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The second gender: the impact of Chinese collectivism on women's psychological subjugation

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The second gender: the impact of Chinese collectivism on women's psychological subjugation

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Content Copyright 2024 Shuyao Li
THE SECOND GENDER:
THE IMPACT OF CHINESE COLLECTIVISM ON WOMEN’S
PSYCHOLOGICAL SUBJUGATION
by
Shuyao Li
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSKI SCHOOL OF ART AND DESIGN
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF FINE ARTS
(DESIGN)
May 2024

ii
Table of Contents
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ iv
Abstract........................................................................................................................................... v
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: The Impact of Historical Chinese Collectivism on Women's Status............................ 3
1.1 Ancient Chinese Societal Norms and Women's Roles ......................................................... 3
1.2 Traditional Expectations and Sacrifices................................................................................ 6
1.3 The Transition to Modernity: State Family Planning and its Implications........................... 8
Chapter 2: Collectivism and Its Impact on Women and Psychological Subjugation ................... 14
2.1 From Childhood Observations to Adulthood Choices........................................................ 14
2.2 The Influence of Maternal Sacrifice and Collectivist Thinking ......................................... 16
2.3 Challenges and Norms Affecting Women in China ........................................................... 20
Chapter 3: Artistic Narratives: Unveiling Gender, Collectivism, and Subjugation...................... 22
3.1 Capturing Nuances Through Multimedia ........................................................................... 22
3.1.1 Oppression................................................................................................................. 24
3.1.2 Invisibility ................................................................................................................. 26
3.1.3 Obedience.................................................................................................................. 28
3.1.4 Silencing.................................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Design Strategies: Interpreting Chinese Collectivism and Feminine Experience .............. 33
Chapter 4: Summary ..................................................................................................................... 35
4.1 Summarizing the Evolution of Chinese Women's Status ................................................... 35
4.2 The Role of Art and Design in Advocating Change ........................................................... 36
Epilogue ........................................................................................................................................ 41

iii
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................42

iv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Contraceptive use among married women ages 15-49 in China ................................... 10
Figure 2: Contraceptive surgeries in China’s 2021 Health Statistical Yearbook ......................... 12
Figure 3: Wedding customs and culture in the ancient village..................................................... 21
Figure 4 - 11: Eight collages illustrate the concealed plight of
Chinese women under collectivist ideology ......................................................... 23
Figure 12 - 15: Screenshots from the video Oppression............................................................... 25
Figure 16 - 19: Screenshots from the video Invisibility................................................................ 27
Figure 20 - 23: Screenshots from the video Obedience................................................................ 30
Figure 24 - 27: Screenshots from the video Silencing .................................................................. 32
Figure 28: Xiao Lu’s installation art “Sperm”.............................................................................. 38
Figure 29: Chengyao He’s performance art piece “99 Needles”.................................................. 39

v
Abstract
The Second Gender
The Impact of Chinese Collectivism on Women's Psychological Subjugation
Shuyao Li
As a Chinese woman dedicated to fostering independence and advancing gender equality,
I navigate a societal landscape where the status of women remains a complex and dynamic issue.
Despite commendable strides made by many women breaking free from injustice, a prevailing
pattern emerges among Chinese women grappling with the patrilineal dilemma, often
necessitating the surrender of personal interests. This trend, I contend, finds its roots in the deepseated collective consciousness ingrained in Chinese culture throughout history.
My thesis explores the multifaceted impact of mind control within various spheres—
family dynamics, workplace environments, relationships, and marital life—on impeding Chinese
women from realizing their full potential. This thesis examines the constraints imposed by
collectivist ideology on Chinese women's ability to assert individuality.
Throughout history, many female artists have recognized this issue and created an
increasing number of works to give voice to women and vehemently oppose the burdens
imposed by Chinese collectivism on them. However, these artistic endeavors, while momentarily
in vogue, often fade away after people have seen and commented on them, failing to spark
significant waves of change. Chinese collectivism persists in its tenacious erosion of Chinese
women, both internally and externally. I acknowledge that achieving a complete overhaul of a
mindset forged centuries ago is nearly impossible, but I choose to persist in creating works to
raise awareness about the existence of the issue and encourage those at the heart of the problem
to bravely speak out.

vi
I consider myself fortunate to be able to contribute within my capabilities, even if it
might seem like a drop in the ocean. At least, I have taken this step and will continue to step out
of this toxic cycle, making more people aware of the persecution inflicted upon women by
Chinese collectivism and offering a helping hand. In this thesis, I delve into the meaning and
production process of my artistic works, presenting a multimedia synthesis aimed at contributing
to the understanding of the issue at hand. My thesis discussion and artistic production contribute
to a discourse that resonates with Chinese women. By doing so, the work aims to bridge the
awareness gap for those unacquainted with or wholly unfamiliar with this situation, fostering
empathy and comprehension.
Keywords: Chinese Collectivism, Gender Roles, Collective Consciousness, Psychological
Control, Gender Inequality, Women's Empowerment

1
Introduction
It is well known that women have long been accustomed to their roles in the second
gender hierarchy, with slogans advocating for women’s rights and equality echoing for quite
some time. Whether within individualism or collectivism, the scrutiny and unfair treatment of
women are pervasive. However, this thesis will specifically focus on Chinese women under the
influence of collectivist ideology. In contrast to Western nations, Chinese women have endured
persecution rooted in collectivism throughout history, as this ideology has deeply integrated into
Chinese culture. As a Chinese woman who has also experienced the impact of Chinese
collectivist thinking, I believe I have both the right and the qualification to address this topic.
In human history, two foundational cultural paradigms emerge: individualism and
collectivism. Generally, individualism prevails in the West, emphasizing personal autonomy and
self-expression, while collectivism dominates in China, placing a premium on communal
harmony and shared responsibility.1 In the spiritual lineage of the Chinese people, the country
and the family, the society and the individual, are an inseparable whole. The collectivist spirit of
“every individual is responsible for the rise and fall of the world” and even sacrificing one's life
for justice has been deeply integrated into the national consciousness of the Chinese people. But
the incitement of collectivism is also the main reason why the vast majority of Chinese women
are afraid to speak up for themselves and suffer as a result.
Chinese society, based on the idea of centralization, always pays attention to the
collective interests above the individual interests; such interests are subordinate to those of the
collective. Collective consciousness refers to shared beliefs, values, and attitudes that are rooted
1 “Individualism & Collectivism,” Culture Point, AFSUSA, accessed January 20, 2024,
https://www.afsusa.org/study-abroad/culture-trek/culture-points/culture-points-individualism-and-collectivism/.

2
in a particular society or culture. These shared beliefs, passed from generation to generation,
shape how individuals in that society view and interact with the world.2 Therefore, in the face of
problems with their partners, Chinese women first consider maintaining the integrity of the
family, the harmony of the husband and wife, and maximizing the common interests of both
sides, while ignoring or even actively abandoning their personal interests.3 It’s known that this
issue has persisted throughout history, and many brave advocates for Chinese women’s rights
have often found themselves silenced. I understand that decisions at the national level,
considering social, political, and other factors, are complex, and I respect and support them.
Therefore, this thesis is not an indictment of the country’s decision-making or an attempt to
criticize our national policies. Instead, it represents the voices of Chinese women expressing the
challenges and experiences they have faced.
Acknowledging the deep-rooted nature of this issue, I’m aware that numerous
courageous advocates for Chinese women’s rights have chosen to keep a low profile. My
intention is not to criticize national decisions or undermine our country’s policies; rather, it’s to
give voice to the experiences endured by Chinese women. As a designer, my contribution lies in
utilizing my professional expertise and capabilities to support Chinese women. I believe that
visual art forms are more readily embraced than data and text, so in this thesis, I incorporate my
artistic creations and their meanings. My design practice reinforces my arguments and brings
awareness to this issue through visual experiences.
2 Xiaofeng Yang , “American Individualism from the perspective of literature And Chinese collectivist
values.” HENAN SOCIAL SCIENCES, no.5 (September 2009):
https://library.ttcdw.com/dev/upload/webUploader/201908/1565149347dd318a52a76bda42.pdf.
3 Qinglian He, “An analysis of the social environment of the change of women's status in China,” Modern
China Studies, accessed January 20, 2024, https://www.modernchinastudies.org/us/issues/past-issues/73-mcs-2001-
issue-2/574-2012-01-03-12-11-52.html.

3
Chapter 1: The Impact of Historical Chinese Collectivism on
Women's Status
In the historical context of traditional China, the deep-seated roots of collectivism have
led to the emergence of a two-tier model, with the family and the state serving as its intrinsic
components. This social framework is intricately interwoven with ethical principles
encompassing loyalty, filial piety, sincerity, the Three Fundamental Bonds and the Five
Constant Virtues, ethical compliance, and familial bonds. Moreover, it perpetuates a patriarchal
system characterized by natural economy, property inheritance, and various societal norms that
systematically marginalized women across different spheres of life.4
This prevailing societal structure, while promoting collectivism, not only reinforces
traditional Chinese totalitarianism and paternalism but also fortifies the existing patriarchal
system. In addition, women, from diverse perspectives encompassing cultural paradigms,
economic foundations, and political systems, are historically positioned with a distinct power
disadvantage, often assuming the role of objects rather than agents of change.
1.1 Ancient Chinese Societal Norms and Women's Roles
The transition from primitive society marked the emergence of private ownership, a
pivotal moment that accentuated inherent male advantages. Men ascended as the primary force
in warfare, enabling them to capture and subjugate captives, thereby becoming both slave
owners and the dominant figures of the patriarchal era. During the later stages of the slave
society, a series of doctrines and ethical principles were meticulously crafted to consolidate and
4 Chongan Ji, “The role of women in Chinese history,” accessed January 20, 2024,
https://www.icm.gov.mo/rc/viewer/10024/399.

4
fortify the supremacy of men, leading to the comprehensive subjugation of women.5 Echoing the
sentiments of the Classic of Poetry: “The birth of a boy is celebrated with music and joyous
rites, while the birth of a girl is greeted with less enthusiasm”.6 The subordination of women was
encoded into societal norms, ordained at birth and perpetuated through the tenets of
Confucianism.
The Zhou Dynasty era (1046-256 BCE) bore witness to the diminished status of married
women, whose marital security hinged upon the whims of their husbands.7 The husband's
willingness to provide support determined a woman's subservient role as his vassal. Ancient
texts such as the Book of Changes emphasized: “Without achievement, she remains in the
household serving”.8 Similarly, Yi · Family reinforced the notion that “women reside within the
domain of righteousness, while men occupy the outer domain”.9 These teachings enjoined
women to excel in domestic duties and to unconditionally obey their husbands. The evolving
economic and cultural landscape, combined with the increasing dominance of male-centric state
governance, progressively relegated women to the status of slaves, eroding their once-held
privileges.
5 Pengpai News, “Review of the change of women's status in history | and discuss the origin ofInternational
Working Women's Day,” last edited March 08, 2020, https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_6401785.
6 诗经, translated as Classic of Poetry, in chapter ‘Minor Court Hymns’, 乃生男子, 载弄之璋; 乃生女
子, 载弄之瓦.
7 Ping Yang, “An analysis of family role and status of women in Zhou Dynasty,” Academic Exchange,
no.10 (October 2006):
http://www.zxls.com/UploadFiles/2020/3/%E5%91%A8%E4%BB%A3%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E7%9A%84
%E5%AE%B6%E5%BA%AD%E8%A7%92%E8%89%B2%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D%E6%8E
%A2%E6%9E%90_2020331174216.pdf.
8 周易, translated as Book of Changes, 无悠遂, 在中馈.
9 周易•家人, translated as Yi · Family, 女正位乎内, 男正位乎外.

5
As the Zhou Dynasty (221–206 BCE) succumbed to the Qin Dynasty’s eradication of
pre-Qin culture, Confucianism assumed hegemony in Chinese society. The position of Chinese
women began to plummet, leaving them bereft of economic agency. According to the Book of
Rites, “A virtuous woman possesses no private possessions, hoards nothing privately, and retains
no private items; she does not dare to act deceitfully or share privately”.10 This indicates that
women held no proprietary rights—prior to marriage, as all assets were under the control of their
fathers and brothers. Following marriage, women became their husbands' vassals, even their
dowry being subject to the jurisdiction of the husband's family, thereby marking the profound
degradation of women’s status.
Many contemporary scholarly works address the social status of women during that
period. For instance, in the article titled “A Preliminary Examination of the Social Status of
Ancient Chinese Women,” from World Chinese Business and Economic Yearbook, author Fang
Yuan sheds light on this topic. In this era, a lamentable decline characterized the ruling class,
with widespread corruption and unruly behavior among the civic class, manifesting a
disconcerting proliferation of salacious literature and a growing inclination toward indulgence.11
This prevailing atmosphere of moral degradation begat further moral degradation, a somber
transformation. Scholar-officials, once exemplars of propriety, engaged in immodest discussions
in public settings. Literary figures during the Ming and Qing dynasties were no longer enamored
with the appreciation of women’s virtues and adornments; instead, they increasingly sought
10 礼记, translated as Book of Rites, 子妇无私货，无私畜，无私器；不敢私假，不敢私与.
11 Yuan Fang, “A Preliminary Examination of the Social Status of Ancient Chinese Women,” World
Chinese
Business and Economic Yearbook, (Feb 2009): https://www.g3mv.com/thesis/view/3925051.

6
transient gratification in sensual pleasures. The interpersonal dynamics between men and
women devolved into an obsession with licentiousness.
This period witnessed a complex coexistence of Confucian values extolling virtue and
chastity with a deepening collectivism. Traditional notions of women’s subjugation stood in
stark contrast to the burgeoning progressive ideas advocating women’s respect and dignity. The
concept of chastity became increasingly entrenched, opposing the persistent emergence of
renowned courtesans in Chinese society. Ultimately, an almost distorted view of chastity took
shape, and the plight of women during this epoch reached a nadir of persecution and oppression.
1.2 Traditional Expectations and Sacrifices
In the Ming and Qing dynasties,12 women’s education primarily consisted of parental
guidance emphasizing the principles of ‘three foundational bonds and the five constant virtues’ -
three foundational bonds: father and son, lord and retainer, and husband and wife; five constant
virtues: benevolence (仁, ren), rightness (义, yi), ritual (礼, li), wisdom (智, zhi) and faithfulness
(信, xin).13 This educational approach aimed to cultivate a moral framework for women,
emphasizing their roles as obedient to men, caregivers for husbands, and educators of children.
Women were encouraged to be virtuous, with the prevailing belief that their lack of intellectual
pursuits was a virtue. The era’s societal norms deterred women from pursuing an education,
fearing that exposure to certain writings might lead them astray and cultivate curiosity about the
outside world, potentially resulting in behavior that did not conform to established moral
12 Ruichao Wang, “The legal activities of women in Ming and Qing Dynasties and their reflections,”
China Court Org, (July 2020): https://www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2020/07/id/5346655.shtml.
13 Keith N KNApp, “Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues Sāngāng Wŭcháng,” story, in
Berkshire Encyclopedia of China, vol. 5 (Berkshire Publishing Group LLC, 2009), 2252–55,
https://chinaconnectu.com/wp-content/pdf/ThreeFundamentalBondsandFiveConstantVirtues.pdf.

7
standards. This approach not only restricted women’s intellectual growth but also relegated them
to becoming mere accessories to men. Throughout history, traditional Chinese culture bore the
imprint of Confucian ideology and its hierarchical political structure. This cultural milieu was
marked by introversion, egotism, ancestor worship, strong family values, preference for the son,
and a commitment to harmony. Each of these characteristics reflected the legal and cultural
backdrop, brewing an environment in which ancient women were subjected to enslavement,
dominance, and disempowerment.
The political and legal systems of traditional Chinese society were fundamentally rooted
in the feudal principles of the ‘three foundational bonds and five constant virtues’. The
Confucian worldview, as well as the associated clan concepts prevalent in ancient Chinese
society, provided a steadfast justification for the subjugation and control of women. The
continuation of the patrilineal family was held as paramount, with the husband deemed the
“principle” of the wife. Female obedience to the husband epitomized the feudal patriarchal and
family systems. Amid the “four ropes” of theocracy, political authority, clan power, and
husband’s authority, the husband’s power emerged as a potent tool for the imprisonment and
oppression of women.
In Fang Yuan’s analysis in A Preliminary Examination of the Social Status of Ancient
Chinese Women, she examined the situation from an economic perspective. In ancient China’s
primitive era, women briefly enjoyed elevated social status due to communal living and a lack of
distinct labor divisions. Engaged primarily in gathering and basic tool crafting, women’s
inherent advantages were prominent. They played key roles in textile work, sewing, and
agriculture. However, as surplus products and private ownership emerged, men’s advantages in
warfare led to their dominance. The capture of prisoners in wars led to the rise of slavery,

8
shifting economic and societal control from women to men, marking the onset of the patriarchal
era. The collapse of matriarchal society marked a shift in human productive forces, subsequently
altering the relations of production.14 Men assumed a dominant position within these relations,
leading to the decline in women’s status. Within the household, husbands wielded authority,
while wives experienced degradation, becoming subservient to their husbands' desires and
reduced to tools for procreation. As society became male-dominated, the three realms of marital,
sexual, and emotional relationships were domains predominantly controlled by men, reducing
women to the roles of slaves and tools. In traditional China, women’s social roles were
predominantly defined as that of a good wife and mother. This positioning underscored the
unilateral expectations placed on women to excel as devoted wives and mothers, prioritizing the
needs of husbands and children. It epitomized the unequal social contract between husbands and
wives, highlighting the inherent gender inequality and unequal power dynamics.
1.3 The Transition to Modernity: State Family Planning and its Implications
Even in the modern era, the façade of progress conceals a persisting oppression, albeit
with policy changes as a deceptive veneer. Women continue to function as instruments aligned
with collectivist interests, yielding to state directives rather than individual autonomy. A
pertinent illustration is the series of family planning reforms implemented in China since the
20th century.15 While ostensibly designed to control the national population, these policies
coerce women into compliance, irrespective of their personal desires. Consequently, women
14 Fang, “A Preliminary Examination”.
15 “Family planning in China,” Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China,
last modified August 1995, https://www.gov.cn/govweb/zwgk/2005-06/02/content_3845.htm.

9
bear the brunt of social oppression and endure irreversible physical repercussions, highlighting
the enduring challenges rooted in collectivist ideologies and state-driven policies.
Since the early years of the People’s Republic of China, the mainland actively
encouraged childbirth, employing titles and accolades for prolific mothers to motivate women to
have more children.16 During the 1953 census, the mainland’s population surpassed 600 million,
with the natural population growth rate exceeding expectations.17 The concept of family
planning was introduced but remained unimplemented. From 1979 to 1990, China initiated the
“one-child policy” under the “later, longer, fewer” framework, urging delayed marriages, a
minimum three-year interval between childbirths, and limiting each couple to two children. This
policy swiftly transitioned to the more stringent requirement of only one child per couple. The
one-child policy compelled many women to resort to contraceptive measures, with intrauterine
devices and female sterilization constituting a significant percentage, while condoms and male
sterilization were negligible in comparison.18
16 BBC News, “China's ‘three-child policy’ to encourage childbearing is written into law. Review of four
pain points in population policy,” August 25, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/chinese-news-58305676.
17 “Evolution of China's family planning policy,” Renshe Tong, last modified January 2022,
https://m12333.cn/qa/reus.html.
18 “Family planning in China,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs, last modified July 2002,
https://www.mfa.gov.cn/web/ziliao_674904/zt_674979/ywzt_675099/wzzt_675579/2296_675789/200207/t200207
05_9288321.shtml.

10
Figure 1: Will, Rachel “Contraceptive Use Among Married Women
Ages 15-49 in China.” US, March 30, 2012.
https://uschinatoday.org/features/2012/03/30/contraceptive-use-inchina/#:~:text=China%20has%20one%20of%20the,Japan%2C%20repor
ts%2054.3%25%20prevalence.
The 2010 census revealed China’s total fertility rate to be the world’s lowest, exacerbated by
severe aging. Consequently, from 2016 to 2021, the policy shifted to allow couples to have two
children. Some members of the political and legal forum proposed imposing a “social support
tax” on families choosing not to have children. Post-2021, grappling with intensified aging, the
country implemented a three-child policy and accompanying support measures, with certain
cities providing parenting subsidies. As of 2022-2023, the Chinese government relaxed family
planning restrictions, eliminating birth limits. However, certain cities continue to offer
incentives and other benefits to families with multiple births.19
Across almost half a century of evolution in China’s family planning reform, women
have ostensibly occupied a pivotal role throughout this transformative process. However, it
19 “National population development plan,” National Development and Reform Commision, last modified
May 2017, https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/fggz/fzzlgh/gjjzxgh/201705/t20170502_1196730_ext.html.

11
appears that their perspectives and physical well-being have been largely overlooked in the
formulation of policies and decision-making. While on a macroscopic level, population control
assumes a crucial role in national development, does the individual woman become a mere
instrument, exploited to fulfill the overarching objectives? The article titled ‘It’s time to abolish
China’s three-child policy,’ published by Human Rights Watch, emphasizes that “Birth limits,
no matter the number, are fundamentally an infringement on women’s reproductive rights and
bodily autonomy” (Human Rights Watch, 2023).20 Under collectivism, individual desires take a
back seat. Irrespective of women’s personal preferences regarding childbearing, there is an
expectation for active participation in the nation's call for contributions to its development. The
assessment of each family’s capacity to support children and the anticipation of their
commitment to the responsibilities accompanying childbirth pose challenges. Nevertheless, one
undeniable expectation is that every woman willingly sacrifices her independent life for the
greater cause of raising children, enduring the entire process from conception to birth and
through the upbringing phase, regardless of personal inclination.
According to the 2021 China Health Statistical Yearbook, a stark reality emerges from
statistics indicating that in 2012, China witnessed over 13 million induced abortions annually,
securing the top position globally.21 Alarming figures further reveal more than 700 incidents of
female uterine perforation and over 3,100 cases of infections resulting from family planning
surgeries.
20 Yaqiu Wang, “It’s Time to Abolish China’s Three-Child Policy,” Human Rights Watch, February 23,
2023, https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/22/its-time-abolish-chinas-three-childpolicy#:~:text=For%2035%20years%20.
21 Medical and Sanitary Institution, “2021 China Health Statistical Yearbook,”
http://www.nhc.gov.cn/mohwsbwstjxxzx/tjtjnj/202305/304a301bfdb444afbf94b1a6c7f83bca/files/2ac5438bcec347
3686d9fb3c9d2187f3.pdf.

12
Figure 2: The number of contraceptive surgeries in the annual health statistics data of
mainland China in 2021. n.d. Photograph. 2021 China Health Statistical Yearbook.
http://www.nhc.gov.cn/mohwsbwstjxxzx/tjtjnj/202305/304a301bfdb444afbf94b1a6c7f83
bca/files/2ac5438bcec3473686d9fb3c9d2187f3.pdf.
This data reveals the urgent need for nuanced consideration of women’s rights, well-being, and
agency within the context of family planning policies. In contrast, condoms and male
sterilization constitute a negligible portion of contraceptive practices. While women have access

13
to various contraceptive methods, each option carries substantial risks to their well-being. It
raises a critical question regarding whether the irreversible consequences of these methods have
been adequately considered within the framework of collectivist ideology. The imperative of
“thinking for the country” might inadvertently inflict significant physical and psychological
trauma upon women, underscoring the need for a comprehensive examination of the
implications of such measures.

14
Chapter 2: Collectivism and Its Impact on Women and
Psychological Subjugation
Collectivism serves as the guiding principle for national unification in China; however,
in practice, it often manifests as a form of psychological subjugation. Despite contemporary
rhetoric advocating for gender equality, the reality is that women continue to occupy a
secondary status—the so-called “second sex.” In the prevailing societal environment, women
face losing their individuality, positioning them as inadvertent victims of collectivism. This
chapter aims to unravel the reasons behind the modern woman’s sense of detachment, the
paradox of their education and the influence of collectivist ideologies that compel them to make
sacrifices. In summary, to identify what perpetuates this continued demotion of women.
2.1 From Childhood Observations to Adulthood Choices
The mother’s role within the family structure is paramount, exerting a profound
influence on the child, with some asserting that the overall happiness of a family is intricately
tied to the life philosophy of the household’s head. The mother’s internal cultivation and
worldview play a crucial role in shaping her daughter’s perspective. The triad of views held by
the mother yields the most significant impact on the daughter. Typically, mothers and children
share considerable time together, and the maternal figure, being the same gender, significantly
shapes attitudes toward relationships and marriage. Despite attempts to resist maternal influence,
individuals often find themselves unconsciously inheriting their mother’s traits, either
embodying them as an integral part of their identity or manifesting as a deliberate contrast. In
the biological research article Mom Shapes Daughters’ Brains Differently, Sarah Alderman
outlines a research experiment where fish were subjected to stress for two weeks, and others
were left undisturbed. The investigation, employing half-sib crossing, revealed through gene

15
expression analysis that maternal stress significantly influenced neuroplasticity, resulting in
divergent changes in gene expression in the offspring. Notably, daughters exhibited increased
genes related to cell metabolism but decreased neurodevelopmental genes, whereas sons
displayed the opposite pattern. This study underscores the profound and distinctive impact of
early environmental factors on neuroplasticity in offspring, even in spawning animals.22
In the context of Chinese parenting culture, the burden of parenting falls
disproportionately on women, a pattern that persists across historical epochs. As noted in
Chapter 1, ancient Chinese norms dictated that men governed the external domain, while women
assumed responsibility for domestic affairs, a paradigm still perpetuated in contemporary
collectivist ideologies. Despite the increased participation of modern women in the workforce,
domestic duties continue to weigh more heavily on them than on men. Consequently, daughters,
in the formative stages of their cognitive development, inevitably emulate their mothers’
behavior, internalizing the belief that such gendered roles are intrinsic to familial dynamics. The
sacrifices made by mothers, driven by national birth policies or familial obligations, become
ingrained in the daughters’ perception, reinforcing the idea that women should conform to selfsacrificial norms for the greater good. This generational transmission of collectivist values
underscores the enduring influence of traditional gender roles on familial expectations and
women’s roles within the broader societal framework.
Chinese writer Li Nanyang’s journal I Have Such a Mother, presents her mother Fan
Yuanzhen as a quintessential Chinese mother figure, entangled in numerous conflicts and two
divorces with her husband. The narrative delves into her struggles during the Chinese Cultural
22Alderman Sarah, “Mom shapes daughters’ brains differently,” The company of Biologists, 220 (2): 138
(January 2017): https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/220/2/138/18644/Mom-shapes-daughters-brainsdifferently.

16
Revolution, where she perceived her talents as stifled by marriage.23 Li Nanyang’s analysis
underscores the high expectations Chinese women hold for themselves in the new era,
juxtaposed with their actual entanglement in tradition, unable to confront societal norms. Li
Nanyang acknowledges the subtle impact of her mother’s thoughts on her own life views,
recognizing the internal conflict between personal aspirations and the constraints of collectivist
ideology. Despite understanding her mother’s desire for independence, Li Nanyang observes the
enduring influence of China’s collectivism, compelling women to navigate self-separation amid
the societal constraints for survival. This narrative provides insight into the complex interplay of
personal aspirations and societal expectations, particularly within the context of Chinese
women's experiences.
2.2 The Influence of Maternal Sacrifice and Collectivist Thinking
The preceding analysis delved into the psychological subjugation of Chinese women,
examining its manifestation at both the state and family levels from early ancient China to the
contemporary era. This section extends the discussion to the realm of the workplace. Despite the
strides modern women have made in securing independent employment, they continue to
grapple with the subordinate status of the second sex within professional environments,
constrained and suppressed by prevailing collectivist ideologies. Chinese women encounter the
additional challenge of being perceived as potential “time bombs” in the workplace due to their
reproductive functions, a facet beyond their control.24 This multifaceted analysis seeks to
23 Nanyang, Li, “ Home Is Where The Heart Dwells: I Have Such a Mother.”, Harvard University, July 6,
2014,
https://archive.blogs.harvard.edu/guorui/2014/07/06/%E8%BD%AC%E6%9D%8E%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%AE%
EF%BC%9A%E3%80%8A%E6%88%91%E6%9C%89%E8%BF%99%E6%A0%B7%E4%B8%80%E4%B8%AA
%E6%AF%8D%E4%BA%B2%E3%80%8B/.
24 Amy Qin, “A Prosperous China Says ‘Men Preferred,’ and Women Lose,” New York Times, July 17,
2019, https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20190717/china-women-discrimination/dual/.

17
illuminate the pervasive and enduring impact of collectivist ideas on Chinese women’s
experiences across various societal domains, including the workplace.
In light of the recently released population and family planning regulations in China,
several provinces and cities have extended maternity leave for women. While this move has
garnered attention, it has also sparked controversy and concern regarding its potential impact on
women’s employment and the risk of increased workplace discrimination. The current maternity
leave duration, as outlined in family planning regulations across most regions, ranges from 128
to 188 days, with some areas allowing extensions until the child turns one if the employer
approves.25 The policy has prompted discussions on Chinese social media, with netizens
expressing apprehensions about reduced salaries and workplace challenges post-maternity leave.
The extended maternity leave policy intersects with the broader societal dynamics of
fertility, family, and workplace competitiveness for women. In the rapidly developing economic
and social landscape of China, characterized by intense labor competition, the longer a woman
takes maternity leave, the more she is perceived to be detached from the competitive workforce.
This raises concerns about her adaptability upon returning to the professional sphere. Despite
national encouragement for women to have children, the potentially adverse effects of prolonged
maternity leave on women's standing in the workplace warrant consideration. Human Rights
Watch reports a prevalent sentiment on the internet describing the predicament faced by working
women in China during the universal two-child policy implementation from 2016 to 2021. The
phrase reflects concerns that not having children may label women as a “super time bomb”,
while having children may lead to perceptions of distraction from work responsibilities. A 2022
25 “Many places in China extend maternity leave to half a year, which may intensify workplace
discrimination against women,” BBC News, last modified December 3, 2021,
https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/chinese-news-59504451.

18
online survey conducted by job site revealed that only 0.8 percent of professional women
expressed a desire to have three children, underscoring the complex dynamics and challenges
women navigate in balancing family and career aspirations.26
In accordance with a 2020 research report from the Women’s Studies Institute of China
(WSIC) examining the repercussions of alterations in family planning policies on urban women,
45 percent of surveyed individuals conveyed that pregnancy or child-rearing negatively affected
their employment. Over one-third reported a reduction in income, while more than 20 percent
indicated missed opportunities for training or advancement. An additional 13 percent recounted
instances of termination or coerced resignation, and 8 percent reported experiencing
demotions.27 A significant instigator of pregnancy-related discrimination stems from companies
being averse to hiring individuals likely to be absent for the extended duration of maternity
leave, along with the associated costs of recruiting replacements. In China, mothers typically
take considerably longer compulsory parental leave compared to fathers, with certain regions not
granting any leave for fathers at all.
Based on the Human Rights Watch report, another contributing factor to this challenging
scenario for women is the persistence of traditional and deeply ingrained discriminatory gender
roles: Women bear the primary responsibility for household childcare duties and are anticipated
to prioritize familial obligations over career aspirations.28 A study by Ren Min University of
China in 2015 revealed that in 63 percent of families with children under the age of three, the
mother assumes the role of the primary caregiver, while in 32 percent, this responsibility falls to
26 Wang, “It’s time.”
27 Wang, “It’s time.”
28 “Men and women share family responsibilities and build a family-friendly society,” Worker Daily,
March 08, 2021, http://acftu.people.com.cn/n1/2021/0308/c67502-32045472.html.

19
grandparents. The proportion of families in which the father acts as the primary caregiver is
notably low. According to a 2019 study by the National Bureau of Statistics, Chinese women
dedicate an average of three hours and 48 minutes daily to unpaid household work, including
childcare, nearly three times more than men, who spend an average of one hour and 32 minutes
daily on unpaid household tasks.
Within the framework of Chinese collectivism, the extension of maternity leave can be
interpreted as a governmental initiative to stimulate population growth and bolster national
development. This aligns individual reproductive choices with a broader social agenda aimed at
sustaining and expanding the population. Despite the apparent supportiveness of this policy, it
has raised concerns regarding its impact on women's employment in a fiercely competitive
society. In the realm of collectivism, women are anticipated to contribute to the collective
welfare by embracing their roles as mothers. Paradoxically, the prolonged maternity leave may
impede women's competitiveness in the workplace, thereby challenging the delicate equilibrium
between individual aspirations and societal expectations. Furthermore, influenced by collectivist
ideology, society tends to view women as potential “time bombs” in professional settings due to
their fertility. This prevailing viewpoint reflects a widespread belief that women might prioritize
family duties over career commitments, adhering to traditional gender roles where women are
predominantly perceived as primary caregivers. The intricate interplay between parental leave
policies and collectivist values underscores the inherent tension between individual choices and
societal expectations. Further exploration of this complex dynamic is essential to
comprehensively understand its implications on women’s roles within the collective structure.

20
2.3 Challenges and Norms Affecting Women in China
In the landscape of modern China, despite the notable intellectual progress of Chinese
women, practical challenges persist within the societal framework, impeding their advancement.
This has resulted in an inadvertent self-doubt. While this doubt may seem subjective, it is, in
reality, a product of subtle societal constraints in China that shape these thoughts. It questions
the effectiveness of deviating from traditional norms in the face of prevalent collectivism.
One illustration of this struggle manifests in the seemingly mundane yet deeply symbolic
realm of public restrooms. The perennial disparity between the efficiency of men’s and women's
facilities, where long queues and extended waiting times plague the latter, raises the question of
whether the country has considered gender-specific design improvements that acknowledge and
accommodate the physiological differences in toilet usage. Moreover, entrenched customs in
rural China, often perceived as cultural heritage, covertly impose constraints on women. Rituals
like opening a red umbrella over a bride’s head to signify “opening branches and scattering
leaves,”29 or serving raw dumplings to symbolize “fertility,”30 perpetuate gender-specific
expectations. Even seemingly innocuous traditions, such as presenting a broom to the bride on
the first day after a month of marriage as a symbol of diligence and cleanliness, contribute to the
subtle but pervasive norms that confine women.
29 “A series of reports on the social practice of ‘Three Going to the Countryside’ on "Youth's Heart to the
Party and Contributing to the Party in the New Era" The School of Culture and Education went to the ancient
village of Tangzui to conduct research on the changes and development of wedding customs and culture,” Chaohu
University, Last modified July 23, 2019, https://www.chu.edu.cn/wcx/2019/0723/c2160a88903/page.htm.
30 Dongmei Ma, “Wedding customs back home,” Beijing Court, December 16, 2011,
https://bjgy.bjcourt.gov.cn/article/detail/2011/12/id/884453.shtml.

21
Figure 3: Chaohu University. “A series of reports on the social practice of ‘Three
Going to the Countryside’ on “Youth's Heart to the Party and Contributing to the
Party in the New Era” The School of Culture and Education went to the ancient
village of Tangzui to conduct research on the changes and development of
wedding customs and culture.” July 23, 2019.
https://www.chu.edu.cn/wcx/2019/0723/c2160a88903/page.htm.
While these practices may find societal acceptance and adherence, the critical question
arises: do they truly empower women to express their individual will? The prevailing discourse
in China tends to cast those who deviate from established norms as disruptors of social order.
However, it is crucial to evaluate whether existing norms genuinely encourage women to assert
their personal autonomy and navigate beyond the confines of collectivist expectations. This
complex interplay between tradition, societal expectations, and individual agency forms a
nuanced backdrop that warrants comprehensive examination within the broader discourse on the
evolving role of women in contemporary China.

22
Chapter 3: Artistic Narratives: Unveiling Gender,
Collectivism, and Subjugation
3.1 Capturing Nuances Through Multimedia
In contrast to traditional text and data analyses, the utilization of art-focused design
provides a dynamic medium that allows audiences to intuitively grasp the conceptual nuances
embedded in my work. Recognizing the limitations of relying solely on words and numbers, I
employ multimedia art to enhance visual transmission, offering the audience a comprehensive
sensory experience. This approach aids in conveying the intricacies of the distortions and
imprisonments experienced by Chinese women within the framework of collectivism.
Within the thematic exploration, my artistic expression unfolds through four succinct
video themes, each serving as an abstract representation of the inexorable compulsions imposed
upon Chinese women, establishing an irrefutable narrative. A deliberate red color scheme
pervades these visual narratives, fostering unity and harmony while emphasizing their cultural
significance. Augmented by audio components featuring authentic words and conversations
reflective of the realities faced by Chinese women, the multimedia format aims to immerse the
audience in a multi-dimensional understanding of the societal tensions depicted.
During the video production process, I initiated a brainstorming session and crafted a
series of collages to elucidate my conceptual framework. These collages centered around the
diverse forms of persecution faced by Chinese women under collectivist ideologies.

23
Figure 4 - 11: Eight collages illustrate the concealed plight of Chinese women under collectivist
ideology, where they are hidden and stifled, unable to voice grievances against injustice. Image
materials are sourced from the internet.

24
While the visual materials yielded easily understandable outcomes, I sensed a need for deeper
meaning. Consequently, I used the collages as a springboard to delve into four representative
topics, gradually exploring their depths. Opting to transition from collages to video, I anticipated
a more narrative-driven and persuasive final presentation that would engage the audience's
interest and foster a profound understanding of the subject.
As a contemporary Chinese woman influenced by collectivist ideologies since childhood,
I am both qualified and eager to discuss this topic. Integrating myself into each video, I
personally undertake all aspects of its creation, from conceptualization and scripting to a
performative on-screen presence, filming, and editing. Throughout the production process, I
expose my vulnerabilities to the audience and strive to enable them to intimately and profoundly
experience the pervasive influence of collectivism in China. Thus, this artistic creation not only
serves as a visual representation but also contributes to cultural enlightenment and serves as a
call to action within the discourse on this subject.
3.1.1 Oppression
The theme chosen for my first video centers around the traditional Chinese board game -
Go. In this game, one side seeks to encircle the opponent’s pieces, eliminating them from the
designated area. The player with more pieces remaining on the board emerges victorious. I opted
for Go for several reasons. Firstly, it emphasizes the competitive balance between black and
white, and secondly, the black stones in Go hold the initiative as they make the first move.
Lastly, Go distinctly represents Chinese cultural characteristics.
In this video, I symbolically use a man’s hand holding the black stones, representing
dominance and control over the entire game. This signifies that in the broader Chinese context,
the white stones, representing women, are passive and lack the ability to make choices. The

25
main narrative of the video revolves around the black pieces consistently dominating the board,
strategizing to eliminate all the white stones. Throughout, there are fluctuations in emotions, but
the ultimate outcome remains under control - the white stones have nowhere to escape,
surrounded and eliminated by the black stones.
Figure 12 - 15: Screenshots from the video ‘Oppression’.
This visual narrative symbolically mirrors the intricate dynamics of the Chinese social
environment. The black stones embody the pervasive ideology of collectivism within this
environment, strategically encroaching upon the defense represented by the white stones – a
metaphor for all women. Although the external facade suggests a harmonious and equitable
competition, the reality is that women find themselves in a precarious position, devoid of
independent agency, and subject to the dominance of the collectivist forces represented by the

26
black stones. The need for balance within the environment necessitates the existence of women,
yet their autonomy remains elusive, and the perceived harmony merely serves as a façade for
external observers. This metaphor is further underscored by the power dynamic, allowing the
black stones to cease the chess game at will, inevitably leading to the perpetual defeat of the
white stones.
Accompanying this visual narrative, the audio component amplifies the poignant
experiences of Chinese women who voice their dissent against ongoing injustices and collective
oppression. The responses they hear, such as “Everyone has gone through this, why do you want
to be different?”, “Women have always lived like this; the situation is like this, just get used to
it,” and “Being a woman is difficult, but who told you to be born as a woman, endure it,”
articulate the societal resistance faced by women attempting to challenge collectivist norms.
This multimedia representation aims to articulate the nuanced struggles of Chinese
women within the framework of collectivism, shedding light on the intricate layers of tension,
oppression, and resilience embedded in their experiences.
3.1.2 Invisibility
The second video employs a superimposition editing technique to primarily showcase the
lifelong constraints and reluctance experienced by Chinese women. In the foreground, close-ups
of my face are juxtaposed with an increasing number of worker ants. I chose ants as a symbol
because they aptly represent social class, with each worker ant having its assigned role.
However, the queen ant is solely responsible for reproducing, giving birth to the next generation
of female ants capable of reproduction before naturally perishing. In the video, I embody the
role of the queen ant, with the proliferation of worker ants symbolizing societal pressures.
Gradually, I transition from reality to abstraction, ultimately disappearing and being forgotten.

27
In the background, I employ montage editing to piece together the invisible harms frequently
faced by Chinese women. In this context, I address the pressure women endure in managing
their body image according to societal standards, a manifestation of stress eating or eating
disorders. Regardless of interpretation, both underscore the constraints and suppression of
freedom that women experience due to the larger societal environment.
Figure 16 - 19: Screenshots from the video ‘Invisibility’.
This video not only reflects a phenomenon in Chinese society but also incorporates my
personal emotions. As a Chinese woman, the imprint of collectivist ideology has firmly etched
itself into my mind and bloodstream. I have heard numerous stories from those around me,
where the rhetoric about increasing women’s rights is contradicted by the reality that, beyond
reproduction, other roles are easily replaceable or ignored. Similar to the ant colony’s seemingly

28
balanced class structure, women may appear indispensable or even at the top of the social
hierarchy, but is the system truly equitable? In the context of Chinese women whose
functionalities have been diminished, is there any meaning in discussing the so-called
“collectivization”?
The accompanying background audio, woven into the video, features representative
quotes embodying collectivist ideologies. These quotes are emblematic of commonplace
expressions encountered by Chinese women in various facets of their lives – emanating from
friends, relatives, family, the workplace, and beyond. Sample expressions include, but are not
limited to, statements such as “Why aren't you married yet? The entire family is counting on you
to have grandchildren”, “A woman working overtime every day; who has time for love and
marriage? Look at your age; who would want you?” and “You're just staying at home with the
children; how tiring could it be?” Through this auditory and visual symphony, the audience
gains profound insight into the societal expectations placed on women within the intricate fabric
of collectivism. These expectations predominantly revolve around gender relationships and
reproductive responsibilities, eclipsing the nuanced perspectives and desires that may emanate
from the women themselves.
3.1.3 Obedience
The third video depicts the bitter reality behind the notion of female beauty. In this
video, I present close-ups of myself wearing high heels from various angles. Behind this
seemingly ordinary attire lies the pain in the arches of the feet and the wear on the heels,
concealed within the shoes and hidden from view. While high heels are considered formal attire
in certain societal contexts and are thought to accentuate the beauty of women’s feet, emitting
charm, the question arises: if there were no societal standards dictating a “dress code,” or if flat

29
shoes or sandals were considered part of formal attire, and without the discriminatory evaluation
of women’s height and body by a male perspective, would high heels still be deemed a necessity
for women? Would anyone utter comments like, “If you don't wear high heels, can you even be
considered a woman”?
While the harms of high heels have been widely discussed, I draw parallels between the
ancient Chinese practice of foot binding, aimed at maintaining the aesthetic of small feet, and
the modern phenomenon of high heels. Therefore, I incorporated video clips and images of
ancient Chinese women with bound feet in the video, using overlay and montage editing
techniques to establish connections and provoke audience reflection. These absurd unwritten
rules restricting the natural growth of women’s bodies have persisted from ancient times to the
present. They not only constrain women's physical freedom but, more significantly, shackle their
thoughts and spirits, compelling them to compromise in seemingly inevitable circumstances.

30
Figure 20 - 23: Screenshots from the video ‘Obedience’.
This video is inspired by a friend of mine, who, despite her facial and body beauty,
suffers severe deformities in her feet. This problem is due to the fact that she only wears shoes
smaller than her feet and high heels. She heard people around her frequently mention that her
feet were larger than other girls’, so she wanted to stop her feet from growing and shrink them
by wearing undersized shoes and high heels. Despite her tall stature, her shoe size is
proportionately smaller compared to her height, but she cares only about why her feet are larger
than other girls’. I would argue that this is an outcome of China’s collectivism, and the gendered
divisions it enforces and reiterates.
The background audio of the video will feature the narrative of my friend’s story. This
sensory experience may be challenging for anyone who is not a Chinese woman to fully

31
empathize with, but while hearing the story, witness the montage editing techniques, creating a
superficial perception of collectivism and instigating the most basic empathetic response.
3.1.4 Silencing
The overarching theme conveyed in the video ‘Silencing’ revolves around the notion that
Chinese women, situated within the encompassing environment of collectivist ideology, seem to
be metaphorically drowning, unable to breathe or escape, forcefully submerged and silenced. In
this video, I contend that the freeze-frame editing technique effectively highlights and solidifies
the women’s pervasive struggles throughout the narrative, culminating in a reluctant decision to
surrender. Despite ceaseless efforts to resurface, they are repeatedly obstructed, unable to
articulate a single word.
The video predominantly consists of close-ups of various parts of the female body,
interspersed with turbulent water currents, creating an eerie and unsettling atmosphere. The
montage editing technique further amplifies the sense of distortion and chaos. The information
conveyed in this video is explicit, offering a visual explanation to the audience of the
suppression faced by Chinese women within the larger societal context, leaving them without a
means to counter or resist.

32
Figure 24 - 27: Screenshots from the video ‘Silencing’.
The video’s overt narrative highlights the symbolic “mouth covering” enforced upon
Chinese women and their metaphorical “drowning” within the confines of collectivism. It
poignantly mirrors the real societal messages imposed on Chinese women, compelling them to
conform to collective norms and restricting their ability to break free from these constraints.
Collectivism, likened to an infinite factory, uniformly shapes diverse individuals, making it
arduous to resist its influence and regain freedom.
The video’s background sound comprises the silent but omnipresent oppression
experienced by Chinese women in various spheres, encompassing school, the workplace,
marriage, and private life. Instances include restrictive comments on school uniforms, intrusive
queries about personal life impacting work, pressure to conform to societal expectations in

33
marriage, and unwarranted judgments on women’s choices in their private lives. These remarks,
though commonplace, prompt reflection on their logical coherence and validity. Do these
societal expectations hold merit, or are women arbitrarily confined by collectivist rules that
everyone feels compelled to adhere to? The video poignantly confronts these questions,
encouraging contemplation on the legitimacy of such norms and the freedom to transcend
societal expectations.
Each of the four videos is designed to be within a concise timeframe of 20 seconds,
complemented by a background voiceover. The final presentation will showcase a looping
playback simultaneously on the same screen. Whether the audience is already familiar with the
subject or encountering it for the first time, this multi-sensory experience intends to foster a
deeper understanding of the pain experienced by Chinese women under the influence of
collectivist ideology.
By incorporating voiceovers and textual annotations, the videos aim to bridge gaps in
understanding and provide a nuanced exploration of the complexities surrounding the impact of
collectivism on Chinese women. The intention is to provoke contemplation and evoke empathy,
making the thesis not only an academic contribution but also a compelling visual and auditory
discourse on the subject matter.
3.2 Design Strategies: Interpreting Chinese Collectivism and Feminine Experience
As a Chinese woman, my encounter with the constraints of collectivism is profound.
Despite being abroad since 2015, the indelible imprint of my Chinese identity reminds me that
collectivism wields a double-edged sword, detrimental to women. My empathy extends to those
who feel this but find themselves powerless to effect change, and a sense of helplessness
envelops my own experiences of suffering. I do not harbor any negative sentiments about my

34
ethnicity; I take pride in being Chinese. Yet, this pride, coupled with a sense of belonging,
grants me the right and the courage to critique what I observe and experience. I envision a better,
stronger China that brings happiness to more people.
In opting for multimedia as the medium for my design works, I believe it offers a lasting
impact, ensuring prolonged viewership and a deeper impression on the audience. Beyond raising
awareness about the toxicity of collectivism for Chinese women, this design work serves as a
memoir, chronicling my life experiences.
The video’s content and visual elements encapsulate my perspective on collectivist ideas,
while the background sounds feature narrations drawn from my own encounters and those of
women in my proximity. Consequently, this design work becomes an intimately intertwined part
of me - a self-portrait. I harbor no illusions that it will catalyze a comprehensive transformation,
given the historical subjugation of women in China. My modest aspiration is that this design
resonates with people, fostering awareness and provoking contemplation. Regardless of prior
knowledge about this issue, my hope is that viewers will gain insight and be prompted to reflect
on the prevailing circumstances.

35
Chapter 4: Summary
4.1 Summarizing the Evolution of Chinese Women's Status
Over thousands of years in a feudal society and over a century in a semi-colonial and
semi-feudal society, Chinese women endured a protracted and tragic history marked by
oppression, humiliation, and upheaval. Across politics, economics, culture, society, and family,
they existed in an unequal position vis-à-vis men. Stripped of independent personality and
identity, they were compelled to rely on men for survival, navigating a patriarchal society where
pleasing men and reproduction seemed the sole avenues for establishing their presence. The
founding of New China brought an end to the feudal system, ushering in a phase where Chinese
women ostensibly enjoyed equal rights with men across various domains, including politics,
economics, culture, and family life. Undeniably, compared to earlier epochs, the trajectory of
Chinese women's development has undergone substantial transformation.
Nevertheless, given China’s status as a developing nation, hindered by prevailing social
development levels and entrenched traditional ideologies, the situation of Chinese women
remains far from optimal. Real-life challenges persist, impeding the complete realization of
women's political participation, employment, education, and equal rights within marriage and
family. The collective nature of society often sidelines women's interests, as many of these
interests may conflict with the state's priorities. Instances of disdain, discrimination, and even
infringement upon women persist intermittently. It is not a lack of intent on China’s part to
address these issues, but rather, in the pursuit of environmental stability, the unjust compromises
and sacrifices endured by women become choices ostensibly necessitated in the name of
collectivist survival.

36
Moreover, the enduring influence of feudal traditions and regional disparities in
economic and cultural development contribute to persistent harmful practices. In remote and less
developed rural areas, archaic customs such as arranged marriages endure, and distressing
incidents of female infanticide, abduction, and human trafficking still plague certain regions.31
While China has implemented reforms to address gender disparities and has made strides in
promoting equality, the overarching goal of preserving the harmony of the collectivist
environment often means women must navigate the persistent challenges imposed by their status
as the second gender.
4.2 The Role of Art and Design in Advocating Change
The emergence of artworks carrying female voices has been a gradual evolution,
overcoming the historical inertia. In eras when the art world was predominantly controlled by
male critics, Chinese women’s voices were not only neglected but often deliberately excluded.
To navigate this landscape, a handful of female artists who surfaced conformed to patriarchal
perspectives, crafting artworks with “distinctly female characteristics.” In doing so, they
inadvertently confined themselves within cultural and racial boundaries, pursuing a narrow
definition of “female art” rather than addressing the broader spectrum of feminism within the art
world.
The early 21st century witnessed a paradigm shift as feminism gained widespread
traction in China. More female artists actively engaged, abandoning the notion of art confined
by “female characteristics” and opting to create spontaneously. While their creations faced
31 “The situation of Chinese women,” Government White Papers, Central government portal, last modified by May
25, 2005, https://www-gov-cn.translate.goog/govweb/zwgk/2005-05/25/content_695.htm?_x_tr_sl=zhCN&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc.

37
skepticism and criticism in the broader environment, this marked the authentic emergence of
feminist art—marked by controversy, aggression, and thought-provoking inquiry.
In May 2006, Lu Xiao’s provocative installation titled “Sperm” sparked heated
discussions.32 She prepared over a dozen empty bottles to collect sperm from male visitors onsite, intending to undergo artificial insemination using the donated sperm. Surprisingly, not a
single male participant was willing to contribute. In this work, Lu simulated the living
conditions of early Chinese women, treated as mere tools of production, devoid of autonomy
over their bodies, and entirely subject to societal decisions. Through this piece, she also
demonstrated that when men are regarded as mere “seeders” rather than individuals, they too
experience embarrassment and discomfort, rejecting such behavior. Furthermore, Lu used this
work to resist the presumed indispensability of “men” in relationships. By collecting sperm and
having a child, she conveyed that sperm is merely a male excretion, devoid of the emotional
factors traditionally associated with it. In a relationship that does not necessitate the presence of
“men,” she asserted the ability to conceive a child.
32 “Feminist Artist-Xiao Lu,” Bald Girls, accessed Jan 3, 2024, http://www.bald-girls.net/shownews.asp?id=26.

38
Figure 28: Feminist Artist-Xiao Lu with her installation art “Sperm”, photographed by Lu
Xiao, accessed Jan 3, 2024. Bald Girls. http://www.bald-girls.net/shownews.asp?id=26.
In a similar vein, Chengyao He’s performance art piece “99 Needles” in July 2002 is
equally thought-provoking.33 Born to unmarried parents condemned by society, Chengyao’s
father faced dismissal, and her mother suffered from mental illness. The family’s response to the
mother’s condition was to bind and insert silver needles into her body. Chengyao’s performance
involved covering herself from head to toe with silver needles for several hours, physically
experiencing her mother’s past ordeal. Her work exudes feminist undertones, portraying the
33 “HE CHENGYAO,” TATE, accessed by January 20, 2024, https://www.tate.org.uk/research/researchcentres/tate-research-centre-asia/women-artists-contemporary-china/he-chengyao.

39
woman entangled in pain as representative of every woman in China. The body, riddled with
pain, serves as a poignant depiction of the most authentic female existence within the prevailing
environment. An increasing number of artistic creations infused with feminist ideals are
breaking free from conforming to gender stereotypes and are transitioning from cultural
marginalization to a more central role, seeking female self-awareness and awakening from a
distinctly female perspective.
Figure 29: Chengyao He’s performance art
piece “99 Needles” at the International
Performance Art Festival, photographed by
Chengyao He, accessed Jan 3, 2024. Live
Action. http://liveaction.se/la-6/PROGRAM1303451092.html.
Art serves as a pivotal force in social development and progress, conveying ideas beyond
the scope of conventional education. The evolution and innovation in art are essential for the

40
material and spiritual civilization of society. Design, as the fusion of art and technology, acts as
a productive force, propelling social and economic development. It transforms information into
creativity, facilitates communication between individuals, fosters the construction of social
spiritual civilization, and exerts significant social influence.
The impetus for the development of art design lies in the perpetual human pursuit of
beauty—an innate and spontaneous desire. This yearning for beautiful things becomes a potent
driving force for social development, embodying the concrete objectives and concepts that
underpin the preliminary stages of societal civilization. Consequently, diverse artistic creations
and design concepts from various perspectives and sources are essential for societal reform and
progress.
Artistic creations infused with feminism have become an integral element of this
evolving landscape. More women aspire to reshape society through their endeavors, aiming to
break free from perpetual subjugation under collectivism as the second sex. The works of
predecessors were powerful acts of resistance, and so too is the ongoing contribution of artists,
including myself.

41
Epilogue
Collectivism and individualism are not inherently good or bad; rather, the choice
between them is contingent upon different circumstances and considerations. This thesis does
not criticize China’s adoption of collectivist ideologies as wrong or undesirable. Instead, it
serves as a narrative from the perspective of Chinese women living under collectivist ideologies,
providing an exposition of observed phenomena and expressing personal viewpoints. Based on
my perception and understanding, Chinese women navigate life as the second gender under
collectivist ideologies, and the emergence of individuals with non-mainstream gender identities
inevitably leads to contradictions and distortions. I assert that this is not a sweeping
generalization, nor is it an unsubstantiated personal opinion. The diverse examples and evidence
presented in my thesis strongly attest to the widespread and well-established nature of these
phenomena.
I harbor no illusions that my thesis or a few design works can alter the broader
landscape. Historical evidence suggests that the impact of women speaking out has been
marginal at best. However, at the very least, I aim to raise awareness and foster understanding of
the fragmentation experienced by Chinese women under collectivism. Achieving this is already
a considerable feat, given the challenging nature of the endeavor.

42
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract As a Chinese woman dedicated to fostering independence and advancing gender equality, I navigate a societal landscape where the status of women remains a complex and dynamic issue. Despite commendable strides made by many women breaking free from injustice, a prevailing pattern emerges among Chinese women grappling with the patrilineal dilemma, often necessitating the surrender of personal interests. This trend, I contend, finds its roots in the deep-seated collective consciousness ingrained in Chinese culture throughout history.

My thesis explores the multifaceted impact of mind control within various spheres—family dynamics, workplace environments, relationships, and marital life—on impeding Chinese women from realizing their full potential. This thesis examines the constraints imposed by collectivist ideology on Chinese women's ability to assert individuality.

Throughout history, many female artists have recognized this issue and created an increasing number of works to give voice to women and vehemently oppose the burdens imposed by Chinese collectivism on them. However, these artistic endeavors, while momentarily in vogue, often fade away after people have seen and commented on them, failing to spark significant waves of change. Chinese collectivism persists in its tenacious erosion of Chinese women, both internally and externally. I acknowledge that achieving a complete overhaul of a mindset forged centuries ago is nearly impossible, but I choose to persist in creating works to raise awareness about the existence of the issue and encourage those at the heart of the problem to bravely speak out.

I consider myself fortunate to be able to contribute within my capabilities, even if it might seem like a drop in the ocean. At least, I have taken this step and will continue to step out of this toxic cycle, making more people aware of the persecution inflicted upon women by Chinese collectivism and offering a helping hand. In this thesis, I delve into the meaning and production process of my artistic works, presenting a multimedia synthesis aimed at contributing to the understanding of the issue at hand. My thesis discussion and artistic production contribute to a discourse that resonates with Chinese women. By doing so, the work aims to bridge the awareness gap for those unacquainted with or wholly unfamiliar with this situation, fostering empathy and comprehension.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Li, Shuyao (author)

Core Title The second gender: the impact of Chinese collectivism on women's psychological subjugation

School Roski School of Art and Design

Degree Master of Fine Arts

Degree Program Design

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 03/27/2024

Defense Date 03/26/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Chinese collectivism,collective consciousness,gender inequality,gender roles,OAI-PMH Harvest,psychological control,women's empowerment

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Wojciak, Ewa (committee chair), Campbell, Andrew (committee member), Robbins, Peter (committee member)

Creator Email michellelsyao@gmail.com,shuyaol@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113859107

Unique identifier UC113859107

Identifier etd-LiShuyao-12722.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-LiShuyao-12722

Document Type Thesis

Format theses (aat)

Rights Li, Shuyao

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240328-usctheses-batch-1132 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu