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Fostering leadership resilience: examining the influence of social networks on female administrators’ capacity to lead in times of crisis or organizational change

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Fostering leadership resilience: examining the influence of social networks on female administrators’ capacity to lead in times of crisis or organizational change

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Content Fostering Leadership Resilience: Examining the Influence of Social Networks on Female
Administrators’ Capacity to Lead in Times of Crisis or Organizational Change
MaryGrace B. Ridgeway
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

@ Copyright by MaryGrace B. Ridgeway 2024
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for MaryGrace B. Ridgeway certifies the approval of this Dissertation
David Cash
Patricia White
Maria Ott, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2024

iv
Abstract
This study applied social network theory to examine the advantages of social networks and how
the connections they offer affect school administrators’ ability to lead their schools. It focused on
how social networks can bolster the leadership growth and tenure of female principals and
assistant principals in secondary schools. Additionally, the study aimed to understand how these
networks can offer tools and resources to support leaders in times of crisis. This study used a
mixed-methods research design to explore a qualitative problem of practice and used quantitative
data to support the interviews. Using semi-structured and open-ended questions allowed
interviewees to narrate their leadership experiences, amplifying their journey as female
administrators and how they attributed being part of social networks to building their confidence
as school leaders. The study’s findings shed light on female administrators’ challenges and
highlighted how social networks foster a culture of women supporting women. Participation in
social networks empowers female administrators to share their job challenges, including meeting
traditional gender roles influenced by society and themselves. Findings further suggest that
social networks benefit leadership skills development, offering members a platform to exchange
ideas and perspectives. Implications for practice emphasized social networks’ importance in
supporting female administrators’ retention and leadership development. Reimaging professional
learning to allow female administrators opportunities to participate in conferences or
symposiums led by other female leaders would be ideal, especially if there is a commitment to
support their leadership development. Furthermore, developing programs that intentionally
recruit female educators provides the potential to build a pipeline of diverse female leaders and
empower them to lead with confidence.

v
Dedication
To my social network of friends and family, this dissertation is dedicated to you. This journey
could not have been completed without the support of my family. Brian, you gave me confidence
and believed in me when I had not seen it in myself. You are my rock and my best friend.
To my beautiful daughters, Isabella and Sofia; you are my inspiration to empower and amplify
the voices of female leaders with the hope you will follow my path and lead with love.

vi
Acknowledgments
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Maria Ott, professor of clinical education,
for her guidance through the dissertation journey. At times, I was not sure if I was capable, and
you offered encouragement and boosted my confidence to finish. I also want to thank my two
committee members, Dr. David Cash and Dr. Patricia White, for their endless support and
contribution. I am honored to have the opportunity to learn from your expertise and knowledge.
I also want to thank the professors and my Fall 2021 cohort at the University of Southern
California, Rossier School of Education. I learned so much from all of you. Our class discussions
and dialogue were deep and full of passion to dismantle systems of power and freedom dream
new possibilities.
Furthermore, two leaders I admired since starting this journey are Dr. Lovie and Dr.
Moore. I do not think I would have considered this journey without your persuasion and
mentorship. Dr. Moore, I am forever grateful for your encouragement and offering me my first
administrative job. Dr. Lovie, your words of wisdom and belief in my abilities are reasons I
applied to USC. I am honored to have learned from both of you.
And finally, I cannot begin to express my appreciation to my social network of friends
and family. I am thankful to have a network who have stood by my side every step of the way.
To my parents, Nena and Manuel, you opened the door of opportunities for me and your support
through many of my journeys made it possible. Jr., Debbie, Uncle Joe, Auntie Cristy, and my inlaws, Don and Linda, your encouragement is why I am able to finish this dissertation. To my
cousins and besties, you know who you are. I am lucky to have strong, inspirational women in
my life to keep me motivated and light my fire to lead with confidence.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Overview of the Study...............................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................1
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on School Leadership .........................................3
Statement of the Research Problem .....................................................................................4
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................4
Research Questions..............................................................................................................6
Significance of the Problem.................................................................................................6
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................7
Limitation and Delimitation of the Study ............................................................................9
Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................12
The Emergence of Leadership Through Social Networks.................................................14
The Impact of Gender on Leadership Development..........................................................28
The Intersection of Leadership Style and Social Networks...............................................34
Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................40
Chapter Two Summary ......................................................................................................41
Chapter Three: Methodology.........................................................................................................43
Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................43
Research Questions............................................................................................................44

viii
Research Design.................................................................................................................44
Methodology ......................................................................................................................45
Selection of the Population ................................................................................................47
Instrumentation and Protocols ...........................................................................................48
Data Collection ..................................................................................................................49
Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................51
Credibility and Trustworthiness.........................................................................................52
The Researcher: My Story .................................................................................................53
Chapter Three Summary ....................................................................................................55
Chapter Four: Results ....................................................................................................................57
Survey Results ...................................................................................................................63
Findings for Research Question 1......................................................................................68
Findings for Research Question 2......................................................................................82
Discussion Research Question 2........................................................................................93
Chapter Four Summary......................................................................................................93
Chapter Five: Discussion ...............................................................................................................96
Findings..............................................................................................................................97
Implication for Practice....................................................................................................102
Future Research ...............................................................................................................105
Conclusion .......................................................................................................................106
References....................................................................................................................................108
Appendix A: Survey Introduction................................................................................................122
Survey Items ....................................................................................................................122
Closed-Ended Questions (3-9).........................................................................................124
Open-Ended Question......................................................................................................128

ix
Closing .............................................................................................................................128
Appendix B: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................129
Research Questions..........................................................................................................129
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in this Interview ........130
Introduction......................................................................................................................130
Background Questions (Setting the Stage): .....................................................................132
Alignment with the Conceptual Framework....................................................................134
Closing Comments...........................................................................................................137
Appendix C: Participant Study Sheet ..........................................................................................138
Purpose of this Study .......................................................................................................138
Information About Study Participants (Subjects)............................................................139
Information About Study Participation............................................................................139
Confidentiality Clause .....................................................................................................140
Definition of Terms..........................................................................................................140
Appendix D: Informed Consent Form .........................................................................................143
Information for Participant ..............................................................................................143
Consent to Participate ......................................................................................................146

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Leadership Network Classification Framework 20
Table 2: Research Question and Date Collection Method 46
Table 3: Demographics for Study Participants 58
Table 4: Demographics: Years of Experience 59
Table 5: Additional Information About the Participants 60
Table A1: Leadership Network Classification Framework 123
Table B1: Leadership Network Classification Framework 136

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: Triadic Reciprocity Model of Causality 25
Figure 2: Model of Adaptive Leadership 36
Figure 3: The Study’s Conceptual Framework 41
Figure 4: Membership in Social Networks 64
Figure 5: Primary Reasons for Participating in Social Networks 65
Figure 6: Which Social Networks Most Participants Sought Out for Advice 66
Figure 7: Networks That Provide a Sense of Connectedness With Current Position 67
Figure 8: Feeling Isolated or Loneliness in Respondents’ Current Position 68

1
Chapter One: Overview of the Study
Margaret Wheatley (2010) shared, “Fearlessness demands that we take time to look at
whatever feels threatening to us in all its complexity. We step into fear, into the moment, and
watch how by acknowledging and moving closer, fear dissipates and fearlessness arises” (p. 33).
Wheatley emphasized confronting fears to cultivate fearlessness, acknowledging that delving into
fears dissipates them, allowing fearlessness to emerge. Speaking from personal experience, the
most challenging aspect for female administrators is having the fearlessness to lead and elevate
their passion. The intersection of leadership style, race, and gender significantly influences how
they approach leadership and shape their roles as school leaders (Kwok et al., 2018).
Research by Smith and Andrews (1989) suggested that female administrators often
maintain a stronger connection to classrooms and instruction. As the National Center for
Education Statistics (2020) indicated, they tend to spend more time teaching and delay
transitioning into administrative roles until later in their careers. Additionally, some women may
encounter greater obstacles based on their race/ethnicity and gender, leading to a more
challenging path to leadership (Allen et al., 1995; Franco et al., 2011; Méndez-Morse, 2004).
These obstacles can significantly impact their perspectives on the workplace and their
opportunities for career advancement.
Background of the Problem
In recent years, there has been a notable increase in female administrators’ representation
in K–12 education, with the number of female principals rising steadily since 2017 (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2020). This growth has been attributed to changes in hiring
practices and attrition of seasoned administrators. However, female administrators face
challenges defining their leadership roles and responsibilities, impacting their tenure and

2
confidence in leading educational initiatives. During and in the aftermath of the COVID-19
pandemic, a significant percentage of administrators retired, changed positions, or left the
educational setting permanently, further contributing to the turnover in leadership (Superville,
2022). A significant portion of these departures is due to a lack of experience and readiness for
the role (Levin & Bradley, 2016) and insufficient support (Beausaert et al., 2016; Clifford &
Coggshall, 2021).
As Superville (2022) reported, approximately 18% of administrators leave their schools
each year, and nearly half of new ones depart within their first 3 years. During the COVID-19
pandemic, when school administrators left their positions, 32% retired, an equal number moved
on to district-level roles, and 27% returned to teaching. An additional eight percent left the
education field permanently (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). In the context of
public school district leadership, where teachers are predominantly female, women’s
underrepresentation in administrative positions, especially the superintendency, can affect
systemic changes that influence educational policies, decisions, and practices (Wyland, 2016).
Research suggests that supporting administrators through mentorship and social networks
could improve retention rates (Helterbran & Rieg, 2004; Levin & Bradley, 2016; Superville,
2022). Social networks offer a sense of community and connection, enabling individuals to find
support, share experiences, and establish positive relationships with colleagues and community
partners (Beausaert et al., 2016; Clifford & Coggshall, 2021). Such networks can influence how
school leaders handle situations that facilitate collaboration and open communication, ultimately
fostering engagement among educators, students, and support staff in times of crisis, such as the
COVID-19 pandemic.

3
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on School Leadership
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted school leadership and job
performance. School administrators had to navigate a complex and rapidly changing landscape
as they worked to balance student and staff health and safety while learning new skills and
becoming experts in public health protocols, online learning technologies, and crisis
management (Bradbury et al., 2020; Harris & Jones, 2020; Huck & Zhang, 2021; McLeod &
Dulsky, 2021). During the last 3 years, school administrators learned to make difficult decisions
about reopening plans, staffing, and budgeting, often with limited information and resources.
Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic put significant pressure on school leaders to address
exacerbating stressors such as declining enrollment, discipline, and absenteeism that existed
before the pandemic and requiring new skills to resolve how to bring back staff morale and
stamina and re-engagement of students (Fray et al., 2022). School leaders are required to be
adaptable, innovative, and resilient in exploring change (Fullan, 2020; Goleman, 2011; Harper &
Kezar, 2021; Kezar, 2014; Wharton-Beck et al., 2022). More than ever, from the unprecedented
challenges of staff shortage and addressing the educational gap the pandemic created, there is a
need to be innovative and agile to change. Social networks can be a source of support for
developing leadership capacity (Daly, 2010; Kadushin, 2012) to navigate organizational change
and lead during times of crisis.
Furthermore, research suggests that supporting administrators in building their leadership
capacity through mentorship and social networks would improve retention (Helterbran & Rieg,
2004; Levin & Bradley, 2016; Superville, 2022). According to Helterbran and Rieg (2004),
females in leadership roles face challenges associated with their gender and ability to lead.
Balancing home and professional commitments can be overwhelming. Social networks facilitate
a sense of community and belonging by connecting individuals with others with similar interests,

4
experiences, and values and providing emotional support during challenging times. Dickens and
Gandhi (2022) suggested that belonging to social networks can positively impact school
administrators’ ability to build and maintain positive working relationships with colleagues and
other school community partners. It can be an effective tool for learning how to collaborate and
communicate to draw others to engage in system change to address the education gap.
Statement of the Research Problem
The study explored how social networks can support the leadership development and
tenure of female school administrators working at the secondary level. Lacking a social network
can create possible barriers for female educators working as school administrators. These
barriers include a lack of support, isolation, and balancing personal and professional
commitments. The research problem of practice is the current lack of a thorough examination of
social networks’ value in developing leadership capacity to address school crises or reforms that
require an adaptive approach to engage and support the school community. With a network of
peers and mentors to provide guidance and advice, leaders can navigate their organization’s
political landscape. Without proper support that provides mentorship and connection, female
administrators’ attrition may increase despite their passion for their work. The intersection of
leadership style, race, and gender can shape an administrator’s leadership experiences (Duarte &
Cordova, 2023; Xu et al., 2015) and their ability to lead effectively in times of crisis or
organizational change.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate how belonging to social networks can help
school leaders lead their schools in times of crisis and provide them with the tools, resources, and
support to do so effectively (Superville, 2022). A second purpose was to determine how social

5
networks may reduce school administrators’ turnover and support them in seeking career
advancement. de Oliveira (2012) proposed analyzing the wrong to make it right. Utilizing this
concept as a guide, the study examined female administrators’ challenges and how belonging to
social networks cultivates a sense of connection that maximizes their potential as leaders and
builds agency as they lead schools in times of crisis or organizational change. The study is
framed within feminist standpoint theory, which is commonly used in research on marginalized
groups (Giles, 2021; Hekman, 1997). This method allows women to express themselves and
speak as women to share their experiences and diverse perspectives.
The research addressed the gap in understanding why female administrators consider
social network membership vital for their professional growth and retention. Prior studies on
social networks do not differentiate between genders (Daly, 2010; Everett & Borgatti, 2005;
Kadushin, 2012), so it becomes difficult to ascertain whether gender disparities shape how
female administrators engage with their social networks and these networks’ impact on their
leadership abilities. Research suggests that supporting administrators through mentorship and
social networks could improve retention rates (Helterbran & Rieg, 2004; Levin & Bradley, 2016;
Superville, 2022).
By identifying how social network membership provides support, this study shed light on
the issues and obstacles female administrators face. The study aims to motivate more female
administrators to join social networks to overcome barriers to remaining in their positions.
Ultimately, the research sought to examine social networks’ significance in retaining female
administrators at the secondary level. Although there is a growing number of female education
administrators, this mixed-methods study investigated how participation in social networks

6
empowered the participants to enhance their leadership skills as school site leaders, encouraging
them to stay in their positions.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What are the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators, and
how does belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to effective leadership
development, especially in times of crisis and change?
2. How does belonging to social networks contribute to the retention and career
advancement of administrators, especially female administrators working at the
secondary level?
Significance of the Problem
This research provides personal insights into female administrators’ experiences in
formal and informal social networks and their role in establishing and nurturing relationships
with colleagues, mentors, and various stakeholders, including community partners. These
relationships are instrumental in developing their leadership capabilities to effectively lead their
schools in times of crisis and change. By conducting a comprehensive review of the literature on
social networks and leadership development, this study offers a deeper understanding of the
connections between these two concepts and identifies gaps in the research (Maxwell, 2013;
Ravitch & Carl, 2016).
Superville (2016) highlighted that a lack of adequate support, such as mentorship and
connections with fellow school leaders, may increase administrators’ attrition rates. While some
research has explored the benefits of belonging to social networks in the context of educational
leadership more broadly (Agneessens et al., 2006; Cullen-Lester et al., 2017; Hoppe & Reinelt,

7
2010; Liou et al., 2015), there is a noticeable gap in understanding how the narratives shared
within these social networks can serve as inspiration, encouraging others to share their
trajectories and motivating them to stay in the profession. The research questions aim to uncover
these social networks’ influence on female leaders’ development and how they lead their
schools, especially during a crisis. This study sought to highlight social networks’ dynamics,
impact on leadership growth, and potential to inspire and support others in similar roles after the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Definition of Terms
Cultural competence: Cultural competence refers to understanding, appreciating, and
effectively interacting with people from different cultures. It involves developing knowledge,
skills, and attitudes to work effectively in diverse cultural settings (Lindsey et al., 2018).
Cultural proficiency: Involves the commitment to learning about cultural groups’
education needs and recognizing and challenging institutional and structural barriers that prevent
them from fully participating and succeeding in society (Lindsey et al., 2018).
Emotional intelligence (EI): Refers to the capability to accurately think about emotions
and utilize emotions and emotional understanding to improve thought processes (Goleman,
2011). Goleman’s emotional intelligence model includes five characteristics, as described by
Cherry (2018):
● Self-awareness: The ability to identify and comprehend emotions, as well as having
an understanding of the impact of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on others.
● Self-regulation: Involves the appropriate expression of emotion.
● Motivation: The driving force behind an individual’s actions comes from internal
factors, such as personal fulfillment, rather than external incentives, such as monetary
compensation, fame, or recognition.

8
● Empathy: Being able to understand how other people are feeling.
● Social skills: The ability to effectively interact with others by understanding one’s
own emotions and those of others in daily communication.
Equity: Stone (2002) refers to equity as the concept of fairness, impartiality, and justice
in providing resources, opportunities, and treatment to all individuals, regardless of their
background or characteristics. In the context of education, Cochran-Smith et al. (2017) defined
equity as a shared goal to ensure that every student has access to the resources, support, and
opportunities they need to succeed, regardless of factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic
status, or other personal attributes.
Feminist standpoint theory: A framework that takes women’s perspectives into account
and values their experiences (Giles, 2021; Hekman, 1997). It takes into account that women’s
experiences are connected to the relationships and interactions they have within their social
groups and the larger social environment in which they exist.
Leadership: According to Fullan (2020), it is the ability to influence and guide
individuals, groups, or organizations toward attaining a common goal. A leader inspires,
motivates, and directs others and can effectively communicate a vision and strategy for achieving
desired outcomes (Goleman, 2011). Leadership involves various skills, including
communicating, building relationships and trust, making decisions, and managing and allocating
resources. Influential leaders can balance their followers’ needs with the organization’s goals,
and they inspire and empower others to work together toward a common purpose.
Social capital: Social capital encompasses the resources, benefits, and advantages
acquired by individuals or groups through their participation in social networks and relationships
(Carolan, 2013; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Daly et al., 2020; Kadushin, 2012). Being a part of these

9
networks allows individuals to access, borrow, or leverage resources from others, facilitating
opportunities for personal or collective change and benefit (Lin et al., 2009).
Social cognitive theory (SCT): The triadic reciprocity of environment, behavior, and
person (Bandura, 1986). Bandura’s (1986) SCT has significantly contributed to understanding
the connection between learning and motivation.
Social network: According to Daly (2010), one’s social network is based on the
relationships and flow of information within social network structures, which consist of a
collection of individuals or nodes. Social networks provide a sense of community.
Social network theory: A theoretical framework that views social relationships (Daly,
2010; Everett & Borgatti, 2005) and connections as essential determinants of individual
behavior, attitudes, and leadership development. The social network theory (Daly, 2010)
examines the interactions between individuals, organizations, or groups in a network.
Social network analysis (SNA): Research by Daly (2010) and Kadushin (2012) on social
networks refers to SNA to explore how to use social networks to understand one’s social
influence, social capital, and social stratification. Also, SNA can be used to analyze social
relationships and interactions among leaders and evaluate leadership networks’ effectiveness
(Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010).
Social network structures: Consists of a set of nodes or actors, along with a set of ties of
a single type that connect the nodes. Refers to nodes (individuals or organizations within the
network), ties (the relationships between nodes), and subgroups (clusters of nodes with matching
ties and characteristics; Daly, 2010; Kadushin, 2012).
Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
Duke and Martin (2011) discussed limitations to consider during research. One limitation
is this study’s uniqueness. The research addresses a gap in determining why female

10
administrators find membership in social networks necessary for their professional growth and
advancement. It acknowledges the presence of the glass ceiling, making a strong support system
necessary to overcome challenges. There is insufficient research about gender differences in how
administrators access social networks to overcome challenges. Another limitation is the impact
of recruiting participants and their willingness to participate in the study. Inviting individuals’
consent was essential to ensuring they were willing study participants, protecting their identities,
and ensuring the confidentiality of responses (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). It was crucial to
consider the interviewees’ experience as well as the information they provided and how it relates
to the topic under examination. According to Hostetler (2005), researchers need to describe and
discuss their research process and make a solid connection between the results and the questions
they are trying to answer using the participants’ responses.
This study’s delimitations include the participants’ gender (women, non-binary),
geographic region (San Diego County), and the number surveyed and interviewed.
Organization of the Study
Through a mixed-methods research approach, this study investigated the impact of
belonging to social networks on the leadership development of females who served as secondary
site administrators pre- and post-COVID-19 pandemic. Chapter One provides an overview of the
study and introduces data to present the root causes of female leadership attrition and how
lacking a social network can hinder leadership development. Chapter Two presents a literature
review in three parts. The first part begins with an overview of social networks and how they
offer opportunities for female administrators to develop their leadership capacity to lead
organizational change after the COVID-19 pandemic. The second part describes the impact of
gender on leadership development. This section explores the challenges female administrators
face as they work to remove their own barriers to leadership development. The third part

11
concludes this chapter with a conceptual framework that connects how social networks intersect
leadership style and gender to create a sense of community and belonging that influences how
they lead for equity at their schools. This section also highlights social networks’ benefits in
promoting the storytelling of educators’ and students’ complex and diverse identities. Chapter
Three describes the methodology for this study and includes sample and population selection,
interview questions, data collection, and data analysis. Chapter Four is a report of the research
findings. Chapter Five summarizes findings, implications for practice, conclusions, and
recommendations. References and appendices are included after this study.

12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Effective school leaders disrupt, mend, and reshape conversations to increase their team’s
awareness and understanding of complex issues (Fullan, 2020). During the COVID-19
pandemic, these issues included learning loss, mental health, and social and emotional
development. Being an effective leader requires adapting and focusing the school’s community
to problem-solve and support reforms such as restorative practices to address student discipline
post-COVID. Lack of discipline among students is increasing, with the need to include nonexclusionary practices to address misbehavior. Having the emotional intelligence to empathize
and motivate the school community can influence and shape beliefs that foster equity and
inclusionary practices.
Engaging in equity work and dismantling practices that marginalize students require
recruiting and retaining members of the school community to embrace the work. Fullan (2020)
emphasized that the people in the organization must be part of the solution. Therefore, having the
emotional intelligence to listen and appreciate different perspectives can develop and enhance
relationships. Relationships gain respect and get others involved. As part of building
relationships, the team must get to know their leader and how much the leader is willing to learn
about them. School leaders who model this for their staff support their emotional intelligence as
educators. Educators’ values influence their decisions regarding students (Stefkovich & Begley,
2007). Additionally, educators have significant power in determining what they consider to be in
a student’s best interest. When educators feel connected to their students, they enhance the
learning environment, allowing them to meet their students’ diverse needs. Fullan noted that
assembling a team of teachers, paraeducators, and support staff with diverse styles, perspectives,

13
and experiences creates an inclusive space for students and adults to learn and thrive together,
and everyone is part of the solution.
This study investigated how belonging to social networks influences school leadership
development, focusing on female secondary school administrators’ perspectives. Chapter Two
will review relevant literature and research regarding the relationship between social networks
and school leadership development and identify gaps in the research. This chapter consists of
three parts. The first is an overview of social networks and how they offer opportunities for
female administrators to develop their leadership capacity to lead organizational change after the
COVID-19 pandemic. In the second section, the literature will describe the impact of gender on
leadership development, particularly the challenges female administrators face in removing
barriers to their leadership development. The third section presents a conceptual framework that
intersects social networks, leadership style, and gender to create a sense of community and
belonging that influences how female administrators lead. This section will also emphasize how
social networks serve as a platform for their members to share and compare their stories,
particularly the challenges and complexities they encounter as female administrators.
Since prior research on social network theories does not distinguish between genders
(Daly, 2010; Everett & Borgatti, 2005; Kadushin, 2012), it is challenging to determine whether
gender differences determine how female administrators access their social networks and how
these networks influence their leadership skills. With the gap in this area of research, this study
leveraged the participants’ experiences in social networks to share their stories of challenges
while trying to inspire other female educators to join these networks to support their leadership
journey post-COVID-19 pandemic.

14
The Emergence of Leadership Through Social Networks
According to Daly (2010), social networks provide a sense of community between actors
to exchange resources. Daly describes social networks as a web of social relationships that an
individual maintains with others, composed of family, friends, acquaintances, colleagues, and
community members. These social networks offer school administrators the necessary conditions
and social structures to engage with peers and mentors, fostering their emotional intelligence and
cultivating a culturally relevant perspective. In these networks, administrators find a supportive
and inclusive environment that provides emotional support, access to information, and
opportunities to connect with people from diverse backgrounds. This exposure to diverse
perspectives and experiences can significantly influence their leadership traits and attitudes
(Agneessens et al., 2006; Daly, 2010; Kadushin, 2012).
Moreover, social network analysis (SNA), as discussed in social network research, is a
valuable tool for comprehending one’s social influence, social capital, and social stratification
(Daly, 2010; Kadushin, 2012). Also, SNA allows for examining factors that impact the
development of relational connections and how these factors influence outcomes at both
individual and group levels (Everett & Borgatti, 2005). Through analyzing communication
patterns, interactions, and engagement with others in a network’s structure, researchers can gain
insights into the social processes that underlie the formation of these connections and understand
how these connections impact outcomes (Carolan, 2013; Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010). For instance,
SNA can be employed to investigate how female administrators access their network
memberships and how their roles in these networks influence their leadership style and their
approach to leading for equity at their schools.

15
Defining Social Networks
Social networks refer to the structure of social relationships and connections between
individuals or groups. It encompasses the people with whom one interacts directly or indirectly,
forming a network of social ties (Daly, 2010). These ties can provide access to various resources,
information, and opportunities. This study expands on Hoppe and Reinelt’s (2010) concepts of
social networks in the literature review to discuss how belonging to these social network
structures can influence leadership development. Social network structures (Daly, 2010;
Kadushin, 2012) consist of a set of nodes or actors and ties of a single type that connect the
nodes. Social network structures refer to nodes (individuals or organizations within the network),
ties (the relationships between nodes), and subgroups (clusters of nodes with matching ties and
characteristics).
Furthermore, understanding the distinctions and interplay between social networks, social
capital, and social support is essential for comprehending their impact on female administrators’
leadership development. By recognizing the role of social networks, social capital, and social
support, educational institutions and policymakers can design interventions that foster supportive
environments, facilitate resource access, and support the development of an effective school
leader. Social capital refers to the resources embedded within social networks, including norms,
trust, and social connections (Mishra, 2020). It represents the benefits of social relationships and
networks, such as social support, cooperation, and collective action. Social capital can facilitate
the exchange of resources, enhance opportunities, and influence individual and collective
outcomes. Social support involves assistance, encouragement, and emotional sustenance within
social networks. It encompasses tangible support (e.g., financial aid), informational support (e.g.,
advice, guidance), and emotional support (e.g., empathy, encouragement). Social support buffers

16
stress, enhancing well-being and fostering resilience. According to Mishra (2020), it is essential
to distinguish between them. Mirshra’s research focused on social networks’ benefits among
underrepresented college students. The findings promote the need for underrepresented students
to belong to social networks to provide them access to resources that contribute to well-being,
sense of belonging, and academic success (Mishra, 2020). By recognizing the role of social
networks, social capital, and social support, educational institutions and organizations can design
interventions that foster supportive environments, facilitate resource access, and enhance
outcomes.
Social Networks in Higher Education
Much research focuses on students’ and adults’ success through belonging and
connectedness (Howard & Mallory, 2008; Lewis et al., 2019; Lundberg, 2014; Maroulis &
Gomez, 2008; R. E. Mayer, 2011; Samura, 2016). There is a correlation in these studies that
examines the structure of social relationships among students, teachers, and staff and relates that
with a positive change in the social network structure at schools and organizations (Maroulis &
Gomez, 2008). Maroulis and Gomez (2008) highlighted that connectedness among students and
between students and teachers promoted participation in extracurricular activities and created
positive attitudes toward school. They suggested that social connectedness improved academic
achievements but brought broader benefits beyond academic achievement because it also
enhanced social engagement and well-being.
Students’ sense of belonging or connection influences their academic success, social
engagement, and well-being. When students feel connected with their school community’s
physical and social aspects through social networks, they improve their sense of belonging and
connectedness (Samura, 2016). Samura’s body of research examines why students may remake

17
themselves, reposition themselves, or remake their spaces socially and academically to increase
their belonging and enhance their experience at school. Students who connect or involve
themselves in at least one ethnic-specific or multicultural student organization (social networks)
can build a sense of belonging on campus and benefit more from their educational experiences
(Lundberg, 2014).
According to Lundberg (2014), students who are profoundly and meaningfully involved
with peers who share common interests improve their academic success rate. It influences their
learning motivation and increases social and educational connections with the school
community. Lundberg (2014) also emphasized how engagement with faculty outside the
classroom allows students to connect and improve student motivation and educational outcomes.
Motivation based on social partnerships allows students to view their instructors as social
partners and motivates them to work harder to learn (R. E. Mayer, 2011). Interpersonal
relationships are critical to the learning process and students’ social-emotional development,
especially for those who experience a greater frequency of racial microaggression associated
with a lower sense of belonging (Lewis, 2019).
Social Networks in Business
The literature suggests that social networks positively influence micro-enterprise
management and success, offering resources, information, funding, support, and essential
contacts. Monnickendam-Givon et al. (2018) examined the role of social networks in the success
of Jewish ultra-orthodox women micro-entrepreneurs in Israel. They noted that micro-enterprises
are vital for women’s economic advancement, providing opportunities to escape poverty and
increase income. Their findings highlight the distinction between personal ties and network
utilization in the context of micro-enterprises. While personal ties provide support and

18
legitimacy, relying on social networks alone does not guarantee success. However, this study
emphasizes strong personal ties in providing emotional support and resources that lift women
within these communities. These personal connections create a sense of trust and credibility for
the business, enhancing its standing in the community. Strong personal relationships are built
within one’s social networks, which fosters trust and emotional support for female entrepreneurs.
Social Networks in Education
Moolenaar’s (2012) research focused on teachers, but this can also bridge the gap
between teachers and their school site administrators. The study used social network theory to
understand teacher collaboration and how SNA helps visualize and evaluate teacher
relationships. It also explored how teacher networks affect teaching, learning, and educational
change. The researcher noted that understanding these social networks among teachers improves
education and can guide future education research and policies (Moolenaar, 2012).
A study by Colton et al. (2016) conferred with Moolenaar’s research in that when
teachers share their teaching and instructional challenges with a community of partners, they
gain various viewpoints and become aware of their biases and areas where they may lack insight.
For instance, in one of their case studies, a teacher realized that she had been teaching solely
from the perspective of her lived experience with the content, hindering the success of one group
of her students. This realization prompted her to alter her teaching methods and perspectives,
incorporating her students’ families and their knowledge into the curriculum. By bringing this
challenge to a group of peers, she benefited from multiple perspectives and recognized her biases
and blind spots. Thus, she adjusted her teaching approach to be more inclusive of her students.
Additionally, studying teacher relationships through social networks can provide insights
for both researchers and educators. Using examples of how teachers collaborate and improve

19
teaching, learning, and educational change through their participation in social networks
highlights these relationships’ importance (Moolenaar, 2012). Moolenaar (2012) explained that
developing social networks allows teachers to connect to discuss and answer important questions
about education, like how students learn and how to improve teaching.
Different Types of Social Networks
Kadushin’s (2012) literature on social networks discusses the different types of social
networks, including their characteristics, formation, maintenance, and transformation over time.
Kadushin (2012) described how social networks could influence a person’s well-being (Van Der
Gaag & Snijders, 2005). For female educators, their social networks can significantly shape their
happiness and attitudes toward their position. Furthermore, an extensive and diverse social
network can provide female educators with even more access to resources, such as emotional
support, instrumental aid, and social validation (Van Der Gaag & Snijders, 2005), which can
prevent burnout and feelings of isolation. Whether formal or collegial, social networks provide
community-building opportunities that generate social connections that can address issues such
as social inequality and exclusion given educational institutions’ politics (Hoppe & Reinelt,
2010).
According to Hoppe and Reinelt (2010), networks are intentionally formed or arise
naturally by individuals who desire to connect with others. Their framework includes categories
of leadership networks that span from deliberate to spontaneous (as shown in Table 1).

20
Table 1
Leadership Network Classification Framework
Type of network Description of network
Friendship/social
support networks
Friendship/social support networks at work address relationships that
are based more on closeness and trust than on task-related needs.
These usually emerge from common backgrounds and/or interests
and tend to be more informal linkages based on emergent friendship
than patterned along formal structural lines. Such networks, however,
often facilitate work accomplishments and can be helpful to leaders.
Peer leadership
network
A system of social ties among leaders who are connected through
shared interests and commitments, shared work, or shared
experiences. Leaders in the network share information, provide
advice and support, learn from one another, and occasionally
collaborate together. Peer leadership networks provide leaders with
access to resources that they can trust. Leadership development
programs often seek to create and catalyze peer leadership networks
to expand the trusted ties that leaders have with one another. At other
times, peer networks emerge when leaders with something in
common find personal benefit in sharing and connecting their
experiences.
Task networks Task networks can help leaders accomplish work, including that which
involves new challenges. Task networks facilitate the exchange of
resources aimed at accomplishing tasks. Such resources may include
information, expertise, materials, and task-related political access.
Organizational
leadership network
A set of social ties that are structured to increase performance. These
ties are often informal and exist outside the formal organizational
structure, such as when an employee seeks advice from a colleague
other than her supervisor to help solve a problem more quickly. At
other times, teams or communities of practice are intentionally
created to bridge silos within organizations that interfere with
performance, profit, or delivering on one’s mission. At the interorganizational level, leadership networks support organizations with
shared interests to produce a product or deliver a service more
efficiently.
Field-policy
leadership network
A network connecting leaders who share common interests and who
have a commitment to influencing a field of practice or policy. These
networks seek to shape the environment (e.g., the framing of an
issue, underlying assumptions, and standards for what is expected).
Effective field-policy leadership networks make it easier for leaders

21
Type of network Description of network
to find common ground around the issues they care about, mobilize
support, and influence policy and resource allocation.
Career networks Career networks involve relationships with actors who can facilitate
career progress by providing career advice, offering mentoring and
sponsorship, aiding in the securing of developmental assignments,
facilitating career-enhancing visibility, and engaging in advocacy for
promotions.
Collective leadership
network
A self-organized system of social ties among people attracted to a
common cause or focused on a shared goal. Network members
exercise leadership locally. As the number of local groupings grows
and there is increasing interaction, these groups begin to align and
connect to form larger networks. These networks are often rooted in
a sense of community and purpose; they may be driven by a desire to
achieve a specific goal or simply to belong to something larger than
oneself.
Note. This table was reproduced from Hoppe and Reinelt’s (2010) description of the leadership
network classification framework. The table was adapted to include other social network
classifications. From “Social Network Analysis and the Evaluation of Leadership Networks” by
B. Hoppe & C. Reinelt, 2010. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 600–619.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.06.004). Copyright 2010 by Elsevier Inc.
Some networks may belong solely to one category, while others may be a combination of
multiple categories. Hoppe and Reinelt (2010) included four categories of networks with
characteristics similar to current networks for educators. A peer leadership network is a network
of social connections among individuals who share common interests, commitments, work, or
experiences. Such networks are formal or informal, as individuals may get together to exchange
ideas, offer advice and support, learn from one another, and occasionally work together.
Organizational leadership networks tend to be informal, existing outside the formal

22
organizational structure. These networks may offer opportunities for colleagues or communities
of practice who have similar roles and responsibilities to come together outside of their current
work setting to share ideas and collaborate rather than working in silos which can be less
productive. Field-policy leadership networks share common interests and commitments to
influence a field of practice or policy. This leadership network group gathers to discuss issues
they care about, mobilize support, and influence policy and resource allocation. Hoppe and
Reinelt’s research indicates that membership in this group includes individuals who seek to
influence and shape issues or assumptions affecting organizations. Collective leadership
networks are informal networks of peers. Members of this network include individuals who
gather frequently and have a strong sense of community because they often connect with other
networks to collaborate, gather, and share a desire to be part of a collective group of individuals.
What all these networks have in common is opportunities for accessing resources and
exchanging information among peers in their networks (Chung et al., 2005; Daly & Finnigan,
2009; Portes, 1998), which can help school leaders understand and leverage the power of social
relationships and connections to support their leadership development and improve outcomes for
their schools and communities.
Peer Leadership Networks
Peer leadership networks consist of individuals WITH similar interests, goals, and values.
They often collaborate, participate in discussions, and share ideas to address personal or
organizational concerns. The individuals in the network have equal status and can influence one
another. The network is characterized by a high degree of trust, reciprocity, and social capital,
which enables members to exchange information, resources, and support in a non-hierarchical
manner (Chung et al., 2005; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010; Portes, 1998).

23
Hoppe and Reinelt (2010) described a peer leadership network as a “social system of
connections among leaders who share common interests, commitments, work, or information”
(p. 601). Members participate as active listeners, allowing them to discuss and solve issues or
concerns collaboratively in a non-judgmental environment. As a personal or collegial group,
members agree to engage in interactive discussions that are open and honest, which builds a
sense of community among the members (Corell Sarpy & Stachowski, 2019). Drawing on their
research on peer leadership networks, Corell Sarpy and Stachowski highlight that trust is
essential for members of this network to exchange information openly, offer advice and support,
and build personal and professional relationships. Trust and relationships are fundamental when
navigating organizational change because school leaders need followers to transform the current
educational practices (Goleman, 2011).
Liou et al. (2015) research focused on relationships, trust, and social networks as
essential in shaping the success of educational reform efforts (Chung et al., 2005; Daly &
Finnigan, 2009; Portes, 1998). The authors argued that relationships are critical in educational
reform because they can influence how educational partners feel connected and invested in the
reform. Social ties can significantly influence how information flows to various individuals and
how this information gets accessed and used to carry out tasks. Thus, SNA can be used to
illustrate how social networks can facilitate communication for sharing knowledge and building
connections between the people involved. It also suggests that social networks can help break
down silos and foster collaboration among participants at various levels across the organization
if there is trust and if the school leaders can build and sustain connections among those involved
(Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010).

24
Furthermore, school leaders can foster relationships and create inclusive learning
environments by respecting and valuing their educational partners’ perspectives and ideas. As
change agents, they also need to sympathize with people and genuinely relate to their needs to
draw them closer to this vision. Social networks can be training ground for educational leaders to
build and maintain relationships with their educational partners, share knowledge and resources,
and enhance their professional development (Carolan, 2013; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Day &
Dragoni, 2015; Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010; Liou et al., 2015). Social networks can facilitate sharing
and collaboration and enhance a leader’s self-awareness toward diversity while encouraging a
shared sense of identity and recognizing the value of learning among peers (Hoppe & Reinelt,
2010).
Organizational Leadership Networks
In recent years, there has been significant growth in research on teachers and schools
from a sociocultural perspective. There is an interest in understanding the relationship between
school-level leadership and teachers’ social learning in their communities of practice. Much of
this research aims to determine whether school leaders can influence how teachers approach their
work and improve the quality of instruction, ultimately impacting student achievement (Printy,
2007). One example of organizational leadership networks is communities of practice.
Communities of practice can include memberships of teachers, school leadership, or colleagues
who meet outside the formal organizational structure. These networks may offer opportunities
for its members to come together to share ideas and engage in ongoing learning and development
rather than working in silos. Research by Printy (2007) provides insight into the intentional
efforts of school leaders and their teachers engaging in ongoing learning to solve specific
problems of practice and share knowledge.

25
The opportunities to connect and learn about cultures and perspectives apply to the social
cognitive learning theory (Schunk, 2020). Bandura’s (1988) research and writings support the
concept of social learning by emphasizing observation and modeling others’ behavior to change
the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. In an organizational leadership network, members
observe how their peers interact, socialize, and share ideas to improve their skills or knowledge,
thus modeling these behaviors and teaching those skills to their students. The social learning
process is reciprocal, as in Figure 1. As such, the knowledge gained through participation is
shared in the community and affects future interactions. Through regular interactions with
colleagues, educators can actively shape their practice and work to continuously improve their
culturally relevant leadership skills (Lindsey et al., 2018).
Figure 1
Triadic Reciprocity Model of Causality
Note. From “Organisational Applications of Social Cognitive Theory” by A. Bandura, 1988.
Australian Journal of Management, 13(2), 275–302.
(https://doi.org/10.1177/031289628801300210). Copyright 19988 by The University of New
South Wales.

26
Field-Policy Leadership Networks
Addressing school leaders’ challenges and complexities today requires more effective
and efficient methods to connect, collaborate, support, learn, and mobilize resources toward a
strategic direction (Prasetyo, 2018). These networks gather to discuss school issues, garner
support, and influence policies that impact school initiatives (Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010; Leithwood
& Azah, 2016). Participation in field-policy leadership networks such as the Association of
California School Administrators (ACSA) can offer a more effective and expedited solution for
organizations and communities to address their leadership challenges by accessing expertise,
professional learning, and opportunities to connect with inspired educational leaders to share
diverse ideas, as well as act on collective action (ACSA, 2019). Members of this network and
others like ACSA can influence how problems are framed, develop a collective solution, and
inspire action around a shared vision. They work together toward a common goal by sharing
leadership responsibilities and adapting to changing circumstances. These networks are typically
built on a shared sense of community and purpose, driven by a desire to achieve a specific
outcome or simply to be part of something larger than oneself (Prasetyo, 2018).
Collective Leadership Networks
Collective leadership networks include individuals who frequently gather with the
motivation to achieve a particular objective or to fulfill a need for a collective group of
individuals, social capital. Two central elements of social capital, social networks and trust, form
the foundation for relationships. According to Portes (1998), social capital is not an individual
attribute but, rather, a collective resource that members of a community share. By nurturing these
factors, school leaders can strengthen their ties with various community members and provide
opportunities for collaboration and cooperation among individuals with different perspectives.

27
Building and sustaining social capital in social networks provides connections between
individuals and increases trust and reciprocity (Chung et al., 2005). Reciprocity involves giving
and receiving within a social network. It is the idea that individuals will help each other and
share resources when needed. Reciprocity builds trust, reinforces shared norms and values, and
ultimately contributes to positive social outcomes that can help address issues tied to inequality
(Portes, 1998). Strong relationships with educational partners can mobilize support for school
leaders’ initiatives and build coalitions to achieve their goals. Additionally, by connecting with
other experienced leaders, school leaders can learn from their experiences and gain insights into
effective leadership practices.
Social network theory can help school leaders understand and leverage the power of
social relationships and connections to support their leadership development and improve
outcomes for their schools and communities. Daly and Finnigan (2009) examined network
structure in designing effective change strategies. The authors claimed that change efforts are
socially constructed. Daly and Finnigan highlight components of network structure, including
nodes (individuals or organizations within the network), ties (the relationships between nodes),
and subgroups (clusters of nodes with matching ties and characteristics). Their empirical
research describes how network structure could impact change initiatives’ success or failure. The
structure of networks can influence accessibility to resources, including access to information,
support, and opportunities that can lead to social and economic advancement (Portes, 1998).
Understanding the Benefits of Social Networks in Developing School Leadership
As noted throughout this chapter, there are many benefits to belonging to social
networks. Access to resources, collaboration, and expertise are typical and available to many
network members. However, for female administrators, mentorship and access to role models

28
can provide the emotional support, guidance, and connectedness many female educators seek
(Helterbran & Rieg, 2004; Levin & Bradley, 2016; Superville, 2022). As the number of female
administrators grows, so does the number of turnovers (Superville, 2022). The National Center
for Education Statistics (2020) attributed changes in hiring practices and attrition as reasons for
shifts in administrative demographics. However, female educators typically wait until later for
leadership positions. Barriers such as the perceived need to be better qualified and balancing
home and work life affect many female administrators’ success (American Association of
University Women, 2016; Helterbran & Rieg, 2004; Superville, 2016). These barriers affect how
female administrators lead their schools and their decision to remain in their profession.
The Impact of Gender on Leadership Development
Female administrators across many educational settings face challenges related to their
gender. Gender roles are constructed and reinforced through various social institutions, including
family, education, media, and religion (Lindsey et al., 2018; Yadav & Lata, 2018). These
institutions socialize individuals into gender-specific behaviors, attitudes, and expectations,
shaping their sense of self and identity. Yadav and Lata’s (2018) study provides insight into
leadership in India. Although their study is not specific to California, it emphasizes the need to
support and empower female leaders to overcome challenges and contribute to positive change in
their organizations and communities. Some challenges females face in their leadership roles
include gender discrimination, social stereotypes, and cultural norms that reinforce traditional
gender roles (Lindsey et al., 2018; Yadav & Lata, 2018). The study also found that female
administrators adopted various leadership styles and practices, including transformational,
collaborative, and authoritative leadership, depending on their organizations’ context and needs.

29
Santamaría (2014) argued that the experiences and perspectives of women educational
leaders of color shape their leadership practices. They challenge the status quo by actively
seeking opportunities to disrupt current practices. They also seek to inspire a shared vision by
instilling a belief that promotes positive change and empowers their followers to take achievable
action and convince others to believe it. The authors also suggested that considering educational
leaders’ identities and experiences can provide new insights into effective leadership practices.
The Collaborative Leader
Research suggests that female school administrators are likelier to engage in
collaborative and inclusive leadership behaviors than male principals (Sebastian & Moon, 2018;
Vinkenburg et al., 2011). Female principals tend to involve others in decision-making, delegating
tasks, and providing support and feedback, compared to male principals. Sebastian and Moon
(2018) examined gender differences in how school leaders spend their time working with others
and whether these differences are related to particular leadership styles. The study results showed
that female principals spent more time working with others than male principals, which may
have implications for improving educational outcomes and promoting gender equality in
leadership roles. Despite gender differences in how school leaders lead, several studies found
that female administrators could leverage their gender to their advantage by building
relationships with staff and students, promoting a culture of inclusivity and diversity, and
challenging traditional gender roles (Lindsey et al., 2018; Vinkenburg et al., 2011; Yadav &
Lata, 2018). However, female administrators may face burnout and added stress without support
to nurture this leadership style (Jones et al., 2009).
Another empirical study by Jones et al. (2009) on female administrators and their
perception of leadership at the middle school level revealed a variation in leadership attributes

30
associated with gender. Participants in Jones et al.’s study reported that female administrators
were more collaborative and nurturing than their male counterparts. The participants also
highlighted that being emotionally connected comes with challenges and sacrifices. They
suggested that female leaders might be better at managing their and others’ emotions than males.
However, many participants shared that it generates personal stress, demands, and pressure. The
study further proves that school leaders have demanding responsibilities and require sacrifice,
particularly for females, since they may invest more time and support to their teams.
Identify the Barriers and Remove Them
As educational leaders, school administrators aim to improve student outcomes, promote
equity and inclusion, and create a positive school culture; leveraging their social networks can
connect school leaders with others who share similar leadership styles and collaborate on
initiatives that align with their values. A strong and diverse social network can support an
administrator’s well-being and contribute to the school community (Van Der Gaag & Snijders,
2005). However, the motivation to seek out connections with individuals can also be challenging,
even when school administrators acknowledge that social networks can advance their personal
and professional goals and commitment to a higher purpose. Empirical research by Howard and
Mallory (2008) surveyed 10 high school principals, five male and five female, which included
one male and one female African American principal, and four White males and four White
females. Participants acknowledged the significance of networking with their peers during their
interviews, but not all consistently engaged in such activities.
The principals cited obstacles such as limited time and difficulty finding suitable
connections as their reasons for not seeking out their social networks (Howard & Mallory, 2008).
Although most principals reported that their networks comprised fellow principals in their

31
district and those linked to professional organizations, one noted that her busy schedule
challenged her ability to network with other principals. Another shared regret that she had not
developed a network with other principals. The study concluded that peer relationships and
networks with peers provide support and counter feelings of isolation and loneliness (Howard &
Mallory, 2008).
Despite social networks’ potential benefits for developing emotional intelligence (EI) and
leadership skills (J. D. Mayer, 2004; J. D. Mayer et al., 2000; J. D. Mayer et al., 2004; Pastor,
2014; Schutte et al., 2001; Wong & Law, 2002), many individuals may face barriers to joining or
engaging with these networks, such as a lack of motivation, family and work commitments, and
feelings of disconnectedness (Gómez-Leal et al., 2021; Howard & Mallory, 2008). Nevertheless,
the need for support and resources to navigate school leadership’s complex and challenging
landscape is more pressing than ever, particularly in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Organizations must proactively promote engagement with social networks and remove
participation barriers. This can include providing opportunities for networking and mentorship,
creating supportive and inclusive environments that value diverse perspectives, and offering
resources and training to help individuals build the skills and confidence needed to engage with
social networks effectively (Cullen-Lester et al., 2017). By investing time in social networks and
promoting engagement among school administrators, organizations can promote social networks
to develop the leadership skills to thrive in challenging times (Allen et al., 1995; Daresh, 1995).
Removing Barriers With Mentorship and Role Models
An empirical study by Jones et al. (2009) suggests female administrators would benefit
professionally from emotional support, mentorship, and advice on personal issues, while men
tend to rely on their social networks for advice on solving practical problems (Kiser, 2015).

32
Findings from Franco et al.’s (2011) work on female leadership support this study and highlight
that mentoring from female peers was essential to the success stories the authors detailed about
themselves and other female leaders. Access to formal and informal mentorships through social
networks, such as the California Association of Latino Superintendents and Administrators and
aspiring leadership groups, helps motivate and encourage female educators, especially women of
color. For example, an exploratory study by Allen et al. (1995) discussed mentors’ importance in
the success of aspiring African American women educational leaders. The authors argued that a
lack of mentorship or sponsorship can hinder promotion and that women who want to succeed in
educational leadership positions are advised to act like men, which has consequences.
Furthermore, mentors and sponsors must be highlighted and promoted in aspiring
educational administrators’ success (Allen et al., 1995) as part of the preparation program for
women in leadership. If mentorship is essential to the success of female administrators of color,
it may be beneficial to be mentored by someone who can relate. Minority women’s participation
in educational leadership positions is minimal despite the increasing number of women in
educational administration. According to school principal statistics by race and gender, 55% of
all school principals are women, while 45% are men (Zippia Careers, 2022). The most common
ethnicity is White, followed by Hispanic or Latino, Black or African American, and Asian.
Moreover, studies investigating female administrators rarely include women of color, limiting
knowledge of their experiences and challenges (Méndez-Morse, 2004). Studying the differences
and similarities between these leaders can expand the understanding of leadership and recognize
the importance of differences among women from diverse cultures and ethnicities.

33
Social Networks Facilitate a Sense of Community
Many authors and motivational speakers have common themes and descriptors about
leadership. Most recommend building trust and relationships with the people they lead. An
extensive and diverse social network can help individuals access resources of people and ideas
and create a sense of community or connectedness (Helterbran & Rieg, 2004). Feeling connected
is essential for female leaders in leading their schools and supporting their tenure as
administrators (Reynolds, 2002). Connectedness can also lead to increased academic
achievement.
Maroulis and Gomez (2008) examined the impact of social connectedness on academic
achievement in the context of a small-school reform. Their research focused on high school, not
particularly on leadership development. Nonetheless, they noted a correlation that examined the
structure of social relationships among students, teachers, and staff and related that with a
positive change in the social network structure at the school. The change in the school’s social
network structure increased connectedness, contributing to improved academic achievements.
Connectedness among students and between students and teachers occurred during
extracurricular activities that led to positive attitudes toward school, suggesting that social
connectedness has broader benefits beyond academic achievement. Through appropriate support
and social networks, female administrators can develop a sense of connectedness, improve their
EI, and become influential leaders who can guide others toward a common goal, show the way
by example, and create an environment where other team members feel actively involved in the
entire process and transfer their connectedness to their classrooms (Maroulis & Gomez, 2008).

34
The Intersection of Leadership Style and Social Networks
According to Northouse and Lee (2019), a leadership style that focuses on inspiring and
motivating followers to achieve their full potential creates a positive work culture that empowers
their followers to become leaders themselves. Leaders who connect with their school community
through trust and relationships have the EI to perceive and understand emotions in themselves
and others. Individuals who can develop and use EI can understand and regulate their own
emotions and those of others, leading to better performance and more positive attitudes in the
workplace (Wong & Law, 2002). They can use their EI to facilitate social interactions (Schutte et
al., 2001) to accomplish tasks and overcome challenges in times of crisis or organizational
change. Building positive social relations allows leaders to adapt their leadership style to the
emotional demands of the individuals under their leadership and address potential conflicts
(Northouse & Lee, 2019; Schutte et al., 2001). Therefore, developing EI skills promotes
sustainable leadership practices, job performance, and attitudes (J. D. Mayer, 2004; J. D. Mayer
et al., 2000; J. D. Mayer et al., 2004; Pastor, 2014; Schutte et al., 2001; Wong & Law, 2002).
Having the Emotional Intelligence to Lead
The significance of EI skills in leadership has become even more apparent during times
of crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Effective leadership is central to any school crisis or
reform (Fullan, 2020), so policymakers and higher education institutions must act on the research
linking EI to effective leadership (Gómez-Leal et al., 2021) and how they affect female
administrators’ longevity in their positions. Gómez-Leal et al. (2021) concluded that a school
leader’s role requires numerous aspects of EI. Their research analysis of the empirical studies
indicates that EI should be considered a key component of leadership development for aspiring
and current administrators (Mandell & Pherwani, 2003). Educational leaders who can understand

35
and manage their emotions in times of crisis can manage the emotions of others. Thus, EI is
focused on recognizing and using the emotional states of the self and others to solve problems
and manage conflict (Mayer et al., 2004) that may arise from a crisis.
After a worldwide pandemic that closed many schools and brought another layer of
issues for school site administrators to address, the value of EI for effective school leadership
cannot be overstated (Pastor, 2014), and one potential source of support for developing EI is
social networks. Social networks can connect school leaders with other leaders who share similar
leadership styles and collaborate on ways they can solve problems.
Adaptive Leadership in Times of Crisis
Adaptive leadership focuses on supporting followers’ adaptation skills versus the
leader’s. Heifetz (2009), who conceptualized this leadership framework, defined it as “the
practice of mobilizing people to tackle tough challenges and thrive” (p. 14). This leadership style
is built on creating space, structures, and interactions that allow followers to adapt, grow, and
create according to new situations. Northouse and Lee (2019) stated that three major components
of adaptive leadership and specific behaviors frame this leadership style, as shown in Figure 2.

36
Figure 2
Model of Adaptive Leadership
Note. From Leadership: Theory and Practice (9th ed.) by P. G. Northouse, 2022. Sage
Publishing. Copyright 2022 by Sage Publishing.
There are three steps that an adaptive leader takes to tackle situations such as school
closures caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. First, leaders must listen and participate in
perspective-taking. According to Northouse (2022), leaders need to understand the different
levels of the situation based on what is communicated and the information available to them.
Second, leaders need to determine if the situation or crisis is a technical or adaptive challenge.
The COVID-19 pandemic was both a technical and an adaptive challenge because it was
the first that required all schools to close for some time. School leaders had to create new
protocols for their school community’s health and safety. Northouse and Lee (2019) defined a
technical challenge as a situation that requires authority, rules, and procedures to address the
situation and an adaptive challenge that requires the facilitation of the adaptive process to create
reform. The third step focuses on how leaders interact with their followers. Julius et al.’s (1999)
research highlights leaders who engage school community members to participate in decisionmaking. As an adaptive leader, they empower, focus, and support followers through an adaptive

37
process. By developing a plan that includes the school community’s voices, the adaptive leader
can maintain partnership and allow their followers to come up with solutions that may work for
all. Fullan (2020) pointed out that those most affected by a change need to be part of the process.
While past studies on leadership style differences between men and women have been
inconclusive, research consistently shows that women leaders are often negatively evaluated
compared to men, mainly when using an autocratic leadership style. Studies on women leaders
describe them as more collaborative and nurturing than their male counterparts (Jones et al.,
2009). However, they may lack the autonomy to make decisions as they spend more time
working with their teams to find suitable solutions to the adaptive challenge. Mandell and
Pherwani (2003) suggested that one’s gender and leadership abilities are still assessed
differently, with female leaders scoring higher on measures of EI than men. Their study
highlights the need for mentoring and leadership development of women and interpersonal skills
training for future male leaders (Mandell & Pherwani, 2003).
Theoretical Framework: Social Network Theory as a Theoretical Framework
Research that utilizes storytelling and the feminist standpoint theory as a method to
narrate the lived experiences of successful female leaders is more personal and offers a
connection to the individuals in the study. These two methods are grounded in their commitment
to promoting social equity and questioning the traditional institutionalized bias toward
marginalized groups. Along these lines, this study focused on a reciprocal process; the
knowledge and skills gained through participation in social networks are shared among the
school community to promote cultural proficiency and lead practices that promote equity. As
scholars such as Daly (2010) discussed, social network theory provides insights into the complex
social processes involved in how individuals access, are influenced by, and leverage these

38
resources to influence educational reforms at various levels of the educational system. This
theory focuses on the patterns of social ties between actors in a network, moving beyond
individual attributes to examine the dynamic supports and constraints within the broader social
infrastructure.
Using the social network theory as the theoretical framework creates the platform for
understanding how the network of relationships is structured and how these connections
influence what happens in the organization. The social network theory focuses on the
relationships and interactions between individuals (actors) or groups (Daly, 2010; Kadushin,
2012). Social network theorists are interested in understanding how ideas, information,
resources, and influences flow through the network of relationships (ties) within and between
organizations.
By studying relationship patterns, social network theorists seek to explain how
organizations are consistently evolving. Understanding social networks’ structures and how they
influence network centrality explains how access to these connections can influence leadership
development. To better understand how to support instructional leaders and their influence on
their school’s culture, Balkundi and Kilduff’s (2006) study focuses on leaders’ relationships and
connections with others. According to their research, leaders significantly impact how people in
the organization interact with each other daily. They investigated the structure of the network of
relationships and how leaders influence what happens in the organization, paying attention to
how leaders influence connections. They used social network theory and modern leadership
perspectives to connect social networks and leadership concepts, as well as how people work
together and how these relationships influence a leader’s ability to lead their organizations over

39
time (Balkundi & Kilduff, 2006). Social network perspective can provide new insights that can
improve perceptions about teaching, learning, and making changes in education.
Furthermore, the method of storytelling is a powerful tool for communication and
connection. School leaders can use storytelling to effectively communicate their values, vision,
and goals to the school community. They can encourage students, families, and staff to share
their stories, fostering a sense of belonging and creating spaces for diverse voices to be heard.
School leaders can challenge stereotypes and biases in their educational communities through
storytelling (Parker & Lynn, 2002; Solórzano & Yosso, 2000). Solórzano and Yosso (2002)
mphasized that a critical race methodology such as counter-storytelling as an analytical
framework allows researchers to dismantle systemic barriers and promote inclusivity by
promoting stories that counter-dominant narratives and shed light on different cultures’ richness
and complexity. Through leadership stories, female administrators can articulate local narratives,
counter-stories, and personal narratives of their experiences to influence other female educators
into leadership roles. Historically, people of color have utilized storytelling to question White
supremacist narratives. Storytelling was used to create counter-stories that challenge notions of
privilege based on factors such as gender and class (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002).
Additionally, using storytelling as a method to support the theoretical framework enables
school leaders to develop skills that promote cultural understanding, empathy, effective
communication, and challenging stereotypes (Lindsey et al., 2018). Storytelling evokes emotions
and allows the study’s participants to narrate their lived experiences as school site leaders. These
theoretical perspectives focus on the relationship between individuals and the education system
and the assumption that inequity exists because individuals are institutionalized within a system.
Although this is an oversimplified description of the theoretical frames, the purpose is to

40
highlight that they provide a lens through which to examine female school leaders’
individualized experiences. From a social constructivist perspective (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016),
the personal narratives drawn from interviews combine all the frameworks to amplify the
participants’ leadership stories as they shared experiences of being marginalized and profiled
into traditional gender roles as school leaders (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). These women’s
narratives and perspectives describe how social networks shape their EI to lead effectively by
fostering trust in relationships with their school community members.
Conceptual Framework
According to Maxwell (2013), conceptual frameworks provide a structure and framework
for understanding complex concepts and ideas. The study applied the conceptual framework (as
shown in Figure 3) that intersects how belonging to social networks may influence the leadership
development of female administrators working at the secondary level and how they lead in times
of crisis. The study’s conceptual framework helped to understand and organize the complexities
associated with being a female administrator and how social networks can provide the tools and
resources (social capital) needed for retention. The research questions examined how social
networks can shape and influence the capacity to lead schools and feel connected to one’s job.
Social networking with peers enhances personal and professional development. It provides a
platform for leaders to connect and engage with others, exchange ideas and perspectives, and
learn from each other’s experiences (Daly, 2010).

41
Figure 3
The Study’s Conceptual Framework
Chapter Two Summary
The most challenging aspect of returning to school the last 2 years is returning to a
normal that no longer exists. The COVID-19 pandemic has presented unprecedented challenges
for school leadership, exacerbating stressors and requiring new skills and approaches.
Understanding how social networks can influence school leadership development for female
administrators will support their resilience and success (Cherry, 2018; Jones et al., 2009;
Kadushin, 2012) beyond the pandemic. With the appropriate support and social networks, female

42
administrators develop a sense of connectedness to their job, thus improving their capacity to
lead in times of crisis (Helterbran & Rieg, 2004; Reynolds, 2002).

43
Chapter Three: Methodology
Female educators working as school administrators may face obstacles without a social
network, including insufficient support and isolation (Bauer et al., 2017; Howard & Mallory,
2008). Investigating how social networks can assist leaders in developing leadership skills to
lead schools in times of crisis and overcoming institutional barriers (Combs, 2003) associated
with race and gender may reduce school administrator turnover rates, improve teaching and
learning outcomes, and provide school leaders with the tools, resources, and support to lead their
schools effectively (Superville, 2022). A connection to peers and mentors can provide guidance
and support in navigating the organization’s political landscape (Allen et al., 1995). Additionally,
with teacher shortages rising and increased demands on school administrators, the turnover rate
can continue. Districts may need to review and adjust their policies to intensify their efforts to
recruit, select, and hire qualified school administrators. These policies, including intensive
professional development, mentoring, and supportive supervision, can facilitate school leaders’
retention.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate how belonging to social networks can assist
school leaders in leading their schools in times of crisis and provide them with the tools,
resources, and support to lead their schools effectively (Superville, 2022). A second purpose was
to determine how social networks may reduce turnover rates for school administrators and
support them in seeking career advancements. The research explored how social networks
amplify female administrators’ leadership stories. Through these connections, they can engage in
conversations, share experiences, and learn from different perspectives, expanding their ability to
lead their schools.

44
Research Questions
1. What are the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators, and
how does belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to effective leadership
development, especially in times of crisis and change?
2. How does belonging to social networks contribute to the retention and career
advancement of administrators, especially female administrators working at the
secondary level?
Research Design
This study used a mixed-methods research design to explore a qualitative problem of
practice and used quantitative data to support the interviews (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). I
utilized semi-structured questions so that I could interact with the participants in their natural
setting (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The survey results (numerical data representing people’s
experiences) triangulated the data. This research methodology emphasizes exploring the
participants’ experiences, perceptions, and meanings attributed to belonging to social networks.
Through interviews, the qualitative research sought to capture the diverse aspects of working as a
female administrator at the secondary level, their experiences with belonging to social networks,
and their influence on leadership development. With the quantitative data, I used the results to
understand the relationships between data points (Maxwell, 2013).
Through snowball sampling (or chain referral sampling), one or more participants
recommend others to further develop the sample (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Once the
participants expressed interest in the interview, I contacted them via email to schedule a time for
the interview. Participants participated in a virtual one-on-one interview using Zoom as the

45
virtual platform. A semi-structured interview protocol guided the interview questions, allowing
flexibility during the interview to engage in the inquiry process (Agee, 2009; Maxwell, 2013).
Methodology
This study’s methodology included quantitative data from a survey (see Appendix A) and
qualitative data from semi-structured interviews. This approach is referred to as a mixedmethods research design. The mixed-methods research design used quantitative data from the
initial survey to support the interview data. The explanatory sequential design occurred in two
phases. The first phase of the quantitative data collection was gathering information on
administrators’ background roles at their school sites and gender. Then, additional information
was collected using open- and closed-ended qualitative survey questions. Based on the
interpretation of the quantitative data, I selected a subset of 12 participants for the qualitative
phase based on their consent to continue and complete their information to be interviewed. The
participants were invited to one-to-one interviews using semi-structured questions (Lochmiller &
Lester, 2017). During the interview, themes related to how belonging to social networks
contributed to effective leadership development and whether they supported retention and career
advancement. These included experiential questions, background questions regarding the
leadership journey, participation in social networks (personal or collegial, or both), and how the
interviewees’ involvement with social networks influenced their leadership style. Table 2
outlines the method of data collection used to explore each research question.

46
Table 2
Research Question and Date Collection Method
Research question Data collection method
RQ1: What are the benefits of belonging to social
networks for female administrators, and how does
belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to
effective leadership development, especially in
times of crisis and change?
Interview Survey
RQ2: How does belonging to social networks
contribute to the retention and career advancement
of administrators, especially female administrators
working at the secondary level?
Interview Survey
Qualitative Research Design
According to Agee (2009), qualitative research questions articulate what a researcher
wants to know about the interviewees’s intentions and perspectives. The study examined the
participants’ beliefs about social networking and its influence on a leader’s ability to lead
effectively during organizational change or crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Findings
analyzed how belonging to social networks contributes to effective leadership development and
whether they can retain and assist with career advancement for female administrators. The study
used semi-structured interviews to collect qualitative data (see Appendix B). Additionally, the
semi-structured interviews offered opportunities for the interviewees to share their leadership
journey through storytelling (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Storytelling can provide the data that
scholars can utilize to amplify marginalized individuals’ voices and draw attention to power
differentials stemming from historical racial and gendered biases. According to Lochmiller and
Lester (2017), storytelling provides perspectives that allow participants to tell the truth about

47
their experiences. Storytelling is a methodological approach that enables a scholar-researcher to
collect information grounded in the narratives of the participants’ experiences. In this study, the
participants’ questions and experiences help describe how integral social networks shape female
administrators’ capacity as adaptive leaders in times of crisis and organizational change.
Quantitative Research Design
The quantitative data contributed to shaping the understanding of the research problem
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017) and identified patterns, trends, or frequencies through a descriptive
statistical approach. The quantitative data for this study were gathered through a 12-question
survey (see Appendix A) sent electronically to the participants. The survey questions elicited
information from secondary-level administrators working at middle and high schools. The survey
included a Likert scale to provide a quantitative value to the qualitative data (interviews). The
Likert scale helped assess beliefs and opinions regarding social networks and leadership
development. The results from the survey also supported and triangulated the interview results,
which provided greater validity to the findings (Robinson & Leonard, 2019).
Selection of the Population
The mixed-methods research design included a survey and interviews. This study focused
on female administrators working as principals and assistant principals who are part of personal
or collegial social networks. This study explored whether social networks play a role in their
success and tenure, explicitly examining how they access their social networks to become
adaptive leaders in times of crisis or organizational change.
I recruited 12 female administrators who worked at the secondary level in districts across
San Diego County. The smaller sample was beneficial for research requiring extensive in-depth
reflections and time to allow the participants to share their experiences. Lochmiller and Lester
(2017) stated that qualitative studies tend to have fewer participants with a greater depth of

48
information gathered from their interviews. Additionally, using snowball probable sampling is
the standard method for qualitative research (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Instrumentation and Protocols
The two research questions formed the basis for the data collection. I analyzed the initial
survey results and each interview transcript to focus on how the participants described their
experiences with social networks in developing their capacity as site leaders in times of crisis or
organizational change. The interview protocol also helped to explore how membership in these
social networks leveraged the participants’ experiences as leadership examples during and after
returning to schools following a worldwide pandemic.
Qualitative Instrument
I collected qualitative data through purposeful interviews with each participant. The
interview questions stemmed from the two research questions that guided the study. The premise
of using a semi-structured interview protocol focused on how the interviewees described their
experiences with social networks in developing their leadership capacity as school leaders during
educational reforms or crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The interview protocol also
explored whether belonging to social networks can help retain or support female administrators’
career advancement. The interview protocol consisted of seven questions (see Appendix B).
Within the seven questions, there were additional follow-up questions. Probes or follow-up
questions were included in the interview to help clarify information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I
captured data via virtual interviews through Zoom. I collected, analyzed, and interpreted
interviewer notes and voice recordings. Before each session, I asked participants for consent to
record the Zoom session.

49
Quantitative Instrument
Before the interview, I emailed a survey to the participants. I also generated a QR code so
participants could forward it to other secondary principals and assistant principals interested in
participating in the study. The survey aimed to screen individuals who met the study’s criteria
and support the interview data. Questions 3–9 were closed-ended and used standard language to
describe the topic and questions. A 4-point Likert-like scale was used for Questions 5, 6, 9, and
10, with possible responses ranging from not at all satisfied to extremely satisfied or not
influential to extremely influential. Question 11 was nominal with dichotomous choice responses
of yes or no. The quality survey questions engaged the respondents and gathered data to analyze
relationships between the administrators and their attitudes and beliefs about social networks.
The open- and closed-ended questions formed a conversation and social exchange that
respondents may have hesitated to respond to during an interview. According to Robinson and
Leonard (2019), the respondent-centered design allows participants to maintain their integrity
and respect, as these surveys may ask questions that reveal vulnerability and truth.
Data Collection
The survey and interview questions guided this inquiry (Agee, 2009; Maxwell, 2013).
This study’s qualitative phase entailed one-on-one semi-structured interviews to gather
information on how collegial or professional social networks promote the participants’ success
and tenure. The quantitative phase made use of descriptive statistics to support the interview
data. According to Ravitch and Carl (2016), the researcher is the primary source of both
constructing and understanding the research project’s goals and meaning. One thing to anticipate
is the researcher’s bias, positionality, and beliefs about leadership development. I stayed
committed to answering the research questions and avoided bias, positionality, and inserting
personal beliefs (Maxwell, 2013).

50
Before the interviews, I obtained approval to conduct this study through the University of
Southern California Human Research Protection Program. Once approved, I used the snowball
sampling method to recruit other participants. I contacted them several weeks in advance to
determine a day and time that worked best for them. After scheduling their interview, I sent each
participant an information study sheet (see Appendix C). The study sheet included a brief
description and purpose of the study, information about participation expectations,
confidentiality clauses, and definitions. I obtained all ethics-related protocols, including
informed consent (see Appendix D) before each interview to inform participants about their
rights, potential risks, how these risks would be handled, the use of a pseudonym to protect their
confidentiality, and the right to withdraw at any time (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017).
Furthermore, I asked participants for their permission to audio record the interviews. This
strategy enabled me to explore the intricate nature of human behavior within the study’s
contextual framework and comprehensively interpret the participants’ responses (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Following the interviews, I provided the participants with transcripts of their
interviews to allow them the opportunity to ensure authenticity. I transcribed the interviews using
a recorder, otter ai, or a recording via Zoom to accurately capture the participants’ perspectives
without constructing an unconscious observation of the participants’ human behavior during the
interview. Seidman (2013) supported providing participants with a transcript or recording of
their interview so they can review their responses and exclude any statements from the study.
The opportunity to share the recording or recording transcript with participants is known as
member checking (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Seidman, 2013), which helps to ensure the data’s
validity and increase the credibility of the research. Member checking is a process in which the
researcher shares the findings with the participants and asks them to confirm or refute the

51
accuracy of the findings. Ensuring the credibility of the qualitative data requires careful
planning, attention to detail, and a willingness to engage in ongoing reflection and refinement
throughout the research.
Furthermore, confidentiality in the researcher-participant relationship was essential to this
study (Glesne, 2011; Smith, 2002). With access to other social network platforms such as
Facebook and Instagram, information could easily be shared. Therefore, creating extra security
for interview materials, such as locking interview notes and setting up privacy settings on my
cell phone, ensured the data were secured and that no information was disseminated outside the
research. If participants wished to withdraw from the study, they were allowed to dismiss
themselves. Participants did not receive any incentives to coerce them; however, after the study,
they received a thank-you card with a small monetary gift card as a token of appreciation for
participating. This lack of incentive was a way to minimize the possibility that participants
would feel coerced to participate. The gift served to thank them for their time and sharing their
experiences.
Data Analysis
In evaluating and reflecting on potential biases in this research, it was important to set
aside personal experiences with social networks and previous experiences as a secondary site
administrator but to use these experiences to consider whether the information gathered by the
study can be accurately interpreted and validated (Tillman, 2002). Tillman’s (2002) work on
using culturally sensitive research methods focused on African American perspectives involves
incorporating the cultural understanding and experiences of both researchers and participants
during the research design, data collection, and analysis. Although her study focused on
educational research specific to African Americans, she highlighted that it is essential to consider

52
whether the study can accurately interpret and validate the experiences of those they are
researching. In this study, I was reminded to accurately interpret the participants’ experiences to
ensure I captured and validated their voices.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Limitations of these findings included a small sample, which led to the inability to
generalize the study’s findings. However, the purpose of this research was not to generalize;
rather, the study intended to provide a rich insight into the benefits of belonging to social
networks for female site administrators working at the secondary level. The participants’
narratives about their experiences during and after COVID-19 and the role of their social
networks in supporting them highlighted their importance, especially for those early in their
careers. All participants worked in the San Diego area. Limitations included a small scope of site
administrators based on their geographical location. Seeking participants outside the San Diego
area may have offered different perspectives or conflicted with current findings. Moreover, as
this study relied on self-reported data from interviews, limitations also arise from respondent
validity. Triangulation of findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) helped mitigate this potential issue
and included member checking and soliciting participants’ feedback after their interviews.
To ensure credibility, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) referenced using more than one
method of interviewing (methods triangulation) to ensure the data’s quality. One way is to offer
semi-structured interviews in person or virtually and to allow participants to review the interview
data and ensure that it accurately reflects their experiences and perspectives. Another is to design
an interview protocol with open-ended questions that elicit rich data (Krueger & Casey, 2015;
Patton, 2002; Seidman, 2013) and provide opportunities to build rapport with the participants.
The interview protocol was flexible enough for participants to share their experiences and

53
perspectives while addressing the research questions. Having an interview protocol organized the
interview into different sections based on the study’s conceptual framework. The sections were
introduced with talking scripts that described the concept and how it related to the study’s
conceptual framework. Carefully considering how the study was conceptualized, how data were
gathered, analyzed, and interpreted, and how the results were presented provides an audit trail for
the data and enhances the findings’ credibility.
The Researcher: My Story
I am a motherscholar, a female educator of color, a lover of eating good foods, and an
admirer of sunflowers. When I first read “motherscholar” in Matias’s (2013) work, the word
struck me. I felt connected to how it embodies my positionality and power dynamics as a female
administrator. According to Douglas and Nganga (2015), drawing on Villaverde’s (2008)
definition of positionality as “how one is situated through the intersection of power and the
politics of gender, race, class, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, language, and other social factors” (as
cited in Douglas & Nganga, 2013, pp. 60–61), I see myself as an educator of color, woman,
mother, and a scholar. In one word, motherscholar (Matias, 2013). My positionality as a special
education administrator is similar to what Matias (2013) described as “a motherscholar—who
relentlessly engages in a pedagogy of trauma” (p. 69). This quote summarizes my positionality as
a special education administrator for the past 10 years.
My trauma centers around my engagement with White educator counterparts, partners,
parents, and community members who often see me as a person of color, not necessarily a person
of authority. Matias (2013) shared that race calls out power. Despite holding a high position in
the district, I am still outnumbered by many White individuals. Hiding behind color-culture

54
blindness (Milner, 2007), some took advantage of my kindness and ignorance of their
exploitation.
Milner (2007) highlighted that counter-narratives are needed from a critical race theory
perspective to interrupt and disrupt the voices of the people who unintentionally adopted colorculture blindness at the organization. My social network is my counter-narrative. My social
network provides me the safe space to speak as loudly as possible about the stories not told or to
share the counter-narratives of being unintentionally silenced within systems of power.
Navigating the challenges I faced as a female, a person of color, and an administrator, my social
network is my constant support. Even during the worst days, I walk away reminded that I am
dominant and unwavering in my beliefs and commitments.
As I reflect as a researcher-practitioner, a focus on who and what makes up social
networks to share counter-narratives like mine is essential in cultivating strong female leaders.
However, like many organizations and institutions, Milner (2007) noted that without addressing
the dangers of seen, unseen, and foreseen race and culture, leaders cannot change the systems
that discriminate and prevent changes that could open new opportunities for learning and
achievement among students of color. Milner offered a framework to guide researchers into a
process of racial and cultural awareness, consciousness, and positionality as they conduct
education research. Within the framework, Milner promoted ongoing reflections, while Maxwell
(2013) recommended maintaining sight of the goal and purpose of the research. Both ideas are
part of the reflection process that encourages researchers to constantly reflect on themselves with
others to acknowledge differences in interests and agendas that participants may bring to the
research, including mine. Ongoing engagement in reflection can help focus the purpose and
motivation of this research, with race and gender at the core (Milner, 2007). Therefore, my

55
relationship and connection to this study are essential to highlight my and the participants’
cultural understanding and experiences.
As a colleague, I must know perceived power dynamics even if I do not hold positional
power. Our truths and beliefs may differ as friends working together at the organization. Gumbs
(2020) explained, “The future is soft enough that my living shapes it” (p. 15). Researchers are
instruments of their research (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017; Maxwell, 2013) and can shape the
research outcomes. Lochmiller and Lester (2017) pointed to the researcher as the instrument in
that the practitioner-scholar collects the data and strives to make sense of the data collected
through analysis and synthesis of the information. However, there are potential challenges
associated with this concept in practice. Maxwell (2013) noted that it is far too easy to be drawn
in by our setting and stories and lose sight of what we are studying. We must keep a grounded
focus and not lose sight of our research’s goals/purpose/motivation and the data most pertinent to
this (Maxwell, 2013).
As I interviewed participants, I drew on work by Love (2019), who pointed out that we
need to learn how to understand all experiences beyond our biases to disrupt and transform the
status quo of the inequities of policies and systems that support centuries-old myths about
children of color, their families, and their communities. Ongoing reflection throughout the
research promotes opportunities to interrogate oneself and examine the research to unlock all the
personal, practical, and intellectual reasons behind the research (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Chapter Three Summary
This study used qualitative data from surveys and interviews. The data were analyzed to
target the research questions:

56
1. What are the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators, and
how does belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to effective leadership
development, especially in times of crisis and change?
2. How does belonging to social networks contribute to the retention and career
advancement of administrators, especially female administrators working at the
secondary level?
The findings will be presented in Chapter Four, followed by a discussion of future research in
Chapter Five.

57
Chapter Four: Results
This mixed-methods study examined how belonging to social networks can influence
school leadership development for female administrators at secondary schools. In addition, this
study explored how belonging to social networks can assist in their retention and career
advancement. The survey data supported the interview results (qualitative data). The survey data
are presented in narrative form followed by a table format. The interview data delved into the
participants’ experiences with social networks as they navigated the daily challenges of their
work during and after the COVID-19 pandemic or in times of crisis and change. This mixedmethods study sought to provide comprehensive data through both quantitative and qualitative
research designs. The following questions guided this study and the data collection:
1. What are the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators, and
how does belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to effective leadership
development, especially in times of crisis and change?
2. How does belonging to social networks contribute to the retention and career
advancement of administrators, especially female administrators working at the
secondary level?
The following sections present the research results organized by research question. For
each research question, there is a brief review of relevant literature and a preview of the results.
Results are presented in two or three themes related to each question. Finally, a summary of the
results related to each research question is presented, with a cumulative summary at the end of
this chapter.

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Participants
The study participants were secondary school principals and assistant principals in the
San Diego area. San Diego serves approximately 500,000 students at the county’s 780 schools.
The 42 school districts and 129 charter schools serve the region’s most vulnerable students and
support school leaders, teachers, and students across the county. For confidentiality purposes,
data were reported without reference to any individual or school. The participants were assigned
a pseudonym and identifying demographic information such as their position, gender, and school
site level experience (see Table 3).
Table 3
Demographics for Study Participants
Pseudonym Position in the district School site level
Abigail Assistant principal Middle school
Bernadette Principal Middle school
Cindy Assistant principal Middle school
Doris Assistant principal High school
Elizabeth Principal Alternative school
Francis Assistant principal Middle school
Gloria Principal Alternative school
Hillary Principal Middle school
Isabella Principal Alternative school
Jane Assistant principal Middle school
Kelly Principal Middle school
Lynne Principal High school

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The participants were hired before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. They had
varying years of experience (see Table 4) and worked primarily at the secondary level as
principals or assistant principals. The study included three middle school principals, four middle
school assistant principals, one high school assistant principal, one high school principal, and
three principals who serve students at secondary alternative schools (See Table 3). Secondary
alternative schools serve a population of students who may need a specialized program or setting
to meet their academic and/or behavioral needs.
Table 4
Demographics: Years of Experience
Pseudonym Years as an administrator
Abigail 16
Bernadette 5
Cindy 3
Doris 3
Elizabeth 9
Francis 9
Gloria 4
Hillary 7
Isabella 8
Jane 5
Kelly 5
Lynne 5

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At the beginning of each interview, the participants shared how they started in education.
They also shared what jobs/positions they held and their leadership journeys (see Table 5). The
additional information of the participants captured their origin stories as an administrator.
Table 5
Additional Information About the Participants
Pseudonym Additional information about the participant
Abigail Assistant principal (AP) at a middle school
Former math teacher and math instructional leadership coach
Wanted to foster a love for mathematics, particularly among girls
Stressed the significance of relationship-building with staff and parents to
address communication and trust gaps
Focused her work on changing practices in addressing student behavior
Bernadette Principal at a middle school
Began her career with an unexpected shift from a journalism degree to
teaching due to a shortage of teachers
Former associated student body advisor and AP
Used social media platforms like LinkedIn and Twitter to expand professional
networks to gain access to new ideas and information
Believes a supportive social network can help retain administrators in the field
Cindy AP at a middle school
Current social network includes family members in the educational field
Mentioned the positive impact of social networks in providing inspiration,
confidence, advice, shared experiences, and camaraderie
Discussed the significance of having a support network during the COVID-19
pandemic and other school crisis
Considered leaving the profession a year ago, but members of her social
network motivated her to stay in the field
Doris AP at a high school
Held many teacher leadership positions before becoming an AP
Social network, which includes friends and colleagues who have become
lifelong friends

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Pseudonym Additional information about the participant
Discussed the importance of their social networks in helping navigate
challenging situations such as loneliness, being a female, and being a person
of color
Bilingual
Elizabeth Principal of an alternative, non-traditional school
Former science teacher
Social network includes a small group of fellow principals from non-traditional
schools
Appreciated learning from peers regarding their approaches to leadership
Suggested a formal onboarding process for administrators, particularly female
administrators, to improve leadership development
Francis AP at a middle school
Former special educator, and did not consider administration previously
Expressed that men and women approach social networking differently, with
women being more supportive and collaborative within their networks
Highlighted the overwhelming demands placed on administrators by the
district during the COVID-19 pandemic
Considered leaving the profession due to the stress and demands of an AP
Gloria Principal of a non-traditional school
Started her journey in administration with encouragement from male mentors
Understood the benefits of belonging to social networks but struggled with
time and opportunities to connect with other females in the organization
Even with a network [of primarily male administrators], she continues to feel
isolated
Hillary Principal at a middle school
Transitioned from a high school teacher to an AP at her current school
Emphasized the importance of her professional network and support systems
throughout her leadership journey
Has a network of administrators from her organization, but they are more
colleagues than friends
Acknowledged that male and female administrators experience different
challenges and expectations, with female administrators often facing more
scrutiny and judgment in their roles
Isabella Principal for an alternative school
Before becoming an educator, she considered a career in journalism

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Pseudonym Additional information about the participant
Mentioned her experiences of feeling isolated when she first became a
principal
Touched upon the differences she observed between male and female
administrators, suggesting that women may work harder, be more efficient,
and set higher expectations for themselves and others
Shared social networks help with navigating challenging situations by
providing validation, constructive criticism, and access to new resources
Jane AP at a middle school
She started her administrative journey in special education
Social network consists of peers and friends in the education field
Acknowledged the existence of a “boys’ club” in education but mentioned that
her female network had encouraged different avenues for female leaders
Expressed that she had never considered leaving the education profession; it’s
more about what’s the next role for her
Kelly Principal at a middle school
Love for school and science landed her in the field of education
Discussed the benefits of social networks in recruiting new administrators,
particularly in helping new principals feel more comfortable and supported
in their roles
Social networks help shape leadership development, particularly in shaping her
approach to promoting equity at her school
Mentioned the time commitment required to participate in social networks
Lynne Principal at a high school
Started as a special education teacher at an elementary school
Regularly seeks advice and support from high school principal peers,
supervisor, and other mentors
Shared how her social network made her journey through the pandemic and the
post-COVID more manageable
Shared that social networks help female administrators in various ways,
including sharing resources, expanding employment opportunities, and
gaining different perspectives to solve problems

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Survey Results
As part of the mixed-methods research design, this study utilized a confidential survey to
collect qualitative data. The survey’s purpose was to triangulate the research findings and to
understand site leaders’ perceptions of social networks, how belonging to social networks has
influenced their leadership development, and their ability to lead their schools through
challenging times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants received the survey through
snowball sampling (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Snowball sampling (Lochmiller & Lester,
2017), also known as chain referral sampling, starts with identifying one or more initial
participants based on the study’s criteria. Subsequently, the sample grows based on
recommendations from participants.
The survey had a 70% response rate. Seventeen participants were surveyed, with 12
agreeing to participate in one-on-one interviews. As part of the criteria, each respondent
identified membership to one or more social networks (see Figure 4). Based on the information
collected, most respondents report belonging to peer leadership networks (groups of friends)
followed by organizational leadership networks, which consist of members who are colleagues
or collegial peers.

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Figure 4
Membership in Social Networks
Another survey question asked respondents their reasons for joining or participating in
one or more social networks. Figure 5 illustrates the respondent’s reasons for participating in
their social network. Nine participants shared that they joined to feel connected with female
peers. Ten expressed that their primary reason for joining their social network was to receive
coaching and learn from one another’s experiences. Also, 11 shared that they joined their social
networks to exchange ideas and perspectives. These networks are platforms for sharing
experiences, advice, and knowledge, ultimately contributing to professional and personal growth.
Kelly, a 5th-year principal at a middle school, described this experience:
Having a group of people to talk through and reflect on decisions you are trying to make,
having them ask questions like what would you do differently next time, and you get to
feel that you are not stuck with making a bad decision.

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Figure 5
Primary Reasons for Participating in Social Networks
Additionally, Figure 6 illustrates which social networks the respondents selected for
seeking advice or consider as thought partners to discuss work-related situations. Among these,
three sought advice from their field-policy leadership network, four from their peer leadership
network, and five from their organizational leadership network. Cindy, Francis, and others
mentioned the organizational leadership network as their preferred network for seeking advice
and guidance because they refer to members of these networks as coaches and mentors from
whom they seek to learn and gather new ideas and perspectives. Cindy seeks advice from her
organizational leadership network regarding different situations at her school, typically through
almost daily text messages or phone calls. She shared,
We connect with each other, learn about different situations, and get advice. Learning
from each other’s mistakes or each other’s wins. I would say we are not super close.
Close enough that, you know, I can ask questions, chat, and vent.

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Figure 6
Which Social Networks Most Participants Sought Out for Advice
With regards to feeling the most connected, six expressed a strong connection to their
peer leadership network, two felt most connected to the field-policy leadership network, and four
reported feeling connected to the organizational leadership network (see Figure 7). Abigail
attributed her resilience and professional satisfaction to a strong social network of fellow
assistant principals. She felt most connected to her Peer Leadership Network and shared, “[they]
have been my strong partners and help me not want to give up on my job.” As a 3rd-year
administrator, Cindy shared that one of the things she gained personally and professionally from
connections with her peers in her network was “sanity and an understanding of different
situations. Camaraderie. You know, battling loneliness and just connections to other people.”

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Figure 7
Networks That Provide a Sense of Connectedness With Current Position
Feelings of loneliness and isolation in the position were felt by eight respondents, or
66.7% (see Figure 8). Social networks can offer a sense of belonging, camaraderie, and
connection to combat feelings of loneliness. These networks can serve as sources of emotional
support that can prevent burnout and feelings of self-doubt. Emotional support gained from these
networks offers encouragement and builds self-confidence while acting as a buffer against stress,
enhancing well-being, and promoting the development of EI in leaders (J. D. Mayer, 2004; J. D.
Mayer et al., 2000; J. D. Mayer et al., 2004; Pastor, 2014; Schutte et al., 2001; Wong & Law,
2002).

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Figure 8
Feeling Isolated or Loneliness in Respondents’ Current Position
Findings for Research Question 1
The study’s first research question explored the participants’ experiences in social
networks, how belonging to these networks supports their leadership development, and how
these networks influence how they can lead effectively. This section focused on the benefits of
belonging to social networks and how these networks contribute to leadership development in
times of crisis and change.
The interviewees described their experiences with social networks in developing their
leadership capacity as school site leaders. I used a semi-structured, open-ended interview
approach to support the data collection. Meanwhile, the results from the survey triangulated the
data from the interviews. By sharing their experiences with social networks and their influence
on their leadership development, the participants provided insights into how social networks play
a pivotal role in building their leadership capacity to lead their schools effectively. Two themes
emerged, and the interviews supported the benefits of belonging to social networks and how
belonging can support school administrators’ professional growth as school leaders. The

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interview data also supported the impact of belonging to social networks on school leaders’
support and management of their secondary schools.
The Benefits of Belonging to Social Networks for Female Administrators
The social network theory proposes that individuals connected through social
relationships can influence their behavior, attitudes, and emotions (Daly, 2010). Engaging in
social networks with peers offers leaders a platform to connect, exchange ideas, and learn from
diverse perspectives, fostering a sense of connectedness and belonging. Social networks provide
the participants with opportunities for accessing resources (social capital), sharing perspectives,
exchanging information, and feeling connected to peers in their networks (Chung et al., 2005;
Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Portes, 1998) to support their leadership development and encourage
them to stay in their positions despite the challenges that impact their work on their personal or
work-life balance. The networks provide encouragement, inspiration, and a sense of equality,
helping individuals build confidence to navigate their professional trajectories. The openness and
trust in these relationships allow for vulnerability, creating environments where individuals can
express concerns, seek validation, and receive constructive feedback. Assistant principal Jane
said, “I seek out my peer leadership network because I feel most connected to the people in this
network. I often think our peer leadership networks turn into our friendship social network
because you rely on them so much.”
Access to Social Capital to Shape Administrators’ Ability to Lead
One of the benefits of belonging to social networks is to gain social capital. According to
Northouse and Lee (2019), school leaders can use social capital to develop relationships and
establish trust to influence school community partners. Social capital encompasses resources
such as exchanging information and perspectives, connectedness, and emotional support (Chung

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et al., 2005; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Hoppe & Reinelt, 2010; Portes, 1998). From the interviews,
participants defined the social capital they received from belonging to their social network. They
also shared how their definition of social capital can shape and influence school site
administrators’ ability to lead. For the female school administrators in the study, the social
capital gained from social networks includes emotional support, diverse perspectives,
connectedness, knowledge, and resources. When asked how membership in a social network
contributes, if at all, to EI, four participants shared that they gained self-regulation and selfawareness as leaders. Others talked about motivation and how their social networks help
motivate them when times are challenging. Another is empathy. Most participants brought up
developing their empathy to understand other people’s perspectives. During the pandemic,
Francis, an assistant principal for a middle school and former assistant principal of a high school,
shared how engaging with other network members through shared experiences helped develop
motivation, self-awareness, and empathy. As a high school principal, Lynne added that having
self-awareness has helped her to become a better listener, thus improving her relationship with
staff, particularly teachers.
Evolving self-awareness contributes to personal growth and understanding of how to
work with others. Individuals who acknowledge their strengths, weaknesses, emotions, thoughts,
and actions are better equipped to make high-quality decisions (Showry & Manasa, 2014). Selfawareness is integral to effective leadership, as leaders who understand themselves are better
equipped to lead others. Francis and Elizabeth contributed their social networks to developing
their self-awareness as school leaders. As a secondary alternative school principal, Elizabeth
shared that self-awareness has enhanced her leadership skills in navigating her challenges as an
alternative school principal. Leading an alternative school can feel like a stepchild child for the

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district. Resources are often limited, and working with different departments from the district
requires a lot of self-awareness and self-regulation. Self-regulation helps leaders be flexible
while having the self-awareness or ability to cope with change and crisis with the openness to
consider different perspectives and new ideas.
Meanwhile, 10 participants in the interview discussed how social networks promote
motivation. As female administrators search for ways to improve their leadership skills, their
social networks influence their motivation to stay committed and take initiative toward their
professional goals. Nine participants emphasized empathy as a skill learned through interactions
with members of their social networks. By receiving empathy from members of their social
networks, they can reciprocate empathy in how they respond to school community members,
learning to recognize how their emotions can influence staff members, students, and families.
These emotional traits contribute to female leaders’ EI growth, influencing trust and building
relationships.
Belonging to social networks can contribute to various forms of social capital (Carolan,
2013; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Daly et al., 2020; Kadushin, 2012) that an individual can access,
borrow, or leverage others’ resources to bring about change or benefit, either for themselves or
the collective (Lin et al., 2009). Emotional support, diverse perspectives, connectedness, and
access to knowledge and information defined the social capital gained by the participants in the
interview. These resources bolstered their self-confidence and empowered them to lead their
school communities during crises or change driven by district initiatives.
Sharing Diverse Perspectives as a Social Capital
As a social capital, having the opportunity to share and listen to diverse perspectives can
enhance leadership development. The participants expressed the advantage of this opportunity to

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continue building trust and relationships with their community partners. They emphasized the
role of trust, validation, and feedback in these networks, which lead to increased confidence,
allowing for more open communication and problem-solving. Abigail and Lynne emphasized the
value of her network with other school principals, highlighting the perspective and informationsharing that occurs when seeking advice or discussing leadership challenges. Their social
network is a collective space where they share their leadership dilemmas and collaborate on
district-level work.
A common challenge the participants faced post-pandemic is student discipline and
working with the school community to address challenging behaviors through a restorative
practice approach amid resistance from teachers who favor traditional consequences. Abigail
described an increase in student conflicts and fights exacerbated by social media’s influence.
Abigail attributed her resilience and commitment to promoting restorative practices to a trusted
group of fellow assistant principals whom she relies on to offer advice and a different
perspective as she reinforces shared ownership of responsibilities, ensuring everyone feels they
belong, especially the students and their families. Abigail also shared that recruiting teachers is
part of the solution, even for those who often retreat to isolation in their classroom. She relied on
her social network to get ideas on how they incorporate restorative practices at their schools. By
partnering and creating a community of practice of different members from each school in their
cohort, the initiative to change disciplinary practice is more manageable than doing it alone.
They all have a common practice and agree that COVID-19’s impact is evident in heightened
anxiety and stress among students and staff. The return to normalcy is marked by tension and
uncertainty, creating new challenges. She also stressed the need for support and buy-ins from
families and the school community, expressing that getting everyone’s input and perspectives is

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essential to creating change at their school. Abigail believes she has learned to become more
open and receptive to others’ thoughts and understand resistance by listening to her peers share
their perspectives:
One of the things I love about social networks is getting other people’s perspectives and
thinking that was not how I thought of it. But I still have to say, Oh, that makes sense. I
never thought of it this way. I love hearing their perspectives; it broadens my thinking
and helps me support my teachers.
Lynne agreed as she shared,
I really like being a part of my social network because we’re all focused on the same
goal. We’re all implementing the same change ideas and sharing the work we’re doing at
our sites. And it’s really broadened my perspective on how different schools implement
different things. And I’ve learned a lot from them, hoping to replicate what they’re doing
at my school.
Sharing Experiences to Build Knowledge and Information as a Social Capital
Moreover, the social capital of having access to new resources like knowledge and
information offers support and assistance to administrators under challenging circumstances,
providing them with peers to consult and discuss ideas, which builds confidence in their
leadership abilities. As a fifth-year principal, Kelly attributed a significant aspect of her
professional growth to colleagues in her friendship-based network and the daily partnership with
their associate principal, with whom they regularly discuss leadership decisions and reflect on
implementing equity practices. The network and partnership with her female assistant principals
contribute to her continuous growth and ability to navigate leadership challenges. Learning from
other principals in her network positively impacts her leadership development, noting that the

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opportunity to visit one another schools to conduct equity walks together has enhanced her
competence and confidence as a school leader. She also shared that more competence is the most
important social capital gained from having a social network.
Principals make many decisions throughout the day, some based on the information
available at the time. Access to diverse perspectives and sharing experiences with members of
her social network has helped Kelly make more informed decisions and build her confidence.
Gloria also agreed and shared that the benefit of belonging to a social network is the opportunity
to share and talk about everyday experiences. She shared,
In the role of school leadership, there’s so many things that you’re addressing. You have
to wear so many hats. Having that network allows you to garner other’s expertise, share
or talk about shared experiences, and to get advice on navigating really tough situations.
Having a network with someone who you can share that space with is helpful so that you
don’t become so isolated in the position.
The interviews provided insights into the experiences and challenges the participants face
and the role of social networks in their professional growth and development. Membership in
these networks helped them in various ways, including resource sharing, expanding employment
opportunities, and gaining different perspectives to solve problems. It also fostered empathy and
community.
Connectedness as a Social Capital
Furthermore, belonging to a social network serves as a collective space where the
participants share their experiences with loneliness and their connections with peers in their
networks. Membership gave them the emotional support they needed to help them through their
most challenging days as site administrators. The emotional support they received from their

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peers contributed to their well-being and growth as school site leaders. Cindy, who became a
school administrator during the pandemic, shared her vulnerability as a new administrator and
how it has affected her wellness. She expressed gratitude for the social network that invited her
to be part of their assistant principal group and her informal network of family members who
were also educators. She described social networks as offering companionship for those
combating the loneliness associated with leadership. Cindy shared that social networks serve as a
space for women to express vulnerability, “a place for women to be able to express and be more
vulnerable and learn from each other and understand their own experience.” Ultimately, the
emotional support gained from social network members serves as a motivational force,
preventing the individual from feeling isolated and encouraging them to persist in their
leadership role.
Belonging to social networks also provided a platform for women to express
vulnerability, share their battles with loneliness, and grow to be more confident as school
leaders. Jane stated, “Being part of a social network boosts confidence and knowledge, offering a
sense of assurance when faced with uncertainties.” Jane’s social network of female assistant
principals in middle schools created an alignment with protocols, especially after the COVID-19
pandemic. She mentioned that her assistant principal group helped her deliver clear messages to
her staff about reopening. They processed together and built the confidence to face their staff and
community members’ demands. She believes that without this group, her experience as an
assistant principal would have been more isolated, lowering her job satisfaction. The shared
experiences with members of her social network gave her confidence and offered a sense of
reliability, particularly when others were going through similar situations. She valued the group’s
collective wisdom, emphasizing that diverse perspectives contribute to more thoughtful decision-

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making. She also stressed that having a support system outside the immediate school
environment allowed for exchanging ideas and resources.
The Impact of Belonging to Social Networks on Leading Effectively
Building connections is about understanding the relationships to gain deeper insights into
other people’s interests, needs, and concerns, allowing them to devise effective strategies to meet
those needs (Kezar, 2014). All participants reported that their social networks facilitate
opportunities for sharing and collaboration, building connections through common interests and
enhancing their self-awareness and ability to foster trust. Study participants shared that they
could carry this over to their leadership at their schools by building strong connections and
relationships within their social networks. Bernadette discussed how belonging to a social
network has influenced her leadership style. She highlighted transparency and building trust
within her school community. Bernadette intentionally spends time with her staff outside work,
such as during happy hours, to encourage open communication. She believes that her staff should
feel comfortable talking about her, whether good or bad, as it helps her understand and improve
her leadership style. She mentioned developing self-awareness and building connectedness as
significant gains from these experiences.
In addition, social networks help create a trusting and supportive environment where
team members feel comfortable sharing ideas, leading to a more relaxed and open-minded
atmosphere. When administrators can connect, it aids in normalizing single-site administrators’
challenges and providing a platform for venting, seeking validation, and receiving constructive
criticism. The network becomes a valuable resource in times of uncertainty or when answers are
needed promptly. Isabella’s interview summarized these sentiments:

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Leadership networks are the networks I seek out the most because these are the social ties
I work with that have shared interest in committees I am involved in and the shared work
we do. Because there are no other principals at my school that I can just go talk with, I
have to reach out to the other principals because they know what I’m going through.
We’re in the same boat. We have a similar situation, so we understand each other. I can
just pick up the phone and text or call a friend, but a professional friend, and I know that I
can let my guard down. And just be straightforward and ask them what’s going on or get
advice and feel safe.
Without a support system, she suggested that work tasks would not get executed correctly
due to a lack of clarity. The social network serves as a source of information, helping her learn
new things, gain ideas, and expand their toolbox, ultimately contributing to developing her vision
as a principal. Elizabeth agreed and shared that having a solid professional network is essential
for boosting confidence and advancing in leadership positions. She emphasized the benefits of
building connections to knowing more people on a deeper professional level. Building
connections outside of one’s organization is advantageous for career growth and potential
promotions. Additionally, Elizabeth mentioned that her network is precious for seeking guidance
on policy interpretation and navigating challenging situations at non-traditional secondary sites.
She shared,
Unlike a comprehensive site, I don’t have an assistant principal. I’m on my own; that’s
how many atypical non-traditional sites there are. And so, I have to seek out another
administrator and ask them what you would do in this situation or what you have done.
For single-site administrators, establishing connections with peers offers access to
resources beyond their immediate circle. The resource of having access to someone who can

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offer guidance, assistance navigating site-specific challenges, and exposure to individuals outside
the organization, providing diverse perspectives on leading similar initiatives at their school
sites. Notably, eight participants emphasized engaging with their network members through text
or phone calls, demonstrating a continuous and unrestricted communication channel.
Creating a Network of Trust
Building trust in times of uncertainty is challenging and a craft through which adaptive
leaders can influence others to become involved and solve organizational problems (Northouse,
2022). Bernadette, Isabella, and Lynne, who currently lead as principals, shared how belonging
to principal social networks offers an outlet for questions, discussions, and shared experiences
that contribute to how they lead large comprehensive sites. They also shared that understanding
and being open to the attitudes that others have toward a particular problem or solution—
understanding others’ points of view—can help build trust and connection. Trust is the reason
the principals call and rely on their social networks. Bernadette expressed as much:
For me, that’s one of the many reasons why I rely so heavily on these folks. Whether it be
my bestie girlfriend group, my middle school principal group, or my coaching group,
there’s trust. I have no secrets, and my filter is kind of low. And that has been like a
godsend, just like being able to quickly text each other questions and have somebody to
lean on and vent or ask questions and then have occasional dinner or a happy hour here
and there.
The trust they embrace from the emotional support and the connectedness they share with their
social networks transfers to how they work with their staff to build trust.
Abigail emphasized the role of trust in addressing the communication and trust gap. She
believes that earning trust with her staff and school community allows open communication and

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problem-solving. Isabella concurred and cited the need to build trust to foster relationships. As a
principal of another secondary alternative program, she serves students and families with high
levels of services across different programs on two separate campuses. Trust is vital, especially
when her presence is virtual. Trust took time to establish between her and her high school social
network. Although it is difficult to compare an alternative school to a comprehensive one, the
challenges that arise are similar. Through her social network, she saw the benefits of accessing
diverse perspectives. She also learned to trust them to seek advice and promote collaboration.
She modeled her challenge of collaboration with other principals to members of her school
community. Despite teaching from different campuses, she garnered ideas to enable her staff to
collaborate and succeed as a team. She focused on building trust and collaboration. She shared,
“If people don’t trust, they’re not going to put their heart and soul into something; if they trust,
you can move as a team and as a group together so much farther.”
Women Supporting Women
One of the benefits of social networks is being part of a collective group of women.
Hillary acknowledged that male and female administrators might experience different challenges
and expectations, especially as an African American female. Hillary was promoted to
principalship when the former principal retired. The former principal, a White male, recognized
that her work as his assistant principal was worthy of her being the principal. During her 1st
year, she faced scrutiny and judgment despite the former principal’s endorsement and support.
She shared that female administrators often face scrutiny even if they are productive, leaving
them to question themselves and their confidence. Her network of fellow middle school
principals in her district and her former network with African American school leaders during
her doctorate study helped combat feelings of doubt and loneliness. Hillary shared that a support

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system was important to her throughout her career. She talked about gaining courage and
confidence through these connections, allowing her to advocate for change and address issues
more assertively. Hillary describes her courage as an action, “Being able to call out kind of what
I feel is important and stand by it and realize that my voice matters and having the courage to
speak my voice and stand up when things are wrong.”
Moreover, Francis and four others spoke openly about the role of women in supporting
and encouraging each other in these networks, lifting each other to build confidence, and creating
a sense of community and connectedness:
Sometimes, you want just to scream and yell, and being part of a social network reminds
us that we shouldn’t be second-guessing ourselves even if we are having a bad day. It’s
making connections; it’s important to me, and my job is to make those connections. I like
making connections with parents, students, and the community. And my leadership style
definitely involves making connections with people.
Francis believes in the power of women supporting women in networking, providing
encouragement, and promoting each other’s success. Ten interviewees shared their appreciation
for other women’s mentorship and support, recognizing that having role models helped advance
their careers and address the emotional toll of their challenging jobs. Lynne stated,
Additionally, having women you look up to can help you level up your career and
provide you with what you need so you feel less alone in this job. This is a really
challenging job that we have, and because there’s a sense of understanding and empathy
that I think you can share with someone who has a similar role that you can’t with
someone who doesn’t understand the toll this job takes on you.

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Lynne shared that women in her network have become more than mentors and
colleagues; it has become what she termed a “beautiful friendship.” Her social network and she
presented at a conference a year ago. They were asked to present because people were interested
in women leaders coming together and building a circle of trust. She shared that forming a book
club during the pandemic evolved into a support system for them to conduct emotional check-ins
with one another and combat their challenging jobs’ emotional tolls.
Being part of these networks showcases the need for female administrators to have
connections to instill confidence and prevent self-doubt. A sense of belonging can extend beyond
the immediate circle —and offer opportunities for female administrators to start book clubs,
share their stories, and expand how women can support other women leaders. Lynne and her
principal friends have encouraged other women to start their book club. She shared how other
female leaders are spreading this opportunity across the state.
Discussion Research Question 1
As all participants mentioned, their social networks facilitate the exchange of ideas,
resources, and information. Whether seeking guidance on policy interpretation, navigating
specific situations, or learning about available resources, the social capital derived from these
networks enhances decision-making and problem-solving capabilities. Across many of the
interviews, participants shared the impact of social networks on themselves and other female
administrators in their social networks. Individuals in leadership roles face many challenges
associated with their positions. These networks are platforms for sharing experiences, advice,
and knowledge, ultimately contributing to professional and personal growth.
Several participants shared the need to combat isolation. Therefore, social networks offer
a sense of belonging, camaraderie, and connection that can combat emotions of loneliness and

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isolation. The shared experiences create a space where individuals feel understood and supported
in addressing the challenges often associated with leadership roles. Social networks serve as
sources of emotional support, preventing burnout and feelings of self-doubt. The openness and
trust within these relationships allow for vulnerability, creating environments where individuals
can express concerns, seek validation, and receive constructive feedback. Social networks also
contribute to building confidence. Confidence drives a leader’s ability to lead in crisis and
educational change. Leaders gain confidence from the support, validation, and insights gained
through interactions in their network.
Findings for Research Question 2
Female administrators in education encounter specific challenges linked to their gender.
Various societal institutions like family, education, media, and religion shape and reinforce
Gender roles (Lindsey et al., 2018; Yadav & Lata, 2018). Two themes arose in reviewing the
challenges the participants discussed. The first shed light on the intersection of gender and race
and their impact on job satisfaction. Findings in this area examined the challenges the
participants face that are unique to their positions and how belonging to social networks
encouraged them to stay in their positions. The second theme highlighted how social networks’
structure influences membership and retention. The participants face gender-specific beliefs,
attitudes, and expectations that shape their confidence and ability to lead effectively. Challenges
related to gender discrimination, social stereotypes, and cultural norms reinforce gender roles.
Work-life balance brings up reasons why female administrators may not keep up their
memberships in social networks or prevent them from joining in the first place.

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Intersectionality
Social network theory is unique in its versatility, as it can be applied across various levels
of analysis (Kadushin, 2012). Its concepts aid in understanding the dynamics within small groups
and organizations, especially in looking into the intersection of race and gender. While there is a
growing number of females from varying races and ethnicities, whites, not Hispanics, continue to
outnumber all other ethnicities by 61% (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). Gender
and race continue to challenge traditional views about leadership, especially at the secondary
level. In public schools nationwide, women represented 68.6% of all principals in elementary
schools. However, they accounted for 43.7% of middle school principals and only 35.5% of high
school principals (National Center for Education Statistics, 2022). Gender continues to challenge
traditional views in discussions about secondary education. Given that public education has
historically been heavily influenced by social norms, gender role disparities persist. Additionally,
the characterization of race and ethnicity is another layer to consider in determining the type of
support needed for female administrators at varying degrees of experience and overall job
satisfaction.
The Intersection of Race and Gender
In her interview, Doris highlighted the importance of social networks for female school
administrators of color who are not widely represented. Her interview was an outlier because she
brought up race as an additional challenge. As a bilingual administrator, she is often called to
assist in translating for families who speak Spanish. Although she did not mind, it is an
additional responsibility not shared with other administrators. She views her social network as a
reminder of her identity and roots, acknowledging that her professional journey would be
challenging without this support system. According to Doris, “I think social networks are

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important. I do not see that many female school administrators out there, and I think for me, most
importantly, I do not see multicultural female administrators out there.” She described relying on
a specific person for support and guidance, emphasizing that this person is trustworthy and
provides valuable input. Doris also mentioned that she is considering leaving their current
position due to the need for more support from her administrative team and the district. She is
currently applying for other jobs and may return to the classroom if she does not find a suitable
position, recognizing her bilingualism and experience as an asset.
Relational connections and how they influence school site administrators’ retention were
briefly examined in the study. The intersection of race and gender adds another layer of
complexities. Doris mentioned having a network she identifies with that fits her current
positionality. The interactions and engagement with this group are keeping her in the profession.
Although she is seeking new opportunities, she relies on this network for confidence and
assurance that they may influence her decision to stay in her current position, at least for now.
What Does Gender Have to Do With Social Networks?
The participants have varying levels of experience and overall satisfaction with their
current positions. Each identified how social networks influenced their connectedness to their
current positions despite daily challenges and examined influences on their overall job
satisfaction. While most interviewees shared that they were satisfied with their current positions,
one outlier stated that a lack of connection can affect one’s overall satisfaction. Gloria’s
challenge was a lack of connection. She has a support network from male administrators, but the
experience is different. The lack of connection affected her overall satisfaction:
Yeah, I would say that I don’t really have any of those [connections]. They [males] all do
have those. I really struggle because I am often the only woman there. And if all you

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know are men, then there is a barrier, invisible or visible, that women might not have as
much access to this network because there are not so many women represented in upper
leadership levels.
Checking in on administrators and knowing their satisfaction level could combat female
administrators’ attrition.
Furthermore, female school administrators may face intersectional challenges, such as
being an educator, scholar, mother, and woman. The balance of family and work raises reasons
why female administrators may not keep up membership or join social networks. Kelly shared
that time commitment is the drawback of belonging to social networks. Being away from her
school and her lack of time between school and home makes it difficult to commit to social
networks outside her current one. However, she believes that the benefits of her social networks
outweigh these drawbacks. Since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, she shared how she has
been connecting a lot more through Twitter or X and following other inspiring instructional
leaders. The online platforms complement her time constraints but allow her to follow principals
and educational leaders to exchange ideas and learn from their perspectives.
Work-Life Balance
The issue of work-life balance is a recurring theme, as Gloria highlighted. Despite having
support from her social network, Gloria finds maintaining a work-life balance with a 60-hour
workweek challenging. Nevertheless, her commitment to family and work remains unwavering.
Understanding the politics and the importance of presence in her role, Gloria acknowledged the
toll of balancing family and her job’s demands. Being young and a parent adds an extra layer of
complexity, with staff members questioning how she manages home life alongside a demanding

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job. Gloria noted that inquiries about this balance may not arise for male administrators but seem
familiar to ask of females.
Despite her success as a site leader, Gloria feels constrained by traditional gender
expectations, leading to feelings of isolation and loneliness. Having colleagues is not the
problem. There are other female administrators in her district, but she is not connected with them
because she is early in her career compared to their more advanced positions. Reflecting on her
future, Gloria admitted that her current role lacks the joy she found as a curriculum developer.
During the interview, she had a vulnerable moment; she paused and shared her uncertainty about
staying in her current position. She expressed a desire to remain in education but possibly
explore a different title, possibly stepping down as principal. Her contemplation of leaving is
driven by a lack of joy and connection to other women to share her challenges.
Gender Role Expectations
Without prompting, four interviewees acknowledged the existence of a “boys club” in
education. As the women shared their beliefs about social networks in their development, they
spoke of the good old boys’ club. However, they also mentioned that their female network has
encouraged different avenues for female leaders. In sharing what female networks offer, the
women pointed out that their female networks provide a space to share and discuss their
challenges professionally and sometimes personally. Jane believes a unified female voice could
effectively address gender bias and sexism in the profession. She noted,
I think, naturally, there’s still gender bias or sexism. When I worked with men, they’re
more apt to just do something without worrying about all the different what-ifs kind of
thing. Women look at things a little differently in terms of how they impact other people.

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Recognizing that gender bias or sexism still exists, Jane expressed that lifting other women to
leadership positions requires women to support other women.
Who Is Judging?
Isabella touched on the differences she observed between male and female
administrators, suggesting that women may work harder, be more efficient, and set higher
expectations for themselves and others. She shared examples of how she sees the workload
between male and female administrators and suggests that women are often given more
responsibilities and tasks, potentially resulting in additional stress. Isabella stated,
In my personal experience, working in special education for 20 years, women work
harder than men; they get more done than men. They’re more efficient, and they’re more
organized; that is just my observation. And so I feel that having a social network among
women to support each other with that, but also to be able to talk about that fact alone, we
tend to have higher expectations for ourselves. And then we have higher expectations for
others, which means that others expect more of us as well.
Additionally, Hillary recognized that male and female administrators may encounter different
challenges and expectations, which explains why they may access their networks differently. She
shared,
I feel like we [women] get judged a lot more for our decisions. Maybe it’s because of the
stature in the way in which a male administrator would talk to a parent or somebody else
versus the way that a female would talk. I feel like sometimes, women administrators are
deemed weak. Or not, not strong. I just feel like we get judged more. We get judged more
on our level of sensitivity. We get judged more on the way in which we handle discipline.
Some of the choices that we make are as far as the way things are set up on campus and

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the kind of programs that we want to bring to campus. I feel like we have a lot more eyes
on us than male administrators do.
She highlighted that female administrators often face increased scrutiny and judgment. Women
administrators’ decisions are subject to more judgment, potentially due to differences in
communication styles. Women administrators may be perceived as weak or less intense, facing
judgment on their sensitivity, disciplinary approach, and choices regarding campus setups and
programs.
Francis agreed with Hillary and suggested that men and women approach social
networking differently, with women being more supportive and collaborative. According to
Francis, social networks provide validation and help administrators, especially female
administrators, cope with challenges. She shared her experiences during the COVID-19
pandemic, noting the overwhelming demands placed on administrators. Despite considering
leaving the profession, her social network supported her through these challenging times.
For Cindy, leaving her position crossed her mind last year, but the connection with other
women who can relate to her challenges as an administrator and single mother made the journey
less lonely:
Balancing, often, home, children, spouses, family, and then being this whole other person
has its pressures. It is crucial to be able to talk to other women and ask them how they
navigate it and still have that leadership voice. I don’t think men have to deal with that.
Motivated by her bond with fellow assistant principals, she reflected on the ongoing gender
disparities, emphasizing the pressures of balancing home, family, and leadership responsibilities.
She believes in talking to other women about navigating these challenges, which is why she feels

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there is a need for more opportunities for her and others like her, early in their careers, to have
mentors or coaches to support their leadership development.
The Importance of Social Networks and Retention of Female Administrators
Social norms in a leader’s network significantly influence their leadership development
(Kadushin, 2012). Social norms referring to the values, beliefs, and attitudes the members of
their networks share can foster trust and enhance relationships. Social norms assist in developing
a space for its members to feel a sense of belonging and connection and contribute to its
members’ personal and professional growth. Elizabeth utilized her network as a vehicle for
career advancement, whether in the same district or outside the organization. She shared that the
more people in her network who know her on a professional level, the more possibilities for
career advancement.
In her current position, Francis has established connections with other administrators in
her district, especially those working in the same capacity. Having a social structure that builds
connections and opens opportunities for information and resources can benefit female
administrators. Francis shared that belonging to the California Association of Directors of
Activities has exposed her to more individuals who share the work she supports. As an
associated student body advisor, building a sense of connection with individuals who share
similar experiences and strategies, especially during challenging situations, has expanded her
resources and tools, “When I see other female administrators, I think we thrive on sharing
information and networking, whether it is a small group of people within my district or bigger,
and hearing people’s ideas.” She highlighted the benefits of reaching out to someone via phone
or text with ASB advisors across San Diego County, from Sweetwater to San Marcos, as an

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asset, especially for female administrators in these positions because they all want to see one
another succeed.
On the other hand, Elizabeth admitted that she wished she were more involved with
social networks. She belongs to the ACS, but her goal is to attend more workshops on
developing female leaders. She shared that one of the reasons she agreed to the interview was to
motivate her to be more active. She acknowledged that this study’s topic is important to women
supporting and encouraging each other and opening more opportunities for others to join social
networks.
The Benefits of Social Networks on Retention
In addressing what ways social networks play a role in reducing turnover rates for school
administrators and supporting them in pursuing career advancements, it is essential to highlight
why women join and how their networks’ social structures prevent burnout and attrition.
Fostering an environment for continuous learning and peer support cultivates the relationships
needed to promote reform and address possible crises. Actively seeking other people’s
perspectives contributes to a wealth of knowledge and diverse experiences. This opportunity can
broaden the understanding of different situations and enhance the leadership toolkit. According
to Cindy, engagement with other women leaders provides knowledge and boosts confidence.
Seeing oneself as an equal to other accomplished women leaders instills confidence, which can
be carried back to her school. This increased confidence will likely translate into more effective
and assertive leadership, ultimately contributing to her ability to be a more decisive leader and
influencing her to continue as a school administrator.

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Social Networks Foster Continuous Learning Opportunities
Social networks foster an environment for continuous learning and peer support, which
can build the relationships needed to promote the school’s initiatives and challenges, such as
student behaviors. Actively seeking other people’s perspectives contributes to a wealth of
knowledge and diverse experiences. This exposure broadens the understanding of different
situations and enhances leadership perspectives. Lynne shared that she belongs to multiple
networks, from book clubs to state-level networks and organizations. These networks encourage
professional development, encouraging leaders to be more reflective and engage in open
discussions about the challenges they encounter as leaders while seeking innovative ways to
change. While the impact on school culture cannot be solely attributed to the network, it does
contribute by sharing ideas, promoting humility in leadership, and fostering an environment
where feedback is encouraged. Feedback from peers, mentors, other high school principals, and
her boss influenced her leadership development, thus satisfying her professional growth as an
educational leader.
Social Networks Foster a Sense of Belonging
When people feel connected through social networks, they improve their sense of
belonging and connectedness (Samura, 2016). During her interview, Isabella mentioned her
experience of feeling isolated when she first became a principal. At the start of her tenure, she
was not assigned a mentor and had limited networking opportunities. Over the last 8 years, she
has connected with other principals in the district. She believes her participation in various
groups and committees has helped her feel more connected with other principals in her district.
These networks have enhanced her sense of belonging and confidence, which helps her navigate

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her role as a school principal. She mentions that being part of a group of female principals has
made her feel normalized and less alone in her leadership role.
Social Networks Foster Opportunities for Career Advancement
The shared sentiment among the interviewees is that networks aid in advancing careers,
addressing their roles’ emotional toll, and creating a sense of understanding and empathy. They
find strength, mentorship, and practical advice in these networks. Bernadette was a newly hired
principal when the pandemic started. She shared that crisis management defined her job. This
school year, she relies heavily on her social network, tapping their emotional support and
guidance as she navigates the challenges of school closure due to low enrollment. She faces
maintaining school morale while her staff deals with the uncertainty of job placements for the
upcoming school year. Her peer network provides her with a safe space for trying new ideas,
building practices, receiving valuable feedback, and fostering professional growth and reflection.
She hopes her extended network outside her district will open other opportunities for her. She is
also optimistic about new possibilities despite her current crisis. Her motivation to stay in her
position despite the crisis she faces stems from the students she serves:
I don’t know what my job is going to be. It’s weird. If we talked this time last year, I
would have been like I’m gonna be the principal here forever until I retire what I would
have said. But now, because of all this uncertainty, I need to get my resume together. But
what I’m supposed to be doing in life is around kids and making sure schools are
amazing places for kids. What that means. I don’t know. I really love crisis management.
I hate that I love it.
Bernadette shared that her connection with females and her participation in social
networks offer a sense of assurance when facing uncertainties. As she prepares to close her

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school for the last time, she thinks about the different networks to which she belongs and how
they might offer new career opportunities. She shared her appreciation of the document that
outlined the description of networks. She knew they existed, but now she could name them (as
shown in Table 1). Bernadette also shared that she plans to capitalize on her networks to find her
next job because she feels empowered. She shared that her network of principals, professional
coaches, and friends boosted her confidence, and she will remain in the profession. She is still
determining where she will work next, but she knows it will be with students.
Discussion Research Question 2
Recognizing the interplay of gender, gender roles, and leadership was essential for
understanding the participants’ experiences. This section of the study emphasized the complexity
the participants faced and its impact on their success and well-being. Utilizing a feminist
standpoint approach was imperative to focus on strategies to support them and acknowledge
social networks’ role in mitigating school administrators’ turnover rates.
Belonging to social networks brings numerous benefits, with mentorship and coaching
particularly valuable, especially in networks of women supporting women. These networks offer
encouragement, inspiration, and a sense of belonging, aiding individuals in building confidence
and navigating their professions. Beyond professional development, these networks provide
emotional support, preventing burnout and feelings of self-doubt. The openness and trust in these
relationships foster vulnerability, creating environments where individuals can express concerns,
seek validation, and receive constructive feedback.
Chapter Four Summary
This chapter’s key findings revolve around two research areas. The first is the benefits for
female administrators of belonging to social networks and how such membership contributes to

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effective leadership development in times of crisis and change. The second is how being part of
social networks influences administrators’ retention. In summary, the social network theory
proposes that female school administrators’ interconnectedness through their experiences,
beliefs, and gender roles can influence their EI. By leveraging the social capital gained by
belonging to social networks, women can develop the technical and emotional skills to lead their
schools effectively.
According to all study participants, belonging to social networks positively impacts
leadership development by informing decision-making, fostering confidence, improving selfawareness, and nurturing female administrators’ growth. These networks’ supportive and
collaborative nature contributes to developing practical leadership qualities, offering exposure to
diverse perspectives and experiences that influence crisis management or reform strategies and
fostering a more informed and adaptive leadership style. Participants noted that social networks
build confidence, likely derived from the support, validation, and insights they gained. Engaging
with other members through shared experiences, advice, and collaborative learning promotes
self-awareness, contributing to personal and professional growth and motivating leaders to
continue guiding their schools effectively.
Moreover, shared experiences within these networks create a space where individuals feel
understood and supported in addressing the challenges commonly associated with leadership
roles. One prominent theme is how social norms and expectations around gender roles affect
leadership development. Participants highlighted the significance of mentorship and coaching
from peers in networks that stress the need for additional support, especially for administrators,
early in their careers. Ten participants sought their peers for mentorship and coaching, wanting to
learn from one another’s experiences. The study provided supporting evidence indicating that

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belonging to social networks helps female administrators navigate challenging situations at their
school sites. The study also explored how participants acquire social capital to strengthen
leadership capabilities while fostering a sense of connection driven by gender role expectations.

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Chapter Five: Discussion
Chapter Five summarizes findings related to the benefits of belonging to social networks
and how they support female administrators’ leadership development and tenure. Key research
findings discussed social networks’ value in developing an administrator’s leadership capacity in
times of crisis, such as the COVID-19 pandemic or reform. Twelve individual interviews
provided quantitative and qualitative data. Additionally, this study proposes future research
recommendations to support female administrators’ development and retention.
Although there is a growing number of female leaders in school administration,
challenges associated with traditional gender roles (Lindsey et al., 2018; Yadav & Lata, 2018)
and work-life balance impact their decision to stay in their positions. This study focused on how
belonging to social networks can combat these challenges and empower women to overcome
barriers associated with traditional gender roles and time to lead effectively as school site
administrators. As administrators’ experiences significantly influence their leadership styles
(Santamaría & Jean-Marie, 2014), examining their identities and experiences can provide
insights into how to support them through their leadership development, especially under
challenging circumstances. The COVID-19 pandemic brought new challenges for school
administrators and exacerbated old ones, such as student discipline and absenteeism. School
administrators need time to collaborate and garner ideas on addressing ongoing challenges.
Social networks serve as a platform for their members to share personal and professional
narratives and challenges, particularly the obstacles female administrators face as school leaders.
Access to role mentors or coaches can provide the emotional support, guidance, and
connectedness many female educators seek (Helterbran & Rieg, 2004; Levin & Bradley, 2016;
Superville, 2022). Additionally, by integrating leadership and social networks, the study can

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provide research on leadership emergence by developing one’s EI and leadership outcomes. The
following questions guided this study:
1. What are the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators, and
how does belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to effective leadership
development, especially in times of crisis and change?
2. How does belonging to social networks contribute to the retention and career
advancement of administrators, especially female administrators working at the
secondary level?
This study implemented a mixed-methods research design utilizing a confidential survey
sent to participants through snowball sampling (Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). Snowball sampling,
or chain referral sampling, starts with identifying one or more initial participants based on the
study’s criteria. Then, the sample grows based on participant referral to other participants. The
survey had a 70% response rate. Of the 17 survey respondents, 12 agreed to be interviewed
through Zoom and consented to be recorded for accuracy. The semi-structured interview
protocol allowed the participants to expand on their responses and openly share their
experiences. Patton (2015) stated that a good quality interview focuses more on what the
participant is willing to share. This can be accomplished by creating the conditions for the
participants to feel safe and vulnerable as they reflect on their experiences as female
administrators. Although the interviews were virtual, starting with leadership origin stories and
journeys opened the space for a safe dialogue.
Findings
After analyzing the data from the qualitative interviews, the results provide the answers
to both research questions. The findings provided greater awareness of the challenges the

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participants faced and how social networks cultivated a culture where women support women.
Participation in social networks empowered the participants to share their job challenges,
including meeting traditional gender roles influenced by society and themselves. Significant
evidence supported the value of social networks in enhancing leadership skills. Findings further
suggest that social networks benefited leadership skills development during the COVID-19
pandemic. The recurring theme of combating isolation and loneliness and offering a sense of
belonging, camaraderie, and connection supported the benefits of belonging to social networks
and how they contribute to developing effective leadership through access to resources (new
knowledge and information). This section summarizes and discusses the study’s findings with
current literature and practice.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 inquired about the benefits of belonging to social networks and how
these networks contribute to effective leadership development in times of crisis and change.
Qualitative data related to Research Question 1 produced four findings to support and highlight
the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators. The first finding that
emerged focused on the social capital gained from belonging to social networks and how they
shape an administrator’s ability to lead, especially during a crisis. Although the study did not
focus directly on social support (Mishra, 2020) and network centrality (social involvement),
there is evidence that regardless of the participant’s involvement, they have access to untapped
expertise, peer encouragement, and emotional sustenance by belonging to social networks.
Establishing and maintaining social capital and social support within social networks created
connections among individuals, fostering trust and building relationships (Chung et al., 2005).
This practice builds trust, reinforces standard norms and values, and ultimately leads to positive

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social outcomes (Portes, 1998) that can help adaptive leaders build relationships with school
community members and generate support for school leaders in times of crisis.
The second finding suggests how social networks build connections. Study findings
suggested that belonging to social networks provides encouragement, inspiration, and a sense of
equality that helps individuals build confidence to navigate their professional journeys. Beyond
professional development, these networks serve as sources of emotional support that can prevent
burnout and feelings of self-doubt. Informational support (e.g., advice, guidance) and emotional
support (e.g., empathy and encouragement) are essential to buffering stress, enhancing wellbeing, and fostering resilience during challenging times. Social networks provide a platform for
connection, engagement, exchanging ideas and perspectives, and learning from other’s
experiences (Daly, 2010; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Kadushin, 2012; Kezar, 2014; Liou et al.,
2015). While the impact on school culture cannot solely be attributed to belonging to social
networks, platforms for sharing and exchanging ideas promote humility in leadership. They also
encourage feedback. Developing EI through social networks, membership, and participation
helped several participants develop empathy and improve their self-awareness and motivation by
connecting through different relations or ties (Daly, 2010). Social ties (social relations) can
support opportunities for resources (social capital), including access to members willing to listen.
Seven participants shared that belonging to a social network and collaborating with members of
their networks significantly contributed to becoming better listeners when their social-emotional
needs affect the school community.
The third finding focused on how social networks offer a platform for female
administrators to share and learn from diverse perspectives. These networks contributed to
informed decision-making, bolstered confidence, enhanced self-awareness, and facilitated

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overall growth. Their supportive and collaborative atmosphere cultivates practical leadership
qualities by exposing members to diverse perspectives and experiences, which in turn influence
strategies for crisis management and institutional reform, ultimately shaping a more adaptive
leadership style. Site leaders like Kelly emphasized that her social network helped her develop
competence, reflect on her decisions, and apply a more informed perspective to her leadership.
Social ties can significantly influence how information flows to various individuals and how this
information gets accessed and used to carry out tasks. Social networks can dismantle barriers and
promote collaboration among participants at different organizational levels if there is trust and
school leaders can establish and maintain connections among those individuals (Hoppe &
Reinelt, 2010).
The fourth finding is that social networks offer opportunities to share experiences to build
knowledge and information and build self-confidence in their ability to lead their schools.
Participants emphasized that social networks build confidence, mainly through the support,
validation, and insights garnered from interactions within the network. Engaging with peers in
shared experiences, seeking advice, and engaging in collaborative learning fostered selfawareness, promoted personal and professional development, and encouraged leaders to guide
their schools effectively. Furthermore, these networks provided a space where individuals feel
understood and supported in addressing the common challenges associated with leadership roles.
Gender stereotypes associate female administrators with being too emotional and
accommodating (Turetsky et al., 2022). There is also a traditional gender role that women need
to take care of men. Three assistant principals described their male principals as kind and
hardworking. However, they also admit to being their partners in ensuring they take care of onsite-related issues that their male counterparts may need to gain the skills to handle, such as

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handling high emotions. Although interview questions did not address boys’ clubs, five
participants acknowledged the existence of a boys’ club in education. They also mentioned that
their female network has encouraged different avenues for female leaders. Bernadette and
Francis believe that having a united female voice could help address gender bias and sexism in
the profession. They cited how their social networks provide them with a sense of connectedness,
where candid feedback is encouraged and shapes their confidence as leaders. They also highlight
the need for female leaders to overcome societal pressures and stereotypes to show their true
selves and support one another. They believe that creating an environment where women can be
themselves, receive feedback, and learn from one another is essential for their development as
school administrators.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 inquired about how belonging to social networks contributes to
administrators’ retention and career advancement. The first finding highlighted the impact of
social norms and expectations regarding traditional gender roles on job satisfaction. By
recognizing that gender disparities continue, female administrators can embrace their strengths
and use them to lead their school communities in times of crisis and change. Findings in this area
examined the challenges female administrators face and what districts and organizations need to
consider as they design their policies to recruit and retain female administrators. Participants
underscored mentorship and peer coaching in these networks, highlighting the need for
additional support, especially for early-career administrators. Most participants sought
mentorship and coaching from their peers, eager to learn from each other’s funds of knowledge.
The second discovery delved into the social connections that prompt women to join
social networks and how these networks’ structural dynamics mitigate burnout and reduce

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attrition rates. The social structure of networks and how members perceive their social relations
and network identity can facilitate their access to resources, decreasing their turnover and
facilitating their career advancement. Network identity refers to how women perceive themselves
within their networks. Various methods can be employed to analyze network identity within
SNA. This study considered how participants perceived their career trajectory (years in the
position) and job satisfaction. Understanding how participants perceived themselves within their
group of principals or assistant principals highlights how years of experience can influence job
satisfaction and how their involvement in social networks can further influence overall job
satisfaction. A primary reason for staying is their network and the support they receive. The
quality of relationships between members in their social networks aids in determining the
network’s effectiveness (Friedkin & Slater, 1994).
Implication for Practice
Prior research has examined social networks in terms of structure (Daly, 2010; Kadushin,
2012), influenced by individuals’ and organizations’ actions. Interactions create interconnected
networks, impacting individuals and more extensive social entities. Study findings established
themes that inform educational practitioners at various levels, including higher education prep
programs, to consider how social statuses and positions shape interactions and how social
network members interact to improve leadership practice and school site administrators’
retention.
The first implication for practice emphasizes the value of one’s social structure and how
they can be a connection to information (resources) or specific people who can offer advice or
support mentally or emotionally. According to Carolan (2013), a social structure consists of a
group of individuals interconnected by relationships governed by rules, allowing varied access to

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resources. Most study participants agree that coaching or mentorship is essential for developing
site leaders. Coaching builds a leader’s confidence and deep relationships that can lead to
supportive networks (Baker & An, 2019). Participants mentioned the benefits of being coached
or mentored formally or informally as a collective group. The study participants were hired
before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Many have gone through the challenges of school
closure to reopening to meet the social/emotional needs of their staff, students, and families.
While the COVID-19 pandemic tested and challenged many individuals, these administrators
reflected on how their social networks or informal mentorship from their networks provided
them with emotional support, helped navigate evolving systems and procedures, and accelerated
trust-building with peers going through the same experiences as site administrators.
The second implication is to support site administrators’ retention. The study found that
social networks provide a sense of connection for new administrators. The sense of community
and connectedness provides opportunities for them to share experiences for mutual support and
guidance. The study found that female school administrators who accessed their social networks
regularly (network centrality) had greater access to information and resources, influencing their
motivation to stay in their positions despite work-life balance and loneliness. This observation
was evident in the interviews with Doris and Lynne. They both cited the positive impact of her
social network, which provides inspiration, confidence, advice, shared experiences, and
camaraderie. They shared how their social networks help them navigate challenging situations
and feel more comfortable as principals and assistant principals. They also believe such networks
could offer validation and emotional support, which may differ from the experiences of male
administrators, who tend to rely more on their social networks for advice on solving practical or

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technical problems (Kiser, 2015). Francis expressed that men and women may approach social
networking differently, with women being more supportive and collaborative.
The third implication for practice is that organizations must consider adjusting their
professional learning, allowing women to select conferences or symposiums to build their
leadership skills. As part of the traditional gender roles, principals like Kelly felt guilty leaving
their campuses and wanting to stay back to hold down the fort. In contrast, their male
counterparts leave for conferences and other learning opportunities because they have assistant
principals who can handle business while they are gone. Female administrators need learning
opportunities led by other female leaders. Securing at least one professional development
opportunity in the company of other women would be ideal, especially if there is a commitment
to allow them to leave for a day without penalty.
The final implication for practice is to encourage organizations to consider hiring
practices to support school administrators retention by creating a network of support (mentors)
and building a pipeline for recruiting new teacher leaders. One idea would be to partner teacher
female teachers with female administrators, allowing them to get mentored and learn strategies.
As a female principal, Gloria’s female teachers often ask her how she does it, balancing being a
mother and a principal. Her female teachers are intrigued by her ability to balance and do it all;
some even say they could not. Providing Gloria’s teachers with opportunities to shadow her and
build a cohort of teachers interested in becoming instructional leaders could be a cost-effective
way to positively impact teacher relationships and build their leadership capacity. According to
an article by Baker (2023), developing programs that intentionally recruit female educators and
female leaders of color to learning opportunities that include coaching provides the potential for
building a pipeline of diverse female leaders.

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Future Research
Social networks can provide the sense of community female administrators need to
cultivate a positive, inclusive culture, offering access to diverse perspectives and ideas. Without
such a network, advocating for their team and building trust among colleagues and staff may
prove challenging. Leadership requires EI, particularly in fostering trust and relationships. While
this study aimed to explore the impact of belonging to social networks on leadership
effectiveness, the literature review noted a need for further research regarding gender differences
and how social networks influence females’ and males’ EI (Cherry, 2018). The literature reviews
on EI, social networks, and leadership provide an understanding of the relationships between
these concepts; however, there is still more to learn about gender differences in how social
networks influence females’ and males’ EI and their reliance on social networks in supporting
their efforts to system changes or reform.
The first recommendation for future research is to investigate how male and female
administrators develop their EI and social networks’ impact on that development. A longitudinal
study on male and female administrators through their leadership journey should analyze
whether their membership with social networks impacts their EI. This study can focus on group
members’ interactions with each other, how they impact what EI emerges from these
interactions, and how they influence leadership identity.
The second recommendation for future research is to investigate whether coaching and
mentoring administrators early in their administrative careers have tremendous success in
remaining in their positions as site administrators. A longitudinal study on mentorship and
whether mentorships assist in retaining site administrators or influence them to promotional
positions, e.g., district office leadership. With 76% of educators (Baker, 2023) across the nation

106
being women, what methods will support their career development and build their confidence to
lead?
Conclusion
This study confirmed that social networks benefit female site administrators, including
convincing them to remain in their positions despite challenges with work-life balance and their
positions’ daily challenges. While the literature supports the need for female administrators to
participate in social networks, time and work-life balance are barriers. Study findings suggest
that changing policies around hiring practices that include mentorship and coaching for all new
site administrators helps retention and resilience to remain in the profession. They can inspire
others to take on leadership by prioritizing wellness and providing opportunities for female
administrators to participate in conferences led by female leaders. Findings further suggest that
the school district reconsiders its professional learning opportunities for site leadership, which
include time to social network during the school day. Although this may create new challenges,
it offers opportunities for site administrators to learn different perspectives on common site
challenges. It offers time for site administrators to collaborate during the school day. Several
participants pay tribute to their districts’ efforts in offering this to their site administrators.
However, there are limitations due to time away from campus and a need for incentives for
teacher leaders to carry on-site leadership duties. If districts offer incentives for teachers to take
on these roles outside their classrooms or create leadership pipelines, it could groom new leaders
for the future. This study offers practitioners additional insight into the implications of belonging
to social networks, which can be another opportunity to build site leaders’ capacity and promote
new leadership for teacher leaders.

107
Thus, when we think about building our current administrators’ capacity, listening to
their voices and building their agency come to mind. As Woolf (2021) noted,
Until a few years ago no woman had ever come out by herself and said things at all…for
all those thousands of years, this curious silent unpresented life. Of course, we’re always
writing about women—abusing them, or jeering at them; but it’s never come women
themselves. (p. 40)
By highlighting the participants’ leadership stories, the results and implications for practice
could reshape how districts and organizations support future female leaders. This study can also
shape a new narrative for female students. Engaging students as early as kindergarten can
empower (student agency) them to become leaders. Early leadership experiences can impact
students and educate them to have the agency to advocate for themselves. Educators’ actions and
voices influence students’ perceptions of themselves and their beliefs in their success (Stefkovich
& Begley, 2007). So, when thinking about how educators can advance women’s leadership
development, it may be beneficial to start early. The question is, “Are we willing to listen to the
voices of our current female leaders?”

108
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Zippia Careers. (2022, September 9). School principal demographics and statistics [2022]:
Number of school principals in the US. www.zippia.com.
https://www.zippia.com/school-principal-jobs/demographics/

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Appendix A: Survey Introduction
Hello, my name is Grace Ridgeway, and I am a current doctoral student at the University
of Southern California. I am conducting this study regarding the impact of belonging to social
networks on leadership development. This study aims to understand the value and importance of
social networks in creating a sense of community and developing a leader’s cultural proficiency
to lead their schools at the secondary level. Social networks provide a sense of community that
administrators may need to build a positive and inclusive culture within their organization. These
networks open access to diverse perspectives and ideas (Dickens & Gandhi, 2022).
This survey will take approximately ten minutes to complete and will help guide the
remainder of the study. Twenty participants who complete the survey will be hand selected to
participate in a 1:1 interview session. The purpose of conducting the interviews will be to gain a
better understanding of your perspectives regarding social networks and their influence on school
leadership development. Additionally, this survey is confidential, and you will remain
anonymous. Your name and the organization you work for will not be disclosed. You were
chosen for this study because you identify as a female school administrator working at the
secondary level before, during, and post-COVID-19 pandemic. Your thoughts, feelings, and
opinions are instrumental in my study. Please be aware that I will not judge or critique your
answers. If you choose to continue, you volunteer to participate in this survey. You can stop
anytime or skip questions you prefer not to answer. Thank you for your time.
Survey Items
Demographic Background Questions
The impact of social networks on emotional intelligence may differ based on gender,
highlighting potential gender differences in how social support influences the leadership capacity

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and tenure of male versus female school administrators (CF, leadership). The following two
questions are specific to your current administrative position and gender identity.
1. What is your role within your school?
● Principal
● Vice principal
● Dean (admin)
● Other (administrative role)
2. What gender do you identify as? [Mark only one]
● Male
● Female
● Transgender
● Non-binary
● Gender nonconforming
● Prefer not to answer
Table A1
Leadership Network Classification Framework
Type of network Description of network
Peer leadership
network
A system of social ties among leaders who are connected through
shared interests and commitments, shared work, or shared
experiences. Leaders in the network share information, provide
advice and support, learn from one another, and occasionally
collaborate together. Peer leadership networks provide leaders with
access to resources that they can trust. Leadership development
programs often seek to create and catalyze peer leadership networks
to expand the trusted ties that leaders have with one another. At other
times peer networks emerge when leaders with something in

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common find personal benefit in sharing and connecting their
experiences.
Organizational
leadership network
A set of social ties that are structured to increase performance. These
ties are often informal and exist outside the formal organizational
structure, such as when an employee seeks advice from a colleague
other than her supervisor to help solve a problem more quickly. At
other times, teams or communities of practice are intentionally
created to bridge silos within organizations that interfere with
performance, profit, or delivering on one’s mission. At the interorganizational level, leadership networks support organizations with
shared interests to produce a product or deliver a service more
efficiently.
Field-policy
leadership network
A network connecting leaders who share common interests and who
have a commitment to influencing a field of practice or policy. These
networks seek to shape the environment (e.g., the framing of an
issue, underlying assumptions, and standards for what is expected).
Effective field-policy leadership networks make it easier for leaders
to find common ground around the issues they care about, mobilize
support, and influence policy and the allocation of resources.
Collective leadership
network
A self-organized system of social ties among people attracted to a
common cause or focused on a shared goal. Network members exercise
leadership locally. As the number of local groupings grows and there is
increasing interaction, these groups begin to align and connect to form
larger networks. These networks are often rooted in a sense of
community and purpose; they may be driven by a desire to achieve a
specific goal or simply by the desire of each member to belong to
something larger than oneself.
Closed-Ended Questions (3-9)
How connected are you to peers in your social network (CF, Social Network)? Social
networks can comprise various relationships, such as family, friends, acquaintances, colleagues,
and community members. Answer the following five questions about your social network and
your role as site administrator at the secondary level. Remember, your answers are anonymous.
Please be as honest as you can.

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3. Do you belong to any of the following leadership networks? (See descriptions of
different leadership network classifications in Table A1) [Mark all that apply]
(measuring nominal)
● Peer leadership network (group of friends)
● Organizational leadership network (collegial peers)
● Field-policy leadership network (job-alike peers)
● Collective leadership network (Association of California School
Administrators)
4. Which social network would you seek advice from or consider as a thought
partner(s)? [Mark only one] (measuring nominal)
● Peer leadership network (group of friends)
● Organizational leadership network (collegial peers)
● Field-policy leadership network (job-alike peers)
● Collective leadership network (Association of California School
Administrators)
5. When it comes to your social network, how influential are they in guiding your
decisions or assisting you with problem-solving difficult situations at school?
(ordinal)
● Not at all influential
● Slightly influential
● Very influential
● Extremely influential

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6. What is the likelihood that you seek advice from peers in your social network to
guide your decisions or assist you with problem-solving difficult situations at school?
(ordinal)
● Extremely unlikely
● Unlikely
● Likely
● Extremely likely
7. What are the primary reasons you seek out your social network? [Mark all that apply]
(nominal)
● Feeling Connected
● Opportunity for engagement with peers from the same profession
● Exchange ideas and perspectives
● Exchange and share resources
● Coaching and learning from each other’s experiences
● Building trust
● It provides a safe space to feel vulnerable to express frustrations and joy
8. What are the primary reasons you seek guidance from your social network to build
your emotional intelligence as a school site administrator? [Mark all that apply]
(nominal)
● How to self-regulate my emotions, especially during difficult times
● How to be self-aware when I am upset or angry
● Motivation to do my job even when times are challenging
● Learning to have empathy and understand other people’s perspectives

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● Build on social skills, learning how to interact with others
● Other:_________________________________________
9. What level of influence does your social network provide you in developing your
emotional intelligence? (ordinal)
● Not at all influential
● Slightly influential
● Very influential
● Extremely influential
Social networks provide a sense of community between administrators to exchange
resources (Daly, 2010). Without proper support that provides mentorship and connection, the
attrition of administrators, especially at the secondary level, may continue to increase despite
their passion for their jobs (CF, Social Networks; Leadership). Answer the following questions 2
questions about your state of feeling connected and sense of community. Remember, your
answers are anonymous. Please be as honest as you can.
10. How do you feel about your work at your current school site? (ordinal)
● Not at all satisfied
● Slightly satisfied
● Very satisfied
● Extremely satisfied
11. Are there times when you feel isolated or alone in your current position? (nominal)
● Yes
● No

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Open-Ended Question
12. Considering the different networks described in Table A1, Peer leadership network,
organizational leadership network, field-policy network, and collective leadership
network, which network of individuals provides you a sense of connectedness with
your current position, especially during challenging situations at your school site (CF,
Leadership)? Please explain your answer.
Closing
Thank you for your participation in this survey. I truly appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Your thoughts, feelings, and opinions are instrumental in my study. Please
note that your responses and name will not be shared with anyone outside this study. The
intention of this survey is to gather information and examine how school site administrators use
their social networks to support their school leadership development. If chosen to participate in
the 1:1 interview process, you will be notified via email by me from my USC email,
mridgewa@usc.edu. You do not have to continue your participation and the interview is
completely voluntary. Thank you for being a part of this research journey.

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol
The following sections present the interview protocol used in this study.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What are the benefits of belonging to social networks for female administrators, and
how does belonging to these networks contribute (if at all) to effective leadership
development, especially in times of crisis and change?
2. How does belonging to social networks contribute to the retention and career
advancement of administrators, especially female administrators working at the
secondary level?

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Figure B1
Conceptual Framework
Concepts From the Conceptual Framework That Are Addressed in this Interview
● Social networking
● Emotional Intelligence: Female Administrators’ Experiences and Conditions
● Female administrator: Leadership capacity and Tenure of female administrators
● Gender roles
● Leadership style
Introduction
Hello___, thank you for agreeing to participate in my study about the impact of social
networking on leadership development and tenure of female school administrators at the
secondary level. I appreciate the time that you have set aside to answer my questions. As I shared

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in our initial conversation, the interview should take about an hour. Does this allocation of time
still work for you?
Before we get started, I want to remind you about this study. An overview was provided
to you in the study information sheet, but I wanted to review that information again. I am a
student at USC and am conducting a study aimed at investigating how social networking
experiences, both personal and collegial, can assist school administrators in developing their
leadership capacity to tackle exacerbating disparities such as learning loss, mental health and
well-being, educational inequities, and social and emotional development that plague our
educational systems pre and post-Covid 19 pandemic. I am particularly interested in the
importance of social networks and how they can deepen a leader’s capacity to lead
organizational change. Additionally, the research questions will explore the importance of social
networks and how they amplify the leadership stories of other female administrators to connect
with other female leaders. Through these connections, they can engage in conversations, share
experiences, and learn from different perspectives, expanding their cultural understanding and
motivation to lead and stay in the profession.
I am interviewing multiple female administrators to learn more about this. I may also
interview a few female administrators who belong to your social network to gain further
information from their perspectives. I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of a
researcher today. What this means is that the nature of my questions is not evaluative. I will not
be making any judgments on how you are performing as an administrator. My goal is to
understand your perspective.
As stated in the study information sheet I provided, this interview is confidential. That
means your name will not be shared with anyone outside the research team. I will not share them

132
with other teachers, the principal, or the district. The data for this study will be compiled into a
report, and while I plan on using some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be
directly attributed to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my
best to de-identify any of the data I gather from you. If you are interested, I will provide you with
a copy of my final paper.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet, I will keep the data in a password-protected
computer, and all data will be destroyed after 3 years. Do you have any questions about the study
before we get started?
I will be recording our interview via Zoom today and using otter ai to transcribe the
conversation so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for
capturing your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the research team. May I
have your permission to record our conversation?
Background Questions (Setting the Stage):
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about yourself. First, I’d like to
ask about your background and educational experience.
1. Share with me your leadership journey. I have some prompts to get you started, but
feel free to walk me through your experiences, challenges, and how you got to where
you are today. How did you become interested in the field of education? (Q:
Background)
a. How long have you worked in the field?
b. What roles or positions have you held?
c. What is your role within your school or district?
d. How long have you worked here?

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e. Tell me about your role in the school.
Thank you. I’d like to continue by asking you about your participation in social networks
(personal or collegial, or both). Daly (2010) referred to social networks as a web of social
relationships that an individual maintains with other people, groups, or organizations. Social
networks can comprise various relationships, such as family, friends, acquaintances, colleagues,
and community members.
2. How would you describe your social network (CF: Social Network; Q: Experience)
a. Who is in your social network(s)?
b. How did you join? Were you recruited?
c. What were some of the reasons you decided to join?
d. How long have you been with this group of people?
3. How do you use social networks to connect with other administrators and educators
outside your current network of peers? (CF: Social Network; Q: Experience)
a. How connected are you to peers in your social network (CF, Social Network)
b. What have you gained personally or professionally from these connections?
(CF: Social Network; Q: Experience; Opinion)
c. How do you see social networks evolving in recruiting new administrators?
(CF: Social Network; Q: Opinion)
d. What implications do you believe this will have for the leadership
development of female school administrators? (CF: Social Network; Q:
Opinion)

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Alignment with the Conceptual Framework
Now, I want to discuss the connection between social networks and school leadership
development.
What can you gain as an administrator (or personally) for being a social network
member? (CF: Social Network; Emotional Intelligence; Q: Experience; Opinion)
e. How does belonging to a social network relate to your leadership style as a school
administrator?
f. How could membership in a social network contribute, if at all, to the leadership
development of female administrators? How is that similar or different to male
administrators?
g. How could membership in a social network potentially contribute to the overall
professional growth of female administrators? How is that similar or different to
male administrators?
h. How would you describe the benefits associated with belonging to a social
network?
i. Describe, if any, the negative consequences of social networking on your
leadership development or tenure as an administrator. How did you address them?
Let’s focus on a broader school context and discuss how a leader’s involvement with
social networks may influence school culture and environment. By school culture, I refer to
shared values, beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes that shape a school’s overall atmosphere and
environment. By school environment, I am referring to the overall atmosphere of a school that
shapes the overall experience of students, teachers, and administrators.

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4. How, if at all, has belonging to a social network helped you identify and manage your
own emotions in challenging situations? (CF: Social Network; Leadership; Q:
Experience)
a. Can you walk me through what happened?
b. In your opinion, how did this impact your school culture?
c. How did it impact the school environment?
d. What skills, if any, did you gain or learn from this experience? (CF:
Leadership, e.g., self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empath, or social
skills)
e. How did your social network play a role in developing any of the skills you
mentioned? If so, how did you develop the skills through your social network?
(CF: Social Network; Leadership; Q: Opinion; Sensory)
5. Considering the different networks described in Table B1, peer leadership network,
organizational leadership network, field-policy network, and collective leadership
network, which network of individuals provides you a sense of connectedness with your
current position, especially during challenging situations at your school site (CF,
Leadership)? Please explain. What is your involvement in any of the networks described
in Table B1?

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Table B1
Leadership Network Classification Framework
Type of network Description of network
Peer leadership network A system of social ties among leaders who are
connected through shared interests and
commitments, shared work, or shared experiences.
Leaders in the network share information, provide
advice and support, learn from one another, and
occasionally collaborate together. Peer leadership
networks provide leaders with access to resources
that they can trust. Leadership development
programs often seek to create and catalyze peer
leadership networks to expand the trusted ties that
leaders have with one another. At other times peer
networks emerge when leaders with something in
common find personal benefit in sharing and
connecting their experiences.
Organizational leadership network A set of social ties that are structured to increase
performance. These ties are often informal and exist
outside the formal organizational structure, such as
when an employee seeks advice from a colleague
other than her supervisor to help solve a problem
more quickly. At other times, teams or communities
of practice are intentionally created to bridge silos
within organizations that interfere with performance,
profit, or delivering on one’s mission. At the interorganizational level, leadership networks support
organizations with shared interests to produce a
product or deliver a service more efficiently.
Field-policy leadership network A network connecting leaders who share common
interests and who have a commitment to influencing
a field of practice or policy. These networks seek to
shape the environment (e.g., the framing of an issue,
underlying assumptions, and standards for what is
expected). Effective field-policy leadership
networks make it easier for leaders to find common
ground around the issues they care about, mobilize
support, and influence policy and the allocation of
resources.

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Type of network Description of network
Collective leadership network A self-organized system of social ties among people
attracted to a common cause or focused on a shared
goal. Network members exercise leadership locally.
As the number of local groupings grows and there is
increasing interaction, these groups begin to align
and connect to form larger networks. These
networks are often rooted in a sense of community
and purpose; they may be driven by a desire to
achieve a specific goal or simply by the desire of
each member to belong to something larger than
oneself.
Note. From “Social Network Analysis and the Evaluation of Leadership Networks” by B. Hoppe
& C. Reinelt, 2010. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 600–619.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.06.004). Copyright 2010 by Elsevier Inc.
6. Describe your journey or experience as a school administrator, both pre and postCOVID-19 pandemic. How have you managed the challenges and changes, and who have
you sought support from, if any?(CF: Social Network; Emotional Intelligence; Q:
Experience; Feelings) During this journey, what thoughts did you have about remaining
at your school or in the profession?
Closing Comments
Thank you for sharing your thoughts with me today! I appreciate your time and
willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find
myself with a follow-up question, can I contact you? Would it be okay for me to email you?
Again, thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you, please accept this gift card as a
small token of my appreciation.

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Appendix C: Participant Study Sheet
General Information About This Study and the Researcher
Study title: Fostering Leadership Resilience: Examining the Influence of Social Networks on
Female Administrators’ Capacity to Lead in Times of Crisis or Organizational Change
University: The University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education
Name of researcher: MaryGrace B. Ridgeway
Purpose of this Study
This study will investigate whether social networks can assist school administrators in
developing their cultural proficiency to understand, appreciate, and effectively interact with
people from diverse cultural backgrounds to tackle exacerbating disparities such as learning loss,
mental health and well-being, educational inequities, and social and emotional development that
plague our educational systems pre- and post-COVID 19 pandemic. The importance of social
networks and how they can deepen a leader’s cultural proficiency provides a platform for female
administrators to share their leadership stories that can influence other female educators to
develop their cultural competence in addressing and challenging systemic inequalities and
promoting inclusivity. Additionally, the research questions will explore the importance of social
networks and how they amplify the leadership stories of other female administrators to connect
with diverse individuals and communities from different cultural backgrounds. Through these
connections, they can engage in conversations, share experiences, and learn from different
perspectives, expanding their cultural understanding and motivation to lead and stay in the
profession.

139
Information About Study Participants (Subjects)
Taking part in this study is entirely voluntary. You do not have to participate if you don’t
want to. You may also leave the study at any time. If you leave the study before it is finished,
there will be no penalty to you. The purpose of conducting the interviews will be to gain a better
understanding of your perspectives regarding social networks and their influence on school
leadership development.
Additionally, this survey is confidential. Your name and the organization you work for
will not be disclosed. You were chosen for this study because you identify as a female school
administrator working at the secondary level before, during, and post-COVID-19 pandemic.
Your thoughts, feelings, and opinions are instrumental in my study. You can stop anytime or skip
questions you prefer to avoid answering.
Information About Study Participation
The qualitative study will recruit female administrators working at the secondary level in
districts across California currently participating and/or are members of social networks. Female
administrators working as principals, assistant principals, and deans who are part of social
networks through personal or collegial networks will be chosen through non-probability
sampling or purposeful sampling as a standard method for the qualitative study. Data obtained
through the interviews will be analyzed to examine the potential role of social networks in
enhancing the cultural proficiency of school administrators. Additionally, the research aims to
explore whether participation in social networks encourages female educators to share their own
leadership experiences, thereby motivating other female educators to pursue leadership roles.You
will be asked to participate in a 1:1 interview. The interview will take approximately 1 hour to
complete.

140
Confidentiality Clause
Your name will not be shared with anyone outside the research team, and all data from
this study will be kept in a password-protected computer or locked filing system. While I do
intend to use direct quotes, none of the data will be directly attributed to you, and a pseudonym
will be used to protect your confidentiality.
Definition of Terms
Cultural competence: Cultural competence refers to understanding, appreciating, and
effectively interacting with people from different cultures. It involves developing knowledge,
skills, and attitudes to work effectively in diverse cultural settings (Lindsey et al., 2018).
Cultural proficiency: Involves the commitment to learning about the educational needs of
cultural groups and recognizing and challenging institutional and structural barriers that prevent
them from fully participating and succeeding in society (Lindsey et al., 2018).
Emotional intelligence (EI): Refers to the capability to accurately think about emotions
and utilize emotions and emotional understanding to improve thought processes (Goleman,
2011). Goleman’s emotional intelligence model includes five characteristics, as described by
Cherry (2018):
● Self-awareness: The ability to identify and comprehend emotions, as well as having
an understanding of the impact of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on others.
● Self-regulation: Involves the appropriate expression of emotion.
● Motivation: The driving force behind an individual’s actions comes from internal
factors, such as personal fulfillment, rather than external incentives, such as monetary
compensation, fame, or recognition.
● Empathy: Being able to understand how other people are feeling.

141
● Social skills: The ability to effectively interact with others by understanding one’s
own emotions and the emotions of others in daily communication.
Equity: Stone (2002) refers to equity to the concept of fairness, impartiality, and justice in
providing resources, opportunities, and treatment to all individuals, regardless of their
background or characteristics. In the context of education, Cochran-Smith et al. (2017) defined
equity as a shared goal to ensure that every student has access to the resources, support, and
opportunities they need to succeed, regardless of factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic
status, or other personal attributes.
Feminist Standpoint Theory: A framework that takes into the perspectives of women and
valuing their experiences (Giles, 2021; Hekman, 1997). It takes into account that the experiences
women shared are connected to the relationships and interactions they have within their social
groups and the larger social environment in which they exist.
Leadership: According to Fullan (2020), it is the ability to influence and guide
individuals, groups, or organizations toward attaining a common goal. A leader inspires,
motivates, and directs others and can effectively communicate a vision and strategy for achieving
desired outcomes (Goleman, 2011). Leadership involves various skills, including
communicating, building relationships and trust, making decisions, and managing and allocating
resources. Influential leaders can balance their followers’ needs with the organization’s goals,
and they inspire and empower others to work together toward a common purpose.
Social capital: Social capital encompasses the resources, benefits, and advantages
acquired by individuals or groups through their participation in social networks and relationships
(Carolan, 2013; Daly & Finnigan, 2009; Daly et al., 2020; Kadushin, 2012). Being a part of these

142
networks allows individuals to access, borrow, or leverage resources from others, facilitating
opportunities for personal or collective change and benefit (Lin et al., 2009).
Social cognitive theory (SCT): The triadic reciprocity of environment, behavior, and
person (Bandura, 1986). Bandura’s (1986) SCT has significantly contributed to understanding
the connection between learning and motivation.
Social network: According to Daly (2010), one’s social network is based on the
relationships and flow of information within social network structures, which consist of a
collection of individuals or nodes. Social networks provide a sense of community.
Social network theory: A theoretical framework that views social relationships (Everett &
Borgatti, 2005; Daly, 2010) and connections as essential determinants of individual behavior,
attitudes, and leadership development. The social network theory (Daly, 2010) examines the
interactions between individuals, organizations, or groups within a network.
Social network analysis (SNA): Research by Daly (2010) and Kadushin (2012) on social
networks refers to SNA to explore how social networks can be used to understand one’s social
influence, social capital, and social stratification. SNA can be used to analyze social relationships
and interactions among leaders and evaluate the effectiveness of leadership networks (Hoppe and
Reinelt, 2010).
Social network structures: Consists of a set of nodes or actors, along with a set of ties of a
single type that connect the nodes. Refers to nodes (individuals or organizations within the
network), ties (the relationships between nodes), and subgroups (clusters of nodes with matching
ties and characteristics; Daly, 2010; Kadushin, 2012).

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Appendix D: Informed Consent Form
Title of Project: “Fostering Leadership Resilience: Examining the Influence of Social Networks
on Female Administrators’ Capacity to Lead in Times of Crisis or Organizational Change”
Researcher: MaryGrace B. Ridgeway (email: mridgewa@usc.edu)
Doctoral Student, The University of Southern California
Waite Phillips Hall, 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089
Phone: (213) 740-0224
Dissertation Chair: Dr. Maria Ott (email: mariaott@rossier.usc.edu)
The University of Southern California
Waite Phillips Hall, 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089
Phone: (213) 740-0224
IRB Number:
Information for Participant
Purpose of the study: This study will investigate whether social networks can assist
school administrators in developing their cultural proficiency to understand, appreciate, and
effectively interact with people from diverse cultural backgrounds to tackle exacerbating
disparities such as learning loss, mental health and well-being, educational inequities, and social
and emotional development that plague our educational systems pre and post-Covid 19
pandemic. The importance of social networks and how they can deepen a leader’s cultural
proficiency provides a platform for female administrators to share their leadership stories that
can influence other female educators to develop their cultural competence in addressing and
challenging systemic inequalities and promoting inclusivity. Additionally, the research questions
will explore the importance of social networks and how they amplify the leadership stories of

144
other female administrators to connect with diverse individuals and communities from different
cultural backgrounds. Through these connections, they can engage in conversations, share
experiences, and learn from different perspectives, expanding their cultural understanding and
their motivation to lead and stay in the profession.
Procedures to be followed: Participation in this study entails a single, brief interview
(approximately 60 minutes), consisting of open-ended questions designed to gather information.
The purpose of conducting the interviews will be to gain a better understanding of your
perspectives regarding social networks and their influence on school leadership development.
The interviews will be conducted virtually and will be recorded. Below, you will need to provide
consent for the video recording of the interview.
Discomforts, risks, and benefits: The purpose of conducting the interviews will be to gain
a better understanding of your perspectives regarding social networks and their influence on
school leadership development. You may refuse to answer any question for any reason at any
time during your interview, and there will be no penalty. The only risk of participating, beyond
risks you likely experience as part of everyday life, would be a breach in maintaining the
confidentiality of your identity. However, I will make all possible efforts to maintain the
confidentiality of your identity by using pseudonyms and de-identification of sensitive
demographic and personal information. Any publications using the data from the study will not
contain your name or any other information that could be used to identify you or your institution
individually. There will be no compensation provided for participation in the study. Benefits to
your participation include having a forum to discuss issues in discipline practices on your school
campus. Your words will be analyzed, and future recommendations will be made to recommend

145
changes in professional development approaches and hiring practices that include opportunities
for mentorship and participation in social networks to support female administrators.
Duration/time: Interviews will last approximately 60 minutes and will occur virtually
through Zoom. A convenient time and date will be chosen for both the participant and the
researcher.
Statement of confidentiality: Your participation in the research is confidential. Interview
data, video recordings, transcriptions of the interview, and other correspondence will be stored
and secured in a locked file cabinet in the primary researcher’s home office. Names will not be
associated with the interview data at any point, as a pseudonym will be assigned to each
participant. All transcriptions of video recordings will be performed by me. All notes, email and
phone communications, audio recordings, memos, and other research materials will be kept
confidential. Access will be limited to the researcher, the University of Southern California
faculty members associated with the study, and the Institutional Review Board (IRB). All digital
data will be encrypted and physical media kept locked when not in active use.
Right to ask questions: Please feel free to contact the researcher with questions or
concerns about this research using the contact information listed above. If you have any
questions regarding your participation in the study or if you want to verify the authenticity of the
study, please contact the Dissertation Chair, Dr. Maria Ott at mariaott@rossier.usc.edu. You may
also contact the University of Southern California IRB.
Voluntary participation: Your decision to participate in this research is voluntary. You
have the right to refuse to answer questions at your discretion. You may end the interview at any
time, for any reason, without penalty. Should you wish to withdraw, please inform me of your

146
decision. If you do withdraw from the study, informed consent documents will be retained, and
all other data will be destroyed.
Consent to Participate
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ridgeway, MaryGrace Betito (author)

Core Title Fostering leadership resilience: examining the influence of social networks on female administrators’ capacity to lead in times of crisis or organizational change

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/01/2024

Defense Date 03/18/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag female administrators,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational change,secondary level,social networks,women supporting women

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ott, Maria (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), White, Patricia (committee member)

Creator Email marygrace.ridgeway@gmail.com,mridgewa@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113865214

Unique identifier UC113865214

Identifier etd-RidgewayMa-12744.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-RidgewayMa-12744

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Ridgeway, MaryGrace Betito

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240403-usctheses-batch-1134 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu