Social work and gerontology: A study in professionalism

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Content SOCIAL WORK AND GERONTOLOGY: A STUDY TN PROFESSIONALISM by Roxana T. Killian and Eldon J. Teper A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY ' UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY March 19 77 UMI Number: EP6745G All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dtsseftatioft M àBiisfw ng UMI EP67456 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 = 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA LEONARD DAVIS SCHOOL OF GERONTOLOGY UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90007 ^7 7 K H S Tkci Lcxltten by Roxana T. Killian and Eldon J. Teper______ imdeA the, d itizc tio n ktheir Tkeô/C6 Conwriittze,, and approved by a t t >6tô mmbo/u, ho6 been p/ie- 6^nte.d to and ac.c2.ptzd by th e Vmn The Lcona/id Vavt& Sckoot 0 ^ GoAcntotea y, tn p a /itta l ^uZitttm cnt o i th e /léquÂJLement^ : ioA. th e degree a I MASTER OF SCIENCE IN GERONTOLOGY VaXe March, 1977 THESIS COMMITTEE ChoAAman ACKNOWLE DGMENT S We wish to recognize the students in the first class of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology for their con cern about the professional future of gerontology which provided the impetus for the origination of the project, of which this is a part. Our sincere appreciation is expressed to the Andrus Foundation of the Retired Teachers Association and the American Association of Retired Persons for the financial backing which made this project possible. Special recognition is given to the other members of the research project for their contributions in the follow ing areas: Beverly Little and Debby Secord, Chapter I; Rick Matros, Chapter II, Gloria Giedt, Chapters III and IV; Bernice Fischer, Dagney Cooke, and Monique Waller, Chapter V; Cheryl McCamish, Norm Davidson and Steve Epstein, Chapter VI. These students also participated in the de velopment of the data collection forms. Special thanks go to Lola Selby and persons inter viewed from the eight schools of social work for their valuable assistance in this research effort. Our sincere gratitude and appreciation is extended to Drs. William Albert and Mary Seguin, and Dan Tiberi for their knowledge, advice, and guidance afforded us in the completion of this study. 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................... .. . . . ii LIST OF TABLES.............................. vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Background . . . ............. 2 Purpose of the Study ........ 3 Research Problems . . ......... 4 Format of Presentations .... 8 II PROFESSIONALISM ............. . . 10 Introduction ................. 10 Defining Profession ...... 11 Criteria of a Profession . . . 16 Body of Knowledge ........ 16 University Education .... . 18 Professional Ideology . . . . 20 Professional Associations . 23 Code of Ethics ....... 25 Self-regulation ........ .. 27 Public Sanctioning and Licensing ............... 29 Operational Definitions . . . 30 Conclusion ............... 31 Process of Professionalization . 32 Conclusion .................... 37 III SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION . . . . 40 Introduction ................. 40 Definition of Social Work . . . . 41 Social Work's Professional Status 41 Body of Knowledge ............. • 42 iii CHAPTER Page University Education ....... 48 Professional Ideology ........... 52 Notion of service ....... 52 Professional Judgment based on professional knowledge 53 Belief in professional free dom and autonomy ........... 53 Professional Associations .... 54 Publications ................. 59 Code of Ethics ................... 60 Self-regulation ............. 62 Accreditation .................. 63 Employment Classification . . . 65 Public Sanction ................. 66 Private Practice ................. 67 Conclusion ....................... 69 IV THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY 71 Introduction ..................... 71 Trends of Gerontology ........ . 72 Documentation of Need ........ 75 Body of Knowledge ............... 77 University Education . . . . . . . 79 Professional Ideology ........... 84 Notion of Service ............. 84 Professional Judgment . . . . . 85 Autonomy ..................... 85 Professional Associations .... 86 Code of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . 88 Self-regulation ................. 89 Public Sanction ................. 91 Conclusion . . . ................. 93 iv CHAPTER Page V SOCIAL WORK AND GERONTOLOGY: REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION......................... .. . 95 Introduction.......... 95 Theoretical Viewpoint ............. 96 Historical Viewpoint and Pertinent Legislation....................... 100 How Social Work Practice Relates to Programs and Viewpoints ..... 109 Income Maintenance Program . . . 110 Institutionalization ...... Ill Programs for the Mentally Impaired Elderly Living in the Community 113 Housing.......................... 114 Senior Centers and other Activity Programs ........... 114 Day Care Programs............... 115 Current Aging Issues in Social Work 115 Conclusion.......................... 120 VI METHODOLOGY ..................... 120 Introduction ....................... 120 Evolution of the Project........... 121 Literature Review ................. 122 Selection of Sample............. 124 Development of Survey Questionnaires ............... 12 5 Procedures..................... 129 Presentations and Treatment of Data 132 Limitations of the Study.......... 136 VII RESULTS....................... . . . 140 Introduction .............. 140 Curriculum Content and Related Resources ...................... 141 Viewpoints About the Importance of Gerontology for Social Work . . . 157 Licensing........................ 161 Summary of the Findings.......... 167 V CHAPTER Page VIII IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY........... 172 Introduction ..................... 172 Overview of the S t u d y ........... 172 Implications ..................... 174 Suggestions for Future Research . 17 9 Conclusion ..................... 181 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................. 183 APPENDIX A .................................. 193 APPENDIX B ............ 198 APPENDIX C .................................. 204 APPENDIX D .................................. 207 APPENDIX E .............................. 209 APPENDIX F .................................. 211 APPENDIX G .......................... 213 APPENDIX H .................................. 215 VI LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1 Description of Institutions ..... 142 2 Courses with Gerontological Content . 143 3 Opportunities for Specialization in Gerontology................ 150 4 Gerontological Field Work Opportunities.................... 151 5 Faculty with Gerontological Backgrounds...................... 154 6 Journals, Theses, and Dissertations . 156 7 Attitudes About Aging ......... . . . 158 8 Topical Areas for Planned Courses in Aging............................ 160 Vll CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This is a report of social work in its relation to gerontology. It is part of an exploratory study of educa tional status and trends in eight disciplines: adult edu cation, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. Course curricula, attitudes toward the relevance of gerontology for each discipline and prospects for the future develop ment of courses in aging within each discipline were ex amined. Licensing and/or credentialing procedures for the disciplines, which are subject to legal regulations, were also explored. A better understanding of how geron tological content is integrated into educational curricula and to what extent licensing bodies are testing for this knowledge are two goals of this exploration. The project was conducted by faculty and staff from the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and the Andrus Gerontology Center and thirteen Leonard Davis students. Eleven students participated in this project to meet the requirement for a Master's thesis. One student used the project for graduate research credit, and one for under graduate research credit. An outcome of this research will be a report comparing the individual disciplines and ex amining gerontological preparation in professional and technical schools studied to better identify unmet needs in the area of aging. Each discipline was investigated by one or more of the students and social work was selected by the authors of this report. Investigation into the history of social work substantiates a long standing involvement by social work practitioners and academicians in the field of aging. Social workers have been traditionally active in such areas as health, poverty, mental illness and social ser vices , areas which substantially affect the elderly popula tion. Chapter IV will discuss issues related to these areas and provides the rationale for studying the account ability of social work in the field of aging. Background This project was initiated by the concern of students of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology regarding the future development of the field of gerontology and its professional status. These students, in the first class at the Leonard Davis School in September of 1975, were in terested in such questions as : How would their training be accepted by other professionals and would they be con sidered professionals? Responding to this concern, the faculty and adminis tration of the Leonard Davis School identified several disciplines which were linked to gerontological issues and had potential for or were actually serving the elderly. They submitted a proposal to explore relationships between these disciplines and gerontology to the Andrus Foundation of the National Retired Teachers Association/American Association of Retired Persons (NRTA/AARP) and funding was approved. The students elected the discipline which in terested them and began researching that discipline. The criteria employed to choose the eight disciplines were: 1) that the discipline related to gerontology and actively or potentially served older persons; and, 2) the students participating in the study were interested in examining the discipline. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to determine the nature and extent of gerontological content in selected profes sions. The immediate goals of the study were to identify existing course offerings (both courses in aging and courses with aging content), field experience related to gerontology and student research that included gerontol ogical content. Other variables taken into account were : (a) the attitudes of faculty and staff within these disci plines toward the inclusion of aging content in their curricula; and (b) the extent to which the licensing and/or credentialing boards screen their candidates for experience in aging. This project is the initial step in a long range goal to improve the quality of services offered to the re tired and aged by upgrading professional and technical education, relevant licensing procedures, and the account ability of educators in the fields of adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration and social work. Research Problems The researchers identified several variables to be investigated, devised instruments to quantify each variable and made assumptions about the association between these variables. The primary variables taken into consideration were; (a) course offerings with aging content; (b) the number of students in the departments/schools ; (c) the number of faculty in the departments/schools ; (d) the number and types of degrees within each department/school; (e) the number of doctorates held by faculty in the department/ school; (f) the number of faculty belonging to the Geron tological Society and the Western Gerontological Society; (g) attitudes of faculty and administration respondents toward the importance of gerontology; and, (h) the number of journals related to gerontology which are subscribed to by each departmental/school library. The researchers realized that in an exploratory study of this nature cause and effect relationships could not be established. But some associations between the variables could be analyzed. One consideration which was examined was the number of course offerings having gerontological content in relation to the number of opportunities for field practice, especially in agencies which work with and on behalf of older adults. Cause and effect relationships are hard to establish: Do classes in aging proliferate due to demand by students working in agencies which are con cerned with the elderly, or do classes with gerontological content create a demand for field practice where this know ledge can be employed? Another area of investigation was the respondents* attitudes toward the importance of gerontological curricula and issues and whether these attitudes were reflected in the educational institutions * course offerings. It was assumed that a rating of "important" or "very important" regarding gerontological issues and curricula by the re spondents would indicate that more courses with aging con tent would be offered in a program than if the respondent rated these issues and curricula "not very important" or "of no importance." Future plans for including gerontol ogical curricula were also compared with the attitudes of the respondents toward the importance of gerontological curricula. In the same manner, the number of gerontologial journals were compared with the number of theses and dis sertations on gerontology and the number of journals, theses, and dissertations were compared with the number of courses with gerontological content. Did access to these journals provide impetus for theses and dissertations on aging issues to be undertaken? Or did the library begin to subscribe to these journals due to student interest? Did courses with gerontological content excite the student about aging or were journals the reason they became inter ested in aging and then courses were developed around the students' interest? These questions cannot be definitely answered. The data suggest possible relationships, how ever, and can generate new hypotheses to test for causal relationships. The number of students and faculty in each department/ school were also compared to course offerings in geron tology. Would a larger student population lead to a de partment/school with more specialization in aging (e.g., more minors, dual degrees, or emphases being offered)? Another question investigated was whether the size of the faculty of the department/school may influence more spe cializing in aging related courses? Also, did the number of faculty holding doctorates correlate in any way to the number of aging related classes being offered? Will a department/school with a high number of faculty holding doctorates be more apt to offer specialized courses in aging? Other questions were considered regarding the licens ing procedures established for social workers in Califor nia. Does the professional background of the officials responsible for deciding licensing criteria have any re lation to the extent aging issues are included in the licensing examinations? Do the professional social work associations influence the licensing of professional social workers in this state? An examination of these and other issues included in the study provides an opportunity to initiate an evalua tion of how adequately each of the disciplines included is meeting its responsibility to the elderly population. It is hoped that this project will be a motivating factor in the movement of these disciplines toward a reaffirming and strengthening of their commitment to the needs of older adults. Format of Presentation Chapter I has reviewed the basic purpose and course of this research effort. The remaining chapters will con tribute more detailed information about the issues which were of concern to the participants in this study. The literature review, which includes Chapters II through V, provides background material and a rationale for this re search project. Chapters VI, VII, and VIII report the collection procedures, treatment, and analysis of the data. Chapter II attempts to define the concept of pro fessionalism. Seven criteria of professional status are delineated to distinguish the locus of an occupation on the professional continuum. The processes involved in the evolution of a profession are also discussed. Chapter III is concerned with the growth of social work along the professional continuum. The development of social work is analyzed according to the seven criteria of professionalism set forth in the second chapter. The pro fessional status of social work is assessed in this chapter. Chapter IV examines the historical trends of the field of gerontology. The development of gerontology in rela tion to the seven professional criteria is explored and the need for the establishment of gerontology as a pro fession is questioned in this chapter. Chapter V documents the relationship between social work and gerontology. A theoretical viewpoint is pre sented, which discusses the knowledge base of social work as it pertains to the elderly client. This chapter traces the historical and legislative efforts in social welfare affecting the elderly. Examples of social welfare pro grams and social work positions specifically concerned with the aging are reviewed. Chapter VI details the research design. The evolu tion of this project is delineated and this chapter in cludes a brief synopsis of the literature review, the procedures of data collections, and the treatment of the data. Chapter VII presents and discusses the results of the project. Data from the eight schools of social work in California are presented. Results of interviews regarding social work licensing procedures are also noted. Chapter VIII gives an overview of the project. Im plications and trends for the fields of social work and gerontology are analyzed and suggestions for further re search are presented. The proceeding chapter will establish a base of com parison for professional criteria. This measure will be used throughout the report as a benchmark in examining social work and gerontology and their relationship. CHAPTER II PROFESSIONALISM Introduction Examining the concept of professionalism is difficult because the term is used to define a variety of traits, characteristics, and ideals of occupational status. Re viewing the sociological literature on professionalism re veals the amorphous, and oftentimes ambiguous explana tions which have developed in attempts to delineate the limits of professional standing. It is the intent of this paper to canvas the extant literature on professionalism and formulate a reasonable clarification of the major constituents of professional standing, as well as the processes that can transform an occupation into a pro fession. Three specific questions are answered in attempt ing to provide a succinct picture of the nature of pro fessionalism. 1. What is a valid definition of a profession? 2. What are the requisite criteria needed for achieving professional status? 10 3. What are the processes intrinsic to the development of a profession? Defining Profession The problem of developing a specific definition of profession is complex because of the term's generalized utilization. Barber (1965) states that there is no absolute difference between professional and other types of occupational behavior, but only relative differences with respect to certain attributes common to all occupa tional behavior. There are different degrees of profes sionalism and not all professions display the same characteristics. In fact, some business organizations may encompass criteria of professionalism without ever achiev ing professional status. Therefore, while precise verbal definition about the term profession persists, we should think of occupations as falling somewhere along a continuum of professionalism, the continuum being made up of common definitional traits (Goode, 1960a). A profession is usually defined as an occupation which requires training in the liberal arts or the sciences and graduate study in a particular field. Manual labor is not considered to be one of the areas of professionalism. At the professional level of employment, individuals often are assigned a large amount of responsibility based solely on their past experiences within the setting and direct client 11 contact is most extensive. Professional status is not gained by claiming it, but must be created as a result of behavior. A professional works in an occupation that primarily serves people by contributing to and enhancing their potentials as humans. Profit motives are secondary to the concern for people (Stone and Shertzer, 1969). Cogan (1955) states that there is an almost insur mountable controversy in trying to define profession. He examines the development of a definition of professions at three different levels: (1) historical and lexicological, (2) persuasive, and (3) operational. In the historical and lexicological interpretation, a profession is a voca tion whose practice is founded upon the understanding of a theoretical structure of some department of learning or science, and upon the abilities accompanying such an under standing. This understanding and these abilities are applied to the vital practical affairs of man. The prac tices of the profession are modified by knowledge of a generalized nature and by the accumulated wisdom and ex perience of mankind, which serve to correct the errors of specialism. The profession, serving the vital needs of man, considers its first ethical imperative to be altruis tic service to the client (Cogan, 1953). The persuasive definition of profession has justified the existence of professional occupations in society. These justifications 12 keep the profession desirable by directing societal atti tudes to the value of the services the profession offers. Operational definitions are designed to furnish the basis upon which individuals and associations may make specific decisions as to the behavioral concoiranitants of a profes sion. They are guidelines for the practitioner in his day- to-day work, and are the rules for professional conduct. They mediate the practitioner's relation to the client, to his colleagues, to the public, and to the professional association. They set forth the specific criteria of general and specific education for the professional, the requirements for admission to practice, and the standards for competent service. Cogan summarizes his discussion of the definitional aspect of profession by stating that the promulgation of a satisfactory definition has progressed little beyond the six elements proposed by Abraham Flexner (1915): (1) intellectual operations coupled with large individual responsibility; (2) raw materials drawn from science and learning; (3) practical application; (4) educa tionally communicable techniques ; (5) a tendency towards self-orientation; and, (6) an increasing altruistic moti vation . Cogan (1953) also states than an important, though implicit, criterion of professions is revealed through the study of dictionary definitions. The first point to be 13 noted is that the professions are described as dealing with the practical affairs of men. Also, the profession is traditionally applied specifically to the three learned professions of divinity, law, and medicine. Cogan con cludes from an analysis of dictionary definitions that it may be observed that the traditional professions mediate man's relation to God, man's relation to man and state, and man's relation to his biological environment. Smith (1958) discusses the diversity of professions and infers that they are complex social institutions which select people of varied skills, often from several social strata, and organize them into different levels of operation and diverse interest groups. Some authors have tried to define profession in a con cise and explicit manner. Greenwood (1957) adapts Hall's (1949) definition and sees a profession as an organized group which is constantly interacting with the society that forms its matrix, which performs its social functions through a network of formal and informal relationships, and which creates its own subculture requiring adjustments to it as a prerequisite for career success. Any occupation wishing to exercise professional authority must find a technical basis for it, assert an exclusive jurisdiction, and convince the public that its services are uniquely trustworthy, and while there is a general tendency for 14 occupations to seek professional status, remarkably few of the thousands of occupations in modern society attain it (Wilensky, 1964). Hughes (1963) states that a profession delivers esoteric services — advice or action — to in dividual organizations, or government; to whole classes of people; or to the public at large. The action may be manual, but the service still includes advice. The person for or upon whom the esoteric service is performed, or the one who is thought to have the right or duty to act for him/her, is advised that the professional's action is necessary. Professionalism might be defined as a process by which an organized occupation, usually, but not always, by virtue of making a claim to a specific esoteric compe tence and a concern for the quality of its work, controls training for and access to it, and controls the rights of determining and evaluating the way the work is performed (Vollmer and Mills, 1966). It is clear that the concept of professionalism does not lend itself to precise definition; however, certain occupational attributes are generally characteristic of professional status. The next section will examine in detail those criteria, revealed in a review of sociological literature, which have been consistently ascribed to the established professions. 15 Criteria of a Profession Defining specific criteria of professional status is also a precarious task. Different authors list varying numbers of attributes which they consider essential to the establishment of a profession, but it is evident that some long standing professions do not comply with all of these requisites. Also, many occupations do possess some elements of professionalism without having professional status. This section will closely examine seven attributes which most authors generally regard as constituents of professional status. These criteria are as follows: body of knowledge; university education; professional ideology ; professional associations; codes of ethics ; self-regulation ; and, public sanction. Body of Knowledge All mature professions rest on a common body of know ledge that can be utilized flexibly by practitioners in various types of interventive activities (National Associa tion of Social Workers, 1964). Others supporting the need for a body of knowledge are Engel (1970); Halmos (19 70); Schott (1976); Lewis and Maude (1952); Wickenden (1950); Boehm (1959); Turner and Hodge (1970); Harries-Jenkins (1970); Schein (1972); Pavalko (1971); Bearing (1972); and. Stone and Shertzer (1969). The nature of this knowledge, whether substantive or theoretical, on which advice and 16 action are based is not always clear; it is often a mixture of several kinds of practical and theoretical knowledge. But, it is part of a professional complex, and the pro fessional claim, that the practice should rest upon some branches of knowledge to which the professionals are privy by virtue of long study and initiation and apprenticeship under masters already members of the profession (Hughes, 1963). Greenwood (1957) states that the characteristic skills of a profession are derived from a source of know ledge which has been systematically organized into a body of theory. This body is made up of abstract propositions which describe in general terms the focus of the profes sion's interest. Preparing for professional status is, therefore, an intellectual, as well as a practical experi ence . Wilensky (1964) refers to a technical base on which professional knowledge is supported. He differentiates "technical" from "scientific" in that both scientific and non-scientific systems of thought can serve as a technical base for professionalism, but the success of the claim is greatest where the society evidences strong, widespread consensus regarding the knowledge or doctrine to be applied. Goode (1961) reports that a prolonged specialized training in a body of knowledge is paramount to the success ful development of a profession. The principles of this 17 knowledge must be applicable to concrete problems. Pro fessionals must not only use, but help create this know ledge; the profession itself must be the final arbiter as to what is valid knowledge. Therefore, the profession con trols access to knowledge and hence, access to the pro fession. Society should believe that the knowledge can actually solve existing problems and should also accept as proper that these problems be given over to some occupa tional group for effective solution (Goode, 1960b). University Education Education clearly emerges as an important factor in determining whether or not a discipline is a profession (Lewis and Maude, 1952; Wickenden, 1950; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Stone and Shertzer, 1969). The problem is that everyone has a different idea as to how much education really is necessary. Moore (1970) regards it as extremely improbable that technically trained individuals with less than a bachelor of arts or science degree could manage to attain the relatively higher positions on any scale of pro fessionalism. Goode's (1957) criterion of lengthy training in a body of specialized abstract knowledge infers formal education at the graduate level. The training involves in quiry into an abstract body of knowledge, not the acquisi tion of technical skills. Jackson (1970) believes the ex istence of professionalism itself depends on the notion of 18 the university as the institution of the intellectual. Furthermore, he sees the rise of the professions as posi tively correlated with the rise of the universities. Traditionally, professions have been affiliated with organized educational institutions, and this has developed into the concept of professional schools within the uni versity. Barber (1965) cites four major roles of the uni versity professional school. They are as follows : 1. Transmission to its students of the generalized and systematic knowledge that is the basis for professional performance; 2. Creation of new and better knowledge on which professional practice can be based ; 3. Ethical training of students, explicit (codes) and implicit (behavioral aspects); 4. Improvement of existing codes. Barber concludes that the better the university profes sional school, the more likely it is to use resources from the other professional schools in the university and from all the other departments of basic knowledge insofar as they are relevant. The university professional schools are the leading, though not the sole, innovators and systema- tizers of ideas for their professions. The emerging or marginal professions seek to locate in universities. Harries-Jenkins (19 70) infers that professional educa- 19 tion is dependent upon training and knowledge acquired out side the employment setting while generalists receive their occupational preparation from within the employing organiza tion. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (19 64) state that a sound general education in theoretical and practical knowledge and then specialized education in the specific discipline, as in the professions, increases efficiency. Professional Ideology Every profession has a professional ideology, which is the basis for offering the best possible service in the public interest (Ritzer, 1973; Boehm, 1959; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Pavalko, 1971; Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Elliot (1972) states that a professional ideal has three important aspects ; 1. The notion of service; 2. An emphasis on professional judgment based upon professional knowledge; 3. Belief in professional freedom and autonomy in the work situation, (p. 23) The service ideal may be defined as the norm that the technical solutions which the professional arrives at should be based on the client's needs, not necessarily the best material interest or needs of the professional himself or those of society. Further specifications of the service ideal is inherent in its four subdimensions : 20 1. The practitioner decides upon the client's needs, and the.occupation will be classified as less pro fessional if the client imposes his own j udgment. 2. The society actually believes that the profession not only accepts these ideals, but also follows them to some extent. 3. The profession demands real sacrifice from its practitioners as an ideal, and occasionally, in fact. 4. The professional community sets up a system of rewards such that "virtue pays off" (Goode, 19 60b, p. 23) Wilensky (1964) reports that the success of the claim to professional status is governed also by the degree to which the practitioners conform to a set of moral norms that characterize the established professions. These norms dictate not only that the practitioner do technically, high- quality work, but that he adhere to a service ideal-devotion to the client's interest more than personal or commercial profit should guide decisions when the two are in conflict. In short, a major determinant of professional status is the degree of adherence to the service ideal and its supportive norms of professional conduct. Beatman (1956) feels that basic to professional maturity are the knowledge essential to practice and the appropriate use of that knowledge. He goes on to say that. 21 the hope of every profession is to have its practitioners embody the best of its knowledge, experience, skill, and ethics; that they will practice with dignity, confidence and success; and that the nature and contribution of the practitioner that its perpetua tion and continuing progress are assured, (p. 383) The nature of professional practice is such that the practitioner must make many unique and special decisions on the singularity of any particular client-practitioner trans action (Ritzer, 1973). Quality of service rendered is of deepest concern to the client. He places his health and his fortune in the hands of his professional advisor, and he entrusts him with confidences of an intimate and personal kind. He is interested in the moral quality of service (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964). Therefore, this problem is particularly complicated by the fact that the professional service is said to require not only special skills from the practitioner, but also a particular kind of relationship be tween the professional and the client (Ritzer, 19 73). Lewis and Maude (1952) state that the relationship of the client and the practitioner is the basis of professional morality. This relationship is between individuals and it is fidu ciary. The practitioner gives the best possible advice, which the client is not competent to criticize, and the practitioner acts according to his client's needs. Schein (19 72) stresses this point even further saying the very 22 essence of professionalism is the delivery of a service in response to the need of a client. There must also be a clear identification as to exactly whose needs are being met. Moore (19 70) maintains that an important professional qualification is commitment to a particular calling. It is this commitment that lends credence and stability to the profession's code of ethics. The profession and all its requirements are treated as a lasting set of norms and be havioral expectations. The professional accepts these standards, identifies with his colleagues and sees the pro fession as a whole entity. These standards should come across in the professional's dealings with his client. Professional Associations Professional associations are necessary for the de velopment and continued growth of a profession (Goode, 1960; Wickenden, 1950; Boehm, 1959; Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Tbe professional organiza tion provides a framework and s'anctions for this complex of obligation and responsibility delegated to the established profession. In essence, it is disciplinary in all its functions, especially the educational. It is concerned with keeping its members accountable to the implied contract with society. The organization also insures the provision of the best possible advice and service within existing knowledge, while protecting the public from the unqualified 23 practitioner. The professional organization is the pro fession's ultimate measure of professional independence. It is the association that defines the educational require ments, entry standards, and code of ethics of the profes sion (Lewis & Maude, 1952). Greenwood (1957) proposes that professional associations exert control over the profes sion's training centers and granting or denying accredita tion by one of the associations within a profession is the prime way the caliber of curriculum and instruction and the location of professional schools is regulated. Carr-Saunders and Wilson (19 64) propose that generally speaking, each profession is organized on a craft basis, and though within a profession it is usual to find a number of independent associations, relations between them are generally friendly and there is a clear tendency towards a dominating association or a closely cooperating group. Part of the constitution of a profession is the spontaneous coming together of the practitioners in associations. The reasons for associations are protection and the desire to hallmark the competent and to foster the study of the tech nique and give this technique such an importance that boundaries are clearly defined and stable. Ritzer (1973) lists three characteristics of profes sions which are basic to the justification for professional control over members. They are as follows : 24 1. Assumed power of ethical codes. 2. The consequences of control over recruitment and certification. 3. The professional review boards and their assumed control over practitioners Code of Ethics Professional ethics arise from the codes of the most ancient professions: the Hippocratic oath; the inviolabil ity of the confessional; and the devotion of the lawyer to his client's interest (Lewis & Maude, 1952). The codes of ethics of specific disciplines are an integral component in the establishment of a profession (Goode, 1960a; Harries- Jenkins, 19 70; Schein, 19 72; Pavalko, 19 71; Bearing, 1972 ; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Ethical conduct, proposed or values in the codes of ethics of the human services, per tain to four major aspects of professional relationships (Levy, 1974): 1. The practitioner, where codes in sure competence, integrity, inde pendence, impartiality, and propriety. 2. The client, involving values of de votion, loyalty, objectivity, honesty, candor, confidentiality, autonomy, respect, punctuality, exeditiousness, and personal attention. 3. The professional colleagues, regarding etiquette, fairness, and professional orientation. 4. The society, insuring care in the use of personal status, care of one's personal associations, regard for others, justice, obligation to be concerned about social problems, and social orientation. 25 Codes of ethics are at once the highest and the lowest standards of practice expected of the practitioner; the awesome statement of rigid requirements; and the promotion^ material issued primarily for public relations purposes. They embody the gradually evolved essence of moral expecta tions , as well as the arbitrarily prepared shortcut to pro fessional prestige and status. At the same time, they are handy guidelines for the legal enforcement of ethical con duct (Levy, 19 7 4). Greenwood (.19 57) states that the profession's ethical code is part formal and part informal. The formal is the written code to which the professional usually swears upon when being admitted to practice. The informal is the un written code, which nonetheless carries the weight of formal prescriptions. As a written document, the code of ethics serves as a guideline of expected levels of service. Not only does it describe expected levels of quality and competency, it also may remind members to refrain from commercialism (direct competition with colleagues), as well as state the professional's responsibility to the interests of society (Marshall, 19 39). Contained within the code is a strong altruistic commitment to the betterment of the larger society through the use of the professional's specialized abilities (Cogan, 1953). 26 SeIf-regulation SeIf-regulation refers to the monitoring of profes sional behavior by colleagues. In other words, the peer group holds its members accountable and will invoke dis ciplinary action when deviation from acceptable standards has occurred (Posz, 1973). This type of monitoring system is distinguished from one in which the principle monitoring tasks fall on a hierarchial organization, the consumer of the service, or an external governmental regulatory agency. Under true professionalism, monitoring and corrective actiori is performed by the peer group. In theory, the professional group itself is held accountable for the actions of its members (Wichenden, 1950; Lewis & Maude, 1952; Harries- Jenkins, 1970; Schein, 1972; Pavalko, 1971; Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 19 69). One aspect of self-regulation is the level of autonomy attained by the profession. Ritzer (1973) states that the professional organiza tion rather than the society or the client defines the nature of the expected service and the manner of its trans mittal because the profession claims to be the only legiti mate arbiter of improper performance. In practice, auton omy exists when the leaders of a profession define or regu late the nature of the service offered in two ways : (1) control over recruitment and certification of members; and, (2) setting standards of adequate practice (Ritzer, 27 19 73) . In discussing the idea of recruiting. Caplow (19 54) states that in the independent professions the entire re cruiting process, from the initial choice of candidates for training to the bestowal of honors at retirement, is under the close control of the professional group. Although the right to practice is generally conferred by a governmental board, this agency normally represents the profession and has usually ben kept free from political interference. Goode (1960b) states that professional autonomy means having one's behavior judged by colleague peers, not out siders. He adds that this is a derivative trait and is based on both the mastery of a field of knowledge and com mitment to the service ideal. This mastery of the pro fessional person, because of his specialized training and the complicated nature of the problems being dealt with, has the authority to dictate what a client should do. The rationale behind this authority is that the client lacks the needed theoretical background to diagnose his need or prescribe any of the possible cures. This authority does not carry over to any other professions. One only has authority when one has knowledge of a certain specific area (Greenwood, 19 57). An effective method of self-regulation is through the creation of what Goode (1961) calls the community pro fessional. Although the profession cannot produce the 28 next generation biologically, it can do so socially, A pro fession should and can control the selective process of its professional trainees. After these trainees are selected they are sent through the profession's adult socialization process. The profession is determining who will be market ing the services of the profession and, to an extent, the way in which those services are marketed. The profession can better preserve its standards in this way. Public Sanctioning and Licensing Greenwood (1957) discusses the importance of community sanction in the achievement of professional status. Other authors recognize this contention (Goode, 1960a; Engel, 1970; Holmes, 1970 ; Schott, 19 76 ; Lewis & Maude, 1952; Wichenden, 1950; Turner & Hodges, 1970; Schein, 1972; Bearing, 1972; Stone & Shertzer, 1969). Public sanction refers to the community's formal and informal acceptance of a discipline's ability to best deliver necessary services in its area of expertise. A profession may gain sanction from the community by formal or informal means. Formal approval constitutes reinforcement of professional standards by police power. By formally sanctioning a profession, the community gives a profession a monopoly on performing a certain service. The profession employs its association to convince the community that it will greatly benefit from the monopoly. Professions must be convincing on three factors : 29 1. Specialized education is necessary to perform the specific skill. 2. Those who have completed this education have capability to deliver service superior to those who have not. 3. The target population of service is of sufficient significance in the community to warrant the superior performance. Greenwood notes that formal aspects of public sanctions take the form of approv ing of professional-client confidentiality and acceptance of a system of licensure. Licensure is the process by which per mission to practice a profession is granted once the requirements of the legally are recognized. The degree to which a profession is subject to state supervision depends upon the external constitution or legal status it has in society (Carr-Saunders & Wilson, 1964), Licensing systems for screening applicants assures legal status. Thereby, the professional controls admission into the field (Greenwood, 19 75) . Operational Definitions From the preceding literature review and for the pur pose of this study, operational definitions of the seven criteria required for professional standing have been de veloped. They are as follows: 1. Body of Knowledge - an identifiable and distinct set of theories, methodologies, and principles which form the technical base for professional practice. 2. University Education - the formal process within an educational institution in which the professional body of knowledge is trans mitted, usually at the graduate level. 30 Professional Ideology - the notion of service that is the basis for the pro fession's commitment to the field and which establishes the practitioner as the most appropriate individual to offer this particular type of service because of his training and knowledge of the discipline. Professional Association - established organizations of professionals that set criteria for membership in the field, keep members accountable for their actions, insure the provision of the best possible services, exert control over the profession's training centers, and keep abreast of current legislative and political activity affecting the field. Code of Ethics - written and formalized standards of professional conduct that establish the commitment of the pro fessional as well as insuring the com petence of the practitioner and the quality of his services. SeIf-regulation - the professional mechanism which maintains the ability of the discipline to autonomously govern and regulate its members, establish stan dards of service, enforce the code of ethics, assume responsibility for any disciplinary action and be publicly accountable for the actions of its con stituency. Public Sanction - the formal and informal approval which a community grants a dis cipline acknowledging the profession's ability to best deliver offered services and to be self-regulating. Conclusion This discussion has delineated the criteria that have Deen found to be relatively universal in regard to profes- 31 sional characteristics. It should be noted that in addition to our defined criteria, the concept of autonomy is also associated with professional standing. The authors of this study feel there are inherent problems in defining and measuring this concept. Therefore, we have integrated the notion of autonomy in the examination of self-regulation, and will utilize these seven criteria in analyzing the pro fessional status of our individual discipline. Process of Professionalization While there are definite criteria requirements for eligibility to professional status, the process by which an occupation achieves this distinction is varied in the de velopment of each specific discipline. Certain steps are common for professionalization in general, but the sequence of events and the intensity of their implementation differs. This section will examine the processes that precede pro fessional standing. Professions with a more substantial and more theoreti cal body of knowledge behind them are better able to con vince society of the need for their particular services and perhaps to persuade society of their right to take responsi bility for them. Reference must be made to a theoretical body of knowledge for decisions made by the practitioners of the profession. The professional's responsibility for interpreting the body of knowledge and for considering, even 32 deciding, the client's needs and solutions to them is an important aspect of the autonomous development of the in dividual profession. One way in which a profession may first develop as a separate occupational group is when some individuals recognize a social need and become committed to providing for it. These initial pioneers, entering the field from a variety of routes, will be united by this com mon concern. The development of a new occupational group may open up new career possibilities for others in rela tively marginal or terminal career positions. As time goes by and the process of professionalization continues, quali fications will be laid down for entering to the occupation and entry routes institutionalized. An occupation with pretentions to professional status cannot afford to serve as a refuge for the unqualified (Elliot, 1972). The emerging profession claims to be offering a unique service not available elsewhere. It does not rely on open competition with those occupations closest to its field, but is likely to proclaim openly that its rivals are either improperly trained or illegal competitors. The economic success of a new profession is based on the normative acceptance it achieves — or how much right to a legally enforceable monopoly it can successfully claim. Profes sional services usually cannot be adequately evaluated by laymen. Professionals admit that they need their client's 33 cooperation for a good performance; for survival, they also need their client's faith (Goode, 1960a). Those taking the lead in striving for the advancement of professionalism within the occupational group and in claiming public recognition of its new status become the elite of that profession. They implement the following procedures according to Barber (1965): 1. Acknowledge the inadequacies of their group but compare them to ones that formerly existed in established pro fessions — express hope for progress. 2. Construct and publish a code of ethics. 3. Establish a professional association which will perform the following functions; a. self control b. socialization c. education d. communication with public e. defense of professional interest against infringement by the public or other occupational groups. 4. Leaders establish measures and titles of more or less professional behavior, hoping, of course, to use such prestigious titles as "fellow" as an incentive for the less professional to become more so. 5. Seek licensure from the state. 6. Seek to strengthen university professional schools. 7. Information program for the general public. 8. Conflict resolution — with those in the group who are less qualified and with other professionals who may be charging them with encroachment. 34 As previously stated, there are differences of opinion about the subsequent processes of professionalization. Wilensky (1964) enumerates five procedural elements of professionalization. They are as follows: 1. Start doing full time the thing that needs doing. 2. Establish a training school within a university. 3. Combine to form a professional association with: a. further self-conscious de finition of core tasks; b. the contest between the home- guard who learned the hard way and are committed to the local establishment, on the one hand; and the newcomers who took the prescribed courses and are com mitted to practicing the work wherever it takes them; c. the hard competition with neighboring occupations. 4. Political agitation to win support of law for the protection of the job terri tory and its sustaining code of ethics : a. licensing; b. certification. 5. Establishment of rules to eliminate the unqualified and unscrupulous, and rules to protect clients and emphasize the ser vice ideal in a formal code of ethics. Caplow (1954) lists the following processes as in herent to the achievement of professional status: 1. Establishment of a professional associa tion with definite membership criteria designed to exclude the unqualified; 35 2. Change of occupational name, which serves the multiple function of re ducing identification with the pre vious occupational status asserting a technological monopoly. 3. Development and promulgation of a code of ethics which asserts the social utility of the occupation, sets up public welfare rationale, and develops rules which serve as a further criteria to eliminate the unqualified and unscrupulous; this imposes a real and permanent limita tion on internal competition. 4. Prolonged political agitation, whose object is to obtain the support of the public power for the maintenance of the new occupational barriers, and also de velopment of training facilities directly or indirectly controlled by the profes sional society, particularly with respect to admission and to final qualification; the establishment through legal action of certain privileges of confidence and inviolability, the elaboration of rules of decorum found in the code, and the establishment — after conflict — of working relations with related profes sional groups. Goode (1961) lists seven steps of professionalization which occur simultaneously; 1. Formulating a code of ethics. 2. Founding of a professional association. 3. Promulgating favorable legislation. 4. Establishing curricula for professional training (preferably in a university). 5. Making appeals to foundations for funds with which to develop new professional knowledge. 36 6. Writing articles to explain the unique contribution of the occupation. 7. Making protests against inaccurate stereotypes of the occupation. Conclusion It is evident, from the preceding analysis, that pro fessionalism is not an easily defined characteristic. While one can observe a well-established profession, such as law or medicine, and describe its component and deriva tive traits, it is much more difficult to specifically de lineate those elements which are mandatorily required for achievement of professional status. Varying professions may or may not possess all the aforementioned criteria, and the degree to which a criterion is integrated into a pro fession also differs. Therefore, it must be concluded that professionalism is a continuum of occupational status, with no definite demarcation between the profession and the non profession. While some occupations are distinctively recog nized in the professional and non-professional loci, others seem to arbitrarily fall between the two classifications. Generally, there are seven criteria that are frequently observed in professions. They are; 1. A specific body of knowledge. 2. Training and education within a university. 3. A professional ideology. 37 4. An organized professional association. 5. A professional code of ethics. 6. Self-regulation through occupational authority and autonomy. 7. Public approval, sanction, and licensure. These seven criteria are often used as indicators of pro fessional standing, but are not always present in all pro fessions . The evolutional process which ultimately confers pro fessional status is also not a specific, well-defined para digm. Some events that usually occur are : 1. recognition of need; 2. recruitment of full-time workers to meet the need; 3. establishment of a body of know ledge that is transmittable through a university; 4. organizing a professional associa tion with the development of a code of ethics and a professional ideology ; 5. winning legal sanction through licensing and certification. In conclusion, it must be mentioned that these pro cesses often occur simultaneously rather than in a pre scribed sequence. Nevertheless, a general paradigm does exist. This paradigm implicates a basic framework of events that occur in the evolution of a profession. The evaluation of our specific discipline will utilize the seven profes- 38 seven criteria in analyzing the professional statuses of social work and gerontology. The next chapter in this review is an evaluation of social work's professional status according to the seven criteria suggested in this chapter. 39 CHAPTER III SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION Introduction The question to be explored in this chapter is whether social work qualifies as a profession, according to the seven criteria. The question will be dealt with by first defining social work. Then, several characteristics of the field will be studied to deduce whether social work adheres to the qualifications identified by various experts as de lineated in the preceding chapter on professionalism. The organization of these characteristics was difficult as many of them fit into multiple categories of professionalism. Therefore, each characteristic will be analyzed as to the relative development made toward the model of professional ism. The criteria which were delineated in the preceding chapter as being required for professional status include; 1) body of knowledge; 2) university education; 3) profes sional ideology ; 4) professional associations ; 5) code of ethics; 6) self-regulation; 7) public sanction; and, finally, an exploration of the development of private 40 practice. A concluding remark will weigh the evidence of whether social work can be rightfully labeled a profession. Definition of Social Work Rex Skidmore and M. Thackeray (1976) suggest the following definition which appeared in the New York Times : A new profession has been growing to maturity under our noses. It is social work. Once thought of as basket-on-the arm assistance to the poor, it is now a discipline, scientific in method and artful in manner, that takes remedial action on problems in several areas of society. It ministers to families in money or emotional difficulties. It helps communities to bring their wel fare and related services into good balance. It works in medical, group, and school situations. It seeks to correct causes underlying delinquency and adult criminality. Bartlett (1962) states that social work is "a configuration of elements, none of which is unique but which in combina tion represent a contribution quite distinct from that rendered by any other profession." (p. 13) Social Work's Professional Status Social works professional status has been speculated upon since the organization of the field commenced in the early 1900's. Abraham Flexner challenged the social workers attending the National Conference of Charities and Corrections in 1915 as to whether their field really con stituted a profession. He viewed social workers as being 41 merely workers of services without their own set of skills. They referred persons in need of assistance to profes sionals who possessed the needed skills (Eaton, 1956). Flexner's view of social workers at that time was not far from wrong, but social work leaders set about to change that reality. In 1917, Mary Richmond wrote Social Diagnosis which was the first systematized approach to social casework. Agency personnel increased their demands that workers be trained. Support was slow in coming and it was not easy to convince lay supporters of charities that more than common sense and compassion were needed for the job (Eaton, 1956). Body of Knowledge The body of knowledge a profession is founded on is crucial to its professional standing (Ritzer, 19 73; Green wood, 195 7; Wickenden, 1950; Elliot, 1972; National Associa tion of Social Workers (N.A.S.W.), 1964). The Charity Organization Society, which had its origins in England, contributed to the body of knowledge of social work skills. Reverend S.H. Gurteen of Buffalo, New York was so im pressed with the London organization's efforts to eliminate duplication in social services, he founded the Buffalo chapter and other chapters followed as the need intensified with the depressions ot 1870 and 1873. The Charity Organi zation Society preceded the social agency councils and the 42 family agencies and contributed the following four methods of operation to social work practice : A detailed case history of the client; a centralization of registration to avoid duplication; coordination of services between the various relief agencies and groups? and, extensive use of the volunteer as a friendly visitor. The client/worker relationship was also very important (Cohen, 1958). The Charity Organization Society movement also "fostered and helped to develop the family service agencies, the practice of family casework, family counseling, councils of social agencies, schools of social work, employment services, legal aid, and many other programs" (Lurie, 1960, p. 30). As mentioned earlier, Ms. Richmond published Social Diagnosis in 1917. It became a classic in social work literature and formed the sociological base for social work. The book delineated the social work method of his tory-taking with emphasis on the client's social and family relationships. Importance was placed on environmental aspects of the client's social and family relationships; but changes in destructive, self-defeating, interpersonal behavior patterns were not addressed. This area of con cern was left to psychology and psychiatry to deal with (Cohen, 1958). Social work's body of knowledge was only in its infancy at this stage and was dependent on other disciplines to fill in the gaps. 43 In the early 1900's specialized agencies began dis placing undifferentiated service deliverers, such as the Charity Organization Society. Health, family, child care, mental hygiene, parole and probation, migrant services are a few of the categories which became specialized. New organizations which addressed these issues were : The Family Service Association, 1911; the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, 1909; United States Children's Bureau, 1912 (Cohen, 1958). This specialization called for more specialized knowledge and education. By 1929 voluntary recreational agencies and settlement houses had begun the development of professional group work. The Community Chest and Councils of America was established in 1918, officially inaugurating what we now call community organi zation (Ferguson, 1963). The 1920's was a period of tremendous professional growth, especially in the areas of casework, of interview ing, of supervision, of the use of volunteers, and of teaching (Ferguson, 1963). From Freudian influences, case work agencies concentrated on trying to understand the psychological functioning of their clients. Recognition of the importance of early experiences led to the compiling of detailed life histories. Tests developed in early 1900's and the widespread use of the Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) reinforced social work's interest in psychological pro cesses . 44 The World War II period was significant for social work; the growing status of the profession was evident by the recognition accorded to it by the military and the government (Stroup, 19 48). In the general atmosphere of unity and cooperation, social work began to pull itself to gether internally and expanded its activities on the inter national scene and into new fields such as psychology (Fink, 1949). The expansion of the operation demanded new ways of cutting down the traditional detailed case histories, paperwork, and constant supervision (Laski, 1948). It was evident that more would have to be accomplished in the body of knowledge to develop methods that permitted dealing with larger numbers than was possible through in dividual psychotherapy. Menninger saw the experience in the armed services with group psychotherapy as having good potentialities for the civilian scene and saw a role for the social worker in such a treatment program. The prac tice of group psychotherapy was far more extensive than in dividual psychotherapy and the social worker had the major responsibility for it (Cohen, 1958). By the end of World War II vistas of knowledge from the field of psychiatry pertaining to personality and social behavior was slowly finding its way into social work curric ulum. There is usually a time lag of approximately a gen eration for the new discoveries and techniques of one 45 science to become a part of the regular working equipment of other sciences. The experience in the War indicated that psychiatry was feeling the developmental impact and since social work borrowed heavily from psychiatry, the speed with which psychiatry was able to move ahead would determine the rate that social work would overcome the time lag (Hofstadter, 19 48). Although social work relies heavily on psychiatry it has its own unique body of knowledge. Following are some of the characteristics which distinguish social work's knowledge base; Social work focuses on the whole person, including behavior and environment, to get a complete pic ture : The family is viewed as important in influencing the behavior of the individual. The family is often considered the "case" in social work practice and is still the basic institution and focus in social work. Utilization of com munity resources to assist people in problem-solving is an important part of the social service which social workers provide. Supervised experience is used to aid new workers in learning and for continued growth of the "seasoned" workers. The trend is less formalized than it used to be. Three basic processes are emphasized in traditional social work : individual casework, group work, and community or ganization. Social workers maintain that the method re mains the same regardless of the process. The method con 46 sists of solving problems related to social interaction and the worker-client relationship is of major importance in the social work process. The worker helps the client face and solve problems in a supportive atmosphere. He respects the client's feelings and tolerates hostile and non'-con forming behavior. The identified strengths of the client are encouraged to be developed so the person can deal with problems in their own feelings or biases which could block or hinder a healthy client-professional relationship. A primary value held by the social work profession is the desirability of man to fulfill his potential and, in equal portion, to help others to reach their potential. Social workers admit that social institutions and human behavior interact to a large degree to cause many of our social problems, thus, it is important to understand these insti tutions . Problems can be alleviated both through individ uals changing and by changing institutions, whenever appro priate. In a team approach to problem-solving, social workers frequently coordinate services and activities with members of other professions and are often catalysts for action (Skidmore et al., 197 6). A distinction between social work and social welfare is important. Social wel fare deals mainly with income maintenance programs and the organized system of social services and institutions, whereas social work seeks to enhance the social functioning 47 of individuals, singly, and in groups, by intervention fo cused on their social interactions which constitute the re lationship between man and his environment (Shonich, 1972). University Education Still another ingredient felt to be necessary in the development of a profession is higher learning or a uni versity education (Wickenden, 1950; Elliot, 1972, Carr- Saunders and Wilson, 1964). The forerunner of today's social work schools dates back to 189 8 and again the Charity Organization Society was involved. The New York Charity Organization Society was the first to establish a training course — a six week Summer School of Philan thropic Workers. After being in operation three years, it became the New York School of Social Work, affiliated with Columbia University, and was the first such school in the country (Cohen, 1958). By 1929 there were twenty-three accredited schools of social work in the country (Ferguson, 1963) . A joint approach to the social problems, stemming from World War II, by the various branches of social work and other related fields led to a greater interest on the part of the professional groups in a better integration of social work education. Many of the social workers were re cruited from related fields, such as psychology and sociol ogy, and not all of them were to remain in social work per 48 manently. But, as a result of this swell in ranks, social work was facing a dilemma which had already become evident in the thirties. The standards in social work were moving ahead rapidly, with an increasing recognition of graduate training in an accredited school of social work as the basic requirement for professional standing (Hollis, 1951). In social work, where the reflection of new trends should have been apparent, there was a noticeable lag in the preparation of students for a role in public welfare services as illustrated by an open poll taken by the National Conference of Social Work in 19 45. Respondents felt that their training had not equipped them to function easily within this framework of public welfare. This de fault indicated that the new directions developed in the thirties had not been fully integrated into the fabric of social work thinking (Hollis, 1951). In 1944 the following eight subject areas were agreed upon to be offered as coursework by all the schools of social work; Social Casework; Social Group Work ; Community Organization; Public Welfare ; Social Administration; Re search in Social Work; Medical Information; and Psychiatric Information (Eaton, 19 56). As illustrated by this curric ula sample and a study of "Social Action and Professional Education," made by Marion Hathaway, it was evident that matters of social reform and social policy were being dealt 49 with only around the fringe of the total curriculum rather than as an integral part of it. The real test was to come in the post-war period (Goldman, 1952). As will be seen later in this paper, social work did not retreat into its cocoon. It made advancements in education as well as other areas. Social work's present-day education program is unique and it involves practical field experience with classes in social work, which offer an integrated combination of prac tice and theory (Skidmore et al., 19 76). Areas of social work training, which are important to the profession, are psychodynamics, intervention methods, supervision, and consultation (Shonich, 1972). A transition has occurred in social work schools from a trade school to an academic orientation. Examples of remnants of the former include faculty being hired through experience rather than academic channels, field work experience outweighing academic train ing, and services and professional orientation of faculty being more important than academic and scholarly pursuits. Strong trends are seen toward the academic orientation in recent years. Greater insistence on advanced training of faculty, incentive for research and publication, acceptance of basic knowledge coupled with practice knowledge, and concern in new areas of social work are all examples of this trend (Meyer, 1972). 50 To gain a Masters in Social Work (M.S.W.), two years of graduate school or its equivalent is needed. One equiva lent way to gain a Masters is to attend an accredited under graduate social welfare program and receive a Bachelors of Social Welfare (BSW) and then only two semesters and a summer is required for the Masters of Science in Social Work or Master in Social Work. In 1915 none of the 15 social work schools in existence had graduate school stand ing. But, by 1953 university-connected graduate schools numbered 59 and some 51 undergraduate programs existed (Eaton, 1956). Approximately 91 graduate schools in the United States and Canada presently offer an M.S.W. (Skid more et al., 1976). Graduate school curriculum appears to be heading in the direction of specialization in certain areas of social service delivery, such as aging, health care, and drug abuse. The 1969 Curriculum Policy Statement allowed for basic generic instruction and for specialized study in one or more concentrations. A 1974 survey of social work school curricula indicates that generic instruction is most prevalent in the first year, but specialized study is be coming more and more the trend for the second year. One reason for this trend is the B.S.W. holder receiving generic instruction on the undergraduate level and, in some in stances, being on the same level as the person with an M.S.W, (Meyer, 1972). 51 Graduate academic training seems to be the route to advancing social work professionalization in spite of the acceptance recently of the B.S.W. as a professional level. The N.A.S.W. has established the Academy of Certified Social Workers (A.C.S.W.), a postscript which is analogous to the M.D. An M.S.W. and two years of limited types of experience under the supervision of persons who have al ready acquired an A.C.S.W. and such persons are limited in numbers. This is one step toward a monopoly of social work manpower but the distinction has not been universally accepted as separating professionals from non-professionals (Meyer, 1972). Professional Ideology According to Elliott's (1972) interpretation, a pro fession's ideology must contain three basic ingredients: notion of service; professional judgment based on profes sional knowledge ; and belief in professional freedom and autonomy. Other experts agreed that professional ideology was important to a profession's growth (Harries-Jenkins, 1970; Ritzer, 1973; Wilensky, 1964). But Werner W. Boehm (19 58) explored these three aspects and concluded the following about them: Notion of service Werner Boehm maintains that social work came into ex istence and has continued its development because it meets 52 human needs and aspirations sanctioned by society. There fore, through its professional ideology and code of ethics, as expressed by social work practitioners, it is responsible for some control and socialization role in society. Professional judgment based on professional knowledge Social work's scientific base contains three types of knowledge: (a) tested knowledge; (b) hypothetical know ledge that requires transformation into tested knowledge ; and, (c) assumptive knowledge, practical wisdom, that must then be transformed into hypothetical knowledge and finally become tested knowledge. Practitioners utilize all three types of knowledge with a consciousness of the degree of scientific certainty behind each (Boehm, 1958). Belief in professional freedom and autonomy Social work expresses its belief in professional free dom by setting forth an ideal model of social work activi ties for the social worker, as the worker is himself the instrument of professional help. The worker's artistic creation consists of three internal processes : (a) con scious choosing of knowledge appropriate to the goal to be obtained; (b) linkage of this knowledge with social work values; and, (c) utilizing this synthesis in professionally relevant endeavors (Boehm, 195 8). As commented upon later in the chapter on the code of ethics, the agency setting is often not conducive to the profession's commitment to maxi 53 mum service. This is perhaps the weakest link, of the three just mentioned, in social work's professional develop ment . Professional Associations Another important characteristic of a profession is its professional associations, which identifies and fosters the professional community (Greenwood, 1957; Goode, 19 60; Elliot, 1972). Most of the professional associations, such as the Association of State Conferences of Social Welfare and the Family Service Association of America, had been established by 1929. The experiences the various profes sional groups gained during World War II, on the Joint Com mittee on Social Work Personnel, laid the groundwork for a growing interest in a single overall professional organiza tion (Cohen, 1958). These various social work groups had to find common ground in answering such basic questions as "Who is a qualified social worker?" and "What kind of training makes a person qualified?" Another important organizational development was the creation of the National Association of Social Workers in October of 1955. Up to that time there were seven separate membership associations. Five of these associations were formalized professional bodies. The other two, the Associa tion for the Study of Community Organization and Social Work Research Group, were still in the informal study stage. 54 committee on inter-association structure was organized in 1949, through the initiative of several associations, to develop a plan for promoting closer cooperative relation ships among the social work professional membership associ ations. The committee's study of the five organizations caused the members to realize that they shared much in common and to explore the feasibility of the five profes sional membership associations, forming one association. In 19 52 representatives of the five professional associa tions formulated a set of principles and policies for a new association, the National Association of Social Workers (N.A.S.W.) and it began operation on October, 1955 (Cohen, 1958). The merger of these various associations represented the concrete expression of their common belief of shared social work theory and common course of training (advances toward an expanded knowledge base and university education). The merger also indicates these organizations had convic tions that forming a larger, unified organization would elicit more prestige and visibility for the profession. One example of the effort for increased prestige is N.A.S.W.'s lobby for the profession's interests in legisla tive and policymaking arenas (Eaton, 1956). Such a sing ular organization is valuable in allowing wide exchange of information and to encourage standard setting which carries 55 some clout. One united voice lends legitimacy and security to the professional status of social work (Towley, 19 56) , which are primary functions of a professional organization. The National Association of Social Wrokers states that its purpose is the promotion of the quality and effective ness of social practice, social work education, personnel standards and practices, social policy and action, and re cruitment. The degree from a graduate professional school of social work accredited by the Council on Social Work Education was originally the requirement for general N.A.S.W. membership. The requirement has since changed and will be discussed in a proceeding sub-section. The origi nal membership of the N.A.S.W. numbered 17,000 and in 1975 some 63,000 members were enrolled (Skidmore et al., 1976). Research in a variety of areas, which may not fit the needs of any one specific area of social work practice but is beneficial to a majority of persons in the field, can be more readily conducted within the structure of N.A.S.W. Research regarding areas of new services can be undertaken with more ease and contributes greatly to the body of know ledge (Towley, 195 6), which hastens the professional status of social work. The National Association of Social Workers is respon sible for the development and maintenance of higher stand ards within the profession. These standards include ethics 56 and civil and employment rights and responsibilities. A social worker's code of ethics has been formulated by the N.A.S.W. The Council of Social Work Education is concerned about increasing the numbers of minorities and male students and faculty in departments and schools of social work because there are these two deficits in the profession currently (Social Work Education Reporter, 1976) . A broader base for membership was defined in 19 70 when undergraduate training in a program, approved by the Council on Social Work Education, was voted as acceptable qualifications for membership in the N.A.S.W. The Bach elors in Social Welfare (B.S.W.) does not replace the M.S.W., but will obviously widen the definition of pro fessional education in social work. Baccalaureate level instead of graduate level is now the minimum requirement (Meyer, 19 71). Besides the graduate level curriculum emphasis chang ing toward specialization (as mentioned in the section on education), graduate education is also shifting toward an administrative emphasis. More attention is gradually being given to supervisory, staff development, and administrative skills and less attention to direct practice skills. Dinerman (197 5) observes that M.S.W.'s are mainly employed in administrative positions or in counseling agencies and are serving a majority of middle class clients. This calls 57 to mind the fact that the status of the clients served by professionals greatly influences the prestige the occupa tion enjoys. This shift of trained staff may raise the prestige of social work, but is it a distortion of the profession's commitment to the poor? The B.S.W.*s may well be the hope for maintaining some level of professional standards in direct service to the poor (Dinerman, 1975). There were actually three categories added to N.A.S.W. membership in 1970; (1) persons employed in social work positions with an undergraduate degree from a C.S.W.E. approved program; (2) students in accredited schools of social work; and, (3) persons holding doctoral degrees in subjects related to social work. In addition, associate membership is now offered to persons working in social work occupations with a bachelors degree in any field. Asso ciate members can advance to full membership status in two years after completion of, as yet unspecified, coursework. The coursework does not have to be degree-earning (Meyer, 1971). Meyer (1971) takes an optimistic view of the shift to ward loosening qualifications of membership as an attempt by the N.A.S.W. to place emphasis on knowledge and com- etence and not solely on the holding of an advanced degree. Through this maneuver, N.A.S.W. is endeavoring to increase the number of states which license and certify social 58 workers by increasing the numbers which the N.A.S.W. re presents. Hopefully, this effort will gain recognition for the differentiation between "professional" and other social workers (Meyer, 1971). The next step after such recognition is the preferential hiring of licensed social workers and perhaps the exclusion from the job market of non-licensed workers. Publications Professional publications can be considered as satis fying two criteria of a profession: body of knowledge and professional association. It is included in the profes sional association category because many of the main social work journals are published by N.A.S.W. and C.S.W.E. Social Work has been published bi-monthly by N.A.S.W. since 1955 and is recognized as a prestitious professional journal. N.A.S.W. News and the Encyclopedia of Social Work (1971 was the year for the latest edition) are also publications of N.A.S.W. Abstracts for Social Workers is a quarterly which gives summaries of articles written in the field of social work and is also a publication of N.A.S.W. The Council on Social Work Education publishes the Social Work Education Reporter and its function is to inform its membership of social work trends in the United States and abroad. The Journal of Education for Social Work, first published in 1956, contains current, pertinent articles in social work education (Skidmore et al., 1976). 59 Code of Ethics Greenwood (1957), Harries-Jenkins (1970), and Levy (1974) are all prestigious observers of the professional scene and agree that a regulative code of ethics is a necessary attribute of a profession. Social work has such a code, which was adopted by the Delegate Assembly of the National Association of Social Workers on October 13, 1960, has been periodically revised, and includes the following affirmations : . I regard as my primary obligation the welfare of the individual or group serviced which includes action for improving social con ditions . . I will not discriminate because of race, color, religion, age, sex, or national ancestry, and in my job capacity will work to pre vent and eliminate such discrimina tion in rendering service, in work assignments, and in employment practices. . I give precedence to my professional responsibility over my personal in terests. . I hold myself responsible for the quality and extent of the service I perform. . I respect the privacy of the people I serve. . I use in a responsible manner in formation gained in professional relationships. 60 . I treat with respect the findings, views and actions of colleagues and use appropriate channels to express judgment on these matters. . I practice social work within the recognized knowledge and competence of the profession. . I recognize my professional responsi bility to add my ideas and findings to the body of social work knowledge and practice. . I accept responsibility to help pro tect the community against unethical practice by any individuals or organi zations engaged in social welfare activities. . I stand ready to give appropriate professional service in public emergencies. . I distinguish clearly, in public, between my statements and actions as an individual and as a representa tive of an organization. . I support the principle that pro fessional practice requires;, profes sional education. . I accept responsibility for working toward the creation and maintenance of conditions within agencies that enable social workers to conduct themselves in keeping with this code. . I contribute my knowledge, skills, and support to programs of human welfare. (Meyer, 1971, p. 959) This code is binding on members of the N.A.S.W. It is ob viously patterned after the codes of established professions and addresses all the criteria of a profession (Toren, 1972). 61 Toren (1972) emphasizes the fact that the code refers only in passing to the social worker's dedication to maxi mum service in the agency setting. That commitment is often not shared by the social service agency which employs the social worker. In fact, serving the client is not always the main intent of the social service agency, but survival and institution-building sometimes becomes the operational purpose of the organization. The code of ethics of social work, while greatly emphasizing help and service to the client, is also affected and shaped by other, sometimes contradictory, values and constraints outside of the profession. Self-régulâtion Two important determinants of self-regulation are au thority and autonomy. Social work has experienced less au thority and autonomy due to several reasons which include: the fact that women who have traditionally had lower work ing status and have been encouraged to fulfill "nurturing roles," hold a majority of social work positions; also its members often advocate unpopular viewpoints, which are of ten ahead of their times. Eaton (1956, p. 13) has noted that research has shown that "the further a group departs from the norms of society, the lower it is ranked in so ciety." Social workers are often union members or pro- union, more accepting of deviants, and define success ac 62 cording to interpersonal relationships rather than wealth. As a result, less wholehearted acceptance by the community for such unpopular actions has also meant less prestige (Eaton, 1956). Kadushin (1958) views social work as being marginal in societal positions because it is involved with various strata of society (psychiatric, medical, supporter of private welfare work, and a lower-class subculture of client population is majority of social workers' target population). Social work identifies with several levels but has roots in none. Kadushin (1958) believes that becoming more flexible in dealing with problems concerning all ages and segments of society should strengthen the authority and prestige of the profession. The means to do this is to improve the level of education of the practitioner and to inform the public of the services the social worker can perform. Accreditation The Council on Social Work Education (C.S.W.E.), which was established by the merger in 1952 of three organ izations with similar functions, is dedicated to the im provement of social work education and to an increase in qualified social workers. It is the only accrediting body for social work education in the United States. The U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the National Commission on Accrediting recog- 63 nize C.S.W.E.'s authority in this are (Meyer, 1971)* Membership in C.S.W.E. is available to graduate and undergraduate social work programs in the United States and Canada, voluntary and public agencies on all levels, the National Federation of Student Social Workers, and profes sional organizations. Individual memberships are open to educators, practitioners, and other interested persons (Skidmore et al., 1976). The Council's accreditation organ, the Commission on Accreditation, approves new social work schools as well as assisting existing schools in upgrading training and aca demic standards. The Commission, since 19 74, can also accredit undergraduate programs. It is apparent that the C.S.W.E. has a great deal of influence in the curriculum and the accreditation process of the various schools of social work and can substantially decide the quality of practitioners graduated from those schools. And, in turn, the development of social work's body of knowledge is de pendent upon the quality of the practitioners, teachers, and researchers these schools graduate. The Council also sponsors or assists in standard de velopment, continuing education, research, services to minority groups, fellowships, consultation services, pub lications and an annual conference (Skidmore et al., 1976), 64 Employment Classification The Board of Directors of the N.A.S.W. approved a social work classification system in June 1973. Six levels of performance were described. Two paraprofessional levels include: Social Service Aide : admission based on life experience, maturity, and appropriate skills and motivation necessary for specific tasks. Social Service Technician; admission depends on (1) completion of a two- year educational program in social service; or, (2) a bachelors degree in another field. The four professional levels are : Social Worker: admission requires a bacca laureate degree from an accredited social work school. Graduate Social Worker : requires a masters from an accredited graduate school of social work. Certified Social Worker : requires certification by (1) the A.C.S.W., or (2) licensure by the state in which one is practicing. Social Work Fellow: requires completion of a doctoral program or substantial field specialization after comple tion of certification by the A.C.S.W. (Skidmore et al., 1976) . The predecessors to these six levels had few guide lines to follow. The beginning of a more formalized ser vice delivery than the good neighbor commenced under the direction of the Charity Organization Society (19 7 3). C.G.S. volunteers, who were usually upperclass businessmen. 65 did the first casework with needy families. Slowly, paid workers began to replace volunteers in the C.O.S. organiza tion and in-service training programs were begun to pass on knowledge and skill. The workers at the settlement houses were, like the C.O.S. volunteers, mostly upper and middle-class volunteers. But less class distinction was apparent in the settlement house. Another stride was taken for the elevating of social workers' status in 19 33 when President Roosevelt established the Federal Emergency Re lief Act (F.E.R.A.). One of the major changes the F.E.R.A. made in social welfare was the hiring of trained workers and the infusion of professional attitudes into social welare (Ferguson, 196 3). The work of the Wartime Committee on Social Work Personnel had significance in attaining pro fessional classification for social workers in the military and government services (Cohen, 1958). Public Sanction Public sanctioning usually leads to licensing, legal recognition of a profession (Goode, 1960; Greenwood, 1957). The first certification and licensing steps in social work were taken in Puerto Rico in 19 34, when an act established compulsory certification or licensure. California enacted the first voluntary registration for social workers in 1945. Eight states passed laws in the I960's to expand legal regulation of the profession. Three states in 1972, 66 and two more in 1974, enacted similar laws, which brings the total to 14 states with some legal regulation of social work practice. The N.A.S.W. adopted a position supporting licensure in 1969 and has given considerable guidance to the movement (Skidmore et al., 1976). In 19 73, N.A.S.W. included the requirements of the Academy of Certified Social Workers certification, which includes the M.S.W. and two years of field experience, plus a written examination in its model licensing statute. N.A.S.W. is now trying to persuade states with existing licensing laws to adopt the A.C.S.W. membership as an alternative to their own examination procedure (Skidmore et al., 1976). California presently offers title protec tion and registration. Registered Social Worker (R.S.W.). Licensing procedures are also available for clinical social workers (must have M.S.W. and two years of practice experience) (N.A.S.W., 1971). Social work has a long way to go in licensing, which leads to a professional monopoly. Such a monopoly increases a discipline’s ability to con trol standards. Private Practice The issue of private practice in social work is a long-standing one. It has been pointed out that, whereas professions such as medicine have begun in private prac tice and are now moving toward the public sector, social 67 work begun under the auspices of public or private organiza tions and is now moving toward private practice (Cohen, 1956). Many social workers are teaming with doctors or psychiatrists in private practice, while others are prac ticing by themselves. A study completed in 1968 by the N.A.S.W,, reported that less than 1,000 of its members were full-time private practitioners and an estimated 15,000 were doing part-time counseling privately (Meyer, 1971). At the 1962 Delegate Convention Assembly of the N.A.S.W., there was a discussion of whether private prac tice fits into the realm of professional social work. The final conclusion was that it did fit within the professional confines under the following guidelines : 1. Practitioner is a graduate of a school of social work accredited by the Council of Social Work Education ; 2. Practitioner holds membership in the Academy of Certified Social Work; 3. Practitioner has completed five years of service in agencies which provide supervision by appropriately trained social worker(s) and spent two years of that time at one agency giving service of the nature contemplated in private practice. (Skidmore et al., 19 76) Private practice, besides satisfying the professional criteria for autonomy, offers the field of social work 68 growth in another manner. Private practitioners, along with the N.A.S.W., have made attempts to be accepted for third party or vendor payments for clinical services rendered. One example of vendor payments is the payment made by insurance companies for services rendered to in sured clients. Two private insurance companies agreed in 19 74 to accept social workers as eligible to receive vendor payments under their nervous and mental coverage. Acceptance of the third party payments for social workers will, undoubtedly, strengthen the lure to private practice and will give impetus to the social work profes sion in gaining equal treatment with respect to reimburse ment for services rendered (Skidmore et al., 19 76). Conclusion Considering the preceding analysis of the various aspects of the social work field it can be reasonably assumed that social work has too many congruences with the professional model not to be identified as a profession. It has a unique and identifiable body of knowledge, code of ethics, and university education system. Its professional associations publish journals, which add to the body of knowledge, handle licensing and credentialing, and lobby for the interests of their members. Private practice and the increase in the numbers of states that license social workers are two signs that social work is advancing along 69 the continuum of professional development. But social work is a relatively new profession and is experiencing uneven development, especially in the area of professional autonomy and its knowledge base. It enjoys little autonomy, except in private practice, and much of its body of knowledge is still drawn from other fields, such as psychiatry and psychology; or drawn from practical experience instead of scientific investigation. But, generally, social work is identified as being well on its way to becoming fully professionalized. 70 CHAPTER IV THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF GERONTOLOGY Introduction According to the operational definitions within the context of this study, a discipline meets professional standing if it meets the following established critera: (1) body of knowledge; (2) university education ; (3) pro fessional ideology; (4) professional associations; (5) a code of ethics ; (6) self-regulation ; and, (7) public sanc tion. Since demographic and longevity studies show the elderly as a significantly growing and recognizable aggre gate in our society, the question arises as to whether or not the established disciplines can adequately meet the needs of the aged. The field of gerontology could address needs and provide a system of research, education, and ser vice delivery. This chapter will examine the historical trends in the field of gerontology, a documentation of the need for studying aging, and whether gerontology meets professional status according to the designated criteria. 71 Trends of Gerontology Gerontology is a discipline which is no more than three decades old. It has taken at least this period of time for gerontology to be thought of as "a systematic examination of data and logical sets of conclusions con cerning the aging process" (Breen, 1970, p. 5). Gerontol ogy has been defined in a variety of ways and involves a variety of disciplines. Clark Tibbitts (1963) has helped popularize the term "social gerontology." Social Gerontol ogy focuses upon two points of view : One view is concerned with the scientific and psychological forces upon the organism and the other is concerned with how the environ ment and organizational structure of culture influences the individual. Breen (19 70) identifies five separate stages in the development of gerontology as a discipline. These include : the philosophical stage, the biological stage, the psychological stage, the social stage, and the polit ical stage. Philosophical concern in aging dates back to Aristotle's time. Lengthy dialogues of Aristotle, Cicero, and Homer reflect upon the interest and concern of growing old. Cicero's "De Senectute" (106-43 B.C.) addresses the problem of old age and expresses that it is a time of joy rather than a time of despair. The biologic interest in aging dates back to the 72 1800's. Birren and Clayton (1970) credits Quetelet as the first gerontologist. However, it was not until the late 1930's that an avid interest in aging began. During the 1930's the number of individuals age 65 and over increased 35 percent as contrasted with an increase in the general population of 7.2 percent (Birren et al., 1970). In 1939 a group of British scientists became interested in age re lated changes in cells, organs, and tissues, and decided to form an International Club for Research on Aging (Tibbitts, 1963). The publication of Cowdry's Problems of Aging in 19 39 and the establishment of the Gerontological Society in 19 45, illustrate the growing interest in the biological aspects of aging (Kleemeir, Havinghurst and Tibbitts, 196 7). Psychological interest in the elderly evolved with the development of institutional facilities. Long term care facilities and interest in "senility" promoted the aware ness of the mental health needs of the elderly. The first marked contribution was Stanley Hall's book on Senescence, published in 1923 (Kleemeir et al., 1967). The first systematic attempt to investigate the psychological aspects of aging, however, occurred when the Stanford Later Matur ity Research Project conducted a study (Tibbitts, 1963). Social interest in the aging began when increasing numbers of aged affected various aspects of society. 73 Issues such as housing economics and health became pressing social concerns. The articles published in the Journal of Gerontology, which was established in 1946, enumerated problems of aging in the social science areas. The National Council on the Aging, furthermore, was organized in 1950 and was devoted to social, economic, and related aspects of aging. The political stage for gerontology developed in the mid-thirties. While primarily an economic issue, the Social Security Act of 19 35 was also indicative Of politi cal interest in aging. A year before, Simmons published a work entitled. The Role of the Aged in Primitive Society and provided a basis for comparing the elderly in agricul tural and industrial societies. In 1948, a report on Social Adjustment in Old Age indicated that sociological interest in aging was beginning to extend itself through the developmental stages of life. The 1950's showed a proliferation of publications and continued research. At this time eight sections of the first National Conference on Aging was organized and the Inter-University Training Institute in Social Gerontology was conceptualized and supported (Tibbitts, 19 63). In the 1960's new developments occurred in the field of aging. The first White House Conference on Aging, which was held in 1961 and the Older American Act, which was 74 passed in 1965, provided for the Administration on Aging. In addition, during the last three decades, the establish ment of the National Retired Teacher Association, American Association of Retired Persons, the National Council on Aging, the Senate Special Committee on Aging, the National Center on Black Aging, and the National Institute on Aging, are indicative of the growing interest and stature of the field of gerontology. Documentation of Need The need to address the aged and their problems is be coming more apparent. Kleemeir (1965) states that today's belated attention, now given to the problems of aging and the aged, is a product of different perspectives of viewing the elderly, rather than the significant increase in the elderly population. Due to changing perspectives and demo- graphical statistics, the fact remains that there is a need for specialized training in working with older adults. Krauss (1963) and Kleemeir (1965) further substantiate this need. Krauss states that it is obviously becoming more evident that meeting the needs of the aged require a specialized body of knowledge in modern society. Kleemeir adds that there is both a need in society and science for a major visible investment of effort directed toward the solution or alleviation of the problems of aging. Certain problems, areas, methods, techniques, knowledge, profes- 75 sional personnel, and institutions should clearly be seen as having an intimate, predominate, or exclusive concern for aging with different disciplines contributing to a central area of concern. The need for special training in the area of aging was identified by the White House Conference on Aging in 1961. A committee concerned with the role and training of pro fessional personnel designated four occupational groups which they felt needed gerontological training. These in clude: (1) Medical Services; (2) Social Work; (3) Educa tional, Religious, and Recreational Services; and, (4) En vironmental Planning and Administration. In addition, Clark Tibbitts (1967) describes the following four cate gories of personnel needed to work with the aged: (1) direct providers of services ; (2) planners, administrators and program directors ; (3) researchers ; and, (4) teachers. Present economic, housing, health, and legislative trends further support the requirement for gerontological training. The spread of technology and an industrial economy have presented unforeseen problems, such as in adequate income, substandard housing and rising health costs for the elderly. Legislative trends also indicate that an interest in the elderly is ever-growing. Governmental bodies such as Veterans Administration and the National Institute of Child 76 Health and Human Development, the Administration on Aging, the United States Senate Special Committee on Aging, Social Security Administration, and Area Agencies on Aging, are indicative of the interest in the elderly. Social, economic, and legislative trends document the need for specialized training in working with the aged. Gerontology, hence, can provide a distinctive educational and research-oriented discipline which deals specifically with the phenomenon of aging. Body of Knowledge To state that gerontology lacks an identificible body of knowledge is erroneous. Kleemeir, Havinghurst, and Tibbitts (196 7, p. 39) note "the body of specialized know ledge is there and accumulating." The task is to put it into a coherent framework rather than parcel the knowledge to other disciplines. The issue, hence, is not that social gerontology fails to meet the criterion of a recognizable body of knowledge, but whether it should be given serious consideration as a separate discipline. Traditionally, gerontology is a multidisciplinary field, thereby borrowing knowledge from the physical, bio logical, and social sciences. As previously mentioned, the historical development indicates the accumulation of theories, knowledge, and research; Breen (1970), Birren et al., (1970), and Tibbitts (1963) have documented the 77 accumulation of knowledge in the fields of philosophy, biology, sociology, physiology, and politics. University interest in gerontology dates back to the 1950's when several universities initiated gerontological programs. Cornell University developed programs in educa tion, industry, and business; the University of Chicago was an innovator of pre-retirement programs; and Duke University brought various departments in the university together to examine problems of the aged. In addition, the University of California developed a research program; the University of Iowa developed a gerontology institute ; and the University of Michigan, Wayne State, started its Institute of Gerontology. Each of the schools has done much to increase knowledge in the gerontological field. Recently, the University of Southern California has set precedent by establishing a separate school of geron tology. The Leonard Davis School of Gerontology is dedi cated to developing and identifying a distinct set of theories, methodologies, and principles which form the technical base of professional practice. It offers courses which concentrate on biological theories, developmental processes, and psychosocial needs, as they relate to the aging individual. The creation of governmental bodies, such as the Administration on Aging, the United States Senate Sub- 78 committee on Aging (1959), followed by the Senate Special Committee on Aging, the National Council on Aging (1960) , the Administration on Aging (1965) , the National Institute on Aging, and the National Institute on Child Health and Human Development, have added several dimensions to the current body of knowledge. They subsidize research, publish relevant literature, and have become strong advo cates in the field. In addition, the proliferation of publications and governmental grants are also indications of an ever-growing body of knowledge that pertains speci fically to gerontology. University Education At present, there are no specific courses required to be considered a "gerontologist." In the field of Adult Education, for example, many teachers are considered geron tologists having had no formalized training in the area of aging. Although the recent Ryan Act (1970) has made re quirements for receiving a credential much more stringent in California, educators of adults are still not required to take courses which deal specifically with the aging individual. Nevertheless, there is a growing concensus that a university education is necessary in the field of gerontol ogy- The Gerontological Society, in 19 56, sponsored a conference to consider the problem of training in the so- 79 ciàl science aspects of gerontology (Shock, 1957). As a result, the Inter-University Training Institute in Social Gerontology was established (Breen, 19 70) . Shock felt concerned that professional workers had not received ade quate exposure to the aspects of aging. In 195 7 he stated, "there is a definite need for the organization of course material on our knowledge about aging for presentation to undergraduate and graduate students...More systematic in struction is imperative if we are to attract potential, competent research and professional workers into this field" (Shock, 1957, p. 175). Experts in the field of aging such as Dr. James E. Birren, Dr. Clark Tibbitts and Dr. Wilma Donahue have long been aware that college courses in the field of aging were scarce and that there were a growing number of people seeking opportunity for training. They concurred that one of the major obstacles to the development of professional training in aging is the firm entrenchment of specialists devoted to particular disciplines (Roller, 1962) . There were earlier, a reluctance to depart from an established field and enter the new discipline of gerontology. But considerable change has taken place in a short time. Woodruff and Birren (1974) felt that gerontology as a subject should be introduced at the undergraduate level. Exposure to gerontology would enable those interested to 80 develop this interest. There are several points of view on whether or not gerontology should eventually become a seIf-standing dis cipline or whether it should be incorporated into tradi tional fields of study. Breen (1970) questions whether one can have a separate scholarly discipline in gerontology and train specialists in the field. Some educators argue that training should be at a generalist level in gerontol ogy with scholarly training specialization in traditional fields such as biology or sociology (Breen, 1970) . Kuhlen, Kreps, Kushner, Osterbind and Webber (1967) emphatically state that specialization is possible and should be required within social gerontology. In 1967 Kleemeir and Birren took the position that gerontology could be considered a distinctive area of teaching and re search. As a separate entity, they said, it could be con tained within the university with its own administrative authority, faculty, and academic rights and responsibili ties . Within the last twenty years, gerontology has become a recognized course of study in university education. A national survey in 1961 by the University of Michigan on educational activities showed that progress was being made in the field. From 19 58 to 1961, 112 institutions and 116 departments report on 221 research projects in gerontol 81 ogy, and 137 theses and dissertations were written. The dissertations were produced in the fields of sociology, psychology, and human development; and the greatest number of master's degrees were in the field of social work. A survey in 1964 conducted by the Gerontological Society identified 15 9 institutions giving some training in geron tology (Breen, 1970). Of the total number of institutions, 80 were academic, 40 were medical or professional, and the rest were agencies. Research programs in gerontology had 199 students enrolled or who had completed a program, while 1,089 students were in the applied programs. Recom mendations were made to increase funding for research and training and to develop facilities and resources. It was suggested that interdisciplinary mechanisms and inter university cooperation should be undertaken. Breen (1970) concluded that this report held great promise for the fu ture of gerontology. In 1967, Donahue identified a number of programs, centers, and institutes of gerontology in university set tings which were multidisciplinary in nature, and in addi tion to research programs, offered graduate training. Examples given were as follows : Duke Center for Aging Re search and Human Development, University of Chicago Pro gram of Adult Development and Aging, the University of Southern California Rossmoor-Cortese Institute for the 82 study of Retirement and Aging, and the University of Michigan-Wayne State Institute of Gerontology. More recently, the expansion of gerontology has spread to colleges and universities throughout the country. In 1976 the Association for Gerontology in Higher Education compiled a directory designed to inform educators, profes sionals , and students of gerontology related courses, degree programs, research programs, educational services, and training programs. The study indicated that there were approximately 1,275 institutions in the United States which offered gerontology courses. In California alone, 104 in stitutions offered gerontology courses and these institu tions included community colleges, vocational and technical institutes, colleges, universities, professional schools, and non-degree granting institutions (United States Depart ment of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Human De velopment, Administration on Aging, 1976). A trend toward offering a graduate degree in gerontol ogy may be surfacing in educational institutions around the country. Such degrees are currently bçing offered at the University of Southern California's Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and at the University of Southern Florida. Furthermore, the interest in gerontology is exempli fied through the proliferation of training schools in vari ous educational areas. More colleges and universities are 83 recognizing the future importance of gerontology. At the j I same time, however, there appears to be a disagreement as | I to whether gerontology should become a self-standing dis- ‘ I cipline. Presently, the majority of schools are incorpor ating gerontology into traditional fields of study. Until , I this issue becomes resolved, individual institutions will ' I ■ ’ have to decide if a separate and distinct school for geron-! tology is necessary. Thus, one must conclude that the educational requirements for gerontology are presently in | the state of development, marking a definite step toward professional standing. Professional Ideology When applying Elliott's (1972) interpretation of pro fessional ideology to gerontology, it becomes apparent that the discipline has a long distance to traverse to satisfy this criterion. Notioh of Service There seems to be a constant attempt to concern prac titioners in gerontology with the service aspects of the discipline. The relationship of the practitioner and the client is an important factor in the growth of the field. The sense of mission also includes the dispelling of myths about aging and the recognition of the rigidities of chron ological age. 84 Professional Judgment Professional judgment is predicated on a scientific base of knowledge. Beattie (1970) states that the prac ticing gerontologist views his role as embracing the de velopment of social policies and placing them in practice* This responsibility must be founded on a philosophy rooted in scientific knowlege, where such knowledge exists. This philosophy must reflect the practitioner's perception of aging and the meaning of aging to the client, his family, community and society-at-large. Aging research has just begun to define some of these issues on which professional judgments should be based. Autonomy Gerontology is such a multi-faceted discipline the autonomy which it enjoys is not known. Persons who are working in gerontology represent a diverse range of dis ciplines and professions. A psychiatrist who specializes in older patients may have more autonomy in treatment than the social worker who works with older clients. No licens ing procedures or exclusionary professional associations currently exist to identify gerontologists apart from other practitioners. Both factors work against the development of autonomy within the discipline. 85 Professional Associations I In order for gerontology to be considered a profession, organizations which set criteria for membership in the ' field must be established. There are presently three organizations which deal specifically with gerontology. The Gerontological Society is the organization most com monly associated with the field in the United States. It is the authoritative voice as author and critic in the formulation of national policy and reflects upon the status of gerontology in modern society (Freeman, 1971). Jerome Kaplan (197 0) states that the formation of the Gerontolog ical Society in 1945 marked a significant contribution of a national scope. The society is devoted to research on aging and encompasses training and evaluation of services for older people. Research is conducted in biology, clinical medicine, pyschology, social sciences, and social welfare. The Society publishes two journals: Journal of Gerontology and the Gerontologist. The Journal of Geron tology publishes quarterly reports of original research in the affiliated fields mentioned above. The Gerontologist is also published quarterly and carries articles of general interest in the areas of medical care, recreation, housing, social welfare, employment and any other area which is re lated to aging. 86 , The Western Gerontological Society and Association | ! for Gerontology in Higher Education are two organizations ' i ' which have primarily an educational focus. The primary goal of the Western Gerontological Society is to work for the well-being of all older residents of Western states by ; promoting communication, fostering better understanding of j gerontology, stimulating research, and by encouraging pro- i fessional preparation for gerontological research. < Currently, neither the Gerontological Society or the ! Western Gerontological Society have professional require ments for membership. The Gerontological Society requires that one complete an application and have two standing members sign the form, while the Western Gerontological Society invites any individual or organization with an in terest in aging to become a member. Both these societies represent rudiments of a professional association. How ever, if the societies are to exist as professional associa-? tions, they must become increasingly regulative and set definite standards of admission. In addition to the three organizations previously mentioned, there are other organizations which have vested interests in aging. The National Retired Teachers Associa tion/American Association of Retired Persons (NRTA/AARP), American Association of Homes for the Aging, American Nurs ing Home Association, and the National Council on the Aging 87 . are greatly involved with the elderly. Ethel Percy Andrus founded the National Retired Teachers Association in 19 47 ]and the American Association of Retired Persons in 195 8. I These organizations are voluntary, non-profit, and non- i partisan. The American Association of Homes for the Aging was founded in 1961 and is dedicated to improving programs and standards of institutions serving older people. The I American Nursing Home Association sponsors educational i jmeetings and seminars and the National Council on the Aging is the leading national voluntary agency which provides professional services for those concerned with the elderly. Code of Ethics Cox (19 76) notes that a lack of formalized standards of professional conduct severely limits the professional status of gerontology. Cox believes that the formulation of an ethical code is difficult due to the diversity of skills, training, and tasks required of its membership. The diversity of skills and training is primarily due to the nature of gerontology. Gerontology is of a multi disciplinary nature; that is, a combination of specialized fields, and therefore fosters and produces generalists in this area. Many people who enter the field are already working in specialized areas and their gerontological in terest, therefore, becomes a part of their professional responsibilities. In addition, the fact that gerontological 88 associations have an extremely broad-based membership I hinders a stringent code of ethics from developing. I The need for ethical standards is quite apparent. I The fact that human beings are involved in research and I practice mandates that ethical standards be considered. According to Eisdorfer and Wilkie (1970), when one utilizes I human subjects in research, three basic elements of tech- I I nical practice are involved. These include: consent, I confidence, and standard or accepted procedure. Regulations of standards encompassing gerontology has not yet come about. Guinne (1970) feels that standards may only develop when people begin to pay for professional services. Since there appears to be some question as to whether or not gerontology can best provide for the needs of the elderly, professional services have not yet been recognized. Thus, people are not paying gerontologists for services but are paying those professionals who have vested interests within the field. Time and public recog nition of gerontology as the provider of services for the elderly will support the formation of a code of ethics. Self-Regulation SeIf-regulation has been operationally defined as the professional mechanism which maintains the ability of the discipline autonomously to govern and regulate its members, establish standards of service, enforce the code of ethics. 89 assume responsibility for disciplinary action, and be publicly accountable for the actions of its constituency. At this point in time there is no mechanism which controls self-regulation in the field of gerontology. Since admis sion to the Gerontological Society and Western Gerontolog ical Society is open to all, regulation of its members is virtually non-existent. For example, many of the people who work in the field are professionals or semi-profes sionals in some other field such as teaching, nursing, social work, and counseling. As stated previously, their primary allegiance is not directed towards gerontology. The diversity of educational background and of services per formed is likely to make it difficult for those in geron tology to meet a standard of self-regulation which would qualify them as professionals. It is possible, as sug gested by Finn and Carmichael (1974), that there will be a division in the field which will be broken down as follows : : (a) a broad group of paraprofessionals of different degrees of skill who work directly with the aged; (b) an inter mediate level of semi-professionals ; and (c) an apex of highly trained academic and scientific personnel for re search and training. Future events will show whether or not these highly differentiated groups will be able to unify to the extent necessary to advance gerontology to the level of a profession. 90 r Public Sanction ! Since there is no legislation which regulates the I j practice of gerontology by means of licensure or certifica- Ition, formal approval by the community does not exist. I Nevertheless, an increase in publications, professional 'organizations, governmental programs, and community ser- I vices, indicates informal sanction by the public and a j j growing awareness and interest in aging. Mass media and publications help project an image in the public eye. Several newspapers, magazines, and journals are currently disseminating information about the elderly. The Los Angeles Times, for example, has run a series of articles on nursing homes, attitudes, and stereo types toward the aged, social security benefits and legis lation for the elderly. Magazines which have recently pub lished articles dealing with the aged are as follows : Saturday Evening Post, Psychology Today, New West, Ladies Home Journal, and McCall * s. Subjects discussed dealt with sex after sixty, stress and aging, death and dying, time and leisure, and housing. Professional journals also help to disseminate knowledge on aging. Examples of these in clude : Aging, Age and Aging, Long-Term Care, Educational Gerontology, Journal of Gerontology, Experimental Aging and Research, and Current Literature on Aging. There are also a number of national and scientific 91 ; professional organizations which include an interest in I aging. The American Public Welfare Association, for ex- J ; ample, has a section devoted primarily to the problems of I the aged. The National Council for Homemaker Services, the American Medical Association, Group Advancement of Psychi atry, and the Adult Education Association also have divi sions working with the aged. In addition, the Division of Later Maturity, established by the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Society, the Ameri can Hospital Association, and the American Geriatrics Society, all deal with age-related issues. As mentioned previously, governmental interest in the aging stems back to the 19 30's. The Veteran's Administra tion, Commission on Aging, Senate Sub-Committee on Aging, the Social Security Administration, and Area Agencies on Aging help boost the image of the elderly. In addition, the increase in community services for the elderly illu^ strate the increasing importance of gerontological issues. The following represents a sampling of services provided in the Los Angeles area: Advocacy, counseling and social services, health care services, home services, information and referral services, legal services, nutritional services, outreach, recreation, and transportation are offered by several agencies. These agencies include: Retired Senior Volunteer Program, Los Angeles City Parks and Recreation, 92 senior citizens centers, Los Angeles City Office on Aging, and the Los Angeles County Department of Senior Citizens I Affairs. i As evidenced by the increase in public services, aging; is a provocative and pressing issue in our society. How- I ever, whether the field of gerontology warrants public recognition as the provider of services remains an issue of debate. At present, the term "gerontology" and "gerontol ogist" has no specific meaning to the general public. Measures must be taken to define gerontological terms so that the public will support the field, as society's advo cates for the elderly. Conclusion It must be concluded that gerontology is currently recognized as a field of specialty with major educational and career emphasis still resting within the established professions. That there is a need for gerontological train-} ing is unquestionable, but whether or not the public sanc tions gerontology as the discipline which best provides for the needs of the elderly is a controversial issues. Kleemeir, Havinghurst, and Tibbits (1967) all agree that gerontology as a separate discipline requires professional education and that it can provide specialized training and skills needed to work with the elderly. An identifiable body of knowledge and the formation of the Gerontological 93 Society are indications that professional stature is be ginning. Nevertheless, membership is not regulated and a I lack of a code of ethics makes a means of self-regulation | I difficult to attain. Thus, gerontology lacks some of the 1 designated criteria needed to be considered a profession. ' j The increase in public services, governmental bodies and i I I I publications, however, indicate that gerontology has a 1 proclivity towards increasing structure, standardization, and regulation of the field. The next chapter will focus on the extent social workers are involved in the field of aging. 94 CHAPTER V SOCIAL WORK AND GERONTOLOGY: REVIEW OF PERTINENT LITERATURE AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION Introduction | American social workers are not comfortable about the ! conditions of the aged in their midst, and they should not be (Shanas, Townsend, Wedderburn, Friis, Milhoj and Ste- houwer, 1968). Atchley (1972) reports that over 60 percent of the older people in the United States are poor. Older people, in general, are not as healthy as the young and suffer from a greater prevalence of chronic conditions. Sharply reduced income levels that beset an individual at retirement are not compensated for by a diminished economic need nor by a decrease in the motivation to consume. The increased incidence of social loss also confronts the aging individual (Bengtson and Haber, 1975). This chapter will examine the relationship between social work and the field of gerontology. Three different aspects will be presented: a theoretical viewpoint; an historical viewpoint; and, finally, how social work prac- 95 ; tice relates to the current programs affecting the aged. Theoretical Viewpoint I In the helping professions, theories of human behavior: I have helped shape the development of the professions them- I selves. It can be documented that social work has leaned I heavily on Freudian theory of human growth and development, ! i which has been primarily concerned with infancy, childhood,| ' and adolescent stages in the human life cycle (Ferguson, ; I ! 1969; Hollis, 1966). The impact of Freudian psychoanalysis on social work theory in the 1920's and 1930's resulted in the development of diagnostic social work theory (Smalley, 19 70). Freud's model affected social workers and social work practice, especially in psychiatric and medical facil ities, as well as those social workers working with chil dren and families (Fink, Anderson, and Conover, 196 8). One of the major problems of Freudian theory is that it largely ignores the later stages of life and oftentimes is not specifically applicable to elderly clients. In the last 25 years other theoretical frameworks, such as the functional approach, ego psychology, develop mental perspective, and behavior modification, have in fluenced social work theory. These more current paradigms have developed and broadened the practical application of social work knowledge in working with older adults. The field of social gerontology has also developed 96 I theoretical frameworks, such as the disengagement theory ' and the continuity theory, which have been utilized in ( i working on behalf of the aged. Clark Tibbitts (1963, p. 1 9 ) 1 I ; i defines social gerontology as follows : | Social gerontology may be seen as a striving to establish a body of veri fied propositions and systematic hypo- i j theses with reference to the aging j process in the individual following i early adulthood, to the societal ' factors in aging and to the adaptations of society to older people. It repre sents a cross-sectional approach to the study of those aspects of the individual, | the group, and culture which have re- | ference to aging. Social gerontology provides the scientific foundation to guide the activist in planning, developing, and implement ing programs in the field of aging. This is a reciprocal relationship and the knowledge gained by the activist may be converted into new testable propositions and will con tribute to the fund of gerontological knowledge (Lowy, 1972). In a field where no solid knowledge base is avail able, it has been essential to adapt, develop, and expand existing theoreticals from other disciplines. Recently, there have been numerous articles on aging written in the field of social work. Examination of three prominent social work journals. Social Casework (from 1967 to present), Social Service Review (from 1970 to present), and Social Work (from 1964 to present), shows extensive literature on aging. There have been approximately eight 97 articles on programs and services for the aged, two on group work with the elderly, two on social work practice and the elderly, two on working with the mentally impaired aged, six on institutionalization, three on aging parents, one on social policy and the aged, six on social problems of the aged, and three on medical factors affecting the elderly. The work done by these contemporary writers re flects the stage of social work practice in the field of aging and some careful reading indicates that often social workers have been ahead of the times. The rapidly growing field of aging shares many generic principles with social work practice so that an exploration of applied gerontol ogy should inform the reader about aging and its relation ship to social work. Gerontology incorporates the follow ing views : a response to changing society; emphasis on the later years; an example of a developmental theory of per sonality which stresses continued personal growth through out the life span; a model for new practice constructs ; an expression of the frequent failure of social institutions to respond to the changing needs of the elderly ; and the persistence of human need throughout the life cycle. This developmental approach to aging views the person as always growing, always changing, albeit in age-related ways, and requires that opportunities be made available for continued activity. This in itself is a test of accountability for 98 the field of social work in general (Meyer, 19 75). The current approach to providing care for the elderly i by social workers is based on the assumption that all older ! people have a right to remain independent. To maintain in dividuality , the elderly client has a right to a degree of self-determination, and a right to dignity and respect ; I (Feldman, 1976). This includes physical independence, but | for many elderly clients who come to the notice of social workers this cannot realistically be achieved because of physical or mental deterioration. A further objective of social work with aging clients is the recognition of the right to overcome the obstacles to change and progress, and success implies the restoration of process (Brearly, 1975). Skidmore and Thackeray (196 4) contend that the social worker individualizes problems of the aged and addresses his/her efforts to the prevention of breakdown and to the solution of problems of social functioning. Satisfaction in old age is also linked to an acceptance of the life that has gone before. Social work is aimed at the achievement of an integration of the past, present, and future of the individual. One other important aspect is that of family involvement. Social workers should involve the family and the community in help for the elderly client, not because of a real or imagined moral or statutory duty, but because the problems of the individual old person are 99 I inextricably linked to those of the people around him/her. I Ignoring the family may cause greater problems in the long j I run, especially in terms of the guilt that is aroused if | children cannot care for aging parents (Brearley, 1975). Counseling and the provision of material aid are major' Î i parts of the social work task in assisting elderly people I who may be socially dysfunctional. In providing these ser vices , an important consideration is that each individual client should have his/her needs met without threat to his/ her own ability to control the direction of his/her life (Feldman, 1976). Therefore, this adaptation of established theoretical frameworks has helped social workers better meet the needs of the aged. But an adequate knowledge base is not the only determinant of a successful relationship between the social worker and the elderly client. Much of the life style and social situation of the elderly is molded by the historical perspectives of aging and the resultant legislative efforts to alleviate problems associated with aging. The next section will briefly trace the development of legislative programs that have been instituted to meet the specific needs of the older population. Historical Viewpoint and Pertinent Legislation During the Middle Ages it was considered a religious obligation to care for group members who could not care for 100 jthemselves, especially the elderly and children. The Judeo ' Christian tenants emphasized charity as a virtue and en- j ; couraged believers to care for the fatherless and the widowed (Ferguson, 1963). The Elizabethan Poor Laws of ! 16 01 were the culmination of the decline of church author- I , j ! ity and the shift of responsibility for the poor to govern-I I I mental control. De Schweinitz (1943, p. 29) evaluated the j Poor Law as follows : After two centuries of attempts to control poverty by repressive measures, the government of England slowly and reluctantly came to accept positive obligations for the help of persons who could not provide for themselves. The experience of the years between 13 49 and 1601 had convinced the rulers of England of the presence of a desti tution among the poor that punishment could not abolish and that could be relieved only by the application of public resources to individual need. This general philosophy was brought to the United States and has influenced and affected social welfare ser vices and programs into the present. From 1917 to 19 29 most states had joined in the movement toward consolidation and coordination of welfare services from private charity organizations into statewide systems. Fink, Anderson, and Conover (196 8, p. 49) describe the states that enacted old- age pension legislation, previous to the enactment of Social Security, to alleviate some of the problems of the aged : 101 The first state to enact a law that withstood the constitutional test and furnished a statutory base for a program was Montana in 1923. (Arizona had passed a law in 1914 that was declared unconstitutional. However, it was the territory of Alaska, now a state, that may rightly claim the first law, 1915, to stay on the statute books.) In the same year, 1923, another state, Nevada, passed laws that withstood the courts, Wis consin in 1925, Kentucky in 1926, Maryland in 1927, and four states — California, Minnesota, Utah, and Wyoming -- in 1929 completed the roll by the close of the pre-depression era. Nine states and one territory had made their break with the Poor Law principle of relief for the aged. Social welfare programs were developed gradually to aid various "worthy poor" among which the aged were included. By 1920, forty states had passed acts to aid needy mothers, and soon after, similar aid was made available to the aged. Although restricted in provision, these services assumed ever-increasing importance until they were embodied in the Social Security Act of 1935 (Federico, 19 76). While much of the early legislation passed in im mediate response to the Depression was at least partially successful in alleviating need, it soon became clear that a more fundamental and enduring change in the nation's economic and social welfare institutions was necessary. The Social Security Act was proposed by President Roosevelt and was passed by Congress in 1935. Two social insurance programs were established on the national level to meet 102 I needs created by old age and unemployment; Old Age and I Survivors Insurance (OASI) or Social Security, a federal system of old age benefits for retired workers, and a ! , federal-state system of unemployment. The program also j provided for federal grants to states to help them provide , financial assistance to the aged, the blind, and dependent , children (Federico, 19 76). i The test of the extent to which the heightened concernj with social reform and social policy had been permanently ] i integrated into the fabric of social work thinking was interrupted by war. With national attention turning to wards the problems of World War II, attitude toward exten sion of Social Security and other social measures of a permanent nature received less consideration. There were indications that a regression from the progress of the thirties was in store (Burns, 1949). Although there had been a difference of opinion in the Congress concerning the reduction of income taxes, the powers of labor, and price controls, there was agreement in 1950 to expand the program of social insurance. Coverage of the federal old age and survivors' insurance system was increased from approximately 35 million workers in an average week to approximately 4 5 million. The Social Security Act was again expanded in 19 54, with coverage ex tended to 10 million more individuals and benefits in 10.3. creased for hundreds of thousands of others already in the I ; plan. In August 1956 the bill was further amended to lower, I from 65 to 62 the age at which women could draw old age and I survivors' insurance benefits, and to make totally disabled i I workers eligible for cash payments at the age of 50, on the same formula as benefits were available to retired workers ! I (Cohen, 1958). ! Amendments to the Old Age Survivors, Disability, and j Health Insurance program in 1961 lowered the retirement agej for men to 62, increased widow's insurance benefits by 10 j percent, lowered the work requirements for eligibility and liberalized the retirement test by raising from $1,500 to $1,700 the wage limit under which $1.00 in benefits is withheld for each $2.00 in earnings. As a result of these and other constructive improvements in the 1961 legisla tion, June 1962 payments totaled $940 million, a $110 million increase over the previous year. The number of elderly receiving benefits also increased by 1.2 million to a total of 13.2 million. Amendments to the public assistance provisions of the Social Security Act were made in 1961 and again in 1962. They encouraged states to make more adequate payments to their needy aged by raising the federal share of the payments and by permitting the elderly to keep some earned income without having their old age assistance checks reduced (Cohen, 1962). 104 , By December 1972 more than 2 8 million people were re- I i ceiving cash benefits at a monthly rate of 3.9 million I I dollars. Amendments of the Social Security Act in 1973 I raised the amount of earning a beneficiary can receive in a year without reduction in QASDHI benefits to $2,400 effective January 1, 1974 (United States Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1973). This maximum earnings rate was raised in 1976 to $2,760 and again increased to $3,000 effective January 1, 1977. I I In contrast to other advanced industrial societies, the old people of the United States live in greater rela tive poverty and are offered social services that are de plorably underdeveloped, especially community-delivered services (Shanas et al., 196 8). However, the government is moving toward a more comprehensive system of services for the elderly. A significant development was the crea tion of the United States Senate Subcommittee of Aging in 1959, followed by the establishment of the Senate Special Committee on Aging. This committee has been described by Elias Cohen as "one of the most effective change agents on the scene," and its more than two hundred committee points as the best "compendium of current thought and opinion about various facets of aging in America"(Cohen, 1962). On January 17, 19 77 the Senate Committee of Rules and Admini stration, by a vote of 5 to 4, voted to discontinue the 105 I work of the Senate Committee on Aging. Advocates of this , : reorganization plan suggest that the proposed new Committee! I ! I on Human Resources could serve as a focal point for Senate j concern about older Americans (Church, 1977a). This de- I cision was reversed by a Senate vote of 90 to 4 and the I I Senate Special Committee remains in existence (Church, ^ ; I 1977b). These legislative actions reflect the current un- I certainty about the importance of aging issues within the federal government. The National Council on Aging, incorporated in 1960, is a central national resource that works with and through other organizations to develop concern for older people and methods and resources to meet their needs. The National Council on Aging has given high priority to seminars de signed to deepen the knowledge and skills of practitioners in working with the aging and to help these professionals overcome negative attitudes toward the elderly. The Arden House Seminar, held at Columbia University in November 1960, brought together about eighty outstanding social workers, educators, and resource persons from related fields to dis cuss the varied aspects of aging from the point of the in dividual (Skidmore and Thackeray, 1964). Concern about the plight of the elderly was reflected by Public Law 85-908, which authorized the first White House Conference on Aging, held in Washington, D.C. in January 1961, more than half a 106 ; century after the first White House Conference on Children ; in 1909 (Encylcopedia of Social Work, 19 71). The White ! House Conference on Aging may well be the benchmark against I which future developments in the field of gerontology are ^ I measured (Cohen, 1962). ' ! ' ! I The year 1965 saw the passage of two historic laws : i the Older Americans Act (Public Law 98-73) , which created I for the first time a central point for the aged within the , I federal government — the Administration on Aging (AoA); I the Social Security Amendments of 1965 — Medicare (Public Law 9 8-97) , which provided a national system of health in surance for the elderly. The second White House Conference on Aging, authorized by Public Law 90-526, was in 1971 and dealt with ways to develop recommendations for further research and action in the field of aging. Amendments to the Social Security Act modified and expanded the original bill (notably the Public Welfare Amendments of 1962 which included the Kerr-Mills Program of Medical Assistance to the Aged). Many other pieces of legislation, though not aimed specifically at older people, either have some special sections or include entitlements that can be mobilized in the interests of the elderly (Encyclopedia of Social Work, 1971). The United States Congress recognized the p3.ight of millions of older citizens when it passed the Older Ameri- I cans Act Amendments in 1972, While President Nixon vetoedi I the bill in October 1972, the Older Americans Comprehensive ' Services Amendments of 1973 (Public Law 93-2 9) was passed I ' and signed in May of the following year. This revised I version was sharply cut to avoid another Presidential veto., 'Also included in this legislation was the transfer of the j Administration on Aging from the Social Rehabilitation Ser vice to the Office of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. The comprehensive social services embodied in this act included: health continuing education, recrea tional services, homemaker services, counseling, referral services, transportation services where necessary to facil itate access to social services, services designed to en courage and assist older persons to use the facilities and services avilable to them, services designed to assist older persons to avoid institutionalization, including pre institutionalization evaluation, screening, and home health services, and services designed to assist old persons to obtain adequate housing (Social Casework, 19 73). The California State Department on Aging is a new organization of state government, established on January 1, 1974 under the jurisdiction of AB2 26 3, within the framework of that legislation and the federal Older Americans Act of 196 5, as amended, the Department on Aging funds programs concerned with nutrition (Title VII) and a multitude of 108 ; social services (Title III). ; Title VII of the Older Americans Act encompasses the ^ largest programs of the department; a network of nutrition I I projects throughout the state that will soon be serving I 18,Q00 daily meals to elderly, who, in many instances, I have no other access to hot nutritious food. Supportive services which the projects may offer include transporta- I tion to and from meal sites, shopping escorts, counseling, I consumer and nutrition education, and recreational out reach. The Department on Aging disperses federal funds to local Area Agencies on Aging (AAA) to monitor sub-contracts to public or private non-profit agencies/organizations and municipalities. The AAA's provide professional consulta tion to these projects. How Social Work Practice Relates to Programs and Viewpoints The aged population served by social work represents a continuum from those who are relatively healthy and well- functioning to the mentally and physically impaired whose functional incapacities result in an inability to care for themselves in their milieu. The social worker carries primary responsibility for serving the client by directing the course of activities by mobilizing available community resources. Efforts are strongly directed to enable the client to remain in his familiar surroundings if at all possible and to engage the concern and support of relatives _______________ 109 and friends on a disinterested non-exploiting basis (Wasser, 1971). During the last twenty-five years there has been a phenomenal development of programs and services to meet the needs of the increasing number of older persons. These include: housing projects and retirement communities ; geriatric clinics; convalescent hospitals, residential and custodial care homes ; housekeeping and shopping services; home health aides and Meals-on-Wheels; friendly visitors and telephone reassurance services ; senior centers, nutri tion projects, day care centers, transportation services ; and, golden-aged clubs. There has been no systematic plan for the development of these programs in local communities. The recognition that the welfare of the total community is dependent on the well-being of all its citizens and the awareness of the many gaps in existing services for older people have led to the development of these essential new community programs (Vickery, 1972). Income Maintenance Program It is apparent that the problems of income for aged persons is at the core of many of the social problems that confront them. Inadequate income results in the lack of availability and maintenance of adequate housing, health, transportation, and a general varied life style. The Civil Service Retirement System, the Social Security Program, and 110 the Supplemental Security Income Program for the Aged, Blind, and Disabled all employ social workers to provide the necessary information and advice to those participat ing in these programs (Kimmel, 1974). In addition, social workers in public welfare departments in many jurisdictions offer counseling and special services to recipients of Old Age Assistance (OAA) and other elderly clients (Ferguson, 1969) . Institutionalization The very process of institutionalization is traumatic, not only to the aged individual, but also to his family. It is the social worker's task to extend help, support personal, social and family functioning, and to enable older people and family members to use their individual strengths in maintaining a continuity of life style for the older person. Some of the tasks involved in providing the social component of health care are individualization, integration of different aspects of the treatment plan, avoidance of fragmentation, capitalizing on individual strengths, mobilization of resources, and modification of the environ ment (Brody, 19 74). Much of the time of the medical social worker, in working with the aged, is taken up trying to locate appropriate facilities for patients who no longer require hospital care, but are not yet ready to be self- 111 sustaining (Ferguson, 1969). Social work in relation to long-term care facilities makes the most stringent demands on social work knowledge, values, and skills. The characteristics of the elderly population served, the multiplicity of their problems, the impact of family and society, the comparative lack of know ledge about needed social interventions, and the need for creative institutional and social planning legitimate such facilities as a prime concern of social work in all its traditional forms. Direct service to individuals, families, and groups; community organizations; education ; research ; administration; and planning and policy formulation — all are essential ingredients in developing and delivering the required services to the elderly. Almost all social workers at some time have some responsibility in relation to older people who may need long-term care and to their families. This is true of social workers in hospitals and other health facilities, in family agencies, psychiatric facilities, public welfare agencies, governmental health departments, and in many other settings. In some in stances , such as that of the hospital social worker helping with a discharge plan, they may carry major responsibility (Brody, 19 74). Data produced by Kastenbaum and Candy (1973), reported by Brody (19 74) , indicate about one-fourth of all deaths of older people occur in long-term care 112 facilities. It is obvious that the subject of death is an important and legitimate one, not only because of the weight of statistics, but because of the profound meaning of the dying process to those who experience it, to fami lies , staff, and to other residents in the institution. Most contributors to the thinking of the field of social work have found that those who are dying often are isolated and deceived. Suggestions about how to help the dying bears striking similarities to the principles of good social work practice with the elderly in general. In-ser vice training programs led by a social worker can help sensitize staff and family to the problems of death and dying. Just as social services in long-term care facili ties have as their goal helping residents live with dignity, they also should be directed towards helping the older per son die with dignity (Brody, 1974) . Programs for the Mentally Impaired Elderly Living in the Community Protective service clients often need assistance be cause of some mental condition such as paranoia, organic brain syndrome, or overwhelming anxiety which results in a severe personality disorder. Most of these clients are best helped by social workers who are generalists in the same sense that they manage their cases with the support of medical, legal, and psychiatric consultations and make re- 113 ferrais to homemaker services, visiting nurses, and para- professionals. In this manner the individual's psychiatric needs may be met without the requirement that he accept the idea that he is a "mental patient"(Butler and Lewis, 1973). Crampton and Keiser (19 70) state that the social worker is the professional person who has the longest and most direct involvement with the mentally impaired patient. Housing Social workers are employed by various agencies re sponsible for providing adequate housing for the elderly. They are involved in trying to secure the best housing available for their clients. They also act in an advocacy role insuring that legislation is passed which will enable the elderly to obtain suitable housing. Social workers are educationally well-equipped to deal with the problems of securing adequate housing and are becoming more involved in this area by training apartment house managers in the necessary social work practices to confront such problems (Lange, 1974). Senior Centers and Other Activity Programs Social workers are involved in the direction and plan ning of programs for senior centers. They see clients who are in need of counseling and special services, as well as those who participate in the programs these centers pro vide. Multipurpose senior centers can provide a range of 114 services beyond the walls of their facilities. Social workers, social work aides, and friendly visitors may visit the home of clients. Group shopping trips, check cashing, and shopping may be chaperoned by a social worker (Butler and Lewis, 197 3). Day Care Programs Day care centers offer day care in a non-hospital setting but provide many of the same social and recrea tional services. Centers often emphasize self-government, poetry, music, dramatics, woodwork painting, birthday parties, discussion groups, counseling, and many other re creational activities. Social workers are employed as directors of programs, counselors, and to serve as medical and psychiatric social workers for their clients in the day care program (Kubie and Landau, 1953). Current Aging Issues in Social Work Rone (1976) states that social workers play a key role in helping elderly people deal with their problems. The social worker frequently is the link between an older per son and the complex and often confusing array of services designed to provide help. Rone lists several areas in which social workers are found working with or in behalf of the elderly. These are: the family service agency; the multipurpose senior center; an Area Agency of Aging; a public welfare agency; and in the office of a Congres- 115 three major modalities of social work practice, which are casework, group work and community organization. A major factor influencing future employment prospects for social workers in the field of aging is the allocation of federal and state funds for social services. In a report to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washing ton , D.C., Seguin (1976) reported that social workers prac ticing in the field of aging require: (1) knowledge about aging processes, bio-psychosocial, the law and social policy affecting older persons; and, (2) skill in social problem analysis and assessment, in developing activities for value and attitude changes toward older persons, in community organization techniques, in working with individ uals and groups-families, age peers, and staff, and in the administration and management of personnel and programs. Seguin and Hartford, Director of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at the University of Southern California and Professor of Social Work, include in this report a list of sixty positions held by Social Workers in Aging from their knowledge of social workers primarily in the Cleveland and Los Angeles areas. Some steps have been instituted to assure that social workers possess adequate knowledge in working with the elderly. Smith (1976), in a study of thirty-six graduate 116 programs of social work found that gerontology programs in these institutions are of recent origin, with the majority beginning within the last five years. The gerontology pro grams evolved from the need for more social work expertise and input into the field of aging, and opportunities for employment in programs for the elderly. Graduates with specialization in gerontology did not have much difficulty in obtaining employment and were better prepared to work with the elderly. Conclusion This section has described the interrelationship be tween social work and gerontology. The evidence indicates that professional social workers are working with and for the elderly, from older individuals through casework to influencing policymaking at the federal level. This re lationship is continually expanding and requires increasing knowledge and expertise for the social worker working in the field of aging. In a field such as aging, where there is no existing organized body of knowledge or experience, it has been im portant for leaders to learn from one another. The first National Conference on Aging, called by the Social Security Administration in 1958 ; the White House Conferences on Aging in 1961 and 1971; regional, national and inter national meetings of the Gerontological Society; a series 117 of conferences sponsored jointly by the National Council on the Aging and the National Council on Social Work Education; and conferences sponsored by State Councils on Aging, uni versities, and national and state recreational and social welfare organizations have provided such opportunities over the years (Vickery, 1972). Social workers, in general, realize that all people have basic needs that extend beyond food, clothing and shelter. The needs of the elderly include having someone with whom to interact, having someone to care about, and to be cared about, and having something to which to look forward. An understanding of an elderly person's life history can lead to an understanding of his/her problems and desires. For the social worker such knowledge is especially useful in helping the aged person make plans that are suitable in relation to his life patterns prior to the point of crisis. Blank (1971) contends that social workers can improve their services to older people by gain ing an understanding of the emotional components of the last stages of the life cycle, and that paraprofessionals could be utilized profitably in giving supportive services to the aged. Social work is one profession which is attempting to educate adequately its practitioners in the field of geron tology. This is not true of all the helping professions 118 which are serving the elderly population. There needs to be some measure of accountability for those practitioners who are working with and for the elderly but are not re ceiving any substantive gerontological education. One of the major interests of those involved in this project is whether gerontology should be an area of spe cialization within existing professions or whether there is enough support for the eventual development of gerontol ogy as a profession in its own right. The following chapter will describe the procedure of researching the relationship between social work and geron tology . 119 CHAPTER VI METHODOLOGY Introduction As evidenced in the previous chapters of the litera ture review, it is apparent that social work is signifi cantly involved in the field of gerontology. Substantia tion of this involvement supports the validity of investi gating the educational preparation of professional social workers serving the elderly. This chapter deals with the methods and procedures used in this exploratory research. One of the major purposes of this study is to assess gerontological content of curricula in courses of study leading to degrees in the following disciplines at ac credited colleges and universities in California ; Adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. Due to the nature of the survey design, no research hypothesis was formulated. Hopefully, the conclusions of this study will offer data to assist in the formulation of research hypo theses for future studies in this area. For presentation 120 of the material, the chapter has been divided into four sections: Evolution of the project, the design for data collection, treatment of the data, and the limitations of the study. Evolution of the Project As previously discussed in the first chapter, impetus for this project evolved from the concern of students at the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology regarding the future professional status of gerontology. In response to this concern, staff and faculty of the Andrus Gerontology Center and the Leonard Davis School submitted a grant pro posal to the Andrus Foundation of the National Retired Teacher Association/American Association of Retired Persons (NRTA/AARP) to research this subject. The proposal re quested support to conduct a survey and an analysis of professional education in California and related licensing procedures in several disciplines which serve the elderly. NRTA/AARP funded the project for one year, beginning April 1, 1976 and ending March 31, 1977. Because of their direct involvement with aging clients the professions given priority for investigation in this study were: Adult education, clinical psychology, coun selor education, law, marriage and family counseling, medicine, nursing, occupational therapy, and social work. Nineteen students from the Leonard Davis School were 121 originally chosen to participate in the project. Through attrition, the number was finally reduced to thirteen students. Each student selected the discipline of most in terest to him/her. Therefore, the two criteria which dictated the selection of disciplines to be researched included: (1) the practitioners of the disciplines worked directly with or in behalf of the elderly ; and, (2) students participating in the project had an interest in researching the discipline. Based upon these criteria, the disciplines designated for the project were: Adult education, counselor education, dentistry, law, medicine, nursing, public administration, and social work. The re search coordinators. Dr. William Albert and Mr. Ira Hirsch- field, then divided the thirteen students into eight sub groups , each of which was to investigate the discipline which interested them. The design section of this chapter will delineate the procedures followed for data collection. The following areas will be discussed : Literature reviews, selection of sample, development of instruments for data collection, and the procedures for obtaining the data. Literature Review Subgroups completed independent literature reviews on the subject of professionalism. These reports were then edited and synthesized into one common chapter. The pur- 122 pose of this inquiry was to obtain an exhaustive review of the pertinent literature. Professionalism was defined and seven generally universal criteria of professional status were identified. These criteria are: Body of knowledge, university education, professional ideology, professional associations, code of ethics, self-regulation, and public sanction. The subsequent process of professionalization was also discussed. The literature review on the professional status of each discipline was written separately by each subgroup and the individual disciplines were researched in accordance with the criteria established for a profession. Social work was evaluated on all seven criteria and a judgment as to its place on the professional continuum was derived. It was concluded that social work can be classified as a pro fession, although it is relatively new and some profes sional criteria are not as fully developed in social work as in more established professions. Each subgroup wrote an individual literature review on the relationship between their discipline and gerontology. The authors of this report demonstrated the extensive ties between social work and the field of aging. There was evidence that these two disciplines share similar theoret ical bases for practice and that social workers are em ployed in positions that afford them the opportunity to 123 work with and for the elderly. Finally, all the subgroups wrote a common chapter on the professional status of gerontology. The field was evaluated in terms of the previously established profes sional criteria. These individual efforts were edited into one chapter to obtain a thorough review of this issue. It was found that gerontology remains an area of specialization within the established professions, but some growth has been experienced toward professionaliza tion. Selection of Sample The subject population chosen for this project encom passes all four-year institutions of higher education which are accredited by the State of California and have graduate schools of social work/welfare, which are ac credited by the Council of Social Work Education. Refer ence was made to Degrees Offered by College and Subject (1975) in identifying these eight institions which offer graduate degrees in social work/welfare. The eight schools selected for the survey were: University of California, Berkeley; San Francisco State University; California State University, Sacramento; San Diego State University ; California State University, San Jose; University of California, Los Angeles; California State University, Fresno; and the University of Southern California. Schools 124 of social work/welfare were chosen due to the recognized professional status of graduate programs as reflected by the criterion of university education in Chapter II on professionalism. Undergraduate programs in social welfare were not studied unless a graduate school of social work also existed at the same university. Due to geographical, time and financial limitations, the agreement with NRTA/ AARP restricted the research of educational institutions to the State of California. The Board of Behavioral Science Examiners licenses social workers in California. The Chairperson of the Social Work Subcommittee of this board, Ms. Lola Selby, was interviewed to obtain data on the licensing procedures. Ms. Selby was selected due to her accessibility as profes sor emeritus at the School of Social Work, University of Southern California. Nancy Humphreys, President of the California Chapter of the National Association of Social Workers, was also interviewed for additional data on the licensing of social workers. Development of Survey Questionnaires As a result of extensive literature reviews on pro fessions and the eight disciplines included in the project, two questionnaires were developed by a student-faculty group to obtain factual and attitudinal information from the educational institutions surveyed. The library ques 125 tionnaire, the Information Collection Form (see Appendix A) was completed by the researchers using 1976-19 77 course catalogues, bulletins and announcements from the depart ment/school of the institution being surveyed. The pur pose of the researcher completing this questionnaire was twofold. First, to become familiar with the school and department being surveyed. This enabled the researcher to enter the next phase, the interview, with knowledge of the school and the department which could help establish rap port with the interviewee. The second reason was to shorten the length of the interview questionnaire by ob taining a general background of the program and thus in creasing the cooperation of the respondent. Information obtained from the 1976-1977 course cata logues, bulletins and announcements was transcribed to the Information Collection Form. The variables considered in this questionnaire were: Types of degrees/certificates offered by the department; courses in the departmental curriculum as indicated in the course catalogue, bulletin, or announcement which contained content related to geron tology ; requirement by the department of a field exper ience, practicum, internship, or traineeship; total student population of the institution ; the number of faculty in the department ; the number of faculty within the department holding doctorates ; opportunities for specialization in 126 gerontology; and the reseachers' ratings of the incorpor ation of gerontological material into the departmental curriculum. For operational definitions of these vari ables, see the Definition of Terms, Appendix C. The second form, the Interview Data Collection Form (see Appendix B) was constructed for recording data from interviews with the deans or a designee appointed by the deans of the schools. This questionnaire was developed from a synthesis of questionnaires by the subgroups and recommendations of the faculty of the Leonard Davis School. The Interview Data Collection Form was developed to collect information not readily available in the course catalogues, bulletins, and announcements. The variables included in the interview questionnaire are : The number of students enrolled in the department; gerontology courses offered within the departmental curriculum that contain gerontological content; instructors* membership in either the Gerontological Society or the Western Gerontological Society; the number of agencies used for field experiences; the number of students currently participating in field experiences ; agencies that provide students with the op portunity to work with or on behalf of older adults ; the number of students placed in these agencies ; the number of doctoral dissertations and masters theses related to aging 127 written in the department since 1971; a list of aging journals subscribed to by the school library ; future plans for gerontology in the departmental curriculum; percentage of faculty who teach aging-related courses with gerontol ogical training; and three attitudinal questions about the perceived importance of gerontology to the departmental curriculum, to the discipline, and to the future of the discipline. Further delineation of these variables is available in the Definition of Terms (see Appendix C). The reliability or dependability of the three attitu dinal questions (#5, 6, and 12) on the Interview Data Collection Form was tested by means of a stability, or test-retest interpretation of reliability in the following manner. The three attitudinal questions were reproduced on a single sheet of paper and were administered to fifteen graduate students of a research design class at the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology* The subjects were given no more information than necessary to answer the three ques tions in relation to their own discipline. A week later, a retest of the same three questions were administered to the same subjects. The data was used to determine the re liability of the three attitudinal questions. The Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation was used to determine the relationship between answers on the test and the restest of the same questions. The null 128 hypothesis stated that no relationship exists between the answers given on the test and the retest. At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715. If the computed statistic is greater than this value, the null hypothesis is rejected and reliability of the question is demonstrated. For all three questions, a positive correla tion was shown to exist. The data from the test and the retest are available in Appendices D, E, and F. Data on licensing procedures and information about gerontological content in licensing examinations were collected by interviewing experts in the area of creden- tialing for social workers. Prior to these interviews, an outline on Issues of Licensing (see Appendix G) was formu lated. Variables considered were: The backgrounds of the officials responsible for deciding licensing criteria and the extent of future plans for the inclusion of gerontol ogical content in the licensing examinations. Procedures The researchers used these forms to systematically obtain information necessary to describe the current status of gerontology in the eight educational institutions sur veyed. The licensing procedures of social work were also studied. The Information Collection Form was first com pleted by consulting the 1976-1977 college catalogues, bulletins, and announcements of the graduate and under 129 graduate schools of social work/welfare. Next, the Inter view Data Collection Form was mailed to the deans of each of the eight educational institutions. The form was ac companied by a cover letter (see Appendix H) written by Dr. James E. Birren, Director of the Andrus Gerontology Center, and Dr. Margaret Hartford, Director of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology. The letter explained the purpose of the study and the procedure for collecting the data. The mailing was followed by a telephone call to arrange an appointment with the dean or his designee, either over the telephone or in person, to complete the Interview Data Collection Form. The decision as to whether the interview would be conducted by phone or in person de pended on the distance of the school from the Los Angeles area. If the school was within a 100-mile radius, in per son interviews were to be arranged. If an in person inter view was not possible or feasible, a telephone interview was scheduled. An in person interview was conducted with the Dean of the School of Social Work at the University of Southern California. The interview was held in the office of the Dean and both researchers in the social work subgroup were present. The University of California at Los Angeles is also within the 100-mile limit, but the Dean of UCLA’s School of 130 Social Welfare would not consent to an in person interview. A phone interview with the Dean was felt to be preferable to not obtaining the information. Telephone interviews were also conducted with persons in the following positions at the various schools : Faculty member. Director of the Center on Aging, at San Diego State University; faculty member responsible for field placements at California State University, San Jose; administrative assistant to the Dean, at California State University, Sacramento ; and assistant to the Dean at California State University, Fresno. During the telephone interviews, a tape recorder was used by the researchers to record the answers given by the respondent. The interviewee was advised prior to the in terview that his/her responses were to be repeated by the researcher and recorded on tape. The researchers replayed the tapes after the interview to insure that recorded answers were correct. Two of the educational institutions. University of California, Berkeley and San Francisco State University, returned the Interview Data Collection Forms by mail. Follow-up telephone calls were made to San Francisco State University for clarification of some responses on the form. The form Issues on Licensing outlines the structure used in the collection of data on licensing procedures. Background information regarding the licensing of social 131 workers in California was obtained from the pamphlet "Laws Relating to Registered Social Workers and Licensed Clinical Social Workers" (Board of Behavioral Science Examiners, 1975). Other data on licensing practice was obtained from several interviews with Lola Selby, M.S.W., Chairperson of the Social Work Subcommittee of the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners. Nancy Humphreys, President of the California Chapter of the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), provided additional information on licens ing through an interview and a workshop on licensing at an NASW-sponsored conference held on December 4, 1976. The Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW), which is affiliated with the NASW, is recognized by social workers as denoting a level of professional competency. It is not a legal requirement for the private practice of social workers and is not examined in this study. Presentation and Treatment of Data The data collected in this study are presented in two formats; (1) General information collected from schools of social work/weIfare presented in eight tables : (a) Description of Institutions; (b) Courses with Gerontological Content; (c) Opportunities for Specialization in Gerontology ; (d) Gerontological Field Work Opportunities ; (e) Faculty with Gerontological Backgrounds ; 132 (f) Journals, Theses and Dissertations; (g) Attitudes about Aging; (h) Topical Areas for Planned Courses in Aging. These tables describe the data percentages, ratios, and raw numbers. (2) A narrative of an investigation of the licensing procedures for social workers in the State of California. The investigation did not lend itself to statistical analy sis. Subsequently, only frequency responses and percent ages are presented. The following issues on licensing were investigated; (a) What governmental agency regulates the licensing of social work in California? (b) What license is granted by this agency? (c) Who are the current members representing social work in this agency? What are the professional backgrounds of these members? (d) How many social workers are licensed in the State of California? (e) What type of examination(s) is given to applicants for this license? (f) What are the qualifications applicants must meet to take the examination(s) ? (g) Are any aging related issues addressed on the examination(s)? (h) Are there any future plans to expand or update aging related questions on the examination(s)? (i) How can gerontologists, who are interested in the professional development of geron tology, learn from the licensing history of social work? _________ 133 The first format utilized questions from both the Data Collection Form and the Interview Data Collection Form. Responses to these questions were grouped in eight tables. Table 1 shows the total samples of institutions by; (a) total population of institution; (b) student population within department/school; (c) degrees conferred by depart ment/school; (d) number of faculty within department; and, (e) percentage and raw number of faculty within department/ school holding the doctorate. Table 2 displays graduate and undergraduate courses with gerontological content and the percentage of course content related to aging. Table 3 presents opportunities for specialization in gerontology of the total sample of institutions. Oppor tunity for specialization in gerontology was operational ized as "yes" if the institution offered an emphasis minor, and/or dual degree in gerontology. If an institution did not provde a minimum amount of coursework in gerontology, the response category of "no" was assigned. A "yes" or "no" response was assigned to each institution. Table 4 shows gerontological field work opportunities according to; (a) total agencies ; (b) total aging related agencies utilized; (c) the ratio between b and a; (d) num ber of students placed in all agencies; (e) number of students placed in aging related agencies ; and (f) the 134 ratio between d and e. Raw numbers and ratios for each in stitution corresponding to the aforementioned categories were tabulated. Table 5 presents faculty involvement in gerontology delineated according to percentage of faculty teaching aging related courses with gerontological backgrounds and such faculty's professional membership in the Gerontologi cal Society (GS) and the Western Gerontological Society (WGS). The interviewees' responses of faculty belonging to GS AND WGS was indicated by "both" and if the respondent did not know if such faculty belonged to either association ' ’don't know" was entered. Percentiles were tabulated corresponding to each institution and a "yes" or "no" response was assigned to faculty's professional membership status. Table 6 lists the number of; (a) journals pertaining to aging available in the various schools of social work/ welfare; (b) theses and group research projects; and, (c) dissertations produced by students of the sampled schools. Some schools had group research project require ments instead of a thesis requirement. Group research projects and theses were grouped together due to the similarity in the degrees and requirements between the two. A "N/A" (not appropriate) was listed for those schools which do not have doctoral programs and, therefore, do not produce dissertations. 135 Table 7 displays attitudes about aging of the inter viewees in relation to the degree of importance of aging and gerontological content to their departmental curriculum, to the field of social work currently, and to the future of their discipline. Four categorial responses were available which corresponded to the level of importance given by each respondent. Table 8 indicates the areas of planned courses in aging. The responses from the questionnaire were cate gorized as follows : (a) psychology; (b) sociology; (c) social policy ; (d) environmental planning; (e) re search; (f) practice; and, (g) administration. Each in stitution's planned course offerings were noted by an "X" under the appropriate category. Limitations of the Study Limitations on the collection of data from the educa tional institutions and on licensing procedures will be considered in this section. This study did sample all graduate schools of social work/welfare in California, but its scope is limited because of the small sample size. Eight schools were surveyed and the data collected should not be assumed to represent a national perspective. Some of the questions on the Interview Data Collection Form were not structured to elicit as much information as could have been obtained. The only inquiry regarding 136 faculty membership in the Gerontological or the Western Gerontological Societies was whether any faculty teaching aging related courses belonged to either association. The number of faculty belonging to these two societies was not ascertained. The administration of the Interview Data Collection Form to the respondents was not uniform. While the intent was to visit schools of social work/welfare within a 100- mile radius, the researchers only completed one in person interview with the Dean of the School of Social Work at the University of Southern California. The Dean of the School of Social Welfare at the University of California, Los Angeles, the other school within a 100-mile radius, was not available for an in person interview. Five schools were contacted by telephone for completion of the questionnaire. Two schools returned their questionnaires in the mail. It can be assumed that an in person interview will provide more thorough information than the other two methods util ized. Another inconsistency in the collection of data on the Interview Collection Form involved the variability in the positions of the respondents from school to school. The respondents ranged from deans to faculty to admini strative assistants. The fact that students from the T.eonard Davis School of Gerontology were collecting the data may have influenced 137 the respondents' answers. Respondents may have answered differently if the researchers were from a neutral dis cipline, neither social work or gerontology. Other problems in data collection were evident. Often the course catalogues, bulletins, and announcements of the school were vague and did not provide concise answers to some of the questions on the "Information Collection Form." Judgments had to be made by the researchers regarding such matters as ambiguous course descriptions and the number of permanent faculty within the department. Also, the re searchers were dependent on the interviewees for the validity of all answers. Since this study researched several different aspects of the schools and their curric ula, it may have been more accurate to question individuals within the department who were most knowledgable in these specific areas. Limitations experienced in collecting information re garding licensing procedures included not being permitted to view the written examinations given by the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners. Although it was ascertained that six questions from this test pertain to aging, no evaluation was possible of how appropriate or current these questions were. An in-depth analysis of each board members' profes sional background was not possible. Whether any of the 138 members, except Ms. Selby, had any experience in aging was not discovered. Even the degree and latest knowledge Ms. Selby attained was not determined. The number of social workers applying for the LCSW, who actually work with aging clients was also not available. The methodology chapter has described the methods used to select the sample population, develop the data collection forms, collect the data, and analyze the data. Limitations of the study were also considered. The next chapter will discuss the findings from the collected data. 139 CHAPTER VII RESULTS Introduction This chapter describes the involvement of gerontol ogical content in the preparation of social workers which was shown in data obtained from the Information and Inter view Data Collection Forms. Results are presented in three sections as follows : (1) curriculum content and related resources; (2) viewpoints about the importance of gerontol ogy for social work; and, (3) licensing procedures for social workers in the State of California. In the following sections abbreviations are used for each school as follows ; University of California, Berkeley UCB School of Social Welfare San Francisco State University SFSU Department of Social Work Education California State University, Sacramento CSUS School of Social Work San Diego State University SDSU School of Social Work California State University, San Jose CSUSJ School of Social Work 140 University of California, Los Angeles UCLA School of Social Welfare California State University, Fresno CSUF School of Social Work University of Southern California USC School of Social Work Curriculum Content and Related Resources Table 1 gives a general description of the eight schools sampled. These institutions are described accord ing to the total student population of the university in comparison with the student population of the specific school of social work/welfare. Table 1 also presents the degrees which each school offers and the number of faculty holding doctorates in relation to the total faculty in the department. It was evident that the three schools that offer a doctorate in social work (DSW), UCB, UCLA and USC, had a higher percentage of faculty with doctoral degrees. It is noted that although SDSU did not offer the DSW, it had a relatively high percentage of faculty holding doctoral degrees. The size of the total student population of the university was not related to the student population of the department/school or the number of permanent faculty. Table 2 lists the gerontology courses and the aging related courses for each of the eight educational institu tions surveyed and indicates whether the course is at the graduate or undergraduate level. Also included in this 141 < ü I —I 'S E h CO U 0 \ < 3 I +J ■rH ■P 03 C M 4J CM CN CM CD CM CD CD r~ CD LO CM CO CM 00 o CD LO CD 00 r—I CM c w O O IS >1 P rH +J o o 00 • s î * LO 1 —1 LO a H 3 CM 1 — ! ro ro rH CM ro CM g o o ^ 3 0 n j Z C O k w c IS o IS s •H P CO S c o -P O 'O Q Q IS C O 0 ) + J 0 P s S • * -H rH 0 P S S S c o c o s s +J 0 P 0 c o c o c o c o Ç O Q Ç O Ç O C O ■ H CP'P s: S s S Ig s s C Ü 0 G M O Q O IS CO U < < < cg LO •rH g TJ f« CD LO CM CD O o p +J G rH CM CM o o CD ro rH ro Ü P +J G C O C O C O C L E h -P C L co CM CM CO CM CM rH rH CO O C L k D co D co < CQ CO D co D l - q D O U P4 co Q co o co co D CO o co u G) U p 142 (N Q ) I —I E h 4J C S § u I— I ( 0 Ü •H tn o I —I O 4J § u Q ) O 5 •H 12 cn Q ) to U 0 o V 4J C S Ü c o u C 7 » c "M CfP n î U Ü"' (U ë § ■H 4J ;3 -p •H 4J to d H O o O O LO o o t^ I— I I— I o m o o CM CM o o CM O I— I o CM s n p L , CO CM rH fd X X X X X X X X X X X u Ü .____ PQ o o CM TJ X 1 fd 0 ) d fd Ü 4H U e d rH rH u y rH rH *H •H •H o d fd•H •rH o Ü Ü ■H -P o m A TJ Ü < •H 0 •H Cn iH 0 •H > o E4 o c a 0 TJ Cn P rH a 0 o •H•H Ü a < 0 O -H Xi 0 Ç Q c •H p 0 & Cn 04 0 CO G M o -P o 0 a P Ü m 0 p 0 p •H 0 •H ^ xi rH •H rH 0 p •H p rH o -p P > O 4J 0 Cn 0 c 0 a > * o Xi -p Ü o 0 •H •H < •H •H 0 0 P 0 U o o a 0 Xi rH P U O E r o 6 0 a p 0 r J Xi 0 O 0 o O 0 0 3 > o k k EH p q ( I j

■rH ■ i H x: Q < D B PQ G O CO S: CM CM ■rH Ü rH G ^ ■P ■rH G ■H ■iH rH ■HP ■HP Ü Ü Ü Ü O ■H O ■H „ _ _ „ COS COS Mis CO (0 u ■H K W ■H M 145 o o o o m (N O I—I I — I O CM O in O O CM rH rH O O CM •H 0\0 •H M H rH H M •H T3 ^ -P g c g c « j ( ü « j ( ü -H •H •H •H M •H M C PC O O O O •H P -H P ^ 'H ^ *H •H •H O M i •H •H O (d *H ( 0 , *H *H H *H *H •H OÆ CO CO o o m E4 ww trjcn w w ■H •H 146 o o o o 00 o I — I I I — I in o I T ) rH IT) O rH O O rH rH •H O CN fH e u O 0 ) O c e c n r c 3 f C J m rH PQ rH fo fd I —I -H 1 —I "H I—I •H •H (N rH •H ■H •H cm -H cm •H ( U 4 - 1 ( ü MH M H M •H •H •H j c î ü x: ü E-î -H 64 -H m I—I •H •H •H U !2 rH rH rH C •H C C CQ •H -H •H H "H "H "H H "H > ü U ü e g c m 44 c m 04 •H 147 table is the percentage of aging content, estimated by the respondent, for each course. Courses with 100 percent aging content were considered gerontology courses. The number of gerontological courses within each school varied considerably. The two universities also having gerontology centers on campus, SDSU and USC, had the largest number of gerontology courses specifically devoted to aging. At the School of Social Work, USC, some graduate courses were designed to meet the needs of those students interested in aging. UCLA was the only school that did not report any gerontology or aging related courses, but the respondent indicated that the generic approach utilized by the school prepares its practitioners to work with all client populations. It was noted that most gerontology courses were of fered at the graduate level. There were a total of four teen gerontology courses (i.e., 100 percent aging content) and all but one were graduate courses. Two schools, CSUF and USC, seemed to have more of a balance between graduate and undergraduate courses. Those courses available at the undergraduate level ranged from 5 to 20 percent aging con tent. Social policy, practice, social welfare, and human behavior/development were the areas in which most gerontol ogy and aging related courses were listed. Variables, such as faculty and student population of the department/school 148 and the types of degrees offered (see Table 1, column 4) did not seem to influence the number of gerontology and/or aging related courses available. Table 3 displays the opportunities for specialization in gerontology within each school of social work/welfare. These opportunities are categorized as minor, emphasis, and dual degree, which are defined in the Definition of Terms (see Appendix C). Three schools offered a specialization in gerontology. USC offered the dual degree (MSW/MSG); CSUF offered a minor in gerontology; and SDSU offered an emphasis in gerontol ogy. These three schools had more gerontology courses (i.e., 100 percent aging content) than schools not offer ing a specialization. There was no significant relationship between the availability of a specialization in gerontology and the size of the student/faculty population of the school. Also^ the types of degrees offered did not affect the presence of an emphasis, minor or dual degree in gerontology. Two schools with relatively high percentages of faculty hold ing doctorates, SDSU and USC, offered an opportunity for specialization in gerontology. Table 4 indicates the opportunities for gerontologi cally-oriented field experiences. It describes the total number of agencies/settings utilized by each of the schools 149 ■H CO •rH -H -H • i H ■ i H H 150 0 r—I m EH CO 0 •H 4J • i H § -P U O CL § s r—I 0 • i H k r—I n j ü •H Co o iH O 4J C O p 0 o o • i H +-> C#P (5'^ c o en -P G a -n I 0 Cn 0 c o ü 0 G ( Q G •p -H rH 0 O Cn 0 Cn EH < « w tJ 0 0 •H N ü "H C rH 0 -H en 4 J rH 0 4J O Eh <: D G O •H -P S •H +J CO G CN rH O CN CN rH I —I S n in ro vo rH r- LO O rH O rH CN CN CN CO LO CO CN in CN rH rH ■ K r- LO H t ro o lO O UO O O CN rH O CN 1 —1 rH CN rH 00 LO lO r- C T L UO ro OL o LO rH o CN rH 00 r^ ro rH in CN c r > o CN o r- o 00 M) D Ui D en < k D CO O 3 D CJ k Ui Q en u en en en o en u n V D G 0 -P G ro 0 •H ü G 0 Cn 0 •H 0 > 0 Ui 0 > en G •H 4J 0 •H rH TJ 0 4J 0 rH 0 P Cn G •H Cn 0 0 0 p 0 Xi -P 0 >i pH g T3 0 4J 0 rH 0 T3 p 0 TJ -P G Cn 0 G G -P O •H OT MH Cn 0 0 Xi o lO TJ 0 N •H rH •H -P G 0 P I P 0 0 0 en 0 0 Pi O O Xi ü 0 0 •H Xi 4J 0 5 0 0 0 5 -P 0 •H rH O 4J e •H TJ TJ 0 0 Xi - rH 4J 0 -P 0 4J G ■8 g 0 0 0 p I p 0 a 0 0 0 S p Ht O o ü 0 0 x i -P G -H 0 rH « G g g O G g +J 0 p MH 0 0 •H O 0 S' 151 as compared to the actual number and percentage of aging related agencies/setting in which social work students were placed. Also presented in this table are the total number of students placed in field experience agencies/settings and the actual number and percentage of students in aging related placements. Those schools with the most aging related field work settings did not necessarily have the highest percentages of students placed in those settings. The interviewee from UCLA reported that the school utilized 50 aging related field work settings and currently placed 100 students in those settings. When asked to list these agencies, the respondent advised the researchers to consult the announce ment of the school for this information. When referring to the announcement of the School of Social Welfare, UCLA, only three specific aging related agencies were indicated. There was no apparent relationship between the avail ability of a specialization in gerontology and the percent age of aging related field experience agencies. There was also no relationship between the number of gerontology and aging related courses in the department/school and the per centage of students placed in aging related settings. Those schools with a large number of available field ex periences tended to have larger student populations. CSUSJ, with the smallest number of permanent social work faculty 152 had the least number of total agencies utilized by the school. SFSU, with the largest percentage of aging related settings (28 percent) placed only 5 percent of their social work students in those agencies. CSUF, which offered the minor in gerontology, only had 9 percent aging related field settings and reported 9 percent of their total students placed in aging related settings. Table 5, Faculty with Gerontological Backgrounds, in dicates the degree of involvement in gerontology of the faculty members teaching gerontology and aging related courses. The specific variable presented in this table is the percentage of faculty, who teach courses with aging content, having gerontological backgrounds. This data was acquired from the respondents* knowledge of faculty members with gerontological backgrounds, such as academic training and/or practicl work experience in gerontology. Only a small percentage (5-15 percent) of the faculty who teach aging related courses in four schools (UCB, SFSU, UCLA, and USC) were known to have gerontological back grounds, and a fifth school (CSUF) indicated that none of its faculty had had specific gerontological preparation. Representatives from three schools (CSUS, SDSU, and CSUSJ) indicated that a large percentage (75+) of the faculty who taught aging related courses had gerontological backgrounds. The professional memberships held by the faculty 153 -r4 rH •H ID •H ID rH ID ID ID •H ID ID ID ID ID ID ID •H •H rH •H •H •H M 154 teaching gerontology and aging related courses in the Gerontological Society and the Western Gerontological Society are also presented. Professional gerontological memberships held by the faculty in the eight schools studied were as follows: Gerontological Society, CSUSJ; Western Gerontological Society, CSUS and CSUF; both, UCB, SDSU, and USC, and "don't know," SFSU and UCLA. The professional gerontological memberships of faculty were not directly related to the extent of aging related content in the school's curricula, as reflected by the number of classes in aging or the availability of geron tological ly- oriented field experiences. CSUF reported none of its faculty having gerontological training, but some faculty did hold memberships in the Western Gerontological Society. Table 6 summarizes the availability of gerontological resources and research in the university or departmental library of each institution. The number of gerontological journals to which each school subscribes is indicated. The number of theses/group research projects and dissertations completed by students of these institutions in the last five years is also delineated. Schools with a specialization in gerontology had the largest number of aging related theses completed within the last five years. USC, with the dual degree program and a 155 ■H -H ro o CN ■H •H ro m o CN m K O o n M - l ro 00 m o •H ■H -H en cn ■H co co 156 center on aging within the university, had the most aging related dissertations completed within the last five years of the three schools offering the DSW. It is important to note that the departmental library at the USC School of Social Work listed only three gerontological journals, but that the library at the Andrus Gerontology Center, located on campus, has a multitude of gerontological resources available. Three schools with relatively large numbers of geron tology cind aging related courses, SDSU, CSUF, and USC, had the most number of theses completed in the last five years. UCB also had a significant number of gerontological course offerings, but did not report any aging related theses completed within this time period. UCLA, with a large number of gerontological journals available had 13 aging related theses completed. Viewpoints About the Importance of Gerontology for Social Work Table 7 details the viewpoints cibout the importance of aging content for social workers held by the respondents interviewed in the sample. Their responses to the impor tance of aging courses to departmental curriculum and the importance of aging issues in social work are presented. The importance of aging issues for the future of social work is also indicated in this table. 157 ■P p g o fd 4-) -P Q ) MH P ^ O w 0 3 O fd O ) 0 O4 Æ (1 ) 0 (ü 0 g ^ ü 0 3 4 -J c •iH '«H ^ d) C 0) O -H -P C n C fd H 1— 1 * fd 0 3 >1 0 -H -p < ü 04 * U 0 fp rH rH p C n p -H * -P 0 4 - > 0 O4 O c 0 ü C N r H C N i - H C N C M f O r H 1—! t H 4^ -P *iH di-H jj t a 0 4 ^ en g V e en p *H g fd -H 0 0 3 W C 1 X 4 Q •p ü rH P "p -P 0 3 d) 13 4 J rH C n C O4 < ü ^ a fd g P M H g -H 4J -P fd 0 M - 4 p p O 0) 0 -p 0 3 0 3 0 (U 04 C C C MH 0 C 3 1 0 fd fd g -P 04 • K •• P O4 ü ü fd P Cn*H ^ C M ^ L O ' ^ ' ^ f O L n d) d) S -P -P -P O C ü (U > *P rp rH p 04-H 0 3 P O4 O4 0 6 Cn-H 43 0 3 0 3 g g Oi t 7 > H c Q E h fd fd -p -p g C 43 43 -P -H g 0 3 d) C n g 4J 4 .) 4 .) 43 0 < rH 0 H M M E h C fd rH -P +J 0 1 1 1 i r - ^ 3 c 0 O C n (U rH (N ro ^ < u jq c e rH < -H -p * Xi C n p * c a m < fd * E h Q ) 04 4-j m ^ 3 O a +J -H ( U o 6 ■p ü + j 0 -p c rH • K < fd 0 3 0 -p 0 ü p 0 3 H o p p 04 0 p e o 0 -p -p H u o c c c ü fd fd .. u 4 -3 4 - 3 0 g P P -p i fd 0 0 g E h 4 - 3 Q4 O4 fd P g g -P l3 0 P "P P C g. -PO f d g > i-P g g, -p p fd fd g d) 0 43 -P -P c g 0 > ^ P o 0 g 0 0 >1 ■ H -p g g p +J ha w mh 0 0 g 0 0 5 co 5 U3 < k g 0 S co M > 4J m c o t o t o U P I D U g -H U f c C O Q C O O C O C O 0 1 1 1 i 1 +J D c o U c o U C D U D rH 03 0 rH C M ro ’« a * in c 0 M * 158 All respondents showed continuity on these three at- titudinal questions. USC and SDSU, with centers on aging within the university and both schools offering a speciali zation in gerontology, rated aging issues as being very important to their curricula, to their discipline currently, and to the future of their discipline. These two schools also had more gerontology courses than most of the other institutions and their departmental faculties held member ships in both the Gerontological Society and the Western Gerontological Society. The interviewee from CSUF, which offers the minor in gerontology, rated the importance of aging issues to the school's curriculum and the discipline as being somewhat important. The representative of SFSU felt that gerontol ogy had important implications for the future of social work, but was not very important at the present time. The remaining four educational institutions, CSUS, CSUSJ, UCLA, and UCB, each rated the importance of aging to their cur ricula, to social work currently, and to the future of social work as being important. Table 8 shows the respondents' perspective about courses with gerontological content in their curricula. Topical areas where aging related courses are to be imple mented are categorized as follows; psychological aspects; sociological aspects, social policy, environmental planning; 159 •H ■H •H -H rH ■H -H 00 •H œ rH •H m •H 160 research; practice; and administration. Social policy and practice were the two topical areas most mentioned for planned aging related courses. SDSU is planning to implement the largest number of course areas in aging, and this may be related to the specialization offered in gerontology within the department and to a center on aging being located within the university. Three schools, CSUSJ, SFSU, and USC, had no future plans to include any of these topical areas for courses in gerontology. The respondent from USC stated that with the availability of the dual degree, social work students are afforded the opportunity of taking classes from the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and their needs for gerontological training can be better met in this manner. There was no relationship between the number of existing gerontology and aging related courses and planned courses in aging. Licensing The State of California, Department of Consumer Af fairs, Board of Behavioral Science Examiners is responsible for regulating the licensing of clinical social workers and registering titles of social workers in California. This Board also regulates the licensing of Marriage, Family and Child Counselors (MFCC) and Educational Psychologists. Members of the Board are appointed by the 161 Governor. The Board is composed of three subcommittees and each subcommittee has representatives from the respective disciplines of MFCC, Educational Psychology and Social Work. The Social Work Subcommittee includes four social workers, two representing Licensed Clinical Social Workers and two representing Registered Social Workers (RSW). The other two subcommittees have no direct role in the licens ing of social workers. Katherine Kaplan was the Chairperson of the Social Work Subcommittee until her death on January 3, 1977. Ms. Kaplan represented Licensed Clinical Social Workers on the Board and was a member of the Clinical Social Workers Society. This Society was instrumental in lobbying for the LCSW regulating legislation. Ms. Kaplan's expertise was in clinical counseling with adults and children. She had no specialized training in aging. Upon her death, Ms. Lola Selby replaced her as the Chairperson of the Subcommittee. Konrad Fischer served on the Board until October, 19 76 and has yet to be replaced. He also represented LCSW's and is a member of the Clinical Social Workers Society. Mr. Fischer worked at a private counseling clinic in San Jose and accepted clients of all ages. Ms. Selby did not know if Mr. Fischer had any experience in working with the elderly. Lola Selby, the present Chairperson of the Social Work 162 Subcommittee, has been a member of the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners since August, 19 76. Ms. Selby has both the LCSW and the RSW, but is currently representing the RSW's on the Board. She is a professor emeritus at the University of Southern California's School of Social Work, Ms, Selby had direct experience working with older adults when she was responsible for an Old Age Assistance case load in California when the Social Security Act was first enacted in 19 35. Herman Fogata is the fourth member of the Board and was appointed at the same time as Ms. Selby. Mr. Fogata represents RSW's and presently administers El Arco, a pro gram for the developmentally disabled in East Los Angeles. Ms, Selby did not know if Mr, Fogata had any experience in working with or on behalf of the elderly. At this writing, only two social work subcommittee positions are filled and both members represent RSW's. Until the Governor appoints two more members, LCSW's are not represented on the Board. Ms. Selby mentioned plans to appoint more public members to the Board, as a whole. Public members are usually persons who are not employed in the field, but have some knowledge and concept of the pro fessions the Board regulates. At least one public member will be added to the Social Work Subcommittee. The National Association of Social Workers and other profes 163 sional associations have submitted nominations to the Board but no action has been taken on filling the vacancies by the Governor's office. Of the 9,000 persons with MSWs in California, 4,200 hold LCSWs. At least half of these workers were "grand fathered in" without having to complete the licensing pro cedure when the licensing law went into effect in 1969. Consequently, many of the persons holding LCSW's do not practice clinical social work. Nancy Humphreys, President of the California Chapter of NASW, has never practiced clinical counseling. About 38 percent of the LCSW's are in private practice, mostly part-time. The LCSW is an ex clusionary license as it only involves one area of social work — clinical and social work therapy. Two examinations, one written and one oral, are ad ministered by the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners for the LCSW. By law, the examinations are suppoed to be offered twice a year, but due to lack of funds examinations were only scheduled once in 19 76. The written examination is multiple choice and tests the applicant's knowledge in the following areas: (a) Requirements for the LCSW. (b) Relating practice to various age groups (children, adults, and the aged). (c) General principles regarding the three practice modalities (case- 164 work, group work, and community organization). (d) Therapy modalities (e.g.. Trans actional Analysis, Gestalt). (e) Basic knowledge of professional relationships and ethics, supervision, and frames of reference for interpret ing human behavior. The applicant must pass the written examination in order to qualify to take the oral test. The latest oral examination, which was held in December, 1976, was conducted by several interview teams, consisting of three LCSWs each. The oral test usually lasts an hour, but again, due to financial shortages, it was shortened to 30 minutes, and the general format was as follows: (a) The applicant was invited to present and discuss a case from his/her own practice experience. (b) The applicant discussed his/her theoretical frame of reference upon which the therapy was based and was asked by the interviewing team to make practical application of that frame work . (c) The applicant's skill in diagnostic thinking and preparation of a treat ment plan was tested by the interviewers through in-depth questioning regarding the case presentation. (d) The applicant was able to choose a vignette from several vignettes pre pared by the Board and propose a treatment plan for the client(s) involved. 165 The applicant did not necessarily have any test of know ledge on aging issues unless he/she chose to present a case or vignette concerning an older person. The Social Work Subcommittee of the Board of Behav ioral Science Examiners is responsible for constructing the tests and solicits questions from experts in the various areas of social work. According to Ms. Selby, of the 100 questions on the current written text six (in section b) pertain to aging. Ms. Selby is now involved in making re visions of the examinations and has consulted with Dr. Margaret Hartford and plans to consult with Dr. William Albert, both social workers teaching at the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology and members of the USC School of Social Work faculty, to up-date and perhaps expand ques tions on gerontological issues. To qualify for taking the LCSW examinations one must: (1) Have an MSW from an accredited school of social work. (2) Have completed 3,200 hours of supervised post-masters, full-time clinical experience, one-half of those hours under the supervision of a licensed clinical social worker. If the applicant is from another state that has no licensing procedures established and can prove that his/her supervisor could qualify for an LCSW, then the person can qualify to take the examination. (3) Be 21 years of age. 166 Summary of the Findings The analysis of the data indicated that the profession of social work, in the State of California, is attempting to educate practitioners for working with and for elderly clients. Of the eight schools surveyed, three programs offered a specialization in gerontology. All the schools presented the opportunity for aging related field experi ences. Seven schools listed courses with some aging con tent as well as several specific courses in gerontological subject matter. Seven schools reported that faculty who teach these aging related courses do have some gerontologi cal training and six schools have faculty holding profes sional gerontological memberships. All schools have avail able literary resources in gerontology. Five schools have future plans to include aging related courses in their curricula. Variables such as the presence of a center on aging within the university and the opportunity for specializa tion in gerontology seemed to relate to the number of gerontology and aging related courses offered through the department. The two variables were also related to a more positive response regarding the importance of gerontology on the three attitudinal scales. It was found that most gerontology and aging related courses were offered at the graduate level. Also, two of 167 the schools which provided a specialization in gerontology maintained a high percentage of faculty holding doctoral degrees. This finding infers that aging content is more likely to be included in a school's curriculum as the per centage of faculty holding doctorates increases. Yet, it leaves in question the adequacy of academic training of social work practitioners who have Bachelors in Social Welfare degrees and work with the elderly. There were no relationships established between the population characteristics of the universities and schools/ departments and the inclusion of aging content in their curricula. While gerontology courses were offered in schools which provide a specialization in gerontology, this factor did not seem to have any relation to the number of aging related field placements and the number of students placed in those agencies. No correspondence was reported between the extent of aging courses offered and the professional gerontological membership of the faculty. The respondent from one school, California State University, Fresno, which offers a minor in gerontology, reported that none of its faculty who teach aging related courses had specific gerontological back ground. But this school did indicate that some of those faculty members did belong to the Western Gerontological Society. These results emphasize both the lack of avail 168 able gerontological training and the lack of academic regu lation of membership in the professional gerontological associations. There was a general recognition by the respondents of all schools sampled regarding the, at least, moderate im portance of gerontology to the profession of social work. The respondent from San Francisco State University felt that gerontology was only somewhat important at the present time but conceded that aging has important implications for the future of social work. Other relations were also noted. A relationship seemed to be apparent between the emphasis of gerontology within the department/school and the amount of aging re lated theses completed by students. However, the present number of gerontology and aging related courses did not seem to relate meaningfully to the school's future plans for courses in this area. Results from the investigation of the licensing pro cedures of social workers in California illustrates impor tant issues for the disciplines of social work and gerontol ogy. Although the Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW) is one important step toward self regulation, the profes sion of social work has no direct control over the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners, which licenses clinical social workers. The National Association of Social Workers 169 and other professional associations can suggest nominations for the Board, but the Governor's office actually makes the appointments and grants appropriations for the Board's operation. Two vacancies (LCSW representatives) now exist on the Social Work Subcommitte, and on© examination had to be cancelled last year due to lack of funds. Moreover, only one area of social work is licensed. Important issues pertaining to gerontology, which the research on social work licensing revealed, include the orientations of the members of the Social Work Subcommittee of the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners. Only one current or recent member, Lola Selby, had any known ex perience in aging. Ms. Selby is responsible for recon structing the licensing examinations. She is also the new Chairperson of the Social Work Subcommittee since Katherine Kaplan's death. Ms. Selby is a very influential member of this Subcommittee although she was just appointed in August of 1976. According to Ms. Selby, a total of six questions out of a total of 100 questions pertaining to aging were asked on the most recent written examination for the LCSW. Ms. Selby is in the process of revising the written test and has consulted with Dr. Margaret Hartford of the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology concerning current aging issues. This development could be attributed to a number 170 of variables which have combined to bring the disciplines of social work and gerontology into closer contact at the University of Southern California. The presence of the Andrus Gerontology Center and the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at USC has certainly made Ms. Selby more aware of gerontological issues and advancements in the field of aging. Drs. Albert and Hartford have joint appointments at the Leonard Davis School and the School of Social Work at USC. Their common social work orientation with Ms. Selby gives them similar perspectives on professional issues. The dual degree program which the Leonard Davis School and the School of Social Work offer in gerontology and social work has also afforded the two disciplines an excellent opportunity to exchange and integrate knowledge common to the two fields. The oral examination cannot be as easily evaluated as the written test. The content of the oral test depends on the applicant’s choice in presenting a case or vignette. Data on the content of this examination is not obtainable. This chapter has presented the results of this study. Possible relationships between variables concerning the eight educational institutions surveyed were discussed and information about the licensing of social workers was de lineated. The next chapter will examine implications from the findings presented in this chapter. 171 CHAPTER VIII IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter will give an overview of this project, discuss the implications of the findings and propose sug gestions for further research in this area. A brief over view of the study will be presented before addressing the issues suggested by the research. Overview of the Study This study attempted to identify criteria of profes sionalism and examine the professional status of both social work and gerontology. Social work's relationship to gerontology and the extent of inclusion of gerontologi cal content in this field's graduate schools in the State of California were also researched. First, an extensive literature review was completed on professionalism, de lineating seven criteria of professional status. Second, the field of social work was evaluated by these profes sional criteria and it was concluded that social work is a relatively new profession, requiring further expansion and 172 continued professional growth. Third, it was demonstrated that social work is involved in aging issues and that social workers do obtain positions that enable them to work with and for aging clients. Finally, the field of geron tology was assessed for its professional status. The authors concluded that gerontology still remains an area of specialization within the established professions, but that further development may be significant in the formation of a new profession. The eight graduate schools of social work/welfare in California were surveyed. Research consisted of studying the bulletins and announcements of the schools and then in terviewing a representative of each program to determine the extent of gerontological involvement within each insti tution. Variables considered included : the availability of gerontological field experiences; the number and per centage of aging content in each course offered in the de partment; the amount of gerontological background of faculty; teaching aging related courses ; the availability of geron tological resources in the school or departmental library; the interviewee's attitudes about the importance of geron tological content to his/her program, for the discipline, and for the future of the discipline; and topical areas of planned courses dealing with some aspect of aging. The licensing mechanism for social workers was also 173 considered. An interview was conducted with a member of the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners, which licenses clinical social workers in the State of California. This was included to determine the extent of gerontological knowledge required for licensure of a professional social worker in this state. Additional information about licensure was obtained from an interview with the Chairman of the California Chapter of the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) and from attending a one-day workshop on the subject sponsored by the NASW. Implications By the criteria established in this study, social work was defined as a profession in its early stages of develop ment. Social work does have some public sanction as evi denced by the legal recognition of the Licensed Clinical Social Worker. But the law which created this licensure is only as effective as the way it is implemented. Pres tige of the Board of Behavioral Science Examiners and new members appointed to the Board are two areas of concern which social workers interested in professional growth must not ignore. The NASW and the Clinical Social Work Society have been effective to some extent in lobbying for legisla tion on the profession's behalf. Support of their efforts, through time and money, seem to be a wise investment for social work professionals. 17 4 other areas of social work may take note of the success of the Clinical Social Workers Society in influenc ing the LCSW legislation and organize or strengthen their own special interest associations for similar licensure. National adoption of the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW) standards is one practical way for all states to conform to a national standard of practice. Private practice and vendorships in social work tend to lead to more autonomy and independence for the profes sion and should be encouraged, NASW and other professional social work organizations should lobby for reimbursement of social work services through Medicare and Medicaid (Medi cal) . These new sources of income would encourage the pro liferation of private practice. Contracts with private in surance companies should also continue to be negotiated. This study illustrates the involvement of the profes sion of social work in aging. As the knowledge base of gerontology expands, social work schools should be eager to incorporate this knowledge in their curricula. If social work does not recognize and act on this need to dis seminate the new information, another discipline, such as gerontology, will fill this void. Social work can more adequately prepare students to work with the elderly by offering more opportunities for specialization in aging. More field work practice and 175 gerontology related courses may be developed. Schools with centers on aging tend to offer more aging courses and op portunities for exposure to the field of aging. Expansion of centers on aging within schools of social work or on the same campuses would certainly provide social work students with this exposure. Continuing education training pro grams in aging for social work practitioners could also be provided by schools of social work or by the social ser vice agencies which serve the elderly. Gerontology, unlike social work, is not defined as a profession according to the criteria established in this study for professional status. The discipline is moving in the direction of professionalization. Some recommenda tions for accelerating this movement can be drawn from the history of social work's progress in this area. Gerontology must establish a distinct body of know ledge. Due to its multidisciplinary nature it could pos sibly bring together existing knowledge in the various categories of aging in a unique knowledge base, such as social work did in its early development. The Leonard Davis School and other gerontology programs throughout the country are developing curricula and research in these areas. Currently, gerontological course offerings within the institutions of higher learning are expanding at a rapid 176 pace. A need exists for the development of a distinct body of knowledge. At present, most of the courses offered are scattered throughout various departments of universi ties. With centralization, duplication can be avoided and a more coordinated holistic approach to training and re search can be perpetrated. The establishment of depart ments or schools of gerontology within higher educational settings may provide a means for assisting the development of the needed knowledge base. While the notion of service is inherent to the practi tioner in the field of gerontology, an identifiable profes sional ideology needs to be developed. This ideology can provide a model for the delivery of services to the elderly as well as supporting the professional development of gerontology. The field of aging has professional associations, the Gerontological and the Western Gerontological Societies. Unlike the NASW, membership is not restricted to persons with specific training in the discipline. Such exclusion ary action may not be advisable until the ranks of quali fied gerontologists are larger. At some point, membership should be restricted to persons who have fulfilled specific academic and/or experiential requirements. Such exclusion ary measures are necessary for the discipline to recognize a certain level of competence. 177 Gerontology must also formulate a written code of ethics which can be applicable to all practitioners in aging. The Gerontological Society is the perfect vehicle for authoring such a code. Its national membership allows for the opportunity of adopting a code of ethics, Due to its multidisciplinary nature, gerontology must be able to synthesize the codes from various professions to create one document agreeable to all gerontologists. In reviewing social work's struggle for licensing, gerontologists can learn two important lessons. Licensing provides a certain legitimacy to a discipline and persons in private practice had greater influence in lobbying for such licensure. Licensing identifies certain persons who have successfully completed the licensing procedure as being able to perform certain services. It happens that the only specialty in social work which is licensed has a large portion of private practitioners (38 percent), The Clinical Social Workers Society actively lobbied for the licensing bill. Private practice seems to allow the prac titioner more freedom in advocating for the profession. Gerontologists may investigate areas in the field which are amenable to private practice and vendorship. Public sanction of gerontology will be enhanced by further development and application of current research findings to benefit the elderly population. Media coverage 178 of new social services and research findings concerning the elderly will certainly encourage the public in its accep tance of gerontologists as experts, capable of voicing and solving the problems of the elderly. Public sanction will also be advanced with the institution of licensing proced ures. The question still remains of who is best trained in delivering services to the elderly. It can be expected that more established disciplines which closely relate to gerontology, such as social work, will lobby against the recognition of gerontology as a profession and against the licensing of gerontologists who perform similar functions to the more established fields. Results from this research effort reveals that social work is providing academic training in aging for its prac titioners. Although all the schools investigated did not have well developed aging related course offerings, they all recognized the need to address aging issues. If other disciplines acknowledge the importance of gerontological courses and issues and act on their recognition of this importance, gerontology as a separate field of study may not be necessary. Suggestions for Future Research This study is only descriptive and exploratory in nature. It has not tested any hypotheses, but has sug gested relationships and assumptions which can be investi- 179 gated in future research in this area. The following are some issues which were suggested by this research, but were outside of the parameters of this effort. Identifying what types of positions social workers are filling in the field of gerontology is an important initial step in further research between the two disciplines. Dis cerning the educational backgrounds of social workers in these positions and their opinions on the need for geron tological training for themselves and for students in social work would help to identify possible trends in aging education. Surveying a national sample of social work schools re garding the variables this study investigated could give an indication of the pervasiveness of gerontological content in social work education. Attitudes of the faculties at schools of social work throughout the country toward the toward the importance of gerontological issues and course content would give a better indication of whether Califor nia is an exception in accepting aging related courses and issues as being of significance. Developing a code of ethics would also entail further research. A survey of the various divisions within geron tology as to what commitments such a code should contain may be undertaken. Is there a consensus among gerontol ogists that such a code should exist? 180 Licensing is cinother very important issues in the de velopment of gerontology as a profession. Social work's licensing history should be studied in a critical way as a model for gerontology's development in that direction. The attitudes of practitioners in the field of aging toward the need for licensure should be discerned along with the areas of the discipline which should be licensed. A survey of the range of positions currently occupied by persons identifying themselves as gerontologists would give an overview of the diversity within the field. Geron tologists in private practice may be of special interest for research purposes. As learned in the study of social work's development toward professionalization, private practitioners have more freedom to advocate the cause of the profession. One may begin this research by surveying the membership lists of the Gerontological and Western Gerontological Societies. The educational backgrounds of the practitioners could also be ascertained. Their views of the educational needs of students who will be filling positions similar to theirs and of themselves and their colleagues could provide plan ning data for future curriculum development. Conclusion This study has provided an opportunity for the exam ination of relationships between social work and geron- 181 tology. 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The professionalization of everyone. American Journal of Sociology, 1964, 70, 137-158. 192 APPENDIX A 193 INFORMATION COLLECTION FORM - LDS STUDENTS, PROFESSIONALISM PROJECT 1. Name of Institution (1-3) 2. Name of department/discipline (4-5) 3. Types of degrees/certificates offered by department Certificates : (6-20) Bachelors : (21-30) Masters : (31-40) Academic doctorate (indicate speciality) Professional doctorate : (80=1) 194 Do courses in the departmental curricula - as indicated in the course catalog description - contain content re lated to gerontology? (1) 1 Yes 2 No If YES, list course titles and check appropriate spaces (2-76, 77, 78, 79) (80=2) Required Overview Graduate 195 5. Does the department offer a dual degree, minor or emphasis in gerontology at the graduate level? Check all categories which apply. (1-4) 1_ None 2 Dual Degree 3 Minor 4 Emphasis 6. Does the department require a field practicum, intern ship , or traineeship? (5) 1 Yes 2__ No 7. What is the student population of the institution? (6-8) ____________# of students 8. What is the total number of faculty members comprising the department? (-10) . ________# of faculty members 9. What is the total number of faculty holding doctorates within the department? (11-12) ____________# of faculty members 10. On a scale from one to seven, using the information you have assimilated from reading the university catalog of your department, rate the extent to which this de partment incorporates the subject matter of gerontol ogy into its department curriculm. (13) Does not incorporate Does incorporate gerontological subject gerontological subject matter matter 11. Is there anything else, not on this data collection form that you would like to address yourself to in terms of how this department relates to the field of gerontology? Please respond freely (14-79) (80=3) 196 12. Does department/school have a division of continuing education? (1) 1 Yes 2 No If YES, please list the course titles containing aging (i.e., gerontological) content within the continuing education curriculum. (2-78) Course titles : (80=4) 197 APPENDIX B 198 INTERVIEW DATA COLLECTION FORM 1. What is your name and complete title, inclusive of discipline? (1-2) 2. What is the number of students enrolled in your department/schoo1? ^ ^ ^ ^____________# of students 3. If applicable, please list the course titles containing aging (i.e., gerontological) content within your de partmental/school curricula, and please estimate what percentage of each course is devoted to aging content. (6-79, 80=5, 1-6) Course titles % If applicable, do the instructors teaching the above courses hold membership in the Gerontological Society (GS), or the Western Gerontological Society (WGS)? (7) 1 GS 2 WGS 3 Both 4 Don » t know 199 4. If your department requires a field practicum, trainee ship, or internship - What is the total number of agencies/settings being utilized? (8-9) ________ Total # of agencies/settings being util ized About how many students are placed in such agencies/ settings? (10-12) ________ # of students placed in all agencies/ settings utilized About how many agency/settings, which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults, are being utilized? (13-14) # of agencies which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults. About how many students are placed in these agencies/ settings? (15-17) ________ # of students placed in agencies/settings which provide opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults If applicable, would you please list the names of the agencies/settings being utilized which provide students with the opportunity to work with or on behalf of older adults (18, 19, 20-21) Names of agencies : 200 5. How important would you rate courses with aging (i.e., gerontological) content, in relation to your total departmental/ school curriculum? (22) 1 Of no importance 2__Not very important 3 Somewhat important 4 5 Important Very important How important would you rate aging (i.e., ger ontological) issues, in comparison with all other issues your pro fession is concerned with? (23) 1 Of no importance 2__Not very important 3__Somewhat important 4 Important 5 Very important If applicable, about how many doctoral dissertations and masters theses related to aging (i.e., gerontol ogy) have been completed in your department/school since 1971? (24-25, 26-27) # of dissertations related to aging completed since 1971 _____# of masters theses related to aging 8. completed since 1971 To which of the following journals does your depart mental/school library subscribe? Please check all that apply. (28-50) _____Aging Aging and Human Development "American Geriatrics Society Current Literature on Aging 'Developments in Aging Educational Gerontology Experimental Aging Research Geriatrics H uman De ve 1 opme n t Industrial Gerontology Journal of Gerontology Journal of Gerontological Nursing The Gerontologist Any other aging related journals? If YES, please list them 201 Do you plan to implement aging related courses into your departmental/school curriculum within the next 2 years, or 3 to 5 years? (51) 1 Within next 2 years 2 Within next 3 to 5 yrs If you do not plan to implement aging related courses into your school/departmental curriculum, is it be cause of - (Please check all that apply). (52-57) 1__Lack of money 4___Lack of faculty interest 2__Lack of qualified 5___Lack of relevance for faculty to teach your discipline courses 6___Other reasons, please 3 Lack of student specify interest If you do plan to implement aging related courses in to your school/departmental curriculum within the next 1 to 5 years, in what topical areas of your discipline would such courses be implemented? Please list such areas. (57-79, 80=6, 1-40) Topical areas where aging related courses would be implemented: 10. If applicable, what percentage of your faculty, who teach aging related courses, have specific gerontol ogy training? (41) 1 5-15% 2 15-25% 3 25-35% 4 35-50% 5 50-75% 6 75+% 202 11. If applicable, do you feel that faculty who teach your aging related courses should have specific gerontological training? (42) 1__Yes 2 No 12. Do you feel that the content (i.e. , subject matter) of gerontology has important implications for the future of your discipline? (43) 1__It has very important implications 2__It has important implications 3__Its implications are slightly important 4__The implications of gerontology have no importance for my discipline This interview was - (44, 80=7) 1___ Face to face 2__Over the telephone THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 203 APPENDIX C 204 DEFINITION OF TERMS The following are operational definitions of terms which are being used within specific parameters for the purposes of this study; Generic Terms 1. Gerontology is a multidisciplinary study of the pro cesses and the phenomena of aging, including knowledge from the biological, psychological, sociological and the behavioral sciences. 2. A profession is an occupation which requires a liberal education and meets the following criteria: (1) a body of knowledge; (2) a university education; (3) a code of ethics; (4) professional association; (5) public sanc tion ; (6) professional ideology ; and (7) self-regula tion. All criteria need not be fully developed, but the discipline must be progressing along the continuum of professionalism to be considered a profession. 3. References to the elderly, older adults and the aged at all times refer to those persons sixty years of age and older. Educational Terms 4. Course Offerings are those classes indicated in the course catalog or in response to the interview ques tionnaire which are available to students in the in stitutions studied. 5. Required courses are courses which need to be taken in order to meet the specifications of the program as listed in the course catalog. 6. A major is the principal field of academic specializa tion of a candidate for a degree in a college or university (Morris, 1969). 7. A minor is an area of specialized study of a degree candidate in a college or university which requires fewer class hours or credits than a major (Morris, 1969). 205 8. An overview course is an introductory course with no specified prerequisites. 9. An area of emphasis is not specified in the catalog^ but applies to twelve or more semester units in a subject which are taken by a student, 10. Graduate courses are those courses which are offered beyond the bachlors degree and are usually specialized or professional. 11. Field experiences are supervised work situations in which theoretical material learned in the classroom may be applied in an out-of-classroom setting. Uni versity credit is usually but not always earned for field experiences. For the purposes of this investi gation, practicum and internship are considered synonymous with field experience, 12. Dual degree is to mean that a student has earned, in addition to a degree in gerontology, another degree in a related area such as social work or public administration. 13. Doctoral degrees a. For purposes of quantifying data for this study, Ph.D.'s and D.Sci. degrees are being classified as academic doctorates. b. All other doctoral degrees are being classified as professional degrees. 14. Faculty included in this study are limited to full time teaching employees of the educational institu tions as indicated in the university catalogs. 206 APPENDIX D 207 DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR RET.T, ABILITY | QUESTION #5 How important would you rate courses with aging Ci,e/. gerontological content, in relation to your total depart- mental/school curriculum? 1 Of no importance 2 Not very important 3 Somewhat important 4 Important 5 Very important SUBJECTS TEST SCORE RETEST DIFFERENCE 1 5 5 0 2 4 3 1 3 5 5 0 4 5 5 0 5 4 4 0 6 4 3 1 7 5 5 0 8 5 5 0 9 5 5 0 10 3 4 1 11 4 4 0 12 5 5 0 13 5 5 0 14 5 5 0 15 4 5 0 Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = T = 1 — 6 D h(n-l) r = 0.9953 At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest for question #5. 208 APPENDIX E 209 DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR RELIABILITY, QUESTION #6 How important would you rate aging (i.e., gerontological) issues in comparison with all other issues your profession is concerned with? 1 Of no importance 2 Not very important 3 Somewhat important 4 Important 5 Very important SUBJECTS TEST SCORE RETEST DIFFERENCE 1 5 5 0 2 4 4 0 3 4 4 0 4 5 5 0 5 4 3 1 6 4 3 1 7 5 5 0 8 5 5 0 9 5 5 9 10 3 5 2 11 4 4 0 12 5 5 0 13 5 5 0 14 5 5 0 15 5 5 0 Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = T _ 6 D n(n-1) r - 0.9893 At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest for question #6. 210 APPENDIX F DATA FROM TEST-RETEST FOR RELTARXLITY, QUESTION #12 Do you feel that the content (i.e., subject matter) of gerontology has important implications for the future of your discipline? 1 It has very important implications 2 It has important implications 3 Its implications are slightly important 4 The implications of gerontology have no importance for my discipline SUBJECTS TEST SCORE RETEST DIFFERENCE 1 1 1 0 2 2 2 0 3 2 1 0 4 1 1 0 5 2 2 0 6 2 2 0 7 1 1 0 8 1 1 0 9 1 1 0 10 3 2 1 11 2 2 0 12 1 4 3 13 1 1 0 14 1 1 0 15 1 1 0 Spearman rank-order coefficient of correlation = r = 1 - 6D n(n-1) 4 = 0.981 At the .01 level of significance, the critical value is 0.715. The null hypothesis is rejected and a positive correlation is demonstrated between the answers given on the test and the retest for question #12. 212 APPENDIX G ISSUES ON LICENSING 1. What governmental agency regulates the licensing of social work in California? 2. What license is granted by this agency? 3. Who are the current members representing social work in this agency? What are the professional backgrounds of these members? 4. How many social workers are licensed in the State of California? 5. What type of examination(s) is given to applicants for this license? 6. What are the qualifications applicants must meet to take the examination(s)? 7. Are any aging-related issues addressed on the examina tion (s) ? 8. Are there any future plans to expand or update aging related questions on the examination(s)? 9. How can gerontologists, who are interested in the pro fessional development of gerontology, learn from the licensing history of social work? 214 APPENDIX H 215 E t h e i . P w c f A o t e c s G e e o n t o l o c y Cexteh cîirrassrrTïAW t to* AXGEIEE, CALnOX:iL^ 9OOO7 ( 313) 746^060 November 15, 1975 To; Deans, D irectors, and Department Chairmen of Professional Programs Dear The Leonard Davis School o f the Andrus Gerontology Center has been funded a grant by the National Retired Teachers Association / American Association of Retired Persons to examine several disciplines and th e ir relationships to gerontology and professionalism. Students from the Davis School are involved in the data co llection and analysis under the guidance o f Margaret Hartford, Ira H irs ch fie ld , W illiam A lb ert, and myself. This project w ill be helpful in increasing our knowledge o f the gerontological offerings of the colleges and u n ive rs ities in C a lifo rn ia and the expectations of professional credential ing boards. The study w ill f a c ilit a t e the future planning of the involved d isciplines and the advancement o f services, research, and education o f problems of aging. A s part o f th is study, a group of graduate students and facu lty are conducting a survey of the content on aging in professional cu rric u la . Within the next few weeks, an attempt w ill be made by one of these groups to interview you eith er in person or by telephone. The research group has had the opportunity to review your current b u lle tin , and other m aterials to determine the nature of your program and evidence of content on aging. The interview w ill be fo r the purpose of f i ll i n g in necessary data. The researcher w ill want to make inquiry about faculty teaching gerontology content, the extent of content, and the number o f students p articip atin g in the classes with aging content. Enclosed is a copy of the questionnaire for your perusal. W e want you to know th at the school has authorized this study and that we hope that you can assist our students in producing the necessary inform ation. Thank you fo r your time and consideration. Sincerely, Jam es E B irren , Ph.D. ^Executive Director Andrus Gerontology Center MEH/jel Enel.. Margaret E. H artford, Ph.D. Director Leonard Davis School o f Gerontology 216

Asset Metadata

Creator Killian, Roxana T. (author), Teper, Eldon J. (author)

Core Title Social work and gerontology: A study in professionalism

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

School Leonard Davis School of Gerontology

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Gerontology

Degree Conferral Date 1977-03

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c39-296775

Unique identifier UC11317523

Identifier EP67456.pdf (filename),usctheses-c39-296775 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP67456.pdf

Dmrecord 296775

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Killian, Roxana T.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA