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Shattering the glass ceiling: examining invisible barriers to women’s career progression in South Korean international schools

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Shattering the glass ceiling: examining invisible barriers to women’s career progression in South Korean international schools

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Content SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 1
SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING: Examining Invisible Barriers to Women’s Career
Progression in South Korean International Schools
by
Denise Brohm
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2024
Copyright 2024 Denise Brohm

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 2
Abstract
Employing a critical feminist theoretical framework, this study conducted an analysis of
challenges faced by women pursuing upward mobility within South Korean international
schools. Focusing on the pronounced gender disparity in leadership roles, the aim was to identify
specific obstacles hindering women's career advancement and propose potential policy measures
to narrow the existing gender gap. During semi-structured interviews with nine women
occupying diverse leadership roles within a prominent K-12 South Korean international school,
barriers were identified and classified into three overarching categories: social, organizational,
and personal. Social barriers included stereotypes and biases, organizational barriers required
adept navigation of institutional structures, and personal barriers encompassed work-life balance
and self-doubt. The study recommends comprehensive childcare programs, structured
mentorship opportunities during onboarding, and a strategic approach promoting fairness, equity,
and diversity within educational leadership positions to support women aspiring to leadership
roles in South Korean international schools.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 3
Dedication
In loving memory of my father, Dennis William Brohm. Since we couldn’t finish this journey
together, I proudly dedicate this work in your honor, Dad.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 4
Acknowledgements
Throughout my life's journey, I've faced numerous challenges, each time finding solace in the
helping hands of friends, colleagues, or kind strangers who lifted me up when life knocked me down. This
doctoral pursuit has been no exception. I've been fortunate to be surrounded by individuals who saw
potential in me that I couldn't see in myself. Their wisdom, warm smiles, and gentle encouragement
guided me through the daunting world of academic research, allowing me to stand before you today and
share my accomplishments.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to my dissertation committee—Dr. Bradley Ermeling, Dr. Maria Ott,
and my supportive chair, Dr. Kim Ferrario. Their sage advice and scholarly guidance not only shaped the
academic content of this dissertation but also played a pivotal role in my personal and professional growth
as an educational leader.
To my fellow cohort members on this scholarly odyssey, your camaraderie, shared insights, and
mutual encouragement have transformed Wednesday nights from ordinary to extraordinary. Special
thanks to my study group companions—Shannyn, Shannon, Maurissa, and Alia—your wit, intelligence,
and support, along with the hilarious memes, made this journey more enjoyable than it should have been.
I cherish our friendship because you are “simply the best.”
Dominique, your recognition of my strengths and encouragement to step into the role of an
international education leader were transformative. Thanks to your friendship and gentle push, I am no
longer the shy girl in the back of the room. I've found the strength you saw in me.
To the countless women leaders I've had the privilege of working with, I wish I had enough pages
to name you all. You are the inspiration behind this paper, and I am committed to creating space for more
women leaders in international education. My sincere appreciation for your greatness fuels my ongoing
dedication.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 5
A special mention and a big belly rub go to Sparky, the wonder dog, who reminded me that
research isn't confined to books and keyboards. It is done in real life, breathing fresh and connecting with
others and the world around you. Thank you for forcing me to shut my laptop and take a breath of fresh
air.
I am forever grateful to everyone who played a role in turning my childhood dream of becoming
Dr. Brohm into a reality. This dissertation stands as a testament to your collective effort and support.
여러분, 감사합니다.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 6
Table of Contents
Abstract........................................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................ 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 7
List of Figures................................................................................................................................. 8
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study.......................................................................................... 9
Background of the Problem......................................................................................................... 9
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology........................................................... 15
Definitions................................................................................................................................. 16
Organization of the Dissertation ............................................................................................... 18
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................. 19
Social Barriers to Women in Leadership .................................................................................. 19
Organizational Barriers............................................................................................................. 23
Personal Barriers....................................................................................................................... 28
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 35
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................................ 39
Overview of Methodology ........................................................................................................ 39
Credibility and Trustworthiness................................................................................................ 45
Ethics......................................................................................................................................... 47
The Researcher.......................................................................................................................... 48
Chapter Four: Findings................................................................................................................. 50
Participants................................................................................................................................ 51
Findings for Research Question 1: What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking
career advancement in administration roles in international schools in South Korea?............. 52
Discussion for Research Question 1.......................................................................................... 72
Findings for Research Question 2: What policies and practices do women in international
schools’ leadership in South Korea believe support their career advancement? ...................... 73
Discussion for Research Question 2.......................................................................................... 80
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 81
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice ..................................................... 84
Discussion of Findings.............................................................................................................. 85
Recommendations for Practice.................................................................................................. 89
Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................................... 97
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 97
Conclusion................................................................................................................................. 98
References................................................................................................................................... 100
Appendix A................................................................................................................................. 115
Appendix B................................................................................................................................. 120
Appendix C................................................................................................................................. 122

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Sources ................................................................................................................... 40
Table 2: Participant's Years of Experience, Family Status, and Race ........................................... 51
Table 3: Stereotypes and Biases Based on Physical Appearance ................................................. 56
Table 4: Family Influence and Gender Expectations.................................................................... 59
Table 5: Navigating the Leadership Labyrinth ............................................................................. 63
Table 6: Navigating Personal and Professional Relationships...................................................... 65
Table 7: Work-Life Balance .......................................................................................................... 68
Table 8: Self-doubt / Impostor Syndrome..................................................................................... 70
Table 9: Comprehensive Child Care and Maternity Leave Support............................................. 76
Table 10: Opportunities for Mentorship ....................................................................................... 77
Table 11: Clear, Transparent Hiring and Promotion Processes..................................................... 79
Table 12: Summary of Themes and Findings of the Study........................................................... 82
Table 13: Connection of RQ’s to Findings and Literature............................................................ 90

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 8
List of Figures
Figure A: Barriers to Women in Leadership Positions at International Schools in South Korea . 35

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Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
Historically, women have been marginalized in the field of educational leadership. As a
result, administrators, principals, and school directors are overwhelmingly men. According to the
U.S. Department of Education, the most recent available figures indicate that approximately
54.7% of principals in the United States are female (Taie, 2022). This number is considerably
low given female teachers make up 76.6% of the applicant pool for administration positions
(Taie, 2022). Globally, women are less likely than men to be represented in formal leadership
positions. It has been noted that finding statistics on gender proportions is difficult in most
countries (Shakeshaft, 2006).
International schools, typically rooted in western values, add nuance to the study of
women leadership especially in eastern countries. Pounder and Coleman (2002), indicated that
the “underlying patriarchal values made it very difficult for women to transcend entrenched
attitudes to women and take on senior management roles in schools…” (p. 54). Over the past two
decades, the number of international schools worldwide has grown from 2,584 to 11,451, serving
5.8 million students, with a significant concentration of this growth in Asia (Wright et al., 2022).
Little research has been conducted on international schools and more specifically about gender
equality in leadership in these schools. As international schools tout global citizenship as a core
value, it is essential for our future global citizens to see female leaders represented in schools.
Background of the Problem
To understand the current context of educational leadership practices, it is important to
look to the past. In the United States, prior to the 18th century, all teaching was done by men
(Eisenmann, 2007). The creation of the public school system during the 19th century encouraged
women to enter the profession. Then, teaching became an inherently “feminine pursuit” as

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 10
women made up 63% of the workforce during this time (Wong, 2017). Over the years, women
continued to flock to the classroom. Scholars cite a multitude of reasons for dwindling numbers
of male teachers. Some propose that teaching, specifically lower elementary grades is a pathway
to poverty, suggesting that men prefer more prestigious careers (Eisenmann, 2007). Others
attribute the imbalance to gender norms, identifying women as natural nurturers, with teaching as
an extension of motherhood (Wong, 2017). Similarly, Hakim (2004) stated, “certain occupations,
such as school teaching, are attractive to women because they facilitate a good work-life
balance” (p. 14). Explicitly stated, teaching allows women to maintain a career while tending to a
household which may include child rearing. Despite the rising numbers of women pursuing
careers in teaching, they fall behind their male counterparts in educational leadership positions
(Shakeshaft, 2006).
The persistent underrepresentation of women in leadership positions is a welldocumented phenomenon in many industries, and the field of education is no exception. In fact,
as Coleman (2002), (cited in Sanderson & Whitehead, 2016) noted, “women numerically
dominate the teaching profession in most countries [...] but they hold a minority of the
management positions in education” (p. 14). In the context of international schools, this
underrepresentation is even more apparent, as female teachers make up 61% of the faculty while
men account for the remaining 39%, according to the Council for International School's (CIS)
2021 study on Determining the Diversity Baseline in International Schools. This is statistically
significant because a teacher is more than 1.6 times more likely to be female. Despite the larger
number of women in teacher positions, men dominate leadership positions. ISC/Diversity
Collaborative research from December 2019, reported in The International Educator stated that
women make up 42% of leadership positions overall in international schools. A more recent

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study by CIS (2021) indicated the gap is narrowing between men and women in leadership
positions at international schools with 52% male leaders. However, the larger number of women
in the applicant pools, suggests there is still a gender imbalance in leadership. And, women
appear to have been relegated to lower leadership levels as 75% school directors are male
(Neyra, 2021, October 19).
Located across the world in many different countries and climates, international schools
provide new and exciting opportunities for diversity in education. However, despite these
perceived advantages, they are often rooted in what Gardner-McTaggart (2020) referred to as
twenty-first century hegemony. International school teachers, generally speaking, typically spend
their careers shuttling from one county to another or shifting from home country to international
placements (Tarc, 2019). In a recent study by CIS (2021), most teachers list the United States
(30%), Canada (16%) and the United Kingdom (12%) as their home country. Meaning teachers
will move abroad for a teaching position, but often find themselves in schools heavily influenced
by western values (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020).
To secure stable employees, many international schools have an unspoken rule about
prioritizing married hires since moving overseas with a spouse eases the transition to a new
country (International School Community, 2021). Some schools will further prioritize married
couples with children to add diversity to the student body and increase employment longevity.
Transitioning to a new home and country with children adds additional complications increasing
the likelihood of both teaching spouses completing their two-year contracts. Considering the
desirability of hiring married teaching couples, it is important to reflect upon the impact of
relationships on career advancement. A report compiled by the National Association of
Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers, stated 42% of men but only 28% of women had

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 12
careers that took precedence over their partners’ aspirations (McNamara, 2010). Furthermore,
one third of women let career aspirations affect their decisions on planning a family compared to
just 20% of men. Women tend to prioritize both their partner and family over their career. This
suggests that women that aspire to be school leaders need to be single or have a spouse that is
prepared to prioritize their partner’s career (Sanderson & Whitehead, 2016).
Attitudes toward gender roles and women's place in the organizational hierarchy in host
countries can complicate matters for international schools. Despite their efforts to create a
"western" style education, these schools cannot ignore the influence of the local culture on their
environment. For example, a study by Berman (1998) found that female international educators
in Asia considered geographic location a significant barrier to upward mobility. In Korea, a
predominantly Confucian society, men are placed at the top of the hierarchy, in leadership
positions, while women are responsible for domestic duties like child-rearing and housework.
Teaching is still seen as a desirable career option for women, but few have advanced beyond the
classroom into leadership positions.
Organization Context and Mission
International schools in South Korea are broken down into distinctive categories:
Foreigner schools, international schools, foreign language schools and hagwons (educational
academies). Each of these institutions are distinguished by governmental rules that dictate
student enrollment and language of instruction. This paper focuses on Sunny Valley International
School (pseudonym), which is classified as a foreign school providing English instruction to
foreign residents in South Korea. Foreign schools ensure that non-Korean students and students
that have lived extensively abroad can receive an education in their native language. Most
foreign schools cater to the English-speaking population; however, other options include

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 13
Chinese, Japanese, and German language instruction. These schools’ admission requirements are
strictly regulated by the Korean Ministry of Education. Foreign school eligibility requires a study
body composed of 70% foreign students while the remaining 30% accommodates ethnic
Koreans. Ethnic Koreans must have resided overseas for at least 3 years or have at least one
parent that is a foreign citizen to be eligible to enroll (Song, 2013).
Sunny Valley International School (SVIS) is a private, non-profit school offering an
American standards-based curriculum to PK-12 students. The school was established over 20
years ago in a suburb of a major Korean city. It is highly regarded as one of the top international
schools in South Korea and a top-tier international school globally. At the time of this research,
SVIS student enrollment was approximately 1,400 students with approximately 150 teachers
employed. Of the 150 teachers, the number of female teachers was nearly double the number of
male teachers, with most of the former teaching the elementary school. One might reasonably
expect equal representation of women in leadership positions, but of the eleven staff members
with principal positions, only three women held this title. Notably, the director of the school was
a woman. She was the second female director since SVIS was established over two decades ago.
The school’s mission is “to inspire students with a passion for learning and to cultivate
the competence, self-assurance, initiative, and creativity necessary for success in the global
community.” This includes core values that identify global citizenship, integrity, balance in life,
and empowerment as primary learning objectives. Notably the school’s motto is: “Create your
future.” The current leadership model does not help students envision a future with female
leaders. Not only does their leadership structure influence students’ perceptions of women’s role
within an organization, but it also acts as a model for schools locally and abroad. Developing an

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 14
understanding of the gender disparity at SVIS can help create a better standing of the issue on a
macroscopic level.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the barriers to upward mobility faced by
female administrators working at international schools in South Korea. Insight on the significant
gender imbalance in leadership roles can help to identify specific barriers to women’s career
advancement and uncover potential policy supports to minimize the gender gap. The following
questions will be used to guide the research on this topic:
1. What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking career advancement in
administration roles in international schools in South Korea?
2. What policies and practices do women in international school leadership in South
Korea believe support their career advancement?
Importance of the Study
Women have been and continue to be dominant contributors to the field of education, yet
they are underrepresented in leadership roles. Current research has provided some contextual
knowledge about women’s marginalization in leadership positions, but additional study is needed
to develop an in-depth understanding of the issue. This study will add insight about the
challenges faced by women in administration positions in international schools. Shakeshaft
(2006) reported, “finding statistics on gender proportions in formal leadership positions is
difficult in most countries, and assembling comparable statistics across countries is not possible”
(p.12). As many international schools operate as private institutions limiting data collection, the
lack of research in this area is problematic. First, documentation reflects areas that are deemed
valuable and important by governments (Shakeshaft, 2006). This suggests acceptance of a status

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 15
quo which limits women’s participation in educational leadership. Second, failing to report
details surrounding gender and leadership may indicate a resistance to making reforms around
this issue (Shakeshaft, 2006). Furthermore, Gardner-McTaggart (2020) stated, “…international
schools hold great potential as transformative spaces to initiate planetary action for peace,
equality, justice and environmental change” (p.1). International schools, with core values like
global citizenship, are educating the leaders of tomorrow. Without female representation, the
girls in classrooms today are not provided with role models for leadership. The results of this
study provides the opportunity for policy makers to reflect on current and existing policies that
create gender barriers in their organizations. This may, in the future, create space for more gender
inclusive policies and practices to support women in leadership roles.
Overview of Theoretical Framework and Methodology
The theoretical framework used to guide this research is critical feminist theory. This
framework combines both critical and feminist theory. Baxter and Braithwaite (2008) defined
feminist theory “as the belief that men and women are equal and should have equal rights and
opportunities in all spheres of life—personal, social, work, and public” (p. 209). Critical theory
seeks to understand how elements of gender, race, class, sexuality, and ability intersect and
contribute structures of power and oppression (Baxter & Braithwaite 2008). Critical feminist
theory interrogates the status quo and seeks opportunities to rethink society’s preconceived
notions and expectations of gender and gender roles. This allows for a specific focus on access to
career advancement and the impact of representation on future and present female leaders. This
aligns with the problem of practice because this framework seeks to understand the ways in
which cultural practices and structures differently and inequitably shape women’s and men’s
existence in social structures. It also seeks to understand how hegemonic patriarchy, which

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reflects the interest, values, and perspectives of men, influence the field of education in the realm
of international leadership.
This study is aimed at exploring the challenges faced by women in leadership positions at
SVIS; therefore, a qualitative methodology best suits this objective. In qualitative studies, the
data collection instrument must be sensitive to gathering and interpreting data. Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) indicated that humans are best suited to this role in qualitative studies; therefore,
data will be collected through interviews with key stakeholders in educational leadership. Due to
the limited number of women administrators at SVIS, additional participants will be selected
through snowball sampling to include women in various leadership roles at SVIS.
Additionally, data will be mined from artifacts and documents. Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) cited documents such as online blogs and discussion boards as potential areas for data
collection. Websites such as ibo.org and internationalschoolcommunity.com offer additional
artifacts that may support or highlight data obtained from interviews.
Definitions
The following section provides definitions of terms used in this study to provide clarity
and context for the reader.
International School
When referring to international schools in South Korea, international schools or “foreign
schools,” provide non-Korean students and students that have lived extensively abroad an
education in their native language. International schools must follow a government mandate that
requires a study body composed of a minimum 70% foreign students and a maximum of 30%

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 17
ethnic Koreans. Ethnic Koreans must have resided overseas for at least 3 years or have at least
one parent that is a foreign citizen to be eligible to enroll (Song, 2013).
Self-Efficacy
Perceived self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura (1994), is “people's beliefs about their
capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that
affect their lives” (p. 1).
Gender Norms
Gender norms are social and cultural explanations and attitudes about behaviors,
preferences, professions, or knowledge that are appropriate for women, men, and gender diverse
individuals. Social institutions, social interactions, and cultural context inform gender norms
which are impacted by historical context and location (Aarntzen et al., 2021).
Gender Roles
Gender roles are a complex concept impacted by historical context, culture, and location.
Gender roles, specifically explained by Blackstone (2003) are “...The roles that men and women
are expected to occupy based on their sex. Traditionally, many Western societies have believed
that women are more nurturing than men. Therefore, the traditional view of the feminine gender
role prescribes that women should behave in ways that are nurturing” (p. 337).
Work-Life Balance
Work-life balance is the ability to successfully combine work and family commitments as
explained by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). An
important aspect of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends working, including

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 18
paid and unpaid labor. Evidence suggests lack of work-life balance resulting in long work hours
may impair personal health, jeopardize safety, and increase stress.
Organization of the Dissertation
This study is composed of five chapters. Chapter One provides the background of the
problem, the context of the study, and the theoretical framework that guided the research. In
Chapter Two, the literature is reviewed, and key concepts are identified to shape the
methodology. Chapter Three details the study methodology, including participant selection, data
collection, and analysis methods. In Chapter Four, the collected data and findings are examined
and analyzed. Finally, Chapter Five concludes the study by presenting recommendations for
policies that support women leaders in South Korean international schools and offers suggestions
for further research.

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Chapter Two: Literature Review
The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the barriers to upward mobility faced by
women in leadership working in international schools in South Korea. Insight on the significant
gender imbalance in leadership roles can help to identify specific barriers to women’s career
advancement and uncover potential policy supports to minimize the gender gap. According to the
literature, barriers to women aspiring to leadership positions in international schools can be
categorized into three main areas: social, organizational, and personal. Social barriers include the
influence of cultural values (Kim & Song, 2014; Kim & Han, 1996), gender norms (Amondi,
2011; Martínez et al., 2021), biases, and negative stereotypes (Koenig et al., 2011; Herbst, 2020),
which often lead to women being held to a higher standard and facing discrimination in
leadership roles. Organizational barriers stem from the entrenched culture, power dynamics
(Gardner-McTaggart, 2020), and exclusion from informal networks (Hoff & Mitchel, 2008;
Boorstin, 2022) that limit women's access to prestigious positions. Personal barriers are impacted
by both societal and organizational influences and include imposter syndrome (McGee 2010),
low self-efficacy (Naglee, 2018; McNamer, 2020), and work-life balance expectations (Mustapa
et al., 2018). Despite research showing that women possess traits that lend to effective leadership
practices, they trail behind men in leadership positions. To create an inclusive and equitable work
environment and address gender inequality in educational leadership, understanding these
barriers is crucial. This begins with critically examining social barriers faced by women in career
advancement.
Social Barriers to Women in Leadership
The barriers faced by women entering leadership positions in education are multifaceted,
interdependent, and often reinforcing. At international schools, social barriers present a unique

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 20
set of challenges due to the influence of the host country. When examining international schools
in South Korea, it is essential to understand Korean values and attitudes toward women in
leadership. This allows for a nuanced understanding of how Korean culture impacts western
values at international schools.
In South Korea, Confucianism is widely seen as having enduring influence on societal
values in the areas of family and education. Confucian values emphasize male dominance,
perpetuating inequalities and discrimination against women in various aspects of society,
including leadership (Kim & Song, 2014). These values align with and reinforce traditional
gender roles and norms in western society, shaping how people perceive and perform in
leadership roles. Women and men have historically been assigned distinct roles based on their
gender. Women were expected to fulfill caring and parental duties while men paid employment
and management (Hoff & Mitchel, 2008; Martínez et al., 2021). Consequently, leadership
positions often demand qualities associated with masculinity, leading to women being held to a
gendered standard, facing biases and negative stereotypes (Koenig et al., 2011) in administrative
roles. In this context, women who challenge gender norms and assume leadership roles are often
viewed as a threat to stable social hierarchies and identities, further complicating their path to
success (Amondi, 2011).
Women’s Role in Society / Influence of Host Culture
The patriarchal cultural values of Confucianism in South Korea continue to impact the
gender imbalance in leadership roles in education. Despite progress in women's educational
opportunities and social participation, traditional gender roles and attitudes persist, with women
often facing discrimination and prejudice in prestigious positions. Arar and Oplatka (2013)
explained that cultural background affects the attitudes of principals and teachers in schools.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 21
South Korea is no exception in this regard as culture is a critical issue for women in the
workforce. Although new and traditional gender roles co-exist in South Korea (Kim & Han,
1996), Confucianist values continue to permeate society. Confucianism is a key feature of South
Korea’s national culture. This is reflected in the highly conservative, male-dominated values that
influence society and the structure of the public school system (Kim & Song, 2014).
Confucianism is an ethical value system that focuses on the subordination of women to
men and places a strong preference for sons over daughters (Collins & Bosworth, 1996). Women
in traditional Confucianist roles are required to obey men, tend to the home, and avoid dealing
with public affairs. These patriarchal cultural values create inequalities between women and men
by placing women into roles of subordination. While the past three decades have seen a marked
increase in women’s educational opportunities and social participation, distorted thinking about
women’s gender roles continue to exist (Kim & Song, 2014). Residual attitudes about women’s
low position in society lead to discrimination in many aspects of society including entry into
prestigious leadership positions. Confucian values may contribute to the imbalanced applicant
pool for principal positions (Kim & Song, 2014). Furthermore, female principals face prejudice
and stereotypes hindering their promotion and entry into leadership positions.
Gender Roles
Similarly, in western society, women and men have had traditional roles and identities
assigned to their gender. Women were designated to caring and parental roles while men were
designated to paid employment and management (Pietromonaco et al., 2021). The socialization
process in which men and women were raised structures and equips them to enact their different
and respective roles. Women were taught to be feminine and were socialized to embody qualities
such as submissiveness and gentleness while lacking tactfulness and decision-making skills

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 22
(Hoff & Mitchel, 2008). Leadership positions are believed to require qualities that are usually
associated with men such as assertiveness, competitiveness, and influence (Martínez et al.,
2021). Since there is a mismatch between the women’s gender role and the qualities needed for
leadership, women may be reluctant to apply for top leadership roles (Martínez et al., 2021). This
mismatch may cause women to question their self-efficacy, while encouraging men to apply for
positions even when the men lack the qualifications. Not only does this contribute to personal
barriers such as imposter syndrome, women must contend with other’s negative views of their
competence in traditionally male domains (Martínez et al., 2021).
Gender Norms
While gender roles dictate behaviors, attitudes, and activities associated with being male
or female, gender norms are social rules and expectations that prescribe and reinforce these roles.
Gender stereotyping is one method used to reinforce these roles. Kinnear and Ortlepp (2016)
stated that “gender stereotyping remains at the heart of the challenge women experience in
asserting alternative models of power” (p.2). Historically, literature on leadership uses a
“masculine” archetype which is confirmed through various studies that link men with more traits
that connote leadership (Herbst, 2020). A meta-analysis of 69 studies by Koenig et al. (2011),
confirmed that western culture associates masculinity with leadership. Characteristics that are
commonly associated with women contribute to the challenges women face in obtaining
leadership roles and performing well within them.
Fueling these stereotypes is the incongruity between communal qualities (such as caring
and kind) which are often associated with women and the agentic qualities (e.g., assertive and
competitive) which are believed essential for successful leadership (Koenig et al., 2011). As a
result, women are held to a higher standard and required to outperform their male counterparts to

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 23
counteract gender stereotypes (Herbst, 2020). This was confirmed in Boorstin's (2022) book,
When Women Lead, which cited "consistently exceeding performance expectations" as a strategy
used by successful female executives. Often women are assimilated through a gender stereotype
and evaluated through a deficit lens that lacks the qualities of socially accepted masculine
leadership (Koenig et al., 2011). Not complying with the expected leadership practices results in
unfavorable performance expectations and enables biased judgments about women’s leadership
practices (Koenig et al., 2011). Simply stated by Amondi (2011), “Women who get into
leadership are … trouble” (p. 61). Women who delve into leadership are seen as ‘masculine’ and
posing a risk to assumed stable identities and social roles in the hierarchy of professions
(Amondi, 2011). These assumptions about gender norms and gender roles also contribute to
organizational barriers.
Organizational Barriers
Influenced by societal barriers, women also experience organizational barriers to career
advancement within school systems. Amondi (2011) suggested the lack of female representation
in leadership stems from gaining access to prestigious positions. She compared the
disproportionate number of higher-ranking men in educational leadership as a “glass ceiling”
(Johns, 2013). Glass ceilings create a view to administration positions, but the ceiling limits a
woman’s career progression. Organizations create this effect through entrenched cultures and
norms, the way power is defined and exercised, and exclusion from informal networks (GardnerMcTaggart, 2020). These concepts can be defined and explained through leadership hegemony
and patriarchy.
Leadership hegemony refers to the ways in which those in power shape policies,
recruitment practices, and other aspects of organizational culture to favor those who are already

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 24
empowered. Patriarchal leadership refers to the ways in which gender norms and power
differentials contribute to unequal outcomes for men and women. At international schools, these
concepts can be seen in policies and practices that tend to favor men over women in hiring,
teaching, and remuneration (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020). Research has shown that homophilic
preferences, unconscious bias, and other societal factors also contribute to gender inequality in
education (María & Ferreira, 2022; Garica et al., 2008).
Leadership Hegemony
The intersection of gender and leadership has been the subject of extensive research in
recent years, with scholars investigating the various barriers that women face in ascending to
leadership roles which includes hegemonic practices. In a recent study on international schools,
Gardner-McTaggart (2020) found that policies, recruitment practices, teaching methods, and
compensation systems favor the already privileged while exploiting the marginalized. This raises
questions about whether international schools can effectively promote critical education
practices, such as global citizenship, integrity, and empowerment, as they claim to do. GardnerMcTaggart (2020) further argued that international schools, particularly those which follow IB
practices, require fundamental change in recruitment, remuneration, and policy to reverse the
automatic injustices done to historically marginalized groups. A leader in international school
research, much of Gardner-McTaggart’s work focuses on the impact and injustices of white
supremacy culture in international schools. However, as explained by Jones and Okun (2001),
paternalism and hoarding of power are tenants of white supremacy culture which perpetuate
hegemony in educational leadership. Bourdieu (1996) further explained that schools and
schooling were created to reproduce power structures in the states they were created (GardnerMcTaggart, 2020). Although international schools are globally diffused, they perpetuate the

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 25
ideology of contemporary western style education. Gardner-McTaggart (2020) stated
international schools “offer their own product of cultural domination to serve a twenty-first
century hegemony” (p. 2). This means leadership hegemony is not unique to international school
settings, but perpetuated through traditional schooling techniques established in the west where
women in leadership are also marginalized.
Lu explained the reason for the underrepresentation for women in organizations is men’s
dominant social position and power (2020). According to Diko (2014), “Men are socially
constructed so as to have the upper hand in areas of power” (p. 827). This is evident in
leadership research which is typically conducted on male leaders by male researchers (Lu, 2020).
As such, leadership research has perpetuated dominant forms of masculine leadership as the
norm, rejecting other leadership styles (Lu, 2020). Coleman (2005) argued that the feminization
of teaching led men to preserve their dominance and hegemony by moving to positions of
leadership. In this male dominated world of education management, women are relegated to low
status teachers.
Espinosa and Ferreira (2022) offer homophilic preference as a possible explanation for
discrimination and bias in promotional practice. As most administrators and directors of
international schools are men, and value is placed on good working relationships, men may be
more likely to receive promotions. Similarly, Garica et al. (2008) found that in recruitment and
selection practices, interviewers rated applicants more favorably if they perceived them as
similar to themselves. Tulshyan (2019) referred to this, the bias of liking someone similar to
ourselves, as affinity bias. The practice is widespread in hiring practices and lead leadership
teams promoting candidates who “look, act, and operate” like them. This leads teams to
inadvertently weed out qualified applicants from underrepresented backgrounds because of bias.

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Chamorro-Premuzic (2021) described American society as a sham meritocracy, where
organizations “pretend to pick the best person for each job, while simply picking those we
prefer.” In the case of leadership, style is preferred over substance and confidence trumps
competence. Despite data supporting female leaders and the hundreds of millions of dollars
invested in diversity initiatives, Johnson et al. (2016) identify unconscious bias as a challenge to
many well-intentioned programs. Lauricella (2022), explained the importance of social capital in
career advancement claiming a strong social network trumps skillful performance of managerial
tasks. Building valuable social networks is time consuming and often done outside of work
hours. Women are often not invited to these networking events (e.g. sporting events, golf, and/or
poker games). Informal networks often develop based on existing relationships, and if those
relationships are predominantly male-dominated, women may be inadvertently overlooked or
excluded from invitations. When these networks exist, they may remain hidden with no visible
effects, but serve to keep those on the outside (mostly women) from advancing into leadership
(Hoff & Mitchel, 2008).
Patriarchal Leadership
With the overwhelming number of men in leadership positions, it is important to consider
the high percentage of employee dissatisfaction. In a 2020 Gallup study of 96 countries, 64% of
employees are not engaged (or disengaged) at work, citing management as a cause for
dissatisfaction (Hartner, 2023). Additionally, 65-75% of employees reported that the worst part
of their job is their boss; roughly 1 in 2 people distrust their leaders and believe at least 50% of
leaders will disappoint. Even with these data driven findings and the perceived push to promote
women into leadership over competent men, the number of female leaders lag behind their male
counterparts (Wittenberg-Cox, 2021). Wittenberg-Cox (2021) rationalized the lack of women

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 27
leaders despite the overwhelming evidence of their effectiveness resides in societal expectations;
Organizations expect talent to fight for power. Historically, this is how men have obtained their
leadership roles. However, women typically fight for purpose, not power (Adams & Funk, 2011).
Kim and Song (2014) explained that principal performance is not rooted in biological
differences, but perceptions of gender which are socially constructed from patriarchal society and
school culture. Because leadership positions in education are dominated by men, women often
lack a sponsor that promotes their skills and abilities to others in the organization (Hewlett et al.,
2011). Women often underestimate the role sponsorship plays in career mobility or fail to enter
networks to cultivate it (Hewlett et al., 2011). Reasons for this vary, but often there is reluctance
for women to advance through connections because it is deemed inappropriate or can be
misconstrued as sexual interest (Hewlett et al., 2011).
Meta-analytic studies show that women tend to use a transformational leadership style
that supports their subordinates' potential. Transformational leaders work beyond immediate selfinterests and seek to create change through influence and inspiration that serves the best interest
of the organization as a whole. Elevating the voices of subordinates through democratic practices
and mentorship highlight common practices of female leaders (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2021).
Leadership experts Zenger and Folkman’s studies evaluating effectiveness show women have
been consistently rated higher on almost every dimension of leadership over the years (2019,
June 25). Their most recent study found the effectiveness gap almost doubled from 3.3 to 5.7,
nudging women’s relative performance ever higher (Wittenberg-Cox, 2021; Zenger & Folkman,
2019). Despite their proven effectiveness as leaders, women often create self-imposed barriers
hindering career advancement.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 28
Personal Barriers
Over the past decade, scientific studies have consistently shown that women, over men,
possess traits such as humility, self-awareness, self-control, moral sensitivity, emotional
intelligence, kindness, and a prosocial and moral orientation that lend to effective leadership
practices (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2021). Despite this natural inclination to become leaders, women
trail behind their male counterparts in educational leadership positions. Literature has indicated
several personal barriers including imposter syndrome, low self-efficacy and work life balance
hinder women’s prospects at career advancement. Women in leadership positions often
experience feelings of isolation, marginalization, and doubt about their own abilities (Coleman,
2005). Female principals in male-dominated educational leadership spaces are particularly
vulnerable to these feelings due to the significant gender imbalance (Kim & Song, 2014; McGee,
2010). Imposter syndrome may cause women to doubt their abilities and feel like they do not
belong, leading them to mask their true selves to fit in with their male colleagues. Low selfefficacy causes women to underestimate themselves and have lower expectations of success than
men in many areas of achievement (Manfredi et al., 2014l; McNamer, 2020). Female leaders also
have different work-life balance expectations than their male counterparts (Mustapa et al., 2018;
Cross 2010). Women are more likely to view work-life balance as a personal goal rather than an
organizational priority, whereas men are more likely to view work-life balance as an
organizational responsibility necessary for employees (Coleman, 2005). This difference in
perspective can have a significant impact on the support women receive from their organization
and colleagues (Coleman, 2005).

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 29
Imposter Syndrome
Research suggests that female principals in male-dominated educational leadership
spaces often experience feelings of isolation and marginalization due to the significant gender
imbalance (Coleman, 2005). Working with primarily male headteachers, a female principal
stated, “I was surprised at the first meeting because I am not ‘just a school teacher’” (p. 12). This
suggests that leading in a male-centric atmosphere may be challenging for female principals
(Kim & Song, 2014). McGee (2010) confirmed, women in administrative positions feel isolated,
adding they lack the respect given to their male colleagues. Gupton and Slick’s (1995) book (as
cited in McGee, 2010) quoted a female elementary principal, "Even after women have obtained
administrative positions, they are not afforded the status or the respect given their male
colleagues" (p. 16). When women have advanced to leadership roles, they continue to experience
challenges due to their marginalized status. Women in spaces dominated by men, such as
educational leadership, tend to mask or camouflage their true selves to find acceptance from this
majoritarian group (men) (Crawford, 2020). This internalized perception of others' judgement
highlights the anxiety women leaders experience as a marginalized group (Crawford, 2020).
These feelings are compounded by the phenomenon of imposter syndrome, which can
cause women to doubt their own abilities and feel like they do not belong (Clance & Imes,
1978). Imposter syndrome is characterized by a gap between the “cultural work, projections onto
others, as an internal sense of self or the recurrent feelings of failing and faking” (Ambri et al.,
2021, p. 10). As a result, women in leadership positions may mask their true selves to fit in with
their male colleagues, further perpetuating feelings of isolation and marginalization (Crawford,
2020). Critical findings about women with imposter syndrome cite fear of imperfection, the need
of valuation, and rumination about past mistakes become barriers to career progression (Dudau,

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 30
2014; Ambri et al., 2021). Concern about being recognized as fraudulent causes sufferers to
downplay or hide their accomplishments in order to avoid promotion or advancement
(Fitzpatrick & Curran, 2014; Ambri et al., 2021).
Illustrated in daily work life, women with imposter syndrome may live in constant fear of
being fired thereby continually putting forth extended effort to be recognized as competent. It
can also manifest as fear of speaking up to correct a colleague or asking for clarification because
this may expose self-perceived incompetence. Although additional research is needed to
determine what factors contribute to women’s self-doubt, Sanderson & Whitehead’s (2016) study
on barriers to women managers’ career progression suggested developing self-confidence to
overcome self-imposed barriers. One participant in the study described her journey to overcome
self-doubt through counseling: “I’ve sought counseling to build my own self-esteem. I have felt
crushed. I have felt not valued. I have been bullied, emotionally, and had a hard time recognizing
it […] I blamed myself” (Sanderson & Whitehead, 2016). The participant further described how
internal work helped her exude external confidence. The participant believed acting with
confidence was recognized by others as capable leadership. However, it is important to note that
seeking self-help may not address the root cause of imposter syndrome, which is influenced by
societal factors. Therefore, further research and efforts to address societal influences are needed
to support women in overcoming imposter syndrome. In addition to imposter syndrome, research
indicated that low self-efficacy also acts as a personal barrier to women entering leadership
positions in education.
Low Self-Efficacy
The correlation between the high achievement and success of those with imposter
syndrome suggests that it is not synonymous with low self-esteem or low self-efficacy.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 31
(Crawford, 2020). Bandura (1994) defined self-efficacy as an individual's belief in their ability to
perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal. It has been well established in literature that
women have lower expectations of success than men in many areas of achievement which is
indicative of their tendency to underestimate themselves (Herbst, 2020). For example, low selfefficacy is cited as a factor inhibiting women's career progression (Manfredi et al., 2014).
McNamer (2020) observed that female leaders often perceived themselves as lacking
qualifications for a promotion while their male counterparts with similar credentials vied for the
same position. Statistics show that women are less likely to believe they have the qualifications
necessary for a job (Naglee, 2018; McNamer, 2020).
This discrepancy may stem from men's tendency to apply for positions even if they meet
only 60% of the qualifications, while women tend to apply only if they meet 100% of them
(Mohr, 2014; Clark, 2014). Clark (2014), Forbes’ Act Now to Shrink the Confidence Gap, further
explained, “Men are confident about their ability at 60%, but women don’t feel confident until
they’ve checked off each item on the list.” For instance, Naglee (2018) identified a female
director that could have easily moved into her position ten years prior. Her approach was to learn
every position in the school in order to obtain the necessary qualifications to become director.
This is further illustrated in a study by National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women
Teachers where men applied for significantly more leadership posts than women before being
appointed suggesting that men are more willing to apply for positions without the necessary
qualifications (McNamara, 2008).
Sanderson and Whitehead's (2016) study on barriers to women managers' career
progression showed that developing self-confidence can help overcome self-imposed barriers.
One participant in the study sought counseling to build her self-esteem, which helped her exude

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 32
external confidence and be recognized as a capable leader. Participants in Naglee's (2018) article
believed that high self-efficacy not only improved their self-perception but also influenced how
they were perceived by others. As one participant noted, being able to "sell yourself" and
convince others of your abilities can make them more likely to view you as capable of a job.
Work-Life Balance
The roles and responsibilities of leadership positions in schools such as principal have
grown immensely in the past 30 years (Fullan, 2014). Principals have moved from simple
managerial roles to instructional leaders, community liaisons, human resource professionals,
facility managers, and disciplinarians among an ever-growing list of duties that increase stress
and decrease desirability of the position (Pounder & Merrill, 2001; Yang, 2017). According to
Fullan (2014), “We have put the principal on a pedestal, and now we expect miracles; a few can
pull it off, but mere mortals have little chance” (p. 7). With these additional responsibilities come
hours of time dedicated work. The workload of principals has steadily increased over the years
from an average of 53.2 hours in the 1980s (Martin & Willow, 1981) to 60 to 80 hours a week in
the late 1990s and early 2000s (Read, 2000). More recently, in a study that surveyed 14,000 K-12
principals, those principals spent an average of 58.1 hours per week on school related activities.
The average hours increased based on school enrollment and type of school (Bitterman et al.,
2013).
Mustapa et al. (2018) cited role conflict as one the biggest barriers to women’s career
advancement. They explained, fulfilling others' expectations of “respectable femininity” is the
main challenge of balancing career and family life. Respectable femininity is defined as the
ability to fulfill the expectations of family life while maintaining a successful career (Mustapa et
al., 2018). Research indicated that women’s sense of responsibility for their family leads to

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 33
turning down opportunities for career advancement (Mustapa et al., 2018). Association of
Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers (2010), stated 42% of men but only 28% of women
had careers that took precedence over their partners’ aspirations, and one third of women let
career aspirations affect their decisions on planning a family compared to just a fifth of men.
This suggests women tend to prioritize both their partner and family over their career, which
makes advancing to demanding leadership roles a challenge.
The perception of women as the caregiver in hetero-normative families prevails across
cultures. This traditional role decreases the possibility of work-life balance (Mustapa et al.,
2018). Cross (2010) found that women without children believed having them would be an
obstacle to career advancement. These findings were consistent with women’s choices who
sought to obtain higher level positions. The majority (85%) of these women were either single or
had children over the age of twelve. Women who balance work and family responsibilities often
have feelings of guilt (Guendouzi, 2006). In a study of female university students by Marshall
(2009), participants regretted not spending enough time with their children and suggested that
work responsibilities hindered family commitment. Other studies found that women felt guilty
about the reduced time spent with family, feeling as though they were missing out on their
children’s lives (Judge & Livingston, 2008). These feelings are compounded by spousal reactions
criticizing women’s commitment to the home and family (Garcia, 2015). Guendouzi (2006)
suggests the guilt mothers experience is inherent in society.
Conversely, male principals were also concerned about the welfare of their children but
the men did not see the problems in terms of their own guilt (Coleman, 2005). In a study by
Coleman (2005), male principals made the following comments about work-life challenges:

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 34
• “Concerns for our daughter having to adjust to changes in circumstances owing to childminder variations” (p.12).
• “Moving to different areas of the country, had to build new network – no assistance”
(p.12).
These comments suggest that male principals did not view themselves as caregivers and
saw the challenges as external obstacles that required support from others, without expressing
guilt about the impact of their career on family life. Female principals, however, felt pressure to
balance work and family obligations to fulfill societal expectations of "respectable femininity,"
often assuming guilt for any difficulties they encountered (Coleman, 2005). This gendered
difference in perceptions of work-family challenges highlights the need for a more nuanced
understanding of the impact of gender roles and expectations on work-life balance.
Mental load
A contributing factor to the need for work-life balance is the mental load experienced by
women. Mental load is distinguished from work load because it involves both cognitive and
emotional labor. Dean et al. (2022) explained, “Rather than just cognitive (i.e. mental) work of,
for example, list making, the mental load is often centered on the family which includes an
emotional element that transforms it into a load with widespread consequences” (p. 745). The
mental load differs from physical domestic labor such as cleaning and cooking which can be felt
as a burden but does not always involve an emotion. Physical labor, unlike cognitive and
emotional labor, is typically a limited activity and does not result in concern or worry. Therefore,
the mental load is unique in its combination of cognitive and emotional labor, which is invisible
and manifests across time and space (Dean et al., 2022). Despite women’s progress in education
and paid employment (Churchill et al. 2019), women are still disproportionately responsible for

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 35
the burden of household tasks. This is partially due to the fact that the effective functioning of a
family is linked to the idea of "good mothering" and the emotional care work that is primarily
carried out by women (Offer, 2014, p. 931). Mothers often engage in anticipatory and monitoring
tasks, which are key characteristics of cognitive labor. They constantly think about, remember,
and do the emotional work for the family ensuring everyone's physical and emotional needs are
cared for (Wong, 2017) which contributes to emotional labor. The energy and effort required for
such a combination can be mentally exhausting. Mental exhaustion can lead to depression,
increased anxiety and poor physical health (Mann, 2005). Thus, mental load is an important
factor in the need for work-life balance.
Theoretical Framework
When acting in the role of a researcher, Milner (2007) recommended disrupting deficit
discourses and beliefs. This study serves to disrupt the idea that women are better suited to
nurturing roles which are seen as a natural extension of child rearing, and it interrogates the
status quo of male dominated leadership in international schools. Critical feminist theory was the
lens used to conduct this study as it seeks to understand how elements of gender, race, class,
sexuality, and ability intersect and contribute to patriarchal structures of oppression (Marshall &
Young, 2013). It interrogates the status quo and seeks opportunities to rethink society’s
preconceived notions and expectations of gender and gender roles. Specifically, this study
examined invisible barriers created by society and enforced by the education system that hinder
women’s progress into top leadership roles within schools. The following image provides a
graphic representation of the conceptual framework:
Figure A Barriers to Women in Leadership Positions at International Schools in South Korea

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 36
Using the framework of critical feminist theory, barriers to women in educational
leadership exist in three distinct spheres: personal, organizational, and societal. In the case of
administrators in international schools, the host country’s culture impacts societal barriers, and in
the case of South Korea, reinforces them. Societal barriers are the largest and most pervasive as
they influence both organizational and personal barriers. Sanderson and Whitehead (2016) wrote,
“There is a strong cultural prejudice for men to seek promotion and for Western society to
consider men as “natural” leaders, which are not experiences often shared by women” (p.5).
AAUW (2016) further explained that leadership has been “infused with stereotypically
masculine traits” because historically men have held most of the leadership positions in society.
However, masculine attributes like confidence have little bearing on the effectiveness of a leader.
In fact, too many male leaders have more confidence about their abilities than is warranted by
their competence (Fullan, 2020). Therefore, cultural prejudices contribute to gender roles and
norms and reinforce unconscious bias and stereotypes.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 37
Organizational barriers are influenced by social and cultural norms. Sanderson &
Whitehead (2016) interviewed 11 women who worked at a leading international school in South
Korea. Interviewees identified the patriarchal school system as a barrier to promotion within
their institution. One interviewee said, “Because we live in a male dominated world, and the
default leadership style comes from being part of a patriarchal society, [male dominated
leadership] is the norm” (p. 5). This idea builds upon the notion of unconscious bias.
Unconscious bias may lead school administrators to believe men are more capable candidates for
leadership positions. Consequently, men hold the majority of leadership positions at SVIS, and
those men are more likely to promote candidates they share an affinity with. As indicated with
brain research, individuals have a tendency to place people in social categories based on visual
cues. Managers tend to hire candidates they perceive as similar to themselves perpetuating a
patriarchal system of hegemony (Equity and Inclusion, 2015).
Both social and organizational barriers influence women’s personal barriers into
leadership positions. Gender norms and values, both implicit and explicit in society, affect how
women view themselves and their ability to lead. This can lead to a lack of self-efficacy,
imposter syndrome, and difficulties in achieving work-life balance. Studies have shown that
women are often hesitant to apply for administration positions due to a lack of confidence in
their abilities (Sanderson & Whitehead, 2016). Even when they have extensive education and
work experience, women may still feel underqualified for leadership roles, as was the case in
Naglee's (2018) interview with a female school director. These doubts can persist even as women
move up the organizational ladder, leading to imposter syndrome. Women are also expected to
fulfill traditional gender roles, including being a good mother and maintaining a household, even
as they pursue a career. This can lead to guilt over not spending enough time with family and

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 38
feeling as though they are missing out on their children's lives (Judge & Livingston, 2008).
Additionally, women may face criticism from their spouse, partner, and/or other family for not
fulfilling their expected role at home (Garcia, 2015).
Summary
When examining obstacles faced by female administrators in international schools in
South Korea in their upward mobility, a comprehensive literature review identified three main
categories of barriers: social, organizational, and personal. Social barriers pertained to cultural
values (Kim & Song, 2014; Kim & Han, 1996), gender norms (Amondi, 2011; Martínez et al.,
2021), biases, and negative stereotypes (Koenig et al., 2011; Herbst, 2020) that often lead to
discrimination against women in leadership positions. Organizational barriers pertained to
entrenched culture, power dynamics (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020), and exclusion from informal
networks (Hoff & Mitchel, 2008; Boorstin, 2022) that limit women's access to high level
leadership positions. Personal barriers included imposter syndrome (McGee 2010), low selfefficacy (Naglee, 2018; McNamer, 2020), and work-life balance expectations (Mustapa et al.,
2018). Despite possessing effective leadership traits, women lag behind men in educational
leadership roles. Addressing these barriers is necessary to understand and dismantle inequalities
in educational leadership practices.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 39
Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this paper was to conduct a critical analysis of obstacles that female
administrators encounter in their pursuit of upward mobility in South Korean international
schools. By examining the considerable gender disparity in leadership positions, this study
intends to pinpoint the challenges that impede women's career progression and highlight
potential policy measures to narrow the gender gap. The research questions that guided the study
are:
1. What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking career advancement in
administration roles in international schools in South Korea?
2. What policies and practices do women in international school leadership in South
Korea believe support their career advancement?
Overview of Methodology
To explore the challenges faced by women in administration positions at SVIS, a
qualitative methodology was used. A qualitative methodology was most appropriate as it allowed
for in-depth exploration of complex issues. Data was collected through key stakeholders who
were best suited to provide insights into the experiences of women in leadership positions. Data
was collected through semi-structured interviews. Interviews allowed for detailed data as
participants were able to share their thoughts, feelings, and experiences in their own words.
Additionally, follow up questions were asked to meet the needs of the participants and data
necessary for collection. Follow up questions expanded upon or clarified participant’s responses
and probed deeper into areas of importance. Additional data was gathered from documents and
artifacts related to the experiences of women in leadership roles in international schools.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) explained that document analysis “allows for a holistic interpretation

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 40
of the phenomenon being investigated” (p.161). Websites such as ibo.org and
internationalschoolcommunity.com provided relevant artifacts that complemented or highlighted
the data obtained from interviews. Artifacts also allowed for data triangulation which supported
the credibility and reliability of the findings.
Table 1 outlines the methods of data collection methods used to examine each research question.
Table 1: Data Sources
Research Questions Interview Document Analysis Survey
What are perceived
barriers (if any) for
women seeking
career advancement
in administration
roles in international
schools in South
Korea?
X
What policies and
practices do women
in international
school leadership in
South Korea believe
X X

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 41
support their career
advancement?
Data Sources
Two data sources were used to develop a deeper understanding of the research questions:
interviews and document and artifact reviews. Document and artifact reviews began before
interviews and continued throughout the study. Interviews were conducted with current female
administrators at SVIS. Data was collected from late May 2023 through October 2023. This time
frame allowed for in-person interviews to be conducted at SVIS and provided time for reflection,
follow-up interviews via Zoom, and member checks to verify data collected.
Interviews
In June 2023, interviews were conducted with four female administrators at SVIS, in
addition to 5 female participants in leadership positions selected through snowball sampling. The
interview questions were carefully designed to align with the research questions and theoretical
framework guiding the study. A semi-structured interview approach was used to ensure that
specific topics were addressed while allowing the interviewer the flexibility to probe and explore
the participants' perspectives with greater depth and complexity throughout the interview, as
recommended by Merriam and Tisdell (2016).
Participating Stakeholders
Due to my experience at SVIS, I have a network of former colleagues that can share indepth, personal experiences about their roles in leadership. I reached out to former female
colleagues that were in administration roles. I used a non-probability sampling technique because
I purposely selected participants that could provide rich data. There were five women

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 42
administrators at SVIS and four agreed to be interviewed. To increase the number of participants,
I used snowball sampling to include women in leadership roles such as department or team lead
(Lochmiller & Lester, 2017). The use of snowball sampling helped ensure that participants were
willing to discuss their experiences about leadership and pursuit of administrative roles.
Instrumentation
Interviews followed a guide containing 13 items with a number of probes and prompts for
each question. To ensure responses contained rich information, predetermined and on-the-spot
probes and prompts were used from participant to participant. After the interview, items were
revisited and revised to clarify and deepen my understanding of the findings. Follow-up
interviews were conducted if necessary. The interview protocol (See Appendix A) lists the
interview item, research question addressed, and the area of alignment to the conceptual
framework. Patton’s (2002) matrix of question options was used to provide clarity about the
choice and meaning of questions. Questions were designed to elicit a range of responses
including values / opinions, feelings, ideal position, and background to gain a rich understanding
of participant’s perceptions and experiences.
Data Collection Procedures
During my final year at SVIS, I expressed interest in researching women in leadership
positions with administrators at the school. Many participants anticipated an invitation for
involvement in my study. Because of our working relationship and my expressed interest, I
established a sense of rapport and comfort with participants. To further establish trust and ensure
consent, I provided participants with an information sheet (see Appendix B) detailing the purpose
and requirements for involvement in the study. The director of SVIS was contacted via email to
obtain permission to conduct interviews on campus. After this was granted, each participant was

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 43
contacted by email to determine an appropriate time and meeting location on school grounds or
via Zoom. Interviews took place for a duration of 1-hour and were recorded with informed
consent with a handheld device or on Zoom. I took additional written notes during interviews to
highlight key information. During the interviews, I ensured participants understood the question,
had sufficient time to answer, and spent the majority of the time speaking (Seidman, 2013,
Chapter 6). I also reminded them they may decline to answer any question. After the interview, I
typed up my notes within 24 hours and secured the notes and data in a password protected
laptop. Paper copies of notes were destroyed once they were transcribed to a digital format.
Audio recordings were transcribed using Dragon Dictation App and stored along with digital
notes securely on a laptop.
Data Analysis
The data analysis process was iterative, inductive, and comparative in nature, aimed at
identifying common themes and trends across collected data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Once
interview data was transcribed, overarching themes and categories were generated and described.
Interview responses were coded by category, and Atlas.ti was used to facilitate this process. To
ensure consistency and comparability, the same codes were used for each participant's transcript.
Transcripts were grouped together for analysis and interpretation. The resulting data and codes
were exported into Microsoft Excel for sorting and interpretation through the lens of the study's
conceptual framework.
Document Analysis
This study incorporated document and artifact analysis for two main purposes. Firstly, it
provided additional data to confirm and support the themes and findings that arose from the
interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Secondly, it offered insights into the responsibilities of

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administrative roles and school policies that may create or reinforce obstacles for women in
leadership positions. For instance, analyzing job descriptions or postings for administration
positions helped identify potential barriers by examining the requirements and expectations for
leadership roles (RQ1). The SVIS handbook included policies and contractual obligations for all
faculty members. A detailed analysis of these policies provided valuable information on current
policy support for women in leadership positions and areas that need improvement (RQ2).
Instrumentation
Bowen's (2009) procedures for document analysis was used to guide the protocol for this
study. Relevant documents and artifacts that provided insight into the research questions, such as
job descriptions, postings, and the employee handbook, were collected and selected. The
following steps were undertaken:
1. Documents were organized into categories: publicly accessible, private, and confidential
documents.
2. Documents were carefully read, and detailed notes were taken on the relevant content.
Emerging themes were identified, and items were coded accordingly.
3. Documents were categorized into relevant themes or topics, and connections and
relationships among different topics were established.
4. Documents were analyzed to identify insights and conclusions about patterns, themes,
and relationships.
Data Collection Procedures
Some public documents, such as job descriptions, are accessible online and available on
the SVIS website. Other documents, such as the SVIS handbook, are private and required
negotiated access through the school director. After documents for analysis were obtained, they

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 45
were categorized into publicly accessible, private, and confidential. To maintain confidentiality, I
used a pseudonym to ensure anonymity of the organization and reported metrics in aggregate
form. I reviewed any information included from documents with the school director to ensure
information is shared with informed consent.
Data Analysis
Similar to the interview analysis, the data analysis process was iterative and comparative
in nature, aimed at identifying common themes and trends across collected data (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Billups (2020) combined artifact / document rubric was used as a protocol to
guide document analysis. The rubric’s main categories included item location; the author of the
item; the original purpose of the document; and when the item was created. These categories
allowed for the corroboration of evidence with other data and alignment with the study’s
objectives. Additional categories included document convergence to support data from
interviews and document divergence from the other data to understand where gaps in the
narratives, impressions, and perceptions of a theme or phenomenon occur.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Because I have worked alongside the participants in my study, I have developed
preconceived notions about their experiences in educational leadership. Our interactions, my
observations, and discussions with colleagues have contributed to my perceptions. These
experiences may have shaped the way I understood and interpreted the participants’ responses.
Our relationships may have also affected the way I interpreted their responses. For example, I
may have paid particular attention to responses from participants I have bonded with or
highlighted data that confirmed my beliefs about educational leadership. Maxwell explained,
qualitative researchers “must try to address most validity threats after the research has begun,

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 46
using evidence collected during the research itself to make these ‘alternative hypotheses’
implausible” (p. 123). I am aware of some biases I hold, and I continued to interrogate my data
collection methods and interpretation to ensure I was accurately reflecting my participant’s
experiences. I tried to avoid simply confirming my beliefs and made sense of the data collected
using multiple perspectives.
Within my study, I have chosen to focus specifically on the experiences of female
administrators at SVIS. I purposely selected participants that could provide rich data which
means I used a non-probability sampling technique. Because there were a small number of
women administrators at SVIS, I used snowballing techniques to add additional voices of women
in leadership positions at SVIS. This created potential for bias and may lack authenticity because
it does not provide for equal opportunity for member selection. There was also potential for
unconscious bias because purposeful sampling makes it difficult to determine which biases are
present in the sample.
To discipline my subjectivity, I used the following strategies to support a high level of
internal validity as suggested by Merriam & Tisdell (2016). I triangulated my data by crosschecking information with interviews from participants with different perspectives. I member
checked with follow up interviews and solicited feedback on my preliminary or emerging
findings from participants. Maxwell (2013) explained member checking “...is the single most
important way of ruling out the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what participants
say and do and the perspective they have on what is going on, as well as being an important way
of identifying your own biases and misunderstanding of what you observed” (p. 126–127).
Finally, I leaned into my positionality and reflected on how it influenced my understanding and

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 47
interpretation of the data. I also left an audit trail to enhance transparency, credibility, and
trustworthiness of my findings.
Ethics
International school community members develop connections that transcend global
boundaries. Colleagues foster personal and professional relationships that often last a lifetime.
When moving on to a new place of employment, social connections are often kept through social
media platforms such as Facebook. Even though I am no longer an active a part of the SVIS
community, participants may have felt socially obligated to participate in my study. The SVIS
community is particularly supportive of one another. If a participant refused to participate in my
study, they may have feared damaging their reputation as a community member, leading to
unintentional coercion. Similarly, participants may damage their reputation or relationships with
colleagues by sharing negative personal experiences or unfavorable opinions if their identity is
revealed. I clearly communicated that participation in the study is voluntary and provided an
information sheet to obtain informed consent from the participants.
Data collection questions asked participants to identify perceived obstacles or barriers to
career advancement. This may have cause feelings of discomfort as participants revealed
anecdotes about their personal life or career. Many of the participants have spouses and children
that work at and attend SVIS respectively. I may have worked closely with participant’s spouses
or taught their children. This may have led the participants to provide guarded responses to
protect their family’s reputation. To avoid causing my participants discomfort or trauma, it was
imperative that I put them at ease. Agee (2009) discussed the importance of reflexivity and
ethical considerations when developing research questions. When interviewing participants, I
considered the short- and long-term effects it may have on others. To protect my participants, I

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 48
ensured the complete confidentiality of themselves and the anonymity of the organization. Not
only did this help to put participants at ease, but it also created a safe space to share experiences
that may otherwise be damaging to community members.
Additionally, Agee (2009) highlighted the benefits of reciprocal studies where the
researcher works with participants as co-researchers to co-create representations. Inviting
participants to actively engage in and co-construct the research process enhances my credibility
and trustworthiness because it allows for authenticity of participant’s experiences. It helped
participants feel their perspectives are accurately expressed. It helped me to critically reflect on
my research, and it helps readers develop a nuanced understanding of the problem of practice.
The Researcher
Working at an international school creates a unique set of interpersonal dynamics that are
not commonly seen in other educational institutions. Living in a foreign country, often far from
family and friends, coworkers become a necessary support system to survive and thrive. After
school hours, coworkers become friends, neighbors, and confidants. These relationships are
strengthened in countries where the host country’s language is not commonly spoken by staff.
Language can become a barrier to outside relationships creating a tight knit community within
the school. However, within this community there are invisible boundaries permeating
relationships between administration and staff. Administration is present for social school events
and may engage in friendly family meals or group excursions, but a certain distance is
maintained between administration and other staff members.
As a teacher who has worked at SVIS for 10 years, I garnered a great deal of respect
among study participants for my commitment to the school. This past year, I sought to pursue
new opportunities and relocated to Canada. It is expected for international teachers to move on;

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 49
however, this adds nuance to my positionality. I have lost power as an insider and school
community member but maintain a distant camaraderie that is carried on by most departing staff.
This year was the final year for many of the female leaders at SVIS. Leaders leaving the
institution may be more candid with thoughts and opinions about SVIS’ working conditions and
policies compared to those who remain in the school.
As a White female from a western country that presents as cisgender, I share similar traits
as many of my study participants. The “Attraction Paradigm,” initially labeled by Byrne (1961)
suggested “we like people who are similar to us” (Bruchmann et al., 2018, p.1). Sharing
characteristics with my participants helped to create a comfortable environment for interviewing.
Most participants are married with children which means their lifestyle differed from mine.
Some participants were women of color which means they may have insight into racial issues I
might not be aware of. To ensure I treated participants with dignity and respect as well as
presented their views with authenticity and clarity, I employed Millner’s (2007) Framework of
Researcher Racial and Cultural Positionality. This included continually reflecting on myself and
engaging in critical race and cultural reflection; researching myself in relation to others and
understanding each parties’ multiple roles, positions and identities; engaging in shared reflection
about race and culture; and shifting personal individualized experiences to a broader scale to gain
a better understanding of historic, political, social, economic, racial, and cultural realities.

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Chapter Four: Findings
This study aimed to critically analyze the obstacles hindering the upward mobility of
female administrators within international schools in South Korea. The objective was to shed
light on the gender disparity in administrative positions. Insight on the significant gender
imbalance in leadership roles can help to identify specific barriers to women’s career
advancement and uncover potential policy supports to minimize the gender gap. The following
questions were used to explore women's life experiences and school practices and policies,
aiming to understand their influence on women's career trajectories and advancement:
1. What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking career advancement in
administration roles in international schools in South Korea?
2. What policies and practices do women in international school leadership in South
Korea believe support their career advancement?
Critical feminist theory guided this study to understand how elements of gender, race,
class, sexuality, and ability intersect and contribute to patriarchal structures of oppression
(Marshall & Young, 2013). The purpose of this framework is to interrogate the status quo and
seek opportunities to rethink society’s preconceived notions and expectations of gender and
gender roles. Interview responses were conducted and recorded with a handheld device and
transcribed using the Dragon Dictation App or recorded via the Zoom using the transcription
feature. Handwritten notes highlighting key points during interviews were also used as a
supportive form of documentation. Interview responses were then analyzed and identified themes
were documented in an Excel spreadsheet.

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Participants
The participants of this study consisted of women holding leadership positions at an
international school in South Korea. Their leadership experience varied significantly, ranging
from one to over twenty years in the field of education. While some participants were relatively
new to leadership roles, all possessed extensive experience working in various capacities within
international schools in Asia. Among the participants, four self-identified as White, two as White
Latina, two as Asian, and one as Black. Family status was a defining factor, categorizing
participants as single, married, or married with children. Specifically, five participants were
married with children, one was married without children, and three were single without children.
The detailed breakdown of participants is provided in Table 2.
Table 2: Participant's Years of Experience, Family Status, and Race
Participant Years of Leadership
Experience
Family Status Race
# 1 8 years Married with Children White / Latina
# 2 1 year Single Asian
# 3 7 years Married with Children Asian
# 4 20+ years Married White
# 5 10+ years Married with Children White

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# 6 3+ years Married with Children White
#7 1 year Single White / Latina
#8 1 year Single Black
#9 10+ years Married with Children White
Findings for Research Question 1: What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking
career advancement in administration roles in international schools in South Korea?
Perceived barriers for women seeking career advancement in administration roles in
South Korean international schools were multi-faceted and fell into three broad, overarching
categories: social barriers, organizational barriers, and personal barriers. Social barriers reported
by participants included stereotypes and biases related to physical appearance, age, and race,
creating hurdles for women in, and aspiring to, leadership positions. Kinnear and Ortlepp (2016)
underscored the pervasive impact of societal biases and stereotypes on women's suitability for
leadership roles related to gender. These biases were consistently identified by participants,
reinforcing the findings in existing literature. Participants explained family influence and gender
expectations also played a role in career choice, with societal norms often dictating traditional
roles for women, such as family caregiver, impacting their career trajectory. This observation
aligned with existing research including studies by Pietromonaco et al. (2021), Hoff & Mitchel
and Mitchell (2008), and Martínez et al. (2021), which emphasized the influence of traditional
gender roles and societal expectations particularly in the context of marriage, motherhood, and
caregiving on women’s careers.

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Organizational barriers identified by the participants included navigating complex
institutional structures where biases affect decision-making processes and leadership
opportunities. Both academic research and participants discussed the importance of transparent
hiring processes (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020), suggesting that clear articulation of hiring and
promotion policies is crucial for fostering diversity and inclusivity within international and local
schools. Additionally, participants emphasized the significance of mentorship programs in
addressing these challenges. They highlighted the role of mentors in providing guidance,
support, and advocacy for individuals from underrepresented backgrounds, ultimately facilitating
their professional development and advancement within educational institutions.
In regard to personal barriers, participants highlighted challenges associated with
maintaining a work-life balance, as women frequently found themselves navigating the delicate
balance between their professional aspirations and caregiving responsibilities. This aligned with
findings in research by Dean et al. (2022), which underscored the difficulties faced by women
managing the dual responsibilities of family and career. Additionally, several participants cited
self-doubt and imposter syndrome as a barrier hindering their confidence in pursuing leadership
roles. These barriers collectively contributed to the challenges faced by women in advancing
their careers. Research by Corfino (2021) discussing gendered spaces like the 'old boys club,' and
insights from participants collectively highlighted the importance of addressing organizational
biases. Promoting transparent hiring practices, as emphasized by Gardner-McTaggart (2020),
fosters diversity and inclusivity.
The following section identifies each of these categories as themes providing a detailed
analysis of participants perceptions.

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Theme 1: Social Barriers to Women in Leadership
Social barriers identified by the participants included stereotypes and biases based on
physical appearance, family influence, and gender expectations. Participants explained that
women faced a dual pressure stemming from both Eastern and Western cultural influences which
magnifies the expectation to conform to societal norms regarding appearance and behavior. In
Western contexts, traditional leadership ideals often mirror masculine traits, placing women
under scrutiny to embody characteristics associated with assertiveness and authority, while
simultaneously adhering to conventional standards of femininity to avoid being perceived as too
aggressive. Conversely, in South Korea, deeply ingrained gender roles and age hierarchies
further compound these pressures. Women aspiring to leadership positions are confronted with
the daunting task of navigating between these contrasting expectations by needing to strike a
delicate balance between projecting competence and authority while still conforming to societal
ideals of femininity or age-appropriate behavior. This double bind reinforces the pervasive
nature of appearance-based biases, creating additional hurdles for women striving to break
through the glass ceiling in both Eastern and Western cultural contexts.
Stereotypes and biased based on physical appearance
Eight participants highlighted the pervasive issue of physical appearance acting as a
significant, albeit unspoken, barrier for women aspiring leadership positions. The narratives
shared by these participants underscored the impact of societal biases and stereotypes on the
perception of women's suitability for administrative positions, where appearance plays a pivotal
role. Participant 1 noted that women are often evaluated not solely on their professional
capabilities but also on their physical attributes. This evaluation contrasts sharply with the
stereotypical older, masculine ideal traditionally associated with leadership. These biases were

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evident in interactions with both American and Korean cultures. For instance, Participant 8
recounted an experience with a local hairdresser that reinforced the prevailing notion that a high
school principal should be older and male. This experience highlights the rigidity of the
established leadership image in South Korea. At the end of the encounter, the hairdresser
revealed the participant’s new ‘mature looking’ hairstyle explaining, “Now, you look like a high
school principal!” The participant described feeling a mixture of emotions, acknowledging,
“There's a real set idea of what it's [leadership] supposed to look like in the international school
world.” Participant 3 expressed frustration over constant comments regarding her youthful
appearance, questioning why her competence was overshadowed by her age and physical stature
stating, “Do I need to change my appearance for you? You do know me, it's not like it's a first
impression, kind of thing. You know me professionally. I can do the work, so why does [my
appearance] bother you?” She explained that consistent remarks about her age and appearance
continued through the school year despite her verbal and nonverbal cues showing her discomfort.
Participants of color shared further instances, recounting experiences of microaggressions related
to their race and leadership abilities highlighting gender, age, and race can provide additional
obstacles to enter school leadership positions. The prevailing demographics of women in senior
leadership roles reveal a clear preference for individuals who are light-skinned, married with
children, and aged 40 or above. This trend underscores the existing biases and challenges
encountered by candidates who do not align with this specific profile, emphasizing the notion
that leadership positions are often associated with a particular appearance.

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Table 3: Stereotypes and Biases Based on Physical Appearance
Participant Example Quote
Administration Position Participant “The first opportunity I had to apply for a
principal position, I had never thought there
was a barrier until I was pulled in and told
‘we think you’d be great for the position;
however, we feel like we need the look.’ I was
like, what do you mean, I don’t fit the look? I
had never really thought or known that until
someone explained that to me. It was ok I was
associate principal, but I didn’t have to look
to the principal, the leader.”
Senior Level Administration Position
Participant
“If [the students] see me, what are we doing
so they immediately just assume that I am
probably a part timer bus monitor who is just
doing this as a short stint, versus a White
person who would be standing next to me, is
automatically and immediately someone
status like an administrator.”
Leadership Position Participant “People do judge me on certain things, and
even in my current leadership role, and being
one of the youngest, it is very different

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because I've also been mistaken as a teaching
assistant, which is not a bad thing, but we do
have different qualifications and different
degrees.”
Senior Level Administration Position
Participant
In recounting a conversation with a hairstylist,
the participant said, “She told me, in Korea,
like a high school principal would be a
minimum of 55 years old, and always male.”
Leadership Position Participant “It’s a shame how few women there are in
leadership, especially in South Korea. Even
looking at the current women leaders, it’s the
same sort of thing, American, Canadian,
European or western thinking, all melanin
light, all married, all have children that are
either grown or out of school, all have a
partner that is here, all of a certain age range
and there are so many people out in the world
that are none of those things.”
Family influence and gender expectations
All participants recognized the significant influence of family dynamics and support
structures in shaping their decisions to pursue leadership roles in education. Participant 4 and
Participant 9 attributed their confidence to step into leadership positions to familial

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 58
encouragement and a supportive home environment. Although none of the participants explicitly
mentioned facing gender-based expectations in their career choices, Participant 2 and Participant
3 provided nuanced insights by comparing the treatment of their male siblings. Participant 2
recalled how her parents discussed her future differently from her brothers', emphasizing stability
and financial independence, while her brothers were encouraged to pursue riskier paths in
finance. This implied an unspoken preference for gendered career roles in some families.
Participant 3 shared a similar experience; when she transitioned to education, her parents'
response reflected gender stereotypes, suggesting teaching was a suitable job for a woman,
especially a mother, due to the prospect of having summers off. She noted the unlikeliness of a
similar reaction if her brother had made the same career shift. Additionally, Participant 7
mentioned paternal concerns about safety when choosing a career and relocating internationally.
The parents of Participant 1, Participant 2, Participant 3, and Participant 7 expressed worries
about their child’s safety, well-being, financial future, and ability to support a family, either
implicitly or explicitly, underscoring the complex factors that influence career decisions within
familial contexts.
Not only do parents influence women’s career paths, so does the presence of a spouse and
children. All participants with children stated their family significantly impacted their career
trajectories in educational leadership. Highlighting the responsibilities of marriage and
motherhood can necessitate difficult choices and adjustments in women’s professional lives.
Participant 5 expressed feeling left behind after maternity leave when she returned to find some
of her male counterparts promoted to associate principal positions. Participant 1 noted the
challenges of striking a balance between demanding leadership roles and fulfilling family
obligations. Participant 3 commented on how women with children in leadership were often

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 59
criticized for taking time off to care for a sick child. Participant 9 suggested some women may
opt for roles that offer more flexibility or proximity to home, sacrificing potential career
advancements for family stability. Participant 7 noted societal expectations for mothers to
prioritize caregiving over their careers create a subtle yet powerful pressure on women in
leadership positions.
In addition to the participant’s responses, members in online international school teaching
communities echoed the influence of societal expectations on their career path. For example, in
an article in The International Educator, Corfino (2023, May 10) explained a “common
frustration” of female international school leaders, writing about an interviewee:
[The interviewee] recalls an experience when she was pregnant with her first child
while interviewing for a leadership position (prior to moving to UWC). During that
process, there were some questions about being a parent and how the “emotional state” of
being a parent could influence her role. She points out that there “needs to be a high level
of trust within the organization, that a person can play both roles of parent and leader.”
Such societal influences can lead to decisions such as stepping back from high-stress
roles, foregoing opportunities that require extensive travel, or even temporarily pausing their
careers to focus on child-rearing.
Table 4: Family Influence and Gender Expectations
Participant Example Quote
Senior Level Administration Position
Participant
“I would see my parents talk to me, or think
of me in different ways than they would treat

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my brothers… They would advise me in
certain personal or professional decisionmaking. It was always about stability and
being financially independent for the future,
saving money. For my brothers, it was about
taking risks. It was about trying different
things, and they trusted that they would be
okay, even without a stable career like me and
education.”
Leadership Position Participant “I feel like in the partnership that I've had
there's been more pressure on them to like,
get married and have kids, to fulfill certain
roles. But my parents never put those
expectations on me. Society did.”
Senior Level Administration Position
Participant
“I still remember that conversation [with my
mother] very vividly because at the time I
was, you know, dating a medical student. She
was like, ‘You'll marry a doctor and then
you're gonna be a mom that's teaching and
you'll have the summers off!’”
Senior Level Administration Position
Participant
[At and end of the year event] “…people said
lovely, kind things, and there's a couple of

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 61
comments, and I didn't take offense to this at
all. Just an interesting observation. A couple
of comments were like, ‘Wow! You balance it
so well, you're a mother, and a wife, and a
principal, and you're doing all these things.’
Nobody ever says that to a man, ‘Wow, you're
a dad!’ It just doesn't happen. It’s like they
compartmentalize it, or they don't associate it
with them [men]. Their career is what they
are. I think we're just defined.”
Theme 2: Organizational Barriers to Women in Leadership
Participants identified navigating the leadership labyrinth and managing personal and
professional relationships as organizational barriers. They explained biases against women
influenced decision-making processes and leadership opportunities, thus requiring adept
navigation and mentorship for career progression. Friendships in international schools were
described as particularly intricate due to professional demands and power dynamics, further
complicated by the scarcity of female peers in top positions. Managing friendships within
hierarchical structures required a delicate balance especially when coupled with relationships
with non-administrative teaching partners. Female leaders often faced isolation and discomfort in
forming supportive networks which was exacerbated by cultural expectations and subtle remarks
directed at female friendships, differing from those in domestic educational settings.
Additionally, the transient nature of international school communities posed another layer
of complexity in sustaining relationships, with constant turnover hindering the continuity of

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 62
support networks. These challenges underscored the nuanced experiences of women in
leadership roles within international schools, emphasizing the importance of navigating both
professional and personal relationships to succeed in their careers amidst the ever-evolving
dynamics of the school community in South Korea.
Navigating the Leadership Labyrinth
All participants expressed overall satisfaction with their work environment and were
hopeful about opportunities for career advancement; however, five participants suggested
intricate challenges for women requiring adept navigation of institutional structures and
dynamics. Participant 9 explained biases manifested in subtle yet impactful ways influencing
decision-making processes, leadership opportunities, and career advancement. She described two
instances of being denied entry level leadership positions until she found a supportive mentor
who nurtured her transition into a suitable leadership role. This suggests navigating this
landscape demands not only exceptional skills and qualifications, but also an acute awareness of
the nuances within the organization. Participant 8 emphasized the importance of transparent
hiring processes to create a diverse leadership team. She mentioned instances where participants
were rejected without clear explanations, highlighting the necessity for clearly articulating hiring
and promotion policies. Participant 9, Participant 3, and Participant 7 discussed strategically
building alliances and fostering mentorship relationships to navigate school politics and to
influence change. For example, Participant 7 discussed how mentorship supported her during
cultural challenges and modeled self-advocacy during staff meetings. Participant 8 emphasized
the necessity for policy changes to create room for new leaders. She was only able to assume a
leadership role after the previous leader, who had held the position for eight years, stepped down.
This suggests that, in international schools where retention is highly valued, leaders might find it

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 63
challenging to advance in their roles without proactive strategies and organizational shifts in
roles.
Table 5: Navigating the Leadership Labyrinth
Participant Example Quote
Administration Position Participant “They had an elementary and a secondary
associate principal position open, and I
applied for both. But the director was like,
‘how will you be able to be an administrator
at the high school level being female?’And I
was like, ‘why does it matter if I'm a female
or not?’ He had a bias, that you know, being
in Asian culture that maybe I couldn’t
command the respect that was necessary.”
Leadership Position Participant “For example, [my mentor] was supportive
because she could speak the language. She
knows the culture and has the combination of
understanding the culture and know how to
tiptoe around that while still having the
Americanness of her.”
Navigating Personal and Professional Relationships
Participants in senior level leadership positions explained keeping and developing
friendships resulted in intricate power dynamics and demanding professional expectations.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 64
Participant 1 described the expectation to always be “on” even in non-professional settings.
While she noted there are some positive aspects to being a supportive member to the community,
the demanding nature of leadership roles often left limited room for personal interactions
impacting the depth of friendships. Participant 1 and Participant 3 further explained negotiating
friendships within hierarchical structures required a delicate balance to maintain professionalism
while fostering camaraderie. In addition, women in administration with non-administrative
teaching partners stated their partner’s friendships within the community added another layer of
complexity, sometimes leading to conversations halting when their spouse entered the room.
There was a palpable fear that shared topics might find their way back to the participant in
leadership, underscoring the challenges of navigating personal connections in professional
environments.
Additionally, the scarcity of female peers in top positions can lead to feelings of isolation,
exacerbating the challenge of finding supportive networks. Participant 1 shared her struggle to
develop and sustain relationships similar to those her teaching spouse could cultivate. She
believed this challenge stemmed from her introverted personality coupled with the cultural
expectations prevalent among leaders in international schools. Participant 5 highlighted the
discomfort and subtle remarks about some female friendships when they were cultivated. Female
leaders faced challenges when their professional relationships extended into personal friendships,
a scenario often met with raised eyebrows and snide remarks, especially from male counterparts.
Friendships between men would not get the same reactions.
The fear of vulnerability in competitive environments compounds the challenges of
cultivating relationships for women leaders. In competitive environments, such as international
school leadership, participants' willingness to express challenges and seek friendships openly is

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 65
hindered. Participant 8 shared a poignant experience of a friendship dissolving due to a
promotional opportunity. Both she and her colleague were competing for the same leadership
position. When the participant was appointed, her colleague began to avoid her and the
friendship ended, she felt a mix of emotions. These accounts shed light on the intricacies of
forming and maintaining friendships, especially for women, in the realm of educational
leadership.
Table 6: Navigating Personal and Professional Relationships
Participant Example Quote
Administration Position
Participant
“If I’m at the playground, just with my kids and we’re
playing and there’s a child there that’s part of our
community and something happens, they’re like ‘Hey,
can you take care of this?’ and I’m like, ‘Sure!’ We kind
of joke about this, but I am always on.”
Senior Level Administration
Position Participant
“One thing that has been not problematic, but has been a
point of tension, are women friendships in leadership are
seen as threatening or gossipy. I've had male leaders
make kind of snide comments when female leaders kind
of become professional and personal friends, too.
Nobody thinks about it when like these male principals
and associate principals, or directors, or whatever have a
beer on the weekend, but when women start to connect

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 66
outside of school, it's all-of-a-sudden jokes are made.
Like little comments that seem pretty innocuous, but I
think to me that signals that people are kind of threatened
by that.”
Senior Level Administration
Position Participant
“I think conversations are good to acknowledge because,
until someone acknowledged it to me, I couldn't put my
finger on why I felt guilty that I'm friends with this
person? Or why do I feel like I can't talk about going to
lunch with this person on the weekend? Whereas it
doesn't seem like my male counterparts have that same
issue. They don’t have a second thought to mention that
sort of information very freely and easily.”
Senior Level Administration
Position Participant
“It's cliche, but it's true, leadership can be a lonely
position. Even with my spouse, I can't talk about a lot of
stuff, and he’s a person that really empathizes and
sympathizes with what you're going through.”
Theme 3: Personal Barriers to Women in Leadership
Participants identified work-life balance and self-doubt as personal barriers. Maintaining
work-life balance presented profound challenges especially within roles demanding long hours
and extensive commitments. Participants noted that balancing family life and a demanding career
can deter women from pursuing leadership positions. Additionally, childcare can be even more

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challenging in a foreign country where adequate support may be lacking, exacerbating the
struggle for work-life balance. Navigating work-life balance in an international context can be
particularly challenging due to cultural differences, language barriers, and limited access to
familiar support networks.
Similarly, self-doubt was identified as a significant barrier intensified by the absence of a
supportive network and the pressure to excel professionally and as mothers and wives. Several
participants shared instances where self-doubt emerged due to internal insecurities and external
biases, revealing the profound impact of societal norms and gender stereotypes on women's
confidence in pursuing leadership roles. Women often questioned their leadership suitability,
grappling with imposter syndrome intensified by perceptions of being outsiders. Complex
interpersonal dynamics in international environments led to doubts about managing cultural
biases. This underscores the need for comprehensive support systems and inclusive policies to
address the multifaceted challenges women face in navigating work-life balance and overcoming
self-doubt, particularly within the complex landscape of international schools.
Work-Life Balance
Six participants underscored the profound challenges faced by aspiring women leaders in
maintaining work-life balance. Balancing career ambitions with personal responsibilities proves
especially challenging in roles demanding long hours and extensive commitments. Following
societal expectations and traditional gender roles, which pigeonhole women into caregiving
roles, were emphasized by eight participants as significant hurdles hindering career aspirations.
Participant 9 suggested that many women hesitate to pursue leadership positions due to
challenges of balancing family life and a demanding career. Participant 6 discussed how the
delicate juggling act of fulfilling both professional aspirations and family responsibilities added

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complexity to her path to leadership. She added both these tasks left little time for self-care and
frequently required acts of selflessness. More experienced leaders shared that managing worklife balance became more feasible over the years, coinciding with their children becoming more
self-reliant. This transition underscores the intricate relationship between professional
advancement and personal life responsibilities for women in leadership positions. The pressure to
excel in their careers and as mothers and wives often leads to reluctance in taking on leadership
roles was a barrier identified by Participant 9. She believed these expectations create challenges
in maintaining a fulfilling personal life while pursuing ambitious career paths. Participant 1
shared the persistent demand for flexibility, particularly evident during events like the COVID19 pandemic, exacerbated these challenges, forcing participants to constantly switch roles and
compelling their families to adapt to the participant’s professional demands.
Table 7: Work-Life Balance
Participant Example Quote
Administration Position
Participant
“I do feel that there's that expectation of being like the
super mom. You have to, like, be successful and nurturing
and there for your kids, and throw good birthday parties
and everything like that. I've really been challenged with
that the last few years of trying to also take care of me, and
finding myself within the identity of teacher leader, which
can be very selfless, like giving yourself so much to the

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school and the kids that you work for and then as a mom as
well.”
Senior Level Administration
Position Participant
“I think sometimes it's really hard to be a good mom, a
good wife, a good administrator. So probably because
[women are] prioritizing family commitments and things,
they’re reluctant to lead.”
Administration Position
Participant
“I think there are expectations in the role that if something
is to happen, I need to drop everything and work,
especially through COVID. So, on Sunday morning it
might be like we have to switch gears and my kids will
have to understand ‘Mom’s working.’
Self-doubt / Imposter Syndrome
Self-doubt frequently emerged as a response to the challenges faced by women aspiring
to leadership positions. Several participants shared instances where their confidence wavered due
to both internal insecurities and external biases. For instance, Participant 6 recounted a negative
interaction with a colleague that significantly impacted her self-esteem. Participant 8 described
the persistent pressure she felt to constantly prove her abilities, navigating an environment where
her competence was occasionally questioned based on gender stereotypes. She highlighted the
stark contrast between societal expectations of women being “soft and gentle” and primarily
belonging in the classroom, while men were expected to be strong, assuming dominant
disciplinarian roles. This suggests that self-doubt, reinforced by traditional gender norms, may

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lead women to question their capabilities and suitability for leadership roles. Participant 4
expressed the paralyzing fear of not meeting these societal expectations, hindering her
confidence in pursuing higher leadership positions. Moreover, Participant 8 pointed out that the
lack of representation of women in top leadership roles creates a psychological barrier, making it
challenging for aspiring women leaders to envision themselves in similar positions. Participant 5
also discussed how self-doubt and a lack of confidence can deter women from applying for
leadership roles even if they possess the necessary qualifications and skills. She believed this
hesitation often arises from a fundamental difference in approach between men and women. She
explains many men are willing to take risks, confident in their abilities even if they possess only
some of the required qualifications, while women often feel a need to fulfill every criterion
exceptionally before considering themselves eligible. These experiences shed light on the
internal struggles women face in the pursuit of educational leadership roles, illustrating the
impact of self-doubt and imposter syndrome on their career aspirations.
Table 8: Self-doubt / Impostor Syndrome
Participant Example Quote
Leadership Position Participant “I was in a head position and I was trying to make some
changes, and I had some colleagues almost saying, ‘stay in
your lane.’ I've never had that before, and it was coming
from a very strong male voice that was very powerful. To
this day, I'm very sensitive and bitter about it. It kind of
made me lose my confidence.”

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Leadership Position Participant “Imposter syndrome impacted my decision to step up as a
leader. I’m one of three women on a team of seven. The
guys have very strong personalities and do not let you
stand in their way and I’m supposed to come in and make
things happen? For me stepping into [leadership] gave me
a self-induced fear of stepping into big boy shoes.”
Senior Level Administration
Position Participant
“A lot of men, not all, but a lot of men just go for it. It
doesn't really matter. If there’s a list 10 qualifications, and
they've got some of them, they think, ‘Oh, yeah, it's okay,
what I've got is good enough.’ They've got that sort of
confidence, whereas I think women often feel like unless ‘I
have everything down airtight, I'm not ready. I shouldn't do
it.’ Maybe confidence isn't the right word, because I think
there's a lot of really confident women out there. But it's
kind of like being a rule follower versus I'm going to get in
there and like, make the rules.”
Senior Level Administration
Position Participant
“Because you have so many other obstacles in front of us,
we start to think it's us. And so, I've had to learn to push
back against that or like and learn that… We are our own
obstacles. Because, yeah, we're unpacking the systems that

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you have institutionalized us in. and everyone's on their
own path of that journey.”
Discussion for Research Question 1
Combining the insights from educational leaders across multiple levels of leadership and
using scholarly research offers a comprehensive understanding of the perceived challenges
women encounter in leadership roles in international schools. And analyzing the external societal
and organizational barriers in light of the internal struggles related to confidence and selfperception helps to provide a holistic view of the obstacles faced by women in leadership
positions. Perceived social barriers to women in educational leadership underscore the pervasive
impact of societal biases and stereotypes on women's suitability for leadership roles (Kinnear &
Ortlepp, 2016). These biases, highlighted by participants, included physical appearance, age,
race, and familial expectations creating hurdles for women aspiring to leadership positions.
Moreover, both participants and scholarly research emphasize the influence of traditional gender
roles and societal expectations, especially related to marriage, motherhood, and caregiving,
which hinder women's progress in leadership roles (Pietromonaco et al., 2021; Hoff & Mitchel,
2008; Martínez et al., 2021).
In addition to societal barriers, perceived organizational barriers highlight intricate
dynamics of personal relationships, including friendships. Although research did discuss
gendered spaces such as the ‘old boys club’ (Corfino, 2021), the experiences of participants at
international schools working alongside their spouse added a nuanced layer to the understanding
of how these connections are perceived and navigated by women. Shifting to policy based
organizational barriers, both research and participants discussed the importance of transparent

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hiring processes (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020) suggesting that clear articulation of hiring and
promotion policies is crucial for fostering diversity and inclusivity within both international and
local schools.
Moving from external barriers to perceived personal barriers to women in leadership,
both participants and research spotlight the challenges women face in striking a balance between
their professional ambitions and personal responsibilities, especially concerning traditional
gender roles and societal expectations (Mustapa et al., 2018). Although covered more extensively
in research (Coleman, 2005; Dudau, 2014; Ambri et al., 2021), participants also addressed the
issue of self-doubt and imposter syndrome which hindered women from pursuing leadership
roles. Participants' personal challenges offered in-depth accounts that showed the emotional
aspects of self-doubt and the profound impact of discriminatory behavior on women's confidence
in professional settings.
Findings for Research Question 2: What policies and practices do women in international
schools’ leadership in South Korea believe support their career advancement?
Based on interview findings, three key policies and practices emerged as crucial in
supporting career advancement into leadership roles: comprehensive childcare and maternity
leave, mentorship programs, and clear and transparent hiring processes. First, participants
believed comprehensive childcare and maternity leave support enabled working mothers to
concentrate on their careers without compromising their children's well-being. Aligning with
Chamorro-Premuzic's research (2021), participants stressed the need for accessible and highquality childcare programs, including free childcare initiatives for staff children, to alleviate the
challenges faced by women leaders. Participants also noted the importance of adequate paid
maternity leave, flexible work arrangements upon return, mentorship programs, professional

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development opportunities, open communication, and a supportive workplace culture during and
after maternity leave.
Second, mentorship programs were deemed crucial by participants, echoing ChamorroPremuzic's (2021) research on the pivotal role of mentors in providing guidance and advocacy.
Participant 8 believed structured mentorship not only provided practical guidance and support
but also showcased successful female role models, breaking down gender barriers and boosting
confidence among aspiring women leaders.
Finally, participants underscored the necessity of clear and transparent hiring and
promotion processes, aligning with Gardner-McTaggart's research (2020). Three participants
explained transparent evaluation methods based on merit, skills, and qualifications ensure equal
opportunities for all candidates, fostering a level playing field and promoting a positive
organizational culture built on fairness and accountability. Based on findings, these policies and
practices are perceived as essential steps toward gender equity and supporting women's career
progression into leadership at international schools. These findings align with existing research
discussing organizational barriers such as leadership hegemony (Bourdieu, 1996) and patriarchal
leadership (Wittenberg-Cox, 2022), emphasizing the need to address these issues to mitigate
gender disparities.
The following section identifies each of these themes, providing a detailed analysis of
participants perceptions.
Theme 1: Comprehensive Child Care and Maternity Leave Support
All participants with children addressed childcare as a vital component in promoting
gender equity and supporting women aspiring to leadership roles. Participant 1 emphasized the

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accessible and high-quality childcare provided at SVIS is essential for working mothers allowing
them to focus on their careers without compromising the well-being of their children. KnightWilliams (2015, February 11), a contributor to Teacher Horizons, an online community of
international educators explained:
Being able to send your child to the Early Years provision at your international school is
just one of the perks of the job – seeing them grow and make new friendships. It’s been
an absolute pleasure to be able to drop my son off at his nursery and know that I am steps
away if needed.
Participant 6 further explained SVIS’ free, built-in childcare program for staff children
alleviates a significant burden on women leaders, enabling them to devote their attention to their
professional responsibilities. Similarly, Participant 1 discussed how the international school
lifestyle, where spouses and children worked at and attended the same school, naturally lent to
decreased coordination effort avoiding pick-ups and drop offs at different locations enhancing
quality time together. In addition to childcare, maternity leave was cited as an area of concern for
Participant 5. Although SVIS offers both maternity and paternity leave, Participant 5 discussed
offering robust support during maternity leave is crucial to acknowledging the unique challenges
women face during this period. Participants recommend a range of potential supports for
maternity leave, including adequate paid maternity leave for 6 months to 1 year in duration,
flexible work arrangements upon return, and mentorship programs during the transition back to
work. In order to prevent women feeling ‘left behind’ upon their return, additional recommended
measures by participants included providing professional development opportunities,
maintaining open lines of communication, and fostering a supportive workplace culture to
balance personal and professional lives. Participants believed implementing measures to support

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childcare and maternity leave are necessary structures for women to thrive both in their careers
and as parents.
Table 9: Comprehensive Child Care and Maternity Leave Support
Participant Example Quote
Administration Position
Participant
“From my experience making sure that the family aspect is
taken care of. The [childcare] program that set up has been
phenomenal. When we came, my kids were just barely
school aged but still knowing that I could stay till 5, and I
could work, and like those things, would be taken care of,
that's a huge relief. You can have those professional
conversations.”
Administration Position
Participant
“I spend more time with my children now than when I did
have a non-administrative job [at local school] because the
time is quality time as opposed to in the car, rushing
everywhere, dropping them [my children] off in one place,
running to the next, then doing the pick up. Here for certain
things, we are able to all go together. Vacations are
vacations where I am able to create memories.”
Theme 2: Opportunities for Mentorship
Mentorship played a pivotal role for three participants empowering them to navigate the
challenges and complexities associated with entering leadership positions. By providing

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guidance, support, and valuable insights, mentors helped Participant 2, Participant 7, and
Participant 9 build confidence, hone their skills, and overcome obstacles unique to their gender.
Participant 8 cited the need for structured mentorship programs allowing experienced women in
leadership roles to share their strategies for success. This would provide practical advice and
foster a sense of belonging and community, reassuring women that they are not alone in their
journey. Participant 7 explained that her mentor acted as advocate opening doors to opportunities
and networks that might otherwise be inaccessible. Participant 9 also noted that her mentor
supported her entry into leadership and fostered her growth into a senior level administration
position. Furthermore, Participant 2, Participant 3, and Participant 8 believed mentorship helped
in breaking down the gender barriers by showcasing successful female role models. These
insights suggest that mentorship opportunities can help women gain the necessary tools and
perspectives to challenge stereotypes, assert their capabilities, and contribute significantly to the
transformation of educational leadership landscapes.
Table 10: Opportunities for Mentorship
Participant Example Quote
Leadership Position Participant “Even with that self-doubt, I think, having certain mentors
and my parents, for sure my current supervisor, all of these
people, were the people that I would go to if I was having
doubts, because it's not easy being a person of color within
a Korean school…”

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Leadership Position Participant “She's my mentor. She is not everyone's cup of tea, and she
is. She has her own strengths and weaknesses. She’s in
leadership. She’s a senior level admin. Seeing her and the
way that she battles these battles that are sometimes
charged with sexism or racism, or things like that with
people that look like her or don't look like her, it really
doesn't matter, you would think, ‘Oh people of color
wouldn't discriminate against each other.’ No! She also has
to deal with those things. So, seeing how she does navigate
the workplace and the international school community and
still be a leader, I guess has helped me with my
confidence.”
Leadership Position Participant “And part of my mentor being like, ‘Yeah, go do it.’ and
meeting [a leader in the international SJ community] in
person and having him recognize me. I didn’t need that
recognition from him, but I just feel so much more seen in
that work.”
Theme 3: The Need for Clear, Transparent Hiring and Promotion Processes
Three participants underscored the need for clear and transparent hiring and promotion to
ensure fairness, equity, and diversity in educational leadership positions. Participant 1 and
Participant 9 both shared experiences of being denied leadership positions due to qualities
associated with their gender or appearance. Additionally, Participant 8 described the rejection of

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quality candidates of color in the hiring process without clear reason. She suggested open and
well-defined hiring and promotion processes provide equal opportunities for all candidates,
regardless of their gender, race, or background. She further explained transparency in criteria and
evaluation methods ensures that candidates are assessed based on merit, skills, and
qualifications, promoting a level playing field. Moreover, transparent processes enhance trust
within the educational community, fostering a positive organizational culture where individuals
are confident that their talents and efforts will be recognized and rewarded fairly. This
transparency also encourages accountability, as decisions are made based on objective criteria
rather than subjective biases.
Table 11: Clear, Transparent Hiring and Promotion Processes
Participant Example Quote
Leadership Position Participant “I think especially with the big push towards DEIJ
there isn’t a lot of action happening. It’s a lot of
now that we have a policy, here are our options,
here is the feedback from the staff, we have a
diversity panel, but nothing is actually happening
from it. What are the actual steps that we are taking
to have our admin team, the teaching staff look like
the students we represent, look like the international
community that we want to represent.”

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Leadership Position Participant “The previous department head had been in the
position for six or seven years and before him,
[Name redacted] had been the department head for
six or seven years. If I don’t take this opportunity
now, I have to let someone else take it and six or
seven years are passing before it [the position]
comes up again. Because there’s no term limit, and
no one is stepping down, you don’t have the
opportunity to get in.”
Discussion for Research Question 2
The scholarly research supports the findings shared by participants of this study,
emphasizing essential policies and practices for supporting women's career advancement include
support with childcare, mentorship (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2021) and improved hiring and
promotion processes (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020). Both participants and scholarly research
underscore the critical importance of comprehensive childcare acknowledging that accessible
and high-quality childcare programs and flexible work arrangements are indispensable for
working mothers to balance their professional responsibilities and family life effectively.
Furthermore, the research and studies align in highlighting the pivotal role of mentorship
programs. The research emphasizes the significance of mentors in providing guidance and
advocacy, while the study's participants stress the importance of structured mentorship in
breaking down gender barriers and boosting confidence among aspiring women leaders.
Additionally, both sources emphasize the necessity of clear and transparent hiring and promotion
processes. The research discusses how organizational barriers, such as leadership hegemony

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(Bourdieu, 1996) and patriarchal leadership (Wittenberg-Cox, 2021), contribute to gender
disparities, while the study's participants share their experiences of gender-related biases and
advocate for transparent evaluation methods based on merit and qualifications. Together, these
findings and supporting research emphasize the multifaceted challenges faced by women and
provide actionable policy recommendations, reinforcing the importance of addressing these
challenges comprehensively to support women's career progression in educational leadership
roles.
Summary
Participants identified three main categories of barriers for women in or aspiring to
leadership positions in an international school: social, organizational, and personal. Social
barriers encompassed biases related to physical appearance, age, and race affecting women's
suitability for leadership positions. Family influence and gender expectations played a role, with
societal norms dictating traditional roles for women, impacting career choices. Organizational
barriers involved biases in decision-making processes and leadership opportunities, requiring
adept navigation of institutional structures. Personal barriers included challenges related to worklife balance, as women often juggle professional ambitions and caregiving responsibilities. These
barriers collectively hindered women's confidence in pursuing leadership roles, emphasizing the
complex factors influencing their career trajectories.
Participants identified three key themes vital for supporting women's career advancement
in leadership roles: comprehensive childcare and maternity leave support, mentorship programs,
and clear, transparent hiring processes. Participants emphasized the importance of accessible and
high-quality childcare along with free childcare programs for staff children, enabling working
mothers to focus on their careers without compromising their children's well-being. Maternity

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leave support was also crucial, with recommendations for adequate paid leave, flexible work
arrangements, mentorship programs, professional development, open communication, and a
supportive workplace culture. Mentorship played a pivotal role in empowering women to
navigate complexities associated with leadership, providing guidance, support and breaking
down gender barriers. Clear and transparent hiring and promotion processes were deemed
essential to ensure fairness and diversity in leadership positions, preventing biases and promoting
equal opportunities.
Table 12: Summary of Themes and Findings of the Study
Themes Findings
Societal barriers for women’s career
advancement into international school
leadership
• Stereotypes and biases based on
physical appearance hinder women's
progress
• Family influence and gender
expectations shape career choices and
opportunities
Organizational barriers for women’s
career advancement into international
school leadership
• Complex institutional structures create
challenges for women in leadership
roles
• Lack of female visibility and
mentorship in leadership roles

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Personal barriers for career advancement
into leadership
• Self-doubt / Impostor Syndrome
• Lack of support juggling professional
ambitions with personal
responsibilities (eg. childcare)
Need for comprehensive child care and
maternity leave support
• Accessible and high-quality childcare
is vital for working mothers
• Adequate paid maternity leave and
flexible work arrangements are
necessary for women to balance
personal and professional obligations
Need for opportunities for mentorship • Mentorship programs empower
women to navigate complex
institutions systems
• Mentors make female leadership
visible for and within the community
Need for clear, transparent hiring and
promotion processes
• Transparent evaluation methods based
on merit can ensure equal
opportunities
These research findings are discussed in chapter five along with recommendations which
may enable policy makers and administrators to provide support for women in international
schools in South Korea to ascend to leadership roles.

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Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations for Practice
This paper aimed to undertake a critical analysis of challenges faced by female
administrators striving for upward mobility in South Korean international schools. The
investigation was centered on the significant gender disparity within leadership roles, with the
objective of identifying specific obstacles hindering women's career advancement. The study
sought to shed light on potential policy measures that can effectively address these challenges
and contribute to narrowing the existing gender gap. The following research questions were used
to guide this study:
1. What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking career advancement in
administration roles at international schools in South Korea?
2. What policies and practices do women at international schools in South Korea
believe support their career advancement?
This chapter will provide a brief overview of the findings in this study and how they
connect to both the literature and theoretical framework. It will then address the three
recommendations for practice and how they can be practically applied to support women’s career
advancement into leadership positions at international schools. The three recommendations
include:
1. Create comprehensive childcare programs and maternity leave to support, attract,
and maintain quality female leadership.
2. Provide structured opportunities for mentorship as a part of the onboarding
process for all employees.
3. Adopt a comprehensive approach to promote fairness, equity, and diversity within
educational leadership positions, including clear and transparent evaluation

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criteria for hiring and promotion processes rooted in merit, skills, and
qualifications.
Discussion of Findings
RQ #1: What are perceived barriers (if any) for women seeking career advancement in
administration roles at international schools in South Korea?
Perceived barriers for women seeking career advancement in administration roles in
South Korean international schools fell into three broad overarching categories: social barriers,
organizational barriers, and personal barriers.
Social barriers identified by participants in the study encompassed stereotypes and biases
rooted in physical appearance, age, and race. Participants emphasized the influence of societal
expectations on leadership perceptions, noting the presence of biases in both American and
Korean cultures. Existing prejudices were underscored by a preference for leaders who fit a
specific demographic profile including characteristics such as being light-skinned, married, and
aged 40 or above. While physical appearance was not explicitly addressed in the literature,
scholars (Kim & Song, 2014; Hoff & Mitchel, 2008; Martínez et al., 2021; Koenig et al., 2011)
have highlighted the impact of gender perceptions on women's treatment and opportunities in the
workforce. Applying critical feminist theory, it becomes evident that elements of gender, race,
class, sexuality, and ability intersect to contribute to structures of power (Baxter & Braithwaite,
2008) elevating those that fit society’s preconceived notion of a leader. This suggests that internal
biases shaped by these intersecting factors influence the dynamics of power and oppression.
Additionally, scholars have identified family influence and gender expectations as
contributing factors that impact career choices, often directing women toward traditional roles

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(Pietromonaco et al., 2021; Hoff & Mitchel, 2008; Martínez et al., 2021). While none of the
participants explicitly mentioned facing gender-based expectations in their career choices,
participants were encouraged to pursue careers that offered safety, stability, and financial
independence. Suggesting these societal influences may subtly shape individuals' decisions, even
if not explicitly articulated in their narratives.
In conjunction with societal barriers, organizational barriers were perceived to hinder
women’s career advancement according to participants in the study. Organizational barriers
involved navigating the intricate landscape of leadership in international schools. Participants
discussed subtle biases affecting decision-making processes, leadership opportunities, and career
advancement which were also reflected in scholarly research (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020; María
& Ferreira, 2022; Garica et al., 2008). Transparent hiring processes, clear articulation of policies
(Gardner-McTaggart, 2020), and the importance of strategic alliances and mentorship
relationships (Lauricella, 2022; Hewlett et al., 2011) were emphasized as crucial for overcoming
organizational barriers by both participants and scholarly research. Participants added
maintaining friendships within hierarchical structures was intricate and challenging with the
scarcity of female peers. This contributed to feelings of isolation which were exasperated in an
international context distant from extended family and peer networks.
Finally, perceived personal barriers which included balancing work and personal life as
well as feelings of imposter syndrome and self-doubt emerged as a significant challenge for
some participants. Literature indicated that traditional gender roles and societal expectations
added complexity leading to reluctance in taking on leadership roles (Mustapa et al., 2018; Cross
2010). With the roles and responsibilities of leadership positions in schools such as principal
growing (Fullan, 2014), some participants believed advancing to such roles required women to

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prioritize work over family. Other personal barriers cited both by participants and scholarly
research included feeling of self-doubt (Naglee, 2018; McNamer, 2020; Manfredi et al., 2014)
and imposter syndrome (Crawford, 2020) influenced by both internal insecurities and external
biases. The noticeable lack of representation of women in top leadership roles created
psychological barriers, impacting the confidence and aspirations of women in pursuing such
positions. The participants' narratives revealed instances where they grappled with the question
of whether they truly belonged in leadership roles, echoing the broader societal challenges
women face in overcoming deeply ingrained gender stereotypes.
These findings offer some understanding of the challenges women encounter in
leadership roles in South Korean international schools. Societal biases, organizational dynamics,
and personal struggles contribute to a complex web of barriers. The study emphasizes the need
for addressing imposter syndrome, reshaping societal expectations, and implementing
transparent policies to foster diversity and inclusivity in leadership positions. The emotional
impact of discriminatory behavior on women's confidence is highlighted, emphasizing the
importance of supportive environments for aspiring women leaders.
RQ #2: What policies and practices do women at international schools in South Korea believe
support their career advancement?
The research findings for Research Question 2 illuminate the policies and practices that
women in international school leadership in South Korea believe support their career
advancement. Three key themes emerged from the interviews providing valuable insights into
the experiences and perspectives of the participants: accessible childcare and maternity leave
support, mentorship, and the need for clear and transparent hiring policies.

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Participants with children emphasized the importance of childcare as a vital component in
promoting gender equity and supporting women aspiring to leadership roles. Scholarly research
explained that women feel pressure to balance work and family obligations to fulfill societal
expectations of "respectable femininity" (Mustapa et al., 2018); therefore, support in this area is
necessary. Participants believed free, accessible, high-quality childcare programs for staff
children were seen as essential in relieving significant burdens on women leaders. Participants
further believed maternity leave support, including adequate paid maternity leave and flexible
work arrangements upon return, were crucial for successful career advancement.
In addition to free, accessible, childcare and maternity leave support, participants
believed mentorship played a pivotal role in navigating the challenges and complexities
associated with leadership positions. Scholarly research explained women often lack a sponsor
that promotes their skills and abilities to others in the organization because most leadership
positions are held by men (Hewlett et al., 2011). Women often underestimate the role
sponsorship plays in career mobility or fail to enter networks to cultivate it (Hewlett et al., 2011).
Several participants attributed their transition into leadership because of a mentor and believe
structured mentorship programs are essential for providing practical guidance, support, and
showcasing successful female role models. Participants described mentors as advocates opening
doors to opportunities and networks that might otherwise be inaccessible.
The final key policy support participants underscored for women’s career advancement
was the need for clear and transparent hiring and promotion processes to ensure fairness, equity,
and diversity. Participants believed transparent evaluation methods based on merit, skills, and
qualifications were crucial in providing equal opportunities for all candidates and fostering a
positive organizational culture. Both research and the critical feminist framework identify

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elements of gender, race, class, sexuality, and ability intersect to contribute to structures of
power. Leadership research has perpetuated dominant forms of masculine leadership as the norm,
rejecting other leadership styles (Lu, 2020; Lauricella 2022). This means leadership hegemony is
not unique to international school settings, but perpetuated through traditional schooling
techniques established in the West where women in leaders are marginalized. In order to improve
outcomes for diversity in school leadership, transparency is necessary to enhance trust and
encourage accountability in hiring and promotion decisions.
The findings of this study align with scholarly research emphasizing the critical
importance of comprehensive childcare, mentorship, and improved hiring and promotion
processes in supporting women's career advancement. Both participants and existing research
underscored the multifaceted challenges faced by women and provided actionable policy
recommendations. Addressing these challenges comprehensively was highlighted as essential to
supporting women's career progression in educational leadership roles. The study reinforces the
importance of tangible measures, such as clear policies and transparent processes, in translating
diversity, equity, inclusion, and justice goals into action within educational institutions.
Recommendations for Practice
The following recommendations can provide equitable opportunities for women in and
aspiring to leadership positions in international schools in South Korea.

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Table 13: Connection of RQ’s to Findings and Literature
Research Questions Findings Literature
What are perceived barriers
(if any) for women seeking
career advancement in
administration roles at
international schools in South
Korea?
● Stereotypes and biases
based on physical
appearance hinder
women's progress
● Family influence and
gender expectations
shape career choices and
opportunities
Hoff & Mitchell, 2008
Martínez et al., 2021
● Complex institutional
structures create
challenges for women in
leadership roles
● Lack of female visibility
and mentorship in
leadership roles hinders
advancement
opportunities
Gardner-McTaggart, 2020
Lauricella, 2022

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● Self-doubt / Impostor
Syndrome
● Lack of support juggling
professional ambitions
with personal
responsibilities (eg.
childcare)
Crawford, 2021
Dean et al., 2022
What policies and practices
do women at international
schools in South Korea
believe support their career
advancement?
● Accessible and highquality childcare is vital
for working mothers
● Adequate paid maternity
leave and flexible work
arrangements are
necessary for women to
balance personal and
professional obligations
Coleman, 2005
● Mentorship programs
empower women to
navigate complex
institutions systems
Lu, 2020
Lauricella, 2022

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● Mentors make female
leadership visible for and
within the community
• Transparent evaluation
methods based on merit
can ensure equal
opportunities
Gardner-McTaggart, 2020
Recommendation 1: Create comprehensive childcare programs and maternity leave to support,
attract and maintain quality female leadership
Participants' perceptions underscore the importance of accessible and high-quality
childcare programs and the need for flexible work arrangements, particularly for mothers
returning from maternity leave. Research conducted by Latura (2020) and Daiger von Gleiche
(2023) supports these findings, indicating that comprehensive childcare programs significantly
contribute to women's career advancement by alleviating the burden of family responsibilities.
Additionally, Latura (2020) highlights the positive impact of free childcare programs for staff
children, creating a supportive environment that enhances work-life balance and job satisfaction
among women leaders. In the context of international schools, there are several practical and
context-specific recommendations. First, it is recommended that schools prioritize the
development of on-campus, full day, childcare for infants beginning at 6 months to toddlers up to
3 years. Childcare hours should extend beyond the school day until 5:00 PM to alleviate the
burdens on women leaders, fostering an environment that supports both professional and
personal responsibilities. Second, children from 3 years to 13 years (or grade 8) should be
provided free or significantly reduced tuition which also includes on campus childcare until 5:00

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 93
PM. To further enhance support for mothers returning from maternity leave, schools should
provide detailed and well-communicated flexible work arrangements. This includes measures
such as extended maternity leave, flexible schedules, and maintaining open lines of
communication. This holistic and practical approach aims to create an inclusive and supportive
framework, ultimately enhancing the overall well-being and professional growth of women in
leadership roles within international schools.
Recommendation 2: Provide structured opportunities for mentorship as a part of the
onboarding process for all employees.
The study findings highlight the significant impact of mentorship programs on women's
career advancement in international schools. It is evident that structured mentorship plays a
pivotal role in empowering women leaders by providing practical guidance, support, and
opportunities for networking. Peer-reviewed research by Lauricella (2022) and Mitchell (2018)
emphasized how mentorship programs contribute to the professional development of women in
leadership positions. In the context of international schools, the context-specific recommendation
is to establish structured mentorship programs that begin as a part of the onboarding program as
a part of new teacher orientation. This program should strategically connect experienced women
leaders with aspiring women within the organization, fostering the exchange of practical
guidance and support. By creating a formal framework for mentorship, schools can contribute
significantly to the professional development of women in leadership positions, equipping them
with the tools and insights needed to navigate challenges effectively. Moreover, it is crucial to
actively promote successful female role models within the organization as part of the mentorship
initiative. This involves encouraging mentors to share their experiences and strategies for
success, actively contributing to breaking down gender barriers, and fostering a sense of

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 94
belonging and community among aspiring women leaders. This holistic approach aims to inspire
confidence and provide tangible examples of achievement, reinforcing the commitment to gender
equity within the educational leadership landscape of international schools.
Recommendation 3: Adopt a comprehensive approach to promote equity, and diversity within
educational leadership positions.
Academic research (Gardner-McTaggart, 2020) and this study highlight the significance
of continuous monitoring and evaluation for policies and practices supporting women's career
progression. Regular feedback collection from women leaders, especially those from historically
marginalized communities, and assessment of the impact of school hiring and recruitment
policies are identified as crucial for making continuous improvements. Research by de Aquino
(2018) and Valerio (2022) suggested that continuous monitoring and evaluation are essential for
the success of diversity and inclusion initiatives. It indicated that adapting strategies based on
feedback is key to better supporting individuals in their career journey. To practically apply this
recommendation, international schools should establish diversity and inclusion committees to
continuously monitor and evaluate policies and practices related to women's career progression.
Regularly collecting feedback from women leaders and assessing the impact of implemented
measures will provide valuable insights. The information gathered should be used to make
ongoing improvements, adapting strategies to better support women in their leadership journey.
This iterative approach ensures that the institution remains responsive to the evolving needs of its
diverse leadership community. Regular forums for feedback and discussion can be organized to
facilitate this ongoing process of improvement.

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Table 14:Recommendation Timetable and Staff Responsible
Recommendation Timeline / Resources Staff Responsible
Recommendation 1: Create
comprehensive childcare
programs and maternity leave
to support, attract and
maintain quality female
leadership
Within the next one to two
years.
Prioritize on-campus, full-day
childcare for infants to
toddlers and extend childcare
hours beyond the school day.
School Administration in
cooperation with the business
office and local government
Free or significantly reduced
tuition, including on-campus
childcare until 5:00 PM,
should be provided for
children aged 3 to 13.
School Administration in
cooperation with the business
office
Establish flexible work
arrangements, including
extended maternity leave and
open communication
channels.
School Administration and
HR Director in cooperation
with the business office

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Recommendation 2: Provide
structured opportunities for
mentorship as a part of the
onboarding process for all
employees
Within the next one year.
Integrate structured
mentorship programs into
onboarding processes
School Administration, HR
Director and site leaders
Connect experienced women
leaders with aspiring women,
fostering practical guidance,
support, and networking
opportunities.
Principal of Teaching and
Learning and HR Director
Actively promote successful
female role models within the
organization, contributing to
breaking down gender
barriers.
Principal of Teaching and
Learning
Recommendation 3: Adopt a
comprehensive approach to
promote fairness, equity, and
diversity within educational
leadership positions,
including clear and
Within the next one year.
Establish a diversity and
inclusion committee within
international schools for
continuous monitoring and
evaluation.
School Administration

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transparent evaluation criteria
for hiring and promotion
processes, rooted in merit,
skills, and qualifications
Regularly collect feedback
from women leaders,
especially those from
historically marginalized
communities.
School Administration, HR
Director, DEIJ committee
and EdTech Teams
Adapt strategies based on
feedback to better support
women in their leadership
journey.
School Administration, HR
Director, DEIJ committee
Limitations and Delimitations
In the context of research, limitations are the factors that may affect the accuracy and
reliability of a study's results. In this study, limitations arise from a modest sample size, potential
challenges related to self-reporting during interviews, and researcher bias, including the
influence of personal relationships on data interpretation and analysis. Conversely, delimitations
are parameters intentionally set by the researcher. This study establishes delimitations through
the application of critical feminist theory as a guiding framework, the utilization of interview and
document analysis for data collection, adherence to an interview and document analysis protocol,
and purposeful selection of participants.
Recommendations for Future Research
Continuing research on gender disparities and women's career advancement in
international school leadership roles in South Korea can explore several avenues to deepen
understanding and inform further interventions. One key area is the long-term impact assessment

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 98
where researchers investigate the sustained effects of implemented policies and practices. This
involves analyzing the career trajectories of women who have benefited from supportive
measures to assess the sustainability and overall effectiveness of these initiatives over an
extended period. Another critical dimension is intersectionality involving the exploration of how
gender intersects with identity markers like race, class, sexuality, and ability. Understanding the
unique challenges faced by women from diverse backgrounds enhances the comprehensiveness
of research. A comparative analysis with experiences of women in international school
leadership in South Korea and other countries can provide insights into common challenges and
unique contextual factors shaping women's professional journeys across diverse cultural settings.
Additionally, delving into student and parent perspectives can offer valuable insights into
perceptions regarding gender diversity in school leadership and how diverse leadership teams
impact the school community and student outcomes.
Conclusion
This study sheds light on the complex challenges faced by female administrators seeking
career advancement in South Korean international schools highlighting the importance of
addressing these issues. The research identified social, organizational, and personal barriers that
hinder women's progress, including stereotypical biases, family influence, and imposter
syndrome. In South Korea, these challenges can be further exacerbated by cultural differences,
language barriers, and limited access to familiar support networks, underscoring the need for
tailored solutions. To address these challenges effectively, three practical recommendations are
proposed. First, the establishment of comprehensive childcare programs and maternity leave to
support working mothers and attract quality female leadership is crucial, especially in a foreign
country where such support may be lacking. Second, the implementation of structured

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 99
mentorship programs as part of the onboarding process can empower women in navigating
leadership complexities, offering guidance and support in unfamiliar environments. Finally, the
adoption of a comprehensive approach to promote fairness, equity, and diversity in educational
leadership is essential, incorporating clear and transparent evaluation criteria for hiring and
promotion processes which includes data collection and monitoring. These recommendations,
rooted in both research findings and existing literature, provide actionable strategies for
international schools in South Korea to foster a supportive and inclusive environment, breaking
down barriers and advancing gender equity in educational leadership amidst the unique
challenges of international settings.

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Appendix A
Interview Protocol for SVIS Administrators
Thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule to meet with me. I am happy to be
back at Sunny Valley and am looking forward to learning about your personal and professional
experiences here. As I mentioned in my email, this interview should take about an hour. I just
want to check in and make sure this still works for you.
Before we begin the interview, I would like to review the purpose of this study that was
outlined in the Study Information Sheet, and answer any questions you might have. As you know,
I am currently a student at USC. As a part of my program, I am conducting a study on women’s
progression into leadership roles, such as administrator and director at international schools in
South Korea. I am particularly interested in learning about barriers to women entering
leadership positions and policies that support women’s career advancement. I will be talking to
other administrators at Sunny Valley about this. I will also interview teachers currently in
leadership positions to gain further perspectives.
Although I have a history at Sunny Valley, I would like to assure you that my role here today
is strictly as a researcher. My questions are not evaluative, and I will not be passing judgments
on your answers or on your abilities as an administrator.
I also want to assure you that anything said in this interview is confidential. Your name will
not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. The data from this study will be
compiled into a report. I will use some of what you say as direct quotes, but none of the data will
be directly tied to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and the identity of
Sunny Valley. I will do my best to de-identify any data I gather from you. I am happy to provide
you with a final copy of my paper, if you are interested.
Before we move on, I would like to pause and see if you have any questions about what I
shared. I would like to use my phone to record this interview. This will allow me to accurately
capture what you share with me. The recording is solely to capture your perspective and will not
be shared with anyone outside the research team. May I have your permission to record our
conversation?
Interview Questions Potential Probes RQ Key Concept
Addressed
Question
Type
Background Information
I would like to start by asking some background questions about you.
1. Can you tell me
about your
background in
How did you become
interested in the field of
education?
N/A N/A Background

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 116
education?
How long have you worked
in the field?
What roles and positions
have you held?
2. How did you move
into your current
position?
N/A N/A Background
Societal Barriers
Now that I know a bit about your journey in education, I would like to begin exploring some
social and cultural influences on your career path.
3. What effect, if any,
did your family
have on your career
choices?
How do you think your
gender affected the way you
were raised, if at all?
RQ1 Gender roles Opinions /
Values
4. How do you feel
societal
expectations
influenced your
career, if at all?
How do you think women in
your current role are
perceived by society?
What expectations does
society have for women in
your role, if any?
How do you think men in
your role are perceived
differently by society, if at
all?
How does Korean culture
impact your role as an
administrator, if at all?
RQ1 Gender norms
CFT
Feeling
Organizational Barriers
Now I would like to shift our focus to organizational influences on your career path.
5. What How do you think gender RQ1 Hegemony Opinions /

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 117
organizational
barriers, if any, did
you encounter when
entering your
current leadership
role?
influenced these barriers, if
at all?
How do you think the
organizational structure
affected your career
advancement, if at all?
CFT Values
6. Even though most
teachers are women,
most administrators
are men. What do
you think impacts
women’s decision
to move into
leadership
positions?
RQ1 Patriarchal
Leadership
Opinions /
Values
7. How does SVIS
support women in
leadership roles, if
at all?
RQ1
RQ2
Organizational
Barriers
Opinions /
Values
8. For a woman to feel
successful as a
leader, what
policies, if any, do
you think are
necessary at SVIS?
RQ1
RQ2
Organizational
Barriers
Ideal
Position
9. What practices, if
any, do you feel
support you in a
leadership role
SVIS?
RQ2 Organizational
Barriers
Feeling

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 118
Personal Barriers
We talked about societal and organizational influences on your career, now I would like to
discuss how your role affects you personally. You may find these questions sensitive in
nature. The questions are not evaluative, and I am not here to pass judgement on your
professional decisions or personal life. You may choose not to answer the next questions if
they make you uncomfortable.
10. Some people say
women are their
own biggest
obstacle to entering
administration
positions, what
would you say to
them?
RQ1 Self-efficacy Devil’s
Advocate
11. Which personal
traits do you think
hinders your career
advancement, if
any?
Can you tell me about a
time when this trait affected
your career, if at all?
RQ1 Self-efficacy Opinions /
Values
12. How has your
career affected your
personal
relationships, if at
all?
RQ1 Work-life
Balance
Opinions /
Values
13. How does your
current position
affect work-life
balance, if at all?
Can you describe a time
when you needed to
prioritize work over your
personal life, if at all?
How has your career
impacted your family, if at
all?
RQ1 Work-life Feeling
Closing Question
14. What other insights Opinions /

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 119
would you like to
share about our
conversation about
women in
administration roles
in international
schools that I might
not have covered, if
any?
Values
Conclusion to the Interview
Thank you for taking time to share your thoughts with me today. Everything you have shared
is helpful to my study and I value your insight on the topic. If I have a follow up question, would
it be ok if I contact you again by email? Thank you again for your participation.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 120
Appendix B
Information Sheet for Exempt Studies
INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH
STUDY TITLE: SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING: Examining Invisible Barriers to
Women’s Career Progression in South Korean International Schools
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Denise Brohm
FACULTY ADVISOR: Kimberly Ferrario, Ph.D.
You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.
PURPOSE
The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the barriers to upward mobility faced by female
administrators at international schools in South Korea. We hope to gain insight on the significant
gender imbalance in administration roles. This can help to identify specific barriers to women’s
career advancement and uncover potential policy supports to minimize the gender gap in
leadership. You are invited as a possible participant because of your leadership position at SVIS
and ability to provide rich information on the topic.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
Interview participants will be asked to participate in a one-hour interview conducted either in
person or via Zoom (video conferencing software). Participants will have the opportunity to
review direct quotes for accuracy and representation of experiences and opinions. Participants
may be asked follow-up questions via email. Participants may also participate in a follow up
interview if needed and time permits. Interviews will be recorded and transcribed. Once
transcribed and verified, the audio recordings will be deleted. The participant can decline to be
recorded and still participate in the interview.
If you decide to take part in the interview, you will be asked to:
1. Participate in a sixty-minute interview, in person or via Zoom.
2. Provide feedback for accuracy of direct quotes (optional).
3. Provide feedback on initial findings as they relate to your experiences (optional).

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 121
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There is no compensation or payment for participation in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) may access the data. The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to
protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used. Pseudonyms will be used in the dissertation to further protect the
confidentiality of participants and the organization. Participants will have the opportunity to
review their transcripts and verify direct quotes. Data will be stored by the researcher for a
maximum of one year, and audio recordings will be accessible only to the principal researcher
and transcriber, and erased upon study completion.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact If you have any questions about this
study, please contactDenise Brohm at brohm@usc.edu or Kimberly Ferrario, Ph.D at
kferrari@usc.edu.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

SHATTERING THE GLASS CEILING 122
Appendix C
Document Analysis Protocol
SVIS Policy Documents
Document /
Artifact
Source /
Author
Original
Purpose of
Item
Date Created Consistent
with Findings
Divergence
from
Findings
(Billups, 2020)

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brohm, Denise (author)

Core Title Shattering the glass ceiling: examining invisible barriers to women’s career progression in South Korean international schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Educational Leadership

Degree Conferral Date 2024-05

Publication Date 04/08/2024

Defense Date 02/22/2024

Publisher Los Angeles, California (original), University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag childcare programs,diversity initiatives,Educational Leadership,equity,feminist theory,gender disparity,gender norms,gender roles,international schools,leadership,leadership challenges,mentorship opportunities,organizational structures,promotion,self efficacy,social barriers,South Korea,South Korea international schools,women in leadership,work-life balance

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Ferrario, Kim (committee chair), Ermeling, Bradley (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email brohm@usc.edu,denise.brohm79@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113871208

Unique identifier UC113871208

Identifier etd-BrohmDenis-12781.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-BrohmDenis-12781

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Brohm, Denise

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20240408-usctheses-batch-1137 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu