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How the University of Costa Rica is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the demands of multinational corporations for increased...

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How the University of Costa Rica is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the demands of multinational corporations for increased...

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 1
HOW THE UNIVERSITY OF COSTA RICA IS PREPARING EDUCATIONAL
LEADERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS TO HELP STUDENTS DEVELOP
21ST-CENTURY SKILLS TO MEET THE DEMANDS OF
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS FOR INCREASED
HUMAN CAPITAL IN COSTA RICA
by
Samuel M. McVey
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2015
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to my mother, Dr. Lynne Anne McVey. I am very
grateful for her relentless support and encouragement throughout each phase of this
process. My deepest gratitude is owed to her for her professional and personal example.
I thank her for her continued love and guidance and for always reminding me to appreci-
ate the steps in this journey.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
I am pleased to thank the University of Costa Rica (UCR) for participating in
this study. Special thanks go to Dr. Allen Pacheco and Dr. Alicia Vargas for providing
the necessary assistance to visit the UCR campus. I am grateful for their support and
accommodation. I would also like to thank the UCR staff, faculty, students, and alumni
for warmly welcoming me to their community. The time they spent sharing their experi-
ences and insights with me was rewarding and inspiring.
Thank you to my team at the USC Rossier School of Education: Felipe, Monica,
Star, Josh, Brad, Elizabeth, Alex, Megan, Anita, Oryla, Sebastian, and Dr. Escalante.
All are incredible educators and made this journey a lot of fun; their leadership, sense of
humor, and passion for learning helped to bring out the best in me.
I acknowledge and thank Dr. Bruce Cooper. He believed in me and encouraged
me to pursue this doctoral degree. I would not be where I am today without his confi-
dence and support. I also thank Dr. Linda Fischer for helping me to become a better
writer through focus, determination, and perseverance.
Thanks are owed to my dissertation cochairs, Dr. Brandon Martinez and Dr.
Cynthia McCarty, for their continued support. To Dr. Pedro Garcia, the third member of
my dissertation committee, thank you for serving as a role model and inspiration for me
to become a better person through this process. A special thank you goes to my disserta-
tion chair and mentor, Dr. Michael Escalante, who has offered nothing but support and
encouragement from day 1. His expertise gained from his educational experiences chal-
lenged me to do the best study possible. He has been an integral part of my
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 4
development as an educational leader and has helped me to grow in more ways than I
could imagine. I am honored to call him my mentor and friend.
Finally, thank you to my mother, Dr. Lynne Anne McVey, to whom this disserta-
tion is dedicated; to my father, Kevin; to my sister, Catherine; and to my uncle, Bobbie.
I am grateful for their love, support, and inspiration.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 12
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 15
Importance of the Study 15
Limitations of the Study 16
Delimitations of the Study 17
Assumptions of the Study 18
Definitions of Related Terms 18
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 23
Globalization and Education 25
Historical Conceptualizations of Globalization 25
Theoretical Perspectives of Globalization 28
Redefining the Role of the Educational Professional in the 21st
Century 31
The Importance of 21st-Century Skills 38
The Impact of Foreign Direct Investment and MNCs on Developing
Nations 42
Education Initiatives and Human Capital Development 43
FDI’s Promotion of Higher Education and Use of Technology 47
Costa Rica 49
History of Costa Rica 51
Education System of Costa Rica 54
Presence of MNCs 60
Educational Leaders and Problems to Address in the 21st Century 62
Conceptual Frameworks 63
Impact of Globalization and MNCs on Education Policy in Costa Rica 64
Education in Costa Rica 64
Leadership in Schools in Costa Rica 65
Summary of Literature Review 67
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 69
Research Design 71
Sample and Population 75
Political Leaders and Education Policymakers 78
Executives of MNCs 78
School Administrators 79
Instrumentation 79
Pilot Testing 81
Interview Protocol for Political Leaders, Education Policymakers, and
Executives of MNCs 82
Interview Protocol for School Leaders 82
Observation Protocol 83
Survey Protocol 83
Document Analysis 84
Data Collection 84
Data Analysis 86
Validity and Reliability 89
Limitations 91
Delimitations 91
Ethical Considerations 92
Chapter Four: Findings 94
Participants 96
Results for Research Question 1 96
Perspectives 97
Bridging the Old Economy With the New Economy 100
Improving Education at All Levels 102
Discussion: Research Question 1 103
Results for Research Question 2 104
Perspectives 105
Partnership With Intel and Other MNCs 110
English Language Learning and Practice 112
Discussion: Research Question 113
Results for Research Question 3 114
Perspectives 114
Changing School Curricula Based on New Demands From MNCs 117
Quality of Teacher and Administrator Preparation Programs 118
Discussion: Research Question 3 119
Overview of the Education System and Institutions in Costa Rica 119
Public Education 119
Higher Education 120
UCR 120
Creation of the Master’s Degree Program in Education Administration 121
Perspectives of Students in the Master’s Program in Education
Administration 121
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 7
Participant Observations 122
Conclusion 123
Chapter Five: Synthesizing the Results and Implications of Findings 125
Discussion of Findings 128
Implications for Practice 134
Self-Evaluation, Assessment, and Accountability 134
Better Communication and Collaboration 135
Recommendations for Future Research 136
Practice 136
Policy 137
Conclusion 138
References 142
Appendices
Appendix A: First Letter to the Minister of Public Education 154
Appendix B: Government and Policy Leaders Interview Protocol 156
Appendix C: Corporate Leader Interview Protocol 158
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol 160
Appendix E: Classroom Observation Tool 162
Appendix F: Survey Protocol for Students (School Principals and
Prospective Principals) in Master’s Degree Program in Education
Administration at UCR 166
Appendix G: Recruitment/Consent Letter 168
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Students, Teachers, Establishments, and Classrooms in Costa Rica,
by Sector: 2006 60
Table 2: Study Participants to Be Interviewed (N = 13) 87
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 9
List of Figures
Figure 1: Distribution of the cohort for people 21–33 years of age based on the
educational level, occupation and type of activity 50
Figure 2: Percentage of the population to complete high school at the beginning
of each decade 56
Figure 3: Dropout and failure rates in Costa Rica based on type of high school 57
Figure 4: Map of Costa Rica 76
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Abstract
The role of the educational professional is transforming dramatically to meet the
needs of the growing knowledge-based economy in a global world. Educational leaders
must work to ultimately define how students will be able to meet the demands of the
21st century.
Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the past 30 years. The resulting growth of
technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small
Central American country. As more multinational corporations (MNCs) invest in Costa
Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility to help students develop techni-
cal and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become increasingly more challenging.
Despite having 5 national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy
rate among the population, there remains a low secondary graduation rate and pursuit of
higher education in the country. As a result, there is a lack of knowledge-ready workers
who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica. The purpose of
this study was to understand how globalization and MNCs have impacted the secondary
school system in Costa Rica, how the University of Costa Rica is preparing secondary
school administrators to address the need for 21st-century skills, and what these implica-
tions mean for educational leaders.
There were 6 findings in response to the research questions. First, workers with a
new skill set are needed in Costa Rica. Second, the education system, while currently
changing, still must be improved at all levels. There is a need to better integrate tech-
nology with instruction and to help students develop critical 21st-century skills. Third,
English language learning has become instrumental in the classroom. Fourth,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 11
partnerships between schools and MNCs such as Intel have increased but more are
required to better equip all students with 21st-century skills. The fifth finding is that
while school curricula are slowly changing, more must be done to accommodate the
demands of MNCs and the knowledge-based global economy. Finally, the improvement
of teacher and administrator preparation programs in Costa Rica is necessary.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 12
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The role of the educational professional is transforming dramatically to meet the
needs of the growing knowledge-based economy in a global world. Bottery (2006)
argued for a global level of professional understanding of education policy issues. Edu-
cational leaders face a new challenge that require them to understand global demands,
the need for a shift in education policy, and the methodology that can be used to create
sustainable transformations for the education system. There is a need for a world-class
education system with a global perspective to serve as the framework for educational
institutions in all nations (Bottery, 2006; Wagner, 2008). Bottery (2006) noted that as
the role of the educational professional is redefined to meet the demands of the
knowledge-based global economy, educational leaders must work to ultimately define
how students will be able to meet the demands of the 21st century (Bellanca et al., 2010;
Wagner, 2008). Finally, educational leaders must ensure that their school is meeting the
technological challenges prompted by globalization.
The effects of globalization on public education have become more apparent as
the general public and business industry have become more vocal about the necessary
skills and knowledge that students need in order to gain a competitive edge in the
knowledge-based global economy. These skills and knowledge are a form of capital,
which can grow at an alarming rate and become the most distinctive component of a
country’s economic system (Schultz, 1961). Multinational corporations (MNCs) in
emerging markets are in demand of a labor force equipped with technical and inquiry-
based 21st-century skills. Many MNCs have a vision of corporate social responsibility
and are working to increase human capital in their host country. As one of the leading
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 13
education systems in Latin America, Costa Rica provides a unique opportunity to
analyze and understand how secondary schools and universities are preparing students to
be successful in the knowledge-based global economy.
During the past 2 decades, Costa Rica’s economy has evolved from almost
entirely agricultural based to one that now includes a significant technology export, con-
stituting approximately 25% of the country’s total exports (Ferreira, 2009). Former
President José Maria Figures and his government began to implement a strategic plan of
attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) in the early 1990s (Giuliani, 2008). FDI can
benefit the host country’s human capital and education system immensely (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001). In 1997, Intel Corporation became the first high-tech MNC (HTMNC) to
establish a prominent presence and its regional headquarters in Costa Rica (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Since the arrival of Intel, hundreds of MNCs
have invested in Costa Rica. As more MNCs continue to follow Intel’s lead, there has
been a shift to increasingly higher standards for students’ preparation and skill sets.
This case study looked at analyzing and understanding how the University of
Costa Rica (UCR) is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students
develop 21st-century skills in order to meet the demands of MNCs for increased human
capital in Costa Rica. The study focused on the impact of globalization and MNCs on
the secondary school system in Costa Rica, its implications for educational leaders, and
how the UCR is preparing secondary school administrators to address the need for 21st-
century skills. This chapter addresses the statement of the problem, the purpose of the
study, the research questions, as well as the importance, limitations, delimitations, and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 14
assumptions. In addition, definitions of related terms and the organization of the study
were provided.
Statement of the Problem
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s (Ferreira, 2009; Giuliani, 2008). Due to a developed education
system and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented
to attract high-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market. The resulting growth
of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small
Central American country (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). As more
MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility to help
students develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills has become increas-
ingly more challenging. Despite having five national universities, 51 private universi-
ties, and a 95% literacy rate among the population, there remains a low secondary
graduation rate and pursuit of higher education in the country. As a result, there is a
lack of knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities
in Costa Rica.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand how globalization and MNCs have
impacted the secondary school system in Costa Rica, how the UCR is preparing second-
ary school administrators to address the need for 21st-century skills, and what these
implications mean for educational leaders. The study identifies what role school admin-
istrators have played in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in
major national education initiatives. In addition, the study determines whether these
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 15
initiatives were producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education
system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
Research Questions
The following questions were developed collaboratively by the research team,
consisting of 12 doctoral students at the University of Southern California Rossier
School of Education under the supervision and guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante, in
order to better understand the impact globalization and MNCs have had on the education
system in Costa Rica:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
that have come as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
Importance of the Study
The findings of the study should impact all stakeholders, including political
leaders and education policymakers, MNCs, and educational leaders in Costa Rica. In
addition, the study should help any stakeholder wanting to better understand how to
improve education and help students to develop 21st-century skills. The findings should
also serve as a significant model for other countries that have emerging markets in Latin
America and are looking to improve and enhance human capital through the establish-
ment of an effective and efficient education system (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Schultz,
1961). Finally, the findings should empower school administrators with methods and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 16
approaches that they can address to directly support their faculty and staff in preparing
students to become equipped with 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). These methods
and approaches will ultimately enable students to successfully compete in the rapidly
changing knowledge-based global economy.
Limitations of the Study
The scope of this research study was limited. Time and distance were definite
limitations to this qualitative case study, especially due to its international setting and
the limited travel time of 1 week. The case study examined the efforts of one presti-
gious university in San José, Costa Rica. Due to the purposeful sampling focused on
only one public university and educational leaders from Intel-influenced high schools in
Costa Rica, the generalizability of the findings are limited to other such campuses and
not the entire education system (Patton, 2002). Although the research team is choosing
to use Intel secondary schools in Costa Rica, the location of the schools in the metropol-
itan area of San José was still out of the research team’s control and is seen as a limita-
tion. The schools in the study were not representative of the entire education system in
Costa Rica, as rural schools outside of the capital city of San José were not included.
Regardless of the generalizability, this case study provides in-depth data and rich
analysis in which policies and best practices are described and applied based on the
similarity of institutional context. The study also portrays what happens when MNCs
are invested in schools as well as what the implications are for educational leaders to
meet the demands of this partnership.
This case study shows how globalization and MNCs have impacted the second-
ary school system in Costa Rica, how the UCR is preparing secondary school
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 17
administrators to address the need for 21st-century skills, and what these implications
mean for educational leaders. This doctoral study demonstrates the importance of
helping students to develop 21st-century skills and analyze the perspectives and overall
experiences of political leaders, education policymakers, business executives of MNCs,
and school leaders in Costa Rica. Participants may have been restrained or limited in
their responses based on personal biases and experiences (Merriam, 2009).
Delimitations of the Study
This study utilized a very small sample of 20 interview participants and 25
students in the master’s program of education administration at UCR in the metropolitan
area of San José, Costa Rica. As such, the scope of the data sources is a delimitation in
this case study at UCR (Maxwell, 2013). Interview participants were limited to three
political leaders and education policymakers, three business executives of MNCs, and
six school administrators. In-person interviews were used to assess opinions and per-
spectives, and the recorded experiences might have been uniquely based on participants’
cultural backgrounds and certain inherent biases. These participants were not meant to
represent the perspectives and experiences of all political leaders, education policy-
makers, business executives of MNCs, and school administrators in Costa Rica.
Instead, the small sample size across different groups was intended to triangulate data
and analyze common themes in data. In addition, the small size of 25 students in the
master’s program of education administration at UCR is a delimitation because a very
narrow demographic of participants was used to analyze the results of the survey.
Through the knowledge gained during research for the literature review and col-
laborative discussion among the research team, it was decided that although there are
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 18
hundreds of MNCs invested in Costa Rica, Intel would be the MNC on which this study
focused due to its significant contributions to the country’s education system. The scope
of the data sources for this case study in Costa Rica is a delimitation. The interpretation
of the findings from a researcher coming in with an education perspective from the
United States may have also been an influence in the study that should be noted.
The intended purpose was another delimitation of this case study. The team and
this researcher attempted to evaluate what impact globalization and MNCs have had on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in secondary schools
partnered with Intel and how UCR is preparing secondary school administrators to
address the need for 21st-century skills. The study did not evaluate the perceptions of
students or parents on the schools’ effectiveness to develop 21st- century skills. In
addition, translation from Spanish to English was conducted as accurately as possible
given the fact that some participants only speak Spanish.
Assumptions of the Study
An assumption of this case study was that 21st-century skills are needed for the
labor force in Costa Rica to be successfully competitive in the knowledge-based global
economy. Another assumption was that the interviews, surveys, and observation proto-
cols would provide the research team with an accurate perception of the secondary
schools partnered with Intel in Costa Rica.
Definitions of Related Terms
The following terms are defined for application within the dissertation:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 19
Globalization: a phenomenon of increased economic integration among nations,
characterized by the movement of people, ideas, social customs, and products across
borders (Spring, 2008).
FDI: a direct investment into production or business in a country by a company
in another country, either by buying a company in the target country or by expanding
operations of an existing business in that country. Broadly speaking, FDI includes
mergers and acquisitions, building new facilities, reinvesting profits earned from over-
seas operations, and intracompany loans. In a narrow sense, FDI refers just to building
new facilities (Larraín, Lopez-Calva & Rodríguez-Clare, 2000).
Free Trade Zones (FTZs): Zones (known in Spanish as zonas francas) that offer
member companies a wide range of financial incentives and benefits. FTZs are open to
export manufacturing companies, export trade companies (not producers), export ser-
vice companies, organizations engaged in scientific research, or manufacturing firms
with no export requirements (Monge-González, Rosales-Tijerino & Arce-Alpízar,
2005).
HTMNC: Term referring to technology that is at the cutting edge, or the most
advanced technology available. It is often used in reference to microelectronics rather
than other technologies. Thus, a HTMNC is a MNC that produces the most advanced
technology available, such as Intel and its microchips for cutting-edge computer pro-
cessing (Giuliani, 2008).
Human capital: the stock of competencies, knowledge, social and personality
attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to produce
economic value. It is an aggregate economic view of the human being acting within
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 20
economies in an attempt to capture the social, biological, cultural, and psychological
complexity as they interact in explicit and/or economic transactions. Many theories
explicitly connect investment in human capital development to education; and the role
of human capital in economic development, productivity growth, and innovation has
frequently been cited as a justification for government subsidies for education and job
skills training (Schultz, 1961).
Ministry of Public Education of Costa Rica (El Ministerio de Educación Pública
de la República de Costa Rica; MEP): A government ministry that is a world leader in
providing quality and accessible education to the children in K–12 public education in
Costa Rica. Its mission is to promote the development and consolidation of an excep-
tional education system that provides access to quality education to the entire popu-
lation, centered on personal development and the promotion of a Costa Rican society
united through opportunity and social equality. The abolition of Costa Rica’s armed
services in 1948 and the reallocation of military funds to programs in education and
health have allowed the MEP to successfully carry out its mission. Costa Rica’s Consti-
tution includes a provision requiring that 6% of the country’s gross domestic product
(GDP) go to education, among the highest in the world (Costa Rican Investment Promo-
tion Agency [CINDE], Department of Research, 2011).
MNC : a corporation or multinational enterprise that is registered in more than
one country or that has operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation
that both produces and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a social
responsibility and commitment to help improve the host country’s education system
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 21
Knowledge-based global economy: use of knowledge, technologies, and skills to
produce economic benefits as well as job creation in the global market. Knowledge
resources such as know-how and expertise are as critical as other economic resources in
an interconnected, globalized economy. A key concept of the knowledge-based global
economy is that knowledge and education (often referred to as human capital) can be
treated as a productive asset or as a business product, as educational and innovative
intellectual products and services can be exported for a high value return (Wagner,
2008).
21st-Century Skills: The essential critical skills of the knowledge-based global
economy that include (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across
networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entre-
preneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing
information, and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Study
The full study is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an introduction
and overview of the study. Also included in the chapter are a statement of the problem,
the purpose of the study, the research questions, the significance of the study, and the
definition of key terms.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature as it relates to the impact of global-
ization and MNCs on secondary schools in Costa Rica, the implications for educational
leaders, and how the UCR is preparing secondary school administrators to address the
need for 21st-century skills. The literature review has three main areas of literature: (a)
globalization and education; (b) the impact of FDI and MNCs on developing nations,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 22
and (c) Costa Rica. The topics covered are examined through three conceptual frame-
works used in the study: (a) Bolman and Deal’s (2011) frame theory on organizational
leadership, (b) Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework on the perceptions of globaliza-
tion, and Wagner’s (2008) conceptual framework of 21st-century skills.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in the study, including research design,
sampling and population procedures, instrumentation, validity and reliability of the
instrument, the process for data collection and analysis, and ethical considerations.
Chapter 4 of the dissertation presents the research findings from the data collec-
tion. Also included in the chapter is an analysis of the data with regard to each specific
research question and conceptual framework. Chapter 5 summarizes the findings of the
study and also includes implications for future research.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 23
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The country of Costa Rica has changed in the past few decades as a result of the
fiscal crisis of the 1980s (Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González et al., 2005). Due to a devel-
oped education system and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan
was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market
(Ferreira, 2009; Larraín et al.,2000). The resulting growth of technology as a major
export has given new direction and opportunity to this small Central American country.
As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility
for developing 21st-century skills in students has become increasingly more challenging.
These MNCs provide resources to schools and train teachers on how to use technology
effectively in the classroom to make learning more dynamic and interactive for students
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
During the past 20 years, Costa Rica’s economy has developed a demand for
workers with 21st-century skills, capable of competing in global markets (Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development [OCED], 2012). As Costa Rica continues
to shift to a knowledge-based economy, the schools continue to improve at a rapid pace.
School curricula must now meet the need for higher skilled workers and adapt to de-
velop 21st-century skills. Despite having five national universities, 51 private universi-
ties, and a population with a 95% literacy rate, there remains a low secondary graduation
rate and pursuit of higher education in the country. As a result, there is a lack of
knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in
Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 24
This chapter examines the effects that globalization and MNCs have had on
leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in
Costa Rica. In order to understand the complexity of these effects, the literature review
(a) explores the history of globalization, (b) investigates how the role of the educational
professional has become redefined, (c) examines the impact of FDI and multinational
corporations on education and human capital, and (d) explores the current state of Costa
Rica and its education system. It also focuses on Bolman and Deal’s (2011) theoretical
framework of leadership to investigate how globalization and MNCs presently affect
education policy decisions at the national, district, and school levels in Costa Rica. The
framework provides better insight into this topic through four different frames or per-
spectives.
Globalization serves as a foundation for understanding the change that Costa
Rica’s economy and education system have experienced over the past few decades. The
interaction between MNCs and the key stakeholders of the education system in Costa
Rica has become an increasingly more interesting and dynamic relationship due to
MNCs’ impact on education policy decisions. School leaders recognize the importance
of developing 21st-century skills as a pivotal component of preparing students to
become knowledge-ready workers capable of competing at a high level in the global
economy (Bellanca et al., 2010; Wagner, 2008). Today, the presence of MNCs in Costa
Rica continues to further shift the country’s economy from agricultural to knowledge
based, thus driving the economy toward one that is more active and representative of the
global market. School leaders must make critical new decisions about education policy,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 25
school curricula, and how to best develop 21st-century skills in students in the most
effective and efficient manner.
Globalization and Education
Globalization is the process of international integration by which worldviews,
products, ideas, and other aspects of culture have become increasingly more intercon-
nected (Spring, 2008). Wagner (2008) asserted that central to globalization is the idea
of education, or providing societies with the knowledge and skills to compete in a more
global marketplace. Chief executive officers (CEOs) from America’s most successful
business firms have declared that high schools must prepare students to compete in the
knowledge-based global economy. They feel that students must develop critical 21st-
century skills and gain a better understanding of globalization and its effects on different
societies, cultures, and the world’s economy (Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008).
The historical conceptualizations of globalization and its theoretical perspectives
help to provide a better understanding of the context in which MNCs in Costa Rica are
creating new demands and pressures to reform education (Spring, 2008). The new role
of the educational professional establishes a foundation that outlines the responsibilities
that school leaders and educators must face to better prepare students for the knowledge-
based global economy (Bottery, 2006).
Historical Conceptualizations of Globalization
Historical concepts offer many different beginning points of globalization due to
the fact that various definitions have different starting points. Friedman (2005) argued
that the earliest form of globalization can be traced back to 6,000 B.C., when basic
motivations, such as the desire to profit by trading, exploit new lands, and the drive to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 26
spread certain religious beliefs, caused people to connect with others from a different
culture or background. According to Singh (2004), the year 1492, when Christopher
Columbus discovered the New World, marked the start of globalization. However, the
World Bank Group, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA; 2006), and
most academic research (Dale, 2005; Lechner & Boli, 2008; Merriman & Nicoletti,
2007; O’Rourke & Williamson, 2004) is in agreement that globalization began some-
where between 1820 and 1870, around the time of the Industrial Revolution when world
economic integration first occurred. Much of what is known about the history and con-
ceptualizations of globalization, as applied to education today, stems from technological
advancements and studies done over the past 20 years. These technological advance-
ments have helped Costa Rica grow from an agricultural-based economy to a
knowledge-based economy capable of competing on a larger scale in the international
market.
Friedman (2005) felt that the world has “flattened,” free of borders with open
financial markets and instant communication. He noted the fall of the Berlin Wall on
November 9, 1989, as the event that tipped the balance of power across the world
toward nation states that advocated democratic and free market-oriented governance.
The Communist Soviet empire fell apart within 2 years after the fall of the Berlin Wall.
Autocratic regimes in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America were no longer
supported by a world superpower. People had to adapt to democracy and capitalism if
they had not done so already. The fall of the Berlin Wall sparked the beginning of a new
age of “global policy,” in which outbreaks of freedom led people to think about the
world as a single market and community.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 27
During this time, the information revolution and a new age of creativity was
taking place due to new Apple® computers and Microsoft’s Windows®-enabled per-
sonal computers (PCs), which allowed people to share limitless information in digital
form (Suarez-Orozco & Qin Hilliard, 2004). On August 9, 1995, the emergence of the
Internet going public allowed people to connect with one another throughout the world
and share information in a matter of only seconds (Friedman, 2005). The world was
now becoming increasingly smaller; and it was easier to connect with people from dif-
ferent countries, cultures, religions, and backgrounds. This form of globalization has
had significant implications for schools and educational leaders. During the past few
decades, the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica has helped this small Central American
country to become increasingly more active and competitive in the global market by
providing access to new technology and through the implementation of initiatives
designed to help improve the education system.
New technology and greater access to the global market have caused educational
leaders in Costa Rica to rethink policy and curriculum development. According to Mer-
riman and Nicoletti (2007), educators today are faced with the difficult task of deter-
mining for what type of future they should be preparing students. Many researchers
(Bellanca et al., 2010; Bottery, 2006; Danielson, 2007; Lechner & Boli, 2008; Merriman
& Nicoletti, 2007; Singh, 2004; Wagner, 2008) have felt that school curricula must be
revised to have a global perspective. Although these curricular changes have been slow
to evolve, in the 1990s educators began speaking about the need for students to gain rec-
ognition of people’s connections to other countries and cultures (McNerney & Herbert,
1998). Despite pushes by educators to make curricular changes leading toward a more
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 28
global perspective during this time, too much instructional time at schools was spent on
the need to meet federal and state standards, standardized testing, and existing curricula
(McNerney & Herbert, 1998; Merriman & Nicoletti, 2007). The promotion and ad-
vancement of global education were further hindered by a lack of leadership at this time.
School district superintendents and building principals were not focused on the impor-
tance of global education and awareness of how globalization affects students in their
daily lives and future.
The challenge to provide a global education to students is increasingly more
difficult for educational leaders in Costa Rica. Technology and other resources were
very limited prior to the presence of MNCs in the country. In order to better understand
the dynamic relationship between Costa Rica and MNCs, it is important to view the
impact of MNCs through four theoretical perspectives of globalization.
Theoretical Perspectives of Globalization
Spring (2008) identified four major theoretical perspectives from the impact that
globalization has on education: (a) world culture, (b) world systems, (c) postcolonial,
and (d) culturalist. World culture stems from the idea that a single global culture is
developing from the integration of all cultures. The central beliefs in a world educa-
tional culture are based on educational rights, equality, and freedom, in which all people
have the right to education (Spring, 2008). Meyer, Kamens, and Benavot (1992) argued
that one single global curriculum for K–12 schools should be developed because educa-
tors already draw from the very best models in different nations.
On the other hand, world systems theorists (Chase-Dunn, 1999; Wallerstein,
2004) have focused more on economics, arguing that countries do not have domestic
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 29
economies but rather are part of a world economy system that is built upon the integra-
tion of capitalism across the globe. Wallerstein (2004) felt that the world system con-
sists of core nations (i.e., the developed and industrialized parts of the world) and
periphery nations (i.e., the poor and undeveloped parts of the world). In the world
system, core countries exploit the periphery nations through the dominance of trade and
the world’s financial resources. These core countries provide international educational
assistance in the form of MNCs, aid agencies, and corporate foundations to the periph-
ery nations while maintaining an inequitable class system (Clayton, 1998). Although
the core countries provide international educational assistance, they do so in order to
further support their own values, ideologies, and interests (Clayton, 1998; Wallerstein,
2004). World systems theorists view Costa Rica as a periphery nation and the United
States as a core nation, because the majority of MNCs in Costa Rica originally began
their first operations in the United States.
Similar to the world systems perspective, postcolonial analysts feel that Euro-
pean cultural imperialism has resulted in the establishment of Western-style schools
across the world (Spring, 2008). Apple, Kenway, and Singh (2005) argued that the
postcolonial analysis sees globalization as a process by which wealthy nations impose
their political and economic agendas on the global society at the expense of poor
nations. According to Becker (1994) and Spring (2008), after World War II, postcoloni-
alism appeared in the form of trade agreements, international governmental organiza-
tions (IGOs), and MNCs. Crossley and Tikly (2004) felt that the postcolonial perspec-
tive views education as an economic investment with a purpose to serve MNCs through
human capital development. Issues such as inequity, race, culture, class, gender, and the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 30
never-ending struggle of indigenous people to have their rights recognized are all com-
mon throughout the postcolonial perspective of globalization (Crossley & Tikly, 2004;
Spring, 2008). Postcolonial theorists view Costa Rica as a poor nation in which wealthy
MNCs are imposing their own economic agendas in order to develop human capital for
their benefit.
The culturalist theorist perspective, on the other hand, stresses that the best edu-
cation involves studying the interaction between local cultures and world cultures
(Baker & LeTendre, 2005; Hayhoe & Pan, 2001). Hayhoe and Pan (2001) argued that
the greatest importance in education is the study of other cultures throughout the world
and students gaining the ability to learn lessons from them. Banks and Wasley (2005)
suggested using a global framework to educate students about the importance of global-
ization. Their framework includes principles, such as global interconnectedness and
student participation, as well as various related concepts such as democracy, diversity,
identity, and multiple perspectives. Educators are charged with the difficult task of
helping students gain a greater awareness and understanding of peoples and cultures
beyond their national borders. This task includes familiarizing students with people
closer to home that they view as different, such as peers, teachers, and other members of
the school community. This cosmopolitan perspective empowers students to make a
difference in the global society. “Cosmopolitans are ready to immerse themselves in
other cultures, engage with difference, and acquire diverse cultural competence” (Banks
& Wasley, 2005, p. 24). With a more cosmopolitan perspective, students will be better
prepared to enter the workforce in the knowledge-based global economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 31
These four theoretical perspectives of globalization offer different insights into
how MNCs are impacting the education system in Costa Rica. World culture theorists
perceive the impact as positive because school curricula are becoming enhanced by the
support of MNCs and new technology. They feel that the country’s educational equity is
improving due to rapidly improving resources and technology provided by MNCs in
hundreds of schools. On the other hand, many world system theorists would argue that
MNCs are exploiting Costa Rica to further support their own interests, including de-
creased costs of labor and overall operations of facilities. Consistent with the world
system perspective is the postcolonial analysis that views the impact of MNCs as
exploitive and negative. Postcolonial theorists feel that the presence of MNCs in Costa
Rica causes more inequity and only widens the gap among classes, especially with the
nearly forgotten indigenous people of the country. Finally, the culturalist theorists’
perspective offers important insight into how the role of the educational professional has
evolved to include new responsibilities essential for the development of 21st- century
skills in students.
Redefining the Role of the Educational Professional in the 21st Century
The role of the educational professional is transforming dramatically to meet the
needs of the growing knowledge-based economy in a global world. Bottery (2006)
argued for a global level of professional understanding of education policy issues.
There is a need for a world-class education system with a global perspective to serve as
the framework for educational institutions in all nations (Bottery, 2006; Wagner, 2008).
Schools can no longer afford to compare themselves to others at the national and cul-
tural levels. A more global perspective is needed for schools to produce students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 32
equipped with 21st-century skills and capable of competing in the diverse, knowledge-
based global economy at high levels. Today, educational leaders in Costa Rica are
working to develop 21st-century skills in students with additional help from MNCs.
Globalization has redefined the role of the educational professional to include
additional new responsibilities. According to Bottery (2006), educators are likely to
experience an increasing sense of paradox and tension in their work due to the effects of
globalization. Although governments will continue to want to control and direct educa-
tion policy, they will want educators to be autonomous, more flexible, and creative
while designing lessons that better prepare students to be highly competitive in the
knowledge-based economy. Governments may not be unwilling or may be unable to
relinquish control of certain education policies that foster low-trust cultures of bench-
marks, standards, and teacher performance (Bottery, 2006). Issues with trust and ac-
countability are likely to develop among government education officials, school leaders,
and teachers. In addition, fiscal restraints will make the job of educators more difficult
as school expenditures are reduced and efficiencies are expected to increase (Shoho,
Barnett, & Tooms, 2010). School leaders will be faced with the dilemma to move away
from public sector values and practices focused primarily on equity toward more “busi-
nesslike” private sector concepts and practices focused on the economy, high efficiency,
and profits—or an increase in educational outcomes (Bottery, 2006). As the role of the
educational professional is transformed further through these dynamics, researchers
(Bottery, 2006; Drucker, 2007; Scott, 2000; Zajda, 2005) recommended that the follow-
ing additional professional requirements be added: (a) a greater ecological and political
awareness, (b) supporting notions of public good, (c) building trust and building
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 33
constituencies, (d) a greater commitment to communication, (e) a greater degree of
professional self-reflection, and (f) the effective use of technology in the classroom. As
educational leaders in Costa Rica work to strengthen their relationships with MNCs,
these additional professional requirements serve as a foundation for all educators to
build upon.
Educators now have a responsibility to present critical global issues that impact
the world to their students in the classroom. They can achieve this task by fostering
awareness and facilitating discussions during instructional time (Merriman & Nicoletti,
2007). Educators must be aware of different forms of globalization as well as changes
affecting their local school communities and their own practice (Bottery, 2006; Daniel-
son, 2007). School leaders have a new responsibility of integrating sustainable devel-
opment into the district curricula through ongoing professional development. This
ecological awareness helps students to better understand local intensifying environmen-
tal problems as well as those of the world (Banks & Wasley, 2005; Bottery, 2006). As
advances in technology and medicine continue to make life easier and longer for many
people, the natural systems of the planet have suffered. Deforestation, endangered to
extinct species, rising temperatures, and a potential water shortage are all problems that
current and future generations must face (Banks & Wasley, 2005). Students must learn
how to recycle renewable resources and to restrict their consumption of nonrenewable
resources to help repair the fragile world ecosystem (Banks & Wasley, 2005). In addi-
tion to gaining a greater ecological awareness to ensure that students are learning about
sustainable development, educators must also now work to gain a greater political
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 34
awareness (Banks & Wasley, 2005; Shoho et al., 2010), which is essential to aid educa-
tors in understanding the complex effects that outside factors have on their practice.
Bottery (2006) and Shoho et al. (2010) argued that educators must have a good
understanding of the different forms of globalization and how these forms lead to
changes that affect society at the cultural and national levels. This political awareness
helps educators to better prepare students for a knowledge-based global economy by
teaching lessons involving multicultural, antiracial education, and character education
while including engaging and thought-provoking discussions during instructional time
(Banks & Wasley, 2005; Scott, 2000). Just as educators have a new responsibility of
teaching students about sustainable development, they must now also teach students
about the effects of globalization. Educators must guide students through this intricate
process by discussing the global interconnectedness of nations, societies, and econo-
mies; the relationships between nations and the role that each nation plays; the impor-
tance of diversity and how to engage constructively with those who are different from
oneself while taking multiple perspectives into account; and how prejudice, discrimina-
tion, and racism affect ways in which one better understands and appreciates people
from other cultures and nations (Banks & Wasley, 2005; Shoho et al., 2010). In order to
better prepare students for the knowledge-based global economy, the educational pro-
fessional must also support notions of public good and work to build students’ character.
Bottery (2006) suggested that educators must be more adamant about supporting
notions of a public good. The new roles of the educational professional require the edu-
cator to strive to make a positive difference in society and to instill good, moral judg-
ment in students by helping to build their character (Shoho et al., 2010). Character
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 35
education, also known as citizenship education, provides students with opportunities to
participate in discussions about contentious and sensitive topics, such as how racism and
discrimination act as barriers to social justice and participatory democracy (Banks &
Wasley, 2005). These types of discussions help students to learn about social responsi-
bilities, recognize diversity, and promote democratic values (Merriman & Nicoletti,
2007). Today, more than ever, educators must be advocates of the public good at the
local school community, national, and global levels. According to Bottery (2006), one
way that educators can accomplish this goal is by building trust and constituencies.
Misztal (2001) argued that organizations must embrace a working environment
built around trust, which requires more teamwork, problem solving, and greater creativ-
ity to be successful in the knowledge-based global economy. In order to establish a
trusting working environment, educators need to share information and ideas about
lessons and curricula, which has often been a source of tension and conflict for those
who chose to enter the profession for the independence and autonomy that it initially
provides. School leaders must set the standard of building trust among educators in
their building and district. This standard must carry over so that educators build constit-
uencies of support within the school community (Bottery, 2006; Drucker 2007). Educa-
tors can accomplish these constituencies of support by seeking input and feedback on
organizational change and other matters from parents, community leaders, and various
school stakeholders. School leaders and educators can easily foster an environment of
trust when a commitment to communication is made on a daily basis (Drucker, 2007). It
is essential that MNCs establish this environment of trust with schools and universities
in Costa Rica while educational leaders work to do the same within their organization.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 36
Bottery (2006) and Robbins (2002) posited that organizations must create a
culture of communication wherein educators accept their profession based on transpar-
ency and recognize the need to listen to others. Educational professionals have to under-
stand that school stakeholders have significant input and remember to listen to this input
without acknowledging that they know the final answer (Bottery, 2006). School leaders
can demonstrate and model this behavior by respecting others’ views and opinions,
valuing teamwork, and creating and maintaining partnerships among all school stake-
holders (Dale, 2005). This behavior and these actions would lead to educators having
more favorable attitudes toward continuing professional development, lifelong learning,
and professional research (Bottery, 2006). Robbins (2002) argued that effective leaders
manage their organization by ensuring that employees remain happy with positive
attitudes while embracing the organization’s commitment to open communication for all
stakeholders. In addition to a greater commitment to communication, educators must
learn to be reflective practitioners.
Bottery (2006) noted that as the role of the educational professional is redefined
to meet the demands of the knowledge-based global economy, a greater degree of self-
reflection is required. This ongoing process involves educators not only to reflect on
their daily lessons but also to begin to debate the purposes of their profession and dem-
onstrate how their ability makes a difference in education. School leaders must guide
this process during faculty meetings, one-on-one meetings, and professional develop-
ment and encourage educators to participate in discussions that ultimately define how
students can meet the demands of the 21st century (Bellanca et al., 2010; Wagner,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 37
2008). Finally, educational leaders must ensure that their school is meeting the techno-
logical challenges prompted by globalization.
According to Merriman and Nicoletti (2007), educators must thoroughly inte-
grate school curricula with technology. Researchers (Bellanca et al., 2010; Carlson &
Gadio, 2002; Dell, Newton, & Petroff, 2008; Ertmer, 2005; Groff & Mouza, 2008;
Kvavik, 2005; Wood, Mueller, Willoughby, Specht, & Deyoung, 2005) have agreed that
the effective use of technology in the classroom is essential for students to compete suc-
cessfully in the knowledge-based global economy. Technology allows educators not
only to better engage students during instructional time but also to teach students new
skills (Groff & Mouza, 2008). As the world grows smaller due to technology, it is
important for students to stay current on new social media, electronic resources, infor-
mation access, and computer software (Dell et al., 2008). According to Groff and
Mouza (2008), educators must also stay current with the new technology and be compe-
tent with computer skills in researching, word processing, record and grade keeping,
curriculum development, Internet surfing, and emailing. Merriman and Nicoletti (2007)
contended that schools should promote a greater awareness and understanding of global-
ization and its effects through proper Internet usage and the monitoring of its never-
ending supply of information. In order for educators to become knowledgeable and
skillful users of technology, ongoing professional development and training are re-
quired.
Groff and Mouza (2008) noted that although technology helps to create effective
learning environments for students, many educators struggle to integrate technology into
their classrooms and curriculum. School leaders, parents, and community members
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 38
should advocate for the use of technology. Resources, including technical and pedagog-
ical support, professional development plans, and access to hardware and software, must
be provided to help educators overcome any specific challenges (Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon,
& Byers, 2002). Rakes and Casey (2002) stressed the importance that educators need to
feel comfortable using computers, SMART boards®, and other technology in order to
implement it successfully in the classroom. Educators must develop a positive attitude
toward the use of technology as instructional tools (Ertmer, 2005; Groff & Mouza,
2008). According to Groff and Mouza, the positive attitude comes only after educators
experience a paradigm shift from the teacher-centered classroom to the student-centered
classroom. Most often this process requires changes in teaching practices and beliefs,
ongoing professional development, and training. Despite the complex challenge im-
posed by the use of technology in the classroom, it is now an integral component of
educators’ professional responsibilities.
As the role of the educational professional is further redefined to prepare stu-
dents for the demands of the knowledge-based global economy, it is imperative that edu-
cators understand and implement their new responsibilities. The importance of develop-
ing critical 21st-century skills in students is an invaluable part of this task (Bellanca et
al., 2010; Drucker, 2007; Wagner, 2008). Through a better understanding of these
responsibilities, educational leaders in Costa Rica are working closely with MNCs to
change policy and curricula to help develop 21st-century skills in students.
The Importance of 21st-Century Skills
The global economy and society are becoming increasingly more interconnected
as the world pushes further ahead into the 21st century. Schools can no longer look for
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 39
answers to problems solely at other educational institutions within their nation (Bellanca
et al., 2010, Wagner, 2008). The “achievement gap” that exists between children from
middle- to upper-income families and minority children from low-income families has
transformed into a “global achievement gap” that exists among all children of all nations
in today’s knowledge-based economy (Wagner, 2008, p. 9). Educators are faced with
the new challenge to equip students with the skills to succeed in the 21st century (Bel-
lanca et al., 2010; Dale, 2005). According to Kikoski and Kikoski (2004), new 21st-
century interdisciplinary themes—including global awareness; financial, economic,
business, and entrepreneurial literacy; environmental literacy; health literacy; and civic
literacy—must be integrated into the curricula of core subjects. Researchers (Ambrose,
Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010; Banks & Wasley, 2005; Bellanca et al.,
2010; Kikoski & Kikoski, 2004) have agreed that learning and innovation skills; infor-
mation, media, and technology skills; and life and career skills are all recognized as
skills that adequately prepare students to be successful in the knowledge-based global
economy.
Learning and innovation skills consist of creativity and innovation, critical
thinking and problem solving, and communication and collaboration. Educators need to
teach students to think creatively, work creatively with others, and implement innova-
tions (Bellanca et al., 2010). In order to develop critical thinking and problem solving in
the classroom, students must learn how to reason effectively, make judgments and
decisions, solve problems, and use systems thinking by analyzing how parts of a whole
interact with one another to produce overall outcomes in complex systems (Kikoski &
Kikoski, 2004). Finally, communication and collaboration require students to work
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 40
effectively and respectfully in diverse environments, assume shared responsibility for
collaborative work, and articulate their thoughts and ideas clearly (Bellanca et al., 2010).
Educators have to help students learn to better appreciate other cultures and use commu-
nication in a variety of forms and contexts.
As advances in technology are made at an increasingly faster rate and abundant
information is accessible in seconds through the Internet and other electronic devices,
the importance for students to become equipped with information, media, and tech-
nology skills has become absolutely essential (Bellanca et al., 2010; Drucker, 2007;
Wagner, 2008). Information literacy involves accessing and evaluating information
efficiently and effectively, using information accurately and creatively, and managing
the flow of information from a wide variety of sources (Partnership for 21st Century
Skills, 2012). Media literacy includes analyzing media; understanding how and why
certain messages are constructed and for what purposes; how media can influence
beliefs and behaviors; and understanding how to use the most appropriate media cre-
ation tools, such as new apps on the Apple iPad® and interactive games and activities
on the SMART board™ (Bellanca et al., 2010). Students must be able to use technol-
ogy as a tool to communicate, organize, evaluate, and research information. Social
networks, such as Facebook® and Twitter®, and digital technologies such as personal
data assistants (PDAs) also have to be learned to be used appropriately to access, evalu-
ate, and create information to successfully compete in the knowledge-based global
economy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2012).
In addition to teach these skills, educators need to ensure that students develop
adequate life and career skills. Life and career skills consist of flexibility and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 41
adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and crosscultural skills, productivity and
accountability, and leadership and responsibility (Bellanca et al., 2010; Partnership for
21st Century Skills, 2012). Students must be able to adapt to varied roles, job responsi-
bilities, and change while remaining flexible, incorporating feedback effectively, and
dealing positively with both praise and criticism. Educators must assist students and
guide them to manage goals and time, to work independently, and to become self-
directed learners (Drucker, 2007). Social and crosscultural skills involve the ability to
interact productively with others and to work effectively in diverse teams. As technol-
ogy continues to make communication easier and faster throughout the world, working
with people from a range of social and cultural backgrounds and learning to respect
cultural differences have become essential new skills that students must master (Partner-
ship for 21st Century Skills, 2012). Productivity and accountability call for students to
learn to prioritize, plan, and manage work; to multitask and work positively and ethi-
cally; to respect diversity; to collaborate with teams; and to be accountable for results
(Bellanca et al., 2010). Finally, students need to learn how to guide and lead others and
act responsibly with the interests of the organization and its stakeholders in mind
(Bolman & Deal, 2011).
Wagner (2008) interviewed CEOs from Fortune 500 companies, school leaders,
and education policy experts to seek what essential skills students were missing to
compete in the knowledge-based global economy. He identified seven critical skills that
students internationally lack upon completion of high school and college: (a) critical
thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by influ-
ence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 42
and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity
and imagination. The development of these 21st-century skills has become a priority in
Costa Rica’s school system with the influx of over 200 MNCs during the past few
decades. Now more than ever, there is a need for workers with a high skill set in Costa
Rica. FDI and MNCs continue to have a profound impact on developing nations and
their education system.
The Impact of Foreign Direct Investment and MNCs on
Developing Nations
FDI is the direct investment into production in a country made by a company in
another country (Brewer & McEwan, 2010). It can include the building of a company’s
new factory or plant or regional headquarters (Ball, Krause, & Tong, 2011; Larraín et
al., 2000) or the acquiring of an existing business in the host country (Giuliani, 2008).
FDI can have numerous mutual benefits for both the company and host nation, including
access to new markets, technology and skills, and cheaper production facilities (Spar,
1998). However, FDI can also have negative consequences, such as the company’s
exploitation of cheap labor or the host country’s unwillingness to cooperate with the
company’s specific requests (Blomstrom & Kokko, 1998). Companies that use FDI as
part of their global business strategy are known as MNCs. MNCs can have a profound
effect on the education system of a developing country. For example, MNCs can pro-
vide technology for classrooms, such as laptop computers and SMART boards, and
educational training for teachers and other workers in the host country (Larraín et al.,
2000; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 43
When MNCs invest in a developing country, they make a commitment to pro-
vide various education initiatives and training in order to better develop human capital.
In addition, they form partnerships with universities to encourage students and workers
to pursue specialized degrees in college and beyond. Finally, MNCs also help the devel-
oping country and its education system to improve communication and pedagogy with
the use new technology.
Education Initiatives and Human Capital Development
HTMNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have invested hundreds of millions
of dollars in developing countries (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). This type of FDI
has helped school systems, most notably Costa Rica’s, to increase the level of human
capital in its citizens. Although most MNCs have a genuine interest in investing in the
host country’s education system to contribute to students’ skill development, most will
also offer incentives that will ultimately have a positive effect on the host country’s
economy and education system as a whole. For example, Intel provides free educational
training and awards grants to teachers interested in learning how to use technology in the
classroom (Larraín et al., 2000; Nelson, 2008). The impact of these HTMNCs on Costa
Rica’s school system is overwhelmingly positive due to their commitment to continu-
ously improve educational opportunities in the country.
The MNC that invests in the host country most often will offer the country an
incentive that can range from a guaranteed investment of hundreds of millions of dollars
in the host country to a commitment to support and implement new education programs
in the host country. The use of incentives by MNCs can be understood through the lens
of agency theory and principal–agent model. According to the principal–agent model, a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 44
principal may provide certain incentives for the agent to exert high levels of effort and to
attain set goals (Blomstrom & Kokko, 1998). For example, the principal, such as Intel,
might have a laundry list of requests that the Costa Rican government (the agent) must
provide before the company decides to make a FDI of $300 million. The Costa Rican
government will accommodate Intel’s requests to receive the monetary reward offered
by this incentive. For example, Costa Rica may agree to Intel’s requests for a specific
location for its new facility and access to highly skilled workers in exchange for money
that will be donated to Costa Rica’s schools. A strong incentive accomplishes its stated
goal. If the goal for Intel is to maximize production of computer microchips in Costa
Rica, a strong incentive will be one that encourages workers to produce them at full
capacity. Incentives can include monetary rewards and opportunities for educational
and career advancement. Costa Rica provides many benefits for MNCs, including a
history of democratic stability, a highly literate workforce, and FTZs, which offer tax
exemptions and savings to MNCs (Monge-González et al., 2005). FDI works best when
a mutually beneficial relationship is established between the host country and MNC,
such as the one that exists between Costa Rica and Intel.
Signaling theory helps to describe behavior in the principal–agent relationship.
According to Connelly, Certo, Ireland, and Reutzel (2011), “the sender (or the agent),
must choose whether and how to communicate (or signal) that information, and the
other party, the receiver (or the principal), must choose how to interpret the signal” (p.
39). In education, it is the idea that employees send a signal about their ability level to
their employer by advancing their education in the form of adding new credentials or
degrees (Spence, 1973). The theory is based on the assumption that individuals have
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 45
different innate capabilities in terms of productivity at work that are not affected by their
education; and further education involves additional costs, which can differ vastly for
high-skilled workers and low-skilled workers (Brewer & McEwan, 2010). In Costa
Rica, many workers have been sending new signals to their employees by obtaining
advanced technical training often provided by MNCs. Approximately 27.5% of local
suppliers received training from MNCs in 2004 (Monge et al., 2005). These signals
have led to knowledge spillover and spin-off effects that have made retaining trained
workers with new knowledge and skill sets a problem for many MNCs.
According to De la Fuente and Ciccone (2002), the importance of human capital
as an input has grown over time as production processes have become increasingly
knowledge intensive to keep up with the demands of the global knowledge-based econ-
omy. Powerful nations, such as the United States and developing countries, such as
Costa Rica, all must produce a well-trained workforce that can help contribute to this
knowledge-based economy. An education system that promotes lifelong learning,
advanced skills and capabilities, and innovation is the most integral component to this
critical task (Dale, 2005).
The importance for nations to develop highly skilled, flexible human capital to
compete in the global knowledge-based economy is at an all-time high (Olssen & Peters,
2005). Human capital theory is a powerful tool for conceptualizing how individuals
make educational choices and for guiding how the implications of those choices are
measured (Brewer & McEwan, 2010). A country’s wealth and economic progress can
be measured by its individuals’ unique abilities and educational attainment. Human
capital theory describes how an individual invests in higher education with the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 46
expectation that, as a result, the investment will pay off in higher earnings over time
(Becker, 1994). This concept is derived from the assumption that individuals will take
actions to increase their overall well-being and future income (Welch, 1975). These
actions can be costly, ranging from tuition for school to the time spent during studies
(thus forgoing potential earnings). However, the benefits are expected to outweigh the
costs, including a higher salary and better work environment for the individual.
Developing countries throughout the world have benefitted from FDI and the
presence of MNCs. According to Agrawal and Khan (2011), China and India, the two
fastest-growing major economies in the world, have experienced tremendous and rapid
economic growth since the 1990s due to FDI and the presence of MNCs. When MNCs
make investments in developing nations, they bring along superior technology and jobs
that require a high skill set. This causes a “spillover” in which locally owned firms
invest in learning to try to keep up with the new competition. The increased competition
from locally owned firms through investments in innovation and skills development
causes MNCs to further enhance their technology and offer more training programs and
education initiatives (Agrawal & Khan, 2011; Blomstron & Kokko, 1998; Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Many students and members of the workforce
see these skills development and training programs, which are offered free of charge or
at a reduced rate, as an educational opportunity to increase their human capital (Ietto-
Gillies, 2012). Ram and Zhang (2002) supported the argument that FDI promotes
economic growth, innovation, and human capital.
FDI provides developing nations with financial resources, advanced technolo-
gies, increased competition in markets, enhanced training and employment
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 47
opportunities, and access to the world markets (Giuliani, 2008; Ietto-Gillies, 2012; Ram
& Zhang, 2002). Costa Rica has experienced very significant growth from FDI, and the
education system continues to improve with support from MNCs. In addition, FDI
directly and indirectly promotes higher education in the host country.
FDI’s Promotion of Higher Education and Use of Technology
Opportunities for higher education are often very limited in developing coun-
tries. Researchers (Altbach, 2004; Bird & Nicholson, 1998; Morey, 2004; Mughal &
Vechiu, 2010; Selvam, 2009; Vaira, 2004) have agreed that MNCs create an incentive
for citizens of the host country to participate in higher education by increasing the
demand of new, skilled labor. According to Mughal and Vechiu (2010), a country’s
growth rate has a strong positive impact on education. MNCs must often increase a
country’s growth rate and per capita gross national income (GNI) through investments
in skills development training programs (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000; Ietto-Gillies,
2012; Vaira, 2004). When MNCs make a commitment to stay in the developing coun-
try, the workforce’s demand for highly skilled workers increases and encourages more
people to pursue a specialized degree in higher education to better meet those demands
(Mughal & Vechiu, 2010; Selvam, 2009). The establishment of partnerships between
MNCs and universities are critical for educational equity.
De la Fuente and Ciccone (2002) argued that the collaboration between MNCs
and schools and universities leads to an invaluable number of new educational opportu-
nities for students and workers in the host country. These opportunities include par-
ticipation in research projects, training programs, and new academic degrees at the
undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate levels. Universities, particularly in Costa
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 48
Rica, are beginning to make a great effort to implement doctoral programs in subjects
such as computer sciences and electronics to accommodate MNCs’ requests to engage in
research and development activities (Javalgi, Joseph, & LaRosa, 2009; Larraín et al.,
2000; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). As the demand for highly trained
staff with doctoral degrees increases, more educational opportunities will be made avail-
able to students and workers in developing countries where MNCs are present.
MNCs have a profound effect on technology transfer in host nations. The avail-
ability of computers, electronic devices, software, digital media, and greater access to
the Internet empowers students to learn new information and media and technology
skills under the guidance of schoolteachers, university professors, and instructors from
MNCs (Giuliani, 2008; Ietto-Gillies, 2012; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). The partnerships
created between MNCs and universities, elementary, and secondary schools allow the
MNCs to modernize and update curricula in the schools by integrating new technology
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Costa Rica has experienced significant
growth in technology transfer from MNCs. The use of technology in the classroom
helps students to become self-directed learners and more engaged during instructional
time. It is essential for developing 21st-century skills in students.
According to Ball et al. (2011), a developing nation’s growth and development
as well as human capital are vastly increased when technology transfer is made possible
through FDI and the presence of MNCs. Skills training and development of how to use
technology and acquire marketable skills in the workforce are almost always provided
through MNCs’ support of education and implementation of other programs (Ball et al.,
2011; Ciravegna, 2009; Giuliani, 2008; Sorto, Marshall, Luschei, & Martin, 2009).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 49
Miltenoff, Keengwe, and Schenellert (2011) contended that the use of technology in the
classroom increases engagement and empowers students to become more self-directed
learners. Computer and technology education is a tremendous benefit to students
because it involves meaningful learning. They are in control of finding the information
that they need for projects and are not simply memorizing information and forgetting it
overnight (Ciravegna, 2009; Miltenoff et al., 2011). Schools and universities in Costa
Rica continue to benefit from technology provided by MNCs.
In 2001, Intel donated $2.5 million in electronics and English language laborato-
ries to elementary schools, secondary schools, and universities in Costa Rica (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007). In addition to Intel, other MNCs, such as
Cisco, Microsoft, and IBM, have donated new computers and electronics and imple-
mented programs to help train students and teachers in the use of technology and inno-
vation (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Monge-Gonzalez et al., 2005;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In Costa Rica, MNCs are committed to providing students
with higher quality education and have helped the developing nation shift from an
agricultural-based economy to a knowledge-based economy better suited for the global
market.
Costa Rica
As over 200 MNCs have invested in Costa Rica’s economy, there has been a
shift to increasingly higher standards for students’ preparation and skill sets (Ferreira,
2009; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Monge-Gonzalez et al., 2005).
MNCs such as Intel and Microsoft are requiring their workers to be better educated and
possess certain 21st-century skills that will enable them to be productive in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 50
marketplace (Nelson, 2008; World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). The education system in
Costa Rica is striving to keep up with new changes. Despite having five national uni-
versities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate among its population, there
remains a lack of knowledge-ready workers with the appropriate human capital in the
country (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007; see Figure 1). As more MNCs
invest in Costa Rica, the school and university system’s responsibility for developing
21st-century skills in students has become increasingly more challenging.
Figure 1. Distribution of the cohort for people 21–33 years of age based on the educa-
tional level, occupation and type of activity. Source: Estado de la Nación 2011, by
Consejo Nacional de Rectores, 2012, available from http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/
index.php
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 51
History of Costa Rica
Costa Rica, Spanish for “rich coast,” was named either by Christopher Colum-
bus, who sailed to the country’s eastern shores off the Caribbean Sea in 1502, or by the
conquistador, Gil González Dávila, who landed on the country’s west coast off the
Pacific Ocean in 1522 (Booth, 2008). The country, located south of Nicaragua and
north of Panama in Central America, is the original home to eight indigenous ethnic
groups that date back to pre-Columbian times before the 16th century (Molina &
Palmer, 1998). Today, the country’s indigenous people comprise less than 2% of the
total population. The Spanish colonial period lasted for over 3 centuries—from 1502,
when Columbus first arrived, to 1821, when Costa Rica declared its independence from
Spain (Booth, 2008; Molina & Palmer, 1998).
During the colonial period, Costa Rica was known as the poorest colony in
Spanish America and had a population of only approximately 2,000 (Booth, 2008).
Despite being named rich coast by Columbus or Dávila, the Spanish found little to no
gold and other valuable minerals. Costa Rica was an isolated region within the Spanish
Empire due to its distance from the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Guate-
mala to the north. In addition, the Spanish law, which prohibited trade with Costa
Rica’s neighbors to the south in the Viceroyalty of New Granada (present-day Colom-
bia), further isolated the region and led to increased conditions of poverty (Booth, 2008;
Molina & Palmer, 1998). Spanish expeditions conquered part of the indigenous popula-
tion from 1502 to 1560 (Booth, 2008). The lack of a large indigenous labor force
caused most Spanish settlers to work on their own land and prevented the establishment
of any type of hacienda system, which was prevalent throughout Spanish America.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 52
Costa Rica became a “rural democracy,” where landowners lived in relative poverty in
an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society (Molina & Palmer, 1998). Accord-
ing to Booth (2008), this civilian-ruled society evolved with few disputes and no
conflicts with the armed forces until the mid-19th century.
Gudmundson (1986) noted that Costa Rica’s democracy developed further after
the region joined other Central American provinces in a joint declaration of indepen-
dence from Spain in 1821. As the population began to grow to 270,000, the coffee
boom began and drove Costa Rica’s economic growth and social change during the
1800s. The period from 1821 to 1905 was also known as a time of instability, conflict,
and militarism (Booth, 2008; Gudmundson, 1986). The large-scale coffee producers
and exporters formed an aristocracy that began to dominate politics. As a result, a rise
in inequality began, and politicians from the coffee elite competed for power. Elections
were manipulated, and military force was used to seize power as 17% of Costa Rica’s
presidents were toppled by a coup (Booth, 2008). Between 1824 and 1905, 36% of the
period was spent under military rule (Booth, 2008; Gudmundson, 1986). According to
Molina and Palmer (1998), the armed forces became more powerful after the Central
American War of 1857, and laws establishing free and honest elections were passed in
1848 and 1861.
In 1889, the first presidential election with political parties was held; both the
Church and political parties campaigned for social justice (Booth, 2008; Molina &
Palmer, 1998). The election was the start of an era of peaceful democracy that has con-
tinued until today with only two interruptions: (a) 1917–1919, when the country was
under a dictatorship led by Federico Tinoco due to a recession and labor turmoil; and (b)
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 53
1948, when the 44-day Costa Rican civil war was led by José Figueres Ferrer. During
the early 20th century, the country’s economy grew for several decades as coffee and
banana exports soared. However, during the Great Depression from 1929 to 1940, class
conflict and political turmoil among the growing working and middle classes and the
nation’s aristocracy became widespread. In 1931, a new Communist party emerged,
which organized successful strikes among banana workers and further divided the
country’s growing political parties (Booth, 2008; Molina & Palmer, 1998).
According to Kantor (1954) and López (1996), Costa Rica experienced a period
of crisis and reorganization due to new classes and political parties coming to power in
the 1940s. After the 6-week civil war of 1948, José Figueres abolished the army and
created a fair electoral system while passing a revised version of the 1871 constitution in
1949 (Booth, 2008; López, 1996). The 1949 constitution also enacted female and Black
suffrage, encouraged citizen participation in voting during elections, and laid the foun-
dation for the most stable democracy in Latin America (Booth, 2008; Kantor, 1954).
When José Figueres was elected president in 1953, he set out to transform Costa Rica
into an industrial country under his “new deal” democratic government (Kantor, 1954).
During the 1950s, Figueres’s government encouraged a strong middle class by
stressing the importance of education (Kantor, 1954). The new middle class was able to
compete with the traditional aristocracy through opportunities made available to them in
education (Kantor, 1954; Molina & Palmer, 1998). In addition to educational opportu-
nities and the value placed on them, the abolition of the army and Figueres’s pledge to
intensify the economic development of Costa Rica further solidified the country’s
history of democratic stability (Kantor, 1954; López, 1996). According to Kantor
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 54
(1954), Figueres’s “new deal” government modernized the production of coffee and
other agricultural resources; jump started the tourist industry; and improved the social
security system, public healthcare system, and education system. Since then, Costa Rica
has had 13 consecutive presidential elections held in a peaceful and fair manner
(CINDE, Department of Research, 2011). Most recently, the first woman president,
Laura Chinchilla, was elected to office in 2010.
Today, Costa Rica has a population of over 4.6 million and spends 6.3% of its
GDP on education (CINDE, Department of Research, 2011). Once an economy based
solely on coffee and bananas, Costa Rica now thrives on technology exports and eco-
tourism. Companies such as Intel and Microsoft have established operations in Costa
Rica and have invested hundreds of millions of dollars (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Monge-González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The presence
of over 200 MNCs have emphasized the need for the country’s education system to
prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based global economy. Although Costa
Rica has a 95% literacy rate, school leaders and educators are faced with the challenge
of developing 21st-century skills in students and teaching them how to use technology
effectively.
Education System of Costa Rica
In Costa Rica, education is free throughout primary and secondary school and
compulsory until the age of 13, or up to the sixth grade (Rolla, Arias, & Villers, 2005).
In 1751, the Bishop of Nicaragua and Costa Rica supervised the first school in Costa
Rica, located in Heredia (Molina & Palmer, 1998). At that time, the church oversaw
education and ran schools. Many of Costa Rica’s early leaders were teachers. Thus, a
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 55
large investment in education was made and the importance of schooling became para-
mount early on in Costa Rica’s history (Ferrer, 2006). In 1869, Costa Rica became one
of the first countries to make education free and obligatory. According to Haglund
(2006), “the establishment of free and obligatory education was fundamental to the early
consolidation of its democracy and continues to stimulate intellectual discourse among
relatively large segments of the population” (p. 9). Despite having a free education
system, many students cannot afford school uniforms, and rural schools have no books
and technology for students. In addition, Costa Rica’s high school graduation rate is at
an alarming 50% (Consejo Nacional de Rectores [CONARE]; 2012). Even more con-
cerning is the fact that only 25% of high school graduates, or 12.5% of all high school
students, pursue a college degree at one of the five national universities and 51 private
universities (CONARE, 2012; see Figures 2 and 3).
The MEP regulates the education system in Costa Rica and heads the national
school board. Separate departments within the MEP create school curricula and bud-
gets, and oversee teacher preparation programs (CONARE, 2012). The country is
divided into seven provinces, which are subdivided into 81 cantons. The cantons are
further divided into distritos, or school districts. Each of the seven provinces has its
own local administrator and school board. Each distrito has a board of education ap-
pointed by the municipality. The MEP has made a significant boost in educational
standards over the past 20 years due to an investment in primary and secondary educa-
tion of more than 28% of the national budget. However, the MEP remains a highly
complex bureaucratic structure that continues to experience an ongoing power struggle
among multi-interest groups (CONARE, 2012). The MEP has difficulty establishing
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 56
Figure 2. Percentage of the population to complete high school at the beginning of each
decade. 2008a/ = most current available data from 2008. Source: Estado de la Nación
2011, by Consejo Nacional de Rectores, 2012, available from http:// www.estadonacio-
n.or.cr/index.php
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 57
Figure 3. Dropout and failure rates in Costa Rica based on type of high school. Source:
Estado de la Nación 2011, by Consejo Nacional de Rectores, 2012, available from
http://www.estadonacion.or.cr/index.php
general priorities because national and local level authorities lobby to defend their own
interests. Nonetheless, there is a need for strategic priorities where change can be suc-
cessful. Schools must adequately address new social, economic, and environmental
changes. Educational leaders have to define the principal learning challenges faced by
students and identify how they learn best. Educators must determine the most appropri-
ate forms of organization to stimulate learning and establish sustainable achievement.
The use of technology must be made available to all schools and integrated into curric-
ula to help students develop critical 21st-century skills (CONARE, 2012; Sorto et al.,
2009).
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 58
Educational leaders in Costa Rica are working to revise the goals of the educa-
tion system to better align them with the development of 21st-century skills, as repre-
sented by the Constitution of Costa Rica and elaborated on by the MEP (CINDE, 2011).
The MEP (2007) has embarked on an innovative effort to establish and support the
development of 21st-century policy that allows the implementation of constitutional
mandates while meeting today’s realities. On November 8, 1994, the education policy
into the 21st century was approved by the Higher Education Council. The following
aims and objectives listed by the MEP became the focus of sustainable development:
a. Close the existing quality of education gap between urban and rural areas.
b. Train human resources that raise the country’s competitiveness necessary to
succeed in international markets.
c. Strengthen fundamental values that have been lost with the passage of time.
d. Strengthen technical and scientific education at the same time the sports and
culture as a way to develop the holistic child.
e. Raise awareness in individuals about the commitment to future generations
ensuring a sustainable economic and social development in harmony with
nature and the environment in general. (para. 2)
The goals and aims seen on the website of MEP (2007) portray the strategic
vision to purposefully strengthen the following programs:
a. Foreign language development program.
b. Program for the improvement of the quality of education and life in the
communities of care priority.
c. Computer education program.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 59
d. One room schools in the rural area of scattered program.
e. Improvement of the secondary education program.
f. Development of thought program.
g. Environmental education and sustainable development program. (para. 4)
The education policy of the MEP (2007) geared toward development of 21st-
century skills referred to three philosophical visions: humanist, rationalist, and con-
structivist. The humanist vision looks at developing the holistic person and understand-
ing a person’s greatest potential with the support of education laws that impact the
individual and the social nature of society. The rationalist’s philosophy recognizes that
people have the capacity to objectively understand what they must do to continuously
improve and learn while making progress toward reaching individual goals. The con-
structivist philosophy focuses on cultural background and prior knowledge that students
bring with them to school, thus aligning learning with instructional strategies that draw
in student attention and motivation by using the familiar.
Today, Costa Rica boasts of having the highest quality and most advanced edu-
cation system (see Table 1) in Latin America and the 23rd best system in the world
(CINDE, Department of Research, 2011). Despite new challenges and needed improve-
ments, this small Central American country serves as a model of excellence in education
for other developing nations. Costa Rica shows how MNCs and FDI can help improve
an education system with high-quality academic programs and achieve sustained eco-
nomic growth.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 60
Table 1
Students, Teachers, Establishments, and Classrooms in Costa Rica, by Sector: 2006
Sector Preprimary Primary Secondary Higher Total
Students
Number 114,202 521,460 338,508 246,208 1,220,378
Public (%) 84.9 92.6 89.0 50.6 82.4
Private and semiprivate (%) 15.1 7.4 11.0 49.4 17.6
Teachers
Number 7,384 28,571 21,748 10,230 67,933
Public (%) 67.0 84.8 80.6 63.0 78.2
Private and semiprivate (%) 33.0 15.2 19.4 37.0 21.8
Establishments
Number 2,750 4,026 752 N/A 7,528
Public (%) 86.5 92.4 72.7 ---- 88.3
Private and semiprivate (%) 13.5 7.6 27.3 ---- 11.7
Classrooms
Number 5,102 18,529 9,774 N/A 33,405
Public (%) 76.2 87.1 79.9 ---- 83.3
Private and semiprivate (%) 23.8 12.9 20.1 ---- 16.7
Note. N/A = not applicable. Data adapted from The Impact of Intel in Costa Rica: Nine Years
After the Decision to Invest, by World Bank Group , Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Agency, 2006), Washington, DC: World Bank Group/MIGA.
Presence of MNCs
According to Nelson (2008), José María Figueres, president of Costa Rica from
1994 to 1998, played a key role in transforming the economy by promoting FDI and
attracting Intel to invest in a major manufacturing plant in Costa Rica in 1997. Figueres
and his government made it a priority to address all of Intel’s concerns, including
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 61
developing ways to improve the technical qualifications of Costa Rica’s workforce and
increasing the number of operating licenses granted to foreign airlines from the coun-
try’s major airport (Nelson, 2008). Today, Intel is responsible for 20% of Costa Rica’s
exports and 5% of the country’s GDP (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). The MNC
has also made a commitment to improving education throughout the country. Intel’s
successful investment has sent a signal to hundreds of other MNCs, which has led to a
significant increase in FDI. Costa Rica is unique because of its FTZ. The FTZ system is
a set of incentives and benefits granted by the government to companies making new
investments in the country. MNCs are allowed to operate tax and duty free in the FTZs
with an initial investment of at least $150,000 (Ferreira, 2009; Monge-González et al.,
2005).
MNCs, such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco, portray the overall positive impact
that FDI has had on Costa Rica’s education system and human capital. These MNCs
have guided Costa Rica’s successful transition from an agricultural-based economy to a
new, knowledge-based economy (Ciravegna, 2009; Nelson, 2008; Sanchez-Ancochea,
2006). The education initiatives and training programs that the MNCs provide have led
to many knowledge spillover and spin-off effects that have changed Costa Rica’s work-
ing environment in various ways (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007;
Monge-González et al., 2005).
It is the consensus of researchers (Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González et al., 2005;
Nelson, 2008; Paus & Gallagher, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001) that Costa Rica’s
human capital benefits immensely from FDI. Students and workers are given new
opportunities to learn critical skills that would not normally be available to them without
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 62
the presence of MNCs (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Often workers
trained by a MNC choose to leave the firm to join a domestic firm (i.e., spillover) or
even start their own enterprise (i.e., spin-off). However, MNCs can have problems
retaining these workers despite paying for their training (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Monge-González et al., 2005). A workforce equipped with a new
knowledge and skill set is highly desirable to any country’s economy. Thus, while
MNCs continue to improve and enhance human capital in Costa Rica, they risk losing
workers from these spillover and spin-off effects (Giuliani, 2008; Olssen & Peters,
2005). Nevertheless, these effects only help to benefit Costa Rica’s economy as domes-
tic firms are able to improve their own performance and newer entrepreneurial ventures
are started.
Because MNCs are committed to improving Costa Rica’s education system and
helping to fund for new technology, students are now able to attain the necessary 21st-
century skills and other more technical skills to compete in the increasingly smaller,
global economy (Ferreira, 2009; Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007; Monge-González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). These new
skills will help enhance an already highly educated and literate workforce; however,
educational leaders are now faced with new challenges to ensure that students receive
the necessary 21st-century skills in school.
Educational Leaders and Problems to Address in the 21st Century
While MNCs have made significant contributions to Costa Rica’s education
system and human capital, schools must now meet the demands for highly skilled
workers of the new knowledge-based economy (CONARE, 2012). As the demand for
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 63
workers capable of competing in the knowledge-based global economy increases, edu-
cational leaders are faced with the challenging task of working to develop 21st-century
skills in students. School leaders need to create a new blueprint that allows students to
learn about globalization while developing critical 21st-century skills (Banks & Wasley,
2005; Wagner, 2008). This challenge requires the implementation of new school stan-
dards that aim to adequately prepare students to compete in the knowledge-based econ-
omy.
School leaders must think more like entrepreneurs and form strategic partner-
ships with MNCs to help improve pedagogy and curricula through the use of technology
and new skills (Drucker, 2007; Giuliani, 2008). According to Ietto-Gillies (2012),
school leaders must be open to learning from and working with MNCs to improve
classroom instruction and learning strategies for students. As FDI in Costa Rica contin-
ues to grow, MNCs will be committed to developing skills in students and the work-
force (Ferreira, 2009; Giuliani, 2008; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007;
Monge-González et al., 2005; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). School leaders will be faced
with the increasingly more complex role of monitoring this process and ensuring that
students are taught new knowledge and skills that further meet the needs and expecta-
tions of the knowledge-based global economy.
Conceptual Frameworks
This section of the literature review focuses on the conceptual framework of
globalization, 21st-century skills, and leadership that were considered and applied in this
study. As noted throughout the literature on globalization, MNCs, and the education
system in Costa Rica, it can be inferred that the issue of educational leadership remains
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 64
paramount and crucial to students’ development of 21st-century skills. First, Spring’s
(2008) theoretical framework of globalization was used to identify educational leaders’
perspectives of globalization and the impact of MNCs. Second, Wagner’s (2008)
conceptual framework of critical 21st-century skills was used to identify school
strengths and weaknesses in Costa Rica. Finally, Bolman and Deal’s (2011) framework
of leadership was used to better understand how globalization and MNCs affect educa-
tional leadership in Costa Rica through four frames: (a) the structural frame, (b) the
human resource frame, (c) the political frame, and (d) the symbolic frame. Bolman and
Deal’s conceptual framework allows educational leaders to view situations and prob-
lems from more than one perspective. Multiple frames help educational leaders to
quickly decode any organizational complexity.
Impact of Globalization and MNCs on Education Policy in Costa Rica
The way that school leaders and executives from MNCs view globalization is
essential for understanding how educational policy has changed in Costa Rica. Spring
(2008) identified four major theoretical perspectives of globalization: (a) world culture,
(b) world systems, (c) postcolonial, and (d) culturalist. Gaining a better understanding
of how one perceives globalization helps to determine how educational leadership has
been impacted directly by policy decisions that have come as a result of the influence of
globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica.
Education in Costa Rica
As Costa Rica shifts further ahead from an agrarian state to a more knowledge-
based economy, capable of competing in the global market, demands for students and
workers with increased human capital are becoming higher. Wagner (2008) identified
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 65
seven critical skills that students internationally lack upon completion of high school
and college: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks
and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship,
(e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information,
and (g) curiosity and imagination. The development of these 21st-century skills has
become a priority in Costa Rica’s school system since the arrival of Intel in 1997.
Leadership in Schools in Costa Rica
The structural frame. Structural frame theory posits that restructuring is a
powerful but high-risk tool for organizational change (Bolman & Deal, 2011). Schools
and universities in Costa Rica have had to rethink and redesign structural patterns due to
the impact of globalization and MNCs. Understanding the complexity of an organiza-
tion helps to create structures that are aligned with the organization’s goals. Structural
frame theory serves as a blueprint for formal expectations within the organization. It
can both enhance and constrain what an organization can accomplish. Designing an
infrastructure that allows people to do their best is the foundation of the structural frame
(Bolman & Deal, 2011). Effective leaders using the structural frame clarify organiza-
tional goals and lines of authority; manage the external environment; develop a structure
appropriate to tasks; and focus on goals, strategies, technology, and environment rather
than personality and emotions. On the other hand, the human resource frame views
people as the heart of any organization.
The human resource frame. Successful leaders hold a high regard for the
potential of the professionals. According to Heifetz and Linsky (2002), a successful
leader must provide direction, protection, and order. Confusion and resistance will
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 66
almost always exist among members of the school community when major changes
occur. People have difficulty envisioning that the new situation will be any better than
the current condition. Instead, they see clearly that there is the potential for loss (Heifetz
& Linsky, 2002). Leaders who use the human resource frame attempt to be responsive
to people’s needs and goals in order to gain commitment and loyalty. The emphasis is
on support and empowerment in which both people and the organization benefit from a
strong relationship. Individuals are productive and find meaningful and satisfying work,
while organizations get the energy and output they need in order to succeed (Bolman &
Deal, 2011).
The political frame. The leader who uses the political frame views a very dif-
ferent world in which authorities have position power, but they must also contend with
other key stakeholders. These stakeholders bring their own beliefs, values, and interests
(Bolman & Deal, 2011). Effective leaders understand how important these stakeholders
are to the organization and that each has a separate agenda. They recognize political
reality and understand there are not enough resources to give all stakeholders what they
want, and there is always going to be conflict. As the leader builds power bases, conflict
is managed by negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises.
According to the political frame, an ongoing process of bargaining and negotiation
among stakeholders helps to develop goals, structure, and policies (Bolman & Deal,
2011). Effective leaders understand the conflict in the organization and manage it effi-
ciently. They realize that interdependence, power relations, and the scarcity of neces-
sary resources impinge upon people and influence their decision-making processes.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 67
The symbolic frame. The symbolic frame draws on social and cultural anthro-
pology. Symbolism is important, as are ceremonies, rituals, myths, and values, to com-
municate a sense of organizational mission. Symbols are used to better understand the
meaning of organizational activities and events. Effective leaders who use the symbolic
frame tend to be very visible and energetic. They build a common vision and culture
that provides cohesiveness and meaning by relying heavily on organizational traditions
and values (Bolman & Deal, 2011).
Summary of Literature Review
FDI in Costa Rica has had an overwhelmingly positive impact on the country’s
education system (Ball et al., 2011; CINDE, Department of Research, 2011; CONARE,
2012; Ferreira, 2009; Giuliani, 2008; Nelson, 2008). HTMNCs such as Intel, Microsoft,
and Cisco are invaluable to Costa Rica’s schools, universities, and human capital. The
establishment of strategic alliances with government agencies, universities, and schools
and the implementation of numerous training programs aimed at skills development
clearly demonstrate the importance of these MNCs in Costa Rica. The review of the
literature contributes to the study by examining what is known about globalization and
the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica and how these entities have encouraged educa-
tional leaders to develop critical 21st-century skills in elementary, secondary, and post-
secondary school students. These skills are essential to improving human capital and
enabling the workforce to compete in the knowledge-based economy on a global scale.
The review of the literature also contributes to the study by indicating the gaps in the
literature with respect to limited empirical evidence on the effects of FDI on specific
educational outcomes.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 68
The conceptual frameworks used in this study serve as a blueprint by which to
determine what results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica as well as to examine strategies used by educational
leaders in Costa Rica to help students develop 21st-century skills. It remains the hope
that through these strategies, more students will be able to compete successfully in the
knowledge-based global economy. Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework of globaliza-
tion help in better understanding how educational leaders and business executives from
MNCs perceive globalization in Costa Rica. Wagner’s (2008) conceptual framework of
21st-century skills was used to identify school strengths and weaknesses in Costa Rica
and ways in which schools are responding to meet the needs of globalization and MNCs.
Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four-frame model was used to understand how globalization
and the presence of MNCs help to develop 21st-century skills in schools and universities
in Costa Rica. Costa Rican educational leaders’ policy decisions that have been imple-
mented at the national, district, and school levels as a result of the influence of MNCs
were examined through four perspectives: the structural frame, the human resource
frame, the political frame, and the symbolic frame. These frames also offer greater
insight into how school leadership and curricula in Costa Rica have changed due to the
demand for 21st-century skills.
The next chapter describes the research methodology used in this study by out-
lining the research design, participants, instrumentation, data collection procedures, data
analysis, ethical considerations, and summary of methodology.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 69
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Costa Rica has experienced significant growth over the past few decades since
the fiscal crisis of the 1980s and the arrival of Intel in 1997 (Giuliani, 2008; Ferreira,
2009; Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Due to an improved education
system and an increased cost of living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented
to attract high-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). Globalization and the presence of MNCs, such as Intel,
have helped shift this small Central American country from an agrarian state to a more
knowledge-based economy capable of competing in the global market. New job oppor-
tunities have been made available and have increased the demand for workers with
technical and inquiry-based, 21st-century skills. As a result, Costa Rica’s education
system has an increasingly more integral role in developing and enhancing human
capital.
Chapter 3 describes the research methodology used to analyze how globalization
and MNCs have affected Costa Rica’s education system and economy. Spring’s (2008)
theoretical framework on the perceptions of globalization, Wagner’s (2008) conceptual
framework of 21st-century skills, and Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four-frame theory were
used in this study to guide data collection and to identify how educational leadership has
been impacted directly by policy decisions that have come as a result of the influence of
globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica.
The research team is composed of 12 doctoral students from the Rossier School
of Education at the University of Southern California (USC) under the direction of Dr.
Michael Escalante. The research team met monthly to collaborate, establish research
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 70
questions, examine the research literature, and review potential conceptual frameworks
that would contribute to the study by helping to better understand how globalization and
MNCs have affected schools, universities, and education policy in Costa Rica. Col-
lected data yielded a description and analysis of successful schools in Costa Rica and
recommendations for educational leaders aiming to create a learning environment that
helps students to develop 21st-century skills and better prepare them to meet the
demands of the knowledge-based global economy.
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact that globalization and
MNCs have had on educational leadership and the integration of 21st-century skills in
schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study focused specifically on how the UCR
is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to address this challenge. In addi-
tion, the study identifies what role school leaders play in the implementation of new
policy changes seen in the Constitution of Costa Rica and the implications of their
involvement in producing a more knowledge-ready, purposeful education system that
builds human capital in Costa Rica. The three research questions for this study were the
following:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
that have come as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 71
This chapter examines the following components that were used in the study: (a)
research design, (b) sample and population, (c) instrumentation, (d) data collection and
procedures, (e) data analysis and (f) ethical considerations.
Research Design
Qualitative research can help build new theories and research and answer com-
plex questions in the form of detailed descriptions—something that can be impossible
with quantitative methods (Merriam, 2009). A qualitative researcher attempts to re-
search not only what people are experiencing but how they interpret these experiences as
well (Merriam, 2009). According to Maxwell (2013), qualitative research allows for an
in-depth examination of a phenomenon. The design strategy utilized for this qualitative
inquiry will be purposeful sampling in the form of interviews and a case study of the
UCR.
The purpose of the case study approach is to evaluate and to address questions
that reveal findings pertinent to the content of the study (Patton, 2002). Maxwell (2013)
noted that in a case study that “the researcher often selects the case and then states the
questions in terms of the particular case selected” (p. 78). Case studies rely heavily on
qualitative data rather than quantitative data and are potentially particularistic, heuristic,
and descriptive (Maxwell, 2013). According to Merriam (2009), particularistic case
studies focus on a particular situation, event, program, or phenomenon and are a good
design for addressing practical problems arising from everyday practice. Heuristic case
studies can confirm what is known, bring about the discovery of new meaning, or help
explain why a certain phenomenon worked or failed (Merriam, 2009). Finally, descrip-
tive case studies offer detailed images and a rich description of the phenomenon being
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 72
studied (Maxwell, 2013). According to Merriam (2009), descriptive case studies are
“information rich” and portray the interaction of as many variables as possible over a
period of time. Based on these explanations regarding characterization of case studies,
the preferred design was a descriptive case study of the UCR’s master’s program in
education administration in Costa Rica. In addition, documents analysis, observations,
and a survey for students in the master’s program at UCR will be included in the re-
search design. The intent is to collect data that yield rich descriptions of how educa-
tional leaders in secondary schools are better equipping students with 21st-century skills
to meet the demands of MNCs and the knowledge-based global economy.
The case study’s central purpose was to describe and analyze how educational
leaders at the secondary level are meeting the demands of MNCs for increased human
capital in a rapidly changing global economy in which 21st-century skills are critical for
success; as such, a case study was the appropriate choice for the research design. Be-
cause of this nation state’s established track record of a high literacy rate and effective
education system, the UCR’s master’s program in education administration in San José,
Costa Rica, was the location of choice for this research effort.
Monge-González and González-Alvarado (2007) noted that Costa Rica has faced
a growing demand for the education system to create a more knowledgeable and skilled
labor force to fill service-oriented and high-tech jobs since Intel’s arrival in the nation in
1997. Intel and other MNCs have successfully partnered with UCR and the MEP in
Costa Rica to implement initiatives and programs aimed at helping students develop
21st-century skills (Giuliani, 2008). Therefore, examining existing collaborations
between Intel and other MNCs with UCR and the MEP is of particular interest to this
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 73
study to gain a better understanding of how these various entities are working together
to produce improved educational outcomes at the secondary and university levels. By
utilizing the qualitative comparative case study methodology, the researcher and the
team obtained a firsthand perspective of how educational leadership has been impacted
directly by policy decisions that have come about as a result of the influence of global-
ization and MNCs in Costa Rica. The School of Education at UCR has vast experience
in working with secondary schools and MNCs throughout Costa Rica to develop curric-
ula and various education initiatives. In 1983, the school began its master’s program in
education administration. Today, the school focuses on preparing educational leaders to
meet the challenges of the 21st century.
Purposeful sampling began with an “exploratory visit” to Costa Rica by four of
the researchers and Dr. Escalante to solicit the participation of the Minister of Educa-
tion, Dr. Leonardo Garnier (see Appendix A); the Dean of the School of Education at
UCR, Dr. Ana Lupita Chaves; and the Director of the Institute of Education Research at
UCR, Dr. Alicia Vargas. According to Patton (2002), purposeful sampling in qualita-
tive designs allows for an in-depth study of a phenomenon. High-level officials were
selected for the purpose of finding future participants through the snowball effect. By
interviewing a political leader and three education policymakers, the researcher hoped to
understand how educational leadership has been impacted directly by globalization and
MNCs in Costa Rica. Dr. Garnier discussed some of the issues that the education
system in Costa Rica faces, such as teacher training, lack of resources for particular
schools and the considerable dropout rate at the high school level. He also provided
insight into the research questions by highlighting the fact that MNCs decided to invest
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 74
in Costa Rica due to the strength of the education system in the country and that Costa
Rica’s government had a strategic plan early on in the 1980s to attract MNCs to help
increase economic development throughout the nation. Dr. Garnier offered to serve as a
link and provide access to school principals and other potential respondents as part of
this study. He was able to identify other political leaders, education policymakers,
business executives of MNCs, and specific school administrators relevant to the study,
thus creating a snowball effect of a large sample size to interview during the return visit
to the country in June 2013.
At UCR, Dr. Chaves and Dr. Vargas explained the challenges faced by the edu-
cation system, such as high dropout rates at the secondary schools. Dr. Chaves shared
that the teacher preparation program is divided into primary education, secondary edu-
cation, and university faculty education. She explained that the Omar Dengo Founda-
tion began supporting schools with technology in the 1990s and has been instrumental in
helping students develop 21st-century skills. Dr. Chaves also noted that Intel has
provided much support for UCR as well as secondary schools in Belen, the surrounding
neighborhood of the plant. Finally, Dr. Chaves and Dr. Vargas expressed interest in
sharing information regarding their research project that involves identifying strategies
for dealing with high levels of secondary dropout in Costa Rica.
In addition to the meetings discussed above, the four researchers and Dr. Esca-
lante met with the following individuals:
1. The director of the “think tank” that informs the government on policy-
making decisions;
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 75
2. The director of CINDE, which is primarily responsible for attracting the Intel
investment and further HTMNCs;
3. Intel’s Director of Education Programs in Costa Rica;
4. The director of the FTZ business association;
5. The director of the Costa Rica–United States of America Foundation for
Cooperation (CRUSA), an organization that supports educational growth and research
in Costa Rica;
6. The lead researcher for and author of the Estado de la Nación, an annual
report on the status of the education system in Costa Rica; and
7. Dr. Miguel Ángel Rodríguez, the former president of Costa Rica from 1998
to 2002.
Dr. Rodríguez expressed great enthusiasm about supporting the team’s research
by offering to set up appointments with education policymakers, business executives,
and school leaders. He shared knowledge about the history and politics within Costa
Rica as well as the political relationships between Costa Rica and other nations. Dr.
Rodríguez also offered his perspective of globalization, which is consistent with
Spring’s (2008) world culture theory, stating that globalization is a positive force in
which all people have the right to an education. Spring noted that the central beliefs in a
world educational culture are based on educational rights, equality, and freedom. Dr.
Rodríguez emphasized that the education system in Costa Rica must be strengthened as
it still has much to improve on to meet the demands of the knowledge-based global
economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 76
Sample and Population
Costa Rica is a small country located north of Panama and south of Nicaragua in
Central America (see Figure 4) with a population of approximately 4.6 million people,
slightly larger than the city of Los Angeles (OECD, 2012). The population consists of
94% White Hispanics (including mestizo), 3% Blacks, 1% Amerindians (indigenous
people), 1% Chinese, and 1% other (OECD, 2012). The capital city, San José, which is
the country’s largest city located in the Central Valley, is the site of the study. The
metropolitan area of San José has a population of approximately 1.3 million (OECD,
2012). In late June 2013, the research team traveled to San José for a week to collect
data.
Figure 4. Map of Costa Rica. Taken from Costa Rica Before Coffee: Society and
economy on the eve of the export boom, by L. Gudmundson, 1986, Baton Rouge, LA:
LSU Press.
The participants recruited as the unit of analysis for this qualitative case study
included current political leaders and education policymakers, business executives of
MNCs, and school administrators in Costa Rica. According to Patton (2002), purpose-
ful sampling in qualitative designs allows for an in-depth study of a problem and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 77
phenomenon. Once the UCR agreed to participate in the case study, the researcher
obtained significant access to arranging in-person interviews with political leaders and
education policymakers, business executives of MNCs, and school administrators in San
José. The UCR is the country’s most prestigious public university, located in San Pedro
Montes de Oca in San José; it has a student body of approximately 39,000 (CINDE,
Department of Research, 2011). The School of Education at UCR has vast experience
in working with secondary schools and MNCs throughout Costa Rica to develop curric-
ula and various education initiatives.
By interviewing political leaders and education policymakers, the researcher
hoped to understand how educational leadership has been impacted directly by global-
ization and MNCs in Costa Rica. In addition, a brief survey asking questions pertaining
to how 21st-century skills are being developed in the classroom was administered to 25
students in UCR’s master’s program of education administration. To augment these
data, the perspectives of business executives of MNCs are necessary to understand how
they are driving education policy with specific programs and initiatives. While obtain-
ing access to political leaders, policymakers, and business executives of MNCs was
critical, securing school administrators’ perspectives was equally crucial for data collec-
tion.
Four high school principals and five professors at UCR were interviewed in
order to further triangulate the data. These educational leaders were recruited to partici-
pate in interviews to understand how educational leadership has been directly impacted
by policy decisions that have come about as a result of the influence of globalization and
MNCs in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 78
The research team determined that a minimum sample of 15 participants would
be interviewed—three political leaders and education policymakers as well as a mini-
mum sample of two business executives of MNCs and 10 school administrators in both
secondary and higher education.
Political Leaders and Education Policymakers
The research team established the criteria for participation by political leaders
and education policymakers in Costa Rica in this study. These criteria included having
worked at the government level in the capital as the president or Minister of Education
or at the university level as a dean or president. According to Patton (2002), purposeful
sampling in qualitative designs allows for an in-depth study of a phenomenon. Three
political leaders and education policymakers in Costa Rica were interviewed: (a) the
Minister of Public Education of Costa Rica; (b) a former presidential candidate; and (c)
the Director of CRUSA, a “think tank” that contributes to education policy in the coun-
try.
Executives of MNCs
The research team determined that Intel would serve as the MNC for the study
due to the company’s significant investment (greater than U.S. $300 million) in Costa
Rica and its vision for corporate social responsibility in which programs and initiatives
supporting education are implemented (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Also interviewed were the Intel Education Manager and the General Director of CINDE,
responsible for attracting MNCs to the country. According to Maxwell (2013), triangu-
lation is the act of collecting data from a diverse range of individuals and settings
utilizing a variety of measures.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 79
School Administrators
The research team determined that Intel high schools would be investigated due
to the MNCs’ continuous commitment to improve education in Costa Rica (Monge-
González & González-Alvarado, 2007; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Intel was
held in high regard from participants in the pilot study during the exploratory visit to
Costa Rica. Data were collected through the help of four principals of Intel high
schools. In addition, five professors at the UCR were interviewed to ensure that all data
were triangulated.
Instrumentation
This qualitative research study required the team and researcher to serve as the
research instrument to collect data from multiple sites to define common characteristics.
Maxwell (2013) noted that a conceptual framework is a key part of the research design
to help identify these commonalities. Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework on the
perceptions of globalization was used to determine whether participants view the results
of globalization and the presence of MNCs from a world culture, world systems, post-
colonial, or culturalist perspective. Wagner’s (2008) conceptual framework of 21st-
century skills was used to determine how participants believe the impact of globaliza-
tion and the presence of MNCs is seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica.
Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four-frame theory was used to identify how educational
leadership has been impacted directly by policy decisions that have come about as a
result of the influence of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica.
The researcher served as the primary instrument for data collection and analysis.
According to Merriam (2009), using the researcher as the primary instrument is advanta-
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 80
geous because the researcher can quickly analyze, respond, and be adaptive in the
process of data collection. Two interview protocols, one survey protocol, one obser-
vation protocol, and one document analysis protocol were used to collect data. Inter-
view guides were given to the political leaders, education policymakers, business execu-
tives of MNCs, and professors at the UCR in Costa Rica. The survey was distributed to
25 students in the master’s program of education administration at UCR.
The interview guides (Appendices B, C, D, and E) contained semistructured
questions that addressed specific topics related to the study while allowing for the flex-
ibility to discover and probe new, pertinent information. Merriam (2009) stated that
semistructured interviews elicit specific data from all respondents due to the interview’s
mix of more and less structured questions. These interviews allowed the team and the
researcher to better understand the impact that globalization and MNCs have had on
educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican
schools and universities. The team and researcher anticipated that the interviews would
identify what role school leaders have played in the development and implementation of
policy changes seen in major national education initiatives in Costa Rica. In addition,
the team and researcher expected the interviews to help determine whether these
initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education
system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs and those of
MNCs.
The observation protocol and survey (Appendices F and G, respectively)
helped to determine whether and the extent to which educational leaders and school cur-
ricula are ensuring that students are developing 21st-century skills in the classroom.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 81
The team and researcher also collected artifacts for a document analysis. Finally, the
researcher collected further data through observations and interviews at UCR. These
data collection methods helped to validate the participants’ responses during the inter-
views. The four data sources of interviews, observations, survey, and document analysis
ensured that the data collected were triangulated and highly valid. These methods
allowed the team and researcher to understand how educational leadership has been
impacted directly by policy decisions that have come about as a result of the influence of
globalization and MNCs. Data were analyzed using the research questions of the study
and the three conceptual frameworks: (a) Spring’s (2008) perceptions of globalization,
(b) Wagner’s (2008) framework of 21st-century skills, and (c) Bolman and Deal’s
(2011) four-frame theory.
Pilot Testing
Once the interview protocol was developed, under the guidance of Dr. Escalante,
four members of the research team pilot tested the questions with the following individ-
uals: the Minister of Education, the Education Manager at Intel, two school administra-
tors at UCR, the General Director of CINDE, the Director of Strategic Partnerships of
CRUSA (a nonprofit think tank for education policy), and the Director of the Costa
Rica’s Estado de la Nación report on education. According to Merriam (2009), a pilot
study enhances the validity of a study. The pilot study also ensured that the research
questions were clear to both the researcher and participants. Merriam stated that “the
key to getting good data from interviewing is to ask good questions; asking good ques-
tions takes practice” (p. 95). The research team collaborated on the results of the inter-
views from the pilot study to improve the internal reliability of the instruments. Upon
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 82
returning to the United States, the research team met with the remaining eight research-
ers to finalize and approve the final questions to be used in the study.
Interview Protocol for Political Leaders, Education Policymakers, and Executives
of MNCs
Maxwell (2013) noted the importance of interview guides as they allow the
researcher the flexibility to make the most of limited time available within an interview
setting. Merriam (2009) explained that interviews allow the researcher to collect histori-
cal information from participants; historical information is an invaluable component of
this comparative case study. The research team developed an interview protocol to use
with political leaders and education policymakers and one to use with executives from
MNCs (see Appendices B and C, respectively). Both protocols contained similar ques-
tions designed to learn more about the changes in the education system in Costa Rica
brought about by new demands for increased human capital from MNCs and to better
understand how schools are helping students to develop 21st-century skills.
Interview Protocol for School Leaders
The research team worked together to develop an interview protocol for school
administrators (see Appendices D) to better understand how educational leadership has
been impacted directly by policy decisions that have come about as a result of the influ-
ence of globalization and MNCs and to identify how schools are helping students to
develop 21st-century skills. Four high school principals from Intel high schools were
interviewed to provide various perspectives. The school leaders identified and de-
scribed how policy decisions have affected instructional leadership and changes in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 83
school curricula to better equip students with 21st-century skills. Additionally, five
professors at UCR were interviewed to ensure that all data were triangulated.
Observation Protocol
According to Merriam (2009), observation is an essential method for collecting
data in a qualitative research study. The research team developed an observation proto-
col (see Appendix E) to determine what results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica. The observation protocol was
used during visits to UCR and allowed the researcher to record notes and check off
specific 21st-century skills that educational leaders are developing in the classrooms of
their schools.
Survey Protocol
A quantitative survey using a Likert scale was distributed to 25 students in the
master’s program of education administration at UCR to determine how educational
leaders are helping students to develop 21st-century skills in the classroom (see Appen-
dix F). Fink (2013) noted the importance of reporting descriptive statistics, such as
respondents’ average age, educational level, and grade or score. Analyzing survey data
involves “using statistical and qualitative methods to describe and interpret respondents’
answers to the survey questions” (Fink, 2013, p. 115). The research team worked col-
laboratively to develop survey questions aligned with Wagner’s (2008) framework of
21st-century skills. Questions were designed to determine whether the following critical
skills were being developed in the classroom and viewed as a priority of teachers and
school administrators: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across
networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 84
entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and ana-
lyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Document Analysis
The education section, “Estado de la Educación” in the Estado de la Nación
report (CONARE, 2012) was used as the primary document to collect data. The purpose
of the report is to provide an accurate portrayal of the state of the education system in
Costa Rica while highlighting issues of access, equity, student retention, teacher prepa-
ration, problems with school infrastructure, and statistical information on student enroll-
ment and the distribution of schools throughout the country (CONARE, 2012). Infor-
mation from Estado de la Nación was used for focus in the interview protocol. The
2013 report became available in July 2014 for further analysis. In addition, mission
statements, principal training programs, curricula, budgets, and master schedules were
collected from the Intel high schools to identify how educational leadership is respond-
ing to the demands of MNCs for increased human capital and how 21st-century skills
are being developed in the classroom. Course syllabi for teacher education classes and
principal leadership classes at the School of Education at UCR were collected to help
determine how educational leadership has been impacted directly by policy decisions
that have come about as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs and to what
extent 21st-century skills are being developed in the classroom in Costa Rica.
Data Collection
The researcher traveled to Costa Rica with the team and Dr. Escalante in late
June 2013. Data were collected in the form of qualitative interviews, surveys, obser-
vations, and document analysis to uncover perspectives and opinions of political leaders,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 85
educational leaders, business executives, and school principals over the course of a
week in San José. In addition, the researcher met with faculty members and students in
the master’s program in education administration at UCR to learn how the program is
preparing future and current school principals to help students develop 21st-century
skills in the classroom. The methods utilized for data collection allowed the researcher
to triangulate data and to identify common themes and concepts in data for future
analysis.
According to Maxwell (2013), triangulation allows for a more secure under-
standing of the issues being investigated because data is collected from a diverse range
of individuals and settings through the utilization of a variety of methods. Triangulating
the data increases the validity of findings by reducing the risk that conclusions will
reflect only the biases of a specific method.
The data collected were stored in a secure and locked location of the researcher’s
office at UCR. The researcher and team also collected data through document analysis
and site observations to further triangulate the assessment of the impact of globalization
and MNCs on policy decisions and educational leadership. The following discussion
describes how the researcher and team collected the data after having completed USC’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB) process.
Document analysis was the critical first step taken by the team and researcher to
provide background information and a description of the education system in Costa Rica
and how MNCs have had a direct influence on leadership and policy. Merriam (2009)
explained that part of the research process involves determining the authenticity and
accuracy of documents. Document analysis can include public and private documents
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 86
(e.g., Costa Rica’s Estado de la Nación report). Scholarly articles, institutional self-
study reports, press releases, evaluation and periodic reports, and the UCR website were
examples of public documents. Private documents included e-mails, letters, and school
principals’ classroom observation reports. Other documents were analyzed as they were
obtained with permission from the participants in the study, including school mission
statements, principal training curricula, course syllabi, demographics of faculty and their
preparation, budgets, and education reports from think tanks. However, despite the rich
information provided by the document analysis, these materials alone were insufficient
for answering the research questions of this study. According to Maxwell (2013), multi-
ple forms of data allow the researcher to discover common themes through triangulation
and also help to increase the validity of the study.
During their visit to Costa Rica at the end of June 2013, the team and researcher
completed interviews with 15 participants consisting of political leaders and education
policymakers, business executives from MNCs, school principals, and university profes-
sors. Table 2 contains a list of the 15 participants who were formally interviewed. All
data were safeguarded, and all interviews were transcribed. In addition, a survey was
administered to 25 students in the master’s program of education administration at
UCR. The data collected were crucial for helping the researcher to describe and analyze
how educational leaders are working to help students develop 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this study was to understand what impact globalization and
MNCs have had on educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 87
Table 2
Study Participants Interviewed (N = 15)
Participant and Position Classification
Education Manager, Intel Costa Rica business executive
Director of CINDE business executive
Minister of Education education policymaker-political leader
Former presidential candidate political leader
Director of CRUSA education policymaker-political leader
Research Coordinator, Omar Dengo education policymaker
High School Principal 1 school leader
High School Principal 2 school leader
High School Principal 3 school leader
High School Principal 4 school leader
Professor at UCR 1 school leader
Professor at UCR 2 school leader
Professor at UCR 3 school leader
Professor at UCR 4 school leader
Professor at UCR 5 school leader
Note. UCR = University of Costa Rica; CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion
Agency.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 88
schools and universities in Costa Rica. The study identifies what role school leaders
have played in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in major
national education initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these initiatives
are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education system that
builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs. A range of perspectives
from political leaders, education policymakers, business executives, and school adminis-
trators was critical to triangulate data collection through this method. Data collected
from political leaders and education policymakers as well as business executives of
MNCs in Costa Rica were compared to data obtained from school administrators. The
researcher compared, analyzed, and triangulated data from these varying perspectives to
find common themes. According to Maxwell (2013), using multiple methods to collect
data about a phenomenon can enhance the validity of the study.
Creswell’s (2012) six-step approach to data analysis was used:
1. Organize and prepare the data for analysis.
2. Read through all the data.
3. Begin detailed analysis with a coding process.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as
well as categories or themes for analysis.
5. Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualita-
tive narrative.
6. Make an interpretation or meaning of the data. (p. 185)
Each individual researcher from the team presented his or her findings to the rest
of the team to look for emerging trends in the data. The researcher organized data by
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 89
composing a case record. Documents, site observation notes, and survey results were
analyzed into a case record for easier data comparison in addition to transcribing data
from each interview. The purpose of the case record is to create a single resource
package from the voluminous and extensive data collected (Maxwell, 2013). The
researcher coded and organized the information into meaningful categories to reveal
common themes and patterns (Merriam, 2009).
Coding is a main categorizing strategy in qualitative research (Maxwell, 2013).
The researcher coded and analyzed collected data utilizing Bolman and Deal’s (2011)
frame theory as an organizational tool to group data by the four frames: (a) structural,
(b) human resource, (c) political, and (d) symbolic. In addition, Spring’s (2008)
perceptions of globalization and Wagner’s (2008) framework of 21st-century skills were
used to categorize other themes that emerged. After identifying the most prevalent
themes in understanding how educational leadership has been impacted by globalization
and MNCs, the researcher interconnected the themes and narratively conveyed the
findings of the analysis. The researcher then interpreted and made meaning of the data
by comparing them to the data collected from other members of the research team and
relating the interpretation to the literature and conceptual frameworks. Finally, conclu-
sions and recommendations for future practice were presented.
Validity and Reliability
Maxwell (2013) recognized threats to validity as key issues in qualitative re-
search. The two specific threats to validity are researcher bias and reactivity.
Researcher bias occurs when the researcher’s existing theory or preconceptions about
the selection of data causes certain data collected to stand out. According to Maxwell,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 90
reactivity refers to the influence of the researcher on the setting or individuals studied.
Reactivity is a powerful influence in interviews because the researcher always influ-
ences what the participant says. It was important for the team and researcher to under-
stand how they were influencing what the participant says and how this factor affected
the validity of inferences drawn from the data collected. Despite any efforts, it is impos-
sible to completely eliminate the actual influence of the researcher and researcher bias
(Maxwell, 2013). The present study’s team and researcher were cognizant of these
potential threats to validity and reliability and implemented strategies to lessen the
potential impact of such threats.
The team and researcher constituted the instrument used to collect and interpret
data in this qualitative case study. For this reason, researcher bias was inherent in the
data collection and analysis. The team and researcher met to identify this researcher
bias to ensure that ethical and honest actions were taken while data were collected. This
process allowed for a more trustworthy collection of data and analysis, as threats to
validity were minimized. The strategy of triangulation was used to increase rigor of
methods for data collection and allowed for more credibility and reliability of the
findings (Merriam, 2009). Maxwell (2013) noted that data sources may have similar
biases and become sources of invalidity despite methods being triangulated.
Acknowledging the existence of these potential threats to validity and reliability
was helpful for the team and researcher as data were collected and analyzed, and find-
ings were presented. Maxwell (2013) emphasized the importance for researchers to
utilize strategies to deal with threats to validity. The researcher engaged in an intensive
3-month involvement with the data and therefore minimized any existing theories and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 91
preconceptions that could potentially lead to researcher bias and reactivity. The re-
searcher had a more complete understanding of how globalization and MNCs have
impacted educational leadership and the development of 21st- century skills in second-
ary schools through the case study of UCR’s master’s program in education administra-
tion.
Limitations
The scope of this research study was limited. The qualitative case study exam-
ined the efforts of one particular university’s master’s program in education adminis-
tration in the metropolitan area of San José, Costa Rica.
The purpose of the study was to identify how globalization and MNCs have af-
fected educational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and
universities in Costa Rica. This dissertation study demonstrates the importance of
helping students to develop 21st-century skills and to analyze the perspectives and over-
all experiences of political leaders, education policymakers, business executives of
MNCs, and school leaders in Costa Rica. Because this study examined the master’s
program of education administration at one prestigious public university in a metropoli-
tan area, the generalizability of the findings are limited to other such campuses. Instead,
this case study provides in-depth data and rich analysis in which policies and best prac-
tices are described and applied based on the similarity of institutional context.
Delimitations
This study utilized a very small sample of interview participants (15) and stu-
dents (25) in the master’s program in education administration at UCR in the metropoli-
tan area of San José, Costa Rica. As such, the scope of the data sources is a delimitation
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 92
in this case study at UCR in Costa Rica. Interview participants included a limited
number of political leaders and education policymakers (3); business executives of
MNCs (2); and school leaders (10). In-person interviews were used to assess the opin-
ions and perspectives, and the recorded experiences could have been uniquely based on
their cultural backgrounds and certain inherent biases. These participants were not
meant to represent the perspectives and experiences of all political leaders, education
policymakers, business executives of MNCs, and school administrators in Costa Rica.
Instead, this small sample size across different groups is intended for the purpose of tri-
angulating and analyzing common themes in data. In addition, the small size of students
in the master’s program in education administration at UCR (25) is a delimitation
because a very narrow demographic of participants was used to analyze the results of the
survey.
The intended purpose of the study is another delimitation of this case study. The
researcher attempted to evaluate what impact globalization and MNCs have had on edu-
cational leadership and the development of 21st-century skills in schools and universi-
ties in Costa Rica. The study does not evaluate the perceptions of students, parents, or
teachers on the schools’ effectiveness in developing 21st-century skills.
Ethical Considerations
Each member of the research team participated in the IRB application process.
The process entailed completion of the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI).
The CITI is an online training program that offers various modules that individuals can
take so that they can earn a certificate indicating that they understand the ethical consid-
erations when doing research. Having IRB approval ensures that all aspects of the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 93
research project are done without any harm to participants (physical, mental, or other-
wise) and that all ethical considerations are employed (see Appendix G). All 12 mem-
bers of the team and Dr. Escalante completed the IRB CITI and were given IRB ap-
proval. During data collection, the team and researcher did not use language that is
biased toward any racial or ethnic group, persons of same-gender sexual orientation,
age, religion, or disability. The names of participants and their respective positions were
kept anonymous and confidential as they wished.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 94
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter presents the results from the qualitative case study conducted at the
UCR in San José, Costa Rica. The study examines the impact of globalization and
MNCs on schools and universities in one of Latin America’s most open economies.
Costa Rica has experienced extraordinary FDI success (Ferreira, 2009). Due to this
success, there is a need to develop a future-based human capital strategy that involves
helping students to develop critical 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). A narrative
analytical approach was used to interpret data obtained from a total of 20 interviews
with key administration, staff, and faculty at UCR; political leaders; business executives
from MNCs; and secondary school administrators in Costa Rica. The data were triangu-
lated through 20 interviews, 25 student surveys, and participant observation along with
various collected documents and materials. All of the compiled data have been ana-
lyzed, synthesized, and presented so that the reader may understand how UCR is prepar-
ing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills
to meet the demands of MNCs for increased human capital in Costa Rica.
Comprehensive analysis of interviews, surveys, participant observation, docu-
ments, and written materials show that UCR has responded to the impact of globaliza-
tion and MNCs that can be organized through the lens of Bolman and Deal’s (2011)
framework of leadership. Spring’s (2008) theoretical framework of globalization was
used to identify educational leaders’ perspectives of globalization and the impact of
MNCs. Second, Wagner’s (2008) conceptual framework of critical 21st-century skills
was used to identify program strengths and weaknesses of the UCR master’s degree
program in education administration. Finally, Bolman and Deal’s (2011) framework of
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 95
leadership was used to better understand how globalization and MNCs affect educa-
tional leadership in Costa Rica through four frames: (a) the structural frame, (b) the
human resource frame, (c) the political frame, and (d) the symbolic frame. Bolman and
Deal’s conceptual framework allows educational leaders to view situations and prob-
lems from more than one perspective. Multiple frames help educational leaders to
quickly decode any organizational complexity. The data have been analyzed to address
the overarching research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions
that have come as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
This chapter examines the findings of the case study in four parts. The partici-
pants consisted of 15 individuals from one of the following categories: (a) business
executives from MNCs, (b) political leaders and education policymakers, and (c) school
leaders. In addition, 25 graduate students in education administration at UCR were
surveyed. First, the opinions and beliefs of business executives from MNCs are pre-
sented to see what they felt are important qualities, results, and needs for education in
Costa Rica. Second, the perspectives of key political leaders, including top- and middle-
level administrators in the MEP are discussed to provide greater insight into what type
of skill set students and workers are expected to have to compete successfully in Costa
Rica’s knowledge-based, open economy. Third, interviews with current and aspiring
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 96
school principals and college professors are analyzed to determine how effective their
instructional program is in helping students to develop 21st-century skills. Finally, an
introduction, history, and explanation of UCR’s master’s program in education admin-
istration are presented to determine how educational leaders in secondary schools are
being prepared to help students address the problems and challenges of an increasingly
more global knowledge-based economy. All data are original and anonymous to pre-
serve the confidentiality of the sources and results.
Participants
The 15 participants of the study were grouped into one of three categories: (a)
business executives from MNCs, (b) political leaders and education policymakers, and
(c) school leaders. There were two business executives from MNCs, three political
leaders and education policymakers, and 10 school leaders. In addition, 25 graduate
students in the UCR master’s program of education administration were surveyed.
Table 2 in Chapter 3 lists the 15 leaders who were interviewed, their position, and type
of leader they were in their respective organizations.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rica? According to Spring (2008), globalization is a change in
economics that affects production, consumption, and investments that, in turn, affect
larger segments of the world’s population. The aim of this question was to determine
how the country of Costa Rica has changed over the past 30 years due to the influences
of globalization and MNCs. According to Giuliani (2008), a new economic strategic
plan was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 97
The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and
opportunity to this small Central American country (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007). First, perspectives for the major stakeholders are presented. They are
business executives from MNCs, political leaders and education policymakers, and
school leaders. Next, the predominate themes are explored. The first theme that was
common among all three perspectives is the need for Costa Rica to bridge its old econ-
omy with the new economy. Second, all participants from each perspective agreed that
an improvement in education at all levels is needed to help increase human capital and
to decrease inequalities in the new, knowledge-intensive global economy.
Perspectives
The first perspective comes from business executives from MNCs. These
business executives agreed that Costa Rica has changed drastically over the past 20–30
years due to the influx of MNCs and globalization. The Education Manager at Intel
Costa Rica offered a unique insight into how Costa Rica has changed and has been
affected by globalization and MNCs. The manager stated,
I first came here over 30 years ago. I could see it was definitely an agricultural
society—cattle, bananas, coffee were the main products. Then we came in
around the ‘80s and started moving toward reengineering and becoming an
agricultural-industrial economy based on tourism. Tourism definitely replaced
coffee exportation as the economy’s leader. We went from producing bananas to
banana chips and now computer chips.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 98
A senior administrator from CINDE, the organization responsible for promoting
FDI and working with MNCs in Costa Rica, noted that
the foreign direct investment, particularly in the high-tech sector, has been re-
sponsible for a lot of these changes in Costa Rica’s exporting industries. Some
data on exports of goods and services—they have grown at an average annual
rate of 9% in the last decade.
Globalization and the presence of MNCs have changed Costa Rica’s economy
over the past 30 years, creating a new economy capable of competing in a global market.
As Costa Rica has shifted more toward having a knowledge-based global economy, the
demand for a particular type of worker has shifted as well. Now, more than ever before,
there is a need for workers equipped with 21st-century skills capable of contributing and
competing in the new, knowledge-based global economy.
The administrator from CINDE noted this change in the different leading exports
over the past 30 years:
Basically, if we see 1985, we exported $1 billion, and a high concentration in
four different agro-products: bananas, sugar, coffee, and beef. However, in
2012, we have a much bigger basket. Bananas, sugar, coffee, and beef make up
only 13% of exports. Electronic components for microprocessors consist of 20%
of our exports. These products are part of the sectors that MNCs are attracted to
here in Costa Rica. You can see the bananas, sugar, coffee—all of those are still
present and have an interesting percentage, but of course, we don’t depend on
them.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 99
Political leaders and education policymakers offered an interesting answer to
how globalization and MNCs have affected Costa Rica. According to political leaders,
Costa Rica has two economies: one that benefits the local sector and one that benefits
the private sector and MNCs. The new economy has a need for workers with a new skill
set capable of competing in the knowledge-based global economy. On the other hand,
the old economy relies on agriculture, such as the production of coffee and bananas, and
therefore requires a more traditional worker with a farming skill set. An official from
CRUSA, a foundation that is committed to improving relations between Costa Rica and
the United States and serves as a think tank for education and public policy projects,
posed challenging questions:
There are two economies: local and private sector. . . . How can Costa Rica’s
economy be built on innovation with a high school dropout rate at 50%? Only
20% of workers in Costa Rica are knowledge-based workers in FTZs with
MNCs; 80% of workers are not knowledge-based. How do we boost the local
economy?”
The private sector has grown immensely since the arrival of Intel and other
MNCs. A former presidential candidate noted that “if you look at what’s happened in
the last 20 years, there’s been a very sustained effort to attract foreign direct invest-
ment.” The FDI has been evident primarily by new MNCs arriving in Costa Rica for the
purpose of establishing a facility or regional headquarters. The former presidential can-
didate continued, “Exports have really taken off and it has created economic opportu-
nity, mainly from an educational point of view that some students are educated enough
to get into these companies.”
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 100
School leaders consisting of high school principals and college professors have
seen various changes in Costa Rica as a result of globalization and the presence of
MNCs. Helping students to develop critical 21st-century skills is a new challenge. A
professor at UCR who served as dean of the university noted:
One of the challenges we have had so far is how to better prepare our students so
that they can compete with the rest of the world. Specific skills are needed to
enter the global market. Now, our students need to have a broader perspective
on their own professional and personal roles so that they’re not just competing
with other Costa Ricans, but they’re competing with the rest of the world.
Many school leaders agreed that the biggest change in Costa Rica could be seen
in its new economy. A school principal stated:
Since the 1980s Costa Rica has changed in economic model format, expectation
model quite a few small group of items cultural items to be an economy that
exports, now much wider range of products and also more economy that identi-
fies with more external investments and international investments.
Bridging the Old Economy With the New Economy
The first theme was the need for Costa Rica to bridge its old economy with its
new economy. Costa Rica has experienced a drastic change in its economy over the past
20 years. Once an economy based on primarily agricultural products, such as bananas
and coffee, Costa Rica has shifted toward a more knowledge-based global economy
since the arrival of Intel in 1996 (Ferreira, 2009). MNCs such as Intel, IBM, Microsoft,
and Hewlett-Packard (HP) have helped Costa Rica bridge the old economy to the new
economy. Business executives from MNCs, political leaders, and school leaders agreed
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 101
that Costa Rica’s economy has changed to one in which there is a greater demand for
workers with critical 21st-century skills. Bridging these two economies remains a chal-
lenge for Costa Rica. Despite its remarkable education system, a large percentage of
Costa Rica’s population never graduated secondary school and therefore cannot compete
in the new economy. An administrator at CINDE stated,
We have in some cases, what some cases call dual economy. Yes, we have very
specialized people—a very well, Costa Rican-trained that went to Costa Rican
universities, but we’re lacking some people that do not have education and of
course, cannot access those high-quality jobs. What’s happening to us is if we
want to do the next step, we still need to improve our university level of educa-
tion. That obviously costs money.
As Costa Rica moves further ahead into the 21st century and spends more money
on education to better prepare their students for the knowledge-based global economy, it
will become increasingly more important to determine ways in which the old economy
and new economy can mutually benefit each another. The question remains whether
these dual economies can be integrated. A senior official from CRUSA asked, “How do
we help small and medium local industry engage with MNCs and open markets?” Costa
Rica must find a solution to how the integration of the old economy and the new econ-
omy can successfully benefit all stakeholders.
Bridging the old economy with the new economy is a challenge Costa Rica faces
as the world moves further ahead into the 21st century. A former presidential candidate
stated,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 102
Costa Rica has always done things very differently from many other countries
and that’s what made Costa Rica different socially. In other words, we didn’t
have very big disparities between rich and poor. Now, that disparity is growing
very quickly, so I would say, these policies which aren’t exclusive to globaliza-
tion, but they’re part of it.
Improving Education at All Levels
The second theme is that an improvement in education at all levels will help to
increase human capital and decrease inequalities in the knowledge-intensive economy.
Costa Rica obviously has an excellent education system; however, business executives
from MNCs, political leaders, and school leaders agreed that there is a need for im-
provement in education at all levels.
Business executives from MNCs noted that Costa Rica has an education system
that adequately prepares students to compete successfully in the knowledge-intensive
global economy. According to an administrator at CINDE, “We have the talent. We
have a bilingual and young workforce. We invest highly in the primary and secondary
and tertiary education. This has been occurring over the last 20, 30, 40, 50 years.”
However, there still remains a need to improve education at all levels, which includes
giving access to new technology to all students. A high school principal remarked,
“You see a lot of things, especially with the technology. There’s a lot of progress, but
we are still lagging behind to better prepare students to compete on a global scale.”
Business executives from MNCs, political leaders, and school leaders must all work
together to help improve education at every level in Costa Rica.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 103
A former presidential candidate noted that
there is a need to fix serious disconnects in education in Costa Rica at all levels.
These disconnects make it difficult to close skills gaps or develop the 21st-
century skills needed for the future. Costa Rica and the world obviously need a
more educated workforce and we’re entering a—no, we are in a knowledge
economy everywhere, and people know that. And people also know that, you
know, education is your ticket because you’re not going to be competing with
only your classmates. You’re going to be competing with someone in India and
someone in China and someone in the U.S. and someone in Brazil, and educa-
tion is your ticket.
As Costa Rica moves further ahead into the 21st century, educational leaders must work
with business executives from MNCs and political leaders to help fix the serious discon-
nects in education.
Discussion: Research Question 1
Based on the perspectives of business executives from MNCs, political leaders,
and school leaders, two themes emerged: bridging the old economy with the new econ-
omy and improving education at all levels. The country’s economy has shifted toward
requiring a workforce with a specific skill set, such as the ability to problem solve and
think critically. However, despite having Latin America’s best education system, Costa
Rica continues to struggle to improve education at all levels and thus, the integration of
the old economy and new economy is difficult to achieve. Workers without specific
skills, such as the ability to effectively use technology and access and analyze
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 104
information, cannot compete in Costa Rica’s new economy. There is a need to improve
education at all levels.
The changes that Costa Rica experienced due to the impact of globalization and
MNCs can be viewed as symbolic. Globalization and MNCs serve as change agents,
reflecting a symbolic approach (Bolman & Deal, 2011). Before globalization and the
influx of MNCs, Costa Rica’s education system would be best viewed as culturalist.
The greatest importance in education is the study of other cultures throughout the world
and students gaining the ability to learn lessons from them (Spring, 2008). Today, all
stakeholders, including business executives from MNCs, political leaders, and school
leaders, have agreed that Costa Rica’s education system must reflect a world culture.
The central beliefs in a world educational culture are based on educational rights, equal-
ity, and freedom, in which all people have the right to education. World culture stems
from the idea that a single global culture is developing from the integration of all cul-
tures.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? The aim of this question was
to determine how schools and universities in Costa Rica have directly been affected by
globalization and the presence of MNCs. According to the World Bank Group (World
Bank Group, MIGA, 2006), HTMNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have invested
hundreds of millions of dollars in developing countries. This type of FDI has helped
school systems, most notably Costa Rica’s, to increase the level of human capital in its
citizens. For example, Intel provides free educational training and awards grants to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 105
teachers interested in learning how to use technology in the classroom (Larraín et al.,
2000; Nelson, 2008). First, the perspectives of business executives from MNCs,
political leaders, and school leaders stressed the significance of schools in Costa Rica to
partner with an MNC such as Intel. In addition, the perspectives of the stakeholders
emphasized that English language learning is an essential component to students’ edu-
cation in Costa Rica.
Perspectives
Most business executives from MNCs agreed that their presence in Costa Rica is
primarily seen in schools by the amount of technology, such as laptop computers, that is
donated. Partnerships between schools and Intel have been created that have helped to
improve opportunities for all students. An official from Intel noted that “we have estab-
lished excellent relationships with various schools here in Costa Rica.” The senior
administrator from CINDE remarked on Intel being an asset to schools in Costa Rica:
Intel is a clear example. . . . They’re a great example in many aspects. One, they
have resources. When I say resources, they have the education manager who is
full time and dedicated to being that point of contact with the educational sys-
tem. You won’t find that in other companies. You really won’t find that
nowhere in the world in particular. Yes, not only they are dedicating full-time
resources, but also they have very specific goals and they have metrics. They
want to work together with schools to build a pipeline, to secure that there will
be a pipeline in certain areas of interests.
As more MNCs begin to set up facilities or regional headquarters in Costa Rica,
the demand for workers capable of competing in the knowledge-based economy
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 106
becomes higher. Students need to develop critical 21st-century skills while they attend
primary and secondary schools. An official from Intel stated how MNCs—in this
particular case, Intel—partner with schools to help educational leaders and teachers
learn how to help students develop 21st-century skills:
One of the direct impacts is we’re working on . . . from K through 12 and higher
ed and having a big emphasis on K through 12 and how to support the learning
of the 21st-century skills. Twenty-first-century skills are basically that students
be prepared to be successful in any career in the future, in the knowledge econ-
omy and in the globalized economy. That has a direct relation to a lot of our
materials, a lot of our preparation, and it’s working with schools to develop
those skills. I think also helping the future workforce get developed for how to
work in our kind of an environment.
The second perspective on what results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in Costa Rican schools and universities Rica came from political leaders
and education policymakers. Political leaders agreed that schools and universities have
changed since the arrival of Intel and other MNCs. An administrator from CRUSA, the
foundation that serves as a think tank for the government to help improve education and
human development in Costa Rica, stated that
Intel is a very good company obviously with a large corporate social responsibil-
ity program. They are supporting science fairs. They are donating computers to
schools. Their facilities are also donated, and they work with the Ministry of
Public Education.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 107
Although Costa Rica is still lagging behind with technology in schools, MNCs such as
Intel are helping to eventually close that gap.
A high-ranking official from the MEP noted the importance of a partnership
between the MEP and the Omar Dengo Foundation, a private organization that provides
computer technologies and innovative educational programs to the country’s public
schools: “We have great relations with the Omar Dengo Foundation, which is like our
main partner in this, and I think it is a very responsible institution.” These partnerships
have provided students with better and newer opportunities that will allow them to
compete successfully in the knowledge-based global economy.
Many political leaders agree that learning English is essential for students in
Costa Rica due to the impact of globalization and the influx of MNCs since Intel’s
arrival in 1997. An administrator from CRUSA laughed: “Everybody is scrambling for
English. Now we need our engineers to speak English; now we need our high school
students to graduate.” A former candidate for president noted that “education and
learning English is the ticket for someone growing up in poverty in Costa Rica to grow
up and land a good job in the knowledge-based global economy.”
School leaders, consisting of high school principals and college professors, had
seen both positive and negative changes in education since Costa Rica has been affected
by globalization and the presence of MNCs. A high-ranking professor at UCR stated
that “high school and college students perceive MNCs as opportunities to get a job and
make easy money. Students drop out or slow down with studies; many students fail to
see long-term goals of education.” All school leaders agreed that the technology in their
classrooms would not be as advanced without the help of MNCs, particularly Intel.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 108
However, some would argue that the advancement in technology is limited to the San
José metro area and obsolete in certain rural areas. An administrator in the UCR School
of Education at UCR stated:
Intel is working with the foundation Omar Dengo in order to develop the pro-
gram, one computer per child, so they are trying to give all the children of the
country and all the seniors a computer so they can work. But at the same time, if
you go to one of the islands that we have here—it’s called Isla Chira, Chira
Island, you go there you will see people that don’t have electricity, and it is even
worse if you go to the indigenous areas, if you go to the mountains in Tala-
manca, for example.
Despite the lack of technology in rural areas in Costa Rica, it is clear that MNCs
have helped many schools in the San José metropolitan area. A professor at UCR who
served as dean of the university noted how students have been affected by the new
technology:
Now, more than ever, with technology you can see our kids–our youth–their
expectations are very similar to any other kid in the U.S. or around the world.
You can see now the way they dress, the things that they buy and . . . you know,
just like any kid in the U.S. or Europe could have the same kind of things. It’s
because of this globalization and due to technology that they get access to the
way people live in other countries and how the things they use. Now, they come
up with songs and technological devices . . . it’s like, “Wow, we live in a global
world!” There are no frontiers or borders.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 109
Teaching English as a second language was important. School leaders were
aware of the changes that had occurred in their buildings since the arrival of Intel and
other MNCs. They agreed that it is imperative to have a strong partnership with an
MNC that provides computers and teacher training with new technology. A research
coordinator at the Omar Dengo Foundation remarked on the importance of Intel in
education:
I think Intel has done a great job with its training program. I think that the num-
ber of teachers that they have is about 30,000 teachers that have been trained, so
that’s something that’s quite important. I think they have also done an incredible
job supporting the science fair—that’s another example of how they came to
help schools. It is something that they establish to help the schools—the science
fairs at the school’s level—it’s a big deal.
School leaders are very aware of the change in the demand of the skill set a
worker must have to successfully find a job and compete in the knowledge-based global
economy. A professor at UCR who previously worked on education projects at Intel
commented, “There are more job opportunities as a result of the MNCs. Intel has pro-
vided great support to the education system in many ways. Other MNCs have provided
many jobs that did not previously exist.” Because of this, English language learning has
become one of the main objectives at the primary, secondary, and university levels.
A high school principal, also known as the director, noted that “English is
needed for our students to successfully compete in jobs in the global economy.” A
professor at UCR added:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 110
Teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities has changed to
promote 21st-century skills as a result of globalization and the presence of
MNCs. Most recently, there has been an increase in offering foreign languages
—particularly English—to support MNCs in technology, call centers, and other
industries. We train around 250 masters teachers and so the master teachers
first, we began in the metropolitan area and then we moved. We would move to
the rural areas, and our objective was to have at least one or two master teachers
in every school district around the country.
Schools at every level must take advantage of the resources that MNCs provide in Costa
Rica and establish rewarding partnerships with one or several MNCs to allow for greater
access to technology and better training for English language learning.
Partnership With Intel and Other MNCs
The first theme is the significance of schools partnering with Intel and other
MNCs. Business executives from MNCs, political leaders, and school leaders agreed
that all primary and secondary schools and universities should partner with Intel or
another MNC to help close the gap in access to technology and teacher training. There
is a need for better collaboration between MNCs and the MEP as well as universities,
such as UCR. Teacher training in Costa Rica is a very challenging task because re-
sources are limited. As the demand for workers capable of competing successfully in
the knowledge-based global economy increases, teacher training in 21st-century skills
and technology grows increasingly more important. MNCs can help facilitate this
process. School leaders agreed that a partnership with a MNC could be very beneficial
for students. A UCR professor stated,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 111
Intel has had some impact on our education system. They have provided com-
puters to schools and to government entities, but not only are they providing the
devices but they have some impact on the training and on giving scholarships to
key students who might be instrumental for Intel by providing scholarship com-
petitions. I think they have a nice partnership with Omar Dengo and with uni-
versities as well. It is important that schools receive support and contributions
from these MNCs.
Despite the various partnerships that MNCs have established and resources that
they have donated to schools, more must be done. A former presidential candidate
noted,
We have deficient infrastructure in public schools. There isn’t enough class-
room space . . . there aren’t enough desks. Schools in rural areas need help. And
I think that’s where technology could play a big role. If we can get fiber optics
to all these small, single-teacher schools around the country and can get video
conferencing and video teaching with a teacher being sort of a complement, you
could have world class teachers in rural areas.
Intel and other MNCs are capable of helping Costa Rica’s education system
close the gap with the use of technology and teacher training to aid students in develop-
ing 21st-century skills in the classroom. Schools that partner with Intel or another MNC
can benefit in many ways. First, the school will receive new technology, such as com-
puters and laptops for teachers and students to use in the classroom. The availability of
computers, electronic devices, software, digital media, and greater access to the Internet
empowers students to learn new information and media and technology skills under the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 112
guidance of schoolteachers, university professors, and instructors from MNCs. Second,
teachers will receive formal training in professional development workshops that the
MNC provides. This training provides ways in which teachers can effectively use
technology with students to help them to access and analyze information, to help them
to think critically and problem solve, and to help them develop other critical 21st-
century skills (Wagner, 2008). Finally, when a school partners with a MNC, the MNC
very often provides scholarships to students who are interested in pursuing a career with
the company. These scholarships give students the access and opportunity to pursue
higher education while preparing for a job with the MNC after they graduate. Students
receive a formal education and the training needed to compete successfully in the
knowledge-intensive global economy.
English Language Learning and Practice
Theme 2 is the importance of English language learning and practice, which
have become increasingly more important since Costa Rica has been affected by global-
ization and the presence of MNCs. Business executives from MNCs, political leaders,
and school leaders agreed that the learning of English is critical for a student to success-
fully compete in the knowledge-intensive global economy. An executive at CRUSA
noted that English “is the language of information—research is published in English.”
Learning English is an essential task and a necessary skill for students to gain a better
job. A professor at UCR who served as dean of the university stated,
You have many workers that don’t have the necessary skills or education and
what the government has done is to try to give through INA [National Institute
for Learning]. They provide training to the whole population on different skills,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 113
and one of the skills is English language skills. This type of training is provided
in every town of Costa Rica. There is a need there, and people become
interested in getting trained and learning English so they have the chance to get a
better job.
English language learning and practice must be integrated into the development
of 21st-century skills to effectively prepare students for higher paying jobs in the
knowledge-based global economy. A high school principal stated that “learning English
has become increasingly more important as our economy has shifted to more of a global
economy with open markets.” English learning and practice are an essential component
of a school’s curriculum. The English language skill set can be extremely beneficial for
students. A former presidential candidate noted, “Everyone I would say recognizes that
learning English is very important. It makes a huge difference because it can bring you
out of poverty.”
Discussion: Research Question 2
All participants in the study agreed that the establishment of a partnership
between a school and an MNC such as Intel is imperative for success in education.
Schools receive invaluable resources in the form of computer donations, teacher train-
ing, and scholarships from MNCs in Costa Rica. In addition, all participants agreed that
English language learning is a critical skill that all students must master to compete
successfully in the knowledge-based global economy. Wagner (2008) noted the essen-
tial skill and need for effective oral and written communication. Learning English as a
second language empowers students to communicate with others in the global economy
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 114
and thus opens the door for more higher paying job opportunities that require 21st-
century skills.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions that have come as a result of the influence of globalization
and MNCs? The aim of this question was to determine the direct impact that globaliza-
tion and MNCs have had on educational leadership in Costa Rica. According to
CONARE (2012), the MEP regulates the education system in Costa Rica and heads the
national school board. Separate departments within the MEP create school curricula and
budgets, and oversee teacher preparation programs. There has ben a recent trend in
which school curricula is changing to meet the new demands of MNCs (CONARE,
2012). The MEP (2007) has embarked on an innovative effort to establish and support
the development of 21st-century policies that allow the implementation of constitutional
mandates while meeting today’s realities. The perspectives of business executives from
MNCs, political leaders, and school leaders were utilized to help answer the research
question. Two themes emerged from the findings: (a) school curricula needs to be
changed to meet the new demands of MNCs and (b) the quality of teacher and adminis-
trator preparation programs needs to be improved.
Perspectives
Most business executives from MNCs agreed that the focus of education at
school sites had changed since their arrival. An executive from Intel noted, “There is a
new demand for workers to contribute to the global economy here in Costa Rica.
Schools have been working on revamping their curricula to allow students to be better
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 115
prepared.” The demand for this type of worker was minimal before the arrival of Intel in
1997 and other MNCs.
Intel and other MNCs have helped contribute to changing school curricula by
providing teacher training and more access to technology. An administrator at CINDE
stated that “Intel has supported specific programs and has made a conscientious effort to
teach these professors on how they can use the technology and the like to be able to be
better teachers.”
Political leaders agreed that school curricula are changing based on new
demands from MNCs and the need for students to become better equipped with 21st-
century skills. A high-ranking official in the MEP noted that “we are starting new ini-
tiatives to prepare students to enter the global economy with the skills needed to be
successful.” A former presidential candidate stated,
Right now, I think there isn’t much accountability in education. I think it’s both
public and private. We have a public schooling system where teachers are
fending for themselves more than being concerned for students, but then on the
other side, especially at the university level, there’s been this proliferation of
private universities where you can almost buy your diploma and there’s no
accountability. There’s no quality standard or ranking.
Costa Rica must improve its quality of teacher and school administrator prepara-
tion programs. Many political leaders have complained about the lack of accountability
in schools. A high-ranking official in the MEP complained about school leaders’
inability to make decisions and lead:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 116
I wrote my first circular letter to all the administrators called “Authority and
Responsibility,” basically saying you are the director and you should run the
schools. Be in charge. And it’s very difficult because supervisors, pedagogy,
everybody is trying to tell the director of a high school what to do, and then again
the director is telling the teachers and same thing, the classroom teacher should
be in charge of the classroom. The wording I’ve used is that the Ministry should
not be run through controls, but through leadership.
As Costa Rica looks for ways to improve the quality of teacher and school administrator
preparation programs, educational leaders are faced with difficult decisions about
changing school curricula based on new demands from MNCs and political leaders.
School leaders and aspiring school leaders recognize the need to improve school curric-
ula and integrate 21st-century skills during instructional time. A professor at UCR who
served as dean of the university stated that
every 20 years we used to make changes. Now we see that we have to make
faster changes in terms of curricula development, changes in terms of training,
ongoing training, in terms of self-evaluation. There is a need to improve in
terms of content, issues, and technology. Now we are under a scope that makes
us aware of the need to change, the need to be moving and improving, so I
believe that even though it is more work in the end, I think that we will be better
off—we will be pushing students.
School leaders at the secondary level are faced with making new decisions and
changes to meet the current 21st-century educational demands. Although the MEP
oversees all public high schools, principals, also known as directors, are expected to
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 117
lead and make their own decisions. A high school principal noted that “educational
leaders have kept themselves to high administrative level in order to change and keep up
with the current 21st-century educational demands.” Decisions about changing school
curricula and adding the integration of technology can be challenging but are certainly
necessary to help teachers and students to develop 21st-century skills.
In addition to changing school curricula based on new demands from MNCs,
school leaders and aspiring school leaders must demonstrate higher accountability and
improve teacher evaluation and assessment. A professor at UCR explained,
One important thing, if we want to integrate the skills and if we want to change
methodology, we definitely have to change the way we evaluate in Costa Rica.
We’re still behind. We measure, we test, we don’t assess, and very few people
are doing assessment. A better criterion for teacher evaluations and an account-
ability system must be implemented.
Changing School Curricula Based on New Demands From MNCs
All stakeholders felt that there is a need for greater accountability, teamwork,
and systems thinking in the education system in Costa Rica. Educational leaders are
faced with new challenges to change school curricula based on new demands from
MNCs. They are pressured to integrate 21st-century skills in their school curricula by
business executives from MNCs and political leaders. Now, more than ever before,
there are higher expectations for schools to have better teachers who can help students
develop 21st-century skills. A professor at UCR who served as dean of the university
stated,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 118
Curriculum is changing due to the pressure of MNCs and global entities. The
key is getting students involved. Educational leadership has changed due to the
influence of Intel model—hiring key people from universities, putting them in
programs while they are studying. Expectations are higher for teachers—expect
leaders to be independent, make decisions. There are problems with collabora-
tion—it is difficult for many people to work together in teams.
Educational leaders are faced with new challenges not only to improve school curricula
but also to become more accountable and begin to implement a new teacher evaluation
system.
Quality of Teacher and Administrator Preparation Programs
A former presidential candidate noted that “the nation’s legal and policy frame-
work might possibly have to change to make the education and training system more
efficient and effective.” The quality of teacher and school administrator preparation
programs are lagging behind in Costa Rica as the 21st century pushes further ahead and
expectations for better teachers, administrators, curricula, and technology become
higher.
Teacher training must be improved through better higher education programs,
professional development, and new workshops that address the importance of 21st-
century skills. New teachers must be taught how to help students develop critical 21st-
century skills in the classroom. Although Costa Rica possesses Latin America’s best
education system, all stakeholders agree that the quality of teacher and administrator
preparation programs must improve to meet the new demands of MNCs.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 119
Discussion: Research Question 3
Educational leadership has been affected by globalization and the presence of
MNCs in Costa Rica. There is a need for school curricula to be changed based on new
demands from MNCs. These MNCs have a high demand for workers with specific 21st-
century skills. These skills, including problem solving, critical thinking, effective oral
and written communication, and accessing and analyzing information through the use of
technology, must be learned in the classroom at an early age. In order for school curric-
ula to address these needs, teacher and school administrator preparation programs must
also be improved in Costa Rica. Teachers must be trained on how to implement new
curricula that help students to develop critical 21st-century skills in the classroom.
School leaders are being taught about how to best make changes to meet the needs of
MNCs in programs such as the master’s program of education administration at UCR.
Overview of the Education System and Institutions in Costa Rica
Public Education
Costa Rica consists of seven geographical provinces and 20 regions for educa-
tion. The MEP oversees all public K-12 education. Three vice ministers preside over a
set of 20 regional directors. Each educational region is divided into districts similar to
how the American education system consists of school districts led by superintendents.
Within each education region in Costa Rica, there are specific advisors for each subject
(English, social studies, math, science, and Spanish). The San José metropolitan area is
divided into eight distinct regions. Every public school in Costa Rica has a junta de
educación, or Board of Education, which determines the school’s budget and priorities
and consists of parents and representatives from the municipalidad.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 120
Higher Education
There are four public universities and approximately 51 private universities in
Costa Rica. The four public universities (i.e., UCR, Universidad Nacional de Costa
Rica, Universidad Estatal a Distancia, and Technológico de Costa Rica ) are considered
to be more prestigious as the government distributes funding amongst them and is regu-
lated by fundo especial educación superior. Every 5 years the four university presi-
dents, along with the MEP, the Minister of Economics, the Minister of Planning, and the
Minister of Hacienda, meet to discuss how the budget for each university will be distrib-
uted. These meetings are known as planes quinquenales. Despite these planned and
organized meetings, not all universities receive the same amount in funding, and univer-
sity budgets can vary drastically.
UCR
UCR’s Facultad de Educación consists of five specific schools: (a) School of
Education Administration, (b) School of Education; (c) School of Counseling and Spe-
cial Education; (d) School of Physical Education and Sports; and (e) School of Library
Science and Information Technology. The Dean of the School of Education, Dr. Ana
Lupita Chaves, oversees all five schools. Each school consists of a headmaster and six
academic coordinators responsible for each of the following fields: (a) K-12 education,
(b) nonformal education, (c) education law, (d) higher education administration, and (e)
licensure for public schools.
Located in the heart of the capital city of San José, UCR is conveniently located
to restaurants, shopping, hotels, and a variety of neighborhoods throughout the city and
is easily accessible by public transportation.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 121
Creation of the Master’s Degree Program in Education Administration
The master’s degree in education administration program was established in
1987 in order to better prepare aspiring school leaders to become effective school
administrators, particularly school principals (also known as directors). Today, nearly
100 students can be enrolled in the program, but the reality is that only approximately
35–40 students take actual courses. Due to restrictions placed on UCR’s budget by the
government, at times students have to wait anywhere from a semester to a year for
certain courses to open. The master’s program in education administration typically
lasts a total of 16 months, or 4 semesters of 4 months each. Students participate in an
internship developed during three courses of the program: Taller de práctica profes-
sional (Professional Practice Workshop) 1, Taller de práctica professional 2, and Taller
de práctica professional 3. Students receive an MA degree in Education Administration
from the program; most become high school or middle school principals and assistant
principals, or high school or middle school academic coordinators.
Perspectives of Students in the Master’s Program in Education Administration
After surveying 25 students in the master’s program in education administration
at UCR, many common themes were found that were consistent with the interviews. All
students worked at a public school in the San José metropolitan area as teachers, curric-
ulum coordinators, and assistant directors. They were all aspiring to be a school princi-
pal, also known as director. Most students agreed that teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, and communication.
They also agreed that collaboration among students took place daily at their respective
schools; however, it was not clear how much technology was used in their classrooms.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 122
Most students felt that technology was not used in their classroom or that conditions
should improve. “I have access to only one computer and it is not even located in my
classroom, which makes it nearly impossible to integrate technology into my daily
lessons,” explained a student who taught at a nearby public school.
Most students agreed that teachers were held accountable to implement 21st-
century skills in the classroom and that the focus of education had changed at their
school site to incorporate 21st-century learning. There was a general consensus and
feeling that school partnerships with MNCs such as Intel could be better. “Intel has
helped our school by providing computers, but they could be doing a lot more in terms
of helping us with STEM [science, technology, engineering, math] curricula,” stated a
student in the master’s program in education administration. Most students felt that
there was a strong need for more and better professional development with STEM
education.
Participant Observations
After observing two classes in the UCR master’s program in education admin-
istration at UCR and speaking with several students, it was clear that difficulties with
collaboration were evident. The students, who are aspiring school administrators, with
many at the time of the study teaching at nearby public schools, spoke about problems in
their own classrooms in their respective public schools. “Our students need to learn
how to work better and more effectively within groups. Collaboration can be a big
problem,” explained a history teacher in the master’s program. In addition, a lag in
technology and infrastructure were apparent during the participant observations.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 123
Students at UCR sat in small wooden desks; the classroom contained a small
chalkboard for the professor, and a small projector was being used for students’
PowerPoint® presentations. The professor explained that the university still needed
significant improvements in technology despite what Intel was already contributing:
“Smart Boards® and classroom computers are needed to keep students better engaged
during instructional time,” stated the professor of the strategic planning course at UCR.
Conclusion
Overall there were six findings based on the data from the study. Research
Question 1 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in
Costa Rica? The findings showed that there is a need to bridge the old economy with
the new economy in Costa Rica. In addition, education at all levels must be improved.
Despite having Latin America’s best education system, there is still a need for improve-
ment in secondary and higher education.
Research Question 2 asked, What results of globalization and the presence of
MNCs are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica? Two themes emerged from
the data. First, there is a need for schools in Costa Rica to form a partnership with Intel
and other MNCs. Second, schools must emphasize English language learning and
practice in the classroom. English is essential for students to compete successfully in
the knowledge-based global economy.
Research Question 3 asked, How has educational leadership been impacted
directly by policy decisions that have come as a result of the influence of globalization
and MNCs? The findings showed that school curricula must be changed to meet the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 124
new demands from MNCs. In addition, the quality of teacher and administration prepa-
ration programs should be improved.
Students enrolled in the UCR master’s degree program in education administra-
tion felt the need to have a bigger impact on education as a whole. Some were aspiring
to become school directors; others were striving to become department chairpersons in
the MEP. Regardless of the students’ ambitions, there remains a clear need for profes-
sional development in terms of better preparing teachers to help students gain 21st-
century skills in the classroom. In addition, school curricula have to be changed in such
a way that meets the demands of MNCs in Costa Rica. Students in the master’s pro-
gram in education administration at UCR were working to overcome these challenges
and obstacles.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 125
CHAPTER FIVE: SYNTHESIZING THE RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS
OF FINDINGS
This chapter has several purposes: first, to provide an analysis of the impact of
globalization and MNCs on schools and universities in Costa Rica; second, to display
implications for future practice and research; and third, to demonstrate how UCR is
preparing educational leaders to help students develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-
century skills. The role of the educational professional is transforming dramatically to
meet the needs of the growing, knowledge-based economy in a global world (Bottery,
2006). Educational leaders face a new challenge that requires them to understand global
demands, the need for a shift in education policy, and the methodology that can be used
to create sustainable transformations for the education system (Bellanca et al., 2010).
As the role of the educational professional is redefined to meet the demands of the
knowledge-based global economy, educational leaders must work to ultimately define
how students will be able to meet the demands of the 21st century (Bottery, 2006).
Educational leaders must ensure that their school is meeting the technological chal-
lenges prompted by globalization (Wagner, 2008).
MNCs, particularly in countries with emerging markets, are in need of a labor
force equipped with technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills. Many MNCs have
a vision of corporate social responsibility and are working to increase human capital in
their host country (Ball et al., 2011). As one of the leading education systems in Latin
America with one of the region’s most open economies, Costa Rica provides a unique
opportunity to analyze and understand how business executives of MNCs, political
leaders from the government, and school administrators are collaborating to improve
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 126
important qualities, results, and needs for public education. Although Costa Rica boasts
a 95% literacy rate and has one of Latin America’s best education systems, the country
has a low secondary graduation rate and pursuit of higher education (Ferreira, 2009). As
a result, the country needs more knowledge-ready workers who are prepared to take on
the new job opportunities in Costa Rica’s global and open economy. Costa Rica has
changed in the past few decades as a result of the fiscal crisis of the 1980s (Ferreira,
2009; Giuliani, 2008). Due to a developed education system and an increased cost of
living, a new economic strategic plan was implemented to attract high-tech FDI to
compete in an evolving global market (Giuliani, 2008). The resulting growth of tech-
nology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small Central
American country (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
As more MNCs invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ respon-
sibilities to help students develop technical and inquiry-based 21st-century skills have
become increasingly more challenging. Bottery (2006) argued for a global level of
professional understanding of education policy issues. The world needs a high-class
education system with a global perspective to serve as the framework for educational
institutions in all nations (Bottery, 2006; Wagner, 2008).
The effects of globalization on public education have become more apparent as
the general public and business industry have become more vocal about the necessary
skills and knowledge that students need to gain a competitive edge in the knowledge-
based global economy. These skills and knowledge are a form of capital that can grow
at an impressive rate and become the most distinctive component of a country’s eco-
nomic system (Schultz, 1961). During the past 2 decades, Costa Rica’s economy has
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 127
evolved from being almost entirely agricultural based to one that now includes a signifi-
cant technology export, constituting approximately 25% of the country’s total exports
(Ferreira, 2009).
Former President José Maria Figures and his government began to implement a
strategic plan of attracting FDI in the early 1990s (Giuliani, 2008). FDI can benefit the
host country’s human capital and education system immensely (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
In 1997, the Intel Corporation became the first HTMNC to establish a prominent pres-
ence and its regional headquarters in Costa Rica (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007). Since the arrival of Intel, hundreds of MNCs have invested in Costa
Rica. As more MNCs continue to follow Intel’s lead, a shift to increasingly higher
standards for students’ preparation and skill sets has occurred.
The purpose of this study was to understand how globalization and MNCs have
affected the secondary school system in Costa Rica, how the UCR is preparing second-
ary school administrators to address the need for 21st-century skills, and what these
implications mean for educational leaders. The study identified what role school admin-
istrators have played in the development and implementation of policy changes seen in
major national education initiatives. In addition, the study determined whether these
initiatives are producing greater numbers of knowledge-ready workers in an education
system that builds human capital capable of meeting Costa Rica’s needs.
The following questions were developed collaboratively by the research team,
consisting of 12 doctoral students at the USC Rossier School of Education under the
supervision and guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante, to better understand the impact that
globalization and MNCs have had on the education system in Costa Rica:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 128
1. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in Costa
Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs are seen in schools
and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been changed directly by policy decisions
that have come as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs?
The 15 participants of the study were grouped into one of three categories: (a)
business executives from MNCs, (b) political leaders and education policymakers, and
(c) school leaders. Two business executives from MNCs, three political leaders and
education policymakers, and 10 school leaders were interviewed. In addition, 25 gradu-
ate students in the master’s program of education administration at UCR were surveyed.
This qualitative case study analyzed how the UCR has prepared educational
leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the
demands of MNCs for increased human capital in Costa Rica. The study focused on the
impact of globalization and MNCs on the secondary school system in Costa Rica, the
implications for educational leaders, and how UCR is preparing secondary school
administrators to address the need for 21st-century skills.
Discussion of Findings
There were six findings in response to the research questions. First, workers
with a new skill set are needed in Costa Rica. Second, the education system, while
currently changing, still must be improved at all levels. There is a need to better inte-
grate technology with instruction and help students to develop critical 21st-century
skills. Third, English language learning has become instrumental in the classroom.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 129
Fourth, partnerships between schools and MNCs such as Intel have increased, but more
are needed to better equip all students with 21st-century skills. The fifth finding is that
while school curricula are slowly changing, more must be done to accommodate the
demands of MNCs and the knowledge-based global economy. Finally, the improvement
of teacher and administrator preparation programs in Costa Rica is necessary.
The first finding revealed that workers with a new skill set are needed in Costa
Rica. The need for Costa Rica’s education system to improve and help students develop
21st-century skills was evident. New skill sets are required for students to compete
successfully in the knowledge-based global economy. This finding is similar to that of
Giuliani (2008). Giuliani noted that workers must develop new inquiry-based skills that
would help them to be successful while working at an MNC. The new economy (i.e.,
private sector) is in demand of workers with 21st-century skills, but the old economy
(i.e., local) has caused students to drop out of high school to pursue jobs where 21st-
century skills are not required. The Director of Special programs at CRUSA noted that
the two economies, one local and the other the private sector, have difficulty coexisting.
The new economy cannot be successful when 50% of students are dropping out of high
school and thus not having the opportunity to learn 21st-century skills or pursue higher
education (CONARE, 2012). The Old Economy and New Economy will function better
through the creation of more jobs if secondary and higher education is improved in
Costa Rica. This skill set is aligned with Wagner’s framework of 21st-century skills
(Wagner, 2008). Wagner suggested that skills such as critical thinking, problem solv-
ing, accessing and analyzing information, and collaboration across networks are impera-
tive for students to be successful in the knowledge-based global economy.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 130
The second finding was that the education system must be improved at all levels.
This is important because, while Costa Rica may possess Latin America’s best educa-
tion system (CONARE, 2012), there is still a need to improve the use of technology in
the classroom as well as train teachers to help students develop 21st-century skills. The
MEP is beginning to place a greater emphasis on the learning of critical, inquiry-based
21st-century skills in the classroom. Linkages to other stakeholders, primarily educa-
tional leaders at the K–12 level, are being built to ensure that these improvements are
being made. Education policymakers agree that although Costa Rica boasts a 95% lit-
eracy rate, education still must be improved at all levels (CONARE, 2012). Actions by
the MEP operated from the political frame. They clarified a clear goal and focused on a
strategy and tactics in order to help students develop 21st-century skills. Bolman and
Deal (2011) emphasized when operating from the political frame, leaders focus on
clarifying what they want and what they can get.
School leaders complain that there is a lack of technology in the classroom that
inhibits the learning of 21st-century skills. While MNCs have contributed to the growth
of technology in the classroom, school leaders agree that there is still a need for comput-
ers, iPads, SMART boards, and other items to help students become more engaged
during instructional time and better equipped with 21st-century skills. Carlson and
Gadio (2002) noted the importance of teacher professional development in the use of
technology. Students in the UCR master’s program in education administration stated
that there should be more professional development on innovative ways to use technol-
ogy in the classroom and help students develop critical thinking and problem-solving
skills, among other 21st-century skills.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 131
The third finding was that learning English in the classroom is paramount to a
student’s success in the knowledge-based global economy. This is important because it
demonstrates the need for a student to be equipped with a different skill in addition to
21st-century skills. Giuliani (2008) noted the significance of learning English in order
for students to get better jobs, including working at an MNC. Interviewed participants
agreed that there is a need for schools to improve English language learning and practice
in the classroom. A former Costa Rican presidential candidate noted that learning
English is the ticket for students to lift themselves out of poverty and to find a rewarding
job in the knowledge-based global economy. MNCs have a demand for workers with a
particular skill set, which includes the ability to speak English. As a result, schools are
in need of better programs for English language learning and practice in the classroom.
School leaders and students in the master’s program in education administration at UCR
stated that there is a need for professional development from the top level to train
teachers on how to implement an effective English language-learning program in the
classroom.
The fourth finding was that there are an increasing number of partnerships
between MNCs, such as Intel, and nearby schools. MNCs have been increasing at a
rapid rate in Costa Rica due to a specific plan to attract FDI by offering these corpora-
tions tax-free incentives (Haglund, 2006). This is important because many schools
depend on the MNC to provide technology, teacher training, and other resources.
Despite the growing number of partnerships between schools and MNCs, there is still a
necessity to increase and enhance the number of partnerships between schools and
MNCs, such as Intel, while working to better the collaboration among the MEP, UCR,
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 132
and secondary schools. Monge-González and González-Alvarado (2007) noted the
importance of established relationships between MNCs and schools. Although MNCs
such as Intel have formed partnerships with schools in the San José metropolitan area of
Costa Rica, most schools in rural areas are in desperate need of help from MNCs to help
improve their infrastructure, bring technology to the classroom, and provide other
resources to help students become equipped with 21st-century skills. MNCs have
collaborated and coordinated with education leaders with the focus of empowering
schools, increasing participation and support, sharing information, and involving vari-
ous stakeholders in decision making. The actions of MNCs demonstrated characteristics
of the human resource frame of Bolman and Deal’s (2011) frame theory. They sug-
gested that investment in people and empowerment are important components for
success in organizations.
The fifth finding was while school curricula are changing based on new demands
from MNCs, much work is still required to meet MNCs’ expectations and those of the
knowledge-based global economy. The need was evident for pedagogical methods to be
improved with the use of technology. Additionally, school leaders and teachers must be
trained on ways to help students develop critical 21st-century skills. School leaders are
responsible for helping to implement new curricula to ensure that students are being
taught these skills, and school leaders are now shifting toward having a clear vision of
incorporating 21st-century skills in the classroom. These changes have been brought
about by new demands from MNCs and the growing requirement for a knowledge-based
global economy. This shift toward having a clear vision of incorporating 21st-century
skills in the classroom is similar to the writings of Bolman and Deal (2011), who
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 133
suggested that an effective leader must possess a clear vision and know exactly how to
get people moving forward. The political frame indicated that a leader must provide a
vision and strategy for achieving the vision and also provide direction while tending to
the needs of stakeholders.
School leaders and teachers are working together to help change and implement
new school curricula that address pedagogical methods of teaching 21st-century skills.
The education policy of the MEP (2007) stated the following as aims and objectives: (a)
to “train human resources that raise the country’s competitiveness necessary to succeed
in international markets” (para. 2 ) and (b) to “strengthen technical and scientific educa-
tion as a way to develop the holistic child” (para. 2). Shared decision making was
instrumental to the implementation of new school curricula. Bolman and Deal (2011)
emphasized the importance of shared decision making. The human resource frame
indicated that shared decision making follows a leadership style of support and empow-
erment in which information is shared and the responsibility of decision making falls on
the organization.
The sixth finding that emerged was the need for Costa Rica to improve its
teacher and administrator preparation programs. These programs lack training on how
to use technology to create more innovative ways for student learning. In addition, the
teacher and administrator preparation programs must put a greater emphasis on teaching
school leaders and teachers how to help students develop 21st-century skills. CONARE
(2012) noted that Costa Rica’s education system is slowly moving toward focusing on
the development of 21st-century skills in the classroom, but not fast enough. The major-
ity of participants surveyed in the UCR master’s program in education administration
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 134
complained that there was not enough professional development on the instruction of
21st-century skills at their school site and within the master’s program. The Minister of
Public Education stated that teacher training must improve in order for Costa Rica’s
education system to improve as a whole. All participants interviewed agreed that educa-
tion had to improve at all levels in Costa Rica to ensure that students are learning the
essential skills needed to compete successfully in the knowledge-based global economy.
However, Ciravegna, (2009) and CONARE (2012) boasted that Costa Rica had the best
education system in Latin America. While this may be true, there is still a strong need
for teacher and administrator preparation programs to improve.
Implications for Practice
This study looked at the way that constituents perceived the needs, qualities, and
outcomes of public education in Costa Rica as well as how globalization and MNCs
have affected education reform in the 21st century. The UCR master’s program in
education administration clearly prepares aspiring school principals to meet the de-
mands of Costa Rica’s new global economy by teaching them how to help teachers and
students develop critical, inquiry-based 21st-century skills through the use of technology
and facilitation. Educational leaders can learn much from this study by examining the
implications: (a) the need for self-evaluation, assessment, and accountability; and (b) the
need for better communication and collaboration among education institutions, schools,
principals, teachers, and students.
Self-Evaluation, Assessment, and Accountability
Educational leaders must continuously self-evaluate and assess their instruc-
tional program, teachers, and students’ development in order to successfully change
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 135
school curricula to meet the demands of MNCs. This task is seen as a new priority in
the education system in Costa Rica, as indicated by the MEP. There has been an effort
to improve school curricula based on the demands of MNCs and the knowledge-based
global economy. Part of this process requires educational leaders to take time out during
the day to reflect on their own practice and explore how effective self-evaluation leads
to improvement in learners’ experiences and achievements. As reflective practitioners,
educational leaders must hold themselves accountable for helping teachers and students
to develop inquiry-based 21st-century skills. The processes of self-evaluation, assess-
ment, and accountability allow educational leaders the opportunity to determine which
specific areas in the instructional program are in need of improvement and which areas
teachers and students need to work on to ensure that the development of 21st-century
skills is taking place in the classroom.
Better Communication and Collaboration
The data from the study indicated that better communication and collaboration
are needed between schools and MNCs when they establish a partnership. The findings
showed that while partnerships between schools and MNCs have been increasing, there
still remains a lack of communication and collaboration between the two. The UCR’s
master’s program in education administration demonstrates why it is imperative to have
collaborative relationships between schools and MNCs and other educational institu-
tions. Intel supports the university in its efforts to improve the use of technology in the
classroom. When schools receive (from an MNC or educational institution) additional
support necessary to achieve various goals, a partnership is established that benefits all
students. Educational leaders must ensure that effective communication and
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 136
collaboration are facilitated with these partnerships so that students can reach their
academic and social potential.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study revealed how the partnerships among business executives from
MNCs, political leaders, and school leaders can be beneficial for an education system
when working toward increasing human capital in a country. In Costa Rica, MNCs have
had a profound impact on schools as they support the country’s national education goals
to implement 21st-century skills and to increase the use of technology in the classroom.
The research showed that the increasing number of partnerships between schools and
MNCs has led to the improvement of learning outcomes and educational leadership
practices. However, new research must be conducted that focuses on education practice
and policy in Costa Rica.
Practice
This study demonstrated that there is a need for more extensive research to
assess to what degree pedagogy and the integration of technology in the classroom are
successful during instructional time. The question still remains whether principals are
truly acting as instructional leaders or merely building managers. Are principals and
teachers helping students to develop 21st-century skills, or are these skills being ne-
glected in various schools and classrooms? Teacher self-efficacy toward the effective
use of technology in the classroom should be measured so that educational leaders can
accurately evaluate the needs for professional development. A study that looks at a
cross-section of schools over the course of several years would be beneficial.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 137
As new programs and initiatives are implemented to improve English instruction
in Costa Rica, the process of English language teaching and learning will have to be
assessed. How effective are the English language learning programs? Do students have
other real options and opportunities besides working at MNCs once they have learned
English? These questions will have to be answered in the near future.
Policy
This study showed that there is a need to improve education at all levels. In
2012, the fiscal deficit of the government in Costa Rica was 4.4%, up from 4.1% in
2011—both marks among the highest in Latin America (CONARE, 2013). Efforts to
improve a fiscal reform were once again thwarted and the government enacted cuts in
public expenditures (CONARE, 2013). As governments throughout the world, such as
Costa Rica and the United States, look for solutions to the growing fiscal crisis, they
must not forget the importance of education and human capital development. Efficient
fiscal reform should includes education as a priority and the greatest amount of re-
sources as possible must be allocated in order for students and teachers to develop
critical 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). Money can be well distributed both at the
university level and secondary level so that students and teachers can use interactive and
engaging technology to better understand how these effective 21st-century skills are
essential to human capital development. A study that compares Costa Rica’s new fiscal
reform and its expenditures on education to years past would help to identify specific
areas in education in need of improvement.
Costa Rica needs to bridge its old economy with the new economy. Future
research must be directed at how Costa Rica can boost its local economy to better
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 138
integrate it with the new economy and its global market. The question remains of how
the economy can be built on innovation with a high school dropout rate at 50%? Only
20% of workers in Costa Rica are knowledge-based individuals in FTZs with MNCs,
meaning that 80% of workers are not knowledge based but mostly agrarian, working in
the local or old economy. Policies based on more research on the high school dropout
rate will have to be implemented to improve this situation. Research should examine
how education policy and new programs can better negotiate incentives that would
encourage more students to finish high school and pursue and complete higher educa-
tion in Costa Rica.
Conclusion
This findings of this study clearly demonstrated the critical need for education
reform in favor of helping students develop new skills to gain a competitive edge in the
knowledge-based global economy. Globalization has redefined the role of the educa-
tional professional to include additional new responsibilities. Bottery (2006) noted that
educators are likely to experience an increasing sense of paradox and tension in their
work due to the effects of globalization. Today, the time has come for education reform
in favor of increasing human capital (Schultz, 1961).
As the world pushes further ahead into the 21st century, the global economy and
society are becoming increasingly more interconnected. Schools can no longer look for
answers to problems solely at other educational institutions within their nation (Wagner,
2008) if human capital is going to be increased. The achievement gap (Bellanca et al.,
2010) that has existed between children from middle- to upper-income families and
minority children from low-income families has transformed into a “global achievement
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 139
gap” that exists among all children of all nations in today’s knowledge-based economy
(Wagner, 2008, p. 9). School leaders are faced with the new challenge to equip students
with the skills to succeed in the 21st century (Bellanca et al., 2010; Dale, 2005). These
skills include critical thinking and problem solving, as well as better collaboration and
communication (Wagner, 2008). New 21st-century interdisciplinary themes (i.e., global
awareness; financial, economic, business, and entrepreneurial literacy; environmental
literacy; health literacy; and civic literacy) must be integrated into the curricula of core
subjects (Bellanca et al., 2010; Kikoski & Kikoski, 2004).
At the UCR, educational leaders and professors agreed that learning and innova-
tion skills; information, media, and technology skills; and life and career skills are all
recognized as abilities that adequately prepare students to be successful in the
knowledge-based global economy. MNCs such as Intel have made a commitment to
provide various education initiatives and training to better develop human capital in
Costa Rica. In addition, they form partnerships with universities to encourage students
and workers to pursue specialized degrees in college and beyond.
MNCs also help the developing country and its education system to improve
communication and pedagogy with the use of new technology. This type of FDI has
helped school systems, most notably Costa Rica’s, to increase the level of human capital
in its citizens. Although most MNCs have a genuine interest in investing in the host
country’s education system to contribute to students’ skill development, most will also
offer incentives that will ultimately have a positive effect on the host country’s economy
and education system as a whole. For example, Intel provides free educational training
and awards grants to teachers interested in learning how to use technology in the
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 140
classroom (Larraín et al., 2000; Nelson, 2008). The impact of these HTMNCs on Costa
Rica’s school system is overwhelmingly positive due to their commitment to continu-
ously improve educational opportunities in the country.
Costa Rica has a unique opportunity to implement an innovative education plan
in 2014 with the election of the new president (CONARE, 2013). FDI success is now
calling for a higher level and more future-based economic vision, along with a human
capital development policy to move the vision into a blueprint for action. A new gov-
ernment with a more efficient public education system that supports the development of
21st-century skills will help increase human capital throughout the country. A newer
labor force with these 21st-century skills will help Costa Rica to progress further ahead
in the world’s knowledge-based economy.
The UCR masters program in education administration is helping the educa-
tional professional to meet the needs of the growing knowledge-based economy in a
global world. The degree prepares educational leaders in public schools with a global
perspective capable of equipping teachers and students with 21st-century skills that
allow students to compete in the diverse, knowledge-based global economy at high
levels. The UCR’s partnerships with MNCs, such as Intel, provide the academic institu-
tion with the technology needed to assist professors with students in the M.A. in Educa-
tion Administration program. This technology is used to better engage students, who
are aspiring school principals, in the process of learning about globalization and the
importance of inquiry-based, 21st-century skills.
As the role of the educational professional is further redefined to prepare stu-
dents for the demands of the knowledge-based global economy, it is imperative that
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 141
educators understand and implement their new responsibilities. The importance of
developing critical 21st-century skills in students is an invaluable part of this task (Bel-
lanca et al., 2010; Drucker, 2007; Wagner, 2008). Through a better understanding of
these responsibilities, educational leaders in Costa Rica are working closely with MNCs
to change policy and curricula to help develop 21st-century skills in students.
A national education policy integrated with inquiry-based, 21st-century skills
and aligned with an effective strategy for human capital development will allow Costa
Rica’s new economy to flourish. Aspiring school principals will need leadership,
vision, and accountability to ensure that their teachers and students have a better under-
standing of globalization and become better equipped on how to effectively use the
various critical 21st-century skills. The classroom is no longer a teacher-focused envi-
ronment in which students solely learn from the teacher. Today’s classrooms and the
classrooms of tomorrow will consist of a student-focused environment in which respon-
sibilities are shared and collaboration is encouraged; while innovation, creativity,
imagination, and the use of technology are nurtured and fostered. As Wagner (2008)
noted, “there are wonderful and effective teachers in every school across the country,
and there are great schools that work to help kids with critical thinking and other
21st-century skills every day” (p. 154). The UCR is helping today’s educational leaders
meet the needs of the growing, knowledge-based economy in a global world.
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 142
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IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 154
Appendix A
First Letter to the Minister of Public Education
Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,
A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California (USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our disserta-
tion process. The purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and
multinational corporations have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica. Our
study is asking the following questions:
1. Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and
multinational corporations?
2. What role do school leaders play in this process?
As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately 2 weeks to
conduct our research. This visit will occur at the end of June/early July. We would
appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Educa-
tion, and educational leaders at district and school site levels. It is our goal to survey
and interview key individuals to gather the data required for our study.
After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you di-
rectly. We know that your time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspon-
dence possible to go over the purpose of our study.
Thank you for taking the time to read this request, and feel free to contact us with any
questions. We are grateful for your help!
Sincerely,
Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 155
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 156
Appendix B
Government and Policy Leaders Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 157
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that
promote access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry-level worker?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
V. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 158
Appendix C
Corporate Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position, and how is it connected with the education system in
Costa Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 159
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for entry-level work for the 21st cen-
tury?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
V. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 160
Appendix D
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: ___________________________ Date: _______________________
Interviewee: ___________________________ Location: ____________________
Job Title: ________________________ Contact Information: ____________________
Start Time: ______________________ End Time: ___________________
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regard to the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This
study’s ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be
prepared with 21st-century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not iden-
tify you, or your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to
have an accurate record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions
before we begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about
your background.
1. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result
of a global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNCs have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the socioeconomic factors in
Costa Rica?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 161
4. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the cultural factors in Costa
Rica?
5. How have globalization and MNCs impacted the political factors in Costa
Rica?
6. How have globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21st-Century Learning
1. How have teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities
changed to promote 21st-century skills? (such as critical thinking, collabora-
tion, and communication)
2. How has teacher training at school and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
3. How have globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational
policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel’s in-
volvement?
5. How are schools preparing students for the 21st-century workforce?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to the political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current 21st-century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of 21st-century skills in
the classroom? How?
V. Document Collection
Does [insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have
asked you or that may provide additional information for this study?
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 162
Appendix E
Classroom Observation Tool
Date: ____________________
Location of Observation: _________________________ Observer: _______________
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis
on bilingual education, specifically to-
ward English.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration among students takes
place in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 163
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level think-
ing.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 164
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of 21st-century
skills.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the class-
room.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 165
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students desks are set up in a collab-
orative manner.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student-centered instruction is evi-
dent in the classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 166
Appendix F
Survey Protocol for Students (School Principals and Prospective Principals)
in Master’s Degree Program in Education Administration at UCR
Date: ____________________ Location of Survey: ______________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the
number that best represents what you think.
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote 21st-century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication.
4 3 2 1 0
2. Collaboration among students
takes place daily.
4 3 2 1 0
3. You have been trained to integrate
technology into your instruction.
4 3 2 1 0
4. Technology is used by students in
your classroom at least weekly.
4 3 2 1 0
5. Lessons promote higher level
thinking.
4 3 2 1 0
6. Curriculum reflects 21st-century
skills such as critical thinking, collab-
oration, and communication.
4 3 2 1 0
7. There is access to technology in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
8. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.
4 3 2 1 0
9. Intel has improved resources at
your school site.
4 3 2 1 0
10. Students are provided the oppor-
tunity to be college and/or career
ready with 21st-century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
11. Teachers are encouraged to im-
plement 21st-century skills in the
classroom.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 167
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
12. The focus of education has
changed at your school site to incor-
porate 21st-century learning.
4 3 2 1 0
13. Educational decisions are influ-
enced by multinational corporations.
4 3 2 1 0
14. School site leaders are active par-
ticipants in implementation of 21st-
century skills.
4 3 2 1 0
15. School site leaders communicate
the goals and the vision of the school
to teachers and students.
4 3 2 1 0
16. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to site
leaders.
4 3 2 1 0
17. Intel communicates its goals and
vision for student learning to teach-
ers.
4 3 2 1 0
IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION 168
Appendix G
Recruitment/Consent Letter
Date ________________
Dear__________________________,
Thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to review the information enclosed
in this packet. You have been invited to participate in a graduate research study that
may shed light on the impact of globalization and multinational corporations on schools
in Costa Rica. This study may serve as a source for best practices centered on educa-
tional leadership and 21st-century skills.
My name is Samuel McVey, and I am part of a thematic research team under the direc-
tion and guidance of Dr. Michael F. Escalante from the Rossier School of Education at
the University of Southern California. Should you agree to participate in this study,
please sign the consent below.
Your participation, although appreciated, is voluntary and you have the right to with-
draw at any time. Information obtained in this study will be kept confidential and anon-
ymous by the researcher and members of the dissertation committee. Data will be pre-
sented in a manner that will ensure that no individual and/or organization can be identi-
fied.
If you have any questions or concerns regarding your participation in this study, you may
contact _________ or Dr. Michael F. Escalante at the University of Southern California.
Thank you, in advance, for your time and assistance.
Sincerely,
Samuel McVey and Dr. Michael F. Escalante
Researcher and Dissertation Chair
[student’s email address] and mescalan@usc.edu
I have read this recruitment letter and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I
consent to my participation in the research described above. I am willing to participate
in a brief interview, survey, and/or observation as my schedule permits.
_________________________________ ______ ____________________________
Participant’s Signature Date Participant’s Printed Name

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The role of the educational professional is transforming dramatically to meet the needs of the growing knowledge-based economy in a global world. Educational leaders must work to ultimately define how students will be able to meet the demands of the 21st century. ❧ Costa Rica has developed rapidly over the past 30 years. The resulting growth of technology as a major export has given new direction and opportunity to this small Central American country. As more multinational corporations (MNCs) invest in Costa Rica, the school and university systems’ responsibility to help students develop technical and inquiry‐based 21st‐century skills has become increasingly more challenging. ❧ Despite having five national universities, 51 private universities, and a 95% literacy rate among the population, there remains a low secondary graduation rate and pursuit of higher education in the country. As a result, there is a lack of knowledge‐ready workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica. The purpose of this study is to understand how globalization and MNCs have impacted the secondary school system in Costa Rica, how the UCR is preparing secondary school administrators to address the need for 21st‐century skills, and what these implications mean for educational leaders.

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Asset Metadata

Creator McVey, Samuel M. (author)

Core Title How the University of Costa Rica is preparing educational leaders in secondary schools to help students develop 21st-century skills to meet the demands of multinational corporations for increased...

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/19/2015

Defense Date 04/09/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st‐century skills,Costa Rica,Globalization,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member)

Creator Email smcvey@usc.edu,smcvey54@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-574294

Unique identifier UC11301326

Identifier etd-McVeySamue-3492.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-574294 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-McVeySamue-3492.pdf

Dmrecord 574294

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights McVey, Samuel M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA