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Differential associations between same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes and adjustment outcomes among Vietnamese and Mexican American adolescents

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Differential associations between same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes and adjustment outcomes among Vietnamese and Mexican American adolescents

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Content Running head: NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 1

Differential associations between same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes and
adjustment outcomes among Vietnamese and Mexican American adolescents
Luiza Vianna Mali, B.A.
University of Southern California

Faculty Advisor: David Schwartz, Ph.D.
(PSYCHOLOGY)
Master’s Thesis
August 2015

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 2

Table of Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................................4
Introduction......................................................................................................................................5
Socio-emotional Development in Later Adolescence..........................................................6
Influences of Negative Peer Attitudes.................................................................................7
Ethnic Context, Self-perception, and Adjustment...............................................................8
Moderating Roles of Gender and Ethnicity…...................................................................10
Current Study.....................................................................................................................14
Methods..........................................................................................................................................15
Participants.........................................................................................................................15
Procedure...........................................................................................................................16
Measures............................................................................................................................16
Same- and cross-ethnicity variables.......................................................................16
Peer dislike.............................................................................................................17
Unpopularity..........................................................................................................17
Aggression.............................................................................................................17
Depressive symptoms............................................................................................18
Academic achievement..........................................................................................18
Results............................................................................................................................................18
Descriptive Analyses and Bivariate Relations...................................................................18
Differential Associations Between Negative Attitudes and Adjustment...........................20
Depressive Symptoms........................................................................................................20
Peer dislike as predictor.........................................................................................20
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 3

Unpopularity as predictor......................................................................................21
Academic Achievement.....................................................................................................21
Peer dislike as predictor.........................................................................................21
Unpopularity as predictor......................................................................................22
Aggression.........................................................................................................................22
Peer dislike as predictor.........................................................................................22
Unpopularity as predictor......................................................................................22
Discussion......................................................................................................................................22
Significance of Same-Ethnicity Negative Attitudes for Adjustment.................................23
Unpopularity as a mechanism of risk.................................................................................24
Limitations and Future Directions.....................................................................................26
Conclusions........................................................................................................................27
References......................................................................................................................................29
Tables.............................................................................................................................................37

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 4

Abstract
This short-term longitudinal study examined the impact of same- and cross-ethnicity negative
peer attitudes on psychosocial and academic adjustment in an ethnically diverse adolescent peer
group. We followed 444 adolescents (205 boys, 239 girls; average age of 15.04 years, SD = .74;
55% Vietnamese Americans, 45% Mexican Americans) for one academic year. Participants
completed a demographic survey, a self-report measure of depressive symptoms and a peer-
nomination inventory to assess unpopularity, dislike and aggression. Same-ethnicity
unpopularity predicted small decreases in academic functioning and aggression, as well as
marginal increases in depressive symptoms over time. Additionally, same-ethnicity dislike was
predictive of increases in aggression. We also found a moderated effect for same-ethnicity
dislike in the prediction of depressive symptoms for Mexican American boys. Cross-ethnicity
attitudes were not predictive of adjustment difficulties in most analyses. Taken together, our
results highlight the detrimental consequences of being the target of same-ethnicity negative peer
attitudes in later adolescence, and suggest that a more nuanced perspective on risk mechanisms is
warranted.
Keywords: Adolescence, peer relations, adjustment, ethnicity.

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 5

Differential associations between same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes and
adjustment outcomes among Vietnamese and Mexican American adolescents
Introduction
In the present study, we explored the associations between being the target of negative
peer attitudes, and emotional and academic adjustment in a low-income, ethnically diverse peer
group. Past research on the impact of peer relationship difficulties during adolescence typically
has emphasized interactions between the background of the individual and the ethnic
composition of the peer group (e.g., Graham, 2005). We moved beyond the previous emphasis
on contextual factors, and toward consideration of the match/mismatch between the attributes
(i.e., ethnic background) of the targets of such attitudes and of those who nominate them.
Prominent theoretical models have influenced research on the impact of perceived
attitudes on adjustment. From an individual perspective, attribution theory, which is concerned
with the perceived causes of events, has proposed that causal ascriptions that are internal, stable,
and uncontrollable are likely to result in negative outcomes for the individual (Weiner, 1985).
From a contextual perspective, social identity theory has suggested that group membership, an
important source of pride and self-esteem, has critical implications for how an individual comes
to perceive him or herself (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Using an attributional framework, Graham, Bellmore, Nishina, and Juvonen (2009)
investigated how perceived victims from various ethnic groups construe the reasons for their
plight when they are in classrooms with either few or many same-ethnicity peers. The authors
found that being a victim of peer mistreatment when one’s ethnic group held the numerical
balance of power resulted in increased susceptibility to causal interpretations that implicate the
self (e.g., “it must be me”). Conversely, being victimized when one’s ethnic group was in the
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 6

numerical minority allowed for external attributions of cause for one’s shortcomings (e.g., “it
could be them”). Though the authors speculated that this pattern of results might suggest that
victims of peer harassment engage in more self-blaming when perpetrators belong to their own
ethnic group, this hypothesis wasn’t investigated directly.
Our study went beyond the previous focus on contextual-level characteristics and
proposed an unprecedented dyadic investigation (i.e., between the nominator and the target of
such attitudes) of the psychological and academic correlates of negative peer attitudes. Guided
by attribution principles and drawing from concepts of social identity theory, we expected that
same-ethnicity negative peer attitudes would have stronger implications for emotional and
academic functioning than similar attitudes by peers of a different ethnicity.
Given the diverse composition of today’s urban environments, it is becoming
increasingly important to consider under-investigated ethnic groups. For this reason, we
examined these issues in the context of a short-term longitudinal study conducted with
Vietnamese American and Mexican American adolescents. We considered the impact of distinct
forms of negative peer attitudes (i.e., peer disliking and unpopularity) on a range of adjustment
indicators (i.e., depressive symptoms, academic competence, and aggression). As a complement
to our primary study goals, we also conducted a series of descriptive analyses focusing on the
potential moderating roles of ethnicity and gender.
Socio-emotional Development in Later Adolescence
Understanding how same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes differentially
impact psychological and academic functioning is of paramount importance in later adolescence
given the salience of social identity and social group membership during this period (Hartup,
1993; Seidman, Aber, Allen, & French, 1996). As adolescents’ interactions become less
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 7

supervised by their adult caregivers, time spent with peers substantially increases, and affiliation
with cliques and crowds gradually intensifies (Brown, 1990). Adolescents begin to identify other
youths within their peer group who share similar reputations or who have a common feature such
as ethnicity or neighborhood, even if they don’t consider each other friends or spend significant
time interacting with one another (Brown, 2004). Such experiences play an essential role in
identity development and influence many domains of adjustment, and in some cases, have long-
term, clinically significant consequences (Parker, Rubin, Price & DeRosier, 1995). It is also
during adolescence that the risk for depression and academic failure substantially increases,
making the consideration of this developmental stage of practical and theoretical importance
(Barone, Aguirre-Deandreis, & Trickett, 1991; Cyranowski et al., 2000; Isakson & Jarvis 1998;
Newman, Newman, Griffen, O’Connor, & Spas, 2007).
Influences of Negative Peer Attitudes
Past research has consistently demonstrated the detrimental consequences of being the
target of negative peer attitudes. Being disliked by peers has been associated with poor school
performance and a wide range of internalizing and externalizing problems (Bagwell, Newcomb
& Bukowski, 1998; Buhs, 2005; Deater-Deckard, 2001; Pedersen, Vitaro, Barker, & Borge,
2007). Unpopularity has also been found to predict a host of negative outcomes, including
depressive symptoms, high levels of loneliness, and mistreatment by peers (de Bruyn, Cillessen,
& Wissink, 2009; Gorman, Schwartz, Nakamoto, & Mayeux, 2011; Oldehinkel, Rosmalen,
Veenstra, Dijkstra & Ormel, 2007).
Although the aforementioned social dimensions (i.e., peer disliking and unpopularity) are
often believed to be closely linked, research suggests that they represent distinct and complex
forms of negative peer experiences. Peer dislike has been conceptualized as a preference-based
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 8

construct that indexes personal affective reactions to aversive attributes or behaviors possessed
by youths. As such, it has been associated with negative psychosocial and academic correlates,
such as overt and relational aggression, low prosociality, and low academic performance
(Gorman et al., 2011). Unpopularity, on the other hand, represents a shared recognition among
peers of one’s social status and may index passive and submissive behavior. Indeed, it has been
associated with withdrawal, high levels of internalized distress, and overt and relational
victimization (Gorman et al., 2011). Although not necessarily disliked, unpopular adolescents are
perceived to be unattractive, deviant, incompetent, and socially isolated (LaFontana & Cillessen,
2002). Because they are considered a social liability, they often lack friendships that can serve as
buffers against mistreatment (Schmidt & Bagwell, 2007). Building on past research, we
investigated the impact of distinct domains of social functioning (i.e., peer disliking and
unpopularity) on adjustment, as each of these dimensions was individually found to predict
psychosocial and academic difficulties.
Ethnic Context, Self-perception, and Adjustment
Despite the well-established link between negative peer attitudes and adjustment, insofar
as we are aware, no study to date has directly investigated whether dysfunction is more likely to
occur when adolescents are perceived negatively by peers with similar features (i.e., ethnic
background). Nonetheless, prominent theoretical models have been used to examine how
contextual and individual factors influence the extent to which negative peer perceptions impact
adolescents’ social and emotional functioning.
Recent research grounded in attribution theory has obtained interesting results suggesting
that negative peer experiences interact with group-level variables (i.e., classroom ethnic
composition) to predict emotional difficulties in multiethnic settings. Graham and colleagues
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 9

(2009) demonstrated that being perceived to be a victim of peer mistreatment when one’s ethnic
group is numerically more powerful is associated with greater levels of psychological
maladjustment, compared to being in the same position when one’s ethnic group is in the
numerical minority. This association was found to be at least partially explained by attributions
of blame to one’s self, with stronger effects for mediation in the analysis of majority group
members, and weaker effects in the analysis of ethnically diverse classrooms, where no group
clearly held the numerical balance of power.
The authors contend that the inability to discount personal shortcomings as a cause of
social failure in favor of external explanations (e.g., not holding the numerical balance of power,
or the prejudice of others) might prompt individuals to interpret these experiences personally (“it
must be me”), resulting in greater emotional distress. Conversely, experiencing mistreatment by
peers who don’t share the same attributes could allow individuals to make external attributions of
cause, and to interpret their experiences as dependent on social context (“it must be them”),
resulting in comparatively less adjustment difficulties.
Research on the association between group attitudes and social adjustment has also been
influenced by Social Identity Theory (SIT; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). This theory posits that the
development of social identity is strongly influenced by an individual’s social environment,
particularly the salient characteristics of the groups with which an individual identifies. Through
the process of social categorization, individuals divide the world into “us” (i.e., in-group) and
“them” (i.e., out-group). Following a natural tendency towards in-group bias, individuals begin
to view members of one’s own group more favorably than members of other groups. Because
group membership is a source of pride, strong identification with one’s group eventually satisfies
a need for positive self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 10

Consistent with this theory, peer relationship research has demonstrated that acceptance
by one’s social group is associated with positive adjustment. Adolescents who endorse positive
attitudes toward their same-ethnicity peers tend to receive more acceptance nominations from
peers of their own ethnic group (e.g., Bellmore, Nishina, Witkow, Graham, & Juvonen, 2007).
Moreover, having a large number of same-ethnicity relationships has been found to predict
longitudinal increases in “coolness”, a marker of social prestige in the peer group (Wilson &
Rodkin, 2013).
Guided by attributional principles and drawing from concepts of SIT, we anticipated that
negative attitudes by same-ethnicity peers would be associated with higher levels of emotional
maladjustment and poorer academic functioning than similar attitudes by cross-ethnicity peers.
From an attributional perspective, we argued that same-ethnicity negative peer experiences are
more likely to prompt causal ascriptions of blame to the self than similar experiences with peers
of a different ethnicity. From a social identity perspective, we proposed that having one’s group
membership questioned by negative peer nominations might be associated with low self-worth,
and consequently high levels of emotional maladjustment. In this regard, the source (i.e., in-
group vs. out-group) of negative attitudes and beliefs could have critical implications for how the
individual comes to perceive him or herself, and could in turn, influence adjustment outcomes.
Moderating Roles of Gender and Ethnicity
Supplementary to our main hypotheses, we aimed to explore the roles of gender and
ethnic background as two potentially important moderator variables of the hypothesized
associations. Gender is of particular interest given that adolescent girls commonly experience
depressive symptoms at a higher rate, and are diagnosed with clinical depression considerably
more often than adolescent boys (Cyranowski et al., 2000; Hankin & Abramson, 2001; Nolen-
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 11

Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999). Gender differences have also been observed in the
expression of aggression. Although both boys and girls have been found to display aggressive
behaviors, boys tend to engage in physical aggression, while girls tend to be relationally
aggressive (e.g., spreading false rumors and using social exclusion to hurt others emotionally;
Crick, Werner, Casas, O’Brien, Nelson, Grotpeter, & Markon, 1999).
Researchers have also noted that girls tend to place more emphasis on the value of social
goals, while boys tend to be more concerned with social presentation and performance goals,
acting out of self-interest more often than girls (Chung & Asher, 1996; Ford, 1982; Jarvinen &
Nicholls, 1996; Rose & Asher, 1999, 2004). Consistent with these findings, it has been suggested
that adolescent girls tend to care more than boys about being liked and having close friends
(Oldehinkel et al., 2007), whereas boys tend to care more about being popular than girls
(Benenson & Benarroch, 1998). Heightened concerns about the status of their relationships and
fear of abandonment are thought to contribute to greater levels of emotional problems (i.e.,
depression and anxiety) among girls as compared to boys (Rose & Rudolph, 2006; Rudolph &
Conley, 2005). In contrast, the emotional adjustment of boys is associated with their levels of
peer perceived popularity (Sandstrom & Cillessen, 2006). Given the different emphasis placed
on social goals by girls and boys, we expected that girls would experience more adjustment
difficulties due to peer disliking and that boys would experience greater levels of maladjustment
due to perceptions of unpopularity.
Finally, we sought to examine the role of ethnic group membership in defining salient
developmental tasks. From a practical perspective, studying minority ethnic groups is important
given the changing ethnic composition of the U.S. population. According to the 2010 Census,
almost 30% of the foreign-born population in the U.S. came from Asian countries, and over 50%
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 12

came from a Latin American country (with almost 30% coming from Mexico alone). In
California, about 15% of the population identified themselves as Asian or Asian American, and
almost 40% identified themselves as Hispanic or Hispanic Americans (with 30% endorsing being
Mexican/Mexican American). Census trends show that, in the future, the growth of minority
families will be due primarily to immigration from Latin America and Asia. By focusing on
these youths, we hoped to study this phenomenon in a setting that is representative of the urban
school population of California, and of the West Coast of the United States more generally. From
a conceptual perspective, these two groups are of interest because, despite their many shared
features, they also have distinct, defining characteristics. Broadly, whereas they both share an
underlying collectivist orientation, are of ethnic minority descent, and often have comparatively
less social, educational, and financial opportunities than the ethnic majority group (i.e.,
Americans of European descent), they tend to differ, however, in their value of academic success
and in their emphasis on emotional expressivity.
We argue that dysfunction is likely to manifest in central domains of adjustment and that
the importance of a domain is likely to be modified by the cultural values of a given group. For
this reason, we expected that maladjustment will vary as a function of the general values and
normative tendencies of one’s ethnic group, though these are broad generalizations that might
not be true for all individuals of that group. An extensive body of literature suggests that, as a
group, Vietnamese American students tend to academically outperform many of their peers of
other ethnicities. This phenomenon is often attributed to a cultural emphasis on traditional
values, which include respect for learning and valuing of hard work (e.g., Caplan, Choy, &
Whitmore, 1992; Caplan, Whitmore, & Choy, 1989; Zhou & Bankston, 1998). Despite their
tendency to emphasize the value of school as a pathway to success (Valencia & Black, 2002), it
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 13

is common for some Mexican American families (particularly low-income families) to
encourage their children to start a family and seek employment early (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-
Orozco, 1995). This encouragement away from educational attainment is thought by some to
contribute to the substantial gap in academic achievement that is currently observed among these
groups (Kao & Thompson, 2003).
In a direct comparison between the two aforementioned ethnic groups, researchers have
found that Vietnamese American adolescents tend to evaluate peers’ achievement more
positively than their Mexican American peers (Duong, Schwartz, & McCarty, 2014). The authors
also found that Vietnamese American students were more likely than Mexican American
students to admire and be friends with high-achieving peers – findings that held for both within-
ethnic and cross-ethnic nominations, even when students’ own GPA and SES were controlled.
Ethnographic and empirical studies have also highlighted differences in the way ethnic
groups express emotions and the role ethnicity plays in the prevalence of psychological
maladjustment (e.g., McLaughlin, Hilt, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2007). For instance, studies have
demonstrated that, when compared to other ethnic groups, Mexican Americans experience a
higher intensity of emotions and tend to express their emotions more openly (Soto, Levenson, &
Ebling). Additionally, Mexican American youths tend to report higher levels of externalizing
behaviors (Gorman-Smith, Tolan, Henry, & Florsheim, 2000) and internalized distress (Polo &
Lopez, 2009) than peers of other ethnic backgrounds. In contrast, Vietnamese Americans tend to
lean towards emotional restraint (Uba, 1994) and the avoidance of hostility (Nguyen, 1985).
Vietnamese individuals are also less likely than other ethnic groups to endorse psychological
suffering (Nguyen, 1985). Based on what is known about the broad normative tendencies and
cultural values of these two ethnic groups, we proposed that youths would be more likely to
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 14

experience dysfunction in domains that are salient for their respective group. We expected that,
in this setting, negative peer attitudes by same-ethnicity peers would be more closely associated
with poor academic performance for Vietnamese Americans as compared to Mexican
Americans. Likewise, we predicted that negative peer attitudes by same-ethnicity peers would be
more closely associated with increased aggression and depressive symptoms for Mexican
Americans as compared to Vietnamese Americans.
Current Study
This is the first known study to examine the distinct pattern of same-and cross-ethnicity
negative peer attitudes within a multiethnic sample and their effects on emotional and academic
adjustment. Given the body of existing research, we proposed that the perception of particular
peers (i.e., those who share the same ethnic background) might be of greater importance to one’s
self-concept than the perception of others, and that this impact on self-perception might have an
influence on adolescents’ psychological and academic functioning. We additionally made several
secondary hypotheses regarding the role of gender and ethnicity in our analyses. It was expected
that girls would experience more adjustment difficulties due to peer disliking and that boys
would experience greater levels of maladjustment due to being perceived as having a negative
social reputation with peers (i.e., being perceived as unpopular). Based on the idea that
dysfunction is likely to manifest in salient domains of adjustment, we also expected that the
negative peer attitudes and perceptions would be more closely associated with poor academic
performance for Vietnamese Americans as compared to Mexican Americans, and with increased
aggression and depressive symptoms for Mexican Americans as compared to Vietnamese
Americans.

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 15

Methods
Participants
Our research objectives were addressed within the context of the University of Southern
California (USC) Academic Success Project (ASP), a four-year longitudinal study that includes
an ethnically diverse sample of middle and high school students (grades six through eleven) that
closely mirrors the demographic distribution of the student population of Southern California.
The sample is from a district ranked within the lower to middle range of socioeconomic status
(SES; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). According to school records, 72% of participants met the
criteria to receive free or reduced-price lunch during the 2008-2009 and 2009-2010 school years.
In the spring of 2009 (Y1), 6
th
and 7
th
graders attending this middle school were invited
to participate in the study. Permission slips were sent home to the parents of all eligible students,
and students who agreed to participate in the study were also asked to sign an assent form.
Among all eligible students invited to participate (N=562), 80.6% (N=453; 214 girls, 248 boys)
participated in the study.
In the subsequent years, data was collected every spring (from 7
th
and 8
th
graders in 2010,
9
th
and 10
th
graders in 2011, 10
th
and 11
th
graders in 2012). The current project focused on data
from Y3 (2011) and Y4 (2012), which is when adolescents in this sample were entering high
school. We focused on later adolescence because this developmental period is characterized by
an emphasis on social interactions in the peer group (Hartup, 1993; Seidman, Aber, Allen, &
French 1996). It is also a period marked by elevated risk for depression and academic failure
(Barone et al., 1991; Cyranowski et al., 2000; Isakson & Jarvis 1998; Newman et al., 2007).
In the spring of 2011 (Y3), data were collected from 735 students (412 girls, 323 boys).
The following Spring (Y4), 632 students participated in the study (349 girls, 283 boys). In order
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 16

to address our proposed hypotheses, only information obtained from Vietnamese and Mexican
American students was examined in the current study (89% of Y4 total sample). This analytic
choice was made because the inclusion of mixed-ethnicity participants (8% of Y4 sample) and
other ethnic groups that were in the numerical minority (3% of Y4 sample) in the model was
likely to complicate effects. A final sample of 444 adolescents from the aforementioned
ethnic/racial backgrounds participated in both the third (Y3) and the fourth (Y4) years of the
project. Approximately 45% indicated being of Mexican American descent and 55% reported
being of Vietnamese American descent.
Procedure
Data were collected at the end of the spring semester during a group-administered
session. Participants completed a demographic survey, self-report measures and a peer-
nomination inventory assessing social functioning. All measures were administered by trained
graduate and undergraduate researchers. Participants’ grade point average (GPA) was obtained
from school records at the end of the academic year. The use of multiple data sources is a
notable strength of our project, as it reduces the impact of shared method variance in our
analyses.
Measures
Same- and cross-ethnicity variables. During data collection, participants were asked to
identify their ethnicity as well as other demographic information. For the purposes of this study,
a student was considered to be the target of same-ethnicity negative peer attitudes if the peer who
nominated the student for one or more of the predictor variables reported being of the same-
ethnicity of the targeted participant. Conversely, a student was considered to be the target of
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 17

cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes if the peer who nominated the student for one or more of
the predictor variables reported being of a different ethnicity than the targeted participant.
Peer dislike. Participants were provided with a list of 50 randomly selected peers from
their grade level. Each student on the roster was assigned a unique identification number (ID).
Each participant’s name appeared on 50 separate lists and a participant’s name never appeared
on his or her own list. Students were asked to nominate by ID all of the students from that list
that they “don’t like that much” (Nelson & Dishion, 2004; Schwartz, Gorman, Duong &
Nakamoto, 2008). This procedure is ideal for middle and high school students as they interact
with peers in several classes throughout the day (e.g. Schwartz, Gorman, Nakamoto, & McKay,
2006). The total number of nominations a participant received for an item was summed and the
sums were standardized within random lists (Schwartz et al., 2008).
Unpopularity. Students were asked to nominate all of the students who “are unpopular”
(Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004) using the same list of 50 randomly selected participants mentioned
above.
Aggression. Using the aforementioned roster of 50 randomly selected grade-level peers,
participants were asked to nominate as many students they wished for items assessing
aggression. Items assessed overt aggression (“students that hit or push other students”; “students
that start fights with other students by pushing or punching them”), relational aggression
(“students that try to be mean to other students by ignoring or excluding them”; “students that
gossip about other students”) and electronic aggression (“students who use the internet or text
messages to be mean to other students”). In both years 3 and 4, five items assessed aggression
(Y3 α = .80; Y4 α =.86 ). We generated a summary aggression score by calculating the mean of
overt, relational, and electronic aggression scores.
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 18

Depressive symptoms. The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) was
used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in participants. This 27-item self-report
measure covers several components of depression, including anhedonia, negative self-esteem,
ineffectiveness, interpersonal problems, and negative mood (Y3 α = .88; Y4 α =.91). To comply
with IRB regulations, one item addressing participant’s suicidal ideation was dropped. Items are
scored 0, 1, or 2, with higher numbers indicating increasing symptom severity. The mean rating
across the items in each year of the project was calculated and used in later analyses.
Academic achievement. Students’ final grades were used to determine their GPA for
each academic year. Letter grades were converted into numerical scores ranging from “F” = 0 to
“A” = 4, which were averaged across the number of courses a student completed.
Results
Descriptive Analyses and Bivariate Relations
Means and standard deviations for all variables are summarized in Table 1. We
conducted pairwise comparisons between genders and ethnicities for all variables. Gender (0 =
male; 1 = female) and ethnicity (0 = Mexican American; 1 = Vietnamese American) were coded
as dichotomous variables. Girls performed better academically and reported higher levels of
depressive symptoms than boys at both time points. Girls were also more likely to engage in
aggressive behaviors than boys. Additionally, in Year 3, boys were more likely than girls to be
unpopular with same-ethnicity peers.
Results from pairwise comparisons between ethnicities suggest differing levels of
negative peer attitudes in Mexican American and Vietnamese American youths. In Year 3, same-
ethnicity peer dislike was found to be greater among Vietnamese American than among Mexican
American adolescents. In contrast, Mexican American youths were more likely to be disliked by
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 19

cross-ethnicity peers in Year 4. At Year 3, Vietnamese American adolescents were more likely to
be unpopular with same-ethnicity peers. Similarly, across both years, Vietnamese American
youths had higher levels of unpopularity as reported by cross-ethnicity peers. Vietnamese
American adolescents also had higher levels of depressive symptoms in Year 3 and higher GPAs
than their Mexican American peers.
Before proceeding with our inferential analyses, we examined the distribution of all
variables using univariate statistics and graphical analyses. As might be expected, variables
assessing negative peer attitudes and psychological functioning were found to be highly skewed
and peaked. To reduce the impact of skewness, kurtosis, and extreme scores, we applied square
root transformations to same- and cross-ethnicity peer dislike and unpopularity, aggression levels
and depression scores prior to all analyses. After transformations, peer dislike remained highly
peaked and skewed and unpopularity remained moderately skewed. Depressive symptoms
remained highly peaked and skewed across both years.
Bivariate correlations for all variables are summarized in Table 2. Stability of the
constructs fell in the low to moderate range. Peer dislike (r = .41, p < .001) and unpopularity (r =
.40, p < .001) across the whole sample were moderately stable, whereas the stability of negative
attitudes reported by peers of a particular ethnic background was low. Negative peer attitudes
involving same-ethnicity adolescents had low to moderate levels of stability, whereas the
stability of negative attitudes involving peers of a different ethnicity was consistently low. Same-
and cross-ethnicity dislike was found to be associated with aggression levels at both time points.
Associations between cross-ethnicity dislike and a decrease in GPA were also noted in both
years of our study. Unpopularity with same-ethnicity peers was found to be associated with
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 20

increases in GPA at Year 3. In a similar fashion, being perceived as unpopular by cross-ethnicity
peers was associated with higher GPA across both time points.
Differential Associations Between Negative Attitudes and Adjustment
To examine the longitudinal associations between dimensions of negative peer attitudes
and adjustment indicators, as well as the role of gender and ethnicity as moderators of these
associations, we conducted a series of hierarchical regression analyses. Each Y4 adjustment
indicator was predicted from the main effects of each Y3 negative peer attitude, gender, ethnicity
and stability terms (entered on Step 1); the two-way interactions between each Y3 negative peer
attitude by gender, each Y3 negative peer attitude by ethnicity, and gender by ethnicity (entered
on Step 2); and the three-way interaction between each Y3 negative peer attitude by gender by
ethnicity (entered on Step 3). The process was conducted separately for same- and cross-
ethnicity variables in the prediction of each outcome. Variables were entered simultaneously at
each step, and the steps were entered sequentially. Interaction terms were calculated based on
mean centered values (Aiken and West, 1991). Type I error rates for the test of R-square
increments were controlled using Holm modified Bonferroni-type correction (Holm, 1979).
Separate corrections were applied for each step.
Depressive Symptoms.
Peer dislike as predictor. As shown in Table 3, same-ethnicity dislike was not
significantly associated with depressive symptoms over time. Similarly, non-significant
associations were observed between dislike by peers of a different ethnicity and depression
scores.
Notably, moderated effects complicated the aforementioned pattern of results. A
significant three-way interaction was obtained for same-ethnicity dislike by gender by ethnicity
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 21

in the prediction of depressive symptoms. The full model was significant, F=9.38, R
2
=.18,
p<.0001. To further explore the moderating influence of gender and ethnicity, separate models
were specified for each gender by ethnicity category. For Mexican American boys, the effects
were significant (β = .30, p <.01), while for Mexican American girls the effects were only
marginally significant (β = -.18, p = .07). The corresponding effects for Vietnamese American
girls and boys did not approach significance (β = -.06 and β = -.12, respectively).
Gender was also found to have a moderating effect in the link between cross-ethnicity
dislike and depressive symptoms. The full model was significant, F=9.26, R
2
=.18, p<.0001. We
further explored the moderating influences of gender by specifying separate models for girls and
boys. For girls, the effects were in the small to moderate range (β = -.14, p < .05). For boys, the
corresponding effects did not approach significance (β = .08, ns). No other significant moderated
associations were identified.
Unpopularity as predictor. The prediction of depressive symptoms from peer perceptions
of unpopularity is also summarized in Table 3. Marginally significant longitudinal associations
were noted in the link between same-ethnicity unpopularity and depressive symptoms. In
contrast, unpopularity with cross-ethnicity peers was not significantly associated with depressive
symptoms. No moderated effects were observed in the association between unpopularity and
depression scores.
Academic Achievement.
Peer dislike as predictor. As shown in Table 4, the longitudinal association between
same-ethnicity dislike and GPA did not reach significance. In a similar fashion, non-significant
associations were noted between dislike by cross-ethnicity peers and GPA over time. No
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 22

moderated associations were noted in the link between same- and cross-ethnicity peer dislike and
GPA.
Unpopularity as predictor. The associations between unpopularity and GPA are also
summarized in Table 4. Small, but significant effects were obtained in the prediction of GPA
from same-ethnicity unpopularity. The corresponding effects for cross-ethnicity unpopularity did
not reach significance. We did not identify any significant theory-consistent moderation effects
in the prediction of GPA from unpopularity.
Aggression.
Peer dislike as predictor. As shown in Table 5, a significant longitudinal association was
observed between dislike by same-ethnicity peers and aggression. Marginally significant
associations were noted between dislike by peers of a different ethnicity and aggression. No
significant moderated associations were noted in the link between peer dislike and aggression.
Unpopularity as predictor. The prediction of aggression from perceptions of
unpopularity is also summarized in Table 5. The longitudinal link between unpopularity with
same-ethnicity peers and aggression was marginally significant (β = -.09, p < .06). In contrast,
the link between cross-ethnicity unpopularity and aggression did not reach significance (β = -.01,
ns). No moderated effects were observed in the prediction of aggression from unpopularity.
Discussion
Past research exploring the interaction between negative peer experiences and contextual
factors (i.e., classroom ethnic composition) has proposed that victims of peer mistreatment are
likely to experience greater levels of emotional difficulties when perpetrators of harassment are
members of their own ethnic group. Our goal was to conduct a dyadic investigation (i.e., analyze
pairs of nominators and nominees) of the differential implications of same- and cross-ethnicity
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 23

negative peer attitudes for emotional and academic functioning. Our results highlighted the
detrimental consequences of being the target of same-ethnicity negative peer attitudes in later
adolescence, and suggested that a more nuanced perspective on risk mechanisms is warranted.
Significance of Same-Ethnicity Negative Attitudes for Adjustment
Our findings are generally supportive of the theoretical perspectives that emphasize the
importance of group belonging and the relevance of attributional tendencies in the prediction of
adjustment outcomes. Unpopularity with same-ethnicity peers emerged as a consistent predictor
of maladjustment over time. Specifically, there were significant associations with academic
difficulties and marginally significant associations with increases in depressive symptoms.
Notably, cross-ethnicity unpopularity was not significantly associated with any adjustment
indicator, thus suggesting that being perceived as unpopular by same-ethnicity peers is likely to
have more severe implications for adolescent’s psychological and academic functioning.
Interestingly, unpopularity with same-ethnicity peers was marginally associated with
decreases in aggressive behaviors. We contend that unpopularity could be an important “marker”
variable, indexing low dominance or low visibility within the peer group. In that regard, the more
depowered adolescents are perceived to be by same-ethnicity grade-mates, the less likely it is
that they will be nominated as aggressive. As Gorman and colleagues (2011) described, it is not
uncommon for unpopularity to be reflected in passive and submissive behavioral attributes, such
as low levels of aggression.
To some extent, dislike by same-ethnicity peers was also predictive of emotional
difficulties, though moderation effects complicated the pattern of findings. Our analyses suggest
that being the target of same-ethnicity dislike was significantly associated with increases in
aggressive behavior over time. A three-way moderated effect was also noted in the predictive
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 24

association between same-ethnicity dislike and depressive symptoms. Specifically, our findings
indicated that Mexican American boys that were the target of same-ethnicity dislike were
particularly vulnerable to experiencing depressive symptoms. Because dislike is a social
construct related to negative affectivity, it is not surprising that it would be associated with
greater levels of internalized distress, particularly within ethnic groups that are at a higher risk of
experiencing emotional difficulties, such as Mexican Americans (Polo & Lopez, 2009). It is
noteworthy that the predictive associations between cross-ethnicity dislike and adjustment
outcomes were either non-significant or weaker in magnitude than the corresponding same-
ethnicity associations. Finally, although we found a moderated association between cross-
ethnicity dislike and depressive symptoms, we hesitate to propose any conclusions as we did not
have a priori hypotheses regarding such associations.
Unpopularity as a mechanism of risk
Overall, this unprecedented study of the differential impact of same- and cross-ethnicity
negative attitudes on adjustment allows for a more nuanced perspective on risk. It is widely
accepted that the peer group has an important role in defining an adolescent’s sense of identity,
and feelings about the self. Our findings suggest that perceptions of unpopularity by particular
peers (i.e., those who share salient attributes like ethnic background) can be especially
detrimental, and therefore are key to understanding later adolescents’ psychological and
academic functioning.
The pattern of findings obtained in the present study also suggests that, during
adolescence, unpopularity with same-ethnicity peers might be more detrimental than personal
targeted attitudes of dislike toward the self. It is possible that making friends and working on
being socially accepted by peers of the same ethnic background are salient developmental tasks
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 25

that are emphasized during later childhood, whereas during adolescence, social hierarchies
become more salient, as the search for shared recognition and prestige intensifies among status
systems that are relatively stable (Brown, 2011).
Another important consideration is that it is not uncommon for highly disliked
adolescents to be popular. Popular youth are often perceived to be “stuck-ups” who don’t want to
interact or be associated with non-popular peers (Eder, 1985). Peer dislike can also result from
perceptions that popular adolescents engage in aggression to achieve their goals (LaFontana &
Cillessen, 2002; Parkhurst & Hopmeyer, 1998). In this regard, a plausible explanation for the
pattern of findings underlying same- and cross-ethnicity dislike would be that for some
adolescents, the effects of targeted rejection might be mitigated by the positive influences (e.g.,
fostering of key social relations such as friendship formation or romantic affiliations) afforded by
popularity. For these disliked-but-popular students, popularity may be more than enough to
maintain a high self-esteem.
Research has also shown that popularity levels influence the kind of treatment youths
receive from the peer group. Whereas popular students often experience being the center of
attention and are able to sway peers into conformity (Sandstrom, 2011), unpopular adolescents
are more likely to experience negative outcomes such as bullying (de Bruyn et al., 2009). A
possible explanation then might be that unpopularity with same-ethnicity peers is associated with
higher levels of maladjustment because it directly translates in the type of treatment that
adolescents receive from those who share their ethnic background. As proposed by Graham, such
encounters might prompt internal attributions of failure, which in turn would result in high levels
of emotional distress. In a similar fashion, consistent with social identity theory, if an
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 26

individual’s acceptance by his or her own ethnic group were to be challenged, psychological
suffering would likely result.
It is clear that much remains to be learned about the specifics of the pattern of association
between same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes and adjustment. Taken together, our
results provide preliminary evidence that, to some extent, negative perceptions by same-ethnicity
peers are associated with comparatively greater levels of emotional and academic maladjustment.
While for some analyses these effects were clear and consistent across ethnic groups, in others
the pattern was slightly less defined and/or present only for a given ethnic group and gender. We
recommend that future research investigate how other variables of interest may moderate the
proposed associations (e.g., popularity in the case of the dislike-adjustment association; ethnic
identity) but that were beyond the scope of the current study.
Limitations and Future Directions
Before we move on to our concluding comments, we would like to acknowledge some
potential limitations of this project. First and foremost, it should be noted that the correlational
design of our study did not allow for identification of causal relations among the variables.
Additionally, it is possible that our analyses predicting aggression could have been influenced by
shared method variance, as both the predictor and the outcome in such analyses were assessed
using peer nomination inventories. We also acknowledge that our model did not consider how
negative perceptions by same-ethnicity peers predict maladjustment above and beyond similar
influences by peers of a different ethnic background. Though we chose the current strategy
because it allowed for a parsimonious model that accounted for change over time, it limits our
inferences, as it doesn’t directly compare same- and cross-ethnicity effects.
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 27

A final set of concerns relates to the generalizability of the current findings. We explored
the differential impact of negative attitudes on adjustment within an ethnic context in which the
two minority ethnic groups are reasonably balanced and in close proximity. It is quite possible
that the pattern of associations may differ considerably across different ethnic groups. Similar
patterns might also not be present in schools in which the ethnic context is more diverse. As
suggested by Graham et al. (2009) the ethnic composition of the classroom, and more generally
of the school, might directly influence the impact that negative peer attitudes have on adjustment.
Research would benefit from generalizing the current findings to other ethnic groups as well as
making comparisons across classrooms and schools in which the ethnic composition was not as
balanced.
Conclusions
The findings of this investigation provide the first known evidence that perceptions of
unpopularity by same-ethnicity peers can have a more detrimental effect on emotional and
academic functioning than similar perceptions by cross-ethnicity peers. Conversely, we did not
find a consistent pattern in the associations between same-ethnicity dislike and adjustment within
our sample. An exception to the latter was found in the predictive relation between same-
ethnicity dislike and aggression. A moderated association was also noted in the prediction of
depressive symptoms. It seems that for particularly vulnerable subgroups (i.e., Mexican
American boys) the tendency to internalize distress in the face of targeted rejection by a member
of one’s own ethnic group is associated with greater emotional suffering. As we work towards
understanding the complexity of salient developmental tasks within diverse contexts, it is crucial
that we continue to explore the impact of being perceived negatively by those that we consider
part of our in-groups. Knowing the deleterious effects of feeling like one’s membership within
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 28

the group is being questioned might have important implications for inter- and intra-group
relations and could even prove to be an effective avenue for intervention.

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 29

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NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 37

Tables
Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations
Gender Ethnicity
Full Sample Boys Girls Mexican-
American
Vietnamese-
American
Variable M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Y3 Same-ethnic
dislike
0.00 (0.99)

0.05 (1.03)

-0.03 (1.00)

-0.11 (0.86)

0.09 (1.01)
*

Y4 Same-ethnic
dislike

0.01 (1.00)

0.01 (1.03)

0.01 (0.98)

-0.05 (0.95)

0.06 (1.03)
Y3 Cross-ethnic
dislike
0.00 (0.99)

0.03 (0.95)

-0.05 (1.01)

0.09 (0.99)

-0.09 (0.97)
Y4 Cross-ethnic
dislike
0.00 (1.00)

-0.06 (0.94)

0.05 (1.05)

0.28 (1.17)

-0.21 (0.78)
***

Y3 Same-ethnic
unpopularity
0.00 (0.99)

0.12 (1.08)

-0.10 (0.92)
*

-0.16 (0.81)

0.12 (1.12)
**

Y4 Same-ethnic
unpopularity
0.00 (0.99)

0.06 (1.08)

-0.05 (0.92)

-0.07 (0.86)

0.05 (1.09)
Y3 Cross-ethnic
unpopularity
0.00 (0.99)

0.07 (1.02)

-0.04 (0.98)

-0.11 (0.97)

0.10 (1.01)
*

Y4 Cross-ethnic
unpopularity
0.01 (0.99)

-0.02 (0.98)

0.02 (1.00)

-0.20 (0.96)

0.17 (0.99)
***

Y3 Depression 0.20 (0.49) 0.11 (0.41) 0.27 (0.55)
***
0.12 (0.44) 0.26 (0.53)
**

Y4 Depression 0.25 (0.49) 0.17 (0.42) 0.31 (0.54)
**
0.22 (0.44) 0.27 (0.52)
Y3 GPA 3.90 (0.81) 3.81 (0.75) 4.02 (0.82)
**
3.46 (0.82) 4.29 (0.55)
***

Y4 GPA 3.90 (0.76) 3.79 (0.72) 4.00 (0.79)
**
3.50 (0.81) 4.21 (0.55)
***

Y3 Aggression -0.03 (0.96) -0.18 (0.82) 0.11 (1.06)
***
-0.02 (0.84) -0.03 (1.06)
Y4 Aggression -0.04 (0.96) -0.22 (0.79) 0.13 (1.10)
***
-0.02 (0.91) -0.04 (1.02)
Note. Dislike, unpopularity, depression, and aggression are standardized values. Gender and ethnicity comparisons
were conducted with a series of paired t-tests. *p < .05. **p < .01. *** p <.001.

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 38

Table 2
Bivariate Correlations between Negative Peer Attitudes and Adjustment Indicators at Y3 and Y4
Variables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. Same-ethnic dislike 0.26
***
0.21
***
0.08 -0.01 -0.00 -0.06 0.31
***

2. Cross-ethnic dislike 0.18
***
0.20
***
-0.07 -0.03 -0.02 -0.24
***
0.32
***

3. Same-ethnic unpopularity 0.12
**
.07 0.38
***
0.17
***
0.02 0.08 -0.07
4. Cross-ethnic unpopularity .07 0.10
*
0.13
**
0.25
***
0.05 0.14
**
-0.09
5. Depression -.01 -0.05 -0.01 0.01 0.38
***
-0.04 0.01
6. GPA -.08 -0.16
***
0.12
**
0.10
*
0.08
*
0.78
***
-0.16
***

7. Aggression .27
***
0.20
***
-.07 -0.01 0.05 -0.15
***
0.30
***

Note. Correlations at Year 3 are shown below the diagonal and correlations at Year 4 are shown above the diagonal.
Stability coefficients are shown on the diagonal. *p < .05. **p < .01. *** p <.001

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 39

Note. Sr
2
is the semi-partial correlation coefficient, which is the percent of variance in the outcome that is accounted
for uniquely by the predictor.

†
p < .08.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

Table 3
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Depressive Symptoms from Negative Peer Attitudes
Same-ethnicity dislike
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Same-ethnic dislike
Y4 Same-ethnic dislike
Y3 Depression
Gender
Ethnicity
-.03
.00
.36
.07
.00
.02
.02
.04
.05
.05
-.06
.01
.38
.07
.00
.00
.00
.14
***

.01
.00
2 Gender by ethnicity -.05 .09 -.02 .00
Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by gender -.06 .04 -.06 .00
Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by ethnicity -.04 .05 -.04 .00
3 Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by gender by ethnicity .21 .10 .11 .01
*

Cross-ethnicity dislike
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike
Y4 Cross-ethnic dislike
Y3 Depression
Gender
Ethnicity
-.03
.00
.36
.07
-.00
.02
.02
.05
.05
.05
-.06
.01
.38
.07
-.01
.00
.00
.13
***

.01
.00
2 Gender by ethnicity -.08 .09 -.04 .00
Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by gender -.11 .05 -.11 .01
*

Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by ethnicity -.03 .05 -.03 .00
3 Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by gender by ethnicity -.06 .10 -.03 .00
Same-ethnicity unpopularity
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity
Y4 Same-ethnic unpopularity
Y3 Depression
Gender
Ethnicity
.05
-.01
.36
.08
-.01
.02
.02
.04
.05
.05
.10
-.02
.38
.09
-.02
.01
†

.00
.14
***

.01
†

.00
2 Gender by ethnicity
Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by gender
Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by ethnicity
-.05
-.01
-.03
.09
.05
.05
-.02
-.01
-.03
.00
.00
.00
3 Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by gender by ethnicity -.09 .11 -.04 .00
Cross-ethnicity unpopularity
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity
Y4 Cross-ethnic unpopularity
Y3 Depression
Gender
Ethnicity
.00
.02
.36
.07
-.01
.02
.02
.04
.05
.05
.00
.04
.38
.08
-.01
.00
.00
.14
***

.01
.00
2 Gender by ethnicity
Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by gender
Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by ethnicity
-.05
-.03
-.02
.09
.05
.05
-.02
-.03
-.02
.00
.00
.00
3 Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by gender by ethnicity -.07 .09 -.04 .00
NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 40

Note. Sr
2
is the semi-partial correlation coefficient, which is the percent of variance in the outcome that is accounted
for uniquely by the predictor.

†
p < .08.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.

Table 4
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting GPA from Negative Peer Attitudes
Same-ethnicity dislike
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Same-ethnic dislike
Y4 Same-ethnic dislike
Y3 GPA
Gender
Ethnicity
.00
-.02
.74
.06
.12
.02
.02
.04
.05
.06
.01
-.02
.72
.04
.08
.00
.00
.35
***

.00
.00
*

2 Gender by ethnicity .15 .10 .05 .00
Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by gender -.01 .05 -.01 .00
Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by ethnicity -.07 .05 .04 .00
3 Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by gender by ethnicity .09 .10 .03 .00
Cross-ethnicity dislike
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike
Y4 Cross-ethnic dislike
Y3 GPA
Gender
Ethnicity
-.00
-.03
.74
.07
.11
.02
.02
.04
.05
.06
-.00
-.04
.72
.04
.07
.00
.00
.35
***

.00
.00
2 Gender by ethnicity .16 .09 .05 .00
Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by gender .05 .05 .03 .00
Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by ethnicity .06 .05 .04 .00
3 Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by gender by ethnicity .05 .10 .02 .00
Same-ethnicity unpopularity
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity
Y4 Same-ethnic unpopularity
Y3 GPA
Gender
Ethnicity
-.05
-.01
.75
.05
.13
.03
.03
.04
.05
.06
-.07
-.01
.73
.03
.08
.00
*

.00
.37
***

.00
.00
*

2 Gender by ethnicity
Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by gender
Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by ethnicity
.12
.06
.09
.10
.05
.05
.04
.04
.06
.00
.00
.00
3 Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by gender by ethnicity -.02 .11 -.01 .00
Cross-ethnicity unpopularity
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity
Y4 Cross-ethnic unpopularity
Y3 GPA
Gender
Ethnicity
.00
.00
.75
.06
.12
.02
.02
.04
.05
.06
.00
.01
.73
.04
.08
.00
.00
.37
***

.00
.00
*

2 Gender by ethnicity
Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by gender
Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by ethnicity
.14
.07
.04
.10
.05
.05
.05
.05
.03
.00
.00
.00
3 Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by gender by ethnicity -.19 .10 -.06 .00
†

NEGATIVE PEER ATTITUDES AND ADJUSTMENT 41

Note. Sr
2
is the semi-partial correlation coefficient, which is the percent of variance in the outcome that is accounted
for uniquely by the predictor.

†
p < .08.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.
Table 5
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Predicting Aggression from Negative Peer Attitudes
Same-ethnicity dislike
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Same-ethnic dislike
Y4 Same-ethnic dislike
Y3 Aggression
Gender
Ethnicity
.12
.24
.22
.30
-.08
.04
.04
.05
.09
.09
.12
.24
.22
.15
-.04
.01
**

.05
***

.04
***

.02
***

.00
2 Gender by ethnicity -.07 .17 -.02 .00
Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by gender .15 .09 .08 .01
†

Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by ethnicity .12 .09 .06 .00
3 Y3 Same-ethnic dislike by gender by ethnicity .24 .19 .06 .00
Cross-ethnicity dislike
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike
Y4 Cross-ethnic dislike
Y3 Aggression
Gender
Ethnicity
.08
.28
.24
.26
.13
.04
.04
.04
.09
.09
.08
.29
.24
.13
.06
.01
†

.07
***

.06
***

.02
**

.00
2 Gender by ethnicity -.05 .17 -.01 .00
Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by gender .12 .09 .06 .00
Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by ethnicity .02 .09 .01 .00
3 Y3 Cross-ethnic dislike by gender by ethnicity -.15 .18 -.04 .00
Same-ethnicity unpopularity
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity
Y4 Same-ethnic unpopularity
Y3 Aggression
Gender
Ethnicity
-.09
.01
.30
.25
.00
.05
.05
.05
.09
.09
-.09
.01
.30
.13
.00
.01
†

.00
.09
***

.02
**

.00
2 Gender by ethnicity
Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by gender
Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by ethnicity
-.11
-.02
-.13
.18
.09
.10
-.03
-.01
-.06
.00
.00
.00
3 Y3 Same-ethnic unpopularity by gender by ethnicity -.26 .21 -.06 .00
Cross-ethnicity unpopularity
Step Variables entered B SE
β
sr
2

1 Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity
Y4 Cross-ethnic unpopularity
Y3 Aggression
Gender
Ethnicity
-.01
-.06
.30
.27
.00
.05
.05
.05
.09
.09
-.01
-.06
.30
.14
.00
.00
.00
.08
***

.02
**

.00
2 Gender by ethnicity
Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by gender
Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by ethnicity
-.08
.04
.12
.18
.09
.09
-.02
.02
.06
.00
.00
.00
3 Y3 Cross-ethnic unpopularity by gender by ethnicity .06 .19 .02 .00

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This short‐term longitudinal study examined the impact of same‐ and cross‐ethnicity negative peer attitudes on psychosocial and academic adjustment in an ethnically diverse adolescent peer group. We followed 444 adolescents (205 boys, 239 girls

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Asset Metadata

Creator Mali, Luiza Vianna (author)

Core Title Differential associations between same- and cross-ethnicity negative peer attitudes and adjustment outcomes among Vietnamese and Mexican American adolescents

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 06/19/2015

Defense Date 05/08/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag adjustment,adolescence,Ethnicity,OAI-PMH Harvest,peer relations

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Schwartz, David (committee chair), Huey, Stanley J., Jr. (committee member), Moll, Henrike (committee member)

Creator Email lvianna@usc.edu,tillyzinha@hotmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-573558

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Identifier etd-MaliLuizaV-3489.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-573558 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MaliLuizaV-3489.pdf

Dmrecord 573558

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Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Mali, Luiza Vianna

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

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Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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