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The importance of mentoring in leadership self-efficacy for women in supply chain: a qualitative study

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The importance of mentoring in leadership self-efficacy for women in supply chain: a qualitative study

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Content The Importance of Mentoring in Leadership Self-Efficacy for Women in Supply Chain: A
Qualitative Study
by
Brian Kraus
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
May 2024

© Copyright by Brian Paul Kraus 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Brian Kraus certifies the approval of this Dissertation
Paula Carbone
Jessica DeCuir-Gunby
Jennifer Phillips, Committee Chair
Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
The purpose of the study is to explore the impact mentoring has on improving self-efficacy in
women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United States. The
underrepresentation of women in leadership roles is a well-known problem across a variety of
domains, including the supply chain domain. Women represent approximately 39% of the supply
chain workforce, yet only 34% of first-level leaders and only 19% of chief supply chain officers
(Gartner, 2022). Using Social Cognitive Career Theory as its theoretical framework, the
qualitative study addresses two research questions by interviewing 12 women in supply chain
leadership roles to explore the impact mentoring has had on leadership self-efficacy, career
interests, and pursuits. Three key themes were identified from the qualitative research process,
with the first being the benefits of mentoring as a method of leadership development as long as it
is properly supported by the organization and a mentor with key interpersonal qualities. The
second key theme reflects the positive impact a mentoring relationship can have when it is
mentee-driven, which includes mentee preparation combined with a preference for allowing the
relationship to evolve from an informal to a formal one. The third, and final, key theme
demonstrates the favorable impact mentoring has on developing self-efficacy through its four
sources. Based on the literature review and the qualitative portion of the study, a
recommendation for practice includes developing and implementing a cohort-based menteedriven mentoring program for top-talent women in supply chain management.

v
Dedication
The study is dedicated to the three most important women in my life, my wife, Dana, and my
daughters, Morgan, and Sara. By far, these strong, courageous, and compassionate women are
the best part of my life. Thank you, ladies, and remember…Krauses aren’t quitters!

vi
Acknowledgements
Producing a full, five-chapter dissertation study does not happen without a great deal of
support and encouragement from many people. Therefore, it is appropriate to acknowledge those
people who helped make this process as enriching and productive as it has been.
I would like to acknowledge my wife, Dana, and my daughters, Morgan, and Sara. I am
so proud of all of you and appreciative of how you supported my pursuit of this life-long dream.
Thank you!
I would like to thank my Dad, The Honorable Karl E. Kraus, who has been a constant
source of support, encouragement, and role-modeling all my life. Completing my doctorate will
mean three straight generations of Krauses have earned terminal degrees. Thanks, Dad, for
making education a priority all my life!
The faculty and staff at the University of Southern California, the Rossier School of
Education, and the Organizational Change and Leadership program leadership have been nothing
short of fantastic. Fight On!
The dissertation process is a marathon, so a special thanks to my chair, Dr. Jennifer
Phillips, and committee members, Dr. Paula Carbone and Dr. Jessica DeCuir-Gunby, who have
coached me exceptionally well throughout this marathon.
It is important to acknowledge and thank the women who participated in the interviews
for this study. I remain inspired by their stories, perspectives, and passions for this topic and am
forever indebted to them for helping me frame my perspective.
Finally, Cohort 20 rocks! I am proud to have been part of this cohort of bright, caring,
fun, intelligent, passionate, and driven change agents, and leaders. #NDLB!

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice.................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1
Field Context and Mission .................................................................................................. 4
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions .................................................................... 5
Importance of the Study ...................................................................................................... 5
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology .................................................... 5
Definitions........................................................................................................................... 7
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .......................................................................................... 9
The Supply Chain Management Domain ............................................................................ 9
Women in Leadership ....................................................................................................... 16
Mentoring’s Positive Impact on Improved Self-Efficacy ................................................. 22
Social Cognitive Career Theory Overview ....................................................................... 26
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 31
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 35
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 35
Overview of Methodology ................................................................................................ 35
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 37

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Method: Interviews ........................................................................................................... 38
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 42
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 43
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 45
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 46
Findings for Research Question 1 ..................................................................................... 48
Findings for Research Question 2 ..................................................................................... 56
Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................ 61
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendation .......................................................................... 62
Discussion of Findings ...................................................................................................... 62
Recommendation for Practice ........................................................................................... 66
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 73
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 75
Connection to the Rossier Mission ................................................................................... 76
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 77
References ..................................................................................................................................... 79

ix
List of Tables
Table 1: Drivers of Gender Imbalance in Leadership Research Page 19
Table 2: Data Sources Page 36
Table 3: Participant Characteristics Page 47
Table 4: Mentor Qualities Page 53

x
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Page 33

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
The problem of practice this study explores is the underrepresentation of women in
supply chain leadership in the United States. According to Ruel and Jaegler (2021), the supply
chain field is known as one of the most male-dominated functions in United States-based
organizations today. In addition, women are 16% less likely than men to receive their first
promotion into leadership across all industries (McKinsey & Company, 2021) further
exacerbating this problem. It is important to address the underrepresentation of women in supply
chain leadership as having more women in leadership provides tangible business benefits,
including improved financial performance, innovation, and social responsibility; women in
leadership are positioned to serve as role models and sponsors for other women with leadership
aspirations; and it creates an environment of trust and organizational learning (Chisholm-Burns
et al., 2017; Ely & Thomas, 2020). The cost of not addressing this problem of practice is
significant because there remains a 21% average wage gap between genders (Chisholm-Burns et
al., 2017), and a firm’s financial performance is negatively impacted by a margin of 15% when
women are underrepresented in leadership (Beltran, 2019).
Background of the Problem
The underrepresentation of women in leadership and the glass ceiling are welldocumented and researched problems (Manzi & Heilman, 2021; Saleem & Yusaf, 2017).
Organizations have deployed various strategies to improve gender balance in leadership, but
progress has been slow (Gartner, 2022; McKinsey & Company, 2021). In addition, self-efficacy
and its four components, including actual performance, vicarious experiences, social persuasion,
and physiological responses, are known to have an impact on performance (Bandura, 2000;
Elliot et al., 2018). It is also known through research that women and men differ in their levels of

2

self-efficacy in the workplace, and women tend to build self-efficacy from vicarious experiences
(Taiyi Yan et al., 2022). Furthermore, it is well documented the impact improving self-efficacy
has on career goal attainment (Lent et al., 1994).
The research on the problem of practice is clear, providing substantive evidence that
systemic, environmental, and organizational issues exist that contribute to the
underrepresentation of women in leadership roles. These factors include a lack of leadership
development opportunities and poor organizational culture, policies, and practices. Lack of
leadership development opportunities within an organization is a clear driver of the problem of
practice (Gartner, 2022; Perriton, 2022). Sougou et al. (2022) and Magee and Penfold (2022)
indicated that microaggressions, workload, office politics, and work-life balance also contributed
to the problem. Gartner (2022) provided evidence that women report greater rates of reported
burnout than men at mid and senior leadership levels. Ryder (2019) also reported the
expectations for perfection to gain trust and respect for women in supply chain leadership was
also a contributor to the problem. While there may be broader systemic issues contributing to the
problem, the literature review in Chapter Two further explores two specific drivers, including a
lack of leadership development opportunities afforded to women and poor organizational culture,
policies, and practices.
The research also provided evidence of effective strategies that have improved gender
balance in leadership including mentoring, leadership development, and pro-diversity
organizational culture, policies, and practices. Ryder (2019) indicated the top reported impact to
improve gender balance in leadership was an integrated pipeline supported by a strong mentoring
program. Magee and Penfold (2022) similarly found that mentoring was a key strategy for
women aspiring to leadership roles. Padilla (2022) produced evidence indicating the importance

3

of having a strong female role model in preparing for additional leadership responsibilities.
Gartner (2022) and Ryder (2019) produced evidence that indicates pro-diversity policies, such as
specific initiatives and targeted objectives, favorably impact gender balance in leadership by
nearly a factor of two times versus organizations that do not. Similarly, organizations that
demonstrate a strong corporate culture and greater maturity in gender diversity are more likely to
have specific targets for achievement (Magee & Penfold, 2022; Women’s Forum for the
Economy & Society, 2020). Finally, according to Ryder (2019) and Byrne et al. (2021),
corporate culture is also a key enabler in improving gender balance in leadership. Each of these
three strategies, including mentoring, leadership development, and pro-diversity organizational
culture, policies, and practices, will be discussed further in Chapter Two as methods to address
some of the systemic issues contributing to this problem. However, the specific focus of this
study is on mentoring.
The research demonstrated that mentoring, which is defined as “the reciprocal and
collaborative at-will relationship that most often occurs between a senior and junior employee
for the purpose of the mentee’s growth” (Association of Talent Development, n.d., para. 1), has a
positive impact on improving self-efficacy across a variety of populations, domains, and
geographies (Brabazon & Schulz, 2020; Burbage & Gregory, 2022; French & Eskridge, 2021;
Mahendra & Kashinath, 2021; Mondisa & Adams, 2022; Neal et al., 2013; Pham et al., 2018;
Rockinson-Szapkiw et al., 2022; Solya, 2022; Sullivan-Baca et al., 2022; Swan Dagen et al.,
2022). Furthermore, Mashele and Imhotep (2021) identified that confidence is a key enabler to
women’s success in leadership as did Sougou et al. (2022). Therefore, the conceptual framework
presented in Chapter Two integrates the concept of mentoring and its impact on self-efficacy in
the pursuit of career interests, career goals, and performance.

4

Field Context and Mission
The field for this study is the supply chain management domain. This field had an
estimated size of $2.3 trillion in 2021, representing approximately 12% of the total gross
domestic product in the United States (National Institute of Standards and Technology, n.d., para
2). The supply chain management domain employs approximately 44 million people in the
United States, accounting for 37% of all jobs, with growth projections ranging from 22% - 36%
through 2031 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018). Women represent
approximately 39% of the supply chain workforce, yet only 34% of first-level leaders.
Furthermore, the number of women in supply chain leadership positions declines as the positions
of power increase; women represent approximately 19% of chief supply chain officer roles
(Gartner, 2022). McKinsey (2022) described this phenomenon as the ‘broken rung’, which is a
metaphor that represents the challenges women face in ascending to leadership positions.
McKinsey (2022) also provided evidence that the underrepresentation of women in leadership
affects women of color slightly differently; only 82 women of color are promoted to a first-level
leadership position for every 100 men promoted. In contrast, 87 women are promoted for every
100 men. Broadly, the supply chain domain is responsible for the design, planning, sourcing,
manufacturing, and distribution of products. The domain impacts nearly all industries, including
retail, consumer packaged goods, automotive, medical, aerospace, education, government
services, and tourism, among others. Finally, the supply chain domain typically consists of
functional organizations including procurement, supply chain planning, manufacturing,
distribution, logistics, transportation, engineering, and quality assurance.

5

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of the study is to explore the impact mentoring has on improving self-efficacy in
women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United States. Therefore, the
following research questions guide this study:
1. How do women leaders in supply chain management perceive mentoring as having
impacted their pursuit of career interests and career goals?
2. How does mentoring help develop self-efficacy to support women’s goals of achieving a
leadership role in supply chain management?
Importance of the Study
Addressing this problem of practice has three primary practical applications. First, firms
with more women in leadership positions demonstrate enhanced financial performance,
innovation, social responsibility, and less fraud (Chisholm-Burns et al., 2017; Women’s Forum
for the Economy & Society, 2020). Second, there is an organizational culture imperative to
addressing this problem; firms with greater diversity experience greater trust, transparency, and
organizational learning (Ely & Thomas, 2020). Finally, the projected size and employment
growth in the supply chain domain, combined with the underrepresentation of women in
leadership, provides a unique opportunity for supply chain organizations to have a significant
impact on this problem of practice (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018;
Gartner, 2022).
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) is the theoretical framework to explore this
problem of practice because it links self-efficacy, career interests, and career outcomes with
performance. SCCT was derived from Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and emphasizes the

6

impact self-efficacy has on career interests and outcome expectations in the achievement of
career performance goals. The SCCT model is an appropriate theoretical framework to explore
this problem of practice for several reasons. First, the SCCT model is specifically designed and
applied to the achievement of career interests, which is in alignment with addressing the problem
of practice by improving gender balance in supply chain leadership. Second, the SCCT model
posits that self-efficacy is developed from observation, feedback, and support from others, which
further aligns with the research questions focused on the impact mentoring has on addressing the
problem of practice. Finally, the SCCT model is iterative in design, cycling through the impact
self-efficacy, interests, and expected outcomes have on career performance. Therefore,
leveraging the SCCT model may help uncover how mentoring increases self-efficacy and
motivation to improve gender balance in leadership.
A qualitative research methodology was used for this study by conducting interviews
with 12 women who have or are currently serving as leaders in the supply chain domain. A
qualitative research methodology is an appropriate method for this study because it provides a
framework to explore how experiences shape and provide meaning to a particular social
phenomenon through an inductive inquiry process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Semi-structured interviewing was the preferred method of data collection for this
study, as allowed for informal interactions with the participants, allowing the participants to
communicate naturally and in their meaning (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Interviews were between 45-60 minutes in length and were conducted via a Teams
platform to allow for recording to aid in the transcription and review of non-verbal
communications (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The participants were current or former leaders in
the supply chain domain to provide real-world narratives of their lived experiences, specifically

7

how mentoring has improved self-efficacy in leadership. Participants were from a variety of
different industries, such as consumer products and automotive, and at various levels of
leadership, such as first-level leaders to executive-level leaders.
Definitions
To thoroughly understand the study, it is imperative to define key terms and concepts
central to the study. Therefore, the following five key terms and concepts are defined here to
ensure a consistent understanding of each throughout the study:
 Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) refers to the theoretical framework developed by Albert
Bandura in the 1980s asserting that learning occurs through the reciprocal relationship
between the person, environment, and behavior (Schunk & Usher, 2019).
 Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) refers to the theoretical framework developed by
Robert Lent, Steven Brown, and Gail Hackett in 1994, using SCT as its foundation and
focuses on how the three components of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals
link together for goal achievement (Lent et al., 1994).
 Self-efficacy refers to a person’s “judgements of how well one can execute courses of
action required to deal with prospective situations” (Bandura, 1982, para. 5).
 Supply Chain Management refers to the business planning and management processes
from sourcing to logistics management activities (Council of Supply Chain Management,
n.d., para. 3).
 Mentoring refers to “the reciprocal and collaborative at-will relationship that most often
occurs between a senior and junior employee for the purpose of the mentee’s growth”
(Association of Talent Development, n.d., para. 1).

8

Organization of the Dissertation
This study follows a traditional five-chapter dissertation format. The first chapter has
introduced the problem of practice; provided the background and the domain for the study;
outlined the purpose, research questions, and importance of the study; and shared the theoretical
framework to explore the problem of practice. The second chapter provides a thorough review of
the literature including an in-depth review of SCCT as the theoretical framework for the study.
The second chapter will also provide a conceptualization of the impact mentoring has on
leadership ascension for women in supply chain management. A review of the methodology will
be the focus of the third chapter of the study. The study uses a qualitative research approach
leveraging semi-structured interviews as the data collection method to answer the research
questions posed in Chapter One. Furthermore, Chapter Three outlines the researcher’s
positionality; data sources and analysis approach; and strategies to ensure the credibility and
trustworthiness of the study. The fourth chapter presents the findings from the field research
conducted for the study and the key themes for each research question. The fifth, and final,
chapter of the study presents final discussion points, a recommendation for practice, and further
research. Finally, references and appendices are attached at the end of the study.

9

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
The purpose of the study is to explore the impact mentoring has on improving selfefficacy in women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United States. The
literature review for the study includes five sections, with the first being an overview, current
state, and future evolution review of the supply chain management domain in the United States.
The second section includes a review of the key drivers of gender imbalance in leadership across
a variety of domains, along with strategies successfully leveraged by organizations to address
this problem. The third section of the literature review includes a review of mentoring and its
importance in improving self-efficacy in the pursuit of enhanced performance and career goals in
underrepresented groups. A thorough analysis of SCCT comprises the fourth section of the
literature review, with emphasis on its three core components of self-efficacy, career interests,
and career goals. More specifically, a synthesis of the sources of self-efficacy will be covered
that are linked to the mentoring process in the previous section of the literature review. The fifth,
and final, section of the literature review presents a conceptual framework that integrates the
elements of SCCT and mentoring, serving as the basis for the research methodology discussed
further in Chapter Three.
The Supply Chain Management Domain
The supply chain management domain has evolved rapidly through advancements in
technology, combined with the impact of increased competition and globalization. Further
change is anticipated as job and wage growth are expected at an even faster pace than has been
experienced historically (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018). Although
women are assuming more leadership positions in the supply chain management domain
(Gartner, 2022), the field remains largely male-dominated (Ruel & Jaegler, 2021). Given the

10

nature of the domain, combined with the planned growth in jobs expected during the next decade
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018), supply chain management is well
poised to make a significant impact on improving gender balance in leadership. The next section
of the study shares a brief history and current state of the supply chain management domain.
More specifically, the literature review will cover how the use of technology has played a key
role in the development of the supply chain management domain, also serving as a key enabler
for the future of the field. Furthermore, the planned growth of the domain, including employment
and income levels, will demonstrate the growing nature of the field. Finally, the heightened focus
on talent will be discussed, demonstrating the opportunity the field has to address this problem of
practice.
Overview and Current State of the Industry
The core elements of supply chain management, including the linking of a network of
producers, buyers, and sellers, have been around for as long as time. The development of the
supply chain management domain began in earnest during the industrial revolution in the late
1800s and rose to further prominence in the mid-1900s with advancements in transportation
methods, technology, and increased levels of globalization (Blume Global, 2019; Logmore,
2019; Mehmeti, 2016). For many years, most supply chains were local because of
unsophisticated and costly transportation systems and a lack of technology. Local markets served
as exchanges where buyers and sellers could trade goods for consumption. The first noted global
supply chain was focused on the production of rum. Sugarcane was exported from India to the
Caribbean where slaves from Africa were transported to grow and harvest the crop. Once
harvested, the sugarcane was exported to the United States for distillation into rum (Logmore,
2019).

11

As transportation methods and technology advanced, so did the sophistication and reach
of supply chain management. A greater network of railroads, the invention of the combustible
engine, and the use of pallets were early supply chain innovations that brought sophistication to
the domain (Blume Global, 2019). In addition, the use of interchangeable parts in weapons
produced and assembled in England and the mass production and assembly lines of automobiles
in the United States were early examples of more interconnected and global supply chains
(Logmore, 2019). Furthermore, the use of shipping containers enabled more efficient
warehousing, transportation, and global trade networks. Personal computers, office automation,
and technology further enabled the development of the supply chain domain, including the
advent of enterprise resource planning applications and business tools, such as spreadsheets. The
use of technology in the supply chain management domain continues to be a source of
competitive advantage for many organizations (Logmore, 2019; Mehmeti, 2019).
Supply chain management became a more globalized domain in the 1980s because of
greater competition, the continued evolution of technology, and more favorable trade policies
(Blume Global, 2019). Deeper integration of internal supply chain elements, such as
procurement, planning, and logistics, has led to greater innovation, efficiencies, and company
profits (Mehmeti, 2019). Furthermore, greater collaboration with suppliers has led to improved
enterprise performance amid increasing competition, particularly as firms become more
specialized. As a result, firms, such as Walmart and Whirlpool, have begun to leverage the
supply chain management domain as a competitive advantage (Lummus & Vokurka, 1999). The
evolution of supply chain management has resulted in a domain with an estimated size of $2.3
trillion in 2021 (National Institute of Standards and Technology, n.d., para 2).

12

The size and scope of supply chain management are significant, as evidenced by the
domain employing approximately 44 million people in the United States and accounting for 37%
of all jobs (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018). Furthermore, jobs in
supply chain management attract average salaries 29% higher than the national average (Delgado
& Mills, 2018). Women represent approximately 39% of the supply chain workforce, but they
only account for 34% of first-level leadership roles. The gender imbalance continues as the
hierarchy progresses—only 19% of Chief Supply Chain Officers are women. The density of
women in supply chain leadership roles has improved in the past 5 years; however, progress has
been slow (Gartner, 2022). Therefore, the domain is well suited to achieve greater gender
balance at an accelerated pace. The next section of the literature review will share information on
how the supply chain management domain is anticipated to continue to evolve.
Future Evolution of Supply Chain Management
The supply chain management domain is projected to continue to grow, outpacing overall
job growth in the United States, with expectations for new types of skills required in the
profession. The future evolution of supply chain management will continue to leverage
technology, focus on improving resiliency and flexibility to meet customer demand, and have a
heightened focus on upskilling talent. Given the planned growth of the industry, combined with
the plans for upskilling talent, the supply chain management domain appears well poised to serve
as a pioneer in promoting more women to leadership positions.
Total employment in the United States is projected to grow at 0.5% per annum, with total
employment expected to reach 167 million people by 2031 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021). In
contrast, employment in the supply chain management domain is projected to increase 22%-36%
through 2031 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018). The profile of

13

employment in supply chain management is also expected to change in the next 10 years, and
production-oriented roles are expected to decline through 2031. However, knowledge roles, such
as data scientists, statisticians, and logisticians, are projected to increase by 27%-36% over the
same period with median average salaries between $77,000-$101,000 (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2022). At the same time as the anticipated growth in the domain, firms point to the
shortage of qualified talent (Palsule, 2020). The growth in these knowledge roles will require
different skills and talents as technologies advance and organizations become more automated
and digitally enabled (Accenture, 2021; Henrich et al., 2022; KPMG, 2021).
The advanced use of technology will continue to be a key driver in the evolution of the
supply chain management domain, with particular emphasis on automation, the use of digital
platforms, and the more sophisticated utilization of data. According to KPMG (2021), supply
chain management organizations are expected to invest more in automation, allowing
professionals to focus more on complex tasks. In addition, automation will open new markets for
organizations and new types of roles for employees (Palsule, 2020). Furthermore, investments in
automation could eliminate approximately 50% of supply chain tasks by 2030 (McKinsey,
2017). The use of new digital platforms and increased use of data are expected to improve
customer demand forecasting and improve order fulfillment capabilities (Blume Global, 2019).
Accenture (2021) reported that supply chain organizations with advanced digital technology
capabilities, combined with skilled talent, are expected to deliver greater customer service,
efficiency, and profitability. Furthermore, the deployment of supply chain digitization will
enable automated transaction flow from customers to suppliers, allowing for more sophisticated
utilization of real-time data and reducing forecasting errors by nearly 50% (Kaushik & Vermani,

14

2022). Finally, the use of digital technologies is expected to employ big data and advanced
analytics to improve supply chain performance (Naz et al., 2021).
The increased focus of the supply chain management domain towards greater resiliency
and flexibility to meet customer demands is the result of both an increasingly competitive
marketplace and disruptions caused by the 2019 coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). COVID-19
is a contagious respiratory disease that began in China in 2019, further spreading throughout the
world leading to illnesses, death, and severe disruptions and restrictions across geographies and
industries; the supply chain management domain was no exception. According to Accenture
(2021), 81% of organizations recently surveyed considered the pandemic an enormous stress test
on the resiliency of their supply chains. Furthermore, Henrich et al. (2022) reported that a
significant supply chain disruption that negatively impacts company profitability occurs every
3.7 years. As a result, supply chain organizations are employing additional resiliency and
flexibility strategies, such as using flexible manufacturing, leveraging postponement and
modularization, and developing agile working teams. In another study, Gebhardt et al. (2022)
reported that supply chain organizations are planning to improve resiliency measures through
supplier selection, supply chain mapping, deeper internal and external collaboration, flexible
network design, and multi-sourcing. According to Naz et al. (2021), artificial intelligence is
expected to be a key enabler of supply chain resiliency to reduce the likelihood of business
disruptions. In addition, resiliency is being cited as more important for the supply chain
management domain than cost optimization (Alexander et al., 2022). Resiliency is also becoming
a growing research topic in the supply chain management domain (Seyedghorban et al., 2020).
Finally, establishing micro supply chains is expected to continue to grow to be flexible to change
customer demands (KPMG, 2021).

15

A heightened focus on talent will also be a future focus for supply chain organizations.
Given the increased focus on technology in the future of the supply chain, combined with a
greater focus on resiliency and agility, roles requiring deep analytical and digital skills will
continue to grow in demand. As evidence of the importance of an increased focus on talent in the
supply chain management domain, 35% of CEOs reported that upgrading supply chain talent is a
key strategy to enable growth (KPMG, 2021). In addition, as supply chains evolve and
modernize, new types of roles will be created in supply chain organizations, such as data
engineers, automation architects, and data visualization engineers (Alicke et al., 2022). These
new skill requirements will replace the traditional supply chain roles, which will provide
opportunities for professionals with a variety of backgrounds, including education, mathematics,
and technology. These new skills will be deployed by increasingly agile teams that focus on
solving problems in quick sprints, as opposed to long-duration projects (Henrich et al., 2022).
Agile teams, connected with advanced supply chain technologies, are expected to be the top two
characteristics of future-ready organizations (Accenture, 2021).
The supply chain management domain is an emerging and evolving field seeing job
growth in technology-enabled, highly analytical roles. With an increased focus on developing
future-ready talent for the supply chain domain, the field could be a leader in improving gender
balance in leadership. Furthermore, the field has a significant opportunity for improving gender
balance in leadership—only 19% of chief supply chain officers and 34% of front-line leaders are
women (Gartner, 2022). The existing literature focused on improving gender balance in supply
chain leadership may be minimal, but the broad topic of the underrepresentation of women in
leadership is widely researched. The key drivers of the gender imbalance in leadership roles and

16

key strategies successfully deployed by organizations to promote women into leadership
positions will be covered in the next section of the literature review.
Women in Leadership
It is imperative to explore the fundamental problem of the underrepresentation of women
in leadership as part of this study. The problem of gender imbalance in leadership is not new and
is well-researched. This study will focus on providing an overview of the evidence-based drivers
of gender imbalance in leadership, including the lack of leadership development opportunities
and poor organizational culture, policies, and practices. This section will also discuss successful
strategies leveraged by organizations to address this problem, including enhanced leadership
development programs and a pro-diversity organizational culture, policies, and practices. These
topics will follow in the next section of the study.
Drivers of Gender Imbalance in Leadership
Across a variety of studies summarized in Table 1, the lack of leadership development
opportunities was cited as a driver of the ongoing underrepresentation of women in leadership
roles. Barkhuizen et al. (2022) conducted a study of nine women in leadership roles across
various industries and found several barriers to their career aspirations and leadership ascension.
The two primary barriers were a lack of leadership development opportunities, specifically
mentoring and role models, and corporate culture and practices, such as a lack of policies and
accountability focused on gender equity (Gill et al., 2022; Jamorabo et al., 2021; Siddiqui &
Hartog, 2022). Siddiqui and Hartog (2022) studied the underrepresentation of women in
intensive care leadership positions and noted the lack of role models and growth opportunities
negatively impacted their leadership self-confidence. Additionally, the study noted the long
hours associated with the intensive care career choice were not accompanied by associated

17

support systems and recognition. In a similar situation, Jamorabo et al. (2021) studied 1,049
women seeking leadership positions in gastroenterology in higher education, and cited the lack
of mentors, specifically female mentors, as a key barrier to leadership ascension and promotion
among the study participants. Furthermore, the study also found the lack of available mentors has
wide-ranging implications, including reduced skill confidence, reduced promotional
opportunities, and opting out of the profession completely. Gill et al. (2022) found that women
comprise only 27% of ophthalmologists in the United States as a result of the lack of
development into the sub-specialization, combined with a lack of experienced male mentors as
key barriers to career growth. Finally, in a study specific to the supply chain domain, Gartner
(2022) found the top reason for women leaving leadership positions is the lack of development
opportunities.
Similar to the challenge of lack of leadership development opportunities, poor
organizational culture, policies, and practices were identified as key drivers of the gender
imbalance in leadership summarized in Table 1. Reynolds et al. (2022) studied the
underrepresentation of women in leadership in the clinical psychology domain. The study’s 16
semi-structured interviews found that despite being a female-dominated domain and a field
focused on understanding cultures and biases, organizational culture influenced gender
stereotypes, sideways sexism, and the sticky floor, all were perceived as barriers to women’s
ascension to leadership. Holt and Davis (2022) found the impact ineffective practices in
performance management and talent management had on creating an inclusive and diverse
environment in the Army. With women comprising 14% of enlisted officers, 19% of all officers,
and 11% of general officers, the Army’s talent management practices were cited as a gap in
helping address the gender balance in leadership. Ong (2022) studied the differences in

18

loneliness among women and men occupying leadership positions, finding that women
experience greater levels of loneliness as a result of a lack of social support and heightened
expectations and status versus their male counterparts. Magee and Penfold (2022) conducted a
study of 11 aspiring clinical healthcare leaders and found the negative impact a workplace
environment can have on women’s leadership self-efficacy by having to demonstrate higher
levels of competence, having contributions ignored by senior leaders, and having leadership
judgment questioned. Domingo et al. (2022) studied 119 women aspiring for leadership in
academia, citing organizational policies and practices, such as lack of clarity and consistency of
tenure process, inequitable distribution of work, and engaging in work not considered valuable as
key drivers preventing leadership ascension. Furthermore, Adams–Harmon and Greer–Williams
(2019) studied the ascension of 12 women into leadership positions in the pharmaceutical
industry. The study found gender structures, such as pro-male decision-making dynamics and the
prevalence of the old boys’ club, as key challenges. In addition, McKinsey (2022) reported that
women leaders are leaving organizations at a higher rate than men as a result of being
overworked, not being recognized, and wanting more in their careers. Finally, McKinsey also
produced evidence that gender imbalance in leadership affects women of color more acutely than
all women. As an example, for every 100 men promoted to first-level leadership positions, only
82 women of color are promoted. In addition, McKinsey (2022) reported that women of color are
more likely to experience workplace microaggressions, such as being seen as unqualified, more
junior, or having their judgment questioned. The literature presents compelling evidence of the
key drivers of the gender imbalance in leadership, which is summarized in Table 1. Fortunately,
the literature also provides evidence-based research on strategies organizations have deployed to
improve gender balance in leadership, which is the focus of the next section of the study.

19

Table 1
Drivers of Gender Imbalance in Leadership Research
Driver of gender imbalance Research
Lack of leadership development
opportunities
Barkhuizen et al., 2022;
Gartner, 2022;
Gill et al., 2022;
Jamorabo et al., 2021;
Siddiqui & Hartog, 2022;
Poor organizational culture,
policies, and practices
Adams-Harmon & GreerWilliams, 2019;
Domingo et al., 2022;
Holt & Davis, 2022;
Magee & Penfold, 2022;
McKinsey, 2022;
Ong, 2022;
Reynolds et al., 2022
Strategies to Address Gender Imbalance in Leadership
The underrepresentation of women in leadership is a persistent problem facing
organizations across a variety of domains; the drivers of the problem were covered in the prior
section of the literature review. There are also evidence-based strategies that have proven to be
successful in improving gender balance in leadership. A review of the literature highlighted three
impactful strategies to address the problem: mentoring, leadership development, and prodiversity organizational culture, policies, and practices.
Mentoring is a proven method of addressing gender imbalance in leadership and is
defined as “the reciprocal and collaborative at-will relationship that most often occurs between a
senior and junior employee for the purpose of the mentee’s growth” (Association for Talent

20

Development, n.d., para 1). Aparna and Mishra (2022) cited that mentoring may be one of the
most effective methods to support the progression of women into leadership roles because
mentoring enhances skill development, helps develop social support, and improves retention.
Garrett et al. (2022) studied the experiences of 16 Black women seeking tenure and promotions
in higher education, finding that women who had positive experiences through mentoring, along
with support from departmental leadership, reported a better progression through the tenure and
promotion process. In a study of aspiring women in healthcare, Magee and Penfold (2022)
reported the positive impact mentoring had on developing leadership talent, in addition to having
a workplace culture that addresses microaggressions. Finally, McKinsey (2022) reported that
mentoring was considered one of the leading practices organizations can use to address gender
imbalance in leadership.
Leadership development has also been demonstrated as a successful strategy for
addressing gender imbalance in leadership. For example, Isaac et al. (2012) presented the results
of a leadership development program offered by the University of Wisconsin-Madison focused
on improving self-efficacy in 30 female STEM students. The results of the program included a
12% increase in leadership self-efficacy combined with an 18% decline in perceived barriers.
Furthermore, Seegmiller Renner et al. (2022) found in a study of 1,144 women in leadership
roles in healthcare benefited from the development offered through employee resource groups.
More specifically, the study demonstrated the positive impact the leadership development
experiences had on growth, resilience, inspiration, and tenacity; 39% of participants noted the
employee resource group accelerated their career and leadership development (Seegmiller
Renner et al., 2022).

21

Pro-diversity organizational culture, policies, and practices, such as leveraging senior
leadership support, utilizing flexible work arrangements, establishing specific gender balance
targets, and having men serve as allies, have proven to be effective in improving gender
imbalance in leadership. As an example, Valerio (2022) studied women in leadership in the
consulting psychology domain and found initiatives focused on inclusiveness from Boards of
Directors and CEOs, and innovative talent management practices, such as workplace flexibility
options, were key enablers to improving gender balance in leadership. Adams–Harmon and
Greer–Williams (2019) studied the ascension of 12 women into leadership positions in the
pharmaceutical industry. The study found that leadership development, sponsorship, mentoring,
and pro-diversity policies, such as flexible work arrangements, were cited by all participants in
the study as enablers of career growth. Byrne et al. (2020) studied the use of demand-side
strategies by interviewing 23 women and found setting specific targets for gender balance in
leadership as an effective strategy. The study found that 65% of the female leaders interviewed
supported demand-side strategies, recognizing that broader organizational support and leveraging
men as allies were also impactful in improving the gender balance in leadership. In a study of
female leaders in criminal justice, Macy et al. (2022) found several effective strategies to
improve gender balance in leadership in the criminal justice field, including incorporating men as
allies, in addition to restructuring policies to create a level playing field for women. Finally, in a
study specific to the supply chain domain, Gartner (2022) demonstrated the positive correlation
between specific targets being established and monitored for improving gender balance with
increased representation of women in leadership. Unfortunately, only 28% of organizations that
participated in the study had specific gender diversity targets.

22

This section of the literature review was focused on presenting the key drivers of the
underrepresentation of women in leadership roles and strategies effectively leveraged to improve
gender balance in leadership. One of the strategies highlighted in the study included the use of
mentoring as a leadership development tool to prepare women for leadership roles. Therefore,
the next section of the literature review is focused on providing evidence-based research on the
positive impact of mentoring, connecting mentoring to improved self-efficacy as this problem is
the primary focus of this study.
Mentoring’s Positive Impact on Improved Self-Efficacy
Through the review of the literature, mentoring has been demonstrated to be an effective
strategy to provide skill development for professionals across a variety of domains, ages,
industries, and geographies. The next section of the study presents the impact mentoring has on
improving self-efficacy and explores the positive impact mentoring has on skill development in
underrepresented groups. There is sufficient evidence in the literature of the positive impact of
mentoring broadly, but there is little data available on the impact mentoring has on improving
gender balance in supply chain leadership specifically. Furthermore, the focus on mentoring’s
broad impact on underrepresented groups was utilized to demonstrate the positive impact
mentoring can have across a variety of populations, domains, and geographies.
Impact of Mentoring on Improvements in Self-Efficacy
In addition to the positive impact it has on skill development, evidence in the literature
suggests that mentoring can also serve to improve self-efficacy in underrepresented populations,
including women pursuing academic and career goals. The topic of self-efficacy is well
documented and researched and will be further explored in the fourth section of the literature
review focused on SCCT. For purposes of this study, self-efficacy is defined as a person’s

23

“judgements of how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective
situations” (Bandura, 1982, para. 5). Given the purpose of the study, reviewing literature focused
specifically on mentoring’s impact on self-efficacy is important to discuss.
Mentoring has proven to be an effective method of improving self-efficacy in
underrepresentation populations across a variety of domains. As an example, Pham et al. (2018)
used SCCT to explore the impact mentor and mentee relationships had on the self-efficacy of
570 practitioners in the nursing profession. Notably, the study’s participants were 96% women
and demonstrated the importance of the willingness to be mentored as a key factor in improving
self-efficacy. Furthermore, the study found a positive correlation among mentees, their reported
self-efficacy, and their desires to advance in the field of nursing in the achievement of career
goals. Finally, Pham et al. reported that the reciprocal nature of the mentor-mentee relationship,
as mentor self-efficacy improved when mentee career success was demonstrated. As another
example, in a study that included five female and five male mentors with doctoral degrees,
Mondisa and Adams (2022) reported that mentoring programs focused on African-American
STEM undergraduates proved useful in improving self-efficacy to persist in overcoming barriers
to their academic goals. Though not specifically focused on women, the study further highlighted
the role mentoring plays in building a powerful sense of self-identity, particularly as it relates to
the pursuit of the mentee’s chosen career path.
Mentoring has a role in improving self-efficacy across a variety of domains, evidence in
the literature also points to the impact mentoring has on improving self-efficacy in women.
French and Eskridge (2021) studied the impact mentoring had on the confidence of 129 female
city managers as they ascended to leadership roles. Female city managers who were mentored as
part of their preparation for a leadership role reported a 28% increase in confidence level when

24

compared with those not mentored. The study also noted a 12% increase in confidence when
interviewing for a leadership position when compared with the control group. In a study focused
on the impact mentoring has on self-efficacy in six STEM women at two historically Black
institutions, Rockinson-Szapkiw et al. (2022) provided evidence, through pre- and postassessment results, of improved self-efficacy and increased persistence in the attainment of
academic and career goals as a result of participation in a mentoring program. Finally, Burbage
and Gregory (2022) shared the impact peer mentoring had on improving the self-efficacy of
women in academia transitioning from faculty to leadership positions. In addition to improving
self-efficacy, the study noted the benefits that mentoring had on improved leadership proficiency
and self-advocacy. The next section of the literature review will provide evidence of the positive
impact mentoring has on underrepresented groups, which is a key component of this study.
Positive Impact on Underrepresented Groups
As previously defined, mentoring refers to “the reciprocal and collaborative at-will
relationship that most often occurs between a senior and junior employee for the purpose of the
mentee’s growth” (Association of Talent Development, n.d., para. 1). In this reciprocal
relationship, mentoring serves as a source of skill development and helps to acknowledge
barriers present for underrepresented groups supported by studies across different populations,
domains, and geographies. Solya (2022) shared the benefits of an intensive mentoring program
focused on skill development in six female choir directors, a historically underrepresented group.
The participants in the program, which was sponsored by the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign, noted that mentoring provided strong skill development and increased motivation,
inspiration, and empowerment by directly connecting with successful women in their domain.
The week-long program was so successful that further evolutions of the program will seek to

25

include people of color. Similarly, mentoring has been proven to build leadership skills in Black,
Indigenous, and people of color (BIPOC) speech pathology undergraduate and graduate students
(Mahendra & Kashinath, 2021). The structured three-year mentoring program allowed 46
participants to engage in peer and professional mentoring in which participants also completed a
culminating final project. The outcomes of the program were strong, as evidenced by 74% of
participants presenting at a state, national, or international conference; 96% of graduate student
participants passing the Praxis national exam; and 100% of all participants completing their
degrees. Finally, Swan Dagen et al. (2022) reported the positive impact a mentoring program
offered at West Virginia University, called the Women’s Leadership Institute, had on providing
skill development for women in higher education. The program included leadership development
opportunities including networking, training, and education, with over 400 participants over a
ten-year period. Notably, participants have been able to leverage the skills acquired through the
program to advance their careers; the provost of the university was one of the first participants in
the program.
In addition to being a source of skill development, mentoring can also serve to help
acknowledge the barriers to women’s leadership ascension. In a program of early-in-career
women in academia, Brabazon and Schulz (2020) reported that although mentoring was
originally designed to support women, it actually served as a method to acknowledge the
challenges faced in their leadership ascension, including the prevalence of the glass ceiling, and
being placed in difficult positions as a first leadership assignment. In addition, Sullivan-Baca et
al. (2022) reported the benefits of cross-gender mentoring for early-in-career women
neuropsychology professionals. The structured mentoring program included defined topics,
goals, and agreements between the male mentor and female mentees, and the program included

26

addressing challenges women face in leadership ascension, such as work-life balance, childbearing, and motherhood. A noted outcome of the program was greater advocacy for men on the
challenges women face in their leadership progression. Finally, Neal et al. (2013) surveyed 318
women across several industries and geographies and found women serving as mentors to other
women was impactful in discussing the challenges facing women and providing suggestions and
resources to overcome those challenges in the achievement of career objectives. Unfortunately,
Neal reported that mentoring is not ubiquitous—63% of women have never had a formal mentor.
Through the review of the literature, it is evident the positive impact mentoring has on
providing skill development for underrepresented groups, while also improving self-efficacy.
The next section of the study provides an overview of SCCT, including a deeper analysis of selfefficacy and its four sources, including actual performance, modeled experiences, social
persuasion, and physiological responses.
Social Cognitive Career Theory Overview
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) was developed by Lent et al. in 1994 and
derived from Bandura’s seminal work on Social Cognitive Theory. Since its initial development,
SCCT has been used and adapted as a theoretical framework to study a variety of different
domains and populations, providing clear evidence of the relationship between self-efficacy,
career interests, career outcomes, and performance. SCCT is the theoretical framework used for
the study; as such, its evidenced-based application will be the focus of the next section of the
review.
Social Cognitive Career Theory Application
SCCT has been used as a theoretical framework exploring the relationship between selfefficacy, career interests, and career outcomes across several domains and populations. As an

27

example, Lent et al. (2022) studied the impact SCCT had on career self-management with 345
unemployed Portuguese adults. The study found that effective career self-management was a
statistically significant contributor to predicting career stress, exploring goals, and the level of
certainty in exploring career paths. In another study, Gregor et al. (2022) focused on SCCT’s
impact on 214 female STEM professors seeking tenure. Using SCCT as a theoretical framework,
the study shared evidence of the relationship between navigating carrier barriers, work-life
support, career aspirations, and tenure expectations. Furthermore, the study provided evidence of
the negative correlation between barriers and the achievement of career goals and the positive
correlation between support and career goals. In a similar study, Chan (2022) leveraged SCCT to
explore self-efficacy in 3,020 STEM secondary school students and found that female students
reported 19% lower self-efficacy than male students when learning difficult concepts. The lower
self-efficacy of the female students translated into lower career aspirations in STEM and a lower
likelihood of pursuing careers in STEM. In another study, Akinlolu and Haupt (2021) leveraged
SCCT to explore female career interests in construction education. The study included 108
participants and found women undergraduate students reported similar levels of self-efficacy,
persistence, goal orientation, interests, outcome expectations, and learning experiences, and also
reported 36% less support from parents, teachers, and peers when compared with their male
peers. Finally, Rodriguez et al. (2016) used SCCT to study interests in technology in 2,359
Spanish secondary students. While the study found no significant difference in interest levels in
the technology domain between genders, it did provide evidence of the linkage between selfefficacy, career interest, and career outcomes in the technology domain. Through these, and
many other, studies, SCCT has proven to be an effective theoretical framework to provide
evidence in support of the relationship between self-efficacy, career interests, and career

28

outcomes across a variety of domains and populations. The next section of the review will
explore self-efficacy, and its four sources, including actual performance, role modeling, social
persuasion, and physiological responses.
Self-Efficacy and its Four Sources
Self-efficacy is one of the three components of the SCCT theoretical framework when
combined with career interests and career goals influence performance. Self-efficacy is derived
from four sources including actual performance, modeled experiences, social persuasion, and
physiological responses. The next section of the review provides an overview of each of the four
sources and provides evidence from research on how each of the sources contributes to selfefficacy.
The first source of self-efficacy is actual performance and represents the most reliable of
the four sources of influencing performance. Research demonstrates that self-efficacy increases
when a task is successfully completed which builds actual performance capabilities and mastery.
When success is achieved, motivation also increases translating into a greater likelihood of
achieving career goals (Lent et al., 2022; Schunk & Usher, 2019). For instance, Taylan et al.
(2022) used SCCT to study 13 nursing students in the development of operating room skills. The
study included online education to further develop required skills in the students; although
impactful, the curriculum was further enhanced with actual operating room experience to build
greater self-efficacy. In another study, Young et al. (2020) leveraged SCCT to explore career
development in 15 medical students and found the impact mentoring, networking, and positive
reactions had on building self-efficacy in new skill acquisition. In these studies, Taylan et al.
(2022) and Young et al. (2020) demonstrated how actual performance contributed to positive
self-efficacy.

29

Modeled experiences represent the second source of self-efficacy by observing others
successfully perform a task. Research has demonstrated the positive influence modeled or
vicarious experiences can have in building self-efficacy capabilities and promoting goal setting.
These vicarious experiences serve as a motivator to attempt a similar task that further contributes
to self-efficacy when actual performance is successfully demonstrated (Bandura, 1982; Lent et
al., 2022; Schunk & Usher, 2019). For instance, in a study of 546 participants, Taiyi Yan et al.
(2022) found that women and men differ in voice self-efficacy, further finding that women may
not have the necessary confidence to speak their voices. However, watching other women speak
increased the development of their voices and enhanced their self-efficacy. Swan Dagen et al.
(2022) studied the impact the Women’s Leadership Institute at West Virginia University had on
developing participants’ self-efficacy through leadership development and also having other
women serve as role models. In these studies, Taiya Yan et al. (2022) and Swan Dagen et al.
(2022) demonstrated how modeled experiences contribute to improved self-efficacy.
Social persuasion represents the third source of self-efficacy and must come from a
credible, believable, and reliable source to be effective. Furthermore, when a task is successfully
completed, positive feedback from a credible source further reinforces task self-efficacy and can
provide increased motivation to succeed. Social persuasion can also serve as an influencer in
making career decisions (Bandura, 1982; Lent et al., 2022; Schunk & Usher, 2019). For instance,
Luo et al. (2022) found in a study of 723 participants that teachers and parents providing social
support positively impacted self-efficacy and was the strongest predictor for female students’
persistence to obtain STEM undergraduate degrees. Furthermore, Warren and Bordoloi (2021)
used qualitative narratives across 202 participants and noted the impact men as allies had on
favorably influencing their female colleagues’ self-efficacy by providing visible advocacy,

30

serving as a cheerleader, and providing credit in public settings. In these studies, Luo et al.
(2022) and Warren and Bordoloi (2021) demonstrated how social persuasion contributed to
enhanced self-efficacy.
The fourth, and final, source of self-efficacy is physiological responses, which represent
the ability to control emotional reactions, such as anxiety or fear. If properly regulated,
physiological responses can reduce stress which may contribute to actual performance and an
improvement of self-efficacy. Research has demonstrated that people are likely to achieve the
expected results when not under stress or agitated (Bandura, 1982; Lent et al., 2022; Schunk &
Usher, 2019). As an example, Howardson and Behrend (2015) found the management of
negative emotional arousal was linked to self-efficacy in the acquisition of new Microsoft Excel
skills across a study of 278 participants. Similarly, Muradoglu et al. (2022) reported the
relationship between lower self-efficacy and higher imposter syndrome in 4,397 women in
academia as tasks increased in complexity, potentially holding back their academic careers. The
Howardson and Behrend (2015) and Muradoglu et al. (2022) studies demonstrated how
managing physiological responses contributed to self-efficacy.
The research provides clear evidence that actual performance, modeled experiences,
social persuasion, and physiological responses all serve as sources of self-efficacy in the pursuit
of career interests and goals. The specific application of how mentoring contributes to the four
sources of self-efficacy for women in leadership in the supply chain management domain is
unclear. Therefore, the fifth, and final, section of the literature review presents an adapted
conceptualization of SCCT by applying the impact mentoring has on improving the four sources
of self-efficacy. The conceptualization integrates the evidenced-based research specifically

31

related to mentoring and is the basis for the field study focused on women in supply chain
leadership roles.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for this study builds on the SCCT theoretical framework,
extending it to explore the impact mentoring has on positively influencing the four sources of
self-efficacy in the pursuit of career interests and career goals. Although the supply chain
management domain is expected to continue to grow and evolve in the next decade, a definitive
focus on improving gender balance in leadership remains elusive even though women currently
remain underrepresented in leadership roles. Therefore, the domain is well poised to make a
significant impact on gender imbalance in leadership by using mentoring as a leadership
development tool to improve leadership self-efficacy. According to the research, the
underrepresentation of women in leadership is a problem across a variety of populations,
domains, and geographies, with key drivers including a lack of leadership development and poor
organizational policies (Gill et al., 2022; Jamorabo et al., 2021; Siddiqui & Hartog, 2022).
However, progressive approaches in leadership development and pro-diversity policies have
been demonstrated to have a positive impact on improving gender balance in leadership (Aparna
& Mishra, 2022; Valerio, 2022). More specifically, mentoring women has proven to be a
successful strategy to address this problem of practice by improving self-efficacy through
overcoming barriers, addressing microaggressions, developing resiliency, building task
proficiency, and demonstrating self-advocacy (Brabazon & Schulz, 2020; Burbage & Gregory,
2022; French & Eskridge, 2021; Magee & Penfold, 2022; Pham et al., 2018). Furthermore, the
literature has provided evidence of the impact actual performance, modeled experiences, social
persuasion, and physiological responses have on improving self-efficacy across a variety of

32

different populations, domains, and geographies (Muradoglu et al., 2022; Swan Dagen et al.,
2022; Warren & Bordoloi, 2021; Young et al., 2020).
As a key component of SCCT, self-efficacy impacts the pursuit of career interests and the
achievement of career goals. The application of SCCT across multiple populations, domains, and
geographies has proven the level of self-efficacy impacts career interests and career goals. The
conceptual framework, adapted from SCCT, therefore explores the impact mentoring has on
improving the four sources of self-efficacy for women in the supply chain management domain.
As such, the conceptual framework shown in Figure 1 serves as the basis of the research
methodology discussed further in Chapter Three.

33
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework

Note. A conceptual framework adopted from Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent et al., 1994). The conceptual framework posits that
mentoring enables the four sources of self-efficacy, and influences career interests and career goals, ultimately leading to improved
performance.
Actual
Performance
Modeled
Experiences
Social
Persuasion
Physiological
Responses Woman Mentee
Career Interests
Career Goals
Woman’s
Performance
Sources of Self-Efficacy Mentor

34
Summary
The literature review provided considerable evidence of the underrepresentation of
women in leadership roles, including in the supply chain management domain. Key drivers that
serve as barriers to women ascending to leadership were highlighted as were strategies
successfully employed to address this problem. Mentoring is one of the strategies that has proven
successful in addressing the underrepresentation of women in leadership, specifically by
improving self-efficacy (Brabazon & Schulz, 2020; Burbage & Gregory, 2022; French &
Eskridge, 2021; Mahendra & Kashinath, 2021; Mondisa & Adams, 2022; Neal et al., 2013;
Pham et al., 2018; Rockinson-Szapkiw et al., 2022; Solya, 2022; Sullivan-Baca et al., 2022;
Swan Dagen et al., 2022). Furthermore, evidence was shared demonstrating the impact selfefficacy and its four sources have on improving career interests and outcomes (Bandura, 1982;
Howardson & Behrend, 2015; Lent et al., 2022; Lu et al., 2022; Maradogl et al., 2022; Schunk &
Usher, 2019; Swan Dagen et al., 2022; Taiyi Yan et al., 2022; Taylan et al., 2022; Warren &
Bordoloi, 2021; Young et al., 2020). The conceptual framework of this study, therefore, posits
the impact mentoring has on improving the self-efficacy of women seeking leadership roles as
part of their career interests and goals. The intersection of the gender imbalance in leadership,
with the growth and evolution of the domain, combined with the role mentoring plays in
improving self-efficacy provides a meaningful opportunity for the supply chain management
domain to serve as a pioneer in making a substantive change to address the underrepresentation
of women in leadership. Chapter Three is the next section of the study and lays out the approach
for studying this intersection and its application to addressing this problem.

35

Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of the study is to explore the impact mentoring has on improving selfefficacy in women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United States. The
literature review in Chapter Two provided evidence of the drivers of the underrepresentation of
women in leadership across a variety of industries and domains but also provided strategies that
have proven successful in addressing the problem. Chapter Three covers the methodology for
researching this problem of practice in the supply chain domain, restates the two research
questions, covers the role of the researcher, and discusses data sources such as the proposed
participants, instrumentation, and data collection procedures. Chapter Three concludes with an
introduction to data analysis, addresses strategies to ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of
the study, and discusses ethics associated with the study. The next two sections of the study
restate the research questions and provide an overview of the study’s methodology.
Research Questions
The following research questions guide this study:
1. How do women leaders in supply chain management perceive mentoring as having
impacted their pursuit of career interests and goals?
2. How does mentoring help develop self-efficacy to support women’s goals of achieving a
leadership role in supply chain management?
Overview of Methodology
A qualitative research methodology was used for this study, with a specific focus on
interviewing 12 women who currently or have served as leaders in the supply chain management
domain. A qualitative research methodology was an appropriate method for this study because it
provided a framework to explore how experiences shape and provide meaning to a particular

36

social phenomenon through an inductive inquiry process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). A qualitative methodology leveraging interviews as its data collection
procedure has proven to be successful in similar studies, such as Byrne et al. (2021), Swan
Dagen et al. (2022), and Sullivan-Baca et al. (2022). It is important to note that other research
methods have also been used in similar studies; however, those methods, namely surveys, limit
the ability to gather rich, descriptive data through understanding participants’ lived experiences.
The two research questions that guide this study are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Data Sources
Research questions Interview
1. How do women leaders in supply chain management perceive mentoring
as having impacted their pursuit of career interests and career goals?
X
2. How does mentoring help develop self-efficacy to support women’s
goals of achieving a leadership role in supply chain management?
X

37

The Researcher
In a qualitative study, the researcher is the instrument; therefore, it was imperative to
develop a strong interview protocol while identifying and monitoring assumptions and biases
that may impact the research study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). As I
embarked on my study, I brought a few critical assumptions about the problem, the potential
causes of the problem, and potential solutions to address the problem. A base assumption was
that supply chain leadership can be gender agnostic, meaning there are no barriers that should
exist contributing to this problem. However, based on research and personal experience, I
assume that organizational barriers do exist that need to be addressed and mitigated. An
additional assumption was that mentoring may be a key enabler to address organizational
barriers and may contribute to improving gender balance in leadership. Furthermore, a final
assumption was that mentoring can be used as a tool to improve women’s self-efficacy, which
can ultimately lead to more women achieving leadership roles in the supply chain. In addition to
the assumptions already identified, utilizing convenience and snowball sampling as my data
collection procedures could have introduced bias into the study. Methods used for mitigating my
biases are discussed in the credibility and trustworthiness section later in Chapter Three.
As a White male serving in a senior executive supply chain leadership role, I recognized
the power, identity, and positionality that I bring to the interview and the study. While I could
not completely mitigate my positionality, I did incorporate six strategies to mitigate the impact it
had on the interviews and study. First, I acknowledged my positionality with the participants.
Second, I endeavored to build rapport with participants to build a sense of trust and collaboration
by exhibiting an authentic and pleasant demeanor, while listening carefully, empathetically and
demonstrating an open-minded approach. Third, I allowed the participants to back away from the

38

study at any time if so desired. Fourth, I allowed participants to review transcripts before
conducting any data analysis, which was intended to ensure the accuracy and completeness of
the data. As I continued with the study, I practiced reflexivity, a fifth strategy, to ensure I was
checking my biases to ensure the analysis of the study was as objective as possible. Finally, I
leveraged my committee as an independent reviewer of the study’s methodology and analysis.
Employing these six strategies was intended to reduce the impact my positionality, power, and
identity had on the study (Burkholder et al., 2019; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
Method: Interviews
The following section highlights the specifics of the data sources for the qualitative study,
including the participants and recruitment strategies, the instrumentation and protocol, as well as
the data collection procedures. The selection of participants was important to ensure I identified
the appropriate target population. In addition, semi-structured interviews served as the
instrument used for the study. Finally, data collection procedures are outlined, which helped to
support a robust data analysis approach.
Participants
A combination of convenience and snowball sampling was used as the primary methods
to identify and recruit participants for the study. These sampling methods were appropriate
because they provided opportunities to leverage and expand the researcher’s professional
network to ensure a broad sampling and accumulation of rich data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The participants were expected to have been or currently serve as leaders in the supply chain
management domain to provide real-world narratives of their lived experiences, specifically how
mentoring has improved self-efficacy in leadership. Participants came from a variety of different
industries, such as consumer products and automotive. Participants also served in a variety of

39

different leadership levels, such as first level-leaders to executive leaders. However, all
participants were required to have direct leadership experience, which means they have had
direct reports. Participants were not restricted as a result of race or any other dimension of
diversity, as the underlying problem may be systemic and therefore may impact all populations
of women. It is important to note that specific mentoring strategies may be more appropriate or
effective than others for certain populations. Finally, participation was voluntary and, therefore,
participants were not paid as recommended by Weiss (1994). The summary of the characteristics
of the participants is presented in Table 3 in Chapter Four of the study.
Instrumentation
The instrument used for data collection was semi-structured interviews including a list of
15 open-ended, clear, and singular questions focused on gathering data in support of the two
research questions. I developed the questions and protocol myself, leveraging the conceptual
framework and Patton’s (2002) six categories of questions. Of Patton’s six categories of
questions, four were leveraged, including experience and behavior questions (seven); opinion
and values questions (four); feeling questions (three); and knowledge questions (one). The two
remaining categories, namely sensory questions; and background and demographic questions,
did not apply to answering the research questions and were therefore excluded from the
interview protocol.
All questions were focused on answering one or both of my two research questions by
understanding the mentoring context, impact, and specific emphasis on the four sources of selfefficacy. Potential probes were included in the interview protocol that was expected to improve
the richness of the interview. Standard probes such as ‘can you give me an example,’ ‘tell me
more,’ and ‘could you tell me what you mean by…’ were ready to leverage when a participant

40

mentioned a specific topic multiple times. The interviews began with a brief introduction,
followed by the key questions, and concluded with closing comments. Semi-structured
interviewing was the preferred method of data collection for this study, as it allowed for informal
interactions with the participants, allowed the participants to communicate naturally and in their
meaning, and informed research that cannot be directly observed (Burkholder et al., 2019;
Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
The study’s interview protocol can be found in Appendix A.
Data Collection Procedures
I recruited my study participants by connecting with women supply chain leaders in my
network. With approximately 20 years in the supply chain management domain, I felt confident
that there would be a sufficient target population to properly inform my study. The recruitment
process included four steps. First, I leveraged LinkedIn to review the professional profiles of
potential candidates to confirm they met the qualifications for the study, including serving as a
supply chain leader with direct reports. Second, I emailed potential participants who were
preliminarily identified to meet the qualifications for the study to confirm their qualifications, to
explain my study, and to ask if they may be interested in participating. If interested, I proceeded
to the third step, which was sending the potential participants the information sheet for exempt
research and interview questions. If the potential participant remained interested, the fourth and
final step was scheduling the interview.
Interviews were between 45 and 60 minutes in length and conducted via a Teams
platform to allow for recording, to aid in the transcription of data, and to review non-verbal
communications as suggested by multiple researchers (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Burkholder et
al., 2019; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). As a result, the

41

primary data source used for data analysis was the audio recording and corresponding transcripts.
I conducted interviews from my office, which allowed for privacy and minimal disruptions.
Equivalently, I asked the participants to ensure they were in a location that allowed for privacy
and minimal distractions. The interviews were scheduled at a time and date that was most
convenient for the participants, which was intended to ensure they could be as focused as
possible during the interview (Burkholder et al., 2019; Weiss, 1994). During the interviews, I
typed notes in Microsoft Word to memorialize non-verbal feedback and to highlight comments
that the participants put specific emphasis on (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Recordings, automated
transcriptions, and typed notes were stored on my laptop throughout the data analysis process.
Once data analysis was complete, recordings, automated transcriptions, and typed notes were
removed from my laptop and securely stored on a personal external hard drive in my home
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In addition, I allowed the participants time to reflect on the
questions and their answers, rather than rushing through the interview. Allowing for reflection
time was intended to yield richer answers to the questions (Burkholder et al., 2019; Krueger &
Casey, 2009; Patton, 2002). Furthermore, I paused at certain times during the interview to check
in with the participants to make sure the flow and discussion were acceptable and to ensure highquality and relevant responses (Krueger & Casey, 2009; Patton, 2002). I completed each
interview in the allotted time; therefore, I did not have to ask the participants to extend the time
duration (Krueger & Casey, 2009; Weiss, 1994).
Data Analysis
After each interview, transcripts and personal notes were reviewed and edited, as
necessary, for completeness and accuracy. After the editing process, the data in the transcripts
and personal notes were analyzed using two methods. First, participant comments were reviewed

42

multiple times and manually coded to synthesize key themes across responses for each research
question. More specifically, a priori codes were used during the first round of coding; additional
codes were added as transcripts were reviewed multiple times. As an example, certain a priori
codes were identified to align with the four sources of self-efficacy identified in the conceptual
framework. The coded themes from the four sources of efficacy yielded rich and compelling data
that further strengthened and developed the conceptual framework. Other a priori codes were
identified from the interview questions, which also yielded rich and compelling data. New codes
were identified to highlight career interests and goals when the interviews yielded meaningful
perspectives. In addition, the transcripts were reviewed for areas where responses were different
across participants. For instance, the mentor matching process was one topic that participants
provided divergent perspectives on, thus allowing for rich comparisons among the participants.
Second, direct quotations were highlighted to strengthen the themes identified during the coding
process. The use of direct quotations yielded rich data that allowed the participants’ voices to be
heard. Using these methods was intended to produce results that answered the two research
questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Further data analysis procedures are described in Chapter
Four.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The interviewing protocol incorporated nine strategies that supported the enhanced
credibility and trustworthiness of the study, both of which are aimed at ensuring the resulting
findings are accurate and resonate with consumers of the research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The first strategy was to share the questions with the participants in
advance of the session, allowing participants time for personal thought and reflection, while also
minimizing the appearance of a ‘gotcha’ question. Second, data gathering included video

43

recording, transcripts, and personal notes, which allowed the richest descriptions possible
through assembling copious notes. Third, participants were asked if they would be willing to talk
at a future time as my study progresses to follow up on any specific element of the study (Weiss,
1994). Fourth, I asked questions to probe if the mentoring process has had negative
consequences to check my biases as a researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Similarly,
leveraging follow-up questions to probe more deeply into participants’ responses was a fifth
strategy used. Before analyzing the data, transcripts were shared with participants to ensure
completeness and accuracy, serving as a sixth strategy. Comparing responses between the
participants was a seventh strategy that I deployed to ensure the credibility of the study. When
producing results from the study, direct quotes were used as an eighth strategy to ensure the
voices of the participants increased the strength of the analysis. A ninth, and final strategy, was
to leverage my dissertation committee as an independent reviewer of the analysis from
participant interviews. In total, these nine methods were intended to not only improve credibility
and trustworthiness but also reduce the prevalence of biases in the study.
Ethics
It is imperative to conduct qualitative research in a manner that demonstrates credibility
and trustworthiness but also represents high ethical standards. As such, the study employed three
key methods for ensuring adherence to the high ethical standards required for strong qualitative
research. First, throughout the recruitment, interviewing, and interview transcript review process,
participants were communicated with respect, were not pressured to participate, nor were harmed
in any manner. In addition, throughout the entirety of the communication process, which
includes data in the information sheet and the interview protocol, participants were reminded that
the study was voluntary and that the content of the interviews would remain confidential. Finally,

44

interviews were not conducted before the Institutional Review Board’s approval to ensure the
entirety of the methodology was consistent with high ethical standards (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is important to note that I serve on the Board of Directors of
Inforum, a non-profit focused on accelerating the career development of women. The interview
protocol, which included specific aspects associated with communicating the methodology to the
participants, is located in Appendix A. Finally, the information sheet for exempt research used as
part of the study is located in Appendix B.
Summary
Chapter Three covered the details of the study’s methodology for researching this
problem of practice. In addition, Chapter Three communicated the details of data sources,
proposed participants, instrumentation, and data collection procedures used in the study. Finally,
Chapter Three documented an overview of data analysis, addressed strategies to ensure the
credibility and trustworthiness of the study, and discussed ethics associated with the study.
Chapter Four is the next section of the study and details key findings for both research questions
from the interviews conducted.

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Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of the study is to explore the impact mentoring has on improving selfefficacy in women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United States. As
demonstrated throughout the study, the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles,
including in the supply chain domain, remains a problem. Women represent approximately 39%
of the supply chain workforce, yet only 34% of first-level leaders and only 19% of chief supply
chain officers (Gartner, 2022).
Mentoring is one of the strategies that has proven successful in addressing the
underrepresentation of women in leadership, specifically by improving self-efficacy (Brabazon
& Schulz, 2020; Burbage & Gregory, 2022; French & Eskridge, 2021; Mahendra & Kashinath,
2021; Mondisa & Adams, 2022; Neal et al., 2013; Pham et al., 2018; Rockinson-Szapkiw et al.,
2022; Solya, 2022; Sullivan-Baca et al., 2022; Swan Dagen et al., 2022). Furthermore, evidence
in the literature demonstrated the impact self-efficacy and its four sources have on improving
career interests and outcomes (Bandura, 1982; Howardson & Behrend, 2015; Lent et al., 2022;
Luo et al., 2022; Maradoglu et al., 2022; Schunk & Usher, 2019; Swan Dagen et al., 2022; Taiyi
Yan et al., 2022; Taylan et al., 2022; Warren & Bordoloi, 2021; Young et al., 2020). A
qualitative research method was used for this study leveraging the following research questions:
1. How do women leaders in supply chain management perceive mentoring as having
impacted their pursuit of career interests and goals?
2. How does mentoring help develop self-efficacy to support women’s goals of achieving a
leadership role in supply chain management?

46

Chapter Four of the study incorporates details on the participating stakeholders that
engaged in the interviews. Chapter Four also synthesizes the three key themes gathered from the
participant interviews. Finally, summary findings are presented to conclude Chapter Four.
Participating Stakeholders
Convenience and snowball sampling were used as the primary methods to identify and
recruit participants for the study. These sampling methods were appropriate because they
provided opportunities to leverage and expand the researcher’s professional network to ensure a
broad sampling and accumulation of rich data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). To qualify for the
study, participants must have been women with experience in supply chain leadership roles.
Dozens of potential candidates preliminarily identified fit the required criteria, and the
final list of participants was selected for the study to ensure perspectives were gathered from
women with differing levels of leadership and industry experience. Participants were not
restricted based on race or any other dimension of identity as the intent of this study was to
uncover macro-level considerations impacting all women. A future study would be needed to
focus on the experiences of women at the intersection of gender and other identities, such as race
or sexual orientation, and suggestions for such studies are articulated in Chapter Five.
To protect the confidentiality of the participants, pseudonyms are used. Leadership levels
presented were defined as those with less than seven years of formal leadership experience were
considered junior managers. Participants with more than seven years of formal leadership
experience were considered senior managers. Finally, participants serving in an executive
capacity were identified as such. The final selection of participants allowed for perspectives
gained across all three leadership levels identified including five junior managers, four senior

47

managers, and three executives. Similarly, perspectives from nine different industries were
gathered. The summary of the characteristics of the participants is presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Participant Characteristics
Participant Leadership level Industry Race
P1 Junior Manager Consumer Products Chinese American
P2 Junior Manager Technology Indian American
P3 Junior Manager Consulting European American
P4 Senior Manager Aviation European American
P5 Senior Manager Durable Goods European American
P6 Senior Manager Durable Goods European American
P7 Executive Consumer Products European American
P8 Junior Manager Apparel European American
P9 Executive Automotive European American
P10 Executive Apparel European American
P11 Junior Manager Grocery Retail European American
P12 Senior Manager Health Care European American

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The protocol for the interviews provided in Chapter Three was strictly followed, which
included sending the participants the questions in advance of the interview. It is important to note
that all participants commented on how they appreciated seeing the questions before the
interview. Furthermore, five of the 12 (42%) participants developed notes for the interview to aid
in their preparation and to ensure all relevant material was covered. The participants’ preparation
was impactful, leading to a greater synthesis of the data and themes presented in the next section
of the study.
After the conclusion of each interview, transcripts were consolidated and sent to the
participants to allow for any editing, deleting, and reflecting. Similarly, I documented my
personal notes to support the synthesis of the key themes. Once I received the consent for
transcript accuracy from the participant, analysis of the transcripts commenced. The analytical
process included reviewing the transcripts multiple times, leveraging a priori codes based on the
conceptual framework and interview questions, developing new codes as topics emerged from
the interview transcripts, synthesizing the codes from all interviews to generate the key themes
from the fieldwork, and identifying direct quotations that strengthened the key themes.
Through the analytical process, two key themes were identified in support of the first
research question, and one key theme was synthesized in support of the second research
question. All three key themes are presented in the next section of the study. To qualify as a
theme, at least nine of the 12 (75%) participants discussed the topic at least twice during the
interview.
Findings for Research Question 1
The focus of the first research question was to determine the perceived impact mentoring
has in the pursuit of career interests and goals. Two key themes emerged from the interviews.

49

The first key theme affirmed the benefits of mentoring as a method of leadership development as
long as it is properly supported by the organization and a mentor with key interpersonal qualities.
The second key theme reflects the positive impact a mentoring relationship can have when it is
mentee-driven, which includes mentee preparation combined with a preference for allowing the
relationship to evolve from an informal to a formal one. Both key themes are further explored in
the next section of the study.
Theme 1: Women View Mentoring as an Impactful Leadership Development Tool With the
Right Organizational Commitment and Mentor Qualities
All 12 participants viewed mentoring as an impactful tool in their leadership development
provided it was enabled by the right organizational commitment and mentor qualities. The
participants offered that mentoring was an invaluable development tool that had a favorable
impact on their leadership confidence, professional performance, and career trajectory.
Furthermore, participants shared that mentoring as a leadership development tool demonstrated
the organization’s commitment to their professional development. Finally, all participants
mentioned specific qualities a good mentor demonstrates that enriched the mentoring experience.
These three subthemes, including the impact of mentoring as a leadership development tool, the
commitment to leadership development that mentoring demonstrates, and the critical qualities of
an impactful mentor, are provided in the next sub-sections of the study.
Subtheme 1: Mentoring as an Impactful Leadership Development Tool
All participants commented on how mentoring helped build confidence in their
leadership capabilities and several noted the importance of having confidence as a leader, which
is consistent with evidence presented in the literature. P3 commented that “confidence held me
back at times in my career, but my mentor helped me regain my confidence.” P4 commented that

50

“mentoring has given me more confidence in my career, which also helps me be a better
mentor!” Furthermore, P9 mentioned that mentoring helped her overcome the feeling of imposter
syndrome after ascending to her first leadership role. P7 shared a time in her career when she
was not going to pursue a new assignment; her mentor encouraged her to take a risk, which
accelerated her career trajectory. Similarly, P10 mentioned she was prepared to turn down an
attractive assignment, but her mentor encouraged her to reconsider the assignment, which turned
out to be a career accelerator. The use of mentoring as a tool to build leadership confidence will
be further explored in Theme 2 later in the study.
While there are many leadership development tools available, the perceptions of the
participants interviewed as part of this study revealed the strong impact mentoring has had on
their careers. According to P7, mentoring “has been one of the most impactful development tools
in my career.” Furthermore, mentoring was considered a “game changer” by P8, indicating it
changed the trajectory of her career. Interestingly, P10 commented on how impactful being a
mentor has become in developing the next level of talent, particularly when she became an
executive. P10 further spoke about the importance of mentoring to develop talent and to help
address the gender imbalance in leadership indicating “systemic issues exist.” A mentor helped
P4 synthesize critical feedback from her boss, which sparked a different approach that later
resulted in a better career performance and considered mentoring “an invaluable development
tool.” P3 mentioned that taking feedback from her mentor allowed her to reposition a project she
was leading to deliver better results. Finally, P8 shared that mentoring helped her identify blind
spots in her career plans; working with a mentor allowed her to adjust her career interests and
pursuits. P8 said, “my mentor helped open my eyes to new opportunities, which later included an
international assignment.” As shared by the participants, mentoring is an impactful leadership

51

development tool, especially when commitment to mentoring is demonstrated by the
organization. Further insights on this topic are shared in the next section of the study.
Subtheme 2: Mentoring Demonstrates Organizational Commitment to Leadership
Development
Mentoring experiences, whether formal or informal, demonstrate organizational
commitment to leadership development, according to eight out of 12 (75%) participants.
Impactful formal mentoring programs appeared to be part of broader development efforts, as
shared by P7 and P10. Formal mentor relationships were not as impactful when the relationships
were part of a forced pairing, as shared by P4 and P6, a dynamic that is explored in another
section of the study. P10 indicated that “the mentor/mentee selection process is critical to a
successful relationship.” Informal mentoring relationships appeared to develop more organically
and were often mentor-driven, which is discussed further in another section of the study.
Mentoring relationships are a valuable method of “paying it forward” from senior leaders to
newer leaders, according to P2. Similarly, P4 commented that sharing her career experiences and
perspectives with newer leaders allows her to demonstrate commitment to building the next
generation of leaders, saying “my mentoring experience has come full circle.” Participating in a
formal top-talent program that included mentoring was not only impactful for P7, but it also
demonstrated the organizational commitment to her leadership growth. P7 also said through her
mentoring experiences, she saw her employer “take a bet on me” by giving her an international
assignment, further demonstrating a commitment to her long-term development. Similarly,
participating in a group mentoring program demonstrated to P10 that her organization was fully
committed to her leadership development. Furthermore, the group mentoring program included
specific discussions and experiences to prepare her for an executive-level role. Early in her

52

career, P9 did not experience a strong commitment to her development from her employer; it was
not until she began mentoring that she experienced the organizational commitment to her
development. P9 indicated “the company’s commitment to my development through mentoring
was a big reason I have stayed loyal to my organization.” P6 shared that several of her mentors
have spanned many years, which further demonstrated the organization’s commitment to her
ongoing development. The participant’s experiences in mentoring demonstrated the
organization’s commitment to their leadership development, especially when paired with the
right mentor qualities, a topic which is presented in the next section of the study.
Subtheme 3: Critical Mentor Qualities
Participants shared their perspectives on the critical qualities of an impactful mentor
which were not presented in evidence from the literature. A total of 13 key competencies were
identified by the participants, with four specific characteristics identified by at least half of the
participants. The four specific qualities were authenticity, trustworthiness, engagement, and
professional competence; the frequency the participants spoke of these four qualities is provided
in Table 4. Participants spoke about how the authenticity characteristic enabled a deeper
connection with the mentor that allowed for a feeling of support and safety. For example, P2
commented that “great mentors genuinely care about my development”, while P3 indicated that
“I felt like I could be myself during a mentoring session.” Trustworthiness was another quality
identified as critical, which allowed the participants to explore sensitive topics as part of the
mentoring process. P8 commented, “I built trust with my mentor so that our sessions did not feel
forced or scripted.” Similarly, P9 indicated “I felt I could be honest with my mentor because of
the trust we developed.” Engagement was the third key characteristic mentioned by the
participants. In particular, P4 indicated some of her most impactful mentoring experiences were

53

spontaneous and in-the-moment discussions, saying “my mentor’s engagement to provide quick
advice and feedback was very impactful.” Professional competence was the final critical quality
identified. P3 shared that her mentor’s broad business perspective allowed her to look at
situations from different angles. Similarly, P7 indicated that “great mentors ask great questions
and share their great experiences.” Each of the four characteristics of authenticity,
trustworthiness, engagement, and professional competence contributed to the impact mentoring
had on the participants’ professional development.
Table 4
Mentor Qualities
Qualities n (%)
Authenticity Ten (83)
Trustworthiness Nine (75)
Engagement Eight (67)
Professional competence Six (50)

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Theme 2: Mentoring Is Most Impactful to Women When it Is Mentee-Driven
As discussed as part of the Theme 1 findings, mentoring is perceived as having a
favorable impact as a leadership development tool. Nine out of 12 (75%) of the study’s
participants also noted the benefits of mentoring are richest when it is mentee-driven by
discussing situational topics while allowing the relationship to evolve from an informal one to a
formal relationship. Participants noted that mentee preparation for mentoring sessions tended to
lead to more impactful learning. Furthermore, participants commented on their preference for
commencing mentoring relationships informally, allowing them to evolve to a more formal
relationship, rather than being assigned a specific mentor. These two subthemes, including the
importance of mentor preparation and the evolution of the relationship from informal to formal,
are discussed in further detail in the following sub-sections.
Subtheme 1: The Importance of Mentee Preparation
Preparing for an impactful session impacted the learnings from the mentor, according to
eight of the 12 (75%) participants. As an example, P1 indicated she brainstormed three or four
topics, such as technical aspects of supply chain management, as well as competency-based
topics, in advance of a mentoring session to help guide the discussion and maximize learning.
P10 shared this similar practice of identifying a few topics to address, often sending her mentor
the topics in advance of the session, including topics focused on leadership and interpersonal
competencies. In another example, P2 commented she specifically contacted one of her mentors
to discuss a difficult situation with a direct report. P5 shared “my most impactful mentoring
sessions were when I drove the topic and the discussion.” P5 continued on indicating her most
impactful mentoring sessions were when she specifically prepared for career progression and
employee performance-related discussions. P6 echoed the same sentiments indicating she wanted

55

to be “100% ready” for her mentoring sessions with specific topics to discuss with her mentor.
P7 shared a best practice that at the beginning of a new mentoring relationship, she set clear
goals with her mentor to drive specific topical discussions. After her mentoring sessions, P7
indicated she would also spend time reflecting on the discussion and seeking opportunities to
apply her learnings, which may be an emerging best practice. “Less preparation meant less
outcomes” was a comment offered by P8, indicating her preparation translated into the level of
impact from the mentoring session. Similarly, P10 commented, “you get out of it what you put
into it”; as a result, P10 identified specific supply chain and leadership topics to explore with her
mentor. Taking advantage of “micro-moments” which, according to P9, were more spontaneous
in-the-moment discussions with her mentors geared to solicit immediate feedback. Interestingly,
P9 also indicated that as a mentor, she was disappointed when a mentee came to a planned
mentoring session unprepared.
A mentee-driven approach, including being prepared for a mentoring session, was
perceived to be crucial by the participants. Similarly, the preparation often led to deeper
discussions that oftentimes allowed the mentoring relationship to evolve into a more formal
relationship, a topic that is covered in the next section of the study.
Subtheme 2: Evolving from Informal to Formal Mentoring Relationships
Ten out of the 12 (88%) participants preferred to begin a mentoring relationship on an
informal basis, rather than being assigned a mentor, which is divergent from the evidence
presented in the literature. P4 shared a negative experience she had with an assigned mentor,
citing the relationship was “forced and inauthentic.” Since that experience, P4 has preferred to
begin mentoring relationships informally to build trust and a deeper connection. “A square peg in
a round hole” was how P6 described one of her assigned mentors; she has since sought informal

56

relationships because it is built on a basis of trust. Similarly, P5 cited the importance of initial
informal relationship building with a mentor to ensure the experience would be as impactful as
possible. An assigned relationship felt “clunky and difficult” according to P8, indicating she
preferred informal relationships, including not meeting at prescribed time intervals. Interestingly,
P9 indicated she never had a formally assigned mentor but rather sought out mentors that
evolved into long-term, strategic advisors. P11 cited a best practice of having a coffee or lunch
with an informal mentor early in the relationship to determine if she perceived the relationship to
be a good fit. Similarly, P3 indicated finding the right match was critical to the success of the
mentoring process, and thus preferred to commence the relationship informally. P1 shared she
has established a network of informal mentors, leveraging their relationships and knowledge
collectively. In addition, P1 indicated that some of the informal relationships have transformed
into longer-term and more impactful ones. Allowing relationships to evolve from informal to
formal ones appears to be the preferred method as part of a mentee-driven mentoring approach.
This concept will be further explored as part of the recommendations for practice in Chapter
Five.
Findings for Research Question 2
The focus of the second research question was to determine if the participants perceived
mentoring helped develop self-efficacy to support their goals of achieving leadership roles. The
results from the interviews demonstrated the favorable impact mentoring has on developing selfefficacy through its four sources, according to the participants’ self-reported experiences. The
primary theme synthesized for the second research question is presented in the next section of
the study.

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Theme 3: Mentoring Positively Influences the Four Sources of Self-Efficacy, Some More
Significantly Than Others
According to SCCT (Lent et al., 1994), self-efficacy is developed through four sources,
including actual performance, role modeling, social persuasion, and physiological responses.
Using the data gathered from the interviews, mentoring has positively influenced participant selfefficacy in the pursuit of their career interests and goals, albeit in different and more significant
ways. Evidence from the literature suggested mentoring has a positive impact on the four sources
of self-efficacy, however, the relative impact mentoring has on the four sources provides a new
perspective not previously found in the literature. Further details and analysis of how mentoring
influences the four sources of self-efficacy, as collected from interview data in this study, are
presented in the next section of the study.
Subtheme 1: Mentoring’s Impact on Actual Performance
According to seven out of 12 participants (58%), mentoring helped drive accountability
to improve mentee performance in specific areas. For example, P3 cited the impact mentoring
had on helping her make a successful transition to a new leadership role. Similarly, P5 expressed
that mentoring helped her refine her leadership approach, which translated into improved
performance. Taking an overseas assignment was a difficult transition for P7; working with a
mentor provided the support she needed to deliver against critical assignment outcomes. P9
indicated she receives feedback infrequently at this phase of her career; her mentor helps
“provide a strong assessment” of her performance. Similarly, P8 indicated her mentor provided
the “tough love” that was needed to improve her performance. P11 shared a best practice that her
mentor was invaluable in improving performance in her first leadership role, citing “my mentor
gave me specific homework” to work on between our sessions. Finally, P12 commented that her

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mentor helped improve her performance when she realized “I didn’t have to have all the
answers.” Through data collected as part of the interview process, mentoring has a favorable
impact on participant performance.
Subtheme 2: The Importance of Role Modeling
All 12 of the participants commented on the importance of a mentor serving as a role
model. P1’s mentor serves as a role model, citing “the power of observation” to live vicariously
through her mentor. P1 further commented that the representation of women in leadership
matters to those seeking leadership roles. P3 also mentioned the impact the power of observation
has in watching her mentor succeed. Additionally, P11 indicated seeing someone similar to her
in leadership served as a role model for her career aspirations. P4 shared the names of two
specific mentors who served as role models, also citing the power of observation to “watch my
mentor navigate difficult political situations.” P6 commented, “I wouldn’t pick a mentor if they
couldn’t be a role model to me.” Similarly, P12 indicated a mentor “must be a great role model
to be a great mentor.” P5 similarly cited that her pick of a mentor was based on whether the
mentor was seen as a role model with credibility within the organization, specifically providing
the names of three people who served as role model mentors. Interestingly, P7 considered role
modeling a synthesizing exercise, citing “watching a mentor provides a leg up on learning.” P9’s
mentor served as a role model in her personal life, citing a specific example when her mentor
chose to attend a personal commitment as opposed to a professional one. In that way, P9’s
mentor demonstrated a female leader can balance personal and professional commitments
effectively. Navigating career and personal challenges was one method of how P12 leveraged her
female mentor as a role model, further citing that several women in leadership served as role

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models throughout her career. The data collected throughout the participant interviews
demonstrates the significant impact that a mentor has when serving as a role model.
Subtheme 3: A Mentor’s Influence Using Social Persuasion
Similar to the impact role modeling has on improving self-efficacy, nine of the 12
participants (75%) cited the favorable impact mentoring had on improving self-efficacy through
the use of social persuasion. “You got this” was a saying P2’s mentor shared when she was
considering taking a new assignment. Similarly, “you can do it” was the expression P3 shared
from an interaction she had with her mentor. After a job loss, P4’s mentor served as a motivating
force to help rebuild her confidence as she reentered the workforce. P5 leveraged her trusted
relationship by specifically reaching out to her mentor during times when her leadership selfconfidence was low. “Motivating people is the core game of leadership” according to P8,
indicating the significant role a mentor plays in providing social persuasion. P8 further
mentioned having a safe place to talk through topics with her mentor served as another source of
motivation to support her leadership self-efficacy. After a particularly impactful intervention
with her mentor discussing whether to take a new assignment, P9’s mentor said, “you can do
this.” After the intervention, P9 was filled with a new source of energy, commenting “I felt like I
was Superman.” P10’s mentor has served as a cheerleader and teacher throughout the
relationship, providing social persuasion at critical points in her career. Asking thoughtprovoking questions to help her refocus her career was a method used by P11’s mentor; P11
commented “I was spiraling”; her mentor’s ability to motivate her was impactful. Finally, P12
was considering taking on a new assignment, to which her mentor offered “just do it.” P12 took
her mentor’s advice, which led to an impactful assignment. The use of social persuasion as a
method of building leadership self-efficacy in the study participants was clearly impactful.

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Subtheme 4: Moderation of Physiological Responses Through Mentoring
Of the four sources of self-efficacy, it appears moderating physiological responses had
the least impact, according to the study participants. Of the 12 participants, six (50%) shared the
impact a mentor had on managing physiological responses. P4 commented that her mentors did
help her balance physiological responses as a new leader, later recognizing that properly showing
emotions was an important aspect of leadership. Similarly, P12 commented that emotions and
physiological responses are “actually encouraged and not always to be controlled.” Helping her
mentees manage their physiological responses to difficult situations is now a method used by P5
after having learned that skill from a former mentor. P8 shared that her approach is generally
confrontational; her mentor helped her find a balance between being confident and
confrontational by moderating her physiological responses. P9 shared a time in her career when
she had a contentious relationship with a co-worker that was reflecting poorly on her credibility.
P9’s mentor shared “your reaction to your co-worker is the problem”, a comment which was
transformational for P9. Similarly, balancing passion, drive, and frustration was a skill learned
by P10 through her mentor, which helped her improve her performance. A mentor’s ability to
help a mentee moderate her physiological responses has had a favorable impact on the study’s
participants.
Summary
The four sources of self-efficacy include actual performance, role modeling, social
persuasion, and physiological responses, according to Lent et al. (1994). All four sources of selfefficacy were favorably impacted through mentoring, with all participants noting the favorable
influence role modeling had on their self-efficacy. Secondarily, social persuasion was cited as
having been favorably impacted by a mentor by nine of the 12 participants. Leveraging a mentor

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to improve a mentee’s actual performance and moderate physiological responses were cited by
seven and six study participants, respectively. The next section of the study concludes Chapter
Four with a synthesis of the findings from the qualitative study to answer the two research
questions.
Summary of Findings
The study is guided by two research questions to explore the impact mentoring has on
improving self-efficacy in women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United
States. A total of 12 women in supply chain leadership roles with diverse experiences from
diverse industries were interviewed to collect the data necessary to answer the research
questions. The results of the interviews and corresponding data analysis affirmed that mentoring
is an impactful leadership development tool as long as it is properly supported by the
organization and a mentor with key interpersonal qualities. Also, the research findings also
concluded the positive impact a mentoring relationship can have when it is mentee-driven, which
includes mentee preparation combined with a preference for allowing the relationship to evolve
from an informal to a formal one. Finally, the results from the study demonstrated the favorable
impact mentoring has on developing self-efficacy through its four sources, albeit in different
methods and to different degrees. Chapter Five is the next section of the study and provides a
synthesis of the summary findings from the study, offers a recommendation for practice,
identifies the study’s limitations and delimitations, recommends three areas for additional
research on the problem of practice, connects the study with Rossier’s equity-driven mission, and
provides concluding thoughts.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendation
The purpose of the study is to explore the impact mentoring has on improving selfefficacy in women in the pursuit of supply chain leadership roles in the United States. The fifth,
and final, chapter of the study concludes with a summary discussion of three findings gathered
throughout the research process, namely mentoring has a positive impact on leadership
development across a variety of domains, including the supply chain management domain;
mentoring can be effective in both formal and informal formats; and mentoring positively
influences the four sources of self-efficacy to different degrees. In addition, Chapter Five
presents a recommendation for practice that includes developing and implementing a cohortbased mentee-driven mentoring program for top-talent women in supply chain management. The
recommendation is supported by a six-element framework that includes developing and
executing a comprehensive communication plan; identifying the top-talent women; developing
the curriculum and components of the mentoring program; identifying the mentors with the
requisite skillsets and qualities; kicking off the mentoring program; and monitoring and
controlling the mentoring program. Chapter Five concludes with a discussion of the study’s
limitations and delimitations, recommends three areas for additional research on the problem of
practice, connects the study with Rossier’s equity-driven mission, and provides concluding
thoughts.
Discussion of Findings
Throughout the literature review and fieldwork for the study, rich data were gathered,
reviewed, and synthesized to understand the problem of practice from multiple points of view
and sources. The results of the literature review and qualitative data collection conducted for this
study include three key findings: mentoring has a positive impact on leadership development

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across a variety of domains, including the supply chain management domain; mentoring can be
effective in both formal and informal formats; and mentoring positively influences the four
sources of self-efficacy to different degrees. Each of the three findings is presented in the next
section of the study.
Finding 1: Mentoring Has a Positive Impact on Leadership Development Across a Variety
of Domains, Including the Supply Chain Management Domain
The literature review provided evidence of the positive impact mentoring has on
leadership development across a variety of domains. For example, Garrett et al. (2022) provided
evidence of mentoring’s benefit in higher education. Similarly, Magee and Penfold (2022)
studied the positive impact mentoring had in the healthcare domain. Mondisa and Adams (2022)
determined that mentoring had a positive impact on STEM undergraduate students in the pursuit
of their academic goals. Finally, French and Eskridge (2021) presented evidence of the favorable
impact mentoring had on city managers. While there was significant evidence in extant literature
that mentoring was a positive leadership development experience in a variety of domains, there
was little evidence of its impact specifically on the supply chain management domain.
The fieldwork for this study was intended to explore the benefits mentoring had on
leadership development in the supply chain management domain; the findings were compelling.
Each of the twelve participants in the study spoke of the benefits mentoring has had on their
leadership confidence, professional performance, and career trajectory. In addition, the study’s
participants cited mentoring as one of the most impactful leadership development tools available.
More specifically, P7 commented that mentoring “has been one of the most impactful
development tools in my career.” Furthermore, P8 considered mentoring a “game changer”,
while P4 indicated mentoring was “an invaluable development tool.” Combining the evidence

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from the literature review with the findings from the fieldwork in this study, it appears mentoring
is an impactful leadership development tool. As a result, this study extends the body of
knowledge on the topic of mentoring as a leadership development tool by providing findings
specific to the supply chain management domain. This finding will be explored further in the
recommendation for practice later in Chapter Five.
Finding 2: Mentoring Can Be Effective in Both Formal and Informal Formats
The literature review conducted as part of this study yielded evidence indicating that
structured and formal mentoring programs were often used by organizations as a talent
development tool. For example, Pham et al. (2018) studied the impact a formal mentoring
program had on practitioners in the nursing profession. Similarly, Solya (2022) shared the
benefits of an intensive formal mentoring program focused on skill development in female choir
directors. Furthermore, Mahendra and Kashinath (2021) presented the positive impact a
structured three-year mentoring program had on speech pathology students. Finally, Swan Dagen
et al. (2022) reported the positive impact a formal mentoring program had on providing skill
development for women in higher education. Evidence from these, and other studies,
demonstrated that formal mentoring programs are effective. The literature review, however, did
not yield specific evidence of the impact informal mentoring has on participants.
The fieldwork for this study produced findings from the participants that indicated a
preference for informal mentoring relationships. In fact, 10 out of the 12 (88%) participants from
the fieldwork preferred to begin a mentoring relationship on an informal basis, rather than being
assigned a mentor. For example, P5 indicated a preference for establishing an informal
mentoring relationship, which tended to translate into an impactful experience. P8 also shared
her preference for informal mentoring relationships, indicating a forced mentor pairing felt

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“clunky and difficult.” Finally, P9 shared she had never been assigned a formal mentor, but she
reported she sought out specific individuals who evolved into long-term, strategic advisors.
While the research in the literature presented evidence specifically on structured and formal
mentoring programs, this study adds new knowledge to the topic of mentoring by presenting
findings of the specific impact informal mentoring had on participants. Incorporating informal
relationships as part of a mentoring initiative will be further explored in the recommendation for
practice later in Chapter Five.
Finding 3: Mentoring Positively Influences the Four Sources of Self-Efficacy to Different
Degrees
Self-efficacy is developed through four sources, including actual performance, role
modeling, social persuasion, and physiological responses, according to SCCT (Lent et al., 1994).
The literature review for the study produced evidence that each of the four sources positively
influences self-efficacy. For example, Taylan et al. (2022) produced evidence on the impact
actual operating room experience and performance had on improving the self-efficacy of nursing
students. In addition, Taiyi Yan et al. (2022) found that women’s self-efficacy was positively
influenced when observing other women who served as role models. Similarly, Luo et al. (2022)
reported the positive influence teachers’ and parents’ social support had on female undergraduate
STEM students. Finally, Muradoglu et al. (2022) reported the relationship between lower selfefficacy and higher imposter syndrome in women in academia, which may have been holding
back their careers.
The fieldwork for this study presented findings indicating that mentoring influences each
of the four sources of self-efficacy, albeit to different degrees. For example, all twelve
participants noted the importance of a mentor serving as a role model, while nine of the 12 (75%)

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participants commented on the positive impact mentoring had on improving self-efficacy
through social persuasion. Actual performance through a mentoring experience was identified by
seven of the 12 (58%) participants as being a positive source of self-efficacy, while six of the 12
(50%) participants shared that mentoring was a positive source of self-efficacy through
managing physiological responses. The literature review provided evidence that self-efficacy is
positively influenced by each of the four sources, but the fieldwork for the study produced new
findings indicating role modeling and social persuasion tended to have a greater impact on selfefficacy through mentoring, according to the study’s participants. Focusing on mentoring
relationships that specifically target improving self-efficacy through role modeling and social
persuasion will be further explored in the recommendation for practice later in Chapter Five.
Recommendation for Practice
The findings presented in the prior section of the study form the basis of the
recommendation for practice. It is important to acknowledge that there may be many viable
solutions to address the problem of practice. The recommendation for developing and
implementing a cohort-based mentee-driven mentoring program for top-talent women in supply
chain management included in this study was chosen because it integrates participant feedback
with evidence-based research in the literature that enables an actionable and implementable
organizational-focused solution. The recommendation includes the program’s structure, key
principles, and objectives, along with an integrated six-element framework that includes
developing and executing a comprehensive communication plan; identifying the top-talent
women; developing the curriculum and components of the mentoring program; identifying the
mentors with the requisite skillsets and qualities; kicking off the mentoring program; and
monitoring and controlling the mentoring program. The program’s structure, principles, and

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objectives, and each of the six elements of the integrated framework, are presented in the next
section of the study.
Develop and Implement a Cohort-Based Mentee-Driven Mentoring Program for TopTalent Women in Supply Chain Management
All the study participants viewed mentoring as an impactful tool in their leadership
development. Additionally, 10 out of the 12 (88%) participants preferred to begin a mentoring
relationship on an informal basis, rather than being assigned a mentor. Furthermore, nine out of
12 (75%) of the study’s participants noted the benefits of mentoring are richest when it is
mentee-driven by discussing situational topics. Preparing for an impactful session impacted the
learnings from the mentor, according to eight of the 12 (75%) participants. Through the
fieldwork for the study, eight out of 12 (75%) of the study’s participants commented that
mentoring demonstrates an organizational commitment to leadership development. Finally, the
findings from the fieldwork also noted the positive impact mentoring has on developing the four
sources of self-efficacy, albeit to different degrees. As a result of these critical findings from the
fieldwork, as well as evidence-based research in the literature, an integrated cohort-based
mentee-driven mentoring program consisting of three key principles and two key objectives is
recommended for implementation. The program’s structure, principles, and objectives are
presented in the next section of the study.
The Program and Three Key Principles
The program will be structured in a cohort-based model leveraging the evidence
presented in other similar studies (Murphy et al., 2019; Viveiros et al., 2021; Yon et al., 2023).
There will be approximately 15-20 participants in the program and will be piloted for a minimum
of 12 months. The participants will meet monthly as a cohort; the frequency of meetings with

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mentors will be determined by each participant, consistent with the mentee-driven approach from
the study’s findings. Furthermore, a pre-assessment, formative assessment, and summative
assessment, utilizing the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), will
be conducted to ensure the program is meeting the defined objectives. The program’s design and
execution will be governed by three key principles and two key objectives. The first key
principle of the program includes the cohort-based structure of the program. The cohort-based
structure of the program (Murphy et al., 2019; Viveiros et al., 2021; Yon et al., 2023) is expected
to provide consistent participant support, along with opportunities for peer mentoring (Coleman
et al., 2023), throughout the entirety of the program. The second key principle of the program is
that it will be mentee-driven, which was a key finding from the fieldwork from the study. A
mentee-driven approach allows the participants to self-identify their career interests and goals,
determine the specific topics to discuss in the mentoring sessions, and self-select their mentors to
begin their relationships on an informal basis. The third, and final, principle of the program
includes the curriculum being focused on identifying and pursuing career interests and goals,
along with developing the four sources of self-efficacy to increase participant leadership
confidence. The third principle supports another key finding from the fieldwork and also
leverages SCCT (Lent et al., 2022) and the conceptual framework for the study. With the three
key principles identified, the supporting two key objectives include demonstrated improvements
in leadership self-efficacy throughout the program through formative and summative
assessments, combined with the number of women promoted to new or increased leadership
roles within two years of the program.

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Program Framework Elements
With the three key principles and two key objectives of the program identified, six
elements have been identified to develop and implement the cohort-based mentee-driven
mentoring program. The six elements include developing and executing a comprehensive
communication plan; identifying the top-talent women; developing the curriculum and
components of the mentoring program; identifying the mentors with the requisite skillsets and
qualities; kicking off the mentoring program; and monitoring and controlling the mentoring
program. Each of the six elements of the integrated framework is presented in the next section of
the study.
The first element of the integrated framework is developing and executing a
comprehensive communication plan to describe the program, its principles, and its objectives.
Developing and executing a comprehensive communication plan will demonstrate organizational
commitment to leadership development through the mentoring program, which was a key finding
from the study’s fieldwork. In addition, the communication plan will also demonstrate the
organization’s pro-diversity culture, policies, and practices, which were found to be impactful in
other studies (Adams–Harmon & Greer–Williams, 2021; Byrne et al., 2021; Valerio, 2022). The
comprehensive communication plan will include a suite of materials, including presentation
materials, frequently asked questions documentation, and progress updates that will be shared
throughout the lifecycle of the program. Furthermore, town hall meetings will be held throughout
the organization to share program updates and answer any questions that may arise. As the
program evolves, the communication materials will be updated to ensure relevancy, as well as to
address any specific topics or questions that arise. These methods of communication have been
proven to be successful in other studies (Kislik, 2018; Tarnoff et al., 2021).

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The second element of the integrated framework consists of identifying the top-talent
women who will participate in the cohort-based mentee-driven mentoring program. While all
elements of the implementation plan are important, successfully identifying the right women
may be the most important element of the framework. It is important to identify the right women
because each will serve as a pioneer for the mentoring program. In addition, with the cohortbased structure of the program, the participants will also serve as support mechanisms (Coleman
et al., 2023; Viveiros et al., 2021) for other participants in the program. Finally, given the
mentee-driven nature of the program, the participants will work together to develop the
curriculum for the program. Participants will be selected as ones who have the potential and
aspiration for further progression into leadership roles (Murphy et al., 2019; Xu & Hickey,
2022). To assess both potential and aspiration, potential participants’ electronic employee
records will be analyzed for performance review scores, as well as for employee-identified career
aspirations. To make the cohort a manageable size, the program will be limited to approximately
15-20 women. Once the final selections have been made, participants will be invited to support
the curriculum development for the program, which is the next element of the framework.
The third element of the integrated framework consists of developing the curriculum and
components of the mentoring program. To prepare top-talent women for leadership roles, it is
important to develop a robust mentoring curriculum to position the participants for maximum
opportunities for success. Consistent with the principles of the program, participants will work
together to identify the specifics of the curriculum across three components. Leveraging SCCT
(Lent et al., 2022), the first component will include topics specific to discussing career interests
and goals, while the second component will include topics specific to methods for building
leadership self-efficacy, including actual performance, role modeling, social persuasion, and

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physiological responses. The third, and final, component of the curriculum will include a suite of
situational topics brainstormed by the participants, which was identified as a key finding in the
fieldwork and will also allow for sufficient mentee preparation. The curriculum also will
incorporate mentoring best practices gathered from all available sources (Apple, 2022; Giancola
et al., 2016; Xu & Hickey, 2022). In addition, the curriculum will include key characteristics and
suggestions for a successful mentoring program, including developing strong mentor-mentee
relationships. In total, the mentoring curriculum will serve as a toolkit that can be consistently
leveraged by the participants throughout the program.
The fourth element includes identifying the mentors for the program with the requisite
skillsets and qualities. At this point in the program’s development, there will be a comprehensive
communication plan, a list of top-talent participants, and a comprehensive mentoring curriculum.
The next, and very critical, component of the implementation plan is to identify the right mentors
to support the program (Apple, 2016; Giancola et al., 2016). As part of the communication plan,
all employees will be asked to self-nominate as potential mentors if they have the aspiration,
requisite skillsets, and preferred qualities to be a successful mentor. The requisite skillsets
include demonstrated competencies in developing the four sources of self-efficacy including
actual performance, role modeling, social persuasion, and physiological responses, leveraging
SCCT as the theoretical framework (Lent et al., 2022). Furthermore, the preferred qualities
include authenticity, trustworthiness, engagement, and professional competence based on the
findings from the study’s fieldwork. In addition to self-nomination, the participants will also
identify potential mentors based on their career interests and goals, along with their
understanding of potential mentor skillsets and qualities. Important to note that since one of the
program’s key principles is that it is mentee-driven, there will not be a formal matching process.

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Rather, mentees will be encouraged to build informal relationships with potential mentors after
the program’s kick-off, which will be discussed in the next section of the study. Furthermore,
providing training to the identified mentors on mentorship and their role in the pilot program
may be necessary to maximize the potential outcomes for the program.
The fifth element includes kicking off the mentoring program. An impactful kick-off to
the mentoring program will create positive momentum for the initiative and send a strong signal
on the importance of the program, while also equipping the top-talent women with the requisite
tools for success. Although the participants have already been engaged in the program through
curriculum development and mentor identification, the kick-off marks the formal beginning of
the program. As part of the kick-off, each participant will document specific career interests and
goals to be discussed throughout the program and will also conduct a pre-assessment to serve as
a benchmark to measure the participants’ development throughout the program. In addition, the
final curriculum and mentor list will be reviewed. The final portion of the kick-off meeting will
be to share a calendar of monthly meetings to support the cohort-based structure of the program
and gather feedback about the program to effectively monitor and control the program. These
specific aspects of the kick-off program have been identified as impactful in other studies
(Giancola et al., 2016; Xu & Hickey, 2022). The methods used to monitor and control the
program will be presented in the next section of the study.
The sixth, and final, element consists of monitoring and controlling the mentoring
program. The successful execution of the six-element framework is anticipated to enable the
achievement of the goals established for the program, which include demonstrated improvements
in leadership self-efficacy throughout the program through formative and summative
assessments, combined with the number of women promoted to new or increased leadership

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roles within two years of the program. The formative and summative assessments will be
developed leveraging the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) to
understand the reactions, learnings, behaviors, and results from the program. Furthermore,
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2000) conceptualization of Bloom’s taxonomy will be leveraged in
the assessments to ensure the learning objectives are achieved. The formative assessments will
be used to make any necessary adjustments throughout the execution of the program, while the
summative assessment will be used to determine the program’s success (Apple, 2022; Yon et al.,
2023). If successful, the program may be expanded to include additional participants.
Summary of Recommendation
The recommendation for practice was developed integrating the findings from the
fieldwork with evidence-based research in the literature. Developing and implementing a cohortbased mentee-driven mentoring program for top-talent women in supply chain management is
intended to support the participant’s career interests and goals, while also further developing the
participants’ four sources of self-efficacy. Finally, developing and implementing the six-element
framework positions the program, and its participants, for maximum impact and success.
Limitations and Delimitations
The study yielded rich, descriptive data in support of the two research questions posed
throughout the study. Given the scope and approach of the study, it is important to acknowledge
its limitations and delimitations. There are three limitations and four delimitations to the study,
each of which is described in the subsequent paragraphs.
The first limitation, which is a variable in the study that the researcher cannot control
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018), was the truthfulness and communication skills of the participants.
While care was taken in the recruitment of appropriate participants, I could not control how

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truthful the participants were in their responses or in their ability to communicate effectively. As
a mitigating approach, I endeavored to build rapport with the participants to build trust and
transparency to help ensure truthfulness and clarity in responses. A second limitation of the study
was the environment and context of the participants during the interviews. Care was taken to
schedule the interviews at a place and time convenient for the participant, which was intended to
mitigate the impact of this limitation. The third, and final, limitation of the study, which is
naturally inherent in qualitative research, was the inability to statistically verify the participants’
responses. Rigorous analysis of the participants’ responses may have partially mitigated the final
limitation to synthesize themes, while also identifying noted differences (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Delimitations are variables in a study that the researcher can control, with this study
having four. The first delimitation was the specific focus on SCCT, and the impact self-efficacy
has on the leadership aspirations of women in the supply chain management domain. The
literature review noted the presence of other barriers to women’s ascension to leadership, but this
study focused predominantly on mentoring and self-efficacy to manage scope effectively. The
second delimitation included the decision to use interviewing as the data collection tool, which
targets a smaller population than using a survey, as an example. The use of interviews was the
preferred method of data collection as it allowed for additional probing while accumulating rich,
descriptive data. The third delimitation was the narrow scope of the study to the supply chain
management domain to address gaps in the literature specific to the field. The fourth, and final,
delimitation was the decision to not restrict participation in the study based on race, or any other
dimension of diversity aside from gender. This problem may be systemic across all populations
of women; therefore, the study was not intended to specifically target any race or ethnicity.

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Recommendations for Future Research
The study explored the underrepresentation of women in supply chain leadership in the
United States through a qualitative research method focused on understanding the impact
mentoring has on improving leadership self-efficacy. The evidence presented in the literature
review confirmed the underrepresentation of women in leadership, presented drivers of gender
imbalance in leadership, and strategies to address the underrepresentation of women in
leadership. Additionally, the literature review provided evidence of the impact mentoring has on
improving self-efficacy, including in underrepresented groups. Using SCCT as its theoretical
framework, the fieldwork for this study included interviewing 12 women in supply chain
leadership roles in the United States. The findings for the two research questions were presented
in three key themes; three corresponding summary findings and a recommendation for practice
were included to address the problem of practice.
The study was thorough in its approach, but three additional areas may be candidates for
future research. The first area for future research is exploring the impact sponsoring women for
leadership roles has on addressing this problem of practice. Four of the 12 (33%) participants in
the study commented on the impact sponsoring has had on their careers, which was outside of
the scope of this study’s research questions; future research and analysis are warranted to
understand this dynamic more deeply. Second, the study only explored one dimension of
diversity, gender. Other dimensions of diversity, such as race or sexual orientation, were not
considered as part of this study. Future research to explore the impact other dimensions of
diversity has on the problem of practice is warranted. Finally, a quantitative study to understand
the correlation of the four sources of efficacy on leadership self-efficacy may be fruitful,
particularly as it relates to the impact role modeling and social persuasion have on self-efficacy.

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The findings from the second research question were compelling; perhaps a different research
method could yield results that further contribute to addressing the problem of practice.
Conducting additional research in these three areas may serve as an accelerator to address the
underrepresentation of women in supply chain leadership in the United States.
Connection to the Rossier Mission
The role and mission of the University of Southern California (USC) are to focus on
developing people and society, educating students, producing high-quality research, and enabling
an inclusive culture that welcomes all people (USC, 2023, para. 1-4). Furthermore, the mission
of The USC Rossier School of Education is “to prepare leaders to achieve educational equity
through practice, research, and policy” (USC, 2023, para. 1). The study is consistent with the
role and mission of the University of Southern California and its Rossier School of Education by
producing scholarly research that advances equity through policy and practice. Furthermore, the
study produced new findings that contribute to the research of addressing equity issues of an
underrepresented group. For example, the study presented new findings on the benefits of
mentoring women specifically in the supply chain management domain. In addition, the study
presented new findings on the impact informal mentoring relationships have on women in their
pursuit of career interests, goals, and performance. Furthermore, the study presented new
findings on how mentoring positively impacts the four sources of self-efficacy in women’s
pursuit of career interests, goals, and performance, most notably role modeling and social
persuasion. Finally, the study provides a platform to conduct future research to further address
the problem of practice. Therefore, the principal aim of the study is aligned with USC’s and
Rossier’s core purpose.

77

Conclusion
Organizations are complex systems with complex problems. Diversity, equity, and
inclusion is a complex topic facing many organizations. Organizational change and leadership
provides a toolkit to address the complex problems in organizations today including those related
to diversity, equity, and inclusion. This study focuses on the intersection of addressing an
organizational problem, focused on diversity, equity, and inclusion through progressive
organizational change and leadership practices. While the problem of practice may not be fully
resolved as a result of implementing the recommendation from this study, it is expected to yield
positive progress in a domain that is well-positioned for change. Imagine the possibilities that
exist for our society by addressing complex problems, like the one explored in this study,
through progressive organizational change and leadership practices. As a practitioner-scholar, I
am confident that through consistent, persistent, and progressive organizational change and
leadership practices, we can progress our society in alignment with Rossier’s mission.
The consequences of the study are significant for five reasons. First of all, the
underrepresentation of women in supply chain leadership roles in the United States is indeed a
problem. Women represent approximately 39% of the supply chain workforce, yet only 34% of
first-level leaders and only 19% of chief supply chain officers (Gartner, 2022). Second, the
supply chain management domain is a growing domain with employment projected to increase
22%-36% through 2031 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021; Delgado & Mills, 2018), far
outpacing the rest of the economy of the United States. Third, the research from the literature
review and fieldwork demonstrated the positive impact mentoring has as a leadership
development tool. Fourth, mentoring appears to help improve self-efficacy in the pursuit of
career interests, goals, and performance. The fifth, and final, significance of the study relates to

78

the actionable recommendation presented in Chapter Five based on findings that add new
perspectives to this problem of practice. Therefore, the supply chain management domain is
well-positioned to address the problem of practice and could serve as a benchmark for creating a
more inclusive, diverse, and equity-driven society through the successful implementation of the
proposed recommendation. Imagine the possibilities that lie ahead for all stakeholders once the
underrepresentation of women is no longer a problem in the supply chain management domain!

79

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research Questions
RQ1. How do women leaders in supply chain management perceive mentoring as
having impacted their pursuit of career interests and goals?
RQ2. How does mentoring help develop self-efficacy to support women’s goals
of achieving a leadership role in supply chain management?
Introduction to the Interview
Good morning (name)! Thank you for agreeing to participate in an interview with me. As
I shared with you previously, I am studying the underrepresentation of women in supply chain
leadership. More specifically, I am exploring the impact mentoring may have on women seeking
leadership roles in supply chain management. Interviewing women who have been or are
currently in supply chain leadership roles is my primary method of collecting data for my study.
I have shared with you the information sheet for exempt research. After reviewing the
information sheet, do you have any questions? Just to confirm, is it okay if I record our
interview? Recording the interview will allow me to thoroughly analyze our discussion in
support of data analysis. I also plan to take notes throughout the interview, as well. Is that okay
with you? Thank you for allowing me to record this interview and take notes. Finally, I want to
confirm that you are in a physical place that will allow you to talk freely and without distraction.
Is that the case? Great! I have 15 questions that I will ask you, which I shared with you in
advance of our meeting today. Based on your responses, I may ask follow-up questions if that is
okay with you. The interview should last between 45 and 60 minutes. Before we begin the
interview, are there any questions you have? If not, shall we begin? Great! I am going to start the
recording and transcription now.

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Table A1
Interview Protocol Cross Walk
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
1. Behavior/Experience – Can you tell me
about your career path in supply chain
management, including your current role?
- How long have you been in the
supply chain management field?
- How long have you been in
leadership?
N/A – ice breaker;
demographic
N/A – ice
breaker;
demographic
2. Behavior/Experience – Can you share with
me what support systems, if any, exist that
have helped you build your leadership
confidence as a woman?
- Please explain how you learned
about these systems.
- Please explain how you leveraged
these systems.
N/A – ice breaker;
organizational
system-related
N/A – ice
breaker;
organizational
system related
3. Behavior/Experience – Can you describe
your experience, if any, with being
mentored in your career?
- Have you had more positive or
negative experiences with being
mentored? Please explain.
RQ1 Mentoring
4. Behavior/Experience – Can you describe
the structure of your mentoring sessions?
- Were the mentoring sessions
structured or free-flowing?
- Were mentors assigned to you or
did you choose your mentors?
- How often did you meet with your
mentor?
- Did you have one or multiple
mentors?
RQ1 Mentoring
5. Opinions/Values – From your perspective
as a woman, what are the ideal qualities an
impactful mentor should have in the
pursuit of career interests and goals?
- Can you describe a specific
approach a mentor used that was
particularly helpful to you?
RQ1, RQ2 Mentoring
6. Opinions/Value – How has your mentoring
experience been different based on the
gender of your mentor?
- Can you provide specific examples
of the differences?
RQ1, RQ2 Mentoring

96
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
7. Behavior/Experience – What kind of
preparation for your mentoring sessions, if
any, did you find most impactful while
being mentored?
- Did your mentor ask you to
prepare anything for your
mentoring sessions?
- Did you find that your preparation
led to a greater impact from
mentoring?
RQ1, RQ2 Mentoring
8. Behavior/Experience – As a woman, how,
if at all, has mentoring served to help your
self-confidence in your leadership
capabilities?
- How impactful was mentoring
compared to other support systems
in building your self-confidence?
RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy
9. Feeling – Can you share a time in your
career, if at all, when your confidence held
you back in your pursuit of a leadership
role?
- How, if at all, did you overcome
the lack of confidence?
- What role if any did a mentor play
in supporting you?
RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy
10. Opinion/Values – Can you share a time, if
ever, in your career when a mentor was
particularly helpful to you as a woman as
you pursued your career goals?
- Was it related to a specific project,
role, or leadership level? Please
explain.
RQ1, RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy
11. Knowledge – How has mentoring provided
you the opportunity to improve your actual
leadership performance?
- Can you give a specific example? RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy; actual
performance
12. Behavior/Experience – How, if at all, has
having a mentor served as a role model to
improve your leadership performance?
- Can you give a specific example? RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy; role
modeling
13. Feeling – As a woman, how, if at all, have
you felt a mentor provided motivational
support to improve your performance as a
leader?
- Can you give a specific example? RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy; social
persuasion

97
Interview questions Potential probes RQ addressed Key concept
addressed
14. Feeling – How, if at all, has a mentor
provided tips/tricks/advice in controlling
your emotions to improve your
performance as a leader?
- Can you give a specific example? RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy;
physiological
responses
15. Opinion/Values – As you consider your
future career interests and goals, how, if at
all, could a mentor help accelerate your
career aspirations?
- Do you think mentoring will be
one of the more important
accelerants for your future career
aspirations?
RQ1, RQ2 SCCT - selfefficacy

100
Conclusion to the Interview
Thank you (name)! Before we conclude the interview, is there anything else you would
like to add to this topic? Okay, I am going to stop the recording now. I am deeply appreciative of
our discussion today. I appreciate your transparency and willingness to share personal
information with me today. The information you have shared will help me dive deeply into my
study. As I continue with my study, I may reach back out to you for further discussion on
specific elements of the study. Is that okay with you? Thank you and have a wonderful day!

99
Appendix B: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
STUDY TITLE: The Importance of Mentoring in Leadership Self-Efficacy for Women in
Supply Chain: A Qualitative Study
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Brian Kraus
FACULTY ADVISOR: Dr. Jennifer Phillips
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study is to explore the impact mentoring has on women’s pursuit of supply
chain leadership roles in the United States. I hope to learn how mentoring impacts your
leadership self-confidence and in what specific ways it does. You are invited as a possible
participant because your profile fits my desired criteria, namely being a woman in a supply chain
leadership role.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
You will be asked to participate in a 45-60 minute semi-structured interview, consisting of
approximately 15 open-ended questions. The questions will be shared in advance, although
preparation for the interview is not required. Given the responses to your questions, additional
follow-up questions may be asked. The interviews will be recorded and transcribed to ensure the
accuracy of the information you share. After the interview, you will have the opportunity to
review the transcript for accuracy and completeness.
If you decide to take part, you will be asked to participate in the interview to offer your insights
on this topic.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed at conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
Video recordings, transcripts, and any personal notes from the interview will be stored
securely on my laptop computer through the data analysis process. Once the data analysis

100
process is complete, all material will be stored on an external hard drive in my home. If you wish
to receive a copy of the video recording or transcripts, either will be provided to you. I will honor
the desire to have video recordings or transcripts destroyed after the data analysis process. At no
time during the study will your personal identification be shared.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact: Brian Kraus; 616.901.1705;
bpkraus@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Kraus, Brian Paul (author)

Core Title The importance of mentoring in leadership self-efficacy for women in supply chain: a qualitative study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/09/2024

Defense Date 09/05/2023

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,self-efficacy,supply chain management,women in leadership

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Phillips, Jennifer (committee chair)

Creator Email brian.kraus@amway.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113871302

Unique identifier UC113871302

Identifier etd-KrausBrian-12785.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-KrausBrian-12785

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Kraus, Brian Paul

Internet Media Type application/pdf

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