management and Learning Environment; 4) Family and Community Engagement,
5) Ethics and Integrity 6) External Context and Policy. The CPSELs provide the “what” and
“why” of school leadership. The Social Cognitive Theory and Andragogy provide the “how.”
Bandura (2001) believes that a lot of learning occurs in social environments by observing others;
i.e., how people acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes. Professional
development utilized for this study involves the training of school leaders in applying CPSEL
tenets to real on-the-job experiences through the exposure and development of knowledge, rules,
skills, strategies, and beliefs in a social environment that is needed to lead schools.
Statement of the Problem
There is a learning gap in developing novice school administrators who serve
marginalized communities. Twenty-one percent of principals in high-poverty schools left their
positions, based on a 2017 survey (Levin et al., 2020). The five main reasons principals leave
their jobs are lack of professional development, compensation, lack of authority in
policy-making decisions, unrealistic accountability by district leadership, and poor working
conditions (Levin et al., 2020). This study will focus specifically on a leader’s professional
development system. Professional development for administrators is essential to their

9
professional growth and for the students they serve. The establishment of formal and informal
support structures would go a long way toward reinforcing the effective development of
administrators.
The combination of Social Cognitive Theory with Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory
will help provide a roadmap for universities and institutions to explore how to best prepare
school administrators who serve marginalized communities to become effective leaders who
manifest transformational leadership traits.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to provide insight into how, through the models of Social
Cognitive Theory and Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory, novice BIPOC school administrators'
experiences who serve marginalized communities can be more effectively prepared and
continuously supported to fulfill their roles by universities and school organizations.
Additionally, on-the-job stressors experienced by BIPOC administrators are a critical contextual
matter and this study will explore some possible solutions to address gaps in professional
development that help to alleviate job stress for administrators. Social Cognitive Theory and
Adragogy will be used also to explore and guide what some areas might need further research.
Having effective and empowered leaders in schools with a history of marginalization can counter
the status quo that is not serving our BIPOC students and shift school designs to powerful
practices that lead to student success.
Research Questions
1. How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los Angeles County who serve
marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding process for the first three
years?

10
2. Which administrative areas do novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized
communities identify as being the least prepared for?
3. How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe their professional learning training
effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the success of marginalized
students in Los Angeles County?
Significance of the Study
This study will explore the design components necessary for a robust professional
onboarding design system for new school administrators serving in the most vulnerable
communities, from the perspective of novice BIPOC administrators. This study will further
explore the need for systemic changes in universities and school organizations in how to prepare
and develop school administrators into effective school leaders.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The limitations of this study are that participants must be available and willing to lend
their time and voice to the study. The study findings were based on small sample sizes. The
internal validity depends on the reliance on self-reported data and modification of the
quantitative instrument. The survey data collected was from a small percentage of school
districts in Los Angeles County. Additionally, survey participants were from marginalized
communities. Furthermore, because this study relied on self-reported data (surveys, interviews),
limitations could consist of respondent validity. Triangulation of findings assisted in mitigating
this threat to validity, however. The inability to generalize study findings may also constitute a
delimitation of this study due to the size and scope of the sample population. However, the
purpose of this research was not to generalize. Rather, this study intended to provide a rich

11
description of the interrelationship between principal leadership practices and teacher morale in
the context of principal succession. These descriptive findings, while not generalizable across all
educational contexts, do allow for contextual inference and applicability through the depth of
description. The delimitations set by this researcher focus on novice BIPOC school leaders who
serve marginalized communities in Los Angeles County.
Definition of Terms
Achievement Gap: refers to any significant and persistent disparity in academic performance or
educational attainment between different groups of students, such as white students and
minorities, for example, or students from higher-income and lower-income households.
Andragogy-Adult Learning Theory: is the concept or study of how adults learn and how that
process differs from the way in which children learn.
California Professional Standards for Education Leaders (CPSELs): describe critical areas
of leadership for administrators and offer a foundation for developing and supporting education
leaders throughout their careers.
Delimitation: the action of fixing the boundary or limits of something.
Effective: successful in producing a desired or intended result.
Learning Gap: The learning gap refers to the relative performance of individual students—i.e.,
the disparity between what a student has actually learned and what he or she was expected to
learn at a particular age or grade level. The achievement gap refers to outputs—the unequal or
inequitable distribution of educational results and benefits—while the opportunity gap refers to
inputs—the unequal or inequitable distribution of resources and opportunities.
Marginalized Communities: Communities that are those excluded from mainstream social,
economic, educational, and/or cultural life. Examples of marginalized populations include, but

12
are not limited to, groups excluded due to race, gender identity, sexual orientation, age, physical
ability, language, and/or immigration status. For this study, a marginalized community will be
defined by the aforementioned description and the school in the community will have 60 percent
of the student body participating in the free reduced lunch program.
Mentoring: is a reciprocal and collaborative at-will relationship that most often occurs between
a senior and junior employee for the purpose of the mentee’s growth, learning, and career
development.
Modeling: the act of showing a person how to perform a skill while describing each step with a
rationale.
Novice Secondary School Administrator: An administrator with no more than three years in
their role in secondary school.
Organization: an organized body of people with a particular purpose, especially a business,
society, association, etc.
Onboarding: the action or process of integrating a new employee into an organization or
familiarizing a new customer or client with one's products or services.
Poverty Level: A level of income above which it is possible to achieve an adequate standard of
living and below which it is not.
Professional Development: this study is based on the training of school leaders in applying
CPSEL tenets to real on-the-job experiences through the exposure and development of
knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, and beliefs in a social environment that is needed to lead
schools.
Revitalization: the action of imbuing something with new life and vitality.

13
Situational Leadership (approach): means adapting your leadership style to each unique
situation or task to meet the needs of the team or team members.
Smarter Balanced Assessment System (SBAC): utilizes computer-based tests and performance
tasks that allow students to show what they know and are able to demonstrate. It is based on the
Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for English language arts/literacy (ELA) and
mathematics and has three components designed to support teaching and learning throughout the
year: the summative assessments, the interim assessments, and the Tools for Teachers formative
assessment resources.
Social Cognitive Theory: Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory
(SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning
occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment,
and behavior.
Transformational Leadership: Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach
that causes a change in individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and
positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders.
Trauma: is a pervasive problem. It results from exposure to an incident or series of events that
are emotionally disturbing or life-threatening with lasting adverse effects on the individual's
functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, and/or spiritual well-being.
Turnover Rate: the percentage of employees who have left a company over a certain period of
time.
Organization of the Study
The New Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) School Administrators and Adult
Learning study is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study and

14
provides research context. Chapter 2 provides a literature review examining eight themes; 1)Why
is it important to support and develop effective school leaders; 2) The role and responsibility of
universities in leadership preparation; 3) Challenges of robust professional development for
school leaders; 4) Best practices professional development for school leaders and mentor
programs; 5)The power of effective mentor support; 6) Cultural context of novice leader training;
7) A model of standards-based professional development for school leaders; 8) Social Cognitive
Theory and Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory. Chapter 3 describes the methodology selected
for this research study and includes sample and population selection, interview questions, and the
method of data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 is a report of the research findings. Chapter 5
is composed of a summary of findings, implications for practice, conclusions, and
recommendations. References and appendices are included in the conclusion of this research
study.

15
Chapter 2 Literature Review
In the United States, there exists an education debt caused by centuries of inequality
(Ladson-Billings, 2006). One way to address this adaptive problem is by having a well-trained
school staff to create non-biased systems and deliver rich pedagogy to support student learning.
A school administrator is a key factor in creating cohesive support systems for staff, which
includes high-quality, real-time capacity development. School administrators play a critical role
in promoting change in schools within marginalized communities, where historic inequities are
ingrained into the institution. School administrators are important because, in conjunction with
all stakeholders, they create the mission and vision for the school, and they set the tone and
approach for equity of access. Therefore, there is an urgency for new administrators to receive
training to hone their equity leadership expertise from the very beginning of their administration.
The literature review provides insight into the main areas that research reveals have an impact on
school leadership development. The literature was examined with a particular focus on seven
areas that provide a comprehensive view of school leadership development, along with two
theoretical frameworks. These topics, some in the form of questions, include: 1) Why it is
important to support and develop effective school leaders; 2) The role and responsibility of
universities in leadership preparation; 3) Challenges of robust professional development for
school leaders; 4) Best practices professional development for school leaders and mentor
programs; 5)The power of effective mentor support; 6) Cultural context of novice leader training;
7) A model of standards-based professional development for school leaders; 8) Social Cognitive
Theory and Andragogy-Adult Learning Theory. When exploring research on BIPOC leadership,
it was evident that there is a limited number of this type of study, despite the growing numbers of
BIPOC leaders nationally and in certain regions.

16
Why Is It Important to Support and Develop Effective School Leaders?
School leaders have a tremendous impact on staff and student learning since they are the
ones who shape the ethos and direction of the school (Smith, 2016). This direct impact on
learning points to the urgency for school organizations to create, establish, and implement
support systems for school leaders. The stakes are even greater for school leaders who support
marginalized communities. Communities in poverty are disproportionately made up of people of
color (Beech et al., 2006). Poverty does not just affect the financial well-being of people; it
affects their entire lives, including quality education access. The three areas of poverty effects
are (1) economic well-being; (2) the ability to navigate society as a function of the education or
health status of the individual; and/or (3) social exclusion as a result of institutional behaviors,
practices, and policies (Beech et al., 2021). Public education system organizations have an
obligation to design for and effectively serve marginalized communities. Addressing inequalities
is the hallmark of democracy (Ladson-Billings, 2006). School organizations have the opportunity
to both address and mitigate the education gaps, in part by creating support systems for school
staff and students. Addressing inequalities in education is about justice (Ladson-Billings, 2006),
and the work of justice must have an intentional design. There is a need for a transformational
change in the United States public education system design to address the education debt. A
starting point is to support school leadership.
Strong and stable school leadership is critical for school success (Levin et al., 2020), and
this includes leadership with the mindset and skills to lead a school system that establishes a
positive and inclusive school community for all students. The first characteristic of a positive
school environment depends on low turnover rates among the leaders and staff. A positive
learning environment lowers the odds of principals moving to another school, especially in

17
schools with high concentrations of students of color (Yan, 2020). Reduction of principal
turnover impacts staff turnover. Personal growth and the ability to receive support from
administrators regarding emotional, environmental, and instructional support have an impact on
a teacher’s decision to stay or leave in hard-to-staff schools (Hughes et al., 2015). Reducing
administrator turnover at a school can help create a positive sustainable culture. A school leader's
responsibility is to provide a stable, responsive, and positive learning environment for the school
community.
A leader who has a support system to develop their professional capacity in their
organization is more likely to create a positive professional development culture for their staff.
To create a healthy environment, school leaders need an infrastructure developed by their school
organization that has effective support systems and an organization-wide positive learning
environment for students and staff. As the research shows, an intentional support design for new
administrators must include a commitment to stability in leadership, a positive learning and work
environment, quality training, and leadership capacity development. According to the research,
school districts should apply the following strategies to retain successful principals: 1) be
mindful of the workload to keep the work engaging and meaningful; 2) provide differentiated
support, especially for newer administrators; 3) foster a collaborative culture among principals;
and 4) build and maintain supportive relationships between principals and their supervisors at the
district level (Melloy, 2018).
According to Leavin (2019), school principals identified five strategies that support
school principal retention at their site. The five strategies are 1) high-quality professional
development for them and their staff; 2) support from a strong administrative team with adequate
resources; 3) competitive salaries; 4) appropriate decision-making authority within the school

18
context; and 5) evaluations characterized by timely feedback. The five strategies manifest a
common key theme, which is a cyclical support system that ensures continuous support. When
school leaders are not supported, they are more likely to be unable to create supportive and
nurturing learning environments for their staff and students. When an organization is in constant
chaos because of a lack of robust leadership support systems, school leaders develop stress,
which leads to loss of time, which then reduces the likelihood that the school leader will focus on
reflective practice necessary to maintain a healthy school environment. A healthy support system
creates the conditions for the principal to design a supportive environment at their school and
reduce staff turnover. Research shows that administrative support has been identified as an
important component in reducing teacher turnover (Redding et. al, 2019). New staff members are
also impacted by a school leader's support. New teachers with supportive principals are less
likely to leave the school (Redding et. al., 2019). Principal leadership impacts teacher
satisfaction and teacher turnover (Levin et al., 2020). The domino effect is clear.
Reducing staff turnover is key to creating and sustaining a positive learning culture in a
school. Continuity is important in building traction and a sustainable learning environment in a
school, particularly in marginalized schools that experience continuous disruptions and
destabilization. The reduction of school staff turnover in marginalized schools can be mitigated
by ensuring school staff feel supported, thus reducing turnover (Hughes et al., 2015). Schools
with high turnover or hard-to-staff schools are often those that serve marginalized communities
with high numbers of minority students. High-turnover schools are more likely to serve the
students in most need (Guin, 2004). The high-turnover schools traditionally serve non-White
students. These schools also tend to be staffed by less experienced administrators (Loeb et al.,
2010; Holmes et al., 2019). Urban superintendents observe that the pool for principal candidates

19
is shrinking by 75 percent (Cusick, 2003). There is no shortage of principal candidates in the
United States, but there is a shortage of principal candidates who are willing to serve in
impoverished communities (Mitgang, 2003). Districts with hard-to-staff schools have a huge
challenge of recruiting, training, and retaining school leadership and school staff (Fusarelli,
2018). While research indicates that financial incentives may incentivize teachers into
leadership, it is the school culture that will dictate if they stay (Pijanowski & Brady, 2009).
Factors that increase staff development are robust district systems and structures, while factors
that inhibit teachers’ development include psychological stress (Bryant et al., 2017). A positive
learning environment is important to reduce staff turnover.
Professional development for staff members depends on continuously building leadership
capacity to accomplish desired student success outcomes, and the professional development must
be aligned with the staff members' actual needs (Zepeda, 2019. Professional development that
improves staff knowledge, skills, and disposition will increase capacity, resulting in student
achievement gains (King & Newmann, 2001). Intentional and continuous professional
development cultivates and grooms the next generation of school leaders to meet the needs of
today’s students. High-performing organizations are successful in building the capacities of
school staff and preparing them for future leadership roles (Fusarelli, 2018). Professional
development not only prepares future school leaders but is directly linked to student achievement
gains. Professional development is now recognized as a key driver in enhancing teacher and
leader expertise and in improving student achievement (Kennedy & Shiel, 2010).
The research also addresses the role of school leaders in leading cultural shifts within
school systems to mitigate long-standing adaptive challenges that have allowed a history of
inequities in schools that serve marginalized communities, and thus perpetuate those

20
marginalized communities. The culture of school organizations must be one of teaching and
learning for all community members, not just students (Zepeda, 2019). Not anchoring a culture
of change in an organization is a mistake commonly overlooked (Kotter et al., 2011). The culture
must change to ensure the sustainability of change strategies, especially within a challenging
environment. Cultural shifts have two parts: first, there must be new methods and norms
established to address existing challenges; and second, there must be an adoption of new ways of
practice that become the norm (Kotter et al., 2011). As schools normalize new equity-based
practices, the learning environment is impacted by a shift in staff and leader mindsets around
what students can accomplish.
We further learn from the research that a comprehensive support design for school leaders
should embed the development of their emotional intelligence. The school community is a
people-based organization composed of students, adult community members, and staff that
requires empathy, deep listening, and understanding-seeking. According to Goleman (2011),
what distinguishes a good leader from a great leader is emotional intelligence. The five
emotional intelligence skills are self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social
skills. Emotional intelligence is foundational to building healthy relationships in the school
community. This skill is key to facilitating relationships between staff and students, staff and
community members, and between students. Healthy relations amongst the learning community
are foundational to a positive school culture. School leaders play an important role in modeling
emotional intelligence while building this skill within their staff and community to get the work
done using a student-centered approach. All people are born with varying levels of emotional
intelligence; however, emotional intelligence can be developed through persistence, practice, and
feedback (Goleman, 2011).

21
Three decades of research provide evidence that principals’ successful leadership
positively affects student achievement outcomes (Owings et al., 2011). Principals in
disadvantaged communities have a more positive impact than principals in more stable
communities (Tan, 2018; Holmes et al., 2018). Schools predominantly made up of Latino
students who had student achievement gains typically had a strong school leadership team (Jesse
et al., 2004). Systems that are created collaboratively with staff members are constructive
practices. When staff members have a voice and take ownership of the creation and execution of
systems, they tend to be more motivated to fulfill their role in the most effective way so that
outcomes benefit students (Coleman & Glover, 2010). Effective principals can sustain high
levels of capacity by establishing trust, creating structures that promote teacher learning, and
either connecting their faculties to external expertise or helping teachers generate reforms
internally (Youngs & King, 2002). It is important for school organizations to support school
leaders who serve marginalized communities. This is best executed through a healthy working
environment where they feel valued and supported through professional development. A positive
school climate will reduce school leadership turnover and staff turnover. Reduction in school
turnover is a characteristic of a school that increases student achievement.
The Role and Responsibility of Universities in Leadership Preparation
In the U.S., there is a high reliance on university preparation programs to develop
readiness to lead schools, and yet, most colleges and universities have not been successful in
preparing school leaders (Adigun & Aluoch, 2013). Across many states, before a school
administrator becomes a school-based leader, they must complete a university leadership
program. This is typically done within the university's education department. Through the
university, the school leader candidates receive their state license in school leadership, which

22
allows them to be official school leaders. The preparation program is typically comprised of
theories and applications to the leadership role (California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing, 2014). In theory, when a candidate completes the leadership program, they are
deemed ready to take a leadership role, not just because they have met certification requirements,
but because they have been exposed to and trained for their role. The reality, however, is that
university programs that train school administrators in school leadership have not evolved at a
fast enough pace to utilize a postmodern lens to develop future school leaders (English, 2020).
There seems to be a design gap in university educational leadership programs in preparing school
leaders.
University-based principal programs have come under scrutiny due to the high stakes of
accountability by the district's leadership hierarchy, school leaders, public officials, private
foundations, and parents (Black, 2011). According to the Wallace Foundation, school districts
believe university principal preparation programs have room for improvement and are
dissatisfied with their current design (Mendels, 2016). University educational leadership
programs need to adjust their designs. These programs need both a structural and
process-oriented component overhaul (Bartee, 2012). Traditional university leadership programs
consist of organizational theory, human resource management, school finance, and school law.
Yet today's school leader needs a robust understanding of pedagogy, curriculum, instruction, and
intercultural sensitivity (Israel & Fine, 2012). The overhaul and preparation of school leaders
will not happen overnight; universities and school organizations must come together to reflect on
what school leadership programs should be implemented as part of their curriculum (Adigun &
Aluoch, 2013). School leadership programs in universities are not providing adequate training
for today’s public school leaders (Barnet, 2004). The problem with university school

23
administrative programs is their lack of application of theory into practice. The root of the
problem is that there is a lack of understanding of core practices and traits that principals should
have to lead school improvement initiatives; furthermore, there is no concrete universal design
for how individuals acquire these skills (Ylimaki et al., 2007). According to Levine (2006),
educational administrative programs are the weakest of all the university programs in our
country. A study conducted in Texas, Michigan, and New York interviewed and surveyed
principals and assistant principals and found that the prevailing sentiment was that their skill
development was only moderate and that the mode of the program delivery, lecture, and lesson,
was ineffective in developing skills needed for their roles (Writters-Churchill & Erlanson, 1990).
Another study that interviewed 180 principals in three states found that these school leaders were
also dissatisfied with preparation programs, which they described as too theoretical and
impractical for their day-to-day experience (Nicholson & Leary, 2001). According to Grissom
and Harrington (2010), principals who were invested only in university coursework were seen as
less effective by the teachers they supervised, and their schools met fewer state and district
standards compared to school principals who were supported through a mentorship program.
What the research essentially shows is that university-based principal preparation programs do
not properly train candidates for leadership roles (Tingle et al., 2019). States have the authority
to overhaul school leadership programs, but they have not done so (Mendels, 2016). There seems
to be a trend in the literature regarding the inadequacy of university programs and a lack of
applied experiences for principal candidates. Furthermore, as supported by another study, there is
a disconnect between coursework and the reality of the position today (Bruce, 2006). Many
school-based leaders feel unequipped by leadership programs to handle day-to-day problems.
School-based administrators are not the only ones who agree that university leadership programs

24
need to better align with national and state school leadership standards. Central district
leadership is dissatisfied with the quality of principal preparation programs, and many
universities believe that their programs need improvement (Mendels, 2016).
Recommendations from school administrators are to make university administrative
programs more field-based. Similar to physicians or other professions, before an individual
becomes fully licensed, they would have to graduate from some type of apprenticeship program.
This would support the learning that aspiring leaders would receive in the classroom setting.
Principals and assistant principals express that one way to improve administrative programs is by
having more field and performance-based internships and experience, with a focus on the
development of practical skills (Witters-Churchill & Erlandson, 1990). Another recommendation
is that future school leaders do fieldwork in high-poverty schools as a part of their clinical
experience; this would help provide context for the skills acquired and needed (Ylimaki et al.,
2007). The overall feedback is that university administrative programs should have more
in-the-field experiences and less traditional classroom instruction. This will equip school leaders
with skills they can utilize in their everyday work experience to establish school systems that are
created or adjusted to ensure staff members are properly trained and student achievement
increases.
Challenges to Robust Professional Development for School Leaders
With the absence of a strong university preparation program, school systems either
provide the support internally or allow a principal who is under-prepared to lead a school. School
systems are very complex. There is little knowledge about how to replicate success from one
school to another school and successfully transfer management skills, since each school and the
school's cultures and demographics are contextual to the community being served. This causes a

25
gap in managing and running schools effectively (Childress et al., 2006). Novice public school
principals tend to employ mostly generalized managerial leadership strategies to address the
financial and structural systems in schools (Drago-Sevenson, 2012). New principals draw from
their prior knowledge and experiences, such as their work as assistant principals around school
schedules, space utilization, behavior management, parental complaints, and other areas of
responsibilities assigned to them. While operational skills are absolutely necessary, there are
other necessary leadership skills, such as human capital management, instructional design,
strategic planning, crisis management, and partnership development, among others. Our country
faces the challenge of preparing future school leaders (Levine, 2006). School systems therefore
find themselves in a situation where they must create their own preparation program for assistant
principals and principals (Tingle et al., 2019). School organizations must develop professional
development for school site leadership to ensure they have the tools to lead their schools.
According to Grissom & Harrington (2010), it has been daunting for scholars to identify what
administrator professional development should teach, what the structure should entail, or by what
criteria its success should be evaluated. This has caused school organizations to utilize mixed
methods with uneven results. Literature on school administrator professional development is not
rich in context (Grissom & Harrington, 2010). This lack of literature has left policymakers and
educators with little guidance on strategies for creating robust systems to support current school
leaders (Grissom & Harrington, 2010), despite the need for it and their responsibility to do so.
School leaders, therefore, can become discouraged because they are held to high
expectations and yet feel unequipped for the role. The consequences of this are far-reaching,
including having a negative impact on student results, considering that the instructional design is
one of the many systems of oversight (Mathibe, 2007). Novice leaders are asked to do something

26
they do not have the skills to do (Elmore, 2005). As Mahfouz also notes, after completing their
university school leadership certification and district training, school leaders feel unequipped to
handle day-to-day problems (Mahfouz, 2020). A study from Rhode Island with school principals
from four different districts revealed that school principals wanted professional development that
provided “real remedies to real problems,” strategies and skills in how to create a healthy school
culture, and the ability to collaborate with other school principals on best practices and lessons
learned (Limoges, 2004, P.113). This type of professional development would also benefit
veteran school administrators. According to Limoges, (2004), seasoned principals also did not
have a solid understanding of new state leadership standards.
A key component to comprehensive leadership development is the organizational support
structure in place to support leaders, who are also continuous learners, as they navigate through
complex learning and organizational challenges and needs. According to Chalstrom (2006), in a
study conducted of school principals in Indiana who were hired from within the organization, the
principals did not have formal support structures. This aligns with the lack of literature on
principals' and assistant principals' skill development (Marshall & Hooley, 2006). This is a major
concern because it is the school leaders who are in charge of school staff and teachers, including
professional development for all staff members. School administration is the tip of the spear in
instructional leadership. The school leaders are responsible for improving the quality of teaching
and learning in their schools (Somoza-Norton & Neumann, 2021). All principals need
pedagogical support in order to better train teachers and service students. The principal's focus
should be to develop all stakeholder's skills required to accomplish the school’s vision and
mission (Mathibe, 2007). In a study conducted in the southeast part of the United States, data
from 289 participants revealed that they need more professional development focused also on

27
serving students with disabilities (Bai & Martin, 2015). What we see from the research then is
that there are layers of specific learning needs across a variety of high-stakes topics that leaders
are seeking. If the leaders do not have the necessary skills, how can they train their staff to
acquire the desired skills? This is not a reflection of the school leaders' learning acumen.
Instructional problems are complex, and expertise from outside the organization is needed to
address them (Elmore, 2005). In the new culture of school leadership, school leaders are tasked
with redesigning schools and their systems (Levine, 2006).
Best Practices Professional Development for School Leaders and Mentor Programs
Deep research on quality professional development designs and non-negotiable
components for school leaders is limited, and more research is needed on the professional
development of leaders with respect to student learning, but there is some guiding research that
can be applied and best practice models to emulate. For the purpose of this study, assistant
principals and principals will be conflated and addressed as school leaders.
Professional development for school administrators is one of the most important
high-impact strategies school organizations serving marginalized communities can leverage. An
exemplary school principal ensures that the learning community's vision and mission are
accomplished through a step-by-step action plan with a spirit of collaboration and reflection on
practice (Zellner et al., 2002). Finding a school principal with the skills needed to fulfill this role
is daunting. Experts who work in principal preparation programs realize the importance of
induction and support for new administrators (Hayashi, 2016). A variety of strategies can
produce results if they focus on strengthening teaching and learning, have clear objectives, and
establish accountability (Childress, 2006). According to Bruce (2006), in a study conducted by

28
thirteen administrators in Southern California, the participants pointed out that continuous
professional development helped them develop the skills needed to be better school leaders
instead of one-day professional development workshops. Professional development that
facilitates the school leader to increase field knowledge and skill development is essential to
better serve the school community (King & Newmann, 2001; Enomoto, 2012; Gray & Bishop,
2009; Birhanzel, W. 2007). Professional development is critical to help the school leader create
school structure and support systems based on school standards (Rodriguez et al., 2021; Kelley,
2009; Huang et al., 2012). Professional development creates opportunities for school leaders to
collaborate with other leaders to collect best practices and to be sounding boards for each other's
school system's wonderings (King & Newmann, 2001; Enomoto, 2012; Winkelman, 2012;
Izumi, 2002; Arlesting, 2012; Riddick, 2009). The professional development must be continuous
and assist the school leader to be continuously reflective of their practice (Kelley, 2009; Gray &
Bishop, 2009). As all of these studies emphasize, the professional development of school leaders
is essential to ensure school staff acquire the skills needed to serve students and the community.
According to Darling-Hammond et al. (2007), a study conducted by the Stanford
Educational Leadership Institute that examined eight exemplary pre-and in-service school leader
development programs discovered that successful programs had the following important
characteristics:
● The curriculum is research-based and is aligned with professional standards,
focused on instruction, organizational development, and change management.
● There is curricular coherence that links goals, learning activities, and
assessments around a set of shared values, beliefs, and knowledge about best
organizational practices.

29
● The program offers a field-based practicum that enables participants to apply
leadership knowledge and skills under the guidance of an expert practitioner.
● The lesson modules are based on real-world scenarios and theory application to
practice, such as case methods, action research, and projects, that link theory and
practice and support reflection.
● The students in the programs are in cohorts which enables collaboration,
teamwork, and mutual support.
● Mentoring or coaching programs are established where best practices are
modeled, questioning is encouraged, and observations of practice with feedback
are available.
● A partnership between universities and school districts creates coherence
between training and practice as well as pipelines for recruitment, preparation,
hiring, and induction.
In another study of exemplary programs conducted by Devita et al. (2007) through the Wallace
Foundation, the authors found the following characteristics in common with exemplary
programs:
● The program is coherently organized, based on a clear focus and values about
leadership and learning.
● The curriculum is standards-based, emphasizing instructional leadership,
organizational development, and change management.
● Field-based internships are available, with skilled supervision and support.
● The program is organized through cohort groups that create opportunities for
collaboration and teamwork in practice-oriented situations.

30
● Lesson designs link theory and practice, such as problem-based learning, case
methods, and assignments that engage candidates in the work of instructional
leadership (e.g. planning and delivering professional development).
● There is a coherent and equitable recruitment and selection process of both
candidates and faculty (including university-based instructors and practitioners);
and strong partnerships with schools and districts to support quality, field-based
learning.
According to Devita et al. (2007), a successful research-based, in-service program uses a
wrap-around approach to provide a comprehensive set of support for school leaders. They also
integrated these supports with recruitment, evaluation, and supervision strategies focused on
instructional improvement. In this study, good practices that were noticed among several urban
districts were the following:
● Recruitment and selection were proactive among instructional leaders.
● A focus was on evaluation and accountability in instructional leadership and school
improvement.
● Support was provided through intensive principals’ institutes and monthly conferences
working directly on instruction and instructional leadership skills.
● The principals’ networks and study groups provided specific topics, such as analyzing
teaching; analyzing student work; designing professional development on particular
instructional topics; developing peer coaching models, and much more.
● Mentoring and coaching from instructional leaders, assistant superintendents, and
principals were available.

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A Professional Development Exemplar: Boston Public Schools
The Boston Public Schools serves as one model of a school organization that has created
a system to support school leaders and embodies the findings of the Stanford Educational
Leadership Institute and the Wallace Foundation. According to Takata (2008), the Boston
College-Lynch-Boston Public School Principal Fellowship is a year-long program that gives the
participants hands-on experiences four days a week with a seasoned school leader. The program
includes placing participants with Boston’s best principals, 90 days of seminars and coursework,
and a state license with an optional master’s degree. The program starts with a five-week
intensive summer session to prepare the participants for their residency. The courses cover the
history of schooling in Boston, leadership development, and pedagogy. In the fall, participants
begin their residency training four days a week and meet on Fridays to continue coursework.
Every class focuses on a particular theory, and the participants implement a related project at
their school site under the supervision of their mentor. Twice per month, participants in residency
attend seminars where a panel of principals addresses best practices in common school areas.
The program is designed to give participants the skills and tools needed to address key
challenges that Boston public schools face.
The district also offers interested staff members the opportunity to explore the potential
career move to school leadership through the Exploring School Administration initiative. This
program introduces staff members to the principalship and to other school leadership roles. Each
of the ten after-school seminars focuses on a different aspect of school-based leadership roles.
Participants go over readings and case studies while meeting with district and school leaders.
Participants also have the option to observe principals and assistant principals in practice.

32
The district also has a New Principal Support System Program. This program is for
first-year principals. It is comprised of a five-day summer institute to prepare them for their
roles. Throughout the year, new principals meet monthly for networking sessions where
principals discuss current challenges and best practices. Principals are mandated to attend
structured professional developments designed to support district-wide challenges. The monthly
meeting also includes school visits by facilitators with robust school administration experience to
have one-on-one meetings with the new principals. Novice principals are also given a mentor
who is a seasoned principal. The mentor’s school mirrors the mentee’s school in terms of school
demographics and proximity to one another. Principals in their second and third years do not
have a formal mentor; however, they have a designated district coach to support them with
leadership and operational challenges. These elements demonstrate that the Boston Public School
system has an exemplary program to support school leaders with an intentional multi-component
design to attract new applicants, support novice leaders, and engage high-capacity leaders.
The Power of Effective Mentor Support
One critical support system for school leaders supported by research is a strong
mentorship program (Gray & Bishop, 2009; Hayashi, 2016; Bloom & Krovetz, 2001; Grissom &
Harrington, 2010; Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Sezgin et al., 2020). We see this component
embedded in the exemplary Boston Public School leadership model. The first years in a new
profession are always very challenging; the situation is more difficult for new school leaders
because they are at the top of the hierarchical order in schools and in many instances do not have
seasoned peers in their schools like other staff members do (Yirci & Kocabas, 2010). Effective
university partnerships, school district support, and targeted state financial resources are needed

33
to support new administrators (Hayashi, 2016). According to recommendations in a study
conducted by Weiss-Wright (2016), school district superintendents must create a culture of
mentorship in the organization in order to develop the next generation of leaders. New school
administrators need to feel that they are supported in their efforts to be effective school leaders
and a mentor would help this endeavor (Harashi, 2016). The practice of giving a new school
leader or future school leader a mentor should be common practice, not exceptional practice
(Aluoch, 2013). School districts must create systems to support new assistant principals and
principals (Limoges, 2004; Craft et al., 2016). Some school districts have created mentoring
programs for first and second-year principals where the mentor is a retired successful principal
who goes through research-based training program programs developed for principal coaching
(Riddick, F. 2009). However, implementation and access have been mixed. A survey conducted
by Liang & Augustine-Shaw (2016), revealed that in the state of Kansas, for example, 52% of
schools and districts did not have a formal mentor or mentor system for school leaders.
Research shows that school leaders articulate the importance of having a coach/mentor
who can help them navigate their leadership roles (Bruce, 2006). Mentoring and induction
programs for new school leaders can bridge the gap between what new leaders know when they
first enter their positions and what they need to know to acquire important skills while on the job
(Liang, Augustine-Shaw, 2016). Mentoring of novice leaders by experienced school leaders can
address deficiencies between leadership preparation, theory, and transferring the training into
actual practice. Benefits for the mentee, according to Yirci & Kocabas (2010), are the following:
competence, goal setting, motivation and satisfaction, psychological support, creativity,
communication skills, organizational change, personal change, time effectiveness, and
employability. The organization also benefits from the mentee’s organizational effectiveness

34
through the increase in motivation, job satisfaction, as well as organizational change,
recruitment, retention, high highflyers, organizational learning, organizational culture,
cost-effectiveness, time efficiency, development, and strategic success planning (Yirci & Kocabs,
2010). In some instances, assistant principals rely on their immediate supervisor, the school
principal, for mentorship. Principals should be the assistant principal's coach and mentor (Bloom
& Krovetz, 2008). However, not all principals have the skills to be effective coaches and
mentors. Having a formal mentor support system in school organizations is clearly beneficial.
A necessary step in creating a robust mentor program is the appropriate selection and
recruitment of mentors. According to Devita et al. (2007), the five characteristics of a strong
mentor program are: a) robust formal criteria to select mentors; b) professional development for
mentors; c) mentors should be assigned mentees with similar demographic characteristics; d)
mentors should be paid; e) the mentor program should be designed to ensure lifelong learner
growth experience for all parties involved. According to Browne-Ferrigno & Muth (2004),
research on multiple cohorts of aspiring and practicing principals engaged in professional
development has expressed the importance of mentorship relationships to develop leadership
skills for new and seasoned school administrators. A principal mentor is imperative in the
development of new school administrators (Tingle et al., 2019). Robust mentoring and induction
programs are crucial for school administrators (Yirci & Kocabas, 2010).
The Kansas Educational Leadership Institute (KELI) provides a good example of a best
practice for leadership mentoring. According to Liang & Augustine-Shaw, (2016), the KELI
program is a partnership between the state government, universities, and school districts in the
state of Kansas. This program provides mentoring and induction to new district and school
leaders. KELI provides new assistant principals and principals mentorship through seasoned

35
principals who have been recommended by superintendents. The KELI program facilitates strong
mentor and mentee relationships by matching them through a holistic process that looks at
geographical location, school level, size, specific strengths, and areas of expertise of mentors.
Findings from a follow-up with participants found that mentoring and induction programs were
very important to prepare and guide them through their leadership journey. This is the type of
program that aligns with effective practices identified in the research.
Cultural Context of Novice Leader Training
When considering the equity leadership training and expertise that novice leaders need
today, it is important to understand the context presented by the changing student demographics
and its implications for the positionality of BIPOC school administrators. There continues to be a
large disconnect between student racial and ethnic identity and the racial/ethnic identity of school
leaders. In 2022, the student population in the United States was made up of 45.2 percent white
students and 54.8 percent BIPOC students (Published by Statista Research Department & 20, 0. ,
2023). Across states, the racial disparity between students in public education and the teachers
and leaders who serve them is significant. For example, in Florida, most public school students
are Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC), however, most of the teachers and school
administration are White (Folsom et al., 2015). According to Holsey et al. (2020) also, there is a
gender and racial gap in school administrations in the U.S.
These gaps in representation matter when considering how to effectively onboard new
leaders who should represent the diverse student body. Yet those doing the onboarding do not
necessarily have the cultural context to design support for BIPOC leaders. In a study conducted
in North Carolina with nine Black female school administrators as participants, one of the
themes that surfaced based on the study was that race was perceived to be a factor in the denial

36
or acceptance process in their role (Leathers, 2011). African American administrators felt they
were excluded from socialization and needed more professional development in order to compete
with other school administrators (Byrd, 1999). Human resource departments in school districts
are failing to promote and develop diversity and retention strategies for BIPOC personnel in
public schools (San Martin, 2020). According to Miller (2021), it is crucial that all school leaders
are given the appropriate skills and adequate content knowledge that will enable them to address
discrimination in the recruitment, development, and progression of staff and create racially
inclusive institutional processes, structures, and cultures. It is important that BIPOC school
administrators are supported because their representation matters and impacts the learning of
BIPOC students more profoundly. Considering the significant diversification of students
nationally, all school districts should focus on practices, policies, and procedures to develop,
support, and retain BIPOC school leaders.
While nationally there are disparities between student demographics and school leader
representation, Los Angeles Unified School District is a unique case study to consider when
examining the overlay of cultural context into the consideration of novice leader preparation. Los
Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) is the second-largest school district in the United
States and the largest district in California. Unlike most districts in the nation, in LAUSD the
school leadership and district leadership resemble the student population. According to Besecker
and Thomas (2022), the LAUSD data is the following: the Black Indigenous People of Color
(BIPOC) population in Los Angeles County is 73.7%, and the school site BIPOC School
Administrators population is 76.1%. The BIPOC district administrators' population is 69.1%.
This data indicates that BIPOC students attended schools led by BIPOC school and district
administrators. According to Murakami et al., (2018) in a study of two hundred and twenty-six

37
respondents, Latino school administrators concluded that their intersectionality and race
impacted their work as school administrators. This study highlights the need for BIPOC
administrators to have support in their role that is designed specifically for BIPOC
administrators. In another research study that focused on the experiences of four Latina school
administrators, the participants expressed that their identities shaped their experiences,
development, and persistence in campus and district leadership in both unique and similar ways
(Martinez et al., 2020). According to Hernandez & Murakami (2016), the study of Latina school
leaders could unveil much more regarding the awareness of oppression as it relates to class, sex,
and race.
There is a need for leadership preparation programs to prioritize culturally responsive
school leadership to better support staff and students (Khalifa et al., 2016). While the data from
Los Angeles County and LAUSD is very encouraging, this district is an exception to a
predominantly White teacher and leader staffing reality across the nation. What we learn from
the review of the literature is that there is limited research on how to effectively and impactfully
build the capacity of school leaders today who are serving a predominantly BIPOC population.
The research is very limited, and the scale of the research studies is fairly small.
A Model of Standards-Based Professional Development for School Leaders
Most states in the United States have adopted leadership standards and have begun using
them to evaluate leadership training programs to make them more accountable (Mitgang &
Maeroff, 2008). Research has identified that there is a lack of alignment between administrator
professional development by school districts and the state standards (Rodrigues et al., 2021), yet
school districts spend a substantial amount of funds on professional development for school
leaders (Nava et al., 2020). Therefore, funding is not the issue. According to Levine (2005), in

38
the last fifteen years, educational leadership programs have been criticized as being ineffective.
Leadership professional development should be aligned with state and national school leadership
standards. According to Rodiguez et al., (2020), school leaders must receive professional
development aligned with state and national frameworks to ensure they receive effective and
rigorous support for their educational leadership, growth, and development.
In the state of California, educational leadership programs are aligned with the California
Professional Standards for Education Leaders (CPSEL). CPSELs have been aligned with
administrative credential programs Tier 1 and Tier 2 since 2001. The tier-one program is
designed to prepare future school leaders to learn and demonstrate that they are at an entry-level
level to serve as school administrators (Wildman, 2014). The California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing added a Clear Administrative Service Credential, which requires candidates to
participate in two years of coaching rather than the old model of one or two semesters of
coursework (Hayashi, 2016). CPSELs are aligned with the National Policy Board for
Educational Administration. According to Neumann, & Somoza-Norton, (2021), California has
codified its leadership standards outlining a description of practice as well as a developmental
continuum of practice with the end goal of preparing ethical, equity-driven, instructional leaders.
The CPSELs are aimed to describe critical areas of leadership for administrators and offer a
structure for developing and supporting leaders throughout their careers. According to the
California Standards for Educational Leaders (2014), the main six overarching objectives of a
school administrator are the following:
● Standard 1 Development and Implementation of Shared Vision
● Standard 2 Instructional Leadership
● Standard 3 Management and Learning Environment

39
● Standard 4 Family and Community Engagement
● Standard 5 Ethics and Integrity
● Standard 6 External Context and Policy
These standards are the foundation of all university and administrative programs in California.
According to California policy, these standards should be the foundation of what school districts
implement to guide the development of school leaders.
This dissertation study will examine the perspectives of school leaders serving in
California school districts, and the CPSELs will provide an important policy context for this
study.
Social Cognitive Theory & Andragogy Adult Learning Theory
The founder of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is Albert Bandura. While at Stanford
University in the 1950’s he began to explore what impacted social behavior (Schunk, 2020).
According to Bandura (2001), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) originated as the Social Learning
Theory (SLT) in the 1960s. It transformed into the SCT in 1986 and emphasizes that learning
occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment,
and behavior. Social Cognitive Theory highlights that much learning occurs in a social
environment by observing others as a form of model. Through modeling, people acquire
knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs, and attitudes. Through modeling, learners observe the
model behavior, and that initiates the learning process of attention, retention, production, and
motivation. SCT focuses on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social
reinforcement. The theory takes into account people’s positionality, which impacts present and
future behavior. Past experiences impact reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of
which affect whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person

40
engages in that behavior. According to Bandura (2001), five constructs were developed initially
as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.
1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the fulcrum concept of SCT. This refers to the
compelling and mutual interaction of a person (an individual with a set of learned
experiences), with the environment (external social context), and resulting behavior
(responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform an action
through crucial knowledge and skills. To efficiently perform a behavior, a person must
know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the ramifications of their behavior,
which also affects their lives.
3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people observe others’ behavior, and then
mimic those actions. This process is often manifested through the "modeling" of
behaviors. If people see a positive demonstration of behavior, they can also perform the
behavior successfully.
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's
behavior that affect the possibility of the person performing the desired action.
Reinforcements can be initiated by the individual or through the environment, and
reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the aspect of SCT that most closely
ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.
5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated ramifications of a person's behavior. The
resulting expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the
ramifications of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated
consequences can influence the successful completion of the behavior. Assumptions

41
derive largely from previous experience. While the predictability of results also derives
from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the
outcome and are subjective to the individual.
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to
efficiently perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is only identified in SCT although other
theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned
Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific skills and other personal
factors as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).
According to Knowles (2014), who introduced the Andragogy model in the 1970s, it is based on
six assumptions.
1.The need to know: Adults need to know the benefits of learning something.
2. The learner’s self-concept: adults understand being responsible for their own
decisions and their own lives.
3. The role of the learners’ experiences: Adults come into an educational activity with a
greater volume and quality of positionality than youths.
4. Readiness to learn: Adult learners are more likely to learn when they understand the
skill is essential for their lives.
5. Orientation of learning: The learning must be relevant to the adult learners' everyday
life experiences.
6. Motivation: Adults are responsive to some outside motivators.
The andrological process model for learning is the following:
1. Getting the learner ready
2.Establishing a culture conducive to learning

42
3.Creating a system for mutual planning
4. Diagnosing the gap in learning
5. Formulating program goals that will satisfy these needs
6. Designing a sequence of learning experiences
7.Executing these learning experiences with suitable techniques and materials
8.Testing the Learning Outcomes and re-diagnosing learning needs
The exemplary programs of the Kansas Educational Leadership Institute and the Boston
College-Lynch Boston Public Schools Fellowship Program have a strong correlation with the
best practices of leadership programs findings from the research by Darling-Hammond et al.
(2007), and Devita et al. (2007). The exemplary programs and the research manifest a strong
linkage with Social Cognitive Theory and Andragogy Adult Learning Theory tenets. The best
practices of leadership programs for school administrators and research suggest that educational
leaders best learn from social settings with the support of modeling by mentors. A foundational
piece is that the school leader must be in a safe school organization culture where the leader can
learn while on the job.
The literature review highlighted important components of this study. It revealed that it is
in the best interest of students and the learning community to have well-trained school leaders. It
also touched upon the important role that university leadership preparation programs play in the
development of school leaders. The literature review explored both the challenges to robust
professional development for school leaders and highlighted some best practices in this area. A
key factor in professional development was the critical role a mentor plays in the support of a
new school administrator. The cultural context lens and the grounding of this study in theories of

43
learning through which the BIPOC school leader can be successful was a major point of
emphasis because this study is oriented through the lens of BIPOC school administrators.
Figure 1
Novice School Leader Support Conceptual Framework

44
The conceptual framework model pictured above is a road map of how novice Black
Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) school leaders who serve marginalized communities may
achieve better student outcomes through a robust system of support by school organizations.
Before the individual candidate begins their developmental journey, they are given a test that is
comprised of essential basic school administrator knowledge in the form of multiple subject
questions and scenario-based assessment. The results are given to the leaders so they can track
their learning with the mentor's support. At the end of the year, the school leader is given a
post-test with a similar content and format to measure learning and areas of growth. The first
phase is an onboarding process that equips new school administrators with fundamental skills to
begin the journey to their leadership roles. In the onboarding process, the new leader should be
exposed to essential skills needed for their role. The next step in the process is the assignment of
a mentor who can train and model for the new school administrator how to implement
fundamental skills at the school site. A component of the mentorship relationship is the mentor
and mentee visit by seasoned and effective school leaders to observe their practices and ask
questions. The following phase is for the new administrators to be offered general professional
development that caters to new administrators needs and models how to become a good leader as
well as the fundamentals of how to manage the main departments of the school administrators’
position, which are Instructional Leadership, Special Education, Student Health and Human
Services, Educational Counseling, Student Behavior Management, Facility Operations,
Emergency Procedures, and Mandatory Mandates. This professional development should be
created in a scaffolded manner, with bite-size information and examples of what other
high-performing school administrators do as best practices in different areas. The professional
development should be modeled at the school site by the mentor who, through observing the

45
mentee, can calibrate and co-create with the mentee an individualized action plan for the new
assistant principal and principal. Based on the individual action plan prescribed, additional
professional development may include an increase in school site modeling and mentoring. This
additional professional development would happen simultaneously with the yearly professional
development assessment. The new school administrator should receive this type of support for
the first three years of their role. With this type of support, novice BIPOC administrators in
marginalized communities may reach a level of effective leadership that will be optimal for the
community they serve.

46
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Statement of the Problem
Nationally, there is a developmental learning gap in the preparation of new secondary
school administrators who serve marginalized communities. Twenty-one percent of principals in
high-poverty schools left their leadership positions, based on a 2017 survey (Levin et al., 2020).
As previously identified, the five main reasons principals leave their jobs are lack of professional
development, inadequate compensation, lack of authority in policy-making decisions, unrealistic
accountability by district leadership, and poor working conditions (Levin et al., 2020). This
phenomenological study focused specifically on professional development for school leaders,
while also interrogating the related theme of work-related stress. Professional development for
administrators is essential to their professional growth and for the students they serve. Modeling
is a powerful tool that can be used to train administrators who serve marginalized communities.
Observational learning through attention, retention, production, and motivation is also a powerful
tool for learning (Schunk, 2020). These approaches, if adopted by school district leadership,
would alleviate the lack of professional development of school administrators. Lack of modeling
and coaching has severely impacted the experiences of administrators (Chalstrom, 2007).
Establishing formal and informal support structures goes a long way toward reinforcing the
development of administrators. Intentional professional development designs for school
principals who lead marginalized communities are critically needed.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to provide insight into effective professional development
and support using the theoretical lens of Social Cognitive Theory and Andragogy: Adult Learner
Theory. This study focuses on novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) secondary

47
school administrators who serve marginalized communities. The role that universities and school
organizations play in leader preparation is examined, along with causes of on-the-job stress that
impact BIPOC administrator retention and success. The combination of the Social Cognitive
Theory lens and Andragogy: Adult Learning theory is used to frame the conversation of what
might be some areas that need further research and possible design solutions. Based on the
perspective of novice BIPOC principals, solutions to address gaps in professional development
and to alleviate job stress for administrators are explored. Having effective leaders in schools
with a history of marginalization is ideal for empowering the communities they serve.
Research Questions
1. How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los Angeles County who serve
marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding process for the first
three years on the job?
2. Which administrative areas do novice BIPOC administrators, who serve marginalized
communities, identify as being the least prepared for?
3. How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe their professional learning
training effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the success of
marginalized students in Los Angeles County?
Selection of Population
The researcher interviewed and surveyed novice BIPOC administrators to explore how
they are supported by their school organization and the causes of their work-related stress.
Work-related stress has been identified as one of the reasons why school leaders leave their
positions (Levin et al., 2020). The purpose of the interviews and surveys was to understand best
practices from the perspective of the novice leader, what systemic improvements are needed in

48
professional development designs, and how the lack of support might impact work-related stress
for BIPOC administrators.
Participants in this study are novice BIPOC administrators serving marginalized
communities from various school districts in Los Angeles County for the 2023-2024 school year.
The criteria to be a participant in the study was that the participant must be a new BIPOC
administrator. For the purpose of this study, a new BIPOC administrator was defined as one with
no more than three years in their current role.
To conduct this study, convenience sampling was used, since the researcher interviewed
new BIPOC administrators serving marginalized communities in Los Angeles County.
Convenience Sampling means engaging with participants that are most accessible to the
researcher (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Convenience sampling was used to support the study
since the researcher understands that it is difficult to attain a large pool of participants due to
work-life balance time restraints for participants. Although there is a high percentage of BIPOC
administrators in Los Angeles County, the other important characteristics, such as less than three
years in their roles, seven or more years working in Los Angeles County, and serving a
marginalized community, made it challenging for the researcher to develop a larger participation
pool. The researcher attempted to have representation from all BIPOC groups and an equal
number of male and female participants. The researcher also tried to have a balanced number of
participants from different districts for a broader scope of what practices school organizations in
Los Angeles County utilized to support new school leaders.
Design Summary Methodology
This is a phenomenological research study design. The phenomenological study approach
is based on a qualitative methodology, the purpose of which is to capture the essence of a

49
participant's experience (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For the purpose of this study, it is important
that a qualitative research model be utilized. The five components of the qualitative study are: 1)
The goal of the study; 2) the Conceptual Framework; 3) the Researcher questions; 4) the
Methods; and 5) Validity (Maxwell, 2013). This model facilitates appropriate interviews on the
problem of practice and attempts to answer the study’s three research questions. This process
allows the researcher to have access to participants' daily experiences and how parallel structures
and systems impact student learning and professional development.
The research is grounded by three research questions through the lens of Social Cognitive
Theory and Andragogy: Learning Theory. The study focuses on the research problem and
purpose of the study in Chapter 1 and the literature review in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 describes the
system and protocol that will be followed to collect data, and Chapters 4 and 5 will focus on
analyzing, interpreting, and framing the findings as a model proposal.
Instrumentation and Protocols
The researcher implemented interviews and surveys for the study to capture data in a
robust manner. The qualitative data was collected through surveys and interviews with new
BIPOC school administrators serving marginalized communities. The questions for both
interviews and surveys were constructed to ensure alignment with the research questions. The
survey is made up of fourteen questions (see Appendix C). The first section consists of two
close-ended questions that were utilized to collect data regarding the participants' demographics.
The second section is made up of three close-ended questions that covered participants'
perceptions of training by their university administrative programs in relation to their current
roles and their school organization's onboarding process related to duty preparation. The third
section consists of five close-ended questions, and the objective of all these questions was to

50
collect data on the participants’ professional development experience. The fourth section
contains four questions and two close-ended questions, designed to collect data on participants'
self-perception of work competency and work-related stress. The fifth section contains open
questions. The survey was sent through email. The interview and survey sections are broken into
segments in alignment with the research questions. The interview protocol consists of eighteen
questions (see Appendix B). The eighteen questions are divided into four sections. Section 1
consists of four questions based on the participants’ positionality. Section 2 consists of three
questions that explore the readiness of new leaders in their roles. Section 3 is constructed of five
questions with the purpose of understanding the participants' description of the administrative
role, the areas the participants believe they are least prepared for, and their work-related stress
level, with a description of possible causes. Section 4 comprises six questions and explores the
type of professional development received by participants. The interviews were conducted in
person, but accommodations for Zoom interviews were made for those who requested them.
Recording or annotations of the interview were prescribed based on the participant's preference.
For the participants who preferred the transcription option, responses were read back to
participants to ensure the subjective nature of the answer would be captured correctly.
Data Collection
The data for this study was collected through in-person interviews and in-person or
emailed surveys. Interviews were utilized to collect data on a phenomenon that is difficult to
capture during an observation (Patton, 2002). Interviews were conducted with four BIPOC
school administrators. Identifying who to interview is the first step of the data collection in a
study that utilizes interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The purpose of the sampling was to
collect data on new BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized communities and to provide

51
data for the research questions. It was communicated in the introduction letter that participants'
identities would be confidential. Participants were asked if they preferred recordings or notes as
the research method. All participants chose written notes only and not to be recorded. All
participants interviewed were asked a month in advance regarding a convenient date and time.
Interviews were then arranged a month in advance, and two weeks before the interview, a
reminder was sent to confirm availability. Interviews took between forty-five minutes to one
hour.
This study utilized surveys. Surveys are effective in collecting data for needed
information with limited resources, and data can be used to generalize about a larger population
from a small number of respondents (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). Forty surveys were sent
out and 24 were completed and returned. The gender breakdown for the survey was 10 female
and 14 male. The surveys were sent out with an Informed Consent/Information Sheet and
introduction (see Attachment A & D). The surveys were sent out two weeks in advance with a
hard deadline for completion. One week before the deadline, participants who had not submitted
the survey were sent a reminder. Surveys took between twenty to thirty-five minutes to complete.
Data Analysis
The data analysis process of this study is a crystallization of the findings, on the analogy
of crystals as prisms that exhibit an infinite number of shapes, substances, transmutations,
multidimensionality, and angles of approach (Richardson, in Richardson & St. Pierre, 2005).
This study utilized a qualitative study data collection method. The qualitative data was collected
through participant interviews and surveys and then triangulated with the literature review. All
the items in the interviews and surveys were directly aligned with the three research questions.
The study’s research questions provided the focus and structure for the data collection process.

52
After collecting the data from the surveys and interviews, the researcher wrote separate reports
documenting the findings from each of the data sources. All the responses in the interviews and
surveys were transcribed and coded. Based on the data collected, an analysis was developed.
Utilizing data triangulation (see Figure 2), the researcher compared findings from the interviews,
surveys, and literature reviews to determine the crystallization of data. Collecting data from these
three areas guided the crystallization of data. The study was done through the lens of Social
Cognitive Theory and Andragogy: Adult Learning Theory to connect the findings to broader
perspectives in academia and real-world applications. The researcher ensured that the
confidentiality of each participant was preserved throughout the entire process.
Figure 2
Triangulation of Data

53
Validity and Reliability
Throughout the study, the researcher followed protocols to ensure the validity, accuracy,
and reliability of the data (Salkind, 2017). The researcher administered interview and survey
protocols to promote validity and reliability throughout the study and utilized direct participant
quotes. The researcher ensured that his biases did not affect the data collected. The researcher
was conscientious in collecting data. The interview, survey, and literature data were used for the
triangulation process. This was completed in a timely manner. The data collecting and data
interpretation processes were peer-reviewed for accuracy. The researcher utilized NVivo. This
software is a qualitative data analysis tool that assists the researcher in identifying themes and
drawing conclusions. The researcher was reflective and sought guidance through the process.
The researcher consulted with experts in data collection from University of Southern California
professors to ensure the study’s data was valid and reliable. All participants were given an
information fact sheet (see Appendix A).
It is important to note my positionality as I continuously checked my bias throughout this
study. My positionality is that of a first-generation Latino who grew up in marginalized
communities and attended schools that were labeled as failing due to the high dropout rate.
Another relevant aspect of my position is that of a school administrator who has served
marginalized communities for more than seven years. I have personally experienced a lack of
support within the school and district leadership, which has caused stress for me and my
colleagues. I am highlighting this bias to ensure a more transparent, valid, and reliable study.

54
Summary
This phenomenological study implemented qualitative research methods. The data was
collected through in-person interviews and surveys sent through email. The data collected was
employed to answer the following three research questions:
1. How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los Angeles County who serve
marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding process for the
first three years on the job?
2. Which administrative areas do novice BIPOC administrators, who serve
marginalized communities, identify as being the least prepared for?
3. How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe their professional learning
training effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the success of
marginalized students in Los Angeles County?
The findings are disclosed in Chapter 4 with a discussion of data collection in Chapter 5, which
will also include a recommended professional development framework.

55
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS
Results
The objective of this study was to explore and investigate the preparation and ongoing
professional development of new BIPOC school administrators who serve marginalized
communities. The study served as an examination of the participants’ positioning in the
following three areas: the type of preparation that is offered within university administrative
credentialing programs, a district's professional development, and stress levels with causation of
stress. The study aimed to answer the following questions:
1. How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los Angeles County who serve
marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding process for the first
three years?
2. Which administrative areas do novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized
communities identify as being the least prepared for?
3. How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe their professional learning
training effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the success of
marginalized students in Los Angeles County?
Participants
Participants in this study are novice BIPOC administrators serving marginalized
communities from various school districts in Los Angeles County for the 2023-2024 school year.
The criteria to be a participant in the study was that the participant had to be a new BIPOC
administrator at the school site. For this study, a new BIPOC administrator is defined as one with

56
no more than three years in their current role. Another participant characteristic is that they must
have seven years or more of experience in education.
Table 1.1 provides survey and interview demographic data. The survey had 24
participants, of which 10 were female and 14 were male. The racial representation of participants
was 15 Latino/a, five Black, and four Asian. For the interview component, four participants were
interviewed—one female leader and three male leaders. All four participants are Latino/a. Table
1.2 and Table 1.3 provide the percentages of the participants interviewed and surveyed by
gender. The participant demographic is representative of the BIPOC community in Los Angeles
County, which is 77 percent Latino/a, eight percent Black, and 14 percent Asian. Table 1.2
provides the demographics for interview participants.
Table 1.1
Survey and Interview Demographics
Demographics Administrators Surveyed (24) Administrators Interviewed (4)
Gender 10 Female
14 Male
1 Female
3 Male
Race 15 Latino
5 Black
4 Asian
4 Latino/a

57
Table 1.2
Interview Participants Demographics
Pseudonym Gender Race
Participant A Male Latino
Participant B Female Latino
Participant C Male Latino
Participant D Male Latino
Results Research Question One
Research Question One inquired, “How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los
Angeles County who serve marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding
process for the first three years on the job?” An onboarding process is a component of
comprehensive professional development for school administrators. Professional development
that facilitates the school leaders' ability to increase their knowledge and skill development is
essential to better serve the school community (King & Newmann, 2001; Enomoto, 2012; Gray
& Bishop, 2009; Birhanzel, W. 2007). According to Takata, The Boston Schools New Principal
Support System Program is exemplary in facilitating the on-the-job onboarding process. This
program is designed for first-year principals and consists of a five-day summer institute to
prepare them for their role. Throughout the year, support is continuous, with new principals
meeting monthly for networking sessions where they can discuss current challenges and best
practices. This type of program is an example of a robust preparation system for new school

58
administrators in that it is intentional, focused on the major roles and responsibilities of the
leaders, and ongoing. When examining the effectiveness of onboarding processes for novice
administrators in Los Angeles County, the data from this study revealed three key findings.
Onboarding is Procedurally Focused and Not Specific Enough to Prepare for Core
Leadership Responsibilities.
The data in Table 1.3 is based on the question: “How effective was your job onboarding
process in preparing you for your first days, weeks, and months in your new role?” The table
below highlights responses from the 24 participants. Only two participants agreed that the
onboarding process was “Highly Effective,” 11 communicated that it was “Effective,” and 11
expressed that the onboarding process was “Ineffective.” This data shows that 46 percent, nearly
half of participants, believe the onboarding process was ineffective. This data shows that a
significant percentage of school leaders believe the process to prepare them with a solid
foundation to begin their new role was unsuccessful. Participant A reported:
There was no specific onboarding process concerning duties or role. I interviewed one
day, and one day later I got a phone call from the director offering me the position, and
two weeks after that, I started at the school. On my first day on the job, I showed up, and
I got a huge set of keys.
In addition to this problem, all survey participants expressed that the onboarding process
was more logistical, such as ensuring that human resources paperwork was completed.
Participant A stated:
One of my colleagues, an assistant principal, gave me my roles and duties. He also gave
me what he was doing as he was overseeing my duties while they filled the position.

59
They expect us to know bulletins that cover our duties, but there are like 100 bulletins
that are between 10 pages to 50 pages long.
Interviewees who had the benefit of prior leadership experience within their school also
addressed the lack of intentionality in the onboarding design. Participant C said, “I knew some
systems because I worked at my school for a few years, but there were no formal onboarding
systems, where someone sits down and goes over the day-to-day tasks and game plan.”
Participant D added, “No, I was not trained well in the beginning. I was just thrown in
after interviewing and getting the position. Maybe a month after I started, I received professional
development that was related to my duties.” Interviewees shared multiple examples of new
position placements with little to no training in specific role definitions, scope, and procedures
for handling difficult student-based needs. Participant B shared, “I have been at this school for
more than a decade and I was not given my specific duties until maybe three months into my
role. My roles and responsibilities were given through an organizational chart.” Participant A
further shared, “The principal tells me I am over student behavior, and we are a high-needs
school. That is all the information I receive.” These findings are aligned with the literature,
which indicates that policymakers and educators have little guidance on strategies for creating
robust systems to support current school leaders (Grissom & Harrington, 2010).

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Table 1.3
In addition to inconsistencies in onboarding programs for new administrators, novice
leaders also faced challenges in understanding the full scope of their responsibilities. The data in
Table 1.4 reflects responses to the question: “Based on your onboarding process, how
well-defined were your duties and tasks?” In summary, the 24 participants responded in the
following manner: two participants thought their roles were “Very Defined,” 22 felt their roles
were “Somewhat Defined,” and none submitted “Not Defined at All” as a response. This data
indicates that there was some level of definition as to the school leaders' duties and roles;
however, 92% of the participants felt the definition of their roles was not detailed enough. This is
significant in terms of potential implications since the school leaders are the ones who ensure
their staff are responding to student needs. Three out of the four interviewees talked about the
implications of incomplete role definition. Participant D stated, “I have a general understanding

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of what my responsibilities are; however, there is no definition of what my action steps should be
and what criteria of success are being used to gauge if I am doing my job correctly.” His
colleague, Participant A, further explained that in the absence of quality onboarding, novice
leaders turn to experienced administrators. “If not for more seasoned school administrators at the
school site, I would be lost and confused about my role. When hired, it was expected that I
already knew my role.” Novice administrators are placed in challenging leadership roles where
they are expected to fend for themselves regarding procedural expectations, role scope and
definition, and quality standards. Participant B shared:
I have a general understanding of my role and responsibility, however, more than half of
the things on my responsibility list, I have no real understanding of what it means to
oversee it. I know I am responsible for that area of that school, but how do I monitor it?
My roles and responsibilities are not clearly defined.
Additionally, there were nuances to the level of support and definition of roles, driven primarily
by urgency from non-compliance issues. Participant D stated:
The only reason I received so much support was because we have a large number of
students who receive Special Education services, and we were in a real bad shape when it
related to IEP compliance. From day one, I received support from the Special Education
Department on how to track compliances. I was given a sequence of how to go about
fulfilling my duties in regard to Special Education. I did not receive this type of support
for the rest of my duties.
Interviewees felt trusted by their supervisors to do their work but were largely left to use
their prior experiences to figure out their current roles. Participants A and B described being left
on their own. Participant A reported: “The support, as in my boss telling me he supported my

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decisions, I did receive. The support in how to go about my daily tasks and how to prioritize my
tasks—in this area, I received very little support.” Participant B further related: “I was almost left
to my own initiative to address my duties. My principal was supportive in that he wanted me to
be the best leader possible; however, no one was giving me the tools to make my transition
smoother.” All participants expressed that the school organizations did not have a systematic
manner to onboard them in their leadership roles. They were expected to do their best and figure
things out. All participants expressed that the onboarding process was done informally and over
time by handling situations in real-time. The findings are contradictory with the literature which
states that there should be prescribed action steps in how to replicate success from one school to
another school with the successful transfer of management skills while considering each school's
culture and demographics in the context of the community being served. By doing so, gaps in
managing and running schools effectively will be eliminated (Childress et al., 2006). Based on
the findings, there is a lack of a systematic manner for supporting the development of new school
leaders. This first finding is not aligned with what the research says are best onboarding practices
for novice leaders. According to Levin (2019), school principals identified that the top two
strategies that support school principal retention at their sites are high-quality professional
development for them and their staff and support from a strong administrative team with
adequate resources.

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Table 1.4
The Opportunity for Role-Specific Professional Development is Highly Limited
The second finding was that the number of professional development opportunities was
limited for over forty percent of respondents. The data in Table 1.5 relates to the survey question:
“Estimate the number of professional development sessions you have attended in the last 12
months for your leadership development.” The results were the following: 10 attended 0 to 5,
five attended 6 to 10, two attended 11 to 16, and seven attended 17 or more. Based on the data,
15 participants were in the 0 to 10 range while nine were in the 11 or more bracket. While most
school administrators are required to work for 10 months, based on the data, most of the
participants participated on average one or fewer professional development opportunities per
month. This is critical data because professional development is important to the professional
growth of team members. These findings are aligned with the literature indicating that school

64
leaders did not have formal support structures needed for their roles (Chalstrom, 2006). This data
is concerning because professional development is important for all staff members, and even
more important for new staff members. This is even more important if the school leader is the
official who is supposed to oversee the school operation as a whole. As previous studies reveal,
robust professional development and stable school leadership are critical for school success
(Levin et al., 2020).
The survey participants indicated that they derive benefits from the professional
development that they do receive; however, they note that there does not seem to be a plan to
ensure that new administrators are given strategic support. Additionally, the need for
administrative coverage in high-needs schools means less time for training. Participant B related:
I am a new school administrator and sometimes I do not get to go to professional
development because the school I work in is really high needs, and I am super busy. I
would rather miss professional development than get behind in a crisis situation I am
handling.
Participant D further shares the distinction between high-urgency training that is prioritized,
while other areas of leadership responsibility are ignored:
I do receive support in my main role, which is Special Education; however, for the rest of
my responsibilities, I have not received training. I oversee a Student Support Progress
Team. I have never participated in this type of meeting and have never received training.
Needless to say, most of the system I created was by consulting with colleagues and what
was done in the past. I have never received the official how-to.
All interview participants expressed that professional development is helpful and
desirable, but unfortunately, “Professional development is general and lacks individual specifics

65
with details.” These findings are aligned with what the research on principal preparation
programs states is an important area for improvement, i.e., the specific job-aligned support for
new administrators (Hayashi, 2016).
Table 1.5

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School Organizations Do Not Provide a Scaffolded Support Plan for New School Leaders,
Including Transitions from University Programs into the School
The third finding revealed that the school organizations did not provide a scaffolded
action plan for new school leaders, including transitions from university programs to the daily
life of administrators at school sites. Participant C captures this in his statement:
I worked under the former assistant principal, so when I took his position, I knew mostly
what he did. However, there were parts I had no idea about. The organization as a whole
does not provide a system to ensure that as a school leader, I have a holistic game plan in
how I will develop in the different aspects of my role.
Participant A further explained the lack of an intentionally designed plan of support over time,
based on growth expectations. “There is no specific action plan by my organization to cater to
my needs as a leader. I do not know what I need growth in when I do not know the criteria for
success for myself and how it impacts students.” Participants also shared that an action plan of
support should be co-constructed with the leader and should be tied to specific feedback for
leadership skill improvement. Participant B said, “I would love to have a personalized action
plan as a leader where I can develop and get better. It would be nice if this system also confirmed
my areas of strength. I assume I am doing a good job because nothing has been brought to my
attention.”
The responses from participants regarding the university leadership programs highlight
the need for better definitions of roles, responsibilities, and systems by school organizations.
Participants identified the disconnect between the teachings they received in their preparation
program and the transition to onboarding support. Most of them felt that the university leadership
programs covered general topics in their curriculum, but they did not provide specific insight

67
into daily tasks and applications in the real-world workday. The findings are aligned with the
literature, which concludes that school leaders need real action steps to real problems, strategies,
and skills in how to create a healthy school (Limoges, 2004). Participant B stated, “Although the
professors were active educational leader practitioners, they could not prepare me for the
day-to-day roles.” Participant A further elaborated, “It would have been beneficial if I got to
shadow school leaders at their school site as part of the educational leadership program.”
Participant C was the only respondent who felt that his university program helped him in his role
because he was a current administrator and was currently enrolled in the school leadership
program. Participant C stated, “I was a new principal at a charter school, and at the same time, I
was doing my administrative program. The assignments that I did for the class were real projects
I was leading at work; this was very beneficial.” The findings from the study regarding the
university leadership programs are aligned with the research literature that reveals the
foundational problem is that there is a lack of understanding of core practices and traits that
school leaders should have to lead school improvement initiatives and how to acquire these
crucial skills (Ylimaki et al., 2007). University leadership programs need an overhaul to address
the actual needs of school leaders (Bartee, 2012), and school districts need to negotiate better
onboarding transitions between preparation programs and the school site.
Discussion Research Question One
The data that surfaced from this research study question in regard to how new BIPOC
administrators describe their onboarding process was that some participants understood their
general leadership role; however, that understanding lacked the specificity that comes from
intentionally designed onboarding processes. The three findings that surfaced were: that
participants experienced an onboarding process centered around logistics and documentation and

68
not on the communication of tasks and support system for their role; that the number of
professional development opportunities was limited; and that there was a lack of clarity of the
job roles. The literature is clear that new school leaders need an onboarding system that needs to
be role-specific, ongoing, and coherent. Based on this study, school organizations in the greater
Los Angeles area are failing to support new school administrators through highly structured and
well-defined onboarding processes based on best practices. Experts who work in school
leadership preparation programs realize the importance of induction and support for new
administrators (Hayashi, 2016). Induction and support for new school administrators should be a
non-negotiable school design component because it is an investment in its people; i.e., in its
decision-makers.
Results Research Question Two
Research Question Two inquired: Which administrative areas do novice BIPOC
administrators who serve marginalized communities identify as being the least prepared for?
Preparation is important for a school leader. School leaders have a responsibility for staff and
student learning since they are the ones who shape the ethos and direction of the school (Smith,
2016). School leaders must be prepared for their first day in the role to ensure all stakeholders
are supported.
Stress Levels Due to Time Constraints and Insufficient Supervisor Feedback
The first finding demonstrated the lack of time to complete tasks and a lack of feedback
for the role. The lack of time to complete tasks led to elevated stress, based on data from the
survey and interviewed participants. The findings of high levels of stress are aligned with the
literature in regard to the causes of why staff members do not want to be school leaders because

69
of the impact the profession has on their lifestyle (Cusick, 2003). The data in Table 1.6 reflects
responses to the survey question: “How would you rate your work-related stress?” The
participants reported the following: nine as “High,” 13 as “Medium,” and one as “Low.” These
results indicate that the majority of school leaders in this study reported medium to high levels of
work-related stress. Ninety-five percent of the participants reported significant stress levels. The
levels of stress were also substantiated and further interrogated by interview responses where all
participants felt “Medium” to “High” levels of stress. Participant D stated, “There is a lot of
pressure to perform at a high level without the tools or resources to accomplish the goals.”
Participant B stated, “I am over instruction and the pressure to turn around a failing school is
unbearable and then shifting of district leadership and focus area makes my role very stressful.”
Participants communicated that the culture of the school organization is very frustrating because
there is always a shifting of priorities and deadlines are fluid for major tasks. The lack of
continuity in priorities and deadlines causes an elevated stress level for its leaders which is an
outcome of how the organization is doing its work. Participant B stated:
It happens all the time. Some leader from the district wants to launch a new initiative and
they attempt to implement it immediately. They call us in on a meeting and give us
deadlines, not realizing we have deadlines for other initiatives. So, if we were on pace to
finish other initiatives on time, they would be impacted by the new initiatives. You add
the already multiple tasks that are under my job description and my role becomes highly
stressful.
Administrators planning to leave their schools cited working conditions and district
support related to working conditions as the main reason why they were planning to leave (Levin
et al, 2020). Schools in marginalized communities are typically hard to staff. According to Guin

70
(2004), high-turnover schools are more likely to serve low-income students. This amalgamation
of stress and lack of support is a reason why low-income, non-White, and low-achieving students
traditionally have novice school leaders (Loeb et al, 2010).
Table 1.6

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The data in this study indicated that while most participants felt competent in their roles,
there was insufficient feedback on their roles and the most important action steps that the school
leader should be taking. The data in Table 1.7 reflects responses to the survey question: “Do you
feel competent in your role as a school administrator?” Three reported “Always,” 18 “Most of
the time,” and three “Some of the time.” The data based on these results shows that most of the
participants felt confident in their competency in fulfilling their leadership roles. This indicates
close to 87 percent of the participants believed they were doing a fair job as school leaders, but
only 13 percent believed they were executing their roles competently. Most of the survey
participants felt competent in their role as school leaders “Most of the time” to “Always.”
The interview respondents provided further insight. They indicated that often there is insufficient
time to complete tasks and a lack of feedback from the system to gauge if the actions taken are
appropriate. Participant B reported:
Everything is a priority, and it is impossible to fully focus on one task. I have to
constantly be juggling five to six major tasks. The work impacts my personal life because
I have to take work home. I work late at night on work projects. If I do not work at home,
I would be in a deeper hole. I am barely making it. This causes a lot of stress for me.
Regarding feedback, Participant C stated: “I do not get much feedback from my supervisor
regarding tasks consistently. It would be very helpful if I received feedback on my performance
based on my duties.”
All of the interview participants felt competent in their roles. Yet, the lack of feedback
they received on an ongoing basis caused gaps in their development and in understanding how to
improve and reduce stress. Participant A stated, “I think I am doing a good job, but I do not get
consistent feedback, so it is hard to calibrate how to improve. This causes stress because

72
sometimes I do not know where I stand with my boss.” This sentiment is aligned with Levin
(2020) whose research states that school leaders want timely feedback that they can use to
improve their performance and support student learning. Feedback is critical in the development
of a school leader. School systems and school leaders need to prioritize professional development
and school leader training (Levin, 2020).
Table 1.7

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The Multiple Demands of the Job and the Strategies Needed to Manage Those Demands
The second finding that emerged was that school leaders need more professional
development in different areas within their roles. These findings are aligned with Mahfouz
(2020), who found that despite the preparation school leaders receive, many still feel unequipped
to handle day-to-day problems. A school leader has a long list of duties and responsibilities,
without necessarily learning how to manage those multiple demands. Participant B stated:
“Under my school organization chart I am responsible for twenty things. Instruction is my main
responsibility, but there are many other things I am supposed to oversee.” Participant D
commented, “I am over things that I have never had time to check in on if it is going well. I
prioritize my duties based if they are in a bad state or if my boss wants me to focus on
something.” The school leaders who participated in the interview study collectively indicated the
following three areas of support needed: 1) instruction to support teachers, 2) operation of a
school, and 3) the school budget. Survey participants also highlighted special education, human
resource-related staff concerns, and how to handle crises. The most common responses when
asked what the school organization needs to implement or enhance was: more professional
development and improved support for a better work-life balance. Participant responses reflected
the sentiment that professional development must be aligned with the staff members' actual
needs (Zepeda, 2019). The findings indicate that novice school leaders need additional, specific
support to be successful in their roles. Research consistently points out the importance of
principals being effectively prepared for their roles as school leaders (Tingle, 2019).
Skills Needed in Human Resource Management

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The third finding revealed that participants required support in human resource
management. The human resource support identified was specific to the hiring of staff to have a
fully staffed school. Schools in marginalized communities have high rates of staff turnover and
often a low number of candidates for various positions (Guin, 2004; Fusarelli, 2018). Based on
comments from all interview participants, there is no robust system to support school leaders to
fully staff schools, and the challenge appears to be left up to the principal. Participant D shared
this year-after-year challenge:
Our school has not been fully staffed in five years. I have been at my school for five years
and every year we have long-term substitute teachers in critical classes, math, and
biology. The 8th-grade students in my school have not had a full credentialed teacher in
science in three years.
Participant B added, “Our school organization leaves it up to the individual schools to do their
own hiring. Hiring for our school is very difficult because we are competing against schools in
more favorable demographics.” Participant D shared the extent to which he has to go in the
absence of a district human resources strategy that would ensure a robust candidate list. “We
have four openings in staff positions to support students who receive special education services,
and their hiring list has been exhausted; there are no bodies to fill these roles. I am asking staff
members to ask friends and family members to apply so we can fill this position.” Participant B
provides further insight into how vacancies are further exacerbated by the disruption of high
teacher turnover rates. She described her school’s long-standing situation, stating:
I have been at my school for more than ten years and we always have a problem hiring
teachers. We always start the year with at least two teacher vacancies. Most of the

75
teachers we do get only stay one to three years and move on. Eighty percent of our staff
has turned over the last three years.
The participants also expressed other related human resource management needs beyond robust
candidate lists to fill vacancies. They indicated a need for support in how to manage disciplinary
processes. Participant A commented:
I got hired in this job and I have never had to discipline a staff member. The whole
experience is overwhelming, and no one really walks you through the process. Staff
relations helped to produce the paperwork but the actual [disciplinary] process, I had to
learn from a colleague.
Participant C similarly said, “When it comes to disciplining staff members, if it were not for
other colleagues at the school who have experience in this area, I would be lost and not know
what to do. No one has ever walked me through this process.” Participants expressed their need
for better training and support overall in the areas of recruitment and hiring, due process, and
staff discipline. According to Rodriguez et al., (2021), based on their research findings, robust
professional development must include a wide range of topics supported by the district
administrator. The findings are clear that novice school leaders need more support in human
resource management. Human capital training is essential (Rodriguez et al., 2020).
Discussion Research Question Two
The data was collected in response to the research question: Which administrative areas
do novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized communities identify as being the least
prepared for? This study finds that most school administrators felt that they were competent in
their roles but could be better prepared through intentional aspects of training and support rather
than learning as they go. The three key findings that emerged were: the lack of time to complete

76
tasks, which is complicated by the lack of feedback received by supervisors; the need for more
professional development, including leadership strategies within the school leader role; and
better structure support in human resource management. The research is clear that school
districts should apply the following strategies to retain successful principals: 1) be mindful of the
workload to keep the work engaging and meaningful; 2) provide differentiated support,
especially for newer administrators; 3) foster a collaborative culture among principals; and 4)
build and maintain supportive relationships between principals and their supervisors at the
district level (Melloy, 2018). In juxtaposing the literature with the data collected in this study, it
is evident that there is a gap between the existing knowledge base of best practices and existing
structures for novice administrator support, training, and shared accountability. This gap leads to
a turnover rate in what otherwise could be successful school administrators leading in our most
disenfranchised schools.
Results Research Question Three
Research Question Three inquired: How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe
their professional learning training effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the
success of marginalized students in Los Angeles County? There was compelling data on what
constitutes effective professional development for new BIPOC school administrators. There was
limited data, however, that directly aligned with a leadership design and focus on the success of
marginalized students, which will be discussed in chapter five. In the data collected, three themes
surfaced regarding effective professional development: the lack of coaching and mentoring; the
breadth and depth of professional development; and the need for feedback.

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Lack of Coaching and Mentoring
Based on the data from Table 1.8 the first finding that emerged under research question
three is a lack of coaching and mentoring support. Seventy-nine percent of participants indicated
that they receive coaching some of the time or never, leaving only 21% of participants indicating
that they receive coaching and mentoring most of the time or always. This data contradicts what
research indicates is a necessary practice in leadership effectiveness; i.e., leverage support
through coaching and mentoring (Mendez-Morse, 2004 & Browne-Ferrigno, & Muth, R., 2004).
Three participants reported “never” receiving this form of structured peer support. This data is
further examined in the interviews. Participant D, for example, stated: “It is rare to receive
mentoring. In some instances, the person who is supposed to be mentoring me at the work site is
completely overwhelmed and does not have the time.” Participant A shared that the limited use
of mentoring or coaching at his site was a corrective action and not a proactive part of the
professional learning program. He commented, “The only mentoring or coaching I get is when I
make a mistake; however, I believe there should be mentoring to be preventive.” In support of
this concept, Participant D expressed: “There should be a system where new school
administrators get assigned a non-evaluating mentor. Currently, I do not have a mentor that is
non-evaluative.” Similar to Participant B, Participant C shares that he has a great mentor, but his
mentor is also his supervisor. He shared, “My principal is my mentor, and he is excellent. He
gives me a lot of guidance; however, when he gets busy, I do not talk to him often. We both get
super busy. It would be nice to have a set mentor to meet periodically.” Mentoring and coaching
are crucial for the development of the school leader. According to Grissom & Harrington (2010),
school leaders who have a mentor or coach perform better.

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The study data showed that while formal and informal mentoring or coaching support are
desired by novice leaders, their systems often lack the structures to provide these supports and
rely instead on informal collegial networks lacking a specific design. For example, the interview
participants expressed they did not have a roadmap on how to improve or develop as school
leaders. One participant mentioned that he did receive specific support in one area of his role but
no comprehensive leadership support to enhance his overall leadership. Participant D revealed:
“I do receive support for my role and a type of mentoring for a specific component of my role
but not for my whole body of work and for my overall professional development.” Participants
did state they had someone to reach out to in case they had questions and they felt safe doing so.
Participant B stated: “If I have any questions regarding anything, I look up the department that is
responsible in the district office, and I reach out. They are willing and very helpful.” Yet, this
self-help collegial approach points to the lack of a systematic feedback design focused on
supporting novice leader growth. Participant A shared: “I have not gotten any feedback that is
specific. Feedback is usually general and with little guidance in how to get it done.” The lack of
a roadmap for growth that can be tracked causes a gap in learning. All four interview participants
stated that they do not have or have never been exposed to a roadmap that covers any significant
amount of time that helps them develop. Participant C stated: “I have tasks assigned for my role
but no specific roadmap for myself to professionally develop or grow.”
The lack of mentors and the lack of proactively designed support structures tailored for
new school administrators points to a gap in organizational design. Mentoring and coaching have
been identified as one of the most critical support system components a novice school
administrator should have to assist in navigating their duties (Gray & Bishop, 2009; Hayashi,
2016; Bloom & Krovetz, 2001; Grissom & Harrington, 2010; Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006;

79
Sezgin et al., 2020). Additionally, engaging seasoned administrators as mentors is necessary for
program design. One noted exemplary program in the research literature points to the Boston
Schools, which formally assigned a mentor to novice school leaders for their entire first year
(Takata, 2008). A mentor can provide a novice school administrator with best practices in how to
handle the daily tasks of their role while developing a deeper understanding of the scope and
breadth of their work as leaders
Table 1.8

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Professional Development Helpful in Performing Roles, Yet Insufficient in Scope and
Breadth
The second finding revealed that participants felt their professional development helped
them in assisting them in performing their role but was insufficient. The data in Table 1.9 is
based on the survey question: “Does the professional development offered by your school
organization assist you with your job competency?” The participants responded in the following
manner: two respondents stated “Always,” nine indicated “Most of the time,” 12 indicated
“Some of the time,” and one participant answered “Never.” The data below indicates that most
participants agreed that professional development offered by their organization assisted them
with their job competency at some level. Interviewed participants also expressed that
professional development helped them in their role. Participant A stated “When I attend
professional development, it does help me get ideas in how to complete a task. What is very
helpful, is professional development gives us dates and resources on who to contact in case we
have questions about how to accomplish a major task.” Participant C stated: “Professional
development is super helpful to network and receive specific support.” Participant D reported:
“Without the support I received from the LRE, the special education district administrator, I
would be completely lost. She helps so much to organize and make sure I follow all the
protocols.” Participant C stated: “All the professional development that is offered that I attend is
very helpful, especially when they cover material of areas I am in charge of and I have no
experience in.”
Within the second finding, as supported by survey and interview data, we find that while
professional development is highly valued, it was insufficient. These findings are not aligned

81
with what research indicates school leaders need. According to Tingel et al, (2019), continuous
and job-related professional development is critically important for leaders to be effectively
prepared for their role. Examining the data across survey questions shows the lack of a sustained
job-specific professional development system for novice leaders. In Table 1.10 we see that 22
participants reported 0 to 6 experiences with coaching in the last 12 months. Data from Table 1.7
indicates that 15 participants had only 0 to 10 professional development sessions in the last
twelve months. Then in Table 1.10, the data indicates that 75% of respondents had between 0-3
incidents of performance feedback over 12 months.
Table 1.9

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Lack of Continuous Feedback
The third finding that emerged from the study was the consistent lack of continuous
feedback. This finding is not aligned with the best practices identified in the literature. Feedback
is necessary and essential for the professional growth of the school leader (Levin et al., 2017).
Table 1.10 provides data based on the survey question: “In the last 12 months, how often has
someone sat with you to review your areas of strength and growth in your current role?” The
participants responded with the following: 18 indicated 0 to 3, four indicated 4 to 6, two
indicated 7 to 10, and 0 indicated 11 or more. This data highlights that most respondents did not
have regular check-ins to track their professional development and help them refine their
practices. The data in Table 1.8 is based on the survey question: “How often does someone
mentor or coach you?” One participant reported: “Always,” four reported “Most of the time,” 16
“Some of the time,” and three reported “Never.” Based on the data, most participants reported a
lack of systems to ensure consistent coaching and mentoring. Only five participants reported
consistent mentoring and coaching, which means that 19 participants did not receive crucial
consistent mentoring and/or coaching. Participant B stated:
We need more support as a new school administrator with no to little experience in
operations. I need a lot of help, if it were not for more seasoned administrators at my
school, I would not know what to do in regard to safety protocols, student discipline, and
maintenance of the building. We do not receive consistent mentoring or progress
monitoring to improve. I am always looking to improve but I am not given the feedback.
I assumed if I am not corrected on a task, I am doing well. It would benefit me and the
students who were serviced if I received concrete and consistent feedback on my tasks. I

83
do have people that I can reach out to for support; however, it is up to me, and I
sometimes do not know what I need or what to ask.
Participant C reported:
It would be beneficial if we got a cheat sheet on major areas of a school with prior
training and then continuous training. My principal is great, and he coached me when we
are not both busy. I am proactive and seek his guidance consistently. The school
organization I work for does not have a formal mentoring or coaching system for new
assistant principals.
Participant A stated: “We do not receive enough training; we need more. Most of the time I need
to reach out to colleagues in different schools to figure out what to do. I have many years of
experience in English Learner compliance but very little in instruction, student behavior, and
operations.” Consistent and relevant professional development for novice school leaders is very
important. Successful organizations are good at building the capacities of school staff and
preparing them for future leadership roles (Fusarelli, 2018). School organizations need to build
systems to support school leaders.

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Table 1.10
Discussion Research Question Three
The data addresses the research question: How do novice BIPOC school administrators
describe their professional learning training effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused
on the success of marginalized students in Los Angeles County? There are indicators that emerge
from this study on specific ways to improve the overall support for novice school leaders. The
data collected though was not sufficient to extrapolate themes that were specific to training needs
and topics related to leading in a school with large numbers of marginalized students. The three
themes that surfaced were: professional development was effective but insufficient in scope,
coaching and mentoring as a support strategy is key, but largely missing, and novice
administrators need more specific and continuous feedback on their leadership. The literature is
clear that school organizations need to create specifically designed support systems for school
leaders that include five components: 1) high-quality professional development for leaders and
their staff; 2) support from a strong administrative team with adequate resources; 3) competitive

85
salaries; 4) appropriate decision-making authority within the school context; and 5) evaluations
characterized by timely feedback (Levin, 2019). The participants in this study identified three of
these five areas in their responses. While the research literature is explicit on what school leaders
need, the data in this study identified significant gaps between research and practice for school
districts in Los Angeles County.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes findings utilizing the Novice School Leader Support
Conceptual Framework (see Figure 1) based on Social Cognitive Theory and Adult Learning
Theory. This study examined the experiences of novice BIPOC administrators. Important
research findings in the form of themes and trends in the data are discussed. The study findings
can be used to better inform how district leadership can create a more robust system to support
new school administrators in marginalized communities. Additionally, recommendations for
improved practices will be discussed with the goal of creating a sense of urgency to support new
school administrators.
The study focused on the development and nurturing of new school leaders. Considering
that new school administrators play a critical role in setting the future course of school districts,
new school leader support needs to be elevated in importance. School leaders are the custodians
who guide the mission and vision of the school (Smith, 2016). This is a high-stakes matter
because school leaders impact the learning that occurs at a school. The stakes are magnified
when considering school leaders who support marginalized communities, where achievement
gaps are often significant. School organizations are accountable for addressing the education gap.
Using three key research questions, this study helps districts to reflect upon their practice and
critically examine the support systems they provide within their schools for new leaders in order
to better meet the needs of the historically marginalized community they serve. School
organizations must be reflective of current trends and practices to create healthier systems of
support for school leadership staff. The following questions guided this research:

87
1. How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los Angeles County who serve
marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding process for the first three
years on the job?
2. Which administrative areas do novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized
communities identify as being the least prepared for?
3. How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe their professional learning training
effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the success of marginalized
students in Los Angeles County?
This is a phenomenological research study design. This study used a mixed approach to
collecting data through surveys and interviews. The survey and interview purpose was to capture
the essence of a participant's experience as a novice school administrator (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). This study collected data from 24 participants through surveys and four participants
through interviews. For this study, a qualitative research model was utilized. This process allows
the researcher to have access to participants' daily experiences to gain a better understanding of
how parallel structures and systems impact professional capacity development and related stress
factors.
Findings
Research Question One
Research Question One inquired: How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los
Angeles County who serve marginalized communities describe their on-the-job onboarding
process for the first three years on the job? The first finding that emerged was a concern that
participants experienced an onboarding process centered around logistics and documentation and
not on the communication of tasks and support system for their role. This finding contradicts

88
what the literature states is best practice for school leader development. According to the
research, school districts should apply the following strategies to support new administrators:
differentiated support, especially for newer administrators; fostering a collaborative culture
among principals; and building and maintaining supportive relationships between administrators
and their supervisors at the district level (Melloy, 2018). When triangulating the findings from
the survey and interviews with the research, there was a disconnect between research and
practice. The data showed that onboarding processes lacked differentiation among the school
leaders' roles and did not provide the tools necessary to prepare the school leaders for their
day-to-day tasks. All participants indicated that they did not have a formal onboarding
experience as new school administrators. The focus was on more human resources-related
procedural matters, such as completing paperwork to ensure necessary documentation to start
on-site as soon as possible. These findings support the research that also demonstrates the
leadership development problem. Our nation faces the challenge of preparing future school
leaders (Levine, 2006). In order to address this gap between best practice research and actual
practice, school organizations must address this leadership readiness need with more robust
professional development before the school leaders begin their roles at the school site.
The second finding was that the opportunity for role-specific professional development is
highly limited. This finding is aligned with the literature confirming that professional
development is not aligned with what the school leader needs. According to Grissom &
Harrington (2010), it has been challenging for scholars to identify what administrator
professional development should teach, what the structure should entail, or by what criteria its
success should be evaluated. This struggle with design is substantiated in the survey data which
shows an average of less than one professional development session per month for novice

89
administrators. The survey participants communicated that professional development supported
learning in certain areas, but it did not cover their entire scope of responsibilities. Additionally,
interview participants indicated that work demands caused them to miss professional
development because they felt that they could not step away from their responsibilities. School
organizations must create better partnerships, such as with institutions of higher learning, to
ensure professional development is aligned with the school leaders' needs.
The third finding discovered that school organizations do not provide a scaffolded
support plan for new school leaders. School organizations have little guidance on strategies for
creating robust systems to support current school leaders (Grissom & Harrington, 2010). The
research that has been discovered shows that school leaders are not given scaffolded support to
be able to fulfill their roles well. All interview participants stated that professional development
was general in nature and lacked individual or comprehensive support relative to their scope of
duties. This finding raises concern because novice leaders who have a wide breadth of campus
responsibilities, from student achievement to safety and operations, are asked to perform duties
they do not have the skills to do (Elmore, 2005). The school leader must have individual and
task-specific support for them to be able to effectively lead schools.
Research Question Two
Research Question Two inquired: How do novice BIPOC school administrators in Los
Angeles County who serve marginalized communities describe what they feel they are the least
prepared for in their role? The first finding revealed the high-stress levels of new administrators
due to time constraints and insufficient supervisor feedback. According to the research, school
districts should be mindful of the workload to keep the work engaging and meaningful (Melloy,
2018). Research also concludes that new administrators would benefit from evaluations that are

90
characterized by timely feedback (Levin, 2019). The findings in this study are the antithesis of
what research reveals about how school administrators should be on-boarded and continuously
supported. The survey indicated that most participants experienced average moderate to high
stress, consistently. Additionally, most of the interview participants expressed frustration with the
lack of time and support from district-level leadership. The lack of support experienced by
participants as well as the added levels of stress experienced results in a high turnover rate
(Levin et al., 2020). School organizations can begin to mitigate this concern by revisiting how
job duties are assigned during the onboarding years and co-determining what support system
new school leaders need.
The second finding revealed the multiple demands of the job and the strategies needed to
manage those demands. According to Levin, (2019), districts need to explore how to better
balance a school leader's workload. The workload based on the interview responses seems to be
unsustainable for any one individual. The causes of work overload seem to come from the design
of the school system. School systems are getting exactly what they have been designed for. All
the interview participants expressed that they were responsible for areas of their job description
that they did not have the training to lead or the time to supervise. The findings show that the
interview participants have potentially more areas they are responsible for than is possible to
efficiently manage.
The third finding illustrated the skills novice leaders indicated they need in human
resource management. The findings from the study indicated that most of the novice school
leaders had little to no experience in human resource procedures and yet needed skills in areas
such as how to effectively manage staff members who need intensive support and how to manage
capacity when there are high or continuous vacancies. This skill development need is even more

91
urgent when we consider that all participants were leading in marginalized communities. How
can novice leaders meet their student learning and support responsibilities when they have no
clear strategies for managing school capacity, including vacancies? These findings are consistent
with the literature confirming that districts with hard-to-staff schools have a huge challenge of
recruiting, training, and retaining school leadership and school staff (Fusarelli, 2018).
Research Question Three
Research Question Three inquired: How do novice BIPOC school administrators describe
their professional learning training effectiveness relative to a leadership design focused on the
success of marginalized students in Los Angeles County? The first finding revealed a lack of
coaching and mentoring. Unequivocally, mentoring and coaching are among the highest-leverage
support systems school leaders need, especially novice school leaders serving marginalized
communities. The first years in a new position are always daunting, especially in higher-level,
high-accountability positions. New school leaders are at the top of the hierarchical order in
schools and in many instances do not have seasoned peers in their schools like other staff
members (Yirci & Kocabas, 2010). The practice of assigning a mentor to a new school leader
should be common, not exceptional (Aluoch, 2013). The findings from the study are clear that
there is a huge gap in the opportunities for mentoring and coaching for novice school leaders in
marginalized communities, in contrast with what the literature indicates is the best supportive
practice. Research shows that school leaders reiterate the importance of having a coach/mentor
who can help them navigate their leadership roles (Bruce, 2006). It is the school organization's
responsibility to ensure systems are in place to assign a mentor to new school leaders and for the
new leaders to receive consistent coaching for them to develop as school leaders.

92
A second finding discovered the participant's view that professional development is
helpful in better preparing them to perform their roles; however, there are insufficient
professional development opportunities for novice school administrators. Survey and interview
data pointed out that professional development is not broad or deep enough relative to leadership
responsibilities. The interview findings indicated that novice school leaders come to their new
leadership appointments with a multitude of skill deficits due to their broad roles and
responsibilities, with minimal support and a lack of an intentional professional growth design.
Studies have identified professional development that facilitates the school leader to increase
field knowledge and skill development is needed to better serve the school community (King &
Newmann, 2001; Enomoto, 2012; Gray & Bishop, 2009; Birhanzel, W. 2007). Equally
important, professional development must be continuous and assist the school leader to be
continuously reflective of their practice (Kelley, 2009; Gray & Bishop, 2009). School
organizations must do a better job of providing continuous and comprehensive professional
development to new school administrators if they are to successfully execute their
responsibilities.
Limitations
One of the limitations of the study findings was the small sample size. The internal
validity is impacted by the reliance on self-reported data. The survey data collected represented a
small percentage of school districts in Los Angeles County. Additionally, survey participants
were from marginalized communities. Furthermore, because this study relied on self-reported
data (surveys, interviews), limitations could include respondent validity. Triangulation of
findings assisted in overcoming this threat to validity. The inability to generalize study findings
may also constitute a delimitation of this study, due to the size and scope of the sample

93
population. However, the purpose of this research was not to generalize. Rather, this study was
intended to provide a rich description of the experiences of novice school principals serving
marginalized communities. These descriptive findings, while not generalizable across all
educational contexts, do allow for contextual inference and applicability through the depth of the
description.
Research Positionality
My positionality is that I am a BIPOC school administrator. I have been a student and
belonged to a community that is considered marginalized by the demographic breakdown of the
population as a child and all the way to young adulthood. I have been involved in education for
approximately 28 years, the last seven years as an assistant principal serving marginalized
communities. I have experienced the gap between university leadership certification programs
and the transition to leadership roles. I have also experienced and witnessed the lack of systems
in school organizations that serve marginalized communities in onboarding and training new as
well as experienced school leaders. Furthermore, I have been part of a BIPOC school leadership
movement in Los Angeles County that has become the majority; however, there is a lack of
support systems in the form of professional development and mentor opportunities that are
killing the spirit of BIPOC leaders.
Recommendations and Implications for Practice
Three critical recommendations were formulated based on the study findings. The first
recommendation is for school organizations to build partnerships with local universities that have
a school administrative program to support aspiring administrators and current administrators.
The literature indicates that when school organizations develop deep partnerships with
universities, strong support systems can be created. The Boston Public Schools is a model design

94
of a school organization that has created a system to support school leaders and embodies the
findings in the Stanford Educational Leadership Institute and the Wallace Foundation. According
to Takata (2008), the Boston College-Lynch-Boston Public School Principal Fellowship is a type
of program that has created well-designed systems and provides school leaders with the skills
and support systems to be successful, increasing the likelihood of student achievement being
impacted positively.
The second recommendation is for school organizations to create an intentional and
effective onboarding process for new school administrators focused on the high-stakes
responsibilities of their roles. School organizations in marginalized communities need to create a
comprehensive system that is intentionally designed to prepare and support school leaders to be
successful from day one of their new role. According to Miller (2021), all school leaders must be
given the appropriate skills and adequate content knowledge that will enable them to address all
the critical components of their role. The students in these communities, who are victims of
long-standing opportunity gaps, need to have knowledgeable and effective administrators. One of
the non-negotiable components of high-quality preparation programs is onboarding training done
before the start of the new administrator’s position in the fundamentals and best practices of the
role. There should be a formalized system where school leaders attend some type of week-long
sessions in which they are assigned their school roles and exposed to best practices. One of the
lessons from the Boston College-Lynch-Boston Public School Principal Fellowship is the
onboarding that occurs before the start of the role better prepares the school leader to impact
student learning (Takata, 2008). The first phase of the onboarding must be an introduction to
leadership through the lens of the mission and vision of the organization and a pre-test based on
the skills or mandated responsibilities that need to be learned and that are fundamental for the

95
role. The second component is a planned calendar of mandated professional development for the
new leader during the entire school year and the assigning of a mentor leader. The rest of the
session would be specifically designed to cover the day-to-day tasks of the school leader’s role,
where best practices are shared and mentors collaborate with new hires to brainstorm how to
implement their responsibilities at the new leader’s school site. This onboarding practice is
aligned with what the literature reveals are best practices and with the vision outlined in the
Novice Leadership Support Conceptual Framework (See design 1.1).
The third recommendation is for school organizations to adopt high-quality mentoring
program designs. One of the most consistent supportive practices in the literature is the benefit of
having a mentor (Gray & Bishop, 2009; Hayashi, 2016; Bloom & Krovetz, 2001; Grissom &
Harrington, 2010; Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Sezgin et al., 2020). A great example of a strong
mentor program is the Kansas Educational Leadership Institute (KELI). According to Liang &
Augustine-Shaw (2016), the KELI program provides a robust mentoring program that was
created through a partnership between the school districts and universities.
Future Research
More research is needed in the area of professional development for school leaders,
especially regarding novice school administrators serving high-need communities. The research
must be centered on theories and the application of theories to the day-to-day responsibilities of a
leader. The type of research that is currently available identifies the needs of school leaders and
potential remedies for lack of preparation. Yet, the current research misses the mark on the
specificity of how school districts can prescribe comprehensive professional development for
school leaders. The findings from this study support current literature which concludes that there
is a lack of deep research on best professional development practices regarding how to

96
comprehensively support a novice school leader within the context of schools with high student
needs.
Another area that needs further research is how to best support BIPOC school leaders.
There are a few studies that address the need for BIPOC school leaders; however, despite the
large number of urban school districts with leadership that is representative of the community,
the research is not substantive enough. For example, in Los Angeles County, the majority of
school administrators are BIPOC. The phenomenon of how to differentiate support for this
population is important because culturally responsive designs are essential for a diversified
national student body.
Conclusions
School organizations through the Social Cognitive Learning Theory and Andragogy must
address how new BIPOC school leaders and schools in marginalized communities which are
made up of mostly BIPOC students are best served and led. Social Cognitive Learning focuses
on how people learn best in social settings, and Andragogy Theory covers how adults best learn
in a safe social environment. School organizations must differentiate support based on the
community novice school leader's support. A component is for the school organization through
professional development to contextualize the demographics and challenges for the school
leaders when leading schools in marginalized communities. The themes that surfaced in the
study revealed the gap that school organizations have in the development designs for their new
BIPOC school leaders, which raises the stakes because these leaders are running schools in
marginalized communities. This systemic design problem perpetuates the relationship between
being BIPOC and being marginalized. School leaders serving marginalized communities are not
being sufficiently supported and are not sufficiently prepared to change the course of history that

97
continues to under-educate and under-prepare students and that disrespects whole communities
of people. The lack of adequate and quality support for the school leader will continue to create
learning and support gaps for the BIPOC students they serve. School systems must learn from
Social Cognitive Learning Theory and Andragogy Theory to support BIPOC school leaders. The
path to achieving this must be based on creating a system in which new school leaders are
exposed to an onboarding system that prepares them to understand their roles and responsibilities
with action plans for how to achieve them. They must be assigned a mentor to help them
navigate their first years in their new role. The professional development must be continuous and
ongoing, guided by an individualized roadmap that highlights areas of strength and growth that
can be tracked by the new school leader, the school organization, and the mentor. The ideal
setting for a novice school leader is to have a comprehensive support system not just
components. The components must be; onboarding, mentor, cyclecal professional development,
continuous differentiated support from the mentor, and pre-test and post-test to gauge mastery
and areas of need based on laws, school organization policies, and leadership standards. These
are components that are needed to have better-prepared school leaders. This is the type of
support new BIPOC school leaders must have to begin addressing the inequalities marginalized
students have experienced and continue to experience today.

98
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Appendix A
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) School Administrators Professional
Development and Adult Learning
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. There is no cost to you for taking part in this study. This
document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is
unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to provide insight into how through the Social Cognitive Theory and
Andragogy: Adult Learner Theory lenses novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC)
secondary school administrators' experiences who serve marginalized communities are prepared
and continuously supported to fulfill their role by universities and school organizations. This
study will explore what causes on-the-job stress for BIPOC administrators. The combination of
the Social Cognitive Theory lens and Andragogy: Adult Learning theory will be used to start the
conversation of what might be some areas that need further research and possible solutions.
Finally, what are some possible solutions to address gaps in professional development and
alleviate job stress for administrators? Having effective leaders in schools with a history of
marginalization is ideal in order to assist school leaders in empowering the community they
serve.
ALL PARTICIPANTS MUST MEET THE CRITERIA BELOW
1. Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC)
2. Novice School Administrators have no more than three years of experience as a
school-based administrator
3. Serving a school with sixty percent of the student population participating in the free or
reduced lunch program
4. 7 years of experience in education
5. Living in Los Angeles County for more than 10 years
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a twenty to thirty-minute
survey and possibly a forty-five to sixty-minute semi-structured interview. All interviews will be
audio-taped. You have the option to not answer any question(s) during the survey and interview.
If you do not want to be taped during the interview, handwritten notes will be taken.

115
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected
whether you participate or not in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
MARCOS SOLORZANO will be the Principal Investigator of this study. Any identifiable
information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your interview
responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. Each
participant's name and the place of their employment will be protected as anonymous, as they
will be given a label such as “Participant: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Theta. You will have
the right to review and edit the audio recordings or transcripts of the one-on-one interview. All
audio tapes related to this study will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. The
transcripts will be stored in a labeled flash drive, which only the Principal Investigator can
access. All labeled transcripts will be destroyed in three years.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors the research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the study, please contact the following individuals:
Principal Investigator
Marcos Solorzano at marcoss@usc.edu
Faculty Advisor
Dr. ChristinaKishimoto at ckishimo@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, 213 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Consent to Participate
I have read and understand the preceding information. Any questions or concerns I have
regarding participation in the study have been answered satisfactorily. By checking the
authorization box and signing below, I signify that I meet the requirements for participation and I
affirm my consent to participate in this study. The consent provided below shall remain in effect
unless explicitly withdrawn. Further, I understand that I may withdraw from the study at any
time, for any reason, and without penalty.
I authorize an audio recording of my interview.
I prefer transcription of my interview
I agree to participate in this study.
Printed Name: _______________________________________________________________

116
Signature: ___________________________________________________________________
Date: _______________________________________________________________________

117
Appendix B
Interview Cover Sheet/Protocol:
New Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) School Administrators Professional and Adult
Learning
____________________________________________________________________________
Name of Researcher:
Date of Interview:
Name of Interviewee:
City:
Authorizer’s Phone Number:
Authorizer’s Email:
Interview Start Times:
Interview End Time:
______________________________________________________________________________
Introduction
Hello, school administrator. My name is Marcos Solorzano I am a doctoral student at the
University of Southern California. This interview will take approximately forty-five minutes to
one hour. Please, feel free to ask any clarifying questions during the process. The primary
objective is to collect data, I am not here to evaluate you or your organization. This interview is
confidential, apart from me, your name and the organization that you work for will not be
disclosed. Even the document used to collect notes will be labeled with unidentifiable markers
as they will be given a label such as “Participant: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Theta”. All
interview transcripts will be in labeled flash drives, and the data will be deleted from the flash
drives in 3 years. Only the principal investigator will have access to the transcripts. This was
explained in the signed consent form you signed which is part of the Study Information Sheet.
Do you agree with the protocol to ensure the confidentiality and storage methods of the data
collected in this study?
The study is being conducted to better understand the job stressors and professional
development experiences of novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized
communities. You were chosen for this study because you identify as being BIPOC and you
serve a school in a marginalized community. BIPOC is widely used as an umbrella term for all
people of color. Additionally, The term “novice” administrator is defined as someone who has
less than three years in their current role. My understanding is that you have been in your
current role for less than three years. Are you willing to participate in this study? Do I have
permission to record this interview? Or do you prefer I transcribe the interview? Do you have
any questions before we begin?
First, I’d like to learn more about your background.
Questions (with transitions)

118
Participants Positionality
1. What is your ethnicity and where did you grow up?
2. What were the demographics of your hometown and the high school you attended?
3. Describe your educational background and professional experience.
4. What inspired you to become a school administrator in a marginalized
community?
For the purpose of this study, the Onboarding process is defined as the action or process of
integrating a new employee into an organization or role.
Effectiveness of the Onboarding Process
5. Describe how your university administrative program prepared you for your
current role. What are some areas of the program that were very helpful and
what are some areas that need to be revisited by the university in order to better
support future school leaders?
6. Describe your experience in regard to the onboarding process.
7. Describe how your onboarding process equipped you for your first day, first week,
first month, and through the first semester of your leadership role.
Preparation and Work-Related Stress
8. Describe what area of your role you feel the least prepared for.
All jobs have a level of stress school administrators are no different. For the next question, I
will use a scale of 1-10. 1 is no stress at all 10 being I am overwhelmed and may get an anxiety
attack at any moment.
9. Using this scale of 1 to 10, how much pressure and stress do you experience
daily, weekly, and monthly? Explain why you rate it the way you do.
10. What causes you the most stress or is the most difficult thing about your role?
11. What systemic change would help alleviate this?
12. Describe your support system at work to help you navigate the stress you

119
experience from your role.
Professional Development
13. Describe the type of professional development you have received for your role.
14. Based on your experience, describe how professional development prepares you,
if at all, to be successful in your job and be a school leader
15. How, if at all, does professional development equip you with tools that assist you
and your staff maximize student learning?
16. Describe your organization's PD roadmap in creating action plans to build upon
one’s leadership skills.
-Please describe this experience as it pertains to you.
-Please describe this experience as it pertains to other leaders in your
organization.
17. Describe how the person(s), if any, integrated said action plan for improvement.
-Please describe this experience.
18. Describe your experience when you have a question or situation at your school site
and the necessary assistance is not readily available to you. Who do you seek
assistance from in your organization? Do you feel safe and supported in asking
questions?
Closing
Is there any information you shared with me that you want me to omit?
It was a pleasure to have you as part of this learning experience. Is there anything you would
like to add that was omitted? Is there any feedback on how I may make this process smoother
for participants? I appreciate your time and participation.

120
Appendix C
SURVEY PROTOCOL
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
Novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) School Administrators Professional
Development and Adult Learning
Introduction
Hello, school administrator. My name is Marcos Solorzano I am a doctoral student at the
University of Southern California. This survey will take approximately twenty minutes to thirty
minutes to administer. The primary objective is to collect data. The purpose of this survey is not
to evaluate you or your organization. This survey is confidential, apart from me, your name and
the organization you work for will not be disclosed. The survey format used to collect data will
be labeled with unidentifiable markers as they will be given a label such as “Participant: Alpha,
Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Theta”. This was explained in the signed consent form you signed which
is part of the Study Information Sheet.
The study is being conducted to better understand the professional development, job stressors,
and experiences of novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized communities. You
were chosen for this study because you identify as being BIPOC and you serve a school in a
marginalized community. BIPOC is widely used as an umbrella term for all people of color.
Additionally, The term “novice” administrator is defined as someone with less than three
years in their current role.
Please answer the following questions:
Demographics
Questions Response Type of Questions
and Alignment
to Research
Question
1. What social group do you identify
with?
a.Latino or Latina
b.Black/ African
American
c.Asian
Demographics

121
d.Middle Eastern
e.Indigenous
f.Multi-Racial
g.I prefer not to
disclose
2. How long have you been working in
Los Angeles County as an educator?
a. 1-5 years
b. 6-10 years
c. 11-16 years
d.17 years or more
Demographics
Effectiveness of the Onboarding Process
3. How effective was your university
administrative program process in
preparing you for your current role?
a. Highly Effective
b. Effective
c. Ineffective
Research Question 1
4. How effective was your job
onboarding process to prepare you for
your first days, weeks, and months in
your new role?
a. Highly Effective
b. Effective
c. Ineffective
Research Question 1
5. Based on your onboarding process,
how well-defined were your duties and
tasks?
a. Very Define
b. Somewhat Define
c. Not Define At All
Research Question 1
Professional Development

122
6. Estimate the number of professional
development sessions you have
attended in the last 12 months for your
leadership development.
a. 0-5
b.6-10
c. 11-16
d.16 or more
Research Question 2
7. Professional development provided
me with tools or information to make
me more competent in my role.
a.Always
b.Most of the time
c.Some of the time
d. Never
Research Question 2
8. In the last 12 months, how often has
someone sat with you to review your
areas of strength and growth in your
current role?
a.0-3
b. 4-6
c.6-10
d.10 or more
Research Question 2
9. How often does someone mentor or
coach you?
a.Always
b.Most of the time
c.Some of the time
d.Never
Research Question 2
10. Does the professional development
offered by your school organization
assist you with your job competency?
a.Always
b.Most of the time
c.Some of the time
d.Never
Research Question 2
Work Competency and Work-Related Stress

123
11. Do you feel competent in your role
as a school administrator?
a.Always
b.Most of the time
c.Some of the time
d.Never
Research Question 2
12. How would you rate your
work-related stress?
a.High
b.Medium
c.Low
Research Question 2
13. What area of your roles do feel the
least prepared for
Research Question 2
14. How can your school organization
help you alleviate work-related stress?
Research Question 2
Closing
It was a pleasure to have you as part of this learning experience. I appreciate your time and
participation.

124
Appendix D
Survey Introduction Email
Introduction
Hello, school administrator. My name is Marcos Solorzano I am a doctoral student at the
University of Southern California. This survey will take approximately twenty minutes to thirty
minutes to administer. The primary objective is to collect data. The purpose of this survey is not
to evaluate you or your organization. This survey is confidential, apart from me, your name and
the organization you work for will not be disclosed. The survey format used to collect data will
be labeled with unidentifiable markers as they will be given a label such as “Participant: Alpha,
Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Theta”. This is explained in the consent form which is part of the Study
Information Sheet attached to this email.
The study is being conducted to better understand the professional development, job
stressors, and experiences of novice BIPOC administrators who serve marginalized
communities. You were chosen for this study because you identify as being BIPOC and you
serve a school in a marginalized community. BIPOC is widely used as an umbrella term for all
people of color. Additionally, The term “novice” administrator is defined as someone with less
than three years in their current role.
Thank you for your interest and your time. I have attached the Informed Consent Information
Sheet please sign it and return it to me through email. Below I have pasted the link to the survey.
If you have any questions please feel free to email me at marcoss@usc.edu
https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/FY5QQS9
Thank you,
Marcos Solorzano

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Asset Metadata

Creator Solorzano, Marcos Saul (author)

Core Title Novice Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) school administrators' professional development and adult learning

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 03/13/2024

Defense Date 02/23/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag andragogy,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,school administrators,social cognitive theory

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Kishimoto, Christina (committee chair), Franklin, Gregory (committee member), Green, Alan (committee member)

Creator Email marcoss@usc.edu,msolorz1978@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113851032

Unique identifier UC113851032

Identifier etd-SolorzanoM-12693.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-SolorzanoM-12693

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Solorzano, Marcos Saul

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240319-usctheses-batch-1129 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu