University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Women in leadership: how female leaders fair in America’s commercial insurance industry

(USC Thesis Other)

Women in leadership: how female leaders fair in America’s commercial insurance industry

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Women in Leadership: How Female Leaders Fair in America’s Commercial
Insurance Industry
Christopher Adam Alcala
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Christopher Adam Alcala 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Christopher Alcala certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Paula Carbone
Cathy Krop, Committee Chair
Kalim Rayburn
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine systemic gender disparities that exist in the
senior-level leadership ranks in the United States. Specifically, this study investigates a top-ten
sector of American industry that has been marked by consistent gender inequities within its
senior leadership ranks for most of its history: the commercial insurance industry. This study
utilizes Bandura’s social cognitive theory to examine the problem and provide a theoretical
framework for the study’s research questions to examine the reciprocal relationship dynamics
between person, behavior, and environment. This research uses a qualitative design. Eight female
leaders from the commercial insurance industry were interviewed and data were gathered on
their perspectives concerning inequities in the leadership progression of women. This study
analyzes the data and formulates findings related to purposeful decisions not to pursue higher
leadership positions, perceptions of biases and exclusion, and the need to build stronger networks
and impactful relationships. This study’s findings are also used to recommend ways to increase
the representation of women in leadership roles within the commercial insurance industry.

v
Dedication
To my wife Shanena, thank you so much for the incredible amount of patience you
displayed on this journey. I cannot thank you, or the kids, enough for the sacrifices you made to
support me on this endeavor; I love you, honey! To my kids Gabriel and Amelia, I truly hope you
understand how much I love you and how inspiring you both have been to me. Please never stop
being the amazing and wonderful dreamers you are. I would be remiss not to acknowledge my
mother, Martha, and my godmother, Lena. You two raised me into the man I am today, and I owe
so much of my success in this world to you both.
Finally, I want to thank the rest of the amazingly supportive people in my life: my entire
MBV Cohort 7 family, Fran, Jim, Brittni, Frank, Christian, Roman, Ricky, Josh, Derek, Reid,
Harpreet, and Ress. Thank you so much, everyone. Fight on!

vi
Acknowledgements
I want to express my eternal gratitude to the staff of the OCL program at USC.
Throughout this doctoral journey, they showed incredible professionalism and patience. I want to
especially thank my committee chair, Dr. Cathy Krop: You are the epitome of an educator, and
others should strive to emulate your teachings; thank you from the bottom of my heart. I would
also like to thank the rest of my Cohort 20 classmates. From the beginning, our ethos was that we
would leave no doctor behind, and I think we stuck to that throughout this journey. Thank you to
each of you for providing me with a source of inspiration throughout.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study.......................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 1
Field Context and Mission.......................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions............................................................................ 4
Importance of the Study.............................................................................................................. 4
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology............................................................. 5
Definitions................................................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Dissertation ................................................................................................. 7
Gender Disparity......................................................................................................................... 8
Gender Biases Inherent to Leadership .................................................................................... 8
Gender Inequality in the Workplace ..................................................................................... 10
Women in Leadership ............................................................................................................... 14
How Women Lead ................................................................................................................ 14
Attributional Qualities of Female Leaders............................................................................ 16

viii
The Leadership Landscape for Women in Commercial Insurance ....................................... 18
Increasing Gender Diversity in Leadership Ranks ................................................................... 20
The Importance of Increasing Gender Diversity in Leadership............................................ 20
U.S. Legislative Efforts at Gender Disparity Reform........................................................... 22
Theoretical Framework............................................................................................................. 25
Research Questions................................................................................................................... 30
Overview of Methodology........................................................................................................ 30
Data Sources ............................................................................................................................. 31
Interviews.............................................................................................................................. 31
Participants........................................................................................................................ 31
Instrumentation. ................................................................................................................ 33
Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................................... 33
Data Analysis............................................................................................................................ 35
Credibility and Trustworthiness................................................................................................ 36
Ethics......................................................................................................................................... 37
The Researcher.......................................................................................................................... 38
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 39
Research Question 1: At What Level Do Women in the Commercial Insurance Industry Feel
Their Progression to Leadership Positions Begins to Stagnate?............................................... 41

ix
Finding 1: Women are Making Conscious and Purposeful Decisions to Remain in MidLevel Management Positions Based on Familial Roles and Responsibilities...................... 41
Research Question 2: What Gender Biases Do Women in the Commercial Insurance Industry
Perceive as Significant Barriers to Their Leadership Progression?.......................................... 44
Finding 2.1: Time Spent Away on Maternity Leave Can Affect Women’s Ability to Maintain
Parity in Their Leadership Progression Paths with Male Peers............................................ 45
Finding 2.2: The Generations in Which Women are Born Influence Their Views of Gender
Roles, Biases, and Perceptions of Biases.............................................................................. 47
Finding 2.3: Being Excluded from Social Events Can Detrimentally Impact Leadership
Advancement for Women ..................................................................................................... 50
Finding 2.4: There is Gender Disparity in the Hiring and Vetting Processes for Women
Seeking Leadership Roles..................................................................................................... 52
Summary of Research Question 2............................................................................................. 54
Research Question 3: What Recommendations for Practice Do Women in the Commercial
Insurance Industry Have to Increase the Progression of Women to Leadership Positions? ..... 54
Finding 3: Build Impactful Relationships and Strong Networks.......................................... 55
Summary................................................................................................................................... 56
Discussion................................................................................................................................. 58
Recommendations for Practice ................................................................................................. 61
Recommendation 1: Promote and Encourage the Creation of Professional Women’s
Networking Groups............................................................................................................... 61

x
Recommendation 2: Reform Maternity and Paternity Leave Usage Policies ...................... 64
Recommendation 3: Change the Narrative of Women in Leadership .................................. 67
Limitations and Delimitations....................................................................................................... 68
Recommendations for Future Research.................................................................................... 69
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 69
References..................................................................................................................................... 71
Appendix A................................................................................................................................... 95
Appendix B................................................................................................................................... 96
Appendix C................................................................................................................................... 99

xi
List of Tables
Table 1 Recruitment Questionnaire Participant Categorization Explanation ............................. 35
Table 2 Stakeholder Demographics ............................................................................................. 40
Table 3 Recommendations for Creating Gender Parity in the Use of Maternal and Paternal
Leave ............................................................................................................................................. 66

xii
List of Figures
Figure 1 Reciprocal Causation Relationship Between the Elements of Social Cognitive Theory26
Figure 2 The Reciprocal Causation of Social Networking-Based Leadership Progression
Programs....................................................................................................................................... 63

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
This study explores the gender disparity that exists among senior-level leaders in
corporate America. This study seeks to illuminate how barriers to leadership ascension remain
for women in the United States despite decades of legislative and social movements. To better
understand this problem, this study explores the leadership styles of men and women, gender
biases, and the importance of gender diversity in corporate leadership and governance and
ultimately recommends ways to eliminate barriers to gender diversity within leadership ranks.
One sector of the American business landscape that has historically seen significant gender
disparity amongst its highest tiers of leadership is the commercial insurance industry. As such,
this study uses the commercial insurance industry as the subject of interest for an in-depth
analysis and exploration of gender disparity in leadership.
Background of the Problem
“Why should women accept this picture of a half-life, instead of a share in the whole of
human destiny?” (Friedan, 1963, p. 91). These words from Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine
Mystique ignited several decades of women’s rights movements in America (Cady, 2009). During
the 1960s, women were beginning to find themselves returning to the workforce in everincreasing numbers. Yet, their pay was lower than that of their male counterparts, and upward
mobility to senior leadership positions was very elusive (Bailey et al., 2021; Rhode, 2003).
Throughout the next several decades, women would still find themselves trailing men in their
climb up the corporate America power structure (Rhode, 2003). In fact, wage gaps became so
pervasive and employment opportunities and prospects for advancement so elusive for women
that legislative initiatives such as the Equal Pay Act, the Civil Rights Act, the Women’s
Educational Equality Act, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, and the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay

2
Restoration Act were all passed from 1960 to 2009, which aimed at trying to eliminate inequities
in the workplace (Klenke, 1996; Milligan, 2023).
According to the 2020 U.S. Census, there were 167.5 million women in the United
States. Of that year’s population, about 56.2% of women were participants in the workforce
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). Despite decades of cultural movements aimed at
increasing the participation of women in the workforce and equal rights for men and women,
gaps in gender parity still exist (Biswas et al., 2021). One area in which women see a sizeable
void in parity is in executive-level leadership roles within some of the largest firms in America. A
survey of S&P 500 companies in 2016 found that only 19.9% of women occupied board of
director seats in those corporations (Hideg & Shen, 2019). The late-2018 #MeToo movement
sparked a cultural awakening and focused the attention of many Americans on the fight for
gender parity. By 2022, the number of women who occupied board of director-level positions
rose to 31.1% among major American corporations (Imberg & Shaban, 2022).
Despite the percentage increase in women occupying board of director positions, there
still exists a large disparity from a proportional perspective. When analyzing the American
workforce from a holistic perspective, women occupy just over half of all jobs, according to the
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022). Even when factoring in subtle decreases in labor force
participation—mostly attributed to the economic effects of the coronavirus pandemic—women’s
workforce participation has continued to rise steadily over the last several decades (U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2022). Studies over the last several decades have attempted to ascertain the
root causes of the disparity between increased workforce participation among women and their
lack of possession of key leadership positions (Biswas et al., 2021; Mun & Jung, 2018; Ropero,
2018). Some of the root causes of the disparity that have been identified include the number of

3
female representatives on a company’s board of directors (Biswas et al., 2021), a lack of—or
misguided—corporate social responsibility initiatives (Mun & Jung, 2018), women’s exits from
leadership ascension paths due to parental responsibilities (Ropero, 2018), and a lack of authority
granted to female managers to promote the interests of subordinate female managers (Ropero,
2018).
Other studies suggest the importance of women in leadership. For example, a 2010 study
analyzing the relationship between corporate performance and the presence of women in
leadership roles reported that, first, when conditions of parity were optimal—male/female
workforce size, working conditions, academic pedigree—women tended to perform better than
men in roles that are traditionally dominated by men (Rodríguez-Domínguez et al., 2012).
Second, the researchers reported that diversity of thought, ability, and opinion were best balanced
from a gender perspective when the board of directors of a firm achieved gender parity or
favored women. Moreover, corporations realize both economic gains and favorable fiduciary
relationships with investors when their boards of directors achieve equitable margins of gender
diversity (Groening, 2019; Rodríguez-Domínguez et al., 2012). Research on women’s roles in
leadership has consistently come to the same conclusion: Disparity and inequity exist, even
though they should not (Kim & Starks, 2016).
Field Context and Mission
In 1759, the first insurance company was established in what was colonial America.
Today, the American commercial insurance industry is valued at $1.4 trillion (Horton & Smith,
2024), which makes it one of the top ten industries in the country. From a human resources
perspective, the industry employs about 2.8 million people, with women comprising around 60%
of that workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). In certain sectors of the industry, that

4
percentage can be as high as 78% (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). Despite representing a
high percentage of the workforce, women are underrepresented in key leadership roles.
Throughout the industry, women occupy only 6% of executive-level positions, hold 8% of officer
titles, and hold 12% of board seats (Angelina & Sharma, 2012). Those numbers have risen only
slightly since 2012 despite industry-wide efforts to increase gender diversity (STEMconnector,
2018). Subsequent to 2012, demographic data on the leadership ranks of the commercial
insurance industry are published mostly by large insurance firms or can be found in anecdotal
articles relevant to gender diversity—the 2012 study is the most recent academic writing that
could be found on the demographics of America’s insurance industry leadership ranks.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to understand from the perspective of women in the
insurance industry their underrepresentation in key leadership roles despite comprising more
than 60% of the workforce. The following research questions guide this study:
1. At what level do women in the commercial insurance industry feel their progression to
leadership positions begins to stagnate?
2. What gender biases do women in the commercial insurance industry perceive as
significant barriers to their leadership progression?
3. What recommendations for practice do women in the commercial insurance industry
have to increase the progression of women to leadership positions?
Importance of the Study
In a 2015 article titled The Power of Parity: How Advancing Women’s Equality Can Add
$12 Trillion to Global Growth, author Jonathan Woetzel researched the relationship between
equality for women in the workplace and its effect on economic growth. Their research

5
highlighted that the issue of women’s equality is not only a social imperative but also an
economic one. The research indicated that if corrective actions were taken across the globe to
achieve gender parity, the resultant impact would be a 28 trillion dollar increase in the global
GDP by 2025 (Woetzel et al., 2015). While their research highlights the global impact of
workplace gender equality, the results cannot be ignored locally. The commercial insurance
industry, the focus of this research, must continue striving for gender equality to realize
significant economic growth and address the sector-wide growth that has slowed to 3.4%, fully
2.4% below the U.S. GDP growth of 5.8% (Dunsavage, 2022). Economic slowing indicates that
an industry requires change and innovation (National Science Board, 2018).
Beyond economic advantages, there are other benefits from having a gender-diverse
leadership cadre. Extensive research has shown that a corporation that cultivates gender-diverse
leadership teams increase diversity of thought, opinion, and perspective; increases creativity and
productivity; and reduces mistakes (Chyu et al., 2020). Research has also shown that there are no
discernible differences in the effectiveness of men versus women in leadership (Brown & Reilly,
2008). Furthermore, some evidence suggests that male leaders can lead more effectively by
manifesting leadership qualities more closely associated with traditionally feminine traits
(Gartzia & van Knippenberg, 2016). Additional research suggests that initiatives to increase
gender diversity and extract diverse capabilities are more successful when the initiatives focus on
leveraging differences among associates versus simply hiring more women or minorities (Ely &
Thomas, 2020).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework guiding this study is Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT).
Bandura’s explanation of person, behavior, and environment and their causal effects on one

6
another have permitted a thorough examination of the root causes of gender disparity in
leadership. This is possible because of the reciprocity between the three elements in Bandura’s
theory (Usher & Schunk, 2019). To better understand the relationships between person, behavior,
and environment, this study explores the idea of how one perceives their ability to not only
perform their job but also succeed—the idea of self-efficacy. In understanding how a person’s
internal sentiment can be affected by an organization (the environment), their reciprocal
relationship emerges along with an understanding of the relationship between internal sentiments
about oneself and how those sentiments can be influenced by the behaviors of an organization
(Ozyilmaz et al., 2018). Bandura has also written extensively on social role theory, which can be
integrated into many of the core concepts being examined by SCT. Social role theory utilizes
gender as the primary basis for explaining the various roles and behaviors an individual assumes
and displays within society (Eagly, 1997).
This study utilized a qualitative methodology for both the data collection and analysis
phases. The process for finding study participants started with a recruitment questionnaire which
was distributed to women in the commercial insurance industry, as detailed in Chapter 3.
Following the questionnaire, a brief review of each respondent was conducted, after which time,
eight interviews were conducted. The interviews provided a more in-depth understanding of the
research questions. Additionally, the participants’ answers reveal firsthand accounts of their
progressions and norms as well as the perspectives affecting gender diversity in leadership ranks.
Ultimately, the data improve the understanding of participants’ perspectives on societal,
organizational, and personal–internal barriers.

7
Definitions
This section provides working definitions of key terms found in this study. For the
purposes of this study, male refers to individuals born with male reproductive organs
(VandenBos, 2007). For the purposes of this study, female refers to individuals born with female
reproductive organs (VandenBos, 2007). Each term was defined using definitions found in the
American Psychological Association dictionary.
Organization of the Dissertation
This study includes five chapters. This first chapter introduces the problem of practice
and context of the study, the specific field in which the problem of practice was studied, the
purpose of the research, its importance to the industry being studied, an overview of the
theoretical framework of the research, and a brief discussion of the methodology. Chapter Two
includes a detailed analysis of the research underlying the discussion of the topic of study. The
third chapter provides the methodological approach used to answer the study’s research
questions. It also describes the criteria used to select study participants as well as the methods for
data collection and analysis. The fourth chapter discusses the study’s findings. The fifth chapter
concludes the study by recommending ways for the industry to address the underrepresentation
of women in leadership.

8
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Literature pertaining to gender disparity in the commercial insurance industry is almost
nonexistent. Therefore, this chapter examines, in-depth, literature related to gender inequality
and disparity from broader perspectives. The first portion frames the problem of gender disparity
from a macro-level perspective, then delves into a micro-level discussion of the specific traits of
women leaders and the landscape within which women find themselves in the commercial
insurance industry. Embedded within these reviews are examinations of the legislative efforts of
the United States to establish gender equality in the workplace. This chapter concludes by
reviewing the theoretical framework of Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT); Bandura’s
theory is defined and its place in the conceptual framework of this study is explained.
Gender Disparity
This analysis of literature related to gender biases in leadership begins by examining the
macro-level framing of gender disparity. This review examines the preference for masculine
versus feminine leadership attributes, the role of mentorship and role models, how the evaluative
process can create disparities, gender stereotyping, and the role of socially accepted gender
norms. This section ends with a review of the phenomenon of self-stereotyping.
Gender Biases Inherent to Leadership
Biases, specifically ones that focus on gender as prejudice, are ingrained in the psyches of
most individuals when studied in relation to their perceptions of leadership competency and
success (Boyce & Herd, 2003). Numerous studies over several decades have indicated that a
strong division amongst men and women exists when asked to describe their idealized measures
of leaders (Brenner et al., 1989; Dodge et al., 1995; Norris & Wylie, 1995; Schein, 1975; Schein
et al., 1989). A study of college students in the late 1980s found that their perceptions of success

9
of leaders were split amongst the genders of the participants (Brenner et al., 1989). In other
words, men adhered to a more masculine ideal of successful leadership while women believed
that successful leaders should display a mix of both masculine and feminine attributes. Later
research has shown that this type of incongruity is detrimental to the subordinate–leader
relationship (van Gils et al., 2018).
Ample research suggests that leaders can notably influence team and/or individual
performance (Gerstner & Day, 1997; Judge et al., 2004; Lowe et al., 1996; Walter et al., 2021).
The subordinate–leader relationship can, however, also be reciprocal in nature. Research has
shown that when gender biases are introduced into this relationship, there can be adverse effects
for both parties (van Gils et al., 2018). Other evidence suggests that when increased levels of
efficacy manifest between leader and subordinate, the resultant behaviors demonstrate increased
trust, improved overall job performance, and higher levels of subordinates engaging in beneficial
activities beyond the responsibilities primarily expected for their roles (Ilies et al., 2007; van Gils
et al., 2018). These resultant behaviors can also positively influence the social relationship
between subordinates and leaders (Ilies et al., 2007).
The importance of building social relationships between subordinates and leaders is
important when there are variances in demographics, such as when there is sex dissimilarity
(Chattopadhyay, 1999). When men found themselves in female-dominated relationships—when
trust via social interactions had not developed—men were more likely to mistrust their female
counterparts or leaders. However, their interactions with colleagues of both genders were far
more likely to be positive and inclusive. Furthermore, women in male-dominated relationships—
again, when trust via social interactions had not developed—were more likely to be isolated by

10
their male counterparts and found difficulty showcasing their worth to male leaders (Kanter,
1993). This could be especially detrimental when attempting to build trust and respect.
Further, a 2016 study found that women were less likely to be admired and/or respected
by male subordinates at the onset of their relationships (Vial). Women were not respected until
they legitimized their status as leaders or unless their performances as leaders were viewed
favorably when they assumed a leadership role (Boyce & Herd, 2003; Ilies et al., 2007). A
validating event can be used to help determine the competency of a person’s ability to perform
their duties. Events like these can be challenging evolutions in which a leader’s competency is
tested. And for women, the evaluative process is an area in which they find biases inherent to
their leadership journeys (Heilman, 2001).
Most societies enshrine certain norms and expectations concerning the competency and
ability of each gender to perform roles (Weyer, 2007). Preconceived expectations about
leadership competency are not immune from this form of gender stereotyping. Several studies
have suggested that preconceived gender stereotyping can impact the way women are evaluated
as leaders (Auster & Prasad, 2016; Eagly et al., 2003; Forsyth et al., 1997; Weyer, 2007). As
Auster and Prasad (2016) have noted, biases in the evaluative process can emerge during the
leadership selection process to make it more challenging for women to be promoted.
Gender Inequality in the Workplace
Gender inequity in the workplace has been a major topic of discussion and debate within
the national ethos for the past half-century (Newman, 2016). Because of the attention paid to it
by so many, overt gender discrimination has lessened, but it is still a part of the business
landscape in America (Dashper, 2019). Masculinity is still seen as a favorable trait when
determining promotions, assessing favorable work assignments, and evaluating preferable traits

11
of successful leaders (Dashper, 2020; Lewis, 2006). Men sometimes seem unaware of this
disparity, as evidenced by a 2001 study in which many male participants did not understand why
they were being questioned about whether their leadership experiences had been affected by their
being men (Whitehead).
Evidence of gender inequality in the workplace can also be found in more tangible ways.
The 2016 U.S. Census revealed that women earned an average of 80% what their male
counterparts earned. U.S. government employees who were women reportedly earned 87.3% as
much as men (Hamidullah et al., 2021). Moreover, this disparity in pay is not resolved for
women in key leadership roles, as they are more likely to receive lesser salaries than men who
occupy the same roles (Alkadry & Tower, 2006). Women not only face pay inequity when
reaching leadership positions but also have far fewer chances of reaching those roles.
Research has shown that when men and women share a collective leadership space and,
within these confines, are afforded the freedom to collaborate on ideas, strategies, and
methodologies for business operations, their firms are far more likely to financially succeed
(Elias, 2018). However, corporate America still avoids women in key leadership roles. A 2016
study showed that women comprised 4.4% of Fortune 500 company CEOs; the study compared
that statistical data against market performances, which indicated that companies with higher
representations of women in leadership roles returned better overall financial statements (Elias,
2018).
Women’s difficulty ascending the corporate ladder is not a new concept in discussions of
equity. However, the root cause of this inequity has been heavily debated for decades (Alkadry &
Tower, 2006). Some researchers have posited that women have a more difficult time in their
quests for leadership roles because they are more likely to begin their careers in low-level

12
administrative positions (Mani, 1997). Another theory suggests that the immobile nature of
female careers is tied to deeply rooted sentiments and beliefs about the familial role of women in
American society (Mani, 1997). According to this theory, women are discouraged—by either
external or internal sources of influence, or a combination of both—from seeking advancement
because of commonly held beliefs that a woman’s primary roles are mother and homemaker.
The idea that women are aligned with domestic responsibility to both home and children
was brought to the forefront of the debate on gender equality when the idea of the second shift
was introduced in 1989. In The Second Shift (1989), Arlie Russell Hochschild addresses the
notion that women in the workplace report to a second job when they arrive home. These
responsibilities to home and family carry an added layer of complexity. Research has suggested
that when women position themselves as career professionals, any daughters they have are not as
likely to emulate their mother’s career-oriented lifestyle (Croft et al., 2014). Further, daughters
were found to be more likely to emulate mothers who took on the homemaker role, or what the
researchers termed gender-stereotypical roles (Croft et al., 2014).
A review of gender disparity in the workplace must also examine the usage of mentorship
and role modeling and the roles they play in the disparity landscape. Research has shown that
mentorship is a key determinant in career development for both men and women (Guy, 1993).
Corporate programs aimed at eliminating gender disparity typically utilize mentorship programs
as an instrument of change (Dashper, 2019). These programs are designed to allow women to
access higher echelons of leadership and be mentored by figures they can emulate and receive
career advice from (Ramaswami et al., 2010). Men, however, have found it easier to access these
types of mentoring programs (Elliott et al., 2011) and have a higher career advancement success

13
rate than women when using those programs (Dashper, 2019; Elliott et al., 2011). While typically
well-intentioned, mentorship programs can also be a catalyst for exacerbating gender inequities.
For women, mentorship programs can also detrimentally impact their social standing
within an organization (Dashper, 2020). Women who gain upward mobility by means of
associations built from mentorship programs have been found to suffer from a misperception
amongst their peers and subordinates as to the reasoning behind their elevation (Heilman, 2001).
Preferential treatment, diminished standards, and a lack of competency are commonly cited
themes when workers are polled about female advancement via mentorship (Heilman, 2001;
Heilman & Blader, 2001; Kravitz & Platania, 1993). Moreover, women are typically taught in
these programs to ignore their innate feminine qualities and embrace traditionally masculine
characteristics (Elias, 2018).
The suppression of female qualities and the acceptance of biases toward their gender is an
all-too-familiar behavior for women in the workplace. In some cases, mothers will hide the
illnesses of their children and fain illness themselves to avoid the potential stigma associated
with taking time off for childcare (Elias, 2018). Other women experience a phenomenon known
as self-stereotyping (Croft et al., 2014). Self-stereotyping was showcased in a 2014 research
study in which male and female respondents were asked to identify attribute categories that
closely aligned with their gender roles. Female respondents overwhelmingly chose the category
home, while men chose the category work (Croft et al., 2014).
The notion of internal psychological factors influencing individuals can also help to
explain some of the causal factors of gender disparities. A 2016 study of undergraduate students
preparing to enter the workforce showed that individual endorsements of stereotypes such as
gender biases directly contributed to the propagation of those stereotypes in settings such as the

14
workplace (Cundiff & Vescio, 2016). When individuals appear to endorse behaviors associated
with gender biases—whether by overt or subconscious action—they directly undermine many of
the programs and efforts designed to reduce inequity (Cundiff & Vescio, 2016).
Women in Leadership
The following section examines women in leadership from macro to micro perspectives.
First, a review of the literature that highlights variances in leadership styles and subtleties
introduces the topic from a macro level. Next, a review of studies that highlight how men and
women view each other as leaders and what endearing qualities both genders possess addresses
both the parity and mutual respect for female leadership styles that exist amongst men and
women. At the micro level, research that examines how business investors view leadership
qualities and characteristics seek to align investor motivations with what research has shown to
be qualities and attributes more commonly found among female leaders. This section concludes
by reviewing the leadership landscape in which women find themselves in America’s
commercial insurance industry.
How Women Lead
The contrast between male and female leadership styles has been studied and debated for
decades. A common element among much of this research is the belief that there is variance in
how men and women lead (Post, 2015). Others have posited that there are advantages to the
ways in which women lead compared to the leadership styles of their male counterparts (Grant,
1988; Rosener, 1990). However, this does not mean that female leaders in the United States were
quick to embrace the traits attributed to their gender. Rather, many of the pioneering women in
corporate leadership were found to have embraced distinctly masculine leadership qualities

15
(Rosener, 1990). It was not until the 1980s that a shift in women’s perceptions about their
leadership abilities became apparent (Jonsen et al., 2010).
Research from the 1970s suggests that the underlying sentiment amongst male managers
when rating their subordinate male and female managers was “think manager—think male”
(Schein, 1973). The attributes stereotypically assigned to women were helpful, understanding,
empathetic, and attuned to the feelings of others; conversely, male leaders were described as
forceful, active, emotionally stable, and independent (Heilman et al., 1995). Male traits were
thought to be the reason for their success as leaders, and the stereotypical traits of women were
thought to be a hindrance (Jonsen et al., 2010). While a lack of gender parity in leadership
opportunities remains problematic in the United States, sentiments about women’s abilities as
leaders have begun to shift in the United States, as evidenced by the appointment of Rep. Nancy
Pelosi as the first female speaker of the House in 2007, the removal of the ban on women in
combat roles in 2013, and the presidential nomination of Hillary Clinton in 2016 to become the
first woman to receive a nomination from a major political party (National Women’s History
Alliance, 2018).
Political appointments and victories are not the only areas in which female leaders have
displayed their prowess as successful leaders. The global pandemic that began in 2020 provided
a difficult landscape for leaders to navigate. Many Americans contracted COVID-19, and largescale shifts from in-person to remote working arrangements became increasingly prevalent. A
successful remote working arrangement requires a robust network infrastructure, a strong HR
department, and leaders who can not only cultivate positive interpersonal dynamics but also do
so with a geographically separated team (Offstein et al., 2010). Both quantitative and qualitative
research on leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic suggests women possess attributional

16
leadership qualities, which make them adept at handling crises that require teams to be
physically separated (Eichenauer et al., 2022).
Attributional Qualities of Female Leaders
Communal leadership is a term often associated with the qualities of female leaders
(Eichenauer et al., 2022). Communal leadership is a style defined by its supportive, nurturing,
and relationship-building qualities (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Rosette & Tost, 2010). The converse
of communal leadership is agentic leadership, which is defined by aggressive, independent,
decisive, and forceful traits (Rosette & Tost, 2010). Researchers have posited through the lenses
of both social role and role congruity theories that society expects men and women to be either
agentic (masculine) or communal (feminine) leaders (Rosette & Tost, 2010). When a leader
exhibits both agentic and communal traits, they are considered androgynous leaders (Eagly &
Carli, 2007). A 2014 study on androgynous female leaders suggests that while some women
leaders do find success when displaying a mixed approach to leadership, traditionally communal
leaders are often equally successful (Wolfram & Gratton).
Results of a 2009 study showed that certain segments of male leaders view their female
counterparts as possessing superior leadership qualities (Ibarra & Obodaru). Envisioning,
empowering, energizing, designing, aligning, rewarding, providing feedback, team building,
demonstrating an outside orientation, possessing a global mindset, demonstrating tenacity, and
displaying emotional intelligence—these elements were cited as dimensions of leadership as part
of the study, which attempted to showcase how male and female leaders view themselves (Ibarra
& Obodaru, 2009). Participants were asked to rate each gender on the dimensions of leadership
and indicate whether they believed women or men were more capable leaders in each category.
The results yielded two findings. First, women perceived themselves as better leaders in four of

17
the 10 categories, while men did not rank themselves as the more favorable of the two genders in
any category. Second, women were selected as the more favorable of the two genders in all but
three of the dimensions of the leadership inventory categories.
Other research has identified particular attributes of women leaders. For example, women
are more likely to be leaders who stress and strive to build positive interactions amongst their
team members (Post, 2015). They do so by focusing on developing close relationships with their
peers and subordinates that convey positivity, sincerity, and emotional investment (Cross &
Madson, 1997). Within the spectrum of leadership theory, this is commonly known as relational
leadership or leader relational behavior (Carmeli et al., 2009). Relational leaders have strong
connections within their organizations because they focus on positive reinforcement, relatability,
empathy, and investment in human capital (Carmeli et al., 2009). These types of leaders focus on
creating positive social interactions amongst their subordinates and use this social capital to
motivate those same subordinates (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006). Because of their emphasis on
positive social interactions and bonding, relational leaders often lead entities that score highly on
surveys measuring employee satisfaction and longevity (Carmeli et al., 2009).
Context also affects how women lead and their effectiveness at doing so. For instance,
when women lead entities requiring increased levels of coordination and communication, their
ability to create bonds and bridge gaps is of great utility, especially for teams that are
geographically or otherwise separated (Post, 2015). In these instances, female leaders show a
great propensity for success by focusing on cooperating, achieving shared goals, highlighting
mutual interests, and improving cohesion through communication (Chatman & Flynn, 2001).
Women leaders likely also differ from their male counterparts in transactional versus
transformational leadership styles (Rosener, 1990). Researchers have posited that men often

18
subscribe to a more transactional style of leadership philosophy (Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 1998;
Burns, 2010). This style of leadership involves managing subordinates through a series of
exchanges, which at some level serve both the leader, the subordinate, and the entity (Eagly,
Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003). While effective in certain circumstances, transactional
leadership is not commonly associated with female leaders (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van
Engen, 2003). Instead, women are more commonly associated with a style of leadership known
as transformational leadership (Hentschel et al., 2018). By embracing this style, leaders strive to
increase the satisfaction of their subordinates, enhance their subordinates’ sentiments towards the
organization, and alter behaviors and performances through positive reinforcement and increased
ownership of internal processes (Hentschel et al., 2018). While female representation in key
leadership roles has begun to steadily increase in several major sectors of American businesses
(Flabbi et al., 2019), women occupy a small percentage of these roles in America’s commercial
insurance sector despite comprising much of the workforce population (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2022).
The Leadership Landscape for Women in Commercial Insurance
Throughout its 260-year history in the United States, women have been a constant
presence in the workforce of the commercial insurance industry. Industry-specific periodicals
have extensively covered the history of women in the industry and noted that women’s roles did
not begin to shift until the 1960s (Hubbard, 2018). During that era, women began to emerge as
leaders of a few companies within the industry and were taken more seriously as contenders for
leadership roles (Hubbard, 2018). Today, women comprise around 60% of the 2.8 million people
working within the industry (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022;). Angelina and Sharma
(2017) have noted that women occupy 6% of executive-level positions, 8% of officer titles, and

19
12% of eligible board of director seats. Research on women in leadership roles indicates that
those statistics are either below or aligned with the national average when considering American
business in the aggregate (Mok et al., 2022).
According to the Census Bureau, women occupy around 94% of jobs classified as
traditionally administrative as their core function (Beckhusen, 2022). Furthermore, the role of an
insurance professional is classified as administrative by the Bureau of Labor Statistics 2022—
therefore, women are critical to the insurance sector. The industry has openly discussed this lack
of women’s representation in leadership positions, including during 2018 conference
highlighting women in the industry (The STEMconnector). During the conference, major
corporations from the industry pledged to commit to initiatives aimed at reducing the level of
gender disparity in their leadership ranks. According to a 2019 report on increasing gender
diversity within the insurance industry, the number of women occupying leadership roles rose
only slightly after the 2018 initiatives and has held steady at 11% across most leadership roles
studied (Stuart).
Stuart’s 2019 report noted that the industry had to work to reduce unconscious biases
about women’s leadership abilities and create succession planning initiatives that include female
candidates. By 2022, industry-produced articles about gender diversity in leadership found that,
in some instances, insurance companies had improved their ratio of female leaders by as much as
30%; however, women occupied 13% of the CEO roles industry-wide (Milian & Demarchi,
2022). Most periodical, study-driven, and opinion pieces agree that progress has been made but
more can and should be done (Ellingrud & Lodolo, 2019; Hibbert & Schmidt-Soelch, 2021;
Milian & Demarchi, 2022; Stuart, 2019).

20
Increasing Gender Diversity in Leadership Ranks
Within the United States, both the public and private sectors have undertaken initiatives
aimed at increasing the level of gender diversity in leadership roles at workplaces. This section
reviews some of the legislative initiatives passed specifically to address gender disparities within
corporate America. While not meant to specifically address leadership disparity among male and
female professionals, the legislative efforts outlined in this section do serve as a national-level
affirmation of gender disparity. From addressing equal pay to outlawing discrimination against
pregnant women, American politicians have sought ways to not only call attention to this issue
but also craft legal obstacles protecting women’s rights.
The Importance of Increasing Gender Diversity in Leadership
When a party invests money into a business, they have an intrinsic motivation to see a
positive financial return on their expenditure (Wiencke et al., 2019). Both institutional and
individual investors evaluate their investment choices based on some of the same characteristics,
such as risk aversion, investing experience, entrepreneurial experience, knowledge of the
industry or sector, and confidence (Niemand et al., 2018). Because investors are both risk-averse
and financially motivated, it can be posited that they would have at least some vested interests in
the person(s) charged with leading an organization. That assertion is based on research that
suggests that most investors (excluding those who fall into activist investor categories) are
primarily focused on seeing the greatest financial return on their investments (Hoobler et al.,
2018). Thus, the question is posed: Do investors want more women as leaders?
One of the hallmarks of measuring the effectiveness of a business leader is determining
their value to an organization and whether they have demonstrated an ability to deliver tangible
gains to their organization (Hoobler et al., 2018). Women have had difficulty demonstrating their

21
effectiveness under these measurables, which is typically attributed to their limited opportunities
to lead (Mensi-Klarbach, 2014). In 2022, women occupied 8.8% of the total CEO positions in
the United States and 9% in Fortune 500 companies (Mok et al., 2022). This does not mean,
however, that they have not been able to demonstrate quantifiable effectiveness when leading
corporations or on a board of directors. Research indicates that, when afforded the opportunity to
serve in those positions, female leaders have outperformed their male peers in both market
performance and financial gains (Campbell & Minguez Vera, 2010; Davis et al., 2010; Hoobler
et al., 2018). One explanation posited by researchers for the success of female leaders is their
ability to be chameleon-like in their leadership styles. While some women find success as purely
communal leaders, others find success as agentic leaders, albeit with heavier scrutiny (Rosette &
Tost, 2010). The scrutiny under which some agentic or androgynous female leaders find
themselves arguably derives from the sociological effects of gender role incongruence (Hogue,
2016; Rosette & Tost, 2010; Wolfram & Gratton, 2014).
Another explanation for their success is that they are under consistent pressure to perform
and are heavily scrutinized (Kanter, 1993; Ryan & Haslam, 2007). In part because of that
scrutiny, women are likely to run organizations with strong corporate social performances that
are ethical in their business practices, encourage diversity of thought and opinion, and increase
gender and racial diversity (Hoobler et al., 2018; Jouber, 2022). Further, there is evidence to
suggest that increased gender diversity within corporate leadership ranks positively affects
corporate social performance regardless of the level of scrutiny faced by female leaders (Jouber,
2022). The increased corporate social performance typically elicits a response from a business
marketplace, and the ways in which markets react to the prowess of female leaders is a complex
dynamic. Research has indicated that it is difficult to determine how a marketplace will respond

22
to a woman at the helm (Cook & Glass, 2011; Rosa et al., 1996; Smith et al., 2021). This
difficulty has been attributed to a lack of research on how women leaders affect their
organizations, aside from research on how women affect sales performances (Hoobler et al.,
2018). The current body of research typically relies upon legacy theories that assume inherent
variances in the ways in which men and women lead (Mensi-Klarbach, 2014). Or, in the case of
a 2021 study conducted to determine shareholder value after a female CEO is announced, the
variance in market reaction was attributed to the level of media coverage the announcement
received (Smith et al.). However, existing research on the subject provides some initial insights.
First, more women in key positions, such as on a board of directors, have been shown to
increase value because of their commonly communal style of leadership and their penchant for
inclusivity (Mensi-Klarbach, 2014; Smith et al., 2021; Wolfram & Gratton, 2014). Second, and
in contrast to the first view, it has been posited that boards and corporate entities make decisions
less effectively because of sacrifices made for the sake of gender diversity, as potentially more
qualified men are excluded from roles in favor of including more women (Campbell & Minguez
Vera, 2010; Mensi-Klarbach, 2014). There is ample evidence to suggest, however, that a pivot
towards gender parity, or in some cases, a wholesale change towards female leadership, can
directly positively influence a firm’s ability to cater to a marketplace (Davis et al., 2010;
Matsuno & Mentzer, 2000; Narver et al., 1999). As a result of their alignment with the
marketplace, corporations can enhance their financial performances, increase sales, generate
higher revenue growth, and return favorable ratios of profitability (Davis et al., 2010).
U.S. Legislative Efforts at Gender Disparity Reform
During the 1960s, the United States passed legislation aimed at curtailing gender and
racial inequities. In 1963, the Equal Pay Act was passed, which prohibited employers from

23
paying men and women unequal wages if they were equally qualified (Vandenberg, 2020).
Historic in its attempt to bring about equity, the Act did allow legal loopholes that were exploited
by employers until a 2009 case illuminated the discriminatory practices still being practiced
throughout the nation (Renberg, 2020; Vandenberg, 2020). A suit brought by Fresno County
Office of Education employee Aileen Rizo argued that the pay calculation formula used by her
new employer did not consider her qualifications for the position (Vandenberg, 2020); rather, it
upheld longstanding discriminatory practices that based salary computations exclusively on
previous levels of compensation. During the Rizo v. Yovino adjudication proceedings, it was
found that these practices were discriminatory and not in keeping with the intent of the Equal
Pay Act (Renberg, 2020).
In 1964, the United States passed bipartisan legislation known as the Civil Rights Act.
The Civil Rights Act aimed to abolish certain racist policies within the United States that
restricted the freedoms of historically marginalized communities (Epstein, 2014). However, the
Act also included provisions that addressed gender discrimination. The Civil Rights Act allowed
for the separation of genders in certain circumstances where the behavior of men would not
allow for the protection of women in public spaces such as train cars and subways (Epstein,
2014). While universally accepted as historic in its effort to normalize race relations in the
United States, women’s rights and accommodations would not be specifically addressed for
some time (Epstein, 2014).
Postsecondary education attainment has been shown to be a contributing factor in not
only achieving employment but also succeeding in career progression in corporate America
(Baum & Flores, 2011). Seeking to offer equal access to postsecondary education opportunities
to men and women, the United States passed the Education Amendments in 1972. However, a

24
review of the regulation argued that its passage may have been less a response to national
pressure to normalize access to higher education and more a result of an increase in female
leadership voices occupying corporate America, academia, and politics (Rose, 2016). This influx
was a result of women entering postsecondary education in increasing numbers during the 1960s
(Clowes et al., 1986). Research has shown that the Higher Education Act of 1965 may have
increased access and reduced gender discrimination in higher education more than the Education
Amendments (Rose, 2016). This has been attributed to the Higher Education Act’s reformation
policies regarding access to student aid amongst men and women. The next legislative initiative
aimed at decreasing gender disparity would soon follow.
In 1978, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act was passed, which made the disparate
treatment of pregnant women an illegal form of discrimination (McCammon & Brockman,
2019). Support for the act and legacy gender disparity-focused legislation was influenced more
by feminine rights groups and other informal political networks than by mainstream political
consortiums (Weldon, 2002; Woodward, 2004). Research on women’s rights legislation has
posited that this informal policy-making process would continue to be the quickest way to pass
these types of measures for the next several decades (Hobson, 2006; Whittier, 2016; Woodward,
2004).
Aside from national legislative efforts, some states have also attempted to ensure gender
equality. In 1996, California enacted legislation that prohibited state-run institutions from
offering preferential treatment to any individual regardless of sex, race, color, or national origin
(Zhang, 2022). Just over half of all state constitutions prohibit gender-based discrimination
(Bannon & Powers, 2022). However, only half of the states within the Union have passed
amendatory acts aimed specifically at increasing gender equality or prohibiting sex-based

25
discrimination in areas such as education, healthcare, or banking (Bannon & Powers, 2022). Of
particular importance is ensuring access to higher education for women, which has been shown
to directly impact women’s ability to both gain employment and attain leadership roles
(Ballenger, 2008).
Chief among the central themes that emerge from this literature is the idea that biases and
human behavior play important roles in the disparate leadership environment women face
(Burns, 2010; Cundiff & Vescio, 2016). This environmental landscape in which women face
disparity is typically associated with workspaces, and as stated in previous research, women
form strong connections with their workplace environments and the people within them (Cross &
Madson, 1997). Taken together, the literature suggests that the connections between women, the
behaviors that they exhibit and behaviors that affect them, and the workplace environments in
which they find themselves indicate a strong relational bond that should be investigated further.
Thus, a theoretical framework that captures each of these elements and provides a mechanism for
understanding the relationships between them would offer considerable utility to this study. One
such framework is Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT; 1977).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework chosen for this study is SCT. Originally developed as social
learning theory (SLT) in the 1960s, the present model of SCT was introduced in 1986 when
several self-efficacy and external influences were added to the theorem (LaMorte, 2022). In SLT,
Bandura posited that learning occurred in a social observational model; individuals would
observe modeled behavior and then mimic the emotions, attitudes, and reactions of others
(1977). In 1986, Bandura added the element of cognition to his learning theory, whereby the
individual was part of an interconnected, reciprocal relationship between environmental and

26
behavioral influences (Muro & Jeffrey, 2008). This new reciprocal element made SCT
distinguishable from SLT in that individuals were not simply mimicking observed behaviors or
emotions (Bandura, 1977; Muro & Jeffrey, 2008). Rather, this new triad of social learning
elements interacted in a balance known as reciprocal causation (Bergman et al., 2019).
Reciprocal causation refers to the causal relationships between all elements of the theorem, as
illustrated in Figure 1 (Bergman et al., 2019).
Figure 1
Reciprocal Causation Relationship Between the Elements of Social Cognitive Theory

27
Aside from distinguishing SLT from SCT, the cognitive component of SCT explained
how an individual could influence the environment they exist within and manipulate behaviors
both within themselves and in their social structures (Muro & Jeffrey, 2008). Subsequent
research using Bandura’s theory underscores the notion of an individual’s ability to influence the
SCT triad by noting the importance of both self-regulatory and self-reflective abilities (Kihlstrom
& Harackiewicz, 1990). These two abilities allow an individual to receive behavioral stimuli,
reflect internally, and ultimately express new or altered behaviors (Kihlstrom & Harackiewicz,
1990). These expressions can then influence the behaviors and environments within the
reciprocal triad (Bandura, 1977; Muro & Jeffrey, 2008).
Research utilizing SCT has moved beyond the individual and has been used to examine
the way social and professional groups collaborate and interact (Muro & Jeffrey, 2008). The
environmental element (including culture, workplace conditions, and morale) has been used as a
catalyst for explaining the moral and ethical behaviors exhibited by employees of corporations or
groups within corporations (Otaye-Ebede et al., 2020). Systems models have utilized SCT’s
behavioral elements to examine how they influence the individual and the environment with the
aim of achieving more efficient behavioral interventions (Martin et al., 2014). Additionally,
research using SCT has been conducted to understand the exponential nature of the triad as it
relates to the various relationships each individual encounters and is influenced by in their
lifetime—the idea that numerous triadic–reciprocal relationships can exist (Muro & Jeffrey,
2008).
Previous studies utilizing SCT have established the causal relationships between the
individual, the environment, and the behaviors that evolve from those interactions (Judge &
Bono, 2001; Ozyilmaz et al., 2018). More specifically, SCT has been used to showcase how

28
individual self-efficacy can both positively and negatively affect an organization and vice versa
(Ozyilmaz et al., 2018). When these findings are applied to the SCT notion of triadic reciprocity,
the relationship between the individual and organization becomes clearer: As behaviors exude in
the direct of both the individual and the environment, positive or negative reactions emerge.
Positive reactions see individuals perform better, reach for promotions, and strive to create
efficiencies in their workspaces (Williams & Anderson, 1991). The converse is true when
individuals react negatively to behaviors.
Within the context of this study, women represent the individual in the triad. The
environment is represented by the various organizations and settings in which women find
themselves working to become leaders. Additionally, the environment also represents familial
locations (i.e., the homes in which women find themselves). These homes can be adolescent
settings where women have grown up or homes in which women find themselves as adults. The
behaviors of the triad represent the various behaviors that are influential in women’s lives. In this
study, behaviors are researched that originate from the workspace, familial relationships, and
societal norms. Previous research that has utilized SCT as a theoretical framework to investigate
female job performance and levels of achievement has found that behavioral influences
emanating from environments impact individual performances both positively and negatively
(Ozyilmaz et al., 2018).
A thorough review of relevant literature and the establishment of a theoretical framework
are integral parts of a well-informed study. It is equally important to collect and analyze data to
affirm problem statement assertions and formulate potential recommendations for addressing
said problems. The next chapter discusses the methods and practices used to collect data for this

29
study. In addition, the chapter explains why the selected methodologies were appropriate for
studying this problem more closely.

30
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study is to understand from women in the insurance industry their
underrepresentation in executive-level positions despite comprising more than 60% of the
workforce. This chapter provides an overview of the methodology used to gather data and
justifies its selection. Additionally, this chapter examines the credibility and trustworthiness of
the study and the ethical considerations given to the participants. This chapter concludes with an
overview of the researcher’s positionality, assumptions, and biases and discusses some
limitations and delimitations of this study.
Research Questions
The research questions that guided this study are as follows:
1. At what level do women in the commercial insurance industry feel their progression to
leadership positions begins to stagnate?
2. What gender biases do women in the commercial insurance industry perceive as
significant barriers to their leadership progression?
3. What recommendations for practice do women in the commercial insurance industry
have to increase the progression of women to leadership positions?
Overview of Methodology
The methodological approach chosen to help answer this study’s research questions is
qualitative in its design. This methodological approach was chosen for two reasons. First, I had
direct access to individuals who could provide firsthand accounts of their experiences within the
commercial insurance industry, which are of a qualitative nature. Second, this type of research
design is ideal for ensuring comprehensive data collection when attempting to understand
socially sensitive problems such as gender disparity (Creswell & Creswell, 2020; Lobe et al.,

31
2022). This study’s design is linear, with two distinct phases: data collection followed by data
analysis. During data collection, minor analyses (such as note-taking and memo-writing)
occurred when interviewing participants.
Data Sources
This study collects data related to women’s progression to leadership positions and
gender disparity in the commercial insurance industry ranks as well as recommendations to
increase women’s representation in leadership ranks. As such, individual female perspectives and
experiences are fundamental to a comprehensive and well-rounded study. Thus, participants were
interviewed for this study.
Interviews
The data collection phase of this study included conducting virtual interviews with eight
women who met this study’s criteria, as outlined in the following section.
Participants. Data were collected through eight interviews with women who were
willing to participate in the study after being notified of the study via email. Email addresses
were collected during industry events and meetings while engaging in routine networking and
socializing between industry professionals. The study’s solicitation message, which was sent to
prospective interview participants, can be found in Appendix A. The inclusion criteria were as
follows:
• The individual has worked in the commercial insurance industry for three years or longer.
• The individual has occupied or currently occupies a leadership role.
• The individual has experienced or witnessed some form of gender discrimination or bias
as a member of the insurance industry.

32
These criteria ensure that participants have had experience within the industry, have
attained leadership experience within the industry, and have been exposed to some form of
gender bias. For the purposes of this study, leadership experience was defined as someone who
has managed direct report employees or occupied a role that saw them making decisions that
directly affected their business. These criteria ensure that participants had attained leadership
roles within the industry to confirm that their experiences included ascension into their
leadership roles. Verifying that a participant had experienced or witnessed gender discrimination
increased the likelihood of an interview gleaning data relevant to the study.
Embedded within the study solicitation message was a link to a recruitment
questionnaire; see Appendix B for a copy of the questionnaire. The purpose of the questionnaire
was to gather demographic data points, such as gender identification. Additionally, the
questionnaire acted as a screening tool for prospective participants since the study’s demographic
criteria were embedded within the questions. The initial approach to this study’s selection criteria
was to prioritize individuals who responded in the affirmative for in-person interviews. However,
since most of the prospective participants indicated that they were more comfortable with virtual
interviews, accommodations for this style were made and no face-to-face meetings were
conducted.
While there is ample evidence to suggest that face-to-face interviewing is a more
personalized approach to qualitative data gathering by reducing potential biases regarding access
to technology and reducing expenditures on technology for both the researcher and the subject
(Rupert et al., 2017; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986; van Dijk, 2020), research comparing in-person
versus virtual interviewing methods has indicated that advances in virtual interview
technology—encouraged by the COVID-19 pandemic—can offer certain advantages over face-

33
to-face discussions (Keen et al., 2022). Some advantages of virtual interviews include automated
transcriptions and the ability to source candidates from traditionally geographically separated
locations (Keen et al., 2022).
Instrumentation. The study’s interviews were semi-structured, which allowed me to
probe deeper into certain subjects and pivot when answers warranted further investigation.
Appendix C features the outline of questions that were asked of participants and indicates which
research question they were aligned with; however, the semi-structured nature of the interviews
allowed some variance in how each of the interviews were conducted (Miles & Gilbert, 2005).
The orders of questions did change depending on the interview, and some additional probing
questions were asked when appropriate.
Data Collection Procedures
At the onset of the data collection process, solicitation messages (see Appendix A) were
sent to personal industry contacts via email. Each day, responses to the recruitment questionnaire
were reviewed and candidates were categorized in one of three ways: Category 1—Selected;
Category 2—Not Selected—Keep; 3—Not Selected—Dropped. Table 1 lists each category, its
definition relative to this study, and the protocol followed. In the recruitment questionnaire,
respondents were asked about their preference for either a one-hour in-person or virtual session.
In-person interviews would occur at a place of the interviewee’s choosing, so that they might feel
as comfortable as possible, and their privacy and anonymity could be assured. However, since no
respondents requested this option, no further accommodations or scheduling were necessary.
At the end of the first week of the recruitment process, only four Category 1 respondents
had been identified. Therefore, solicitation messages were re-sent. By the end of the third week,
ten Category 1 individuals had responded, and each was contacted. Two Category 1 respondents

34
indicated that they felt uneasy having their sessions recorded and were eliminated from the
candidate process. The remaining eight respondents scheduled their interviews, and the data
collection process began in July 2023. The interview process took two weeks to complete. Each
session was digitally recorded upon consent, and conversations were transcribed using Zoom’s
built-in transcription feature. However, upon reviewing the Zoom transcript of the first interview,
it was determined that Zoom’s ability to accurately capture dialogue was inadequate. Therefore,
future interviews were conducted via the WebEx platform, and the quality of the transcriptions
increased significantly.

35
Table 1
Recruitment Questionnaire Participant Categorization Explanation
Category Definition Protocol
Category 1—Selected The respondent met all
inclusion criteria for the
interview portion of this
study.
Contact the respondent to
schedule an interview using
their preferred contact
method provided in the
questionnaire.
Category 2—Not
Selected—Keep
The respondent met some,
but not all, of the inclusion
criteria.
Maintain the respondent’s
answers for the duration of
the data collection process.
As their answers satisfied
some of the inclusion
criteria, they will be among
the first to be contacted for
inclusion in the interview
process should an
insufficient number of
Category 1 respondents be
available or if an
insufficient number of
interviews are conducted.
Category 3—Not
Selected—Dropped
The respondent met none of
the study’s inclusion
criteria.
Contact the respondent via
email, thank them for their
interest in participating in
the study, and inform them
that they were not selected
to proceed to the interview
phase.
Data Analysis
For the data analysis portion of the study, transcription data from participant interviews
were gathered for review and analysis. To accomplish this, interviews were transcribed using
audio recordings of the sessions. The goal of the data analysis was to discover key findings
across the interviewees’ answers and, from these, develop larger themes. More specifically,
commonly used terms among the answers revealed trends and, ultimately, broader themes and

36
findings. The search for and development of common themes were crucial to this portion of the
study. As themes were formulated, they were coded to aid in the identification of the information
being extrapolated. As codes were assigned to data points within the transcription data, the codes
were refined to ultimately develop well-defined themes. This analytical approach was based on
the theory that answers to the research questions would emerge from the themes of participants’
responses (Merrian & Tisdell, 2016). In terms of specific practices, a transcript of each interview
was uploaded to the data analysis tool ATLAS.
ATLAS is a data analysis tool that allows for interview transcripts to be uploaded onto
the platform and then analyzed word by word. The platform’s interface allowed for statements
that correlated to the intent of the research questions, such as gender, bias, stereotype, disparity,
and sexism, to be coded and analyzed to develop common themes. A first pass at coding each
interview yielded overarching thematic elements. Then, another pass was made through each
transcript to further refine and establish more themes. Commonality amongst the themes was
established, and a hierarchy was formed. Once the hierarchy was formed, each was compared
against the study’s research questions to determine how well they answered the questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The trustworthiness of a study directly correlates to the ethical efficacy by which a
researcher conducts themselves and the perceived ethical standards by which a study is crafted
and executed (Merrian & Tisdell, 2016). Credibility, on the other hand, refers to a study’s rigor,
ability to objectively analyze data, and ability to seek multiple sources of data (Merrian &
Tisdell, 2016). For this study, a strategy known as triangulation was used to ensure credibility for
the multiple sources of data (Denzin, 1978). This method refers to an approach where data is
checked against multiple sources, which, in the case of this study, were the multiple interview

37
subjects (Merrian & Tisdell, 2016). Additionally, the findings of this study were reviewed
alongside the literature presented in Chapter 2. This was done to determine whether the findings
of this study aligned with previous research on the subject. Triangulation ensures credibility
when utilizing multiple sources of data (Merrian & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015).
Ethics
This study was approved by the University of Southern California’s Institutional
Research Board, and the intent was to operate in the most ethical manner possible. Prior to
deciding whether to participate in the interview process, participants were provided with an
overview of the goals of the study, a broad overview of what they might be asked, and an
explanation of how their anonymity would be assured throughout the process. Additionally,
participants were advised that interview sessions were entirely voluntary and that there was a
possibility that the question-and-answer session might trigger emotional reactions within them
that could have lasting effects (Merrian & Tisdell, 2016). Due to the sensitive nature of the topic
being explored, a question may evoke emotions or traumas. It was important that participants
were aware of this possibility and felt comfortable during the interview session, as they knew
they could stop or pause the line of questioning at any time. Another ethical consideration for
this study was the protection of both physical and electronic data being collected from
participants.
This study followed several data storage protocols to safeguard interviewees’
information. First, survey data were stored on the secured Qualtrics website, and only I had
access to the participants’ answers. Second, email correspondence with potential questionnaire
and/or interview participants was sent via my student email address. This email address is
protected by the University of Southern California’s data security protocols, and emails are

38
stored on a cloud-based server. Third, no hardcopy notes were to be taken and no documents
were to be printed. All electronic documents were stored on the Qualtrics website, cloud storage
email servers, or my private cloud storage account. Finally, I had no direct report associates
assigned to me, and I am not responsible for dictating the salary or employment status of any
commercial insurance associates.
The Researcher
As the researcher for this study, I feel it is important to articulate who I am, what my
upbringing was like, and my ties to the commercial insurance industry. I am a Hispanic male
who works as an operations manager for a large commercial insurance brokerage. As a relative
newcomer to the industry, I was first drawn to the problem of practice when I noticed an
inordinate number of male figureheads in leadership roles around the industry. However, it is
important that I also discuss potential biases and assumptions about the inequities being
explored. First, I grew up in a single-parent household, raised entirely by my mother. This is
important to note as there is empirical evidence to suggest that when a man is raised in a singleparent household by his mother, he is likely to exhibit socialized emotions and gender
expressions that would garner the most attention from his dominant parental figure (Chaplin et
al., 2005). Consequently, I must acknowledge and be aware of potential biases towards positions
that favor women.

39
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this study is to understand from women in the insurance industry their
underrepresentation in executive-level positions, as they hold 6% of executive-level positions
despite comprising more than 60% of the insurance industry workforce. This chapter discusses
participating stakeholders followed by the findings derived from semi-structured interviews with
eight women in the commercial insurance industry who have risen to leadership positions.
Findings are presented for each of the following research questions that guided the study:
1. At what level do women in the commercial insurance industry feel their progression to
leadership positions begins to stagnate?
2. What gender biases do women in the commercial insurance industry perceive as
significant barriers to their leadership progression?
3. What recommendations for practice do women in the commercial insurance industry
have to increase the progression of women to leadership positions?
Participating Stakeholders
Over two weeks, a recruitment questionnaire was sent through personal contacts. Based
on the criteria for participation, in total, eight participants were chosen, four from the brokerage
side of the industry and four from the underwriting side. Ten total respondents met the criteria for
inclusion; however, two participants self-eliminated after expressing concerns about the
interviews being recorded. Each of the remaining participants had experience in leadership roles
within the insurance industry. As of the writing of this study’s findings, some have had
individuals directly reporting to them; two participants have not had direct report employees
under them. That they had not had direct report employees assigned to them was explained by
the interviewees as being a product of their role within their respective firms. Certain roles, such

40
as region leader or account executive, are within the leadership hierarchy because of their levels
of responsibility and decision-making power. This does not, however, mean that they are
automatically assigned direct report associates. The participants’ experience levels within the
commercial insurance industry ranged from 3 to 25 years, which yielded unique insights and
perspectives. Throughout the interview process, the participants offered candid and meaningful
narratives about their experiences, perspectives, and sentiments concerning gender disparity
within the industry and offered recommendations to foster the progression of women into
leadership positions. Table 2 provides some insights into their backgrounds and experience levels
in the industry.
Table 2
Stakeholder Demographics
Stakeholder
Pseudonym
Organization
Type
Years Within the
Industry
Direct
Report
Associates
Assigned? Role/Title
Jane Underwriter 16 Yes VP
Janet Broker 10 Yes VP/Unit Leader
Janine Underwriter 8 Yes AVP
Kimberly Broker 25 Yes SVP/Unit Leader
Kylie Broker 3 No Account Executive
Kendall Underwriter 5 No Region Leader
Monica Broker 9 Yes VP/Territory Lead
Monique Underwriter 18 Yes SVP
Note. AVP = Assistant Vice President; VP = Vice President; SVP = Senior Vice President.

41
Research Question 1: At What Level Do Women in the Commercial Insurance Industry
Feel Their Progression to Leadership Positions Begins to Stagnate?
The purpose of this research question was to ascertain the level at which an interviewee
felt their career began to stagnate, if at all, and describe the events that paused their professional
ascension. During the interviews, participants responded to the following prompts:
1. Describe your role for me within your company.
2. Tell me about your path to reach this role. Where do you see yourself professionally in
five years?
3. During your time in the industry, have you ever felt your career begin to stagnate? If so,
at what level did you feel it began to stagnate? Why do you believe it began to stagnate
there?
Participants’ responses revealed that they felt like career professionals in control of their
individual career paths who chose to remain in mid-level managerial roles because they felt
comfortable with their leadership journeys and choices. Participants’ explanations revealed this
finding:
1. Women are making conscious and purposeful decisions to remain in mid-level
management positions based on familial roles and responsibilities.
Finding 1: Women are Making Conscious and Purposeful Decisions to Remain in Mid-Level
Management Positions Based on Familial Roles and Responsibilities
During the interview process, most participants indicated that while certain factors related
to gender bias were present in their leadership journeys, as will be discussed with Research
Question 2, they purposefully decided to forgo leadership opportunities in order to start or
continue to build their families. One interviewee did not have children at the time of the

42
interview. She decided to remain in mid-level management mostly due to her desire to eventually
pursue a career away from insurance. Some participants remained in mid-level management
roles because of familial responsibilities or new career aspirations, and some interviewees
indicated that they intended to pursue roles beyond their present titles. Janet, a mid-level
manager at an insurance brokerage, cited this career goal:
Before I had kids, my career goals were to become a CEO or reach some sort of C-suite
level role. Now that I have my kids, I don’t know that my aspirations are that high.
Maybe I’ll push for a layer or two above where I am now, but certainly not as high as I
had originally intended.
Some participants discussed valuing time spent with family. In this regard, most
interviewees saw the time commitment required to take on higher echelons of leadership as being
far too great and were unwilling to give up time with their families. Interviewee Janine had this
to say about her perception of the value of time:
If I want to move up, I know I’m going to be giving up time at home, and for me it’s a
value judgment between, yes, I am getting paid more, but is it worth giving up time with
my kids just for the increased salary? For me, I don’t know that it is, at least not at this
point in their lives.
The final portion of Janine’s statement, referring to a point in time in her children’s lives,
echoed a sentiment shared by other interviewees who indicated that their children’s ages were or
could be determining factors when choosing to pursue certain roles. The prevailing sentiment
amongst participants was that as their children got older, most were more open to the idea of
moving into higher-level leadership positions, as indicated by Monica in her response to
continuing to advance her career: “As my kids have gotten older and more independent, I have

43
started to feel my focus shift back towards my career and where I want to go with it.” This
statement highlights the idea that time is a determining factor for most interviewees in their
decisions to remain in mid-level management roles. However, as will be revealed when
discussing the findings for Research Question 2, some gender-specific barriers to leadership
ascension would still impede their progression.
Nearly all interviewees indicated that leadership roles above the mid-level require
significant levels of time commitment to do the jobs well. Of those interviewed, underwriting
professionals indicated elevated levels of concern about time commitments compared to those on
the brokerage side of the business. Monique discussed the time required for travel to establish
and maintain meaningful business relationships for high levels of leadership: “It’s sort of counter
to what some might believe about promotions. Some think that it gets you off the road, but at my
company, you have to pound the pavement and visit your clients and brokerage partners.”
Finding the right value in a higher promotion was another sentiment expressed during
some interviews. While monetary compensation was part of the equation for most, the prospect
of a promotion coupled with higher compensation was used in a valuative position against time
with family and a well-balanced home life. Kimberly discussed her valuation of a promotion and
her conscious decision to maintain her current role because she values time and self-fulfillment:
“I never felt that external forces were making me stagnate or do lateral moves as opposed to
moving ahead. I made very active choices in my career. I value feeling fulfilled in my role.”
Most interviewees indicated that the constraints they felt between time and family most
affected their conscious decisions not to pursue advancement. Most participants discussed the
desire to be present for their children, especially during formative years, and the higher level of
time commitment, which for most appeared requisite to advancement, simply was not appealing.

44
That is not to say that participants felt no desire for advancement after this stage of their
children’s development. Rather, most interviewees agreed that they had some desire to advance
beyond mid-level leadership roles when the timing felt right for them. However, others did
express a desire to remain in mid-level managerial roles because they felt it afforded them the
greatest level of flexibility with their familial responsibilities, the ability to achieve personal
growth goals, a focus on their well-being, and professional satisfaction.
Research Question 2: What Gender Biases Do Women in the Commercial Insurance
Industry Perceive as Significant Barriers to Their Leadership Progression?
Research Question 2 was created to ascertain biases, if any, faced by women in the
commercial insurance industry as they sought to ascend to leadership positions. During this
portion of the interview, the following formal questions were asked:
1. Statistics on the insurance industry show that women make up around 11% of board
seats, despite being 60% of the total workforce population. In your opinion, why do you
think that is?
2. What gender biases, if any, have you faced in your leadership progression? What barriers
did they pose?
Participants described specific instances of gender biases and scenarios in which biases
appeared to favor men rather than systemic barriers biased against leadership ascension for
women. However, participants did reveal that certain aspects of gender bias within the industry
are pervasive and center on the idea of inequity between men and women regarding maternal and
paternal leave. Responses to Research Question 2 also revealed some of the social aspects of the
industry that are inherently male-dominated and not inviting to women. While social in nature,
the events that interviewees spoke of inevitably led to conversations focused on business and, in

45
some instances, led to the formation of strong networking ties amongst men. Responses to
Research Question 2 yielded the following four central findings:
1. Time spent away on maternity leave can affect women’s ability to maintain parity in their
leadership progression paths with male peers.
2. The generations in which women are born influence their views of gender roles, biases,
and perceptions of biases.
3. Being excluded from social events can detrimentally impact leadership advancement for
women.
4. There is gender disparity in the hiring and vetting processes for women seeking
leadership roles.
Finding 2.1: Time Spent Away on Maternity Leave Can Affect Women’s Ability to Maintain
Parity in Their Leadership Progression Paths with Male Peers
Participants’ responses revealed that gender biases manifested in relation to the
availability and usage of maternal and paternal leave. For some, like Janine, the use of maternity
leave directly impacted their ability to promote into leadership roles. Janine’s firm refused to
promote her while she was on maternity leave and only offered her short-term disability leave of
six weeks. In contrast, her husband’s non-insurance firm afforded him 20 weeks of paid paternity
leave. Any absence beyond six weeks for Janine would require the use of personal paid time off
(PTO). The usage of PTO for maternity leave became another stress point because, as Janine put
it, “I learned you really need PTO because babies get sick frequently and you need to take time
off work.” As such, Janine decided to leave her firm, along with many others in her peer group:
They had so many women leave. And instead of recognizing women around my age who
had kids and were in leadership roles, they did nothing to retain us. It just seemed as

46
though there was a general lack of awareness—of caring, for that matter—of the
challenges we faced.
Jane was adamant that she believed normalizing the use of paternity leave would help
level the playing field between men and women who might be up for the same leadership role. In
one instance, Jane heard a male leader disparaging the usage of paternity leave to a group of
young male brokers whom she felt were impressionable and looked up to this individual.
Additionally, Jane provided an example of when two insurance brokers of near-identical
background and experience were in line for a promotion to a leadership role. One was a woman,
and the other was a man. Just prior to the role opening for candidates to apply, the woman
became pregnant and went out on maternity leave. Rather than wait and allow the female
candidate to apply, the company instead promoted the male associate. When asked about whether
the male associate had more experience than the woman in this example, Jane had this to say:
“The only additional experience he had was the time in which his female colleague was out on
maternity leave.”
Some interviewees were asked about their perceptions of the overall use of paternity
leave to gauge its availability and usage. Participants provided conflicting answers about how the
availability of paternity leave has evolved. Kimberly, with 25 years of experience in the industry,
discussed how paternity leave was not offered to men during the early portions of her career in
the industry. Kimberly also indicated that once available, some of her male colleagues felt
pressure from leadership and other peers to not take the leave being afforded to them:
I think in some instances it was playful teasing, and in other instances there might have
been serious discussions with some men about taking so much time off. I can’t say for

47
certain whether anyone was ever threatened over taking it, but I can tell you it wasn’t
exactly encouraged. It was just a different time.
In contrast to Kimberly’s comments were statements like Kylie’s, with three years in the
insurance industry, about her firm’s usage of paternity leave:
I mean, I do see people taking it. Mr. X just took six weeks off and is taking another six
weeks later in the year. It’s cool to see guys taking the time to bond with their babies. I’m
pretty sure my dad didn’t have the option when I was born. Maybe he could have taken
some personal time, but nothing like the guys have now.
When asked whether she had witnessed her male peers being teased about taking
paternity leave, Kylie said this: “Some of the guys made some comments about it, but I think it
was mostly just joking around.” Kylie’s remarks about comments being made in jest were
echoed by other interviewees, and no interviewees indicated that they had witnessed specific
examples of retribution-style actions being taken against men. However, the fact that nearly all
the interviewees made some mention of maternity and paternity leave in relation to gender biases
and leadership progression made it necessary to include this finding.
Finding 2.2: The Generations in Which Women are Born Influence Their Views of Gender
Roles, Biases, and Perceptions of Biases
Each interviewee mentioned how gender roles, biases, and sexism have evolved over
several generations within the industry. Each interviewee acknowledged that previous
generations of women in the workplace faced different challenges than women today regarding
their familial responsibilities, societal sentiments about women in the workforce, gender
stereotyping, and work–family balance. Jenny offered this thought about colleagues who entered
the industry before her and the difficult choices they faced regarding work–family balance: “I

48
think a lot of women in the past really felt that they had to make decisions between work and
family, decisions which I really feel left them out of contention for leadership roles.” While it
was apparent that most participants faced similar choices regarding their own leadership
ascension paths, generational influences were relevant to interviewees’ perspectives.
Interviewees indicated that the generational lenses through which they viewed the
interview questions shaped their perspectives of the gender biases they faced and the challenges
they posed to their leadership progression. Participants with less professional experience
described challenges related to COVID-19, including working from home with children engaged
in virtual learning during the pandemic. In contrast, longer-tenured participants described the
ways in which they were raised by parents from generations influenced by post-World War II-era
ideals of family structures. Monique discussed how her mother did not pursue a postsecondary
education so she could instead start a family and how her grandparents encouraged her decision:
“When I made the choice to go to college, my mom was supportive, but I for sure felt the weight
of responsibility being the first woman in my family to go to college.”
The longest-tenured insurance professional amongst the interviewees, Kimberly, noted
that while her generation faced difficult decisions between work, education, and family, she feels
as though women in today’s insurance industry are “at the tail end of that cycle.” Kimberly
indicated that she felt the women in the newest generation of insurance professionals have
different mindsets coming into the professional world than she did:
They’ve grown up differently. They have no expectation of being treated differently
because they’re a woman. A lot of the women in this new generation went to college. A
lot of the women in mine did not, and I think that plays a big part.

49
However, most interviewees expressed that while certain external influences—namely,
societal ideals of what a family unit should look like—on women have evolved over the past
several generations, some gender biases have remained prevalent in the insurance workplace and
are simply less overt than in prior generations. As Kimberly put it, “It’s beneath the surface
rather than obvious these days.” Some interviewees indicated that, while they had not
experienced overt comments related to gender bias, they did feel undertones of sexism from male
colleagues. Or, as Janet indicated, gender biases can be camouflaged by a meeting invitation:
It is curious to me sometimes who gets invited to client meetings. For example, I’ll work
on a deal all the way through to close and won’t be invited to the client meeting. When I
ask why, I usually get the runaround, but I know from seeing the meeting invite that it’s
because they don’t want to put a woman in front of the client. Sometimes it’s the opposite
though and I know they want me there because they think it will look good to a client to
have a woman on the team.
Women’s efforts to eliminate gender biases and create gender parity have not come
without costs for women. Jane discussed women’s efforts to level the playing field with men:
There’s just a lot of responsibility that comes with not just being a woman but also being
a mom that does make it all a little more challenging. It’s a hurdle for women, and I think
my generation is trying hard to remedy that, but we’re also running ourselves into the
ground trying to do it. So, we’ve got to be better at balancing how we manage our careers
with our families, and that is my hope for this next generation. We’re doing it, but it’s at
the cost of sleep.
Beyond Jane’s statement about her individual efforts, other interviewees expressed how
they were working to level the playing field with male peers. Some actively mentored junior

50
associates. Some, such as Kylie, expressed how fulfilled they felt watching a mentee thrive after
coaching: “It’s honestly one of the highlights of what I do as a leader. I love it.” Others
established networking functions for women to collaborate on training and other career
progression initiatives. In those instances, outreach efforts could be categorized as widereaching; however, some participants indicated that one-on-one mentorship was just as
impactful, if not more, than such networking efforts.
Finding 2.3: Being Excluded from Social Events Can Detrimentally Impact Leadership
Advancement for Women
Each interviewee mentioned social events that occur outside of the workplace as
impacting the careers of both men and women within the industry. Each acknowledged that these
events help to build camaraderie within an organization, strengthen personal and professional
relationships, and enhance networking opportunities. Additionally, most agreed that these social
events also afford the opportunity to showcase knowledge and expertise on industry matters
when engaging in personal conversations. Interviewee Kylie stated, “The social aspect of this
industry is probably 35–40% of what we do. You must strengthen your personal social network if
you want to get anywhere in this business.”
The social aspect, and in particular social events, became a significant talking point for
each participant and was discussed in multiple facets. Some, such as Kylie, discussed the ways in
which some women feel intimidated to participate in certain social events because they are “90%
men and 10% women. So, especially for newer associates, that can be super intimidating.”
Additionally, about half of the respondents indicated that they felt their male counterparts would
invite them to social events out of some sense of obligation and not out of a desire for them to
participate. As Janet said, “It’s always curious to me how and who gets invited to these events.”

51
Even though they may not always feel as though their presence is desired, being part of social
events was described as “absolutely critical” by Kylie.
One of the most common social events mentioned was golf. Nearly all interviewees
mentioned golf as a central component of the social element of the insurance industry. Most
interviewees indicated a willingness to play the game—albeit begrudgingly sometimes—but did
not always feel welcome to do so or that they were thought of as someone to be invited. Monique
discussed golf and feeling included in playing:
Don’t get me wrong, I hate golf, I actually find it super boring, but I also know that it’s
really important to be out there sometimes because that’s where deals get done. Whether
it’s with a client, or an underwriter, the fact remains, golf is important in our industry.
And even though I don’t like it, I’d still like to be invited sometimes.
When asked about her experiences with social events, and in particular with golfing, Jane
described being told to sit in the office while her male colleagues golfed with a client:
I told my boss at the time that I’d like to take some brokers out golfing and he flat out
told me no. He said I needed to stay in the office or find something else to do. When I
pressed him on it, he said that it was something the guys should be doing. This guy came
into the industry back in the eighties, so I feel like I let it pass subconsciously. It still
haunts me to this day.
Most participants echoed similar stories, though not with the same overt language used.
The prevailing sentiment, however, was that, in most instances, male colleagues said that they
simply forgot to invite their female counterparts or that they thought the women in the office
would not want to go. In general, participants expressed that they felt time away from the office
in social settings was very important to their careers and, in some instances, to their prospects for

52
advancement. Moreover, some participants indicated that they had given younger female
colleagues advice about taking golf lessons or openly asking for invitations. This advice was
intended to help the younger associates feel more comfortable with the activity if they were
invited to play. Participants’ guidance reflects the perception that social activities, especially golf,
are important because they provide access to influential figures, and women should have equal
access to such figures.
From a holistic perspective, the sentiments expressed by participants went beyond golf
outings. Nearly all participants expressed that social events, in general, played a large role in the
development level of interoffice social networks, provided exposure to leadership figures, aided
in team building, and helped associates form stronger relationships with counterparts in other
agencies. Of the relationships formed at social events, Kylie said, “It’s where most of the
relationships are formed, and those are so important. Most of what we do is built on them.”
Finding 2.4: There is Gender Disparity in the Hiring and Vetting Processes for Women
Seeking Leadership Roles
Each participant mentioned biases in both the hiring and the vetting processes for
leadership roles. Nearly all participants agreed that some form of gender bias was present in both
processes and that the biases tended to favor male candidates—most often when hiring for
leadership roles. Interviewee Kylie provided insightful commentary on this topic and offered a
suggestion for change:
I’ve seen a few times now in my career where men are hired over women who I think are
way more qualified. It almost always seems to come back to the hiring manager being
their old buddy or something like that. Sometimes I wonder, if hiring managers were
given sanitized resumes for a role, would they still choose the same way?

53
When asked to expand on this notion of sanitized resumes, Kylie indicated that she had
been through a recruitment process for another insurance firm and that they removed nearly all
demographic information from her resume. The firm indicated that this was a pilot hiring
initiative to understand biases that might be inherent to their process. The idea was to create a
candidate profile that displayed only the history, achievements, and qualifications of the
candidate. Removed from the evaluative equation were elements such as age, sex, and race. Said
Monique of the application of a similar rule in the insurance industry, “Why can’t we have a rule
where one female candidate has to be considered?” Additionally, Kendall offered this
commentary about the leadership landscape for women:
Most of the people in these management roles are men and they want to hire their friends
who they’ve usually worked with previously. Those friends are almost always other men.
That makes it so hard for anyone who is an “outsider” to break in.
Participants often focused on trying to create parity in the hiring process for leadership
roles. While only some participants described instances where they felt there was real gender
disparity in the hiring process, nearly all agreed that they found it more common than not that
men in leadership roles were more likely to hire other men into leadership roles under them. For
the most part, participants agreed that these types of hiring practices followed strong ties
between former or current male colleagues or those with social connections separate from the
workplace. This notion further strengthened the findings from this research question surrounding
the importance of social events and the role they can play in the leadership progression of
women. Interviewees indicated that these social events strengthened networking bonds, which
created more favorable conditions for some men during the hiring process for certain leadership
roles.

54
Summary of Research Question 2
Research Question 2 was intended to uncover specific instances of gender bias; however,
the themes that emerged centered on macro-level ideas of what gender biases look like for
women today. According to interviewees, aggressive displays of sexism have become less
commonplace in the commercial insurance industry but have been replaced by less aggressive
forms of gender bias and sexism—which are no less impactful on the careers of women within
the industry. The usage of maternity leave was a sensitive topic for nearly all participants, and it
was almost universally accepted that the normalization of paternity leave must be at the forefront
of change within the industry, as it would lead to greater parity between men and women during
their leadership journeys. Additionally, social events were the most discussed topic amongst
participants when describing a less atypical manner of networking oneself for promotion
opportunities and network building.
Research Question 3: What Recommendations for Practice Do Women in the Commercial
Insurance Industry Have to Increase the Progression of Women to Leadership Positions?
The goal of this research question was to understand how women within the commercial
insurance industry recommend increasing gender parity in leadership progression within the
industry. During this portion of the interview, the following formal questions were asked:
1. What recommendations would you offer to overcome gender biases and increase gender
diversity within the leadership ranks of the commercial insurance industry?
2. What advice would you give to women in the commercial insurance industry looking to
ascend to a leadership position?
Participants’ responses revealed insights for improving gender parity and some
recommendations for enhancing women’s experiences progressing into leadership positions. All

55
participants agreed that building a strong network of colleagues is of the utmost importance to
the success of women advancing into leadership positions within the industry, which was the
most consistent recommendation by all interviewees.
Finding 3: Build Impactful Relationships and Strong Networks
Each participant mentioned that building relationships and strong networks of
professional contacts are vital for women’s success within the industry. While most participants
indicated that network building did not necessarily need to be formalized, interviewee Monique
discussed organized professional groups for women within the insurance industry:
I have always been a big fan of organizing women within the workplace. It is so
important for women to be able to come together and share ideas, mentor one another,
and talk about the issues that are important to us. There is some odd aversion towards
organized groups like this for some women and I really don’t understand why. It’s women
helping women—what could be bad about that?
While Monique’s sentiments towards women’s groups should form part of the
conversation about how to create parity and stronger female networking ties, there was an
undertone of hesitancy during some interviews. Five of the eight interviewees, including Kylie,
noted that female leaders can in some instances be tougher on their female colleagues than with
male colleagues:
Women tend to be harder on other women because we kind of have to work twice as hard
to get to the same place as men. We have to be more competent and be better able to
show our value. I think for some women there is a mindset of ‘now that I’m a leader, I’m
going to be harder on you so that you don’t taint the image I’ve worked so hard to create
for myself.’

56
It was this type of sentiment about the female-to-female dynamic that led to some
interviewees’ hesitancy to form organized groups within their workplaces. For the most part,
interviewees indicated a willingness and desire to help female colleagues and to form mentor–
mentee relationships. However, half of the interviewees were not enthusiastic about organized
female groups, as they preferred smaller networks of personal and professional contacts, which
could be described as meaningful, substantive relationships. They expressed that these smaller
networks of substantive relationships could benefit women seeking leadership opportunities.
These interviewees pointed to examples of men who had ascended to leadership roles or were
made aware of opportunities for advancement because of their close-knit networks.
Participants’ responses did not suggest that women in the industry are without networks
or that women are not forming networks. Rather, the interviewees suggested that women should
be purposeful when creating networks and that these networks could help create parity with male
colleagues if the women desired leadership advancement. Two interviewees stated that they
believed opportunity and access were key elements of the networking process and could help
create more gender-equal environments. They suggested that, on occasion, men are made aware
of leadership opportunities prior to them being announced publicly because their networks offer
them that information early. In some instances, this early information allowed men to lobby for
themselves or leverage their networks of contacts prior to other candidates. According to the
interviewees, this early insight into leadership positions has proven impactful and, in some cases,
led to these individuals securing leadership roles.
Summary
This study reveals that while most participants agreed that gender biases do exist within
the insurance industry, they may be less overt than previously thought. That does not mean,

57
however, that the playing field between men and women in the industry is level. Interview data
showed that there are real deviations in the leadership career paths of men and women. What the
data showed was that most women are faced with some form of familial decision-making
dilemma—either forgo building families early in their careers or pause their leadership
aspirations to start families. Men, on the other hand, are not faced with this same dilemma.
Rather, the absence of their female counterparts while on maternity leave can make some men
opportunistic or place them in advantageous positions for promotions.
The participants also demonstrated their resilience in their personal and professional
lives. Each has found their way to leadership roles within an industry that favors male leadership
progression. Regardless, each participant discussed their desire to not simply rest on their
accomplishments but to help women around them succeed as well. Their emphasis on
mentorship opportunities and their desires to help women build strong networks for both
advancement opportunities and professional development show their fortitude and resilience.
Each participant displayed selflessness and a determined leadership spirit.

58
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the study’s findings in the context of literature
and elements of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), the conceptual framework guiding this study.
From this discussion of the findings emerge recommendations for practice, which are also
presented in this chapter. Additionally, the study’s limitations and delimitations are briefly
discussed, then areas for future research are recommended before concluding thoughts are
presented.
Discussion
This section discusses the findings associated with this study’s research questions within
the scholarly literature and elements of SCT (Bandura, 1977). The elements’ reciprocal
relationships form the basis for certain gender discriminatory behavior and familial decisionmaking processes. The study’s three research questions were the following:
1. At what level do women in the commercial insurance industry feel their progression to
leadership positions begins to stagnate?
2. What gender biases do women in the commercial insurance industry perceive as
significant barriers to their leadership progression?
3. What recommendations for practice do women in the commercial insurance industry
have to increase the progression of women to leadership positions?
Most interviewees did not feel that their careers had stagnated. They felt that they had
made purposeful decisions not to seek senior leadership positions because they had children or
focused more of their time on their familial matters. This behavior is not exclusive to America’s
insurance industry, as studies in diverse fields have highlighted childrearing as a causal factor for
the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles in various industries (Bismark et al., 2015;

59
Fritz & van Knippenberg, 2018; Hitti et al., 2022; Kawase et al., 2016). Further, according to
research on the career paths of men and women post-childbirth, most men do not feel their
leadership progression is altered by the introduction of children to their familial dynamic;
conversely, most women expressed the opposite sentiment (Eagly, 2008; Hermans et al., 2017;
Wood, 2008). At the same time, the need to make these decisions suggests that there is still an
undervaluation of women in leadership positions. Current policies and practices do not support
women’s ability to focus on familial interests or responsibilities and be in senior leadership roles.
The undervaluation of women in leadership roles has been studied through the lens of
multiple industries, and varying conclusions have been offered as to why this happens and where
this sentiment can be traced. Some believe that this undervaluation derives from stereotypical
ideals of female leadership competencies and the propensity for women to be successful leaders
(Scott et al., 2016). Other studies have described a psychological phenomenon known as selfperception accuracy, the idea that women’s psychology predisposes them to believe that they will
be less effective leaders than men (Herbst, 2020). The findings of this study do not align with
either of these suppositions.
The undervaluation of women in leadership roles can be used to relate the stakeholders of
this study to the categories of SCT. First, this underrepresentation can be categorized as an
environmental factor related to the assumed roles and responsibilities of women outside the
workplace, which influences the individual. As a corollary, the individual (women within the
commercial insurance industry) then behaves in a manner consistent with this study’s findings by
believing they must choose between familial and career interests. In this triad of reciprocal
causation, environmental factors directly influence the individual and, in turn, the behaviors
displayed.

60
This study also sought to understand, from the participants’ perspectives, what, if any,
barriers to leadership advancement related to gender biases exist within the commercial
insurance industry. Participants indicated that, in some instances, their use of maternity leave
placed them at a disadvantage with their male colleagues because of their time away. This notion
is supported by studies on the effects of the usage of maternity leave on female workers
(Arenstam, 2017; Bacolod et al., 2022; Fritz & van Knippenberg, 2018; Hideg et al., 2018).
These studies suggest that efforts such as the passage of the Family and Medical Leave Act may
have had unintended negative consequences for women (Hideg et al., 2018). While the Family
and Medical Leave Act was intended to legally protect pregnant mothers (or individuals in other
medical circumstances) from retribution-style actions by employers during and after pregnancy,
the time away from their careers may place women at a career disadvantage with men. SCT
reveals that the behaviors of current leaders (male or female) affect the environments to which
women (the individual) return after maternity leave. Additionally, SCT reveals the reciprocal
relationship between the environment (the culture of the workplace) and the behaviors of current
leaders, both during and after maternity leave, that limits women’s progression.
Participants also suggested that attending social events and building social capital are
important to leadership advancement within the commercial insurance industry. Research
suggests that socializing can aid in the leadership development process for junior professionals
and increase access to influential figures; building social capital and strengthening social
networks can also increase the chances of success for individuals seeking advancement (CullenLester et al., 2017; Day & O’Connor, 2003; Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010). This socialization can also
manifest gender disparate landscapes, as suggested by this study’s participants: Since men are
disproportionately in key leadership roles in the commercial insurance industry, the building of

61
social networks and relationships amongst men leaves them well-positioned to hire within their
male-dominated networks when leadership opportunities arise. Research on male-dominated
leadership hierarchies has shown a pervasive practice of men ascending into top-level leadership
roles, then hiring other men into key positions beneath them or to replace them (Eagly, 2003;
Hoyt, 2010; Keohane, 2020).
Findings related to social events and network building can be examined using SCT to
identify reciprocal relationships, which show how certain individuals and behaviors both
influence and manifest disparate environments. While building social networks is not necessarily
negative, in the context of this study’s findings, this behavior can generate a negative
consequence for individual women when those networks begin to manifest in disparate
environments. The disparate environments identified in this study can place women at a
disadvantage for career advancement.
Recommendations for Practice
The purpose of this study was to understand from women in leadership positions within
the commercial insurance industry their underrepresentation in executive-level positions despite
comprising more than 60% of the workforce. Based on the interview data presented in the
Findings chapter and the discussion presented in this chapter, the following three
recommendations are intended to increase gender diversity in the leadership ranks of the
commercial insurance industry.
Recommendation 1: Promote and Encourage the Creation of Professional Women’s
Networking Groups
While professional women’s groups already exist within the commercial insurance
industry, participants indicated that such groups are uncommon within individual corporations.

62
Therefore, it is recommended that individual corporations begin forming and internally
promoting professional women’s networking organizations. Studies on the effectiveness of
networking entities have shown that they can increase members’ leadership growth and potential,
strengthen interpersonal relationships, improve members’ communication skills, provide access
to leadership figures, and increase members’ confidence (Carter et al., 2015; Cullen-Lester et al.,
2016; Smith & Niemeier, 2005).
This study’s data also imply that strong network building practices are recommended for
change. Participants commented that mentor–mentee relationships could strengthen networking
bonds and aided the learning and development processes. While some participants favored
organized networking groups, others preferred informal groups and having relationships form
organically. Previous research on professional networking and its effect on leadership
progression aligns with the importance ascribed to it by this study’s participants (Carter et al.,
2015; Cullen-Lester et al., 2016; Smith & Niemeier, 2005). Prior research has indicated that
networking and integrating network building as part of a formal leadership progression strategy
have proven successful in a number of industries and increased access to leadership progression
opportunities (Cullen-Lester et al., 2016).
The incorporation of social networking into leadership development strategies is not a
new idea. Previous research has shown that patterns of socialization occur within these entities
that match the reciprocal causation model of SCT (Cullen-Lester et al., 2017). When
organizations implement leadership progress strategies that prioritize social networking,
participants have progressed as leaders and the teams they manage become more effective
(Cullen-Lester et al., 2017). In this way, it is possible to recognize the reciprocal causation triad
shown in Figure 2.

63
Figure 2
The Reciprocal Causation of Social Networking-Based Leadership Progression Programs
A 2011 research study reported that female-only leadership progression and networking
programs positively affected participants (Clarke). The study indicated a marked increase in the
number of women who gained senior-level positions within their organizations after participating
in these networking programs. This study’s recommendations would ideally result in the
widespread deployment of networking programs within America’s insurance corporations and
would yield similar results to the 2011 study, whereby more women would be promoted into
senior-level positions. While there might be some redundancies associated with the creation of
networking programs within certain corporations that have existing programs, this study
emphasizes the leadership progression of women through the building of strong networks of
professional contacts. These programs should also incorporate leadership training and

64
mentorship into their core offerings; it should not be assumed that all insurance corporations are
offering leadership training to their employees in this way.
As noted in the literature review, the problem of gender inequity in leadership roles is not
exclusive to America’s insurance industry. Therefore, it should be noted that this
recommendation is meant as a step to help address the much larger societal issue of gender
inequity. These networking groups may not address macro-level gender inequality but focus on
the problem at the micro level within an organization. Women’s contributions as leaders have
historically been devalued, and women should be encouraged to build strong coalitions that
promote leadership progression.
Recommendation 2: Reform Maternity and Paternity Leave Usage Policies
Many participants mentioned using maternity leave during their careers and discussed
how the time was invaluable and helped them bond with their newborn children. However,
participants also described how the time away impacted their leadership progression. Some
participants commented that their time away placed them at a disadvantage compared to their
male peers; one participant indicated that the use of maternity leave may have directly led to a
female colleague not being chosen for a leadership role over a male counterpart of near-identical
pedigree.
Previous research on the career progression of women who take maternity leave has
shown that it directly impacts their ability to be promoted into senior-level roles (Eagly & Carli,
2007). Previous research suggests that corporations must better eliminate disparate environments
for women to return to following their leave (Dashper, 2020; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Hideg &
Shen, 2019). As such, this study recommends ways to create parity between users and non-users
of parental leave.

65
Insurance corporations in America should institute maternity and paternity leave policies
of equal composition. The same amount of time off should be available regardless of gender, and
both men and women should be encouraged to use this entitlement equally. While it should be
noted that many corporations have already instituted policies like this, additional policies could
be included with these entitlements. Table 3 displays key findings from Research Question 2 and
previous research studies along with recommendations for change. The recommended changes
align with participants’statements and previous research on gender parity in the workplace and
specifically focus on policy implementation.

66
Table 3
Recommendations for Creating Gender Parity in the Use of Maternal and Paternal Leave
Key Findings from This and Other
Studies
Recommendation for Change
Not all corporations have instituted
maternal and paternal leave policies that
are equitable.
Create parental leave programs which are
agnostic to gender.
Some men are promoted based on the
seniority they gained over female
colleagues who were on maternity leave.
Encourage hiring officials to discount
maternity and paternity leave when
calculating seniority or evaluating
experience levels of leadership
candidates.
Individuals have indicated that they did not
like being barred from working at least
part-time (Rocha, 2021).
When authorized by physicians, afford
men and women on parental leave the
opportunity to work part-time.
Individuals indicated that they felt male
colleagues were discouraged from using
paternity leave, even when comments were
said in jest.
Train leadership figures within the
insurance industry to cultivate
environments of acceptance towards the
usage of paternity leave.
These recommendations are intended to influence all three elements of SCT. These
recommendations are based on creating change for the individual within the triad of reciprocal
causation. These recommendations might also influence the behaviors and environmental
landscapes of the commercial insurance industry by targeting a key element of the findings of
this study. Therefore, all three elements of SCT can be activated via the reciprocal relationship
dynamic.
While these recommendations are intended to create more conducive leadership
progression environments for mothers within the industry, they will not necessarily impact
women who either are not impacted by the use or non-use of maternity leave or do not seek
leadership advancement. Ideally, these recommendations would reduce disparate environments
for women returning from maternity leave and, in the long term, eliminate gender biases and

67
discriminatory practices. However, these initiatives alone will not change women’s decisions
regarding their career progression plans.
Recommendation 3: Change the Narrative of Women in Leadership
This recommendation is intended to influence the environmental element of SCT. This
change would see the leadership figures for each insurance corporation deliver consistent
messaging about several topics related to women in leadership. First, leaders would be
encouraged to acknowledge the problem by openly and honestly discussing the disparate
landscape for the leadership progression of women within the industry. Second, leaders should
communicate the benefits of gender diverse leadership ranks, including economic ones. Third,
leaders should discuss initiatives for change, including the recommendations of this study such
as revising parental leave policies, creating effective professional networking organizations for
women, and revising other institutional policies to provide equity for women.
Numerous studies show that effective and consistent communication from leaders can be
a strong catalyst for change within organizations (Ahn et al., 2004; Barrett, 2006; Luo et al.,
2016; Onyeneke & Abe, 2021). This study recommends utilizing leaders within the industry for
two purposes: one, to highlight the issue of gender disparity in the leadership progression
environment, and two, to add credibility to the other change initiatives being recommended.
Previous studies on change management have posited that top-down messaging from leaders
effectively establishes change initiatives and increases their effectiveness (Ahn et al., 2004; Luo
et al., 2016). From the perspective of SCT, this recommendation is meant to utilize individual
leaders to help affect the behaviors of members of the industry, which would then influence the
overall leadership progression environment within the industry.

68
This recommendation is ultimately intended to influence the broader societal view of
women in leadership. Since the insurance industry is material to the success of the U.S. economy
and one of its oldest industries, the industry could catalyze broader gender diversity change.
Previous research suggests that American industries have been catalysts for social reform
throughout the country’s history, which is often referred to as corporate social responsibility
(Aguilera et al., 2007; He & Harris, 2020; Houston & Snell, 1984; Moura-Leite & Padgett,
2011).
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations of any study should be described. The limitations of a study are defined
as influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). This study’s
possible limitations include uncertainty concerning the trustworthiness of survey respondents and
whether interviewees authentically responded to prompts. Specifically, the genders of
questionnaire respondents could not be verified (aside from the answers provided on their
interview recruitment questionnaire), nor was it possible to verify that participants’ responses
genuinely reflected their true feelings. To mitigate these limitations, I ensured that interviewees
felt that they could be honest and authentic by ensuring their anonymity.
Delimitations, however, are influential factors that the researcher can control using
purposeful study construction (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). In other words, these are the study’s
design features that a researcher includes or omits (Leedy & Ormrod, 2019). For this study, the
intended number of interviews to be conducted was ten and, in practice, was eight. The small
sample size limits the generalizability of the study. A small sample size was used so the study
could be completed in a reasonable amount of time and so that the data could be
comprehensively analyzed. Data saturation was reached in relation to the guiding questions.

69
Additionally, I consciously decided not to focus on race as a causal factor in this gender
discrimination and bias study, as doing so might have detracted from the focus of the stated
problem of practice, which is rooted in gender biases and dynamics. While race might affect the
treatment of certain minority groups, I chose not to introduce this variable into my research.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research on increasing female representation in key leadership roles within the
commercial insurance industry should focus on the intersectionality between the demanding
familial roles of women and hybrid work environments, which became more popular during the
COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, future research should focus on how women who are
working in hybrid office environments are impacted by their leadership progression aspirations.
Some of this study’s participants mentioned the challenges they faced working from home during
the pandemic, but post-pandemic environments also present unique challenges. Some
participants indicated that hybrid office environments were entirely new to their specific
corporations and new to the industry in general. Future research should examine how hybrid
work environments impact female leadership progression.
Conclusion
This study aimed to understand paths to and inequities embedded in leadership
progression for women within the commercial insurance industry and offer recommendations for
change. Quantitative evidence from previous research showed that the commercial insurance
industry lagged much of corporate America regarding the number of women occupying seniorlevel and key leadership roles. What was unclear, however, was at what point in their careers
women felt as though their commercial insurance careers were beginning to stagnate or be
impeded by gender biases and why. This study sought to understand directly from women in

70
leadership roles within the industry how they experienced this issue and what, if any, gender
biases they felt were actively impeding women’s leadership progression.
Eight women in the insurance industry, ranging in experience from a few years to 25
years, were interviewed, and their answers have provided critical insights into how and when
women have been propelled or impeded along their leadership progression paths. Nearly all
interviewees stated that they felt they had made conscious decisions to halt their leadership
progression paths to focus on motherhood or other familial responsibilities. Most indicated that
they were open to resuming their leadership progression journeys but felt that gender biases
stood in their way. Many feared that taking maternity leave would disadvantage them compared
to male colleagues, especially regarding lost opportunities to earn seniority or experience.
Overall, the findings of this study align with the greater statistical data of the industry
regarding the disparate conditions for the leadership advancement of women. Participants
expressed feeling more control over their leadership progression than might have been
previously thought. However, this study also reveals that the industry could do more to create
better and more equitable environments for women to balance their professional and personal
lives. Indeed, the industry could better serve all women, regardless of their professional
experience. This study presents a mere modicum of the experiences of the women within the
insurance industry, women who significantly contribute to one of America’s oldest industries.

71
References
Aguilera, R. V., Rupp, D. E., Williams, C. A., & Ganapathi, J. (2007). Putting the S back in
corporate social responsibility: A multilevel theory of social change in organizations. The
Academy of Management Review, 32(3), 836–863.
https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2007.25275678
Ahn, M. J., Adamson, J. S. A., & Dornbusch, D. (2004). From leaders to leadership: Managing
change. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 10(4), 112–123.
https://doi.org/10.1177/107179190401000409
Alkadry, M. G., & Tower, L. E. (2006). Unequal Pay: The Role of Gender. Public Administration
Review, 66(6), 888–898. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00656.x
Angelina, M., & Sharma, R. (2012). Saint Joseph’s University Study on Insurance Industry
Demographics. Saint Jospeh’s University. Retrieved from
https://sites.sju.edu/armi/files/2017/06/IICFPresentation2015SJUStudyMEA.pdf#_ga=2.
208893394.195146170.1710096114-1153029734.1710096113
Arenstam, H. (2017). A mother of a problem: How the language of inequality affects maternity
leave policies and women in law firms. Northwestern Journal of Law and Social Policy,
12(3), 1–31.
Auster, E. R., & Prasad, A. (2016). Why do women still not make it to the top? Dominant
organizational ideologies and biases by promotion committees limit opportunities to
destination positions. Sex Roles, 75(5–6), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-
0607-0
Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I. (1999). Re-examining the components of
transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership

72
questionnaire. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(4), 441–462.
https://doi.org/10.1348/096317999166789
Bacolod, M., Heissel, J. A., Laurita, L., Molloy, M., & Sullivan, R. (2022). Mothers in the
military: Effect of maternity leave policy on take-up. Demography, 59(2), 787–812.
https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9816044
Bailey, M. J., Helgerman, T., & Stuart, B. A. (2021). Gender differences in careers and pay:
Changes in the US gender gap in wages in the 1960s. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 111,
143–148. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20211020
Ballenger, J. (2008). Women’s access to higher education leadership: Cultural and structural
barriers. Retrieved January 13, 2023, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ913023.pdf
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bannon, A., & Powers, A. (2022, August 30). Want gender equality? Don’t overlook state
constitutions. Brennan Center for Justice. Retrieved January 13, 2023, from
https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/want-gender-equality-dontoverlook-state-constitutions
Barrett, D. J. (2006). Strong communication skills a must for today’s leaders. Handbook of
Business Strategy, 7(1), 385–390. https://doi.org/10.1108/10775730610619124
Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Baum, S., & Flores, S. M. (2011). Higher education and children in immigrant families. The
Future of Children, 21(1), 171–193. https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2011.0000
Beckhusen, J. (2022, April 26). Administrative Professionals Day recognizes 2% of U.S.
workforce, mostly women who earn less than average worker. Retrieved November 3,

73
2022, from https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/04/recognizing-nationsadministrative-professionals.html
Bergman, Z., Bergman, M. M., & Thatcher, A. (2019). Agency and Bandura’s model of triadic
reciprocal causation: An exploratory mobility study among Metrorail commuters in the
Western Cape, South Africa. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 411.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00411
Bismark, M., Morris, J., Thomas, L., Loh, E., Phelps, G., & Dickinson, H. (2015). Reasons and
remedies for under-representation of women in medical leadership roles: A qualitative
study from Australia. BMJ Open, 5(11), e009384–e009384.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009384
Biswas, P. K., Roberts, H., & Stainback, K. (2021). Does women’s board representation affect
non‐managerial gender inequality? Human Resource Management, 60(4), 659–680.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.22066
Boyce, L. A., & Herd, A. M. (2003). The relationship between gender role stereotypes and
requisite military leadership characteristics. Sex Roles, 49(7–8), 365–378.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025164221364
Brenner, O. C., Tomkiewicz, J., & Schein, V. E. (1989). The relationship between sex role
stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revisited. Academy of Management
Journal, 32(3), 662–669.

74
Brown, F. W., & Riley, M. (2008). Emotional Intelligence, Transformational Leadership and
Gender: Correlation and Interaction Possibilities. The Journal of International
Management Studies, 3(2).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241758467_Emotional_Intelligence_Transform
ational_Leadership_and_Gender_Correlation_and_Interaction_Possibilities
Burns, J. M. (2010). Leadership (1st Harper Perennial Political Classics ed.). Harper Perennial.
Cady, K. A. (2009). Labor and women’s liberation: Popular readings of the feminine mystique.
Women’s Studies in Communication, 32(3), 348–379.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2009.10162394
Campbell, K., & Minguez Vera, A. (2010). Female board appointments and firm valuation: Short
and long-term effects. Journal of Management and Governance, 14(1), 37–59.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-009-9092-y
Carmeli, A., Ben-Hador, B., Waldman, D. A., & Rupp, D. E. (2009). How leaders cultivate social
capital and nurture employee vigor: Implications for job performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 94(6), 1553–1561. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016429
Carter, D. R., DeChurch, L. A., Braun, M. T., & Contractor, N. S. (2015). Social network
approaches to leadership: An integrative conceptual review. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 100(3), 597–622. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038922
Chaplin, T. M., Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2005). Parental socialization of emotion
expression: Gender differences and relations to child adjustment. Emotion, 5(1), 80–88.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.80

75
Chatman, J. A., & Flynn, F. J. (2001). The influence of demographic heterogeneity on the
emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teams. Academy of
Management Journal, 44(5), 956–974.
Chattopadhyay, P. (1999). Beyond direct and symmetrical effects: The influence of demographic
dissimilarity on organizational citizenship behavior. Academy of Management Journal,
42(3), 273–287. https://www.jstor.org/stable/256919
Chyu, J., Peters, C. E., Nicholson, T. M., Dai, J. C., Taylor, J., Garg, T., Smith, A. B., Porten, S.
P., Greene, K., Browning, N., Harris, E., Sutherland, S. E., & Psutka, S. P. (2020).
Women in leadership in urology: The case for increasing diversity and equity. Urology,
150, 16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2020.07.079
Clowes, D. A., Hinkle, D. E., & Smart, J. C. (1986). Enrollment patterns in postsecondary
education, 1961–1982. The Journal of Higher Education, 57(2), 121–133.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1986.11778758
Cook, A., & Glass, C. (2011). Leadership change and shareholder value: How markets react to
the appointments of women. Human Resource Management, 50(4), 501–519.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20438
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2020). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. SAGE Publications, Inc.
Croft, Schmader, T., Block, K., & Baron, A. S. (2014). The second shift reflected in the second
generation: Do parents’ gender roles at home predict children’s aspirations?
Psychological Science, 25(7), 1418–1428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614533968
Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: Self-construals and gender. Psychological
Bulletin, 122(1), 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.122.1.5

76
Cullen-Lester, K. L., Maupin, C. K., & Carter, D. R. (2017). Incorporating social networks into
leadership development: A conceptual model and evaluation of research and practice. The
Leadership Quarterly, 28(1), 130–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.10.005
Cullen-Lester, K. L., Woehler, M. L., & Willburn, P. (2016). Network-based leadership
development: A guiding framework and resources for management educators. Journal of
Management Education, 40(3), 321–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562915624124
Cundiff J. L., & Vescio T. K. (2016). Gender stereotypes influence how people explain gender
disparities in the workplace. Sex Roles, 75(3–4): 126–138. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0593-
2
Dashper, K. (2019). Challenging the gendered rhetoric of success? The limitations of women‐
only mentoring for tackling gender inequality in the workplace. Gender, Work, and
Organization, 26(4), 541–557. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12262
Dashper, K. (2020). Mentoring for gender equality: Supporting female leaders in the hospitality
industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 88, 102397.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102397
Davis, P. E., Babakus, E., Englis, P. D., & Pett, T. (2010). The influence of CEO gender on
market orientation and performance in service small and medium-sized service
businesses. Journal of Small Business Management, 48(4), 475–496.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2010.00305.x
Day, D. V., & O’Connor, P. M. G. (2003). Leadership development: Understanding the process.
In S. E. Murphy & R. E. Riggio (Eds.), The future of leadership development (pp. 11–28).
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

77
Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods (2nd
ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Dodge, K. A., Gilroy, F. D., & Fenzel, L. M. (1995). Requisite management characteristics
revisited: Two decades later. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality.
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-33887-001
Dunsavage, J. (2022, November 3). Ian, personal auto, inflation, geopolitics driving worst P&C
underwriting results since 2011. Insurance Information Institute. Retrieved November 3,
2022, from https://insuranceindustryblog.iii.org/ian-personal-auto-inflation-geopoliticsdriving-worst-pc-underwriting-results-since-2011/
Eagly, A. H. (2003). More women at the top: The impact of gender roles and leadership style. In
U. Pasero (Ed.), Gender — from costs to benefits. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-322-80475-4_11
Eagly, A. H. (2008). Women and the labyrinth of leadership. Human Resource Management
International Digest, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1108/hrmid.2008.04416aad.004
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.
Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573
Eagly, A. H., Diekman, A. B., Schneider, M. C., & Kulesa, P. (2003). Experimental tests of an
attitudinal theory of the gender gap in voting. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 29(10), 1245–1258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203255765
Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational,
transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and
men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569–591. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-
2909.129.4.569

78
Eagly, A. H. (1997). Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and
evolutionary psychology. The American Psychologist, 52(12), 1380–1383.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1380.b
Eagly, & Carli, L. L. (2007). Women and the labyrinth of leadership. Harvard Business Review,
85(9), 62–146.
Eichenauer, C. J., Ryan, A. M., & Alanis, J. M. (2022). Leadership during crisis: An examination
of supervisory leadership behavior and gender during COVID-19. Journal of Leadership
& Organizational Studies, 29(2), 190–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518211010761
Elias, E. (2018). Lessons learned from women in leadership positions: How working women can
survive and thrive. Work, 59(2), 175–181. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-172675
Ellingrud, K., & Lodolo, M. (2019, October 17). Gender parity is still a problem in insurance:
Here's what leaders can do. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/financial-services/our-insights/insuranceblog/gender-parity-is-still-a-problem-in-insurance-heres-what-leaders-can-do
Elliott, Leck, J. D., & Orser, B. (2011). An exploration of gender and trust in mentoring
relationships. Journal of Diversity Management, 1(1), 1–12.
Ely, R. J., & Thomas, D. (2020). Getting Serious About Diversity: Enough Already with the
Business Case. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2020/11/getting-serious-aboutdiversity-enough-already-with-the-business-case
Epstein, R. A. (2014). Public accommodations under the Civil Rights Act of 1964: Why freedom
of association counts as a human right. Stanford Law Review, 66(6), 1241–1291.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/i24243668

79
Flabbi, L., Macis, M., Moro, A., & Schivardi, F. (2019). Do female executives make a
difference? The impact of female leadership on gender gaps and firm performance. The
Economic Journal, 129(622), 2390–2423. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/uez012
Forsyth, D. R., Heiney, M. M., & Wright, S. S. (1997). Biases in appraisals of women leaders.
Group Dynamics, 1(1), 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.1.1.98
Friedan, B. (1963). The feminine mystique. W. W. Norton.
Fritz, C., & van Knippenberg, D. (2018). Gender and leadership aspiration: The impact of work–
life initiatives. Human Resource Management, 57(4), 855–868.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21875
Gartzia, L., & van Knippenberg, D. (2016). Too masculine, too bad: Effects of communion on
leaders’ promotion of cooperation. Group & Organization Management, 41(4), 458–490.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115583580
Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory:
Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(6), 827–844.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.827
Grant, J. (1988). Women as managers: What they can offer to organizations. Organizational
Dynamics, 16(3), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(88)90036-8
Groening, C. (2019). When do investors value board gender diversity? Corporate Governance,
19(1), 60–79. https://doi.org/10.1108/CG-01-2018-0012
Guy, M. (1993). Three steps forward, two steps backward: The status of women’s integration
into public management. Public Administration Review, 53(4), 285–292.
https://doi.org/10.2307/977141

80
Hamidullah, M. F., Riccucci, N. M., & Lee, I. P. (2021). Citizens’ perceptions of closing the
gender pay gap: An experimental study. Public Management Review, 23(7), 1032–1055.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14719037.2020.1722207
He, H., & Harris, L. (2020). The impact of Covid-19 pandemic on corporate social responsibility
and marketing philosophy. Journal of Business Research, 116, 176–182.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.05.030
Heilman, M. E., & Blader, S. L. (2001). Assuming preferential selection when the admissions
policy is unknown: The effects of gender rarity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(2),
188–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.2.188
Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., & Martell, R. F. (1995). Sex stereotypes: Do They influence
perceptions of managers? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10(4), 237–252.
Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s
ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234
Hentschel, T., Braun, S., Peus, C., & Frey, D. (2018). The communality-bonus effect for male
transformational leaders – leadership style, gender, and promotability. European Journal
of Work and Organizational Psychology, 27(1), 112–125.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2017.1402759
Hermans, M., Newburry, W., Alvarado-Vargas, M. J., Baldo, C. M., Borda, A., Durán-Zurita, E.
G., Geleilate, J. M. G., Guerra, M., Morello, M. V. L., Madero-Gómez, S. M., OlivasLujan, M. R., & Zwerg-Villegas, A. M. (2017). Attitudes towards women’s career
advancement in Latin America: The moderating impact of perceived company

81
international proactiveness. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(1), 90–112.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-016-0039-7
Hibbert, J., & Schmidt-Soelch, W. (2021). Securing the long-term gender balance in insurance:
Insights. Heidrick & Struggles. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from
https://www.heidrick.com/en/insights/diversity-inclusion/securing-the-longterm-genderbalance-in-insurance
Hideg, I., & Shen, W. (2019). Why still so few? A theoretical model of the role of benevolent
sexism and career support in the continued underrepresentation of women in leadership
positions. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 26(3), 287–303.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051819849006
Hideg, I., Krstic, A., Trau, R. N. C., & Zarina, T. (2018). The unintended consequences of
maternity leaves: How agency interventions mitigate the negative effects of longer
legislated maternity leaves. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(10), 1155–1164.
https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000327
Hitti, E., Hadid, D., Khoury, S. J., Tamim, H., Makki, M., & Karam, C. M. (2022). Domestic
tethers: Gender differences in career paths and domestic responsibilities of top-research
medical school graduates. PloS One, 17(4), e0267288–e0267288.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267288
Hobson, B. (2006). The evolution of the women-friendly state: Opportunities and constraints in
the Swedish welfare state. In S. Razavi & S. Hassim (Eds.), Gender and social policy in a
global context (pp. 151–172). Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230625280_7

82
Hochschild, A. R., & Machung, A. (1989). The second shift.
https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA62833927
Hogue, M. (2016). Gender bias in communal leadership: Examining servant leadership. Journal
of Managerial Psychology, 31(4), 837–849. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2014-0292
Hoobler, J. M., Masterson, C. R., Nkomo, S. M., & Michel, E. J. (2018). The business case for
women leaders: Meta-analysis, research critique, and path forward. Journal of
Management, 44(6), 2473–2499. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316628643
Hoppe, B., & Reinelt, C. (2010). Social network analysis and the evaluation of leadership
networks. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 600–619.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.06.004
Horton, C., & Smith, K. (2024, January 3). Life insurance statistics, data and industry Trends
2024. Forbes Advisor. https://www.forbes.com/advisor/life-insurance/life-insurancestatistics/#:~:text=Insurance%20is%20a%20trillion%2Ddollar,largest%20and%20most%
20important%20components.
Houston, R., & Snell, K. D. M. (1984). Proto-industrialization? Cottage industry, social change,
and industrial revolution. The Historical Journal, 27(2), 473–492.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0018246X0001791X
Hoyt, C. L. (2010). Women, men, and leadership: Exploring the gender gap at the top. Social and
Personality Psychology Compass, 4(7), 484–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-
9004.2010.00274.x
Herbst, T. H. H. (2020). Gender differences in self-perception accuracy: The confidence gap and
women leaders’ underrepresentation in academia. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology,
46(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v46i0.1704

83
Hubbard, M. (2018, July 25). Women in insurance – A history – The 1960s. melindasleadership.
Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://melindasleadership.com/2018/07/25/womenin-insurance-a-history-the-1960s/
Ibarra, H., & Obodaru, O. (2009). Women and the vision thing. Harvard Business Review, 87(1),
62–70.
Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Leader-member exchange and citizenship
behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 269–277.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.269
Imberg, M., & Shaban, M. (2022). Global Gender Diversity 2022. Altrata. Retrieved July 12,
2023 from https://altrata.com/reports/global-gender-diversity2022#:~:text=At%2044%25%20among%20CAC%2040,more%20than%2035%25%20fe
male%20representation
Jonsen, K., Maznevski, M. L., & Schneider, S. C. (2010). Gender differences in leadership –
Believing is seeing: Implications for managing diversity. Equality, Diversity and
Inclusion, 29(6), 549–572. https://doi.org/10.1108/02610151011067504
Jouber, H. (2022). Women leaders and corporate social performance: Do critical mass, CEO
managerial ability and corporate governance matter? Management Decision, 60(5), 1185–
1217. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-07-2020-0953
Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem,
generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction
and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 80–92.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80

84
Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., & Ilies, R. (2004). The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration
and initiating structure in leadership research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 36–
51. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.36
Kanter, R. M. (1993). Men and women of the corporation (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
Kawase, K., Carpelan-Holmström, M., Kwong, A., & Sanfey, H. (2016). Factors that can
promote or impede the advancement of women as leaders in surgery: Results from an
international survey. World Journal of Surgery, 40(2), 258–266.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00268-015-3332-x
Keen, S., Lomeli-Rodriguez, M., & Joffe, H. (2022). From challenge to opportunity: Virtual
qualitative research during COVID-19 and beyond. International Journal of Qualitative
Methods, 21, 16094069221105075. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221105075
Keohane, N. O. (2020). Women, Power & Leadership. Daedalus, 149(1), 236–250.
https://doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_01785
Kihlstrom, J. F., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1990). An evolutionary milestone in the psychology of
personality. Psychological Inquiry, 1(1), 86–92.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0101_23
Kim, D., & Starks, L. T. (2016). Gender diversity on corporate boards: Do women contribute
unique skills? The American Economic Review, 106(5), 267–271.
https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20161032
Klenke, K. (1996). Women and leadership: A contextual perspective. Springer.
Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Ilgen, D. R. (2006). Enhancing the effectiveness of work groups and
teams. Psychological Science, 7(3), 77–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-
1006.2006.00030.x

85
Kravitz, D. A., & Platania, J. (1993). Attitudes and beliefs about affirmative action: Effects of
target and of respondent sex and ethnicity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(6), 928–
938. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.928
LaMorte, W. W. (2022, November 3). The social cognitive theory. Behavioral Change Models.
Retrieved November 14, 2022, from https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mphmodules/sb/behavioralchangetheories/behavioralchangetheories5.html
Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2019). Practical research: Planning and design (12th ed.).
Pearson.
Lewis, P. (2006). The quest for invisibility: Female entrepreneurs and the masculine norm of
entrepreneurship. Gender, Work & Organization, 13, 453–469.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2006.00317.x
Lobe, B., Morgan, D. L., & Hoffman, K. (2022). A systematic comparison of in-person and
video-based online interviewing. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21,
160940692211270–. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221127068
Luo, W., Song, L. J., Gebert, D. R., Zhang, K., & Feng, Y. (2016). How does leader
communication style promote employees’ commitment at times of change? Journal of
Organizational Change Management, 29(2), 242–262. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-11-
2014-0204
Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of
transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ
literature. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 385–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1048-
9843(96)90027-2

86
Mani, B. G. (1997). Gender and the federal senior executive service: Where is the glass ceiling?
Public Personnel Management, 26(4), 545–558.
https://doi.org/10.1177/009102609702600411
Martin, C. A., Rivera, D. E., Riley, W. T., Hekler, E. B., Buman, M. P., Adams, M. A., & King, A.
C. (2014). A dynamical systems model of Social Cognitive Theory. 2014 American
Control Conference, Portland, OR, USA, 2407–2412.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACC.2014.6859463
Matsuno, K., & Mentzer, J. T. (2000). The effects of strategy type on the market orientation–
performance relationship. Journal of Marketing, 64(4), 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.64.4.1.18078
McCammon, H. J., & Brockman, A. J. (2019). Feminist institutional activists: Venue shifting,
strategic adaptation, and winning the Pregnancy Discrimination Act. Sociological Forum,
34(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12478
Mensi-Klarbach, H. (2014). Gender in top management research: Towards a comprehensive
research framework. Management Research News, 37(6), 538–552.
https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-03-2013-0066
Merrian, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Miles, J., & Gilbert, P. (Eds.). (2005). A handbook of research methods for clinical and health
psychology. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/med:psych/9780198527565.001.0001

87
Milian, S., & Demarchi, J. (2022, June 6). How female leaders in insurance rank equality in the
industry. Accenture. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from
https://insuranceblog.accenture.com/female-leaders-rank-equality-insurance
Milligan, S. (2023, March 10). Timeline: the women’s rights movement in the U.S. U.S. News.
Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.usnews.com/news/thereport/articles/2017-01-20/timeline-the-womens-rights-movement-in-the-us
Mok, A., Maderazzo, K., Hariton, L., & Fraser, E. (2022, September 23). Women CEOs in
America. Women Business Collaborative. Retrieved October 29, 2022, from
https://www.wbcollaborative.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Women-CEOS-inAmerica_2022-0920221847.pdf
Moura-Leite, R. C., & Padgett, R. C. (2011). Historical background of corporate social
responsibility. Social Responsibility Journal, 7(4), 528–539.
https://doi.org/10.1108/1747111111117511
Mun, E., & Jung, J. (2018). Change above the glass ceiling: Corporate social responsibility and
gender diversity in Japanese firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 63(2), 409–440.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839217712920
Muro, M., & Jeffrey, P. (2008). A critical review of the theory and application of social learning
in participatory natural resource management processes. Journal of Environmental
Planning and Management, 51(3), 325–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640560801977190
Narver, J. C., Jacobson, R., & Slater, S. F. (1999). Market orientation and business performance:
An analysis of panel data. In R. Deshpandé (Ed.), Developing a market orientation (pp.
195–216). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231426

88
National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators 2018. (2018). Innovation Indicators:
United States and Other Major Economies. National Science Foundation. Retrieved
September 15, 2022, from https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2018/nsb20181/
National Women’s History Alliance. (2018, October 23). Timeline of legal history of women in
the United States. Retrieved December 5, 2022, from
https://nationalwomenshistoryalliance.org/resources/womens-rights-movement/detailedtimeline/
Newman, B. J. (2016). Breaking the glass ceiling: Local gender-based earnings inequality and
women’s belief in the American dream. American Journal of Political Science, 60(4),
1006–1025. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12195
Niemand, T., Angerer, M., Thies, F., Kraus, S., & Hebenstreit, R. (2018). Equity crowdfunding
across borders: A conjoint experiment. International Journal of Entrepreneurial
Behaviour & Research, 24(4), 911–932. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-07-2017-0256
Norris, J. M., & Wylie, A. M. (1995). Gender stereotyping of the managerial role among students
in Canada and the United States. Group & Organization Management, 20(2), 167–182.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601195202006
Offstein, E. H., Morwick, J. M., & Koskinen, L. (2010). Making telework work: Leading people
and leveraging technology for competitive advantage. Strategic HR Review, 9(2), 32–37.
https://doi.org/10.1108/14754391011022244
Onyeneke, G. B., & Abe, T. (2021). The effect of change leadership on employee attitudinal
support for planned organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change
Management, 34(2), 403–415. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOCM-08-2020-0244

89
Otaye-Ebede, L., Shaffakat, S., & Foster, S. (2020). A multilevel model examining the
relationships between workplace spirituality, ethical climate and outcomes: A social
cognitive theory perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 166(3), 611–626.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04133-8
Ozyilmaz, A., Erdogan, B., & Karaeminogullari, A. (2018). Trust in organization as a moderator
of the relationship between self‐efficacy and workplace outcomes: A social cognitive
theory‐based examination. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,
91(1), 181–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12189
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods. SAGE Publications.
Post, C. (2015). When is female leadership an advantage? Coordination requirements, team
cohesion, and team interaction norms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(8), 1153–
1175. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2031
Ramaswami, A., Dreher, G. F., Bretz, R., & Wiethoff, C. (2010). Gender, mentoring, and career
success: The importance of organizational context. Personnel Psychology, 63(2), 385–
405. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01174.x
Renberg, K. M. (2020). Money talks, but is prior pay silenced under the Equal Pay Act? Rizo v.
Yovino. The Justice System Journal, 41(4), 379–380.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0098261X.2020.1869442
Rhode, D. L. (2003). The difference “difference” makes: Women and leadership. Stanford Law
and Politics.
Rocha, M. (2021). Promoting gender equality through regulation: The case of parental leave.
Theory and Practice of Legislation, 9(1), 35–57.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20508840.2020.1830565

90
Rodríguez-Domínguez, L., García-Sánchez, I.-M., & Gallego-Álvarez, I. (2012). Explanatory
factors of the relationship between gender diversity and corporate performance. European
Journal of Law and Economics, 33(3), 603–620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10657-010-
9144-4
Ropero, M. A. (2018). Women’s access to supervisory jobs and gender inequality. International
Journal of Manpower, 39(5), 687–709. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-10-2016-0196
Rosa, P., Carter, S., & Hamilton, D. (1996). Gender as a determinant of small business
performance: Insights from a British study. Small Business Economics, 8(6), 463–478.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00390031
Rose, D. (2016). The public policy roots of women’s increasing college degree attainment: The
National Defense Education Act of 1958 and the Higher Education Act of 1965. Studies
in American Political Development, 30(1), 62–93.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0898588X1600002X
Rosener, J. B. (1990). Ways women lead. Harvard Business Review, 68(6), 119–125.
Rosette, A. S., & Tost, L. P. (2010). Agentic women and communal leadership: How role
prescriptions confer advantage to top women leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology,
95(2), 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018204
Rupert, D. J., Poehlman, J. A., Hayes, J. J., Ray, S. E., & Moultrie, R. R. (2017). Virtual versus
in-person focus groups: Comparison of costs, recruitment, and participant logistics.
Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(3), e80–e80. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.6980
Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2007). The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the
appointment of women to precarious leadership positions. The Academy of Management
Review, 32(2), 549–572. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2007.24351856

91
Schein, V. E., Mueller, R., & Jacobson, C. (1989). The relationship between sex role stereotypes
and requisite management characteristics among college students. Sex Roles, 20(1–2),
103–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00288030
Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management
characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57(2), 95–100.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037128
Schein, V. E. (1975). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management
characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(3), 340–344.
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076637
Scott, T., Schyns, B., Sturm, R., & Atwater, L. (2016). Underestimating one’s leadership impact:
Are women leaders more susceptible? Organizational Dynamics, 45, 132–138.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-S0090261616000085/firstpage-pdf
Smith, E. B., Chown, J., & Gaughan, K. (2021). Better in the shadows? Public attention, media
coverage, and market reactions to female CEO announcements. Sociological Science,
8(7), 119–149. https://doi.org/10.15195/V8.A7
Smith, V., & Niemeier, D. A. (2005). Building careers, transforming institutions:
Underrepresented women and minorities, leadership opportunities, and interinstitutional
networking. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 11(2), 181–
196.
Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1986). Reducing social context cues: Electronic mail in organizational
communication. Management Science, 32(11), 1492–1512.
https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.32. 11.1492

92
STEMconnector. (2018). Women in insurance: Leading to action [White paper].
https://www.acord.org/docs/default-source/researchpublic/women_in_insurance_2018.pdf
Stuart, S. (2019). Increasing gender diversity in insurance leadership. Retrieved November 4,
2022, from https://www.acord.org/docs/default-source/research-public/increasing-genderdiversity-in-insurance-leadership.pdf
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022, March 1). Women in the labor force: A databook: BLS
reports. Retrieved September 6, 2022, from https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/womensdatabook/2021/home.htm
Usher, E. L., & Schunk, D. H. (2019). Social cognitive theory and motivation. In R. M. Ryan
(Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation (2nd ed., pp. 10–26). Oxford
University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190666453.013.2
van Dijk, J. (2020). The digital divide. Polity Press.
van Gils, S., Van Quaquebeke, N., Borkowski, J., & van Knippenberg, D. (2018). Respectful
leadership: Reducing performance challenges posed by leader role incongruence and
gender dissimilarity. Human Relations, 71(12), 1590–1610.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726718754992
VandenBos, G. R. (Ed.). (2007). APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological
Association.
Vandenberg, K. (2020). Salary history and the Equal Pay Act: An argument for the adoption of
“reckless discrimination” as a theory of liability. Northwestern Journal of Law and Social
Policy, 15(2), 246–264.
https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/njlsp/vol15/iss2/4

93
Walter, J., Kreutzer, M., & Kreutzer, K. (2021). Setting the tone for the team: A multi‐level
analysis of managerial control, peer control, and their consequences for job satisfaction
and team performance. Journal of Management Studies, 58(3), 849–878.
https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12622
Weldon, S. L. (2002). Protest, policy, and the problem of violence against women: A crossnational comparison (1st ed.). University of Pittsburgh Press.
Weyer, B. (2007). Twenty years later: Explaining the persistence of the glass ceiling for women
leaders. Women in Management Review, 22(6), 482–496.
https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420710778718
Whitehead, S. (2001). The invisible gendered subject: Men in education management. Journal of
Gender Studies, 10(1), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/095892301300050591
Whittier, N. (2016). Carceral and intersectional feminism in Congress: The Violence Against
Women Act, discourse, and policy. Gender & Society, 30(5), 791–818.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243216653381
Wiencke, E., Madrazo-Lemarroy, P., & Reyna, L. E. (2019). How do investors invest in crowdinvesting? A qualitative study in Mexico. International Entrepreneurship Review, 5(4),
77–91. https://doi.org/10.15678/IER.2019.0504.05
Williams, L. J., & Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as
predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management,
17(3), 601–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700305
Wood, G. (2008). Gender stereotypical attitudes: Past, present and future influences on women’s
career advancement. Equal Opportunities International, 27(7), 613–628.
https://doi.org/10.1108/02610150810904319

94
Woetzel, J., Madgavkar, A., Ellingrud, K., Labaye, E., Devillard, S., Kutcher, E., Manyika, J.,
Dobbs, R., & Krishnan, M. (2015, September 1). How advancing women’s equality can
add $12 trillion to global growth. McKinsey & Company. Retrieved July 4, 2022, from
https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/employment-and-growth/how-advancingwomens-equality-can-add-12-trillion-to-global-growth
Wolfram, H.-J., & Gratton, L. (2014). Gender role self-concept, categorical gender, and
transactional-transformational leadership: Implications for perceived workgroup
performance. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 21(4), 338–353.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051813498421
Woodward, A. E. (2004). Building velvet triangles: Gender and informal governance. In T.
Christiansen & S. Piattoni (Eds.), Informal governance in the European Union (pp. 76–
93). Edward Elgar. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781843769729.00011
Zhang, C. (2022). Features and insights of gender equity legislation in higher education in the
United States. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 631,
859–863. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220105.159

95
Appendix A
Example Interview Participant Solicitation Message
Greetings,
My name is Chris Alcala, and I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern
California studying organizational change and leadership. For my dissertation work, I am
conducting a research study on women’s progression to leadership positions in the commercial
insurance industry and gender biases that may pose barriers to their progression. I’m writing to
ask for your participation in the study to hear your story as a woman in insurance and your
perspectives on leadership and gender equity. The study has been approved by the University of
Southern California’s Institutional Research Board. If you choose to participate, your responses
will be kept anonymous and no identifying information will be provided in the study’s findings.
A face-to-face or virtual approximately 60-minute interview will be scheduled at your
convenience.
To participate, please follow the link to the short recruitment questionnaire to verify your
eligibility for the study and where you can provide your contact information. I hope you’ll agree
to participate in this study so that your thoughts, opinions, and experiences can help shape the
available data and information available on women in the insurance industry.
[Qualtrics link]
Sincerely and respectfully,
Chris Alcala, MBV
Doctoral Candidate
Rossier School of Education

96
Appendix B
Interview Recruitment Questionnaire
1) Are you interested in being considered for an interview session as part of this research study?
[ ] Yes
[ ] No
2) By what gender do you identify?
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
[ ] Non-binary / third gender
[ ] Prefer not to say
3) In which state do you currently reside?
4) What type of insurance entity do you work for or have you worked for? (Multiple answers may
be selected.)
[ ] Carrier
[ ] Broker
[ ] Wholesaler

97
5) How long have you worked within the insurance industry?
[ ] 1–2 years
[ ] 3–5 years
[ ] 6–9 years
[ ] 10+ years
6) Have you held a leadership position within the insurance industry? (For purposes of this study,
leadership is defined as having role where other associates report to you)
[ ] No
[ ] Yes
7) During your time within the insurance industry, have you ever felt gender biases applied towards
you or another woman you work(ed) with?
[ ] No
[ ] Yes

98
8) Please indicate your preference for either a face-to-face, or virtual interview.
[ ] Face-to-face
[ ] Virtual
9) Please indicate your contact preference. Then, provide your name, an email address, phone
number, or LinkedIn profile name.
[ ] Email
[ ] Phone Call
[ ] LinkedIn
[ ] Contact Information _________________________________________________

99
Appendix C
Interview Questions
Interview Questions RQ Addressed Key Concept
Addressed
1. Describe for me your role within your
company.
RQ1 Perspective
2. Tell me about your path to reach this role.
Where do you see yourself professionally in
five years?
RQ1 Perspective
3. During your time in the industry, have you
ever felt your career begin to stagnate? If so, at
what level did you feel it began to stagnate?
Why do you believe it began to stagnate there?
RQ1 Barriers
4. Statistics on the insurance industry show
that women comprise around 11% of board
seats despite being 60% of the total workforce
population. Why do you think that is?
RQ2 Gender Biases
5. What gender biases, if any, have you faced
in your leadership progression? What barriers
did they pose?
RQ2 Gender Biases
6. What recommendations would you offer to
overcome gender biases and increase gender
diversity within the leadership ranks of the
commercial insurance industry?
RQ3
Awareness and
Perspective
7. What advice would you give to women in
the commercial insurance industry looking to
ascend to leadership positions?
RQ3
Barriers and
Perspective

Abstract (if available)

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Addressing the challenges of employee retention: a qualitative analysis of job satisfaction and perceptions of advancement by marginalized women in the insurance industry

PDF

IT belongingness: from outcasts to technology leaders in higher education – a promising practice

PDF

Increasing representation of women in executive technology leadership roles

PDF

The role of self-efficacy in Armenian American women leaders in higher educational institutions in Southern California

PDF

Belonging in America: Black Muslim refugee women’s’ trials and triumphs in the workplace

PDF

Investigating the personal and organizational factors influencing the departure of female physicians from healthcare leadership roles

PDF

Gender role beliefs of male senior leaders in retail and the impact on women’s advancement

PDF

Facilitators for the advancement of Hispanic/Latinx employees in corporate security

PDF

Barriers to gender equity in K-12 educational leadership: an evaluation study

PDF

Employee motivation in corporations that experienced a leadership transition

PDF

The role of organizational leaders in creating sustainable diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives in the workplace

PDF

Experiences of women of color leaders in academic libraries

PDF

Leadership psychological safety: exploring its development and relationship with leader-member exchange theory

PDF

Sustainable fashion leadership: The female phenomenon

PDF

Minding the gender gap: self-efficacy and women senior leadership roles in banking

PDF

Centering women's voices in CQAD accredited post-secondary institutions

PDF

Beyond commitments: a qualitative examination of the persistent disparities faced by Black women in executive leadership roles post the 2020 crisis and beyond

PDF

An exploratory study of women's advancement in the construction industry

PDF

Reimagining computer science education for female students of color

PDF

The importance of the implementation process to achieve equity in the classroom through culturally relevant pedagogy

Asset Metadata

Creator Alcala, Christopher Adam (author)

Core Title Women in leadership: how female leaders fair in America’s commercial insurance industry

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 03/19/2024

Defense Date 02/15/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag commercial insurance,DEI,female leaders,female leadership,female leadership in insurance,gender disparity,Insurance,maternity leave policy,OAI-PMH Harvest,paternity leave policy

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Krop, Kathy (committee chair), Carbone, Paula (committee member), Rayburn, Kalim (committee member)

Creator Email caalcala@usc.edu,chris.alcala1983@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113857444

Unique identifier UC113857444

Identifier etd-AlcalaChri-12701.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-AlcalaChri-12701

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Alcala, Christopher Adam

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240325-usctheses-batch-1130 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu