University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

How does the evidence-based method of training impact learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy, and mastery goal orientation compared to the traditional method of training in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu?

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How does the evidence-based method of training impact learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy, and mastery goal orientation compared to the traditional method of training in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu?

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Content JIU-JITSU AND LEARNING

1
HOW DOES THE EVIDENCE-BASED METHOD OF TRAINING IMPACT
LEARNING TRANSFER, MOTIVATION, SELF-EFFICACY, AND MASTERY
GOAL ORIENTATION COMPARED TO THE TRADITIONAL METHOD OF
TRAINING IN BRAZILIAN JIU-JITSU?

by

Alexander Mark Dearing

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2015

Copyright 2015 Alexander Mark Dearing
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Acknowledgements
I want to first acknowledge my wife for if not for her none of this would have been
possible. She has been my muse, best friend and partner for over ten years. During that time she
has pushed me to be envision more and be more, while never losing hope! She listens to my
never-ending ideas and plans without judgment or criticism. She only nudges and points out
possibilities of what could be based on who I am. I couldn’t imagine taking this journey with
anyone else. Our memories are what make a life worth living, and the manner in which we live
and the lives we touch with our passion. She most certainly has touched me with her passion.
My mother hailing from Scotland inspired me to read and travel and appreciate people
from different cultures. My trips to Scotland left an indelible mark for adventure and learning.
She sacrificed so much to raise and care for me. Amazing opportunities of a personal nature
ignored to shape a little boy into a man who would make a difference! This dissertation Mom is
an academic thank you for a lifetime of self-less acts and a love that is priceless.
My father passed away July 9, 2010 leaving three sons and three grandsons. He
represented to me what many fathers do in a lifetime spent trying to mold their sons. He was at
times an enigma that finally reached my understanding prior to me getting married. I judged him
harshly as many sons judge their fathers until their time comes. I know how important education
was to my father and so this dissertation represents the culmination of many conversations about
learning and hard work. I honor your service Dad, Fair Winds and Following Seas.
Markus, (Boo) you’re a man making his way in life. Education and hard work are lessons
you’ve embraced well. I am proud of the man you’re becoming and am looking forward to
watching you achieve your dreams on your terms. Know that a father and son’s relationship can
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be strained but will forever remain a special bond. Never give up!!! I will always cherish STG-1,
park walks, football games you hated, beach walks and your methodical planning.
Jordan, (Baby J). You’re so much like me it’s as though someone played a trick on me.
Determined, focused with a keen sense of justice and kindness. I recently told you that you’re
going to have to decide what kind of man you want to be. Your grandpa and I made our path and
you and your brother will have to make yours. Life is very much like chasing that Black Belt. As
you know it’s not a race but the longest of distance runs. As you reach the various goals you
have and will set be patient and understand that it’s all part of the process. Know that you and
your brother are the very best of me. Protect Liza and your sister and never forget to choose
wisely!!!
Gabriela, (Buggha, Buggha). I always wanted a girl. I just didn’t know how much I could
possibly LOVE that girl!!! I will protect you and watch over you as you grow into a beautiful,
intelligent and compassionate young woman, a mirror of your mother. I love watching you play
rough with your brother. Know that Jordan will be watching over you after I am gone. You will
always be my mixed chick!!!
Finally, to my dissertation partner Susan. I told you that you would like doing a study on
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. You have made my study yours and in so doing catapulted it and its quality
far above what it would have originally been with only me as its sole researcher. Shukran.
To my dissertation committee members Dr. Tobey, Dr. Hocevar and Dr. Green, thank
you for your tireless support and oversight on this endeavor to create “new knowledge.” To Dr.
Castillo my sincerest appreciation for all your insight and guidance shaping and bringing my idea
to life. A final thanks to my lifelong friend Dr. Ron E. Williams and my evil workout buddy
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Coach Dave Robinson who was and is a second father to me, and taught me that hard work is the
key to everything. My final acknowledgement is for my adopted family on Twelfth Street. In
particular a fiery little woman named Joann Arnold. My grandma was my world from the time I
was six- months old until her passing on November 6, 1986. All the lessons I learned from her
and her husband, my grandfather, I carry with me to this day, especially those regarding hard
work and learning as much as you can. I love you so much grandma I think about you every
single day.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2

List of Tables 7

List of Figures 8

Abstract 9

Chapter One: Introduction 10

Background of the problem 10

Problem Statement 11

Evidence-Based Instruction and Learning Transfer 14

Purpose of the Study 19

Importance of the Study 20

Limitations 20

Organization of the Dissertation 21

Definition of Terms 22

Chapter Two: Literature Review 24

Review of Traditional Methods 26

Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Learning 27

Evidence-Based Teaching and Learning Transfer 32

Motivation to Learn 36

Self-Efficacy 40

Mastery Goal Orientation 45

Summary of Gaps in the Literature and Validation of Methodological Procedures 50

Summary 52

Chapter Three: Methodology 53

Hypothesis 1 54

Hypothesis 2 56

Hypothesis 3 57

Hypothesis 4 58

Method of Study 59

Sample and Population 61

Instrumentation 63

Learning Transfer 63

Motivation 65

Self-Efficacy 69

Mastery Goal Orientation 70

Data Collection 73

Chapter Summary 75

Chapter Four: Results 76

Methodology 76

Participants 77

Reliability 78

Learning Transfer 78

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Descriptive Analysis 79

Statistical Analysis, t-test, and ANCOVA 82

Motivation 84

Itemized Comparisons 84

Statistical Analysis, t-test, and ANCOVA 86

Itemized Comparisons 87

Performance and Mastery Goal Orientation 89

Itemized Comparison 89

Statistical Analysis, t-test, and ANCOVA 91

Chapter Five: Discussion 93

Summary of Problem 93

Learning Transfer 94

Motivation 95

Self-Efficacy 97

Mastery Goal Orientation 98

Validity 100

Internal 100

External 100

Treatment and Measurements 103

Recommendations for Practice 103

Recommendations for Research 104

Conclusions 105

References 106

Appendix A: Survey Instruments 120

Appendix B: Informed Consent 121

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List of Tables
Table 1: Gracie Barra Teaching Methods Example 12

Table 2: Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy Assessment Framework 55

Table 3: Five Conceptions of How Motivation Works 57

Table 4: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu 3-point Rubric with performance/learning Objective 64

Table 5: Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) 66

Table 6: Modified Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MMSLQ) 68

Table 7: Self-Efficacy Appraisal Inventory (SEAI) 69

Table 8: Mastery Orientation/Experience Appraisal Inventory (MOAI) 71

Table 9: Reliability: Cronbach's Alpha 78

Table 10: Individual Participant Scores of Anderson and Krathwohl's Revised Taxonomy
Pre- and Post-Assessment 81

Table 11: Group Statistics of Learning Transfer Pre and Post Test 82

Table 12: Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy Assessment Pre- and Post-Test 83

Table 13: Learning Transfer Post Test Statistical Analysis, t-test, ANCOVA 83

Table 14: Motivation Individual Group Pre and Post Itemized Comparison 85

Table 15: Motivation post survey statistical analysis, t-test, ANCOVA 86

Table 16: Self-Efficacy Individual Group Pretest and Posttest Itemized Comparison 87

Table 17: Self-Efficacy post survey statistical analysis, t-test, ANCOVA 89

Table 18: Mastery Orientation Individual Group Pre- and Post-Assessment Itemized
Comparison 90

Table 19: Performance (PGO)/Mastery (MGO) post survey statistical analysis, t-test,
ANCOVA 92

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List of Figures
Figure 1. International Federation Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Graduation System 13

Figure 2. Elements of Mastery 46

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Abstract
This study was designed to examine the use of evidence-based instructional content and
methods of a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu program versus a traditional instructional content and methods
program, and the degree to which, do learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and mastery
goal orientation outcomes change within the intervention group. The sample size consisted of 39
middle school boys and girls with no practical prior knowledge of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu techniques.
During the one-week experiment, the research hypotheses that shaped the study were (1) students
in the evidence-based methods condition would score higher on a measure of learning transfer
than students in the traditional methods conditions, (2) students in the evidence-based method
conditions would score higher on a measure of motivation than students in the traditional
methods conditions, (3) students in the evidence-based methods conditions would score higher
on a measure of self-efficacy than students in the traditional methods conditions, and (4) students
in the evidence-based methods conditions would score higher on a measure of mastery goal
orientation than students in the traditional methods conditions. Hypotheses one and two were
validated: learning transfer and motivation were higher in the evidence-based methods condition.
Hypotheses three and four were rejected. Conclusions and recommendations for future research
are discussed.

Keywords: learning transfer processes; motivation; self-efficacy, goal orientation, mastery;
coaching and knowledge.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The modern martial art of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu owes its lineage to Buddhist Monks dating
back to 2,000 B.C. Although numerous cultures, belief systems and personalities shaped the
martial art into its present form, a deliberate evidence-based pedagogy related to learning and
motivation theory appears to be missing from academies, dojos and schools across the world.
Moreover, the phenomenon of students suddenly disappearing between the belts of blue to purple
further suggests that attrition rates may be tied to issues of learning transfer, motivation, self-
efficacy and mastery goal orientation.
Background of the problem
Within the community of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, two bodies hold a position of governance:
the United Federation Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, (UFBJJ) and the International Federation Brazilian Jiu-
Jitsu (IFBJJ). The IFBJJ, in particular, has grown through the hosting of major Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
tournaments (World Championships and Pan Jiu-Jitsu Championships) and continues to grow
seasonal tournaments throughout the world. With the increasing growth since the very first Pan
American Championship held in 1995-96, rapid growth and participation in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
created a need for a more effective way to teach and learn Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, (M. Carvalho,
personal communication, March 10, 2014.
Finally, there exists a need for an evidence-based pedagogy or a framework from which
coaches can draw from as a matter of professional development to address what has been posited
as the three ways of learning among coaches learn: mediated, unmediated and internal (Werthner
& Trudel, 2006). Lyle (2002) posits that much of the focus on coaching is performance related
with limited attention given to coaching behavior and practice. Additionally, there appears to be
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a lack of resources that are non-sport specific to support teaching principles and provide
foundations to conceptual aspects of education, training, evaluation and research.
Style is an aspect of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu that is positioned appropriately within the art of
teaching Jiu-Jitsu. However, the science of teaching and learning belongs squarely within the
domain of learning and motivation theory. From this perspective, the necessity to develop
evidence-based pedagogy, grounded in instructional objectives that are aligned with effective
assessments will support the ultimate goal of learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.
This study examined the use of evidence-based practice for teaching and assessing
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu in comparison to that of traditional methods taught in a similar fashion to the
majority of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools operating today across the world. The traditional methods
were taken from a 2010 instructor’s handbook from Gracie Barra (2010). In comparison, the
evidence-based practice was aligned to a 3-point scale Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu rubric created and used
along with Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Revised Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning and
Assessing Learning Objectives.
Problem Statement
This study provides a new approach to teaching and learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.
Additionally, many coaches, instructors and professors do not have a background in the fields of
learning and motivation theory, which can serve to promote increased motivational drives
Pintrich (2002) as well as greater rates of learning transfer (Goldstone & Day, 2012; Engle, Lam,
Meyer & Nix, 2012). According to Professor Jerry Olivera, former Gracie Barra Huntington
Beach Academy owner and 3
rd
degree Black Belt (J. Olivera, personal communication, April 22,
2011), a generally held belief within the Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu community is that rote memorization
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and time in belt (Table 1) is adequate to satisfy learning and performance goals. Drill, drill and
more drill appears to be the instructional method utilized by most Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools.
Further, the Gracie Barra Instructors’ Handbook (2010) defines teaching methods as having only
one dimension, which is instructional content, while evidence-based pedagogy defines two
dimensions.
Table 1
Gracie Barra Teaching Methods Example
Concept Tools Commands
• GB dojo etiquette
• GB instructors code of
conduct
• GB mission statement
• End of class message
• BJ history
• GB uniform
• GB belt system
• Attendance card
• Work station
• Let’s line up!
• “Senior student, can
you collect the cards
please?”
• “Move forward to
the white mark, and
let’s have a great
class.”
• Play safe

An example of what Gracie Barra considers as its teaching methods is described in Table
1. A student’s understanding of general concepts is one of three elements: etiquette, mission
statement and history. The tools, as identified above, relate to the professors or coaches, the
uniform and professional tools. The instructional commands are a standard set of instructions all
professors, instructors and coaches are taught to issue during each class. Traditional methods of
instructional delivery utilized in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools today are aligned predominately to
students’ ability level as measured by a belt system and ultimately the judgment of each schools’
professor (Black Belt). All students, upon admission into a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu school, are given
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the rank of white belt (novice-learner). Based on the International Federation Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
time in belt durations on average are described in Figure 1.

Figure 1. International Federation Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Graduation System
A student advancing to the next belt is generally predicated on time in belt, regular
attendance rates (daily, weekly, monthly), and their professor’s judgment of their ability. The
assessment based on the student’s ability tends to be subjective in that they are judged relative to
their peers (performance-orientation), which is discussed in greater detail in the chapters that
follow. According to Professor Ralf Gracie Black Belt, owner of eight Ralf Gracie Brazilian Jiu-
Jitsu Academies throughout California (R. Gracie, personal communication, April 22, 2011),
many schools regularly compete in organized Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu tournaments held yearly like the
World Championships and Pan American Championships, and many of the Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
schools strategically withhold advancing students from their graduation in order to increase their
students’ competence which, ultimately, can increase their likelihood of excelling in these same
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tournaments. Time in belt produces an expertise-effect that is significant in learning Brazilian
Jiu-Jitsu in addition to competing in the sport side of it.
For example, higher-level practitioners in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Brown and Black Belts in
particular, develop these same characteristics within their game. Their expertise and subsequent
automaticity, develops within them the inability to accurately define the necessary component
skills novice learners need to develop schemas and knowledge banks (Ambrose et al., 2010).
According to Ambrose et al., (2010) effective strategies for professors and coaches
needed to overcome the expertise-effect are unpacking complex techniques or movements,
practicing specific component skills related to broader techniques or movements, and providing
specific and targeted feedback to the group as a whole but also to individuals in private so as to
increase understanding avoiding peer comparisons as much as possible. With respect to the
second strategy, it is important to note there are benefits to practicing component skills in
isolation, as it directs the practitioners’ attention to the specific skill in question. Once the
specific component skill has been mastered, the integration of the entire technique can be
facilitated with greater fluency and learning and performance outcomes.
Evidence-Based Instruction and Learning Transfer
In contrast, Clark (2010) divides evidence-based pedagogy into two components:
instructional content and instructional methods. This distinction is important, as it requires a
deliberate effort on the part of the trainer, teacher, developer, to account for the learners’
environment, ability and cultural differences within the exchange between the teacher/learner,
and cognitive processes like schema construction (Bennett, 2001; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2002;
Engle et al., 2012).
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To understand the importance of both instructional content and methods one must first
have a working definition of the term instruction. Meyer (2011) suggests that instruction occurs
when a learner’s environment is manipulated and from that manipulation there results a change
in the learner’s knowledge. Ambrose et al., (2010) suggest that learning is a process that involves
change over time. Moreover, learning is not something that is done to students but, instead, a
combined effect related to past and present experiences.
The reason for assessment is simply to determine what the learner knows in relation to
what that learner can do (Meyer, 2011). Additionally, Meyer (2011) makes the point that
assessments should be designed to target a learner’s outcome (what was learned after
instruction), the actual learning process (what were the cognitive processes in developing or
building knowledge), and learning characteristics (what are the learner’s skills related to
constructing knowledge).
Finally, in looking to align instructional methods within an evidence-based framework, a
taxonomy approach allows the classification of objectives, either learning or performance, to be
examined through the statement of a verb and a noun. The verb indicates the intended cognitive
process while the noun defines the knowledge students should develop (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001). An example of that within a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu context would be, “The students will be
able to identify and apply jiu-jitsu chokes from the closed guard position.” The two-dimensional
approach incorporating the cognitive process dimension requires students to progressively
increase their sophistication and critical examination of problems along a continuum, combined
with the knowledge dimension, which seeks to identify the type of pre-requisite knowledge.
Within the traditional methods approach to teaching and learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, this level of
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deeper, more exhaustive cognitive processing is not considered and neither is the relevance of
assessment considered as professors and coaches instruct teach their students, according to
Professor Marcelo Carvalho 4
th
degree Black Belt and owner of Global Jiu-Jitsu Academy (M.
Carvalho, personal communication, March 10, 2014).
Within the current framework of how Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu professors and instructors
deliver instruction around the world, there lacks a purposeful plan to connect instructional
objectives to performance objectives by way of a scientific approach to determine what students
know. Moreover, traditional methods of teaching and learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu do not consider
the need for or implement valid and reliability-based assessment tools for the purposes of
assessing: learning outcomes, learning processes and learning capabilities. These tools can be
interpreted and used for an appropriate purpose, which makes them valid and will consistently
produce the same score under the same circumstances, which defines them as reliable (Meyer,
2011).
It is critical to understand the connection assessment plays in relation to instruction
because of the need for teachers to properly assess their students’ current academic, social, and
emotional levels, which can have an impact on learning goals and outcomes (Ambrose et al.,
2010). Further, utilizing evidence-based practices for teaching and learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
enhances how professors and instructors account for the learner as a whole. Specifically, how
each learner organizes his/her individual knowledge schemas, and how s/he learns and applies
what they know. Finally, an evidence-based practice examines and allocates resources for
students’ prior knowledge. This is essential because accessing inappropriate or inaccurate prior
knowledge can negatively impact new knowledge acquisition (Ambrose et al., 2010).
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Contrary to a traditional method that utilizes drill practice and rote memorization to teach
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu techniques within a similar context (near transfer), evidence-based training
utilizes the elements of mastery learning for far transfer. Elements of mastery refers to a process
wherein students acquire component skills, practice integrating those newly acquired skills,
understand when to apply their skills, and, finally, begin to develop mastery (Ambrose et al.,
2010).
Ambrose et al. (2010) also posit that, in developing component skill acquisition, students
can benefit both from practicing individual skills in isolation of larger, more complex
movements, in addition to integrating individual movements within the greater context. Both
evidence-based training and traditional methods of practice throughout Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
academies and dojos share this approach across the world. The key difference is that the
evidence-based practices specifically utilizes scientifically based test instruments as assessments
to inform future instructional content and delivery methods based on learner outcomes, learning
processes and learning capabilities (Meyer, 2011). Instructors’ ability to acutely identify
potential gaps in the learners’ skill set can reinforce component skill re-training, utilizing a
combination of either isolated or whole-task practice to remediate the student (Ambrose et al.,
2010).
Typically within a traditional Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu teaching cycle, professors or instructors
will demonstrate a technique or techniques in isolation of other techniques that could be
potentially leveraged to reinforce similar learning concepts. Although it varies from one
academy or dojo to another, there generally appears to be missing an evidence-based approach to
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aligning instructional content, methods or individual techniques that serve as a framework for
integrating newly acquired skills along a logical continuum.
The ultimate goal of learning is to produce what is called far learning transfer (Ambrose
et al., 2010). To do this, information learners are exposed to and construct is initially encoded
through with prior knowledge. As practitioners, we learn in the dojo and co-construct knowledge
with our peers in a socio-cultural setting. Individually speaking, however, how and to what
degree this is accomplished is shaped, in part, by the practitioner’s previous learning
experiences. So, the techniques practitioners acquired within their knowledge banks and the
manner in which they have constructed learning representations (schemas) are important in how
new information and new ideas are processed through working-memory to be stored eventually
into long-term memory (Bennett, 2001; Sweller, 1998).
According to Ambrose et al. (2010) and Sweller (1998) the difference between an expert
and a novice is that a novice has not developed schemas or constructed extensive knowledge
banks of that of an expert. Because learning is both a change that ultimately produces a
measurable product, it requires a change in the schematic structures of long term-memory and is
demonstrated by performance that progresses on a continuum. As the learner becomes more
familiar with the learning objectives, such as technique and move, a change in performance
occurs due to cognitive characteristics associated with the learning material being altered so that
it can be handled more efficiently by working memory (Ambrose et al., 2010)
According to Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) posited by Sweller (1998), learning takes
place under conditions and teaching methods that are aligned to the human cognitive
architecture, and that utilizing research based on the information processing system, working
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memory is limited in the amount of items it can contain simultaneously. In relationship to
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, this suggests that professors or instructors delivering instructional methods
should account for this limited capacity within both their students as well as themselves prior to
creating a lesson and demonstrating a move or technique. Additionally, these CLT principles
would need to be aligned to any assessments created and given to students to measure
performance outcomes.
Typical errors that occur at traditional Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu academies and dojos based on
CLT principles is the demonstration of a particular move or technique and articulating
extraneous details as a student repeats the move several times. Most professors and instructors
are unaware of CLT principles and how to differentiate instruction for diverse learners.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined the effect of evidence-based training on transfer, motivation, self-
efficacy and mastery goal orientation in comparison to traditional methods of training within the
martial art of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Specifically, four hypotheses were addressed in this study:
1. Students in the evidence-based methods condition will score higher on a measure
of learning transfer than students in the traditional methods condition.
2. Students in evidence-based methods will score higher on a measure of motivation
than students in the traditional methods condition.
3. Students in evidence-based methods will score higher on a measure of self-
efficacy than students in the traditional methods condition.
4. Students in evidence-based methods will score higher on a measure of mastery
goal orientation than students in the traditional methods condition.
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Importance of the Study
The goal of the study is to discover if students of relative ability with limited prior
knowledge and formal instruction in the martial art of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu can score higher within
the evidence-based methods conditions in comparison to students in the traditional methods
conditions. Positive outcomes from the former can validate theoretical perspectives that posit
evidence-based pedagogical practices specifically instructional objectives aligned to
assessments, can produce higher transfer of learning outcomes versus traditional methods
conditions.
Limitations
The information collected in this study is based on a population of thirty-nine diverse
middle school students with limited or no prior experience in practicing Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. It
should be noted that there are thousands of different Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools, academies and
dojos throughout the world that follow the same basic training outline of the Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
school featured within this study as the traditional methods curriculum. However, not all
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools have a curriculum written down and implemented in a uniform
manner as Gracie Barra does. The small sample size of 39 students is due to several factors. The
scheduling and instructional practices set forth by the principle/executive director from a charter
school located within Orange County, limited the number of potential participants that could be
selected for the random assignment to control and intervention groups. That school will be
fictitiously identified as Mar Vista Charter School throughout this paper. Parental permission
slips are also a factor as the concept of students participating within a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu study is
a potential concern for numerous parents. To offset this perception, the principal/executive
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21
director wrote a letter ahead of the start of the study to reassure parents that the study is purely
observational. Within the curriculum frameworks of Mar Vista Charter School, forty-five minute
sessions, with each group, is the maximum time allowed for the one-week study.
Organization of the Dissertation
This study examined the potential transfer of learning, motivation, self-efficacy and
mastery goal orientation outcomes of thirty-nine middle school students with limited prior
knowledge of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu as measured by pre and post tests given to both a control and
intervention group randomly assigned. Additionally, the two groups were randomly assigned
with the intervention group receiving Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu instruction based on evidence-based
practices and the control group receiving the traditional methods approach.
Chapter one begins with an introduction into the research topic that includes relevant
historical perspectives and background information. Past and current challenges facing the art of
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, in particular to transfer of learning outcomes will also be examined. The
largest numbers of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools in the world are Gracie Barra academies and will
be introduced and used as the traditional methods, which is functionally aligned to similar to
schools in the U.S. and around the world.
Next, the International Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (IFBJJ) official belt system is
introduced and the rationale behind promotions is briefly explained. Finally, the Gracie Barra
instructors’ manual was examined, specifically the teaching methods section, and used as a
framework throughout the study from which traditional Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu methods is taught
from. Clark (2010) provides a two-part definition of instructional methods, which is used to
focus a lens towards the possibility of discovering a more robust methodology in teaching
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learning transfer in the practice of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu as well as increasing outcomes in
motivation, self-efficacy and mastery goal orientation.
Chapter two contains a review of literature of learning transfer outcomes and processes
specifically related to the aforementioned research question and hypotheses in addition to the co-
researcher’s counter discussion on performance goal orientations. A critical evaluation of the
literature, highlighting important, unanswered questions is provided. Methodological problems
with past studies or areas of controversy are examined while a discussion of the significance of
past relevance, and how it relates to this study is presented. A presentation of theories and
summary is included in addition to the need for this study to be done.
Chapter three restates the purpose of the study and describes the research setting for this
study as well as the methodology and data collection process used to gather the relevant data for
examination and analysis. The instrumentation and theoretical framework are discussed in
addition to the process of reliability and validity will be discussed.
Chapter four restates the research focus while including the assessment tools utilized in
chapter three. Additionally, a report of the results is made with a reflection provided as to how
the results supported the original findings. In chapter five, a brief description of the background
and purpose of the study was provided. Additionally, limitations not previously discussed are
addressed in addition to the implications for practitioners in the field. Finally, future research
needed based on the findings is explained and conclusions provided.
Definition of Terms
Learning Transfer: Ambrose et al., (2010, p. 108) “Far transfer is, arguably, the central goal of
education: we want our students to be able to apply what they learn beyond the classroom.”
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23
Motivation: (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008, p. 4) posits, “Motivation is a process whereby
goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained.”
Self-Efficacy: (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008, p. 379) “One’s perceived capabilities for
learning or performing actions at designated levels that are domain specific and context
dependent.”
Mastery Goal Orientation: According to (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008, p. 184) “A mastery
goal is defined as a focus on learning, mastering the task according to self-set standards or self-
improvement, developing new skills, and/or improving or developing competence.”

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
An overview of the literature is presented at the beginning of this chapter. This is
essential given the focus on performance learning currently being taught throughout the Brazilian
Jiu-Jitsu schools and academies throughout the world. Next, the literature reviewed in this
chapter examines the impact of using evidence-based methods in comparison to traditional
methods of learning, and to what degree if any, do learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and
mastery orientation outcomes change as a result of interventions in the educational process. The
review presents perceived gaps in the literature as well as evidence from the literature regarding
the present study’s choice of an experimental quantitative research methodology to test the
research question. A summary will conclude this chapter.
The approach to this review of the literature was to examine the recent academic research
on the topic at hand, to search for relevant gaps in the literature, and to assess the current
challenges presented by researchers with respect to evidence-based instructional objectives and
learning transfer within the field of coaching. Searching several databases in a systematic way
using online and regular library services carried out a review of the available literature. The
following databases were searched: EBSCOhost; Elsevier; ProQuest; PSYCHINFO; Academic
Search Complete; JSTOR; SAGE Journals Online; SocINDEX with Full Text; and the database
of dissertation abstracts. The online databases of Google Scholar also provided information for
the search of the pertinent literature. Bibliographic and reference listings were accessed from
appropriate titles discovered within the review process. The keywords searched included (either
individually or in combination): learning transfer processes; motivation; goal orientation,
mastery; self-efficacy, motivation; students; education; retention; expectancy-value theory;
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academic; achievement; student success and coaching and learning transfer processes. From this
collection of research information, 212 scholarly books, seminal journal articles, and research
documents were reviewed for the purposes of this study. The criteria for including and rejecting
articles was based upon the depth of information available on the primary factors of this study,
namely motivation, middle school education and retention, and the experiences of students in
physical education and sports.
The review of literature reflects a combination of motivation theories, such as self-
efficacy theory, self-determination theory, expectancy value theory and achievement goal theory.
Motivation theory, as it can be applied to education and sports settings, was examined to
demonstrate that human functioning is made up of a number of variables and their interactions,
including the three reciprocal causation factors of environmental, behavioral, and personal
influences (Woolfolk, Winne, & Perry, 2008). The significance of motivation was reflected in
the study and a connection made to athletes/students’ attributions and ability to set achievable
goals in respect to performance and mastery goal orientations.
Learning theory integrated principles from social, developmental, and cognitive theories
within these contexts. Additionally, researchers claimed that self-efficacy and self-determination
are key personal variables for learning and performing tasks at a certain level, and can be
heightened by conducting tasks and self-realization of abilities within a collective setting, as
noted by Woolfolk et al. (2008). Each of these variations on the overarching theory, as aspects of
motivation and its links to learning transfer, will guide the research.

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Review of Traditional Methods
A review of literature related to performance orientations yields additional research on
the theory of player experience and how this is tied to mastery protocols. Within the player
experience paradigm, Costello and Edmonds (2009) posited that varying types of emotions could
take place while or after immediately playing a sport. Some of these that were presented include
but were not limited to captivation, discovery, fellowship, sensation, sympathy and thrill
(Costello and Edmonds, 2009). The player can alter these emotions depending on the experience
and the perception of the experience. To a degree, the educator has the ability to craft
experiential paradigms that would be more or less likely to highlight the types of emotions that
are tied to mastery learning.
Performance oriented students’ value competition and performance relative to their peers
(Dweck, 2006). They are concerned with how their performance will be evaluated in relationship
to peers. These students do not want to underachieve and view mistakes in learning outcomes as
underperforming. They place great value with being seen as having high ability and as such seek
public appraisal for high performance outcomes (Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck, Otto, 2008; Payne,
Youngcourt, Beaubien, 2007; Meece, Anderman, and Anderman, 2006; and Heyman and
Dweck, 1992). As mentioned before, both performance and mastery oriented students exist in
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu academies and dojos across the world and so the need to provide a balance
would ultimately benefit all Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu students.
Once having identified the primary mechanisms of emotion, traditional drill, and practice
and progressive means of learning, some performance researcher theorists draw from sources
that advocate what can be considered a more holistic approach. The holistic approach, which
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highlights the positive elements of each of the other approaches, clearly stands out as the most
likely path to mastery and success within the established Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu framework analysis.
It includes memorization as well as problem solving and manifesting positive emotional
behaviors within competition.
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Learning
The literature review related to Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and learning examines a large span of
professional knowledge related to traditional methods of teaching the martial arts in addition to
more non-traditional approaches. In regards to the traditional approaches, performance-
orientations highlights that drill and practice is typically the way in which students learn this
martial art and is generally the preferred approach to teaching and learning. Drawing from other
research on the matter, this literature review designates methods that are consistent with the
traditional military framework as well as what can be found in traditional physical education
programs. This philosophy suggests the necessity for drill and practice within Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
instructional delivery approaches.
However, further research draws upon literature that highlights a constructionist
approach. From the perspective of constructivism, learners construct knowledge based on what
they already understand as they make connections between new information and old information.
Students’ prior ideas, experiences, and knowledge interact with new experiences and their
interpretations of the environment around them. Savery and Duffy (1995) suggest that a
constructivist approach to teaching and learning involves many complex interactions between the
content, the context, the activity of the learner, and the goals of the learner. For example, Posner
(2004) noted that constructivist educators advocate teaching problem solving, self-discipline and
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flexibility of methods. While practicing “moves” and “positions” is an important component in
the martial art, understanding how they blend together, how to transition and when to use them is
equally or, perhaps, more important.
Coaches can be found in a broad cross section of society. Equally as important in
business organizations as they are in sports organizations, understanding how coaches learn is
critical for creating the proper learning environments to develop the most efficacious coaches.
There is currently a great deal of social and hard capital involved in coaches and the degree to
which they are successful. According to Cassidy, Jones and Potrac (2008), “Coaching is
fundamentally a social, cultural and pedagogical practice that comprises the inter connections
between the teacher, learner, content and context” (p. 22). While there is an abundance of
research available that suggests that coaches are looking for information to increase their
efficacy in their respective roles, the information that is available is considered by them to not be
useful (Reade, Rodgers, & Hall, 2008). In this capacity, it can be stated that gaps exist between
what coaches are looking for and the research that is being conducted (Reade, Rodgers & Hall,
2008). Recent research revealed that the complexity of coaching, which includes how they learn,
motivate and gain information, is not a uniform process thereby making sweeping conclusions on
the subject difficult. What is known, however, is that coaches learn and are influenced by a
complex mix of formal, non-normal, informal directed and self-directed learning experiences
(Cushion, Nelson, Armour, Lyle, Jones, Sandford & O’Callagan, 2010).
Determining how a coach learns is difficult in that no two coaches learn exactly alike.
Learning itself is a broad and complex field that draws from a range of theories, three of which
are the primary approaches (Cushion et al., 2010). This includes behaviorism, cognitivist and
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social/constructivism. According to Cushion et al. (2010), there is not a single all-encompassing
theory of learning upon which to base all coach development. Since coaches develop in different
ways, learning is largely individualized and ad hoc. Acknowledging that the role of a coach is
important and complex, Werthner and Trudel (2006) found that a new perspective might be
better suited for understanding coach learning than has traditionally been used. This new
theoretical perspective outlines three different types of learning situations: mediated, unmediated
and internal (Werthner & Trudel, 2006). Backing similar conclusions by Cushion et al. (2010),
the research of Werthner and Trudel (2006) found that “The path to becoming a coach is often
idiosyncratic” (p. 198). Though the paths are different perhaps, there are some common
denominators in a coach is learning that necessitate articulation.
Reade, Rodgers and Spriggs (2008) found that coaches most often learn from other
coaches. As a result, the field can be considered one of master and apprentice to a certain degree.
Rather than knowledge transfer by traditional means, there is a strong propensity for scaffolding
and behavior modeling related to coach development. Recently, there have been advances in
coaching science. While there is an entire discipline based around the science of coaching with
academic publications and related literature, this seems to have little influence on actual coaches.
Sports scientists are not high on coaches’ lists for information sources (Reade, Rodgers & Hall,
2008). Despite the potential for gaining strong information, researchers conclusively
demonstrated with a variety of studies that coaches are not interested in coaching science
publications (Reade, Rodgers & Hall, 2008). In a series of interviews conducted with actual
coaches, two important facets of information related to coaches learning were found. In the first
capacity, coaches were interested in learning more information that could make them more
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effective (Reade, Rodgers & Hall, 2008). Secondly, there was little evidence to suggest that they
rely on sports science for information (Reade, Rodgers & Hall, 2008). During follow-up
questions, the reasons most commonly given for this by the coaches surveyed were lack of time
and lack of interest in academic publications (Reade, Rodgers & Spriggs, 2008). It is important
to note that the quality of information provided by the sports science publications was not an
influencer and no individuals suggested that the information would not be beneficial (Reade,
Rodgers & Spriggs, 2008).
For coaches, both as learners and facilitators of learning, motivation is a key variable and
this makes the discipline not unlike other organizational interests. For example, all business
organizations are interested in efficacious motivational practices for employees. Coaching is not
different in this equation. Motivation to learn, as it applies to coaches, falls into the following
contexts: motivation to learn, motivation to transfer, pre and post training, self-efficacy, mastery
orientation, performance orientation, avoidance orientation, expectancy and instrumentality
(Genefurtner, 2011). Correlations among these variables, according to research, are stronger
when learning environments showed greater numbers of learner centered environments and self-
regulation rather than knowledge centered environments (Genefurtner, 2011). This provides
plausible reasons why Reade, Rodgers and Spriggs (2008) found that coaches primarily learn
from other coaches rather than from academic publications.
Academic publications are largely knowledge based. Genefurtner (2011) demonstrated
that this perspective had the lowest correlation with favorable learning motivation in the coaches
surveyed. A coach, therefore, would be more motivated by a learner-centered environment with
self-regulation, which would be more reminiscent of a master/apprentice style relationship.
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Beyond this particular finding, there is also significant evidence to suggest that coaches that set
goals that are self-regulatory and that embrace effort will have positive correlations on
performance (VandeWalle, Cron & Slocum, 2001).
With respect to athletes/students learning from coaches, Stoeber, Stoll, Pescheck and Ott
(2008) posit that, due to the widely held views on perfectionism and the risks associated with
failing to meet defined performance objectives in athletic competitions, a broader, more inclusive
approach to athletes/students’ goal-setting and self-regulating learning would be more conducive
to mastery approach goals while mitigating negative feelings of failing to reach desired levels of
perfection. Lundh (2004) suggest that some athletes/students can set perfectionist type goals and
fail to meet them yet not suffer from negative feelings associated with failure. These mastery-
oriented athletes/students see their failures as mistakes, which are integral in the learning process
(Dweck, 2006). Moreover, mastery approach goals can exist with positive conceptions of
perfectionism and are associated with positive levels of motivation and self-efficacy (Stoeber and
Ott, 2006).
In summary, both coaches and athletes/students are susceptible to the same type of
learning theories and processes. Bandura (1977, 1986) posited that learning is a psychological
model of behavior and, as such, occurs as the learner observes behavior within a social context.
The fact that coaches do not tend to utilize academic publications or other research based
theories to inform their coaching practices does not equate to a lack of ability to achieve in their
own learning nor does it mean they cannot facilitate the transfer of learning to their
athletes/students. Bandura (2001) suggests that people can and do have significant agency and
the ability to influence their own learning both as a cognitive process and with respect to the
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external environment. Moreover, goal-directed behavior and focus on internal self-regulatory
processes increases the likelihood of reaching desired outcomes (Bandura, 2001). Additionally,
the relationship between the learner and the particular content or activity is a key factor in
determining the level of engagement (Krapp, 2000). Motivation and personal interest become a
catalyst for learning transfer for both coaches and athletes/students (Krapp, 2005).
As coaches organize and structure their own learning in addition to facilitating the
learning of others they must recognize that interest is always content specific (Renninger, 1989,
1990, 2000). Additionally, the motivational principles of situational and individual interest
should not be underestimated. Situational interest has been shown to increase levels of reading
comprehension, increase attention and focus, while individual interest has been proven to enable
integration of information with prior knowledge, and increase academic motivation and cognitive
performance (Renninger and Wozniak, 1985; Renninger and Hidi, 2002; Ainley et al., 2002;
Krapp, 2002b).
The importance and connection of motivational principles to coaches learning and
facilitating the learning of their athletes/students is obvious. If coaches become more self-
efficacious within their own learning, they can better understand the necessity that self-efficacy
plays in influencing positive academic and scholastic outcomes in their athletes/students
(Pajares, 1996).
Evidence-Based Teaching and Learning Transfer
The principles of evidence-based teaching are tied to the premise that problem-based,
self-directed learning is the most effective in creating the environment in which students
effectively (Davies, 2000). Developed from the constructivist school of teaching, the zone of
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proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1987), is the difference between what a student can
achieve on his or her own and what the same student can do with the assistance of another person
who is more competent (Edwards, 2005).
Through scaffolding, defined by an educator and student working together to question,
uncover and deconstruct meanings that the child experiences in the world, and afterwards
develop creative responses in a number of different active ways (Davies, 2000). It is maintained
through an interactional process between the student and a competent other, which allows the
child to question and build upon the creation of knowledge and understanding over time. The
ZPD provides insight into the “relational” versus “individualist” notions of cognitive
competence.
Vygotsky noted that all knowledge, and the knowledge-making tools afforded to a
community, actually reside within a socio-historical context (Edwards, 2005), which means that
social contexts can have a definitive effect on what and when information is absorbed by young
children in a learning environment. A relational approach means that children, upon being born
into their communities, gradually appropriate the knowledge inherent within that context, and
with that knowledge, the psychological tools of the people comprising their communities. Doing
so allows them to operate successfully as they grow up and utilize the social-cultural framework
of their community as a bridge to information. This social framework and its context becomes
the foundation for how learning transfer is developed. Without it or belief in an individualist
cognitive approach that learning occurs in isolation without socio-cultural and environmental
influences would refute many of the theories presented herein.
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In an investigation of learning transfer contexts in a review of the literature, Engle, Lam,
Meyer, and Nix (2012) found that the larger the social context, the more likely that learning
transfer will occur. In other words, when students understand the ways in which their learning
will have an impact on their interactions with people, places, and time, and that learning is
deemed relevant to their future contributions to society as a whole, the more likely that learning
transfer will occur. To make this work, however, Goldstone and Day (2012) suggest that students
need to understand that they have a role in participating in shaping their own education. Engle et
al. (2012) recommend that students begin to internalize their own authorship in creating new
solutions to problems that they face, and that their communities face as well. Similarly,
Goldstone and Day (2012) argued, “learning without transfer of what has been learned is almost
always unproductive and inefficient. Although schools often measure the efficiency of learning
in terms of speed and retention of knowledge, a relatively neglected and subtler component of
efficiency is the generality and applicability of the acquired knowledge” (p. 149). This is tied to
the fact that evidence shows (Engle et al., 2012) that effective learners can transfer learning by
adapting their mindset in respect to the way they view problems and make near and far transfer
connections (Ambrose, 2010; Engle et al., 2012).
Ultimately, the literature shows is that there is a psychosocial context to learning that
defies common expectations about the focus on cognitive development that is common in
today’s schools. As noted by Burton (2007), for example, evidence-based practice from
classrooms all over the world fully supports this idea, but curricula are still oriented around
cognitive tool use over psychosocial tasks. Personalized learning, therefore, needs to be
examined as a means to ensure all students can benefit from learning techniques. As noted by
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Burton (2007) as well as Ford, Smith, Weinstein, Gully, and Salas (1998), personalized learning
is linked to metacognitive activity. This is defined as “an individual's knowledge of and control
over his or her cognitions [and] includes planning, monitoring, and revising goal appropriate
behavior. Individuals with greater metacognitive skills are expected to learn more effectively
because they monitor their progress, determine when they are having problems, and adjust their
learning accordingly” (Ford et al., 1998, p. 220). The Ford et al. (1998) study showed that
students learned more effectively when their values and social motivations were taken into
account, and when they demonstrated their learning transfer back to the teacher. The student’s
psychosocial context, however, can either contribute to this metacognitive activity process or it
can draw away from it, making it more difficult for students to achieve their goals (Burton,
2007). To this end, the evidence from the research literature shows that the students’
metacognitive skills can lead to greater self-efficacy over time. Teaching for long-term transfer is
therefore more important than teaching for retention (Halpern & Hakel, 2003).
Learning transfer, as a result of the evidence from the literature, needs focus on the needs
of each student rather than on the processes of teaching (Michael, 2006). It therefore involves the
active construction of meaning for each activity, which is why there needs to be a direct
connection made between the information that is collected by the student and the application of
that information in real life, in practical terms rather than in intellectual terms (Michael, 2006).
Students need to develop their own feasible metacognitive tools to mitigate challenges in their
psychological, social, and physical environments in order to apply learning (Schmidt & Ford,
2003; Winne & Nesbit, 2010). These tools include:
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(a) Alertness to occasions to monitor, (b) having and choosing useful standards for
monitoring, (c) accuracy in interpreting the profile generated by monitoring, and (d)
having and choosing useful tactics or strategies. After setting the stage to reach subject
matter achievements by developing these metacognitive skills, two further steps are
required: (e) being motivated to act and (f) modifying the environment or locating oneself
in an environment that affords the chosen action (Winne & Nesbit, 2010, p. 657).
The foundation of learning transfer that must be recognized in research, building on these
findings from the literature, is that it is necessary to examine how problem-based, self-directed
learning can be effective in creating the environment in which learning transfer occurs. What has
not been made clear by the literature, however, is in learning environments such as physical
education and more specifically Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu academies and schools.
Motivation to Learn
In the classroom, motivation must be meaningful and must come from a person that gives
and has respect in the educational process. The learning may not be fun, but it must be
worthwhile. Brophy (1998) called motivation to learn “the tendency to find academic activities
meaningful and worthwhile and to try to get the intended learning benefits from them” (p. 5).
The student has a vested interest because the learning becomes a means to an end in that case.
The learning is tangible and can be used for a specific purpose or purposes. By creating that need
in a student, learning does not have to be fun to be effective. In this case it can be made clearer
by using the following model. Expectancy time value equals motivation (Brophy, 1998). In this
equation you need both expectancy and value in order to attain motivation. Given these factors,
motivation is believed to be connected to the opportunity that an achievement outcome can or
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will be obtained, namely its underlying expectancy, as well as how much that outcome is
perceived to have value (Taylor & Graham, 2007). In other words, expectancy-value theory
suggests that a child’s academic self-concept can influence both academic interest and
achievement over the short and the long term (Marsh, Martin, & Cheng, 2008).
Educational researchers see motivation as more of a product of intrinsic value rather than
solely extrinsic in nature. Intrinsic or internal motivation and personal interest lead to greater
achievement; extrinsic or external motivations are activities that will tap into students’ deep-
seated interests (Sullo, 2007). Intrinsic motivation can be used to increase a child’s self-
perceived competence by using appropriate praise sparingly, and for the adult to develop a
trusting and nurturing relationship with the student (Watts, Cashwell, & Schweiger, 2004). The
basic tenets of intrinsic motivation are self-perceived competence, self-determination, and
relatedness (Watts, Cashwell, & Schweiger, 2004). This is an important aspect of motivation
because it is focused on what drives or inspires someone internally. Sullo (2007) suggests, “most
schools and classrooms operate on the reward or punishment model and use stimulus and
response, behavior modification, or assertive disciple techniques” (p. 5). Sullo further states that
“we have spent a century or so believing that external stimuli explains human behavior, teacher
training programs typically require educators to learn how to systematically reward and punish
students… shaping the behavior of students by extrinsically rewarding them for compliance” (p.
5). This shift in pedagogy to a focus on internal rewards may be an even stronger motivating
force than external rewards.
In an example of how motivation works in an experimental design setting, Klein, Noe,
and Wang (2006) examined standard classes and those with a high learning goal orientation, and
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looked at the effects of these environments on students. Students were higher in motivation in the
high learning goal orientation classroom, and this was connected to the idea that these students
perceived the environment as a positive influence on their learning process. As noted by Klein et
al. (2006), there was an effect between this perception and higher learning outcomes, as
presented in the experiment. This focus on the value of the environment and its impact on
motivation can be linked to the fact that motivation, over time, can lead to learning transfer
(Gegenfurtner, Veermans, Festner, & Gruber, 2009). The successful completion of a task is,
therefore, contingent on the ways in which students motivate themselves to transfer, according to
the literature (Gegenfurtner et al., 2009; Pugh & Bergin, 2006).
Social motivation factors in learning are useful in collaborative learning techniques in the
classroom, as noted by Woolfolk, Winne, and Perry (2008). These approaches involve joint
intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together. Usually, students are working in
groups of two or more, mutually searching for understanding, solutions, or meanings, or creating
a product. Collaborative learning includes both classroom methods and learning environments in
which students engage in a common task where each individual depends on and is accountable to
each other. This is because of the fact that understanding requires students to have an
inquisitional stance, facilitated by their peers from which they contemplate different ideas about
the world and motivate each other through questions and answers and which results in pre-
training motivation (Chiaburu & Marinova, 2005).
It is also important to look at reverse motivation and challenges to the development of
motivation. Lewes (2007) further qualified the motivation to learn by adding that a student who
works due to a fear of being punished tends to panic and become agitated when called upon to
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answer questions as opposed to an intrinsically motivated student who is more likely to perform
better when asked to think quickly. Lewes (2007) discussed the research underlying the various
dimensions of the learner-centered principles and its implications for teachers and teaching
regarding motivation. Students may find that the motivation to learn can also come from positive
relationships with adults in their lives (Jackson & Davis, 2000) especially when they receive
performance based feedback from those adults (VandeWalle, Cron, & Slocum, 2001). These
positive and interactive relationships with adults may lead to the confidence these students need
to express themselves using trial and error as they learn so that they can obtain a goal orientation
(Jackson & Davis, 2000; VandeWalle, Cron, & Slocum, 2001). Extrinsic motivation like
feedback can take form in multiple ways, from motivation in persons who are less motivated
independently, to persons who are highly motivated. A spin-off of self-determination theory is
cognitive evaluation theory, which posits that social events that support feelings of competence
when performing a task, such as rewards or feedback, enhance one’s internal desire, or intrinsic
motivation, to complete the task. Such motivation is associated with assimilation, mastery,
spontaneous interest, and exploration. Additional factors contributing to intrinsic motivation
include freedom from negative evaluation, desirable challenges, and constructive feedback that
supports performance (Jackson & Davis, 2000; VandeWalle, Cron, & Slocum, 2001).
At the same time, although motivation is important at every level of education,
researchers found that students’ motivation declines as they progress from elementary school
through high school (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006). The needs of students at the middle school
level are different with respect to their personal development and the negative perceptions they
may face. When middle school students are positively impacted by motivational factors, whether
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intrinsically, extrinsically, or a combination of both, researchers suggested that these students
have a better chance and greater academic success with respect to their grades and on
standardized test scores (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006).
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy theory is based on the work of Bandura (1977; 1994). Bandura’s (1977)
approach to cognitive theory determined that human functioning is made up of a number of
variables and their interactions, including environmental, behavioral, and personal. According to
Bandura (1994), there are four major processes of self-efficacy which affect human functioning:
Cognitive Processes; Motivational Processes; Affective Processes and Selection Processes.
Bandura claimed that self-efficacy is a key personal variable for learning and performing tasks at
a certain level, and can be heightened by conducting tasks and self-realization of abilities.
Further, human functioning is made up of a number of variables and their interactions, including
environmental, behavioral, and personal. Self-efficacy describes peoples’ performance
dependent on their judgment of how well they think they will do in a given situation. Students
with high self-efficacy are more likely to view difficult tasks as something to be mastered rather
than something to be avoided (Bandura, 1977; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1992). Perceived self-
efficacy is defined as students’ beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of
performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives (Bandura, 1994). A strong
sense of efficacy is widely thought to enhance human accomplishment and well being in many
ways.
Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory is based on a model of triadic reciprocality
parallel and widening the concepts of his earlier social learning theory. Human functioning is
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made up of a number of variables and their interactions, including environmental, behavioral,
and personal. Bandura proclaimed that individuals have control over their behavior through this
reciprocal system combined with five additional human factors Bandura identified: self-
reflection, self-regulation, forethought, vicarious learning, and symbolizing. Bandura (1986)
asserted that individuals cognitively make sense of the meaning of their life circumstances. As a
result, they interpret their past and forecast their future events. Afterwards, individuals can adjust
their behavior that is more aligned with their cognitions. Through self-reflection of their
cognitions and behaviors, individuals augment an understanding of themselves and their
environment. These understandings provide individuals with opportunities to monitor and self-
regulate their behaviors.
Self-efficacy ideology refers to the idea that one believes in his or her ability to execute a
specific skill at a particular level (Bandura, 1997). Individuals are accountable and responsible
for engaging in creating personal goals and following through to its entirety as it relates to their
self-belief. As stated by Bandura (1997), “Students’ beliefs in their efficacy to regulate their own
learning and to master academic activities determine their aspirations, level of motivation, and
academic accomplishments” (p. 177). Those students who possess greater self-efficacy are likely
to demonstrate greater persistence and effort in their success in completing a task. On the
contrary, those with low self-efficacy will likely surrender on a given task, and interpret their
effort as an ineffectual. People with high self-efficacy tend to select tasks and activities that are
more challenging and feel confident that they can successfully complete the task. People without
high self-efficacy are less likely inclined and motivated to take part in tasks and/or activities that
are more challenging.
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This means that there are implications for curriculum development. When students
cannot pursue the activities they value, or these activities are devalued by teaching processes,
there can be an attendant effect on scholarly success. For example, Henry and Closson (2012)
demonstrate that being part of an athletics team ultimately becomes a core component of African
American young males’ identity. For these students, physical education can actually involve
feeling part of a majority identity structure, because they are more likely to be part of a sports
team in which other students are in the minority (Henry & Closson, 2012). What this means is
that the social framework within which these students operate is likely to shift in a significant
way, which will lead to an increase in self-concept as well as in academic persistence. In other
words if a student can see themselves as demonstrating excellence in sports, they are more likely
to achieve in other academic ways. With high self-efficacy, therefore, whatever factors rose to
influence a personal behavior are anchored in the heart of the ability and/or the sentiment of
accomplishing the desired behavior. Self-efficacy is a paramount in the amount of effort
indispensable to mobilize on an activity or task, the capacity to persevere when facing an
obstacle and the level of resistance in relation to the complexity of the task or activity.
Additionally, the greater the amount of self-efficacy within the student, the greater the effort and
perseverance to succeed on tasks and accomplish goals. That is why some individuals with a
growth mindset approach difficult tasks as challenges rather than as threats to avoid Dweck,
(2000).
According to Bandura (1997), individuals enhance their self-efficacy from four elements
1) vicarious experiences; 2) verbal persuasions; 3) authentic mastery experiences; and 4)
physiological indexes. Vicarious experience is when an individual observes another individual
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working on a task. It is through observing another’s success or failure at the task that the
observer compares his or her own abilities. Verbal persuasion is the second element of self-
efficacy. Individuals who are reminded of their ability to complete a task are likely to reap
stronger self-efficacy, especially if the individual is already equipped with a higher sense of self-
efficacy. Authentic mastery experience is the third element of self-efficacy and is the most
influential. Mastery experiences are individual’s explanation of their own past experiences.
Achievements can contribute to a strong sense of efficacy and contribute to future achievements
of other tasks. Similarly, underachieving can lower an individual’s sense of self-efficacy.
Lastly, physiological indexes include an individual’s ability to interpret his/her emotional
and physiological state as additional information to their sense of self-efficacy. Anxiety and fear
contribute to feelings of being inept at completing a task, thus causing the individual to feel less
confident in his/her sense of self-efficacy. All the same, an individual’s cognitive interpretation
of his/her physiological state of being is significant to their sense of self-efficacy. As noted by
Watson (2005) “a major portion of the self-efficacy research has focused on exploring the impact
of these sources on the development of self-efficacy beliefs” (p. 2). In other words, it is
important to recognize the fundamental ways in which self-efficacy can be developed within the
individual, and which cognitive processes have an have an impact on the link between self-
efficacy and learning on a practical, rather than a theoretical level. Recent studies confirmed the
theories of Bandura on self-efficacy and learning-related achievement, in that evidence of self-
efficacy can be directly linked to the growth of a student’s mastery abilities and therefore, his/her
own self-perceptions of their competencies (Tasa, Taggar, & Seijts, 2007). At the same time,
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none of these studies look at the fact that these competencies may depend on the organizational
framework in which a student learns, such as traditional versus other teaching styles.
Self-efficacy does not occur in a vacuum, but, rather, within a social context (Bandura,
1994; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1992). There are connections between group level organizational
design theory, a supportive learning culture and collaborative decision- making and the
individual level intermediary constructs, such as self-efficacy and knowledge sharing practices
(Song & Kolb, 2009; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1992). These are necessary to explore since self-
efficacy theory shows that human functioning is mitigated by social and organizational
constructs (Song & Kolb, 2009). Logan and Ganster (2007) determined that interventions with
effects on perceived empowerment and perceived self-efficacy for knowledge transfer improved
measures of individuals’ performance and attitude. The basic premise of knowledge conversion
theory, therefore, is that collaborative human interaction for collective practices has an impact on
individual knowledge (Song & Kolb, 2009).
Flow theory, which is an adjunct theory to self-efficacy for students of all ages in a
classroom setting, tells us that students are the most happy and productive when they enter a
state of concentration or complete absorption, as noted by Csikszentmihalyi (1996). If students’
ability to concentrate on a task is disconnected by their lack of a specific type of intelligence,
then that flow is interrupted. As Csikszentmihalyi (1996) writes, for flow to happen, a balance
must be struck between the challenge of the task and the skill of the student. For example, if a
student is physically unable to complete a task then s/he will be less likely to achieve flow, and
less likely to return to that task in the future. Learners who cannot keep pace with the majority of
students will grow up with a number of disadvantages, both academically and socially, and in
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this way, requiring all students to keep to the same curriculum and even the same values is not
reflective of their needs (Wallis, Steptoe, & Miranda, 2006). Therefore, providing differentiated
instruction at all levels of learning allows educators to help students adapt over time, which in
the long run will help them to feel part of the group and to find their academic strengths through
self-efficacy. Creating the means by which this can happen will be a positive thing for society as
a whole because in doing so instructors can help lesson social and personal anxiety for students
(Wallis et al., 2006). To this end, self-efficacy can be heightened by conducting tasks and self-
realization of abilities, as noted by Woolfolk et al. (2008).
Mastery Goal Orientation
Within an educational context, it is clear that behavior and environment can have a
reciprocal and cyclical influence on one another (Fisher & Ford, 1998). Within these contexts, a
focus on mastery, one of Bandura’s (1997) four key performance aspects of self-efficacy, can be
connected to a number of key factors. A focus on attaining a goal through mastery can be seen to
be a foundation for achievement, according to (Steele-Johnson et al., 2000). Additionally, using
descriptive statistics, (Steele-Johnson et al., 2000) find that consistency in completing tasks
could also be found to moderate the effect of goal orientation on self-efficacy and intrinsic
motivation, but this depends on the cognitive demands of the task involved.
Also significant in mastery learning is the concept of the “expertise-effect,” which proves
significant differences in the processing of thought patterns between novice learners and expert
learners is the result of a specific process of learning that is aligned to four developmental stages.
Expert practitioners in any field went through a process that can be defined as “the stages in the
development of mastery.” According to Ambrose (2010) these stages in the development of
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mastery learning are pre-requisites to advancing from novice to expert. They are unconscious
incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence, and unconscious competence.
Depicted below in Figure 2 is the framework as defined by Sprague and Stuart (2000) of
the four levels in a developing mastery learning approach that is aligned to the aforementioned
stages posited by Ambrose et al. (2010).

Figure 2. Elements of Mastery
In stage one, unconscious incompetence, novice learners are unaware of what skills they
need to advance to the next stage. Their ability to access prior knowledge is limited as is their
ability to develop mental representations (schemas) and categories to organize their knowledge
acquisition (Baddeley, 2001). Within the context of learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, students are
developing entry-level component skills only. In stage two, conscious incompetence, novice
students begin to develop knowledge banks and basic schema representations sufficient enough
to transition to conscious incompetence (Anderson, 2000). Again, within the context of learning
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Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, students are continuing to learn individual component skills but are beginning
to develop a repository of skills (prior knowledge) that will be critically important to their future
development (Woolfolk, Winnie and Perry, 2008).
In stage three, conscious competence, novice students transitioned to intermediate levels
of proficiency and become aware of what they do not know and, consequently, what they need to
begin working towards. Intermediate learners now shift to a state of conscious competence as
their knowledge bank and schemas become more sophisticated and they begin to acquire
situational levels of automaticity in the delivery and execution of techniques (Ericsson, 2003).
Students at this level possess the ability to recognize and anticipate techniques and movement
patterns prior to their execution by their opponent or instructor. This is a critically important time
as students have already begun to develop intermediate skills in addition to developing goal
orientations predicated on their past performance (Ames, 1992; Pintrich, 2000b).
In stage four, unconscious competence, intermediate students begin to move without
conscious thinking. Cognitive processes that were not present before become actualized
(Ambrose et al., 2010). The learning gap between students at level four in comparison to level
one or two can be explained by not just by the number of years spent perfecting an ability but
even more importantly the level of deliberate practice (Ericsson, 2003; Krampe & Tesch-Romer,
1993). Students who trained for thousands of hours in developing their Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
developed a process of automatic thoughts, actions and behaviors in addition to highly organized
schemas that allow them to skip steps and develop reliable short cuts that novice students have
yet to develop (Chi, Glaser & Rees, 1982).
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According to Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008) goal orientations, in particular mastery
goals are linked to greater persistence in academic areas, increased interest, greater cognitive
engagement and positive affect. Numerous instructional strategies can be utilized to promote
effective mastery goal orientations for positive student academic and behavioral outcomes. Ames
(1992) suggests the adoption of learning/mastery goals, which will transform the classroom
structure, thereby making learning perspectives incrementally focused. With this
recommendation, Ames (1992) defines three dimensions of classroom structures, which are
defined as task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time (TARGET) is one highly
effective approach to modify learning environments to produce greater learner outcomes
(Epstein, 1998).
According to Dweck (1996) and Deci and Ryan (2002), task structure promotes mastery
goal orientation by emphasizing meaning and utilizing novel tasks to stimulate student interest.
Rosenholtz and Simpson (1984) encourage the adoption of ‘multidimensional,” classrooms
where differentiated task structure are present furthering incremental (mastery-orientations)
learning goals whereas “unidimensional,” environments encourage peer comparisons and the
formation of performance goal orientations.
In terms of authority structure Zimmermann & Bandura (1994) recommend supporting
students’ use of self-regulation skills in alignment with Epstein (1998) TARGET model. Some of
these skills are motivation, methods of learning, use of time, control of social environment,
control of physical environment and performance (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Furthermore, Deci
and Ryan (1985, 2000) suggest students be provided real choices related to authority in the
classroom and be afforded opportunities to develop responsibility and independence.
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In respect to recognition structure, Epstein (1998) suggests the use of praise and rewards
as a means to produce positive motivational outcomes. Ames (1992) concurs that rewards
utilized appropriately that are clearly delineated and specifically intended to highlight effort,
progress or competence can be an effective motivational tools (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999;
Deci & Ryan, 1985). According to Brophy (1998) rewards based on improving achievement or
performance can co-exist with and are aligned to progress and effort (Dweck, 2006).
Grouping within the learning environment is the next element of the TARGET model.
Small group-work is particularly effective for lower achieving students yet it allows them to
participate in overall group success thereby promoting self-efficacious feelings in the learning
environment (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008). Ames (1992) encourages the use of
differentiated collaborative groups as a means of promoting diverse learners ability to work
effectively with others. Moreover, Maehr and Midgley (1996) posit that this approach creates an
atmosphere and culture wherein mastery goals and learning are the focus.
The evaluation component examines the methods in which students are measured and
assessed (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008). Educators promote a performance orientation when
they make public evaluations of their students’ abilities relative to their peers (Dweck, 2006;
Ames, 1992; Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1984). Additionally Ambrose et al. (2010) and Ames
(1992) recommend the use of timely, specific and critical feedback related to student
performance outcomes as an effective evaluation approach.
The final element Epstein (1998) defines is time. Pace of instruction, time for
assignments and overall relevance of the work and expectations are significant factors within the
TARGET model. The presence of even some of the elements defined within the TARGET model
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can greatly increase the likelihood of a classroom atmosphere where mastery goal orientations
and self-improvement are the central focus (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008, Dweck, 2006;
Pintrich, 2000a).
Summary of Gaps in the Literature and Validation of Methodological Procedures
The major gap in the literature, as presented in the evidence above, is that there is a
dearth of quantitative assessment of the impact of using evidence-based instructional objectives
versus a traditional method of learning. Additionally, there are many qualitative studies that test
general theories of learning transfer or motivation however, the effect of evidence-based
practices on training learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and mastery goal orientation has
not been examined in a significant way.
Much of the literature focuses on theory and literature integration rather than testing or
experimenting with practical applications of theories on learning transfer outcomes (Chiaburu &
Marinova, 2005; Davies, 2000; Engle et al. 2012; Gegenfurtner, Veermans, Festner, & Gruber,
2009; Goldstone and Day, 2012; Pugh & Bergin, 2006). While Burton (2007), Ford et al. (1998),
and Halpern and Hakel (2003) argue that personalized learning is linked to metacognitive
activity within the context of learning transfer aims, none of these studies is purely quantitative
nor looks at the effect of evidence-based training on transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and
mastery goal orientation. The literature does show that learning transfer, as a result of the
evidence from the field, lacks focus on the needs of each student rather than on the processes of
teaching (Schmidt & Ford, 2003; Winne & Nesbit, 2010). At the same time, this approach fails
to show how teaching methods can have an effect on the way that the needs of each student are
met, which is part of the present approach to the topic.
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Only one of the studies in the literature review search came close to meeting the
methodological expectations of the current study. In a quasi-experimental setting, Klein, Noe,
and Wang (2006) examined standard classes and those with a high learning goal orientation and
looked at the effects of these environments on students, which comes close to the current study’s
aims. At the same time, this approach was limited in that it did not examine factors linked to
transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and mastery goal orientation and their connections to self-
efficacy theory, which is the approach being taken in the current study.
In contrast to the literature, this study sought to show that motivational factors can clearly
be an integral component of academic success through a quantitative and experimental
methodology as opposed to one in which students’ achievement is assessed only through
qualitative processes. Motivation and perceptions about competence are closely tied to academic
success with respect to difficult tasks and with response to failure, according to the literature, and
many of these factors were not identified in the studies reviewed herein. If statistical significance
can be achieved in this study, there will be justification for future development of the ideas
explored herein. Ultimately, additional research that explores the potential connection between
the type of the provision of physical education programs and student achievement needs to be
completed in order to clarify some of the challenges and limitations in the literature. In an effort
to effect positive change at the middle school level with respect to the positive engagement of
students in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu classes for mastery, it is necessary to understand their perspective
on what motivates them and create change mechanisms that meet their needs. This research
should aim to achieve that goal through a dedicated approach to quantitative analysis.

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Summary
This experimental quantitative study of the application of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu training
among middle school students was designed to examine the impact of using evidence-based
methods in comparison to traditional methods of learning, and to the degree to which learning
transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and mastery goal orientation outcomes change within the
intervention group. The current approach and its illustrative variables are a necessary addition to
the literature because of the fact that there are limitations in both content and method that have
an effect on the means by which the findings in the literature as a whole can be applied on a
practical level. The literature has shown that a shift in pedagogy to a focus on internal motivation
and the students’ social environment may be an even stronger motivating force than external
rewards, including feedback. To this end, motivation needs to be approached from a personal
viewpoint in that the research approach needs to be taken by looking at whom or what motivates
a student and within the context of self-efficacy theory. In an effort to effect positive change at
the middle school level with respect to the motivations of students in a physical education
program, it is necessary to understand what motivates them and create change mechanisms that
meet their needs. This study will aim to achieve that goal.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Both researchers within this study utilized the same design method and examined three of
the same five variables. Because of this, a joint sharing of Chapter Three was determined as an
appropriate process for the design of the methodology section.
Experimental research is based on a methodology that meets three criteria: (a) random
assignment—the subjects (or other entities) are randomly assigned to intervention groups, (b)
experimental control—all features of the interventions are identical except for the independent
variable (i.e., the feature being tested), and (c) appropriate measures—the dependent measures
are appropriate for testing the research hypotheses.
Experimental research is generally recognized as the most appropriate method for
drawing causal conclusions about instructional interventions like which instructional method is
most effective for which type of student under which conditions. Mayer (2005) notes,
“experimental methods— which involve random assignment to intervention and control of
extraneous variables—have been the gold standard for educational psychology since the field
evolved in the early 1900s” (p. 74). Mayer (2005) also states, “when properly implemented, they
allow for drawing causal conclusions, such as the conclusion that a particular instructional
method causes better learning outcomes” (p. 75). Overall, if one wants to determine whether a
particular instructional intervention causes an improvement in student learning, then one should
use experimental research methodology.
This experimental quantitative study was designed to examine the impact of using
evidence-based methods in comparison traditional methods of learning, and to what degree, if
any, learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and motivational outcomes differ between the
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groups. The study places a focus on how outcomes may be increased with the application of
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu training among middle school students through a comparison between
intervention and control groups that are randomly assigned. The research question that will guide
this study is: What is the effect of evidence-based training on learning transfer, motivation, self-
efficacy and mastery goal orientation in comparison to traditional methods of training? There are
four main statistical hypotheses be tested using database instruments in this study.
Hypothesis 1
Students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition will score higher on a
measure of learning transfer than students in the traditional methods condition. The rationale to
measure learning transfer is in response to significant gaps in the field of teaching and learning
Ambrose et al., (2010). Fundamentally, questions raised without sufficient response include
• Why can’t students apply what they have learned?
• Why do students inaccurately believe in false misconceptions?
• Why do some students lack the motivation to engage in the learning process?
• Why do some students employ ineffective study skills?
• What are the causes for why educators struggle to accurately assess students?
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain (Bloom,
1956) was originally intended as a resource for researchers in developing achievement tests at
the university level. The revision by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) integrates advances in
cognitive psychology along with the original cognitive process dimension and knowledge
dimension, which were not present in the original version.
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The taxonomy table provides an effective outline to analyze objectives and instructional
lessons within one framework. The cognitive process dimension verbs are utilized to name the
specific column of the table. The knowledge dimension the curriculum content are measured
based on four classifications.
Table 2
Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy Assessment Framework
The Knowledge
Dimension
(Formative
Assessment).
The Cognitive Process Dimension
1.
Remember
2.
Understand
3.
Apply
4.
Analyze
5.
Evaluate
6.
Create
A. Factual
Knowledge

B. Conceptual
Knowledge

C. Procedural
Knowledge

D. Metacognitive
Knowledge

A uniform framework aligned to evidence-based practice can assist educators, teachers
and test administrators in clearly identify and organizing learning objectives while delivering
instruction to students. Additionally, higher level thinking skills and application are targeted as a
two-dimensional approach signaling a verb and object. The verb represents what is to be done
with to or with knowledge is defined in the cognitive process dimension. The object,
(knowledge) is represented by the knowledge dimension, Anderson and Krathwohl (Eds.)
(2001). The aforementioned table and approach was used to guide evidence-based instruction
within the learning condition.
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Utilizing an evidence-based treatment affects learning outcomes for two reasons. The
instruction delivered in an evidence-based approach creates an environment that facilitates an
opportunity to learn intended objectives and, within an evidence-based approach, the learners’
performance assessment rubrics are carefully integrated with instruction as noted in Table 4
(Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu 3-point Rubric with performance/learning Objective).
Hypothesis 2
Students taking part in an evidence-based learning conditions will score higher on a
measure of motivation than students in the traditional methods condition. Motivation and
learning have reciprocal effects on each other (Pintrich, 2003; Schunk, 1995). Research shows
goal attainment conveys to students that they possess the requisite capabilities for learning,
which, in turn, motivates them to set new and more challenging goals (Schunk, Pintrich and
Meece, 2008). The rationale in examining motivation is due to its effects on: cognitive processes
(Eccles & Wigfield, 1985), and increased effort and energy (Pintrich et al., 1993) and increased
initiation of and persistence in activities (Larson, 2000). Finally, any measurement of how
learning works must include the role that motivation plays within the learning process (Mayer,
2011). Table 3 represents the five areas on which athletes/students’ conceptions of motivation
are based (Mayer, 2011).

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Table 3
Five Conceptions of How Motivation Works
Basis Description Example
Interest Students work harder to
learn material that has
personal value to them
I like this
Beliefs Students work harder to
learn when they believe
their hard work will pay off
I am good at this
Attributions Students work harder when
they attribute their
successes and failures to
effort
My success or failure on this
depends on my effort
Goals Students work harder to
learn when there goal is to
master the material
I want to learn this
Partnership Students work harder to
learn when they view the
instructor as a social partner
We are working together to learn
this

The treatment as described under Hypothesis 1 will affect learning outcomes as research
has shown that motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and
sustained, and that learning leads to increased motivation (Pintrich, 2002).
Hypothesis 3
Students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition will score higher on a
measure of self-efficacy than students in the traditional methods condition. The rationale for
measuring self-efficacy in this study is based on evidence that suggests judgments individuals
hold about their capabilities to learn or to perform courses of action at designated levels will
influence their wellbeing and personal accomplishment (Bandura, 1986).
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Self-efficacy beliefs focus on performance capabilities rather than personal qualities and
are domain-specific, context dependent and refer to future performance (Pajares & Schunk,
2002). Additionally, self-efficacy can be increased as students set measurable goals and receive
timely and critical feedback related to their current goal and skill capabilities (Bandura &
Schunk, 1981).
Self-efficacy is not solely an individual construct but is influenced by a groups’ shared
belief in their capability to attain goals and accomplish desired tasks (Pajares, 1997). From a
constructionist approach, a student/athlete can be affected by a teacher/coaches’ collective self-
efficacy (Goddard, 2002). Positive self-efficacious behavior has been shown to be a predictor of
motor skill acquisition, productive career choices, and health and wellness (Schunk, Pintrich and
Meece, 2008). Also, it is known that self-efficacy will increase personal goal setting in learners
based on self-appraisal of capabilities, which will, in turn, influence learners to set increasingly
more difficult goals, thereby requiring a greater level of commitment on the part of the learner in
domain-specific areas (Bandura and Schunk, 1981). The rationale in examining self-efficacy is
due to its predictive quality in furthering academic achievement, its ability to affect choice of
activities, effort and persistence and its connection to emotions Pajares and Schunk, (2002).
Hypothesis 4
Students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition will score higher on a
measure of mastery goal orientation than students in the traditional methods condition. The
rationale for measuring mastery goal orientations in this study is related to Dweck (2006) that
people as the purposes or reasons people have for pursuing competence. These purposes fall into
two categories that have differential effects on motivation: learning goals and performance goals.
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According to (Elliot & Dweck, 1988) research indicates that students set mastery goals when
focused on learning, mastering new skills and self-improvement. In contrast, students who set
performance goals focus on demonstrating competence or ability and are concerned usually how
their outcomes are judged relative to others (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008).
In understanding mastery and performance goal orientations in student/athletes it is
important to distinguish approach and avoidance goals. Mastery approach students attempt to
master an academic or athletic task whereas, in mastery avoidance, students are attempting to
avoid misunderstanding the task (Ames, 1990). In contrast, students engaged in performance
approach goals are focused on their ability relative to their peers performing better. Whereas
students focused on performance are concerned with not appearing incompetent (Elliot, Shell,
Bouas & Maier, 2005). The type of goal orientation a student chooses can influence the outcome
of their achievement, social, cognitive and affective goals (Schunk, Pintrich and Meece, 2008).
The focus on a mastery goal orientation, rather than a performance goal orientation, is
characteristic of evidence-based instruction. Thus, it is hypothesized that the intervention was
positively impact mostly goal orientation. There is evidence to support that personal achievement
mastery goals effect behavior and learning in educational settings and unlike much of the
research on self-efficacy are transferrable in dissimilar domains that are not context specific
(Meece, Anderman & Anderman, 2006).
Method of Study
An experimental quantitative research methodology was used in this study. The following
items are the fundamental components of a quantitative research design: (a) information is
quantified by the use of numeric data to describe learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and
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mastery/performance goal orientation (b) closed-ended questions and predetermined constructs
are used, (c) variables are related directly to research questions or hypotheses, (d) quantitative
standards of validity and reliability measurements are used, and (e) the research processes either
tests or verifies theories or explanations (Creswell, 2012). A quantitative approach to gathering
and analyzing data utilizes closed-ended questions formulated in a fixed manner, such as a
survey, and use numeric data. Quantitative research, therefore, relies upon inferential forms of
data analysis more than descriptive forms. This approach is more likely to measure objective
facts, focus on variables, and require statistical analysis (Neuman, 2003), which is the focus of
this study. At the same time, these findings do not mean that quantitative research is wholly
objective.
A quantitative design was determined appropriate for the study in order to allow for the
collection of data from a large number of participants fitting a specific demographic profile: in
this case, students at a middle school level. This allowed the researcher to make inferences
regarding the learning transfer, motivational beliefs and self-efficacy values of the students
within the targeted population. The use of an experimental quantitative research design approach
was also appropriate for research questions with hypotheses such as this one, which is why it was
utilized. Research questions are deduced from theoretical principles and give rise to hypotheses
that can be proven or disproven through statistical analysis (Creswell, 2009). The quantitative
design for this study enabled statistical analyses of the data to be conducted to identify the
relationships between the research variables as defined herein. The premise of quantitative
research asserts reality of the unknown is separate from individual influence, and knowledge and
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discovery are made via scientific method with unbiased observation and measurement (Creswell,
2012).
In measuring participant learning transfer, the scale was scored by an independent
researcher who evaluated learning transfer individually based on each participant’s response to
an instructional video. These responses were evaluated on a three-point rubric aligned to
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Revised Taxonomy for the learning transfer scale. In terms of
measuring motivation, self-efficacy and mastery/performance goal orientation, three Likert
scales were utilized.
Sample and Population
Thirty-nine eighth grade middle school students participated in the study. The
intervention and control group samples in this study are made up of participants that have limited
practical prior knowledge of Jiu-Jitsu techniques. The sampling approach for the study is a
convenience sampling method. This means that this study utilized a stakeholder approach of
purposive sampling, whereby individuals who can most benefit from an analysis of the research
topic were utilized for the study (Creswell, 2012). In this case, the sample group of middle
school students in question is a stakeholder in the development of better teaching methods,
which can be determined through the research process.
Participants were taken from a convenience sample. Convenience sampling does have an
impact on study validity. Convenience sampling refers to a non-probability method of sampling,
whereby participants are selected for the sample population on the basis of availability and
willingness to respond (Williams, Sweeney & Anderson 2009). The study used convenience
sampling because of practical constraints. It would be an ideal situation to test the entire
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population, but the school population is too large for this study. In addition, this type of sampling
provides the least amount of school disruption. At the same time, those participants in the sample
were randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups, which will act to increase the
internal validity of the study and its outcomes (Williams, Sweeney & Anderson, 2009). A formal
power analysis was conducted to statistically determine the number of participants needed to
effectively conduct the study. To assess a priori sample size, power was set at .80 and the
expected effect size was set at .25. Accordingly to the research question, the sample size
necessary to likely determine a statistical difference is 40 participants where alpha = .05 and the
degrees of freedom = 1. In this case there is an 80% probability that 40 participants will be a
sufficient number in order to find a statistical relationship (effect size of .25) between variables
where alpha = .05 (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007).
Sampling issues may also include consent because of the ages of the children involved in
the study. Gaining the trust and support of research participants is critical to ethical academic
inquiry and research (Creswell, 2012). The participants and their parents or guardians were
informed about the overall purpose of this research. Participants and their parents or guardians
were informed about the potential risks and benefits about participating in this study. The letter
of consent detailed the study, informed the participants that there will be no risks or benefits
resulting from their participation in the study, and assured respondents of confidentiality
regarding the participants’ involvement in the study. The researcher kept the consent forms
confidential and returned it to the participants or parents, if requested, upon completion of the
study. No personal information was collected. Voluntary participants were informed that they
could discontinue participation at any time without penalty or recourse. Parents and students
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were both informed that they could request to exclude themselves from the research study if they
feel uncomfortable.
Instrumentation
To answer the research question including the four hypotheses, four instruments were
utilized in this study. All thirty-nine students participated in the identical assessments and
surveys to measure learning, motivation, self-efficacy, and either performance goal or mastery
goal orientation.
Learning Transfer
Hypothesis 1 was that students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition would
score higher on a measure of learning transfer than students in the traditional methods condition.
The independent variable is an evidence-based learning condition measured utilizing Anderson
and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy and three-point rubric (Table 2 and 4).
The following table was a three-point rubric with performance and learning objectives.
This was used to measure student learning of the three Jiu-Jitsu moves through Anderson and
Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy. Students were asked to write detailed observations of the
moves presented by the Gracie Barra instructional video.

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Table 4
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu 3-point Rubric with performance/learning Objective
Jiu-Jitsu instructional
(learning/performance)
objectives Rubric aligned
to; A Taxonomy for
Learning, Teaching and
Assessing by: Anderson &
Krathwohl.
Above minimum
competency
standard (3):
__________________
Above standard and
can regularly utilize
all six stages with the
Cognitive Processing
Dimension while also
integrating: factual,
conceptual,
procedural and
metacognitive
elements from the
Knowledge
Dimension.
At minimum
competency
average (2):
_______________
At standard and
can generally
utilize: 1, 2 and/or
3 from the
Cognitive
Processing
Dimension while
also
incorporating:
factual, conceptual
and procedural
elements.
Below minimum
competency (1):

_______________

Approaches
standard, but only
utilizes at a level 1
and/or 2 from the
Cognitive Process
Dimension within
either: factual,
conceptual or
procedural
domain.

1. Understands the
concepts of:
leverage, weight
distribution, hand-
positioning and
spatial movements
associated with Jiu-
Jitsu practice.

2. Examines basic
principles of Jiu-
Jitsu to enhance:
movements,
strategies and
desired outcomes in
defense against
standing attacks.

3. Constructs schema
representations
based on prior
knowledge
acquisition, in order
to increase novice-
level component

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65
skills. Can
physically
demonstrate the
skills necessary to
escape from a
headlock.

Anderson and Krathwohl’s revised Bloom’s Taxonomy measuring the knowledge
dimension as well as the cognitive process dimension is an approach that allows for the
classification of objectives as either learning or performance. Furthermore, this assessment
examined learning and performance outcomes through the statement of a verb and a noun
combination. The verb indicates the intended cognitive process while the noun defines the
knowledge students should develop Anderson and Krathwohl (2001). The two-dimensional
approach incorporating the cognitive process dimension requires students to progressively
increase their sophistication and critical examination of problems along a continuum, combined
with the knowledge dimension, which seeks to identify the type of pre-requisite knowledge.
Within the traditional methods population, the traditional methods assessment (Gracie Barra
Instructors’ Manual, 2010) will be utilized to assess the traditional methods of teaching and
learning within the control group.
In order to measure learning Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Teaching, Learning and
Assessing Taxonomy, Taxonomy Table (Table 2) was utilized in addition to a three-level rubric
to accurately assess student performance outcomes related to hypothesis one.
Motivation
Hypothesis 2 is that students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition will
score higher on a measure of motivation than students in the traditional condition. To measure
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66
motivation, fourteen out of the original forty-four questions were selected from the original
Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) designed by Pintrich and De Groot
(1990) to provide a sample cross-section of the type of questions found in the full-scale, (see
Table 5). This modified Likert scale, Modified Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire
(MMSLQ) was utilized to measure student responses related to hypothesis two.
Table 5
Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ)
1. I prefer class work that is challenging so I can learn new things.
2. Compared with other students in this class I expect to do well
3. I am so nervous during a test that I cannot remember facts I have learned
4. It is important for me to learn what is being taught in this class
5. I like what I am learning in this class
6. I’m certain I can understand the ideas taught in this course
7. I think I is able to use what I learn in this class in other classes
8. I expect to do very well in this class
9. Compared with others in this class‚ I think I’m a good student
10. I often choose paper topics I will learn something from even if they require more work
11. I am sure I can do an excellent job on the problems and tasks assigned for this class
12. I have an uneasy‚ upset feeling when I take a test
13. I think I will receive a good grade in this class
14. Even when I do poorly on a test I try to learn from my mistakes
15. I think that what I am learning in this class is useful for me to know
16. My study skills are excellent compared with others in this class
17. I think that what we are learning in this class is interesting
18. Compared with other students in this class I think I know a great deal about the subject
19. I know that I is able to learn the material for this class
20. I worry a great deal about tests
21. Understanding this subject is important to me
22. When I take a test I think about how poorly I am doing
23. When I study for a test‚ I try to put together the information from class and from the book
24. When I do homework‚ I try to remember what the teacher said in class so I can answer the
questions correctly
25. I ask myself questions to make sure I know the material I have been studying
26. It is hard for me to decide what the main ideas are in what I read
27. When work is hard I either give up or study only the easy parts
28. When I study I put important ideas into my own words
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Table 5, continued
29. I always try to understand what the teacher is saying even if it doesn’t make sense.
30. When I study for a test I try to remember as many facts as I can
31. When studying‚ I copy my notes over to help me remember material
32. I work on practice exercises and answer end of chapter questions even when I don’t have to
33. Even when study materials are dull and uninteresting‚ I keep working until I finish
34. When I study for a test I practice saying the important facts over and over to myself
35. Before I begin studying I think about the things I will need to do to learn
36. I use what I have learned from old homework assignments and the textbook to do new
assignments
37. I often find that I have been reading for class but don’t know what it is all about.
38. I find that when the teacher is talking I think of other things and don’t really listen to what is
being said
39. When I am studying a topic‚ I try to make everything fit together
40. When I’m reading I stop once in a while and go over what I have read
41. When I read materials for this class‚ I say the words over and over to myself to help me
remember
42. I outline the chapters in my book to help me study
43. I work hard to get a good grade even when I don’t like a class
44. When reading I try to connect the things I am reading about with what I already know.
The Modified Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Table 6) was utilized to
measure both mastery and performance orientation responses in the students’ sampled.

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Table 6
Modified Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MMSLQ)
Please rate the following items based on your behavior in this
experimental research project. Your rating should be on a 6-
point scale where 1= not at all true of me to 6= very true of
me.

Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree

Questions: 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. I prefer class work that is challenging so I can learn new
things. (Mastery)

2. I often choose paper topics I will learn something from even if
they require more work. (Mastery)

3. Understanding my subjects is important to me than getting an
A. (Mastery)

4. Even if I do poorly on a test, I try to learn from my mistakes.
(Mastery)

5. I ask myself questions to make sure I know the material I have
been studying. (Mastery)

6. When work is hard I either give up, or study only the easy
parts instead of work harder. (Performance)

7. When studying, I copy my notes over to help me remember
important facts. (Mastery)

8. Before I begin studying I think about ways to make my
learning experience more meaningful. (Mastery)

9. I use what I’ve learned from previous learning environments
to create new learning opportunities. (Mastery &
Performance)

10. When I am studying a topic, I try to make everything fit
together. (Mastery & Performance)

11. I organize (mentally) new concepts in all my classes and
learning environments to help myself learn more effectively.
(Mastery & Performance)

12. When reading I try to connect the things I am reading about
with what I already know. (Expectancy-control beliefs about
learning)

13. It is important for me to learn what is being taught in class.
(Value-intrinsic goal orientation)

14. I like what I am learning in my classes. (Value-intrinsic goal
orientation)

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Self-Efficacy
Hypothesis 3 is that students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition will
score higher on a measure of self-efficacy than students in the traditional condition. In order to
accurately measure self-efficacy utilizing a Likert scale, specific questions were selected based
on a modified version of Bandura’s Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales (Bandura, 2006)
renamed Self-Efficacy Appraisal Inventory (SEAI). This Likert scale was utilized for measuring
hypothesis three and students’ beliefs in their capabilities to produce given attainments, (see
Table 7). Ten Likert Scale item questions were utilized based on Bandura’s Children’s Self-
Efficacy Scale. The intent of the questionnaire was to establish a better understanding of the
types of issues that are difficult for students in middle school years.
Table 7
Self-Efficacy Appraisal Inventory (SEAI)
Please rate the following items based on your
behavior in this experimental research project. Your
rating should be on a 6-point scale where 1= Strongly
Disagree to 6= Strongly Agree.

Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Questions: 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. I feel confident that I can regulate (control) my own
learning even when circumstances at school and home
become stressful. (SE/SRL) Mastry

2. I believe that I can be successful in both school and
life if I work hard enough. (SE/OE)

3. I believe that I can live up to my own expectations for
myself. (SE/OE)

4. I know that I can get help from adults whom I trust.
(SE/SR)

5. I know that I have peers who can help me if I need
help with school. (SE/SRL)

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Table 7, continued
6. I know I have the ability to take good notes during
class instruction. (SE/SRL)

7. I know I can use the library if I need resources to
complete an assignment. (SE/SRL)

8. I know I can arrange a place to study that is free from
distractions. (SE/SRL)

9. I feel that I can organize my schoolwork in an
effective manner. (SE/SRL)

10. I feel that I can always concentrate on my school
subjects during class. (SE/SRL)

Self-efficacy SE
Self-regulated learning SRL
Self-efficacy to meet others expectations SE/OE
Self-regulation SR

Mastery Goal Orientation
Hypothesis 4 is that students taking part in an evidence-based learning condition will
score higher on a measure of mastery goal orientation than students in the traditional condition.
Students’ goal orientation correlates with their perceived attainments about themselves and tend
to predict what individual task goals they choose for themselves and the level of difficulty of
future goals and tasks (Pintrich, 2000; Elliot and Dweck, 1988). The Mastery Orientation
Appraisal Inventory (MOAI) Likert scale was created from learning and motivational theory
research conducted by Blackwell, Trzesniewski, and Dweck (2007) and by Ambrose (2010), as
presented in Table 8.

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Table 8
Mastery Orientation/Experience Appraisal Inventory (MOAI)
Please rate the following items based on your behavior
in this experimental research project. Your rating
should be on a 6-point scale where 1= Strongly
Disagree to 6= Strongly Agree.

Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree

Questions: 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. It is more important to me to receive the grade of A
than learn as much as possible in my classes.
(Performance)

2. I am learning focused and self-improvement is
important to me as a learner. (Mastery)

3. When working, I focus on the task that is given to me.
(Mastery)

4. When I make mistakes, I see my mistakes as part of the
learning process and an opportunity to improve and
learn. (Mastery)

5. I like it when the teacher hands back papers and tells
the class who scored the highest on their homework or
quizzes. (Performance)

6. When I am given a test, it is important to me to receive
the highest grade in my class. (Performance)

7. I like my friends to think that I am smarter than they
are. (Performance)

8. I prefer the way my teacher teaches because she wants
us to understand our work not just memorize items for
a test. (Mastery)

9. In school, I feel that those that have to try extra hard
are not as smart as those that put forth less effort.
(Performance)

10. If I have more time in class to prepare for a test I spend
it exploring and trying to understand ideas around what
I am currently learning. (Mastery)

11. I like it when my teacher compares us to other students
in terms of how we perform on homework and quizzes.
(Performance)

12. I like teachers that announce the names of the students
who score the highest in the class. (Performance)

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Table 8, continued
13. I feel that it’s acceptable for teachers to call on students
they feel are smarter more often than the ones that are
not. (Performance)

14. I believe that we are born smart or not and that we
cannot improve our ability to learn. (Performance)

15. It’s important to me to develop individual skills as I
learn new things. (Mastery)

16. When I learn new things, I feel it’s important to apply
the new concepts I’ve learned in other subject areas.
(Mastery)

17. When I learn something it’s not just important for me
to know when to apply what I’ve learned but why.
(Mastery)

18. When asked to solve problems, I often use prior
experiences and teacher prompting if given, to assist in
finding solutions. (Mastery & Performance)

A mastery goal orientation involves a focus on mastery tasks, aligned to individually
predetermined goals in areas such as personal, professional, academic, and social. Students
within this mindset are concerned with self-improvement as it is related to strengthening existing
skills and developing new ones (Ambrose et al., 2010). Nineteen Likert scale questions were
selected on the basis of the students given perspective towards mastery versus performance-
orientation. Students selecting performance-oriented questions will generally endorse questions
that emphasize ego and relative ability to others and judgments centered on performance
outcomes (Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck, 2007). The MOAI was used to measure
Hypothesis Four.
All four Likert survey questionnaires were, however, vetted by a pilot focus group prior
to their use in order to clarify the questions and expected answers, so that there would be a high
level of understanding of the meaning of the questions by possible middle school level
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participants. Data collection processes were vetted by a focus group of five volunteer teachers to
assure that (a) all questions can be answered within a 30 minute time period, (b) all questions
will be easy to understand, and, finally, (c) so that all questions individually and in concert with
one another yield information to properly answer the research questions as defined by this
research plan, as per the evident survey procedural recommendations in the literature (Alreck &
Settle, 2004).
Data Collection
Data collection began with seeking permission to conduct the study from the University
of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) through iSTAR, which enables the
monitoring of information flow and the associated activities and tasks for all participants in the
IRB regulatory process, delivering a complete document based solution for Human Trials
Regulation. As the policy for conducting single school site live study research, all parameters of
the study and the potential impact this study may have on the school community is outlined
within the documents submitted for approval on behalf of the researcher(s) and all copies of
consent forms is included in the final documents in Appendix A submitted for approval for this
exempt study.
In terms of the participants, these students were freely willing to participate and their
parents or legal guardians approve of their participation in the study. The researcher had no
direct disciplinary or teaching relationship with any of these students. Parents of all the selected
participants received a letter, which provided information on the purpose, the parameters, and the
possible effects of the study. The parents had the option of meeting the researcher by phone or by
email. The parents also received a permission form allowing their child to participate in the
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surveys. This form was signed and dated by the parent. A copy of both of these forms is provided
in Appendix A.
Once permission was granted, the participants took part in a five-day study. Day one,
participants were randomly assigned to a seat that had pre-organized groups and numeric
identifiers. Participants took part in the survey assessments, which consisted of the MMSLQ,
SEAI, and MOAI questionnaires, as described above, delivered through survey monkey,
guaranteeing anonymity. Student responses were tracked through the numeric identifier and
group assignment of the seat they took. Day five repeated the survey assessment after the
traditional method was delivered to the Control Group and evidence-based method was delivered
to the Intervention Group. Moreover, to measure learning transfer, participants had a pre- and
post-assessment that involved transcribing observations of Gracie Barra’s traditional learning
method delivered through a video. Participants were provided with Anderson and Krathwohl’s
(2001) evidence-based student working to write their observations. This worksheet was
explained to them in order to help their cognitive processing and learning. Students were shown
three specific moves, each move repeated three times. These moves were purposely chosen
because the Anderson and Krathwohl rubric was embodied within. Furthermore, they were basic
and fundamental beginner moves.
Day two, three, and four of the study involved the participants’ dissolving into their
respective groups to receive instruction. Group A (traditional methods) consisted of participants
in the traditional methods condition, while Group B (evidence-based methods) consisted of
participants in the evidence-based methods condition. The participants were then subjected to an
evaluation based on the four dependent variables as mentioned above. It was assumed that
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participants answered the surveys truthfully based upon their knowledge that this was an
anonymous study. The participants did not benefit nor were punished for their honest responses.
It was further assumed that the participants, through the complicit engagement of their parents in
the research process, read and understood the purpose of their participation in this study and
know that their participation was entirely voluntary.
Chapter Summary
This experimental quantitative study of the application of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu training
among middle school students was designed to examine the impact of using evidence-based
methods in comparison to traditional methods of learning, and to what degree if any, do learning
transfer outcomes change within the intervention group. Both conceptual/theoretical frameworks
for the content used in the study and the primary instrument is the Motivated Strategies for
Learning Questionnaire. Data was collected through tests, surveys and were assessed through
statistical analysis.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This study was designed to examine the use of evidence-based methods of instructional
content and delivery of a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu program in comparison to traditional instructional
content and methods, and to what degree if any, do learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy,
and mastery goal orientation outcomes change within the intervention group. The research
hypotheses that shaped the study were (1) students in the evidence-based methods condition will
score higher on a measure of learning transfer than students in the traditional learning condition,
(2) students in the evidence-based methods condition will score higher on a measure of
motivation than students in the traditional methods condition, (3) students in the evidence-based
methods condition will score higher on a measure of self-efficacy than students in the traditional
learning methods condition, and (4) students in the evidence-based methods condition will score
higher on a measure of mastery goal orientation than those in the traditional methods condition.
Methodology
An experimental design was chosen for this study based on a methodology that meets
three criteria: (a) random assignment—the subjects (or other entities) are randomly assigned to
intervention groups, (b) experimental control—all features of the interventions are identical
except for the independent variable (i.e., the feature being tested), and (c) appropriate
measures—the dependent measures are appropriate for testing the research hypothesis.
Learning transfer was measured utilizing Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Revised
Taxonomy for Educational Objectives and the Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu three-point rubric. Students’
responses were evaluated on a three-point rubric for the learning transfer scale. Motivation was
measured utilizing an abbreviated form of the Motivated Strategies Learning Questionnaire
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(MSLQ) Likert scale. Self-efficacy was measured utilizing the Guide for Constructing Self-
efficacy Scales created by Albert Bandura. An abbreviated version was created as a Likert scale
for self-efficacy, and called the Self-Efficacy Appraisal Inventory (SEAI). Likert scale items
created from research principles in learning theory by Ambrose et al., (2010), How Learning
Works, and called The Mastery Orientation Appraisal Inventory (MOAI), measured mastery goal
orientation.
Participants
The participants of Mar Vista Charter School were randomly divided into two groups for
the purposes of this study. Because one student was ill and was unable to participate, thirty-nine
participated in the five-day study. The two groups were identified as traditional method and
evidence-based method. For anonymous participation, The traditional methods group (identified
as A) consisted of 63% male and 37% female and the evidence-based methods group (identified
as B) consisted of 47% male and 53% female.
During the study, the Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu instructor did not know the identity of the
participants in relation to their group. This was done to in order to reduce bias and increase
validity. It is also pertinent to note that the evaluator was only present the first and fifth day. The
evaluator was not present when the instructor was teaching the two groups during day two, three,
and four. Thus, the evaluator did not know the identity of the participants in relation to their
group. Each group went through a forty-five minute session. The Control Group experienced the
traditional methods condition, while the Intervention Group experienced the evidence-based
methods condition.

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Reliability
Table 9 shows Cronbach’s Alpha reliabilities for both the pretests and posttests. All
reliabilities exceeded .70 and thus were deemed useful for research purposes.
Table 9
Reliability: Cronbach's Alpha
Pre Post
Learning Transfer
0.756 0.734
Motivation
0.869 0.833
Self-Efficacy
0.837 0.827
Mastery Goal Orientation
0.755 0.727

Learning Transfer
The first hypothesis was that students in the evidence-based pedagogy condition would
score higher on a measure of learning transfer than students in the traditional method condition.
The necessity to measure learning transfer is in response to significant gaps in the field of
teaching and learning. Utilizing Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) Revised Learning Taxonomy
for Teaching and Learning Assessing Objectives framework and by prompting students prior
knowledge to make associations related to dissimilar contexts like science, engineering and
mathematics students demonstrated increased learning transfer consistent with the null
hypothesis. Within the cognitive process dimension, students were asked to make vocabulary
associations related to Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu techniques that would further conceptual knowledge
acquisition while limiting the impact on working memory (Vogel-Walcutt et al., 2011).

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Descriptive Analysis
Utilizing Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy and a three-point rubric (Tables
2 and 3), students were asked to write detailed observations of the moves presented by the Gracie
Barra instructional video. Anderson and Krathwohl’s revised Bloom’s Taxonomy measuring the
knowledge dimension as well as the cognitive process dimension is an approach that allows for
the classification of objectives (both learning and performance) and was utilized as the evidence-
based assessment.
Three moves were shown to the participants:
Technique #1: throat choke counter to a throw with arm bar finish.
Technique #2: a counter to an over the arms bear-hug attack to arm bar, and
Technique #3: a counter to a bear hug under the arms to arm bar.
These moves were purposely selected because of their level of difficulty and alignment to
each other in terms of novice learner transferability.
To illustrate how learning transfer were derived responses from the participants are
included. For technique 1, participant B8 pretest response (scored 1 of 3) was “The guy taps his
leg to show he surrenders,” in relation to posttest (scored 3 of 3) response was “The guy used a
sliding leg technique to limit movement.”
For technique 2, Participant B12 pretest response (scored 1 of 3) was “Blue guy is flipped
over because of bear hug attack, White puts hand around Blue guy’s neck, which is countered by
White guy pushing him away.” B12 posttest (scored 3 of 3) response was “Blue attacks with a
bear hug and White counters by placing hands on his hips creating a half circle while pivoting to
flip Blue over.”
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For technique 3, Participant B10 pretest response (scored 1 of 3) was “Hold under, roll
grip arms under, swing around, flip over and pin down.” B10 posttest (scored 3 of 3) response:
“Blue grabs white under arms, white grabs hips and pushes out and makes a 45 degrees and
white uses torque to flip over, and white arm-bars to finish.”
Key terms like 180 degree/ 90-degree movement, pivot, leverage, and pressure,
essentially became sight words for learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu to promote greater comprehension
and understanding while encoding new knowledge with prior knowledge. Table 10 represents
each participant’s overall average from the pre to the posttest assessment based on seeing the
instructional video twice.

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Table 10
Individual Participant Scores of Anderson and Krathwohl's Revised Taxonomy Pre- and Post-
Assessment
Participant A Pre A Post

Participant B Pre B Post
1 3.0 3.0

2 3.0 3.0
3 3.0 5.0

4 3.0 8.0
5 3.0 6.0

6 3.0 3.0
7 6.0 3.0

8 4.0 8.0
9 3.0 6.0

10 3.0 9.0
11 3.0 3.0

12 3.0 9.0
13 6.0 7.0

14 3.0 7.0
15 3.0 5.0

16 3.0 3.0
17 6.0 6.0

18 5.0 9.0
19 6.0 5.0

20 3.0 9.0
21 6.0 8.0

22 3.0 6.0
23 5.0 9.0

24 3.0 9.0
25 6.0 9.0

26 4.0 8.0
27 3.0 5.0

28 3.0 3.0
29 3.0 4.0

30 3.0 7.0
31 4.0 6.0

32 4.0 8.0
33 3.0 5.0

34 3.0 8.0
35 3.0 4.0

36 3.0 7.0
43 6.0 8.0

44 3.0 9.0
45 3.0 6.0

Table 11 indicates the means of the pre and posttest of student mean scores.

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Table 11
Group Statistics of Learning Transfer Pre and Post Test

Pre Post
N

Group A (traditional method) 20 1.400 0.479 1.923 0.6287
Group B (evidence-based method) 19 1.087 0.187 2.333 0.762

The traditional method’s pretest mean of 1.3995 with standard deviation 0.47862
indicates that the participants had a relatively low transfer of learning Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.
Additionally, most participants fell within the same low range of transfer knowledge due to the
standard deviation of approximately .5. The traditional method’s posttest mean of 1.9232 with
standard deviation 0.62874, indicated an increase in participant knowledge and understanding of
learning transfer within the domain of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu instruction.
The evidence-based method’s pretest mean of 1.0872 with a standard deviation 0.18658
indicates that evidence-based method was relatively low in their collective mean transfer
knowledge and the traditional method’s mean of 2.332 with standard deviation 0.7617 on the
posttest indicates a substantial increase in learning transfer in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu instruction.
Results indicated significant increase in both groups but the higher increase was in the evidence-
based method intervention.
Statistical Analysis, t-test, and ANCOVA
Below are the results of the Learning Transfer rubric pre- and post-test. The t-score can
be used to determine if two sets of data are significantly different from each other. The negative
t-value simply indicates the directionality of the effect from the mean, which has no bearing on
µ σ µ σ
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83
the significance of the difference between groups. If the t-value is large enough to be significant,
it can be concluded that the difference between the means for the two groups is different. The
degrees of freedom (df) are 37 for both tests and significance is 0.012 for the pretest and 0.074
for posttest. See Table 12 for complete information.
Table 12
Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy Assessment Pre- and Post-Test
M

t-score Sig
Pre Test Comparison of Groups 3.732 1.657 0.012
Post Test Comparison of Groups 6.325 -2.036 0.049

All participants within the study had limited and/or no prior identical knowledge in the
pretest. As such, an ANCOVA was utilized to assess whether there was a significant difference
between the intervention or control groups. By utilizing an ANCOVA, the pretest results were
held constant, which resulted in a statistical significance that was .004 < .05 as indicated within
Table 13. This validated the hypothesis that utilizing evidence-based methods would yield
greater outcomes in learning transfer than traditional methods of learning, specifically drill and
practice.
Table 13
Learning Transfer Post Test Statistical Analysis, t-test, ANCOVA

Statistical Analysis t-test ANCOVA
M

SD

t-score Sig
Adjusted
M

F-test Sig
Group A (traditional) 5.650 1.843
-2.036 0.049
5.343
0.004
Group B (evidence) 7.000 2.285 7.592
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Motivation
The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), developed by Pintrich and
DeGroot (1990), was utilized to measure motivation, due to its ability to assess motivation and
use of learning strategies by college students. The motivation scales tap into three broad areas:
value in the forms of intrinsic and extrinsic goal orientation and task value, expectancy in the
forms of control beliefs about learning and self-efficacy, and affect in the form of test anxiety.
Itemized Comparisons
Table 14 shows the Control and Intervention Group’s fourteen-item Modified Motivated
Strategies Learning Questionnaire Abbreviated (MMSLQ) pre- and post-test survey responses.
As mentioned within the descriptive analysis participant responses fell along a continuum based
on their motivation. Participants responses and percent of change increases were observed in
both the overall item questions and/or individual sub-questions. Most importantly, large positive
change (>.10 %) in motivation were greater than 10 % observed on items 1, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the
intervention group. In the control group large positive change were observed on only two items,
3 and 8.

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Table 14
Motivation Individual Group Pre and Post Itemized Comparison

Group A
Pre
Group A
Post
Δ
Group B
Pre
Group B
Post
Δ
1. I prefer class work that is challenging
so I can learn new things.

4.43 3.86 -12.9% 3.58 4.05 13.1%
2. I often choose research topics I will
learn something from even if they
require more work.

4.14 4.05 -2.2% 3.58 3.47 -3.1%
3. Understanding my subjects is
important to me than getting an A.

4.24 4.86 14.6% 4.11 4.50 9.5%
4. Even if I do poorly on a test I try to
learn from my mistakes.

5.38 4.83 -10.2% 4.83 4.37 -9.5%
5. I ask myself questions to make sure I
know the material I have been studying.

4.76 4.76 0.0% 4.16 4.39 5.5%
6. When work is hard I either give up,
or study only the easy parts instead of
working harder.

2.29 2.05 -10.5% 2.63 3.26 24.0%
7. When studying, I copy my notes over
to help me remember important facts.

3.95 3.85 -2.5% 2.89 3.42 18.3%
8. Before I begin studying I think about
ways to make my learning experience
more meaningful.

3.90 4.37 12.1% 3.32 4.05 22.0%
9. I use what I’ve learned from previous
learning environments to create new
learning opportunities.

4.90 4.86 -0.8% 4.00 4.53 13.3%
10. When I am studying a topic, I try to
make everything fit together.

4.62 5.05 9.3% 4.32 4.32 0.0%

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Table 14, continued
11. I organize (mentally) new concepts in all my
classes and learning environments to help myself learn
more effectively.

4.86 5.05 3.9% 4.37 4.05 -7.3%
12. When reading I try to connect the things I am
reading about with what I already know.

4.71 4.86 3.2% 4.26 4.42 3.8%
13. It is important for me to learn what is being taught
in class.

5.81 5.52 -5.0% 5.05 4.89 -3.2%
14. I like what I am learning in my classes.
4.62 4.76 3.0% 4.21 4.21 0.0%

Statistical Analysis, t-test, and ANCOVA
An ANCOVA was utilized to assess whether there was a significant difference between
the evidence-based method or traditional methods group. By utilizing an ANCOVA, the pretest
results were held constant, which yielded a statistical significance that was .011 < .05. This
validated the hypothesis that evidence-based methods would yield greater motivational outcomes
than traditional methods of learning, specifically drill and practice.
Table 15
Motivation post survey statistical analysis, t-test, ANCOVA

Statistical Analysis t-test ANCOVA
M

SD

t-score Sig
Adjusted
M

F-test Sig
Group A (traditional) 3.668 0.743
-1.766 0.086
3.553
0.011
Group B (evidence) 4.128 0.881 4.249

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Self-Efficacy
Likert scale items were created based on a modified version of Bandura’s Guide for
Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales and renamed the Self-Efficacy Appraisal inventory (SEAI). It
was utilized for measuring students’ beliefs in their capabilities to produce given attainments.
Itemized Comparisons
Table 16 defines the evidence-based method’s pre and post survey individual item
responses as measured by the Self-Efficacy Appraisal Inventory (SEAI). Average individual item
responses are displayed and percentage of change between the pretest and posttest assessments
are included. For the traditional method’s group, the pre-post changes are small and inconsistent
in terms of direction. For the evidence-based group, the pre-post changes are larger but also
inconsistent in terms of direction.
Table 16
Self-Efficacy Individual Group Pretest and Posttest Itemized Comparison

Group A
Pre
Group A
Post
Δ
Group B
Pre
Group B
Post
Δ
1. I feel confident that I can regulate
(control) my own learning even when
circumstances at school and home
become stressful.

4.80 4.90 2.1% 4.53 4.53 0.0%
2. I believe that I can be successful in
both school and life if I work hard
enough.

5.60 5.67 1.3% 5.68 5.41 -4.8%
3. I believe that I can live up to my own
expectations for myself.

5.45 5.14 -5.7% 5.00 5.18 3.6%
4. I know that I can get help from adults
whom I trust.

5.10 5.14 0.8% 5.32 4.88 -8.3%

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Table 16, continued
5. I know that I have peers who can help me if I need
help with school.

4.85 4.76 -1.9% 4.89 4.88 -0.2%
6. I know I have the ability to take good notes during
class instruction.

5.15 4.90 -4.9% 4.74 4.75 0.2%
7. I know I can use the library if I need resources to
complete an assignment.

5.00 5.24 4.8% 5.11 4.88 -4.5%
8. I know I can arrange a place to study that is free
from distractions.

4.65 4.90 5.4% 4.37 4.00 -8.5%
9. I feel that I can organize my schoolwork in an
effective manner.

5.35 5.15 -3.7% 5.05 4.82 -4.6%
10. I feel that I can always concentrate on my school
subjects during class.
4.55 4.86 6.8% 4.16 4.65 11.8%

Statistical Analysis, t-test, ANCOVA
An ANCOVA was utilized to assess whether there was a significant difference between
the evidence-based method or traditional method’s groups. By utilizing an ANCOVA, the pretest
results were held constant, which yielded a statistical significance that was 0.154 > .05. This
outcome did not confirm the hypothesis that evidence-based methods would yield greater self-
efficacy outcomes than traditional methods of self-efficacy, specifically drill and practice.

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Table 17
Self-Efficacy post survey statistical analysis, t-test, ANCOVA

Statistical Analysis t-test ANCOVA
M

SD

t-score Sig
Adjusted
M

F-test Sig
Group A (traditional) 5.070 0.530
1.622 0.116
5.023
0.154
Group B (Evidence) 4.684 0.899 4.733

Performance and Mastery Goal Orientation
Eighteen Likert scale items were created utilizing both Dweck’s (2006) assertions that
two distinct mindsets exist in humans that can be defined as: Entity and Incremental, otherwise
known as fixed and growth. The Mastery Goal Orientation Inventory (MOAI) was designed to
measure the participants’ responses in relation to mastery or growth mindset (incremental) or
performance or fixed (entity).
Itemized Comparison
Table 18 displays the mean average and standard deviation of student responses for both
the pre and posttest assessment for the Mastery Orientation Appraisal Inventory (MOAI). The
MOAI has two dimensions: Mastery Goal Orientation and Performance Goal Orientation.
Average student choices rose in some questions, while others dropped. Overall, item level
responses are difficult to interpret so the results for both the performance and mastery orientation
are given in the next section.

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Table 18
Mastery Orientation Individual Group Pre- and Post-Assessment Itemized Comparison

Group A
Pre
Group A
Post
Δ
Group B
Pre
Group B
Post
Δ
1. It is more important to me to receive
the grade of A than learn as much as
possible in my classes.

3.53 2.75 -22.1% 3.31 3.11 -6.0%
2. I am learning focused and self-
improvement is important to me as a
learner.

4.79 4.95 3.3% 4.41 4.00 -9.3%
3. When working, I focus on the task
that is given to me.

5.05 5.21 3.2% 4.59 4.26 -7.2%
4. When I make mistakes, I see my
mistakes as part of the learning process
and an opportunity to improve and
learn.

4.63 5.25 13.4% 4.35 4.47 2.8%
5. I like it when the teacher hands back
papers and tells the class who scored
the highest on their homework or
quizzes.

3.74 3.26 -12.8% 3.65 3.42 -6.3%
6. When I am given a test, it is
important to me to receive the highest
grade in my class.

4.05 4.35 7.4% 4.18 3.68 -12.0%
7. I like my friends to think that I am
smarter than they are.

2.44 2.50 2.5% 2.18 2.42 11.0%
8. I prefer the way my teacher teaches
because she wants us to understand our
work not just memorize items for a test.

5.06 4.75 -6.1% 5.06 4.68 -7.5%
9. In school, I feel that those that have
to try extra hard are not as smart as
those that put forth less effort.

2.11 2.05 -2.8% 2.47 2.21 -10.5%
10. If I have more time in class to
prepare for a test, I spend it exploring
and trying to understand ideas around
what I am currently learning.
4.53 4.80 6.0% 3.65 3.58 -1.9%
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Table 18, continued
11. I like it when my teacher compares
us to other students in terms of how we
perform on homework and quizzes.

2.61 2.21 -15.3% 2.82 2.47 -12.4%
12. I like teachers that announce the
names of the students who score the
highest in the class.

3.05 2.95 -3.3% 3.41 2.95 -13.5%
13. I feel that it’s acceptable for
teachers to call on students they feel are
smarter more often than the ones that
are not.

2.05 2.40 17.1% 2.69 2.37 -11.9%
14. I believe that we are born smart or
not and that we cannot improve our
ability to learn.

1.00 1.85 0.0% 2.06 1.84 -10.7%
15. It’s important to me to develop
individual skills as I learn new things.

5.32 4.81 -9.6% 4.81 4.68 -2.7%
16. When I learn new things, I feel it’s
important to apply the new concepts
I’ve learned in other subject areas.

4.95 5.10 3.0% 4.41 4.84 9.8%
17. When I learn something it’s not just
important for me to know when to
apply what I’ve learned but why.

4.74 4.85 2.3% 4.29 4.53 5.6%
18. When asked to solve problems I
often use prior experiences and teacher
prompting if given, to assist in finding
solutions.
5.00 5.00 0.0% 4.44 4.58 3.2%

Statistical Analysis, t-test, and ANCOVA
An ANCOVA was utilized to assess whether there was a significant difference between
the evidence-based method and the traditional method’s group. By utilizing an ANCOVA, the
pretest results were held constant, which yielded a statistical significance that was .763> .05 for
performance goal orientation and .015 < .05 for mastery goal orientation.
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Table 19
Performance (PGO)/Mastery (MGO) post survey statistical analysis, t-test, ANCOVA

Statistical Analysis t-test ANCOVA
M

SD

t-score Sig
Adjusted
M

F-test Sig
PGO Group A 2.930 0.582
0.113 0.911
2.951
0.763
PGO Group B 2.905 0.775 2.605
MGO Group A 5.022 0.480
2.223 0.036
5.045
0.015
MGO Group B 4.404 1.119 4.379

This outcome did not validate the hypothesis that evidence-based methods would yield
greater outcomes in regards to mastery goal orientation than traditional methods, specifically
drill and practice. Additionally, when the pre-survey results were held constant, traditional
methods of learning indicated greater mastery goal orientation outcomes with a statistical
significance of .015 < .05 in the traditional method’s group.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This study examined what the effect of evidence-based methods of training on learning
transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and mastery goal orientation in comparison to traditional
methods of training within the martial art of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Specifically, four hypotheses
were addressed within this study:
1. Students in the evidence-based methods condition will score higher on a posttest of
learning transfer than students in the traditional methods condition.
2. Students in evidence-based methods condition will score higher on a posttest of
motivation than students in the traditional methods condition.
3. Students in evidence-based methods condition will score higher on a posttest of self-
efficacy than students in the traditional methods condition.
4. Students in evidence-based methods condition will score higher on a posttest of mastery
goal orientation than students in the traditional methods condition.
Summary of Problem
This study is necessary in providing a new approach to teaching and learning Brazilian
Jiu-Jitsu that does not currently exist. Additionally, many coaches, instructors and professors do
not have a background in the fields of learning and motivation theory, which can further serve to
promote increased motivational drives (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002) as well as greater rates of
learning transfer (Goldstone & Day, 2012; Engle, Lam, Meyer & Nix, 2012).
Gracie Barra Instructors’ Handbook (2010) defines teaching methods as having only one
dimension, which is instructional content, while evidence-based pedagogy defines two
dimensions, content and method. Table 1 in Chapter 1 is an example of what Gracie Barra
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considers appropriate teaching content. A student’s understanding of general concepts is one of
three elements: etiquette, mission statement and history. The tools, as identified above, are
related to the professors or coaches, uniform, and professional tools. The instructional commands
are a standard set of instructions all professors, instructors and coaches are taught to issue during
each class. Traditional methods of instructional delivery utilized in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools
today are aligned predominantly to student’s ability level as measured by a belt system and
ultimately the judgment of each school’s professor (Black Belt).
In contrast, evidence-based pedagogy consists of two components: instructional content
and instructional methods Clark (2010). This instructional approach is significant, as it requires a
deliberate effort on the part of the instructional designer, teacher, or coach to account for the
learners’ ability, ability, environment and cultural differences within the exchange between the
teacher/learner, and cognitive processes such as schema construction (Bennett, 2001; Engle et
al., 2012; Stolovitch & Keeps, 2002;). Meyer (2011) suggests that instruction occurs when a
learner’s environment is manipulated and from that manipulation there results a change in the
learner’s knowledge. Ambrose et al., (2010) suggest that learning is a process that involves
change over time. Moreover, learning is not something that is done to students but instead a
combined effect related to past and present experiences.
Learning Transfer
Ford, Smith, Weissbein, Gully, and Salas (1998) posit that personalized learning and
transfer is linked to metacognitive activity. Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised Bloom’s
original learning taxonomy to include the cognitive processing aspect of metacognitive
knowledge that was not present in the original taxonomy dimension. This addition is significant
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as legislators at both the state and local level and educators attempt to facilitate higher-level
outcomes on mandated assessments.
Regarding the first hypothesis, students in the evidence-based methods condition did
score significantly higher on a measure of learning transfer than students in the traditional
methods condition. The necessity to measure learning transfer was in response to significant gaps
in the field of teaching and learning. Utilizing Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy
and three-point rubric (Tables 2 and 4), students were asked to write detailed observations of the
moves presented in the Gracie Barra instructional video.
Three moves were shown to the participants:
Technique #1: throat choke counter to a throw with arm bar finish.
Technique #2: a counter to an over the arms bear-hug attack to arm bar, and
Technique #3: a counter to a bear hug under the arms to arm bar.
These moves were purposely selected because of their level of difficulty and alignment to
each other in terms of novice learner transferability. The intervention group scored higher on the
posttest comparison than the control group justifying the hypothesis that evidence-based methods
would score higher on a posttest of learning transfer than traditional methods (Davies, 2000;
Edwards, 2005; Vygotsky, 1987).
Motivation
Motivation is a significant factor in learning as athletes/students set specific goals based
on behavioral preferences (Pintrich et al., 1993). These goals are driven by choices that become
crucial in the level of effort athletes/students exert on individual tasks, and their degree of
persistence and likelihood to complete the task (Larson, 2000; Maehr, 1984; Wigfield, 1994).
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Additionally, motivation affects cognitive processes in what learners pay attention to and how
effectively they process (Eccles & Wigfield, 1985; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Pugh & Bergin,
2006). How athletes/students are viewed by their peers and to what degree their performance is
judged as acceptable to peers has a direct impact on their motivational level and choice of their
attribution task value (Weiner, 1985).
For coaches as well as teachers the goal of motivation exists in two parts. Extrinsic
motivation is quite often the initial instigator of motivation as it seeks to reward targeted
performance outcomes with a desirable consequence, such as good grades and other rewards for
achieving signals mastery of a course (Covington, 2000). In fact, often extrinsic motivators are
accompanied with intrinsic motivators that act as mediating factors during teenage years, as
young adults begin to develop more sophisticated cognitive processes (Battistich, Solomon,
Watson & Schaps, 1995; Larson, 2000). However, ultimately, the goal is internalized motivation
that seeks value in meaningful engagement within their chosen subject areas or sport, and leads
to more efficient cognitive processing as they develop more complex schemas and ways of
thinking (metacognitive) about their own learning (Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 2001;
Reeve, 2006; Schiefele, 1991; Tobias, 1994).
An ANCOVA was utilized to assess whether there was greater motivation in the
evidence-based or traditional groups. By utilizing an ANCOVA, the pretest results were held
constant, and a statistically significant difference was found with higher motivation in the
evidence-based group. This validated the hypothesis that evidence-based methods would yield
greater motivational outcomes than traditional methods of learning, specifically drill and
practice. This outcome was significant based on the literature, which posit that middle school
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aged students’ needs vary based on personal development and negative self-perception issues;
making positive motivational factors during this life-span development age likely indicators of
increased academic success with respect to their grades and on standardized test scores (Unrau &
Schlackman, 2006).
Self-Efficacy
Understanding motivational principles for coaches in terms of learning and motivational
outcomes is critical in facilitating the learning of athletes/students. Moreover, if coaches produce
more self-efficacious behavior within their own learning, they can better understand the
necessity self-efficacy plays in influencing positive academic and co-curricular outcomes in their
athletes/students (Pajares, 1996).
According to social cognitive theory, self-efficacy beliefs are the foundational piece to
human motivation, personal accomplishment and overall wellbeing (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece,
2008). Self-efficacy beliefs are focused on future performance, are context-dependent, and are
domain-specific (Pajares & Urdan, 2006).
In examining the self-efficacy post-survey mean and t-score, the hypothesis that
evidence-based methods would score higher in a measure of self-efficacy than traditional
methods was not supported. In fact, participants within the traditional group scored higher with
an average mean of 5.070 in comparison to the intervention group, which scored an average
mean of 4.684. Additionally, controlling the self-efficacy strategies pre-survey results allowed
for an ANCOVA test. By holding the pre survey results constant, an ANCOVA was conducted
to check whether there was significance between the groups after the interventions. When the
pre-survey results were held constant, the statistical significance was an adjusted mean of 5.023
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for the control group as compared to 4.733 for the intervention group. This difference was not
significant. There was no evidence found to support the hypothesis that evidence-based methods
in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu can increase outcomes in self-efficacy in comparison to traditional methods
of training.
An explanation for these outcomes could be the fact that participants from both the
control and intervention groups did not have previous experience specifically related to Brazilian
Jiu-Jitsu. According to Bandura, (1997) self-efficacy is related to personal judgments of one’s
capabilities to organize and execute courses of action to attain desired goals that are domain-
specific and context-dependent. Additionally, the duration of the study was limited to three days
at 45-minutes per day, which further limits the probability of enhancing self-efficacy with any
intervention measure measure.
Mastery Goal Orientation
As a part of social cognitive theory, goal orientation theory examines the reasons
students/athletes engage in their academic work or choose the types of performance goals they
do in sports (Meece, Anderman, & Anderman, 2006). Goals fall within two frameworks defined
as mastery and performance (Pintrich, 2000). Mastery approach athletes/students are focused on
learning, self-improvement and see errors as opportunities to learn. Performance approach
athletes/students are interested in demonstrating their competence while competing with peers
and seek appraisal of their ability from superiors (Pintrich, 2000).
Goal orientations are correlated to behavioral, cognitive and affective outcomes.
Evidence supports the adoption of mastery-oriented goals, which lead to adaptive attribution
patterns, higher levels of cognitive engagement, increased interest and persistence on tasks and
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self-regulation (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008). Additionally, the implementation of the
TARGET model defined in chapter two can further the adoption of a mastery approach
orientation for athletes/students (Ames, 1992).
Dweck’s (2006) asserts that two distinct mindsets exist in humans that can be defined as
Entity (performance approach) and Incremental (mastery approach). The orientation of the Likert
scale items used in the study were also based on Ambrose et al.’s (2010) development of mastery
learning as well as evidence-based classroom structures recommended by Ames (1992) who
described the TARGET model as a highly effective approach to modify learning environments to
produce greater learner outcomes aligned to mastery goal orientations (Epstein, 1998).
In examining data analysis outcomes between the traditional and evidence-based groups,
a significant difference was found. The mean average for the traditional group was 5.022 in
comparison to the evidence-based groups’ mean average of 4.404. Therefore, there was enough
evidence to contradict the hypothesis that evidence-based methods promote greater mastery goal
orientation.
According to Ambrose et al. (2010), the concept of the “expertise-effect,” which proves
significant differences in the processing of thought patterns between novice learners and expert
learners is the result of a specific process of learning that is aligned to four developmental stages.
Expert practitioners in any field went through a process that can be defined as “the stages in the
development of mastery.” Ambrose et al. (2010) define these developmental stages in the
development of mastery learning are a pre-requisite to advancing from novice to expert:
unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence, and unconscious
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competence. It is possible that the traditional group intervention yielded a greater concentration
of “unconscious incompetence” and thus their mastery orientation scores were higher.
Validity
Internal
The accurate nature of the implications made related to cause and effect is the key factor
within internal validity. Reducing systematic error within this study was established in several
ways. Random assignment of each participant to either a control or intervention group without
informing them and the evaluator was not informed prior to the assignment of each participant
and their designated group assignments. Additionally, the same instructor was present for each
group delivery to the control and intervention groups. Finally, the only design that justifies a
strong causal inference is the true experiment (randomized trial), and this study is a true
experiment.
In a true experiment, subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. If
assignment is not random, then the research design is referred to as a “quasi-experiment,” and
the two groups investigated are commonly referred to as the “intervention” group and the
“control” group (Krathwohl, 1993). By this definition, the current study is of experimental
design. Because this was a true experiment using randomly assigned groups, cause and effect
inferences were justified. The control group did have one more participant than that of the
intervention group but it is very unlikely that this minor difference affected the results of the
study.
External
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The information collected in this particular study is based on a population of thirty-nine,
diverse middle school students with limited or no prior experience in practicing Brazilian Jiu-
Jitsu. It should be noted that there are thousands of different Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu schools,
academies and dojos throughout the world that follow the same basic training outline of the
Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu school featured within this study as the traditional methods curriculum. The
smaller population size of 39 students was realized due to several factors. The scheduling and
instructional practices set forth by the director from Mar Vista Charter School limited the
number of potential participants that could be selected for the random assignment to control and
intervention groups. Additionally, a stratification model was used to ensure that both groups
contained boys and girls within the same grade level with no consideration given to socio-
economic level of the participants (Fowler, 2002). Parental permission slips were also a factor as
the concept of students participating within a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu study was a concern for
numerous parents. To offset this perception, the principal/executive director wrote a letter ahead
of the study to reassure parents that the study was purely observational. Within the curriculum
frameworks of Mar Vista Charter School, forty-five minute sessions, with each group, were the
maximum time allowed for the one-week study.
In considering possible threats to external validity, the ability to generalize to other
populations and settings is limited. The selection of middle school students in eighth grade with
no or limited experience in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu was determined to be advantageous for
generalizing to similar populations. Additionally, the learning environment was shaped to
promote an effective and equitable learning environment for all learners. Creswell (2009) posits
that threats to external validity arise when researchers/experimenters make incorrect inferences
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from the sample data to other settings, situations and/or people, so the study’s findings should
not be generalized to other subjects and settings.

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Treatment and Measurements
Ultimately, treatments are hard to generalize because no two people produce the same
two results when implementing an intervention. In terms of the intervention utilized, a review of
previous and current evidence-based learning literature was conducted, and the author created a
unique methods log. Finally, a review of Ames’ (1992) evidence-based classroom structures
described as the TARGET model was also integrated as it provided a highly effective approach
to modify learning environments to produce greater learner outcomes aligned to mastery goal
orientations (Epstein, 1998). Other evidence-based classroom structures could yield different
findings.
Recommendations for Practice
For recommendations for future practice for coaches in terms of learning transfer
facilitation for athletes/students as well as teaching, three factors should be considered. As
previously highlighted in the literature review, coaches are influenced by mediated, unmediated,
and internal processes. Formal science publications or evidence-based pedagogy are not
significant resources for many coaches as they interact without formal guidance (Werthner &
Trudel, 2006). Furthermore, Cushion et al. (2010) posit that, although individual pathways in
becoming a coach are quite varied, an articulated pedagogy and examination of cognition in
learners would benefit the profession as a whole. The key recommendation in this study is that
evidence-based instructional practices need to be considered as it can be applied to Brazilian Jiu-
Jitsu instruction.

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Recommendations for Research
In examining possible future research studies for learning transfer in athletes/students,
personalized learning is an area in need of continued examination as a means to ensure that all
students benefit from learning transfer techniques (Burton, 2007). Ford, Smith, Weissbein,
Gully, and Salas (1998) posit that personalized learning is linked to metacognitive activity.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised Bloom’s original learning taxonomy to include the
cognitive processing aspect of metacognitive knowledge that was not present in the original
taxonomy dimension. This addition is significant as legislators at both the state and local level,
and educators attempt to facilitate higher-level outcomes on mandated assessments. While this
study is an example of how evidence-based instruction and metacognition might be facilitated,
much work remains to extend the study’s conclusions to other areas beyond Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.
In examining future research practices related to motivation, Sullo suggests, “most
schools and classrooms operate on the reward or punishment model and use stimulus and
response, behavior modification, or assertive discipline techniques” (2007, p. 5). He further
suggests that the majority of teacher training programs in addition to school climates and cultures
operate under the philosophy shaped by theories of operant conditioning that ultimately sought to
shape human (student) behavior based on external stimuli and the reward/punishment model. A
model validated through empirical study that focused on internal rewards may be an even
stronger motivating force than external rewards. Moreover, the value of intrinsic reward as
outlined in mastery orientation approaches would further support mastery learning models and
facilitate opportunities for students to realize success and build self-efficacy through individual
progress and self-improvement (Ambrose, 2010; Dweck, 2006; Lundh, 2004; Meece, Anderman,
JIU-JITSU AND LEARNING

105
& Anderman, 2006; Pajares, 1996; Pintrich, 2000; Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008). Despite the
above theory, the findings in the study were inconclusive. Much further research is needed if a
firm connection between evidence-based instruction and self-efficacy and goal orientation is to
be established.
Conclusions
This study was designed to examine the use of evidence-based instructional content and
methods of a Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu program versus traditional instructional content and methods
program, and the degree to which learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and mastery goal
orientation outcomes change within the intervention group. The sample size consisted of
middle school boys and girls with no practical prior knowledge of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu techniques.
During the one-week experiment, the research hypotheses that shaped the study were (1) students
in the evidence-based methods condition would score higher on a measure of learning transfer
than students in the traditional methods conditions, (2) students in the evidence-based method
conditions would score higher on a measure of motivation than students in the traditional
methods conditions, (3) students in the evidence-based methods conditions would score higher
on a measure of self-efficacy than students in the traditional methods conditions, and (4) students
in the evidence-based methods conditions would score higher on a measure of mastery goal
orientation than students in the traditional methods conditions. Both hypotheses one and two
were validated. Learning transfer and motivation were higher in the evidence-based methods
condition. Hypothesis three and four were rejected. Conclusions and recommendations for future
research are discussed.

n= 39
JIU-JITSU AND LEARNING

106
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Appendix A
Survey Instruments
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

ASSENT FORM TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

Program evaluation on the effect of traditional training on transfer, motivation, self-efficacy and
performance orientation in comparison to evidence-based training

Susan David wants to learn about whether students learn jiu-jitsu more effectively using the
traditional, drill and practice method or the new evidence-based approach. One way to learn
about it is to do a research study; the people doing the study are called researchers.

Your mom/dad/Legally Authorized Representative (LAR) have told us we can talk to you about
the study. You also can talk this over with your mom or dad. It’s up to you if you want to take
part, you can say “yes” or “no”. No one will be upset with you if you don’t want to take part.

If you do want to take part, you will be asked to participate in a five day study that involves
students partaking in three surveys prior and post to the study, before and after observing two
methods of instruction. Students will not be audio or video recorded. The study heavily focuses
on student observations of given instruction and transcribing observations during.

Researchers don’t always know what will happen to people in a research study. We don’t expect
anything to happen to you.

Only the researchers will see your answers.

If you have any questions, you can ask the researchers.

If you want to take part in the study, please write and then sign your name at the bottom. You
can change your mind if you want to, just tell the researchers.

_________________________________
Name of Participant
____________________________________ ____________________
Participant’s Signature Date
___________________________________
Name of person consenting
___________________________________ ____________________
Signature of person consenting Date

JIU-JITSU AND LEARNING

121
Appendix B
Informed Consent
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Program
evaluation
on
the
effect
of
learning
transfer,
motivation,
self-‐efficacy
and
mastery
goal

orientation
in
comparison
to
traditional
methods
of
training

You
are
invited
to
participate
in
a
research
study
conducted
by
Mark
Dearing,
Educational

Doctoral
Candidate,
a
student
of
Dr.
Hocevar
at
the
University
of
Southern
California,
because

you
are
an
eighth
grade
student.
Your
participation
is
voluntary.
You
should
read
the

information
below,
and
ask
questions
about
anything
you
do
not
understand,
before
deciding

whether
to
participate.
Please
take
as
much
time
as
you
need
to
read
the
consent
form.
You

may
also
decide
to
discuss
participation
with
your
family
or
friends.
If
you
decide
to
participate,

you
will
be
asked
to
sign
this
form.
You
will
be
given
a
copy
of
this
form.

The
purpose
of
this
study
is
to
compare
evidence-‐based
training
on
learning
transfer,

motivation,
self-‐efficacy
and
mastery
goal
orientation
in
comparison
to
traditional
methods
of

training
within
the
martial
art
of
Brazilian
jiu-‐jitsu.
Specifically,
the
overarching
questions
that

are
addressed
in
this
study
are
based
on
students
in
the
traditional
learning
condition
score

higher
than
students
in
evidence-‐based
learning
condition
on
4
measures:

5. Learning
transfer.

6. Motivation.

7. Self-‐efficacy.

8. Mastery
goal
orientation.

If
you
volunteer
to
participate
in
this
study,
you
will
be
asked
to
participate
in
a
five-‐day
study.

Day
one
and
day
five
involve
pre
and
post
assessments,
respectively.
The
assessments
consist

of
3
questionnaires
delivered
through
an
electronic
survey,
guaranteeing
anonymity;
and

transcribing
observations
of
Gracie
Barra’s
traditional,
drill
and
practice
method,
delivered

through
a
video.
You
are
shown
three
specific
moves,
each
move
repeated
three
times.

Day
two,
three,
and
four
of
the
study
involves
two
groups.
A
control
group
consisting
of

participants
in
the
regular
drill
and
practice
learning
condition;
and
an
intervention
group

consisting
of
participants
in
the
evidence-‐based
learning
condition.
Each
group
will
participate

in
a
20-‐minute
lesson
of
observing
the
instructor
performing
one
specific
move.
You
are
then

subjected
to
evaluation
based
on
the
four
dependent
variables
as
listed
above.
It
is
assumed

JIU-JITSU AND LEARNING

122
that
you
will
answer
the
survey
truthfully
based
upon
you
knowledge
that
this
is
an
anonymous

study.
You
will
not
benefit
nor
be
punished
for
your
honest
responses.

There
are
no
risks
to
you.

Your
participation
in
this
study
will
help
the
investigator
better
understand
learning
transfer

and
under
what
circumstances
far
transfer
occurs.
This
study
is
not
generalizable
to
other

contents,
but
can
help
reframe
jiu-‐jitsu
teaching
methods
to
decrease
the
drop-‐out
rates
of

young
students
in
the
sport.

There
are
no
payments
or
compensation
for
participation.
Your
participation
is
completely

voluntary.

We
will
keep
your
records
for
this
study
confidential
as
far
as
permitted
by
law.
However,
if
we

are
required
to
do
so
by
law,
we
will
disclose
confidential
information
about
you.
The
members

of
the
research
team,
the
funding
agency
and
the
University
of
Southern
California’s
Human

Subjects
Protection
Program
(HSPP)
may
access
the
data.
The
HSPP
reviews
and
monitors

research
studies
to
protect
the
rights
and
welfare
of
research
subjects.

The
data
will
be
stored
solely
on
my
personal
device
and
destroyed
three
years
after
the

completion
of
the
study.
Data
will
be
coded
solely
by
the
investigator
using
electronic
survey

software
and
for
coding
of
data.

Your
participation
is
voluntary.
Your
refusal
to
participate
will
involve
no
penalty
or
loss
of

benefits
to
which
you
are
otherwise
entitled.
You
may
withdraw
your
consent
at
any
time
and

discontinue
participation
without
penalty.
You
are
not
waiving
any
legal
claims,
rights
or

remedies
because
of
your
participation
in
this
research
study.

If
you
joined
the
student
subject
pool,
your
alternative
may
be
to
participate
in
another
study

or
to
write
a
paper,
please
contact
the
Subject
Pool
Coordinator
for
further
information.

If
you
have
any
questions
or
concerns
about
the
research,
please
feel
free
to
contact
Mark

Dearing
or
adearing@usc.edu
and
Professor
Denis
Hocevar
at
(213)
740-‐3452
or

hocevar@rossier.usc.edu

If
you
have
questions,
concerns,
or
complaints
about
your
rights
as
a
research
participant
or
the

research
in
general
and
are
unable
to
contact
the
research
team,
or
if
you
want
to
talk
to

someone
independent
of
the
research
team,
please
contact
the
University
Park
Institutional

Review
Board
(UPIRB),
3720
South
Flower
Street
#301,
Los
Angeles,
CA

90089-‐0702,
(213)
821-‐
5272
or
upirb@usc.edu

JIU-JITSU AND LEARNING

123
SIGNATURE
OF
RESEARCH
PARTICIPANT

I
have
read
the
information
provided
above.

I
have
been
given
a
chance
to
ask
questions.

My

questions
have
been
answered
to
my
satisfaction,
and
I
agree
to
participate
in
this
study.

I

have
been
given
a
copy
of
this
form.

Name
of
Participant

Signature
of
Participant

Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I
have
explained
the
research
to
the
participant
and
answered
all
of
his/her
questions.

I
believe

that
he/she
understands
the
information
described
in
this
document
and
freely
consents
to

participate.

Name
of
Person
Obtaining
Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study was designed to examine the use of evidence‐based instructional content and methods of a Brazilian Jiu‐Jitsu program versus a traditional instructional content and methods program, and the degree to which, do learning transfer, motivation, self‐efficacy and mastery goal orientation outcomes change within the intervention group. The sample size consisted of 39 middle school boys and girls with no practical prior knowledge of Brazilian Jiu‐Jitsu techniques. During the one‐week experiment, the research hypotheses that shaped the study were (1) students in the evidence‐based methods condition would score higher on a measure of learning transfer than students in the traditional methods conditions, (2) students in the evidence‐based method conditions would score higher on a measure of motivation than students in the traditional methods conditions, (3) students in the evidence‐based methods conditions would score higher on a measure of self‐efficacy than students in the traditional methods conditions, and (4) students in the evidence‐based methods conditions would score higher on a measure of mastery goal orientation than students in the traditional methods conditions. Hypotheses one and two were validated: learning transfer and motivation were higher in the evidence‐based methods condition. Hypotheses three and four were rejected. Conclusions and recommendations for future research are discussed.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Dearing, Alexander Mark (author)

Core Title How does the evidence-based method of training impact learning transfer, motivation, self-efficacy, and mastery goal orientation compared to the traditional method of training in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/16/2015

Defense Date 04/16/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag goal orientation,learning transfer,mastery,Motivation,OAI-PMH Harvest,self-efficacy

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hocevar, Dennis (committee chair), Green, Alan Gilford (committee member), Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee member)

Creator Email adearing@usc.edu,dearingconsulting1@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-551155

Unique identifier UC11297418

Identifier etd-DearingAle-3316.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-551155 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DearingAle-3316.pdf

Dmrecord 551155

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Dearing, Alexander Mark

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA