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The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

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Content Running head: INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION AND MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS ON
SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES IN COSTA RICA

by

Felipe Martinez

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2014

Copyright 2014 Felipe Martinez

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
A todo inmigrante que tuvo el valor de dejar la tierra que le vio nacer para emprender un viaje a
un país extraño. Que su jornada le otorgue la oportunidad de superación propia y la de su
familia.
Hoy termino una jornada que mi padre comenzó pero no pudo completar. ¡Esta es por ti, papá!

Felipe

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Chapter One: Introduction Of The Problem 6
Background of the Problem 7
Statement of the Problem 8
Purpose of Study 9
Research Questions 10
Importance of Study 10
Definition of Terms 11
Organization of Study 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 15
Globalization and Education 16
Spring’s Four Frameworks of Globalization 17
The Rise of Global English and Human Capital Theory 21
21
st
Century Skills 23
Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills 24
History of Costa Rica 27
Economic Development of Costa Rica 29
Costa Rica’s Educational System 31
Costa Rican Student Profile 32
K-6 Educational System 32
High School 34
Technical Education 35
Higher Education 37
Multinational Corporations in Costa Rica 38
The Intel Effect 40
Intel’s Impact on Education. 41
Leadership Frameworks 43
Bolman and Deal Four Leadership Frames 43
Conclusion 47
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 49
Research Questions 50
Research Design 50
Sample Population 51
Table 1: Case Study Participants 56
ITCR Partnership with Intel 57
Instrumentation 58
Data Collection 62
Limitations 62
Delimitations 63

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 4
Chapter Four: Findings 64
Participants 65
Political Leaders 65
Industry Leader 67
Educational Leaders 67
Results for Research Question One 69
“Pre- and Post-Intel” Phenomenon 70
Strengthening the Knowledge-based Workforce in Costa Rica 73
Discussion 76
Results for Research Question Two 77
Enhancing Teacher Professional Development 78
English as an Unofficial Requirement 81
Discussion 84
Results for Research Question Three 85
Conflict between Globalization and Costa Rican Bureaucracy 85
Academic Initiatives to graduate more Engineers 89
Discussion 92
Summary 93
Chapter Five: Discussion 95
Discussion of Findings 96
Limitations 102
Implications for Practice 103
Recommendations for Future Research 104
Conclusion 105
References 107
Appendix A 111
Appendix B 112
Appendix C 115
Appendix D 118
Appendix E 121
Appendix F 124

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Abstract
This study applied three frameworks to determine the effects globalization and Multinational
Corporations (MNCs) have had on Costa Rica and its educational system. Spring’s (2007)
framework examining the relationship between globalization and education framed Costa Rica’s
response to the global economy. Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival Skills highlighted the
competences expected from a knowledge-based workforce. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four
Leadership Frames examined how educational leadership evolved as a result of the influence of
globalization and MNCs. Via interviews of political, industry and educational leaders, surveys
of faculty members, classroom observations and document analysis, this case study examined the
partnership between Intel and the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica to determine the level of
said influence. Data was collected during a single trip to Costa Rica and coded to find emerging
themes that answered the research questions. Findings from this study suggest that globalization
and MNCs have influenced the Costa Rican political, educational and economic arenas. The
presence of MNCs in particular helped propel Costa Rica’s transition from an agrarian economy
to a leading exporter of hi-tech devices. Changes to the academic curriculum, the push for a
bilingual knowledge-based workforce and teacher development programs are part of the
initiatives created to give Costa Rica a competitive edge within the global economy. This study
highlights that, despite the positive changes achieved, Costa Rica’s educational system has not
fully evolved to meet the demands of globalization and MNCs within the country.

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 6
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM
One of the inevitable effects of globalization is the need for nation-states to revisit their
economic, political, and social policies to ensure they enter into, and benefit from, the emerging
global markets (Banks, McGee Banks, Cortes, Hahn, Merryfield, Moodley, Murphy-Shigematsu,
Osler, Park, & Parker, 2003). A direct result of a nation’s economic changes is the creation of
trade agreements that allow for the production and exchange of goods, foreign investment, and
tax incentives that can be mutually beneficial for the nations involved. In addition,
advancements in technology and transportation ushered a new wave of globalization, as they
made it possible for highly advanced goods to be produced in developing nations, as opposed to
industrial societies, at a fraction of the price. When the latter is the case, the developing nation
that is the producer of new hi-tech goods needs, in turn, to educate its labor force to ensure
workers have the knowledge necessary to produce these hi-tech devices (Partnership, 2003;
Wagner, 2008).
Throughout the world, national educational systems of both industrial and developing
nations must address their respective countries’ current and future economic needs, thus linking
education to globalization and emerging global markets. As a result, “[a]round the globe from
China to Japan to the United States and the European Union, educational policymakers try to
match the school curriculum and instruction to what they perceive are the needs of the global
workforce” (Spring, 2007, p. xi). Although the level of adaption and evolution of the
educational system may vary among countries, the objective of developing a knowledge-based
workforce to ultimately benefit from the global economy remains the same. The small Central
American country of Costa Rica is no exception, and, in fact, the country successfully enacted
strategic new economic development policies that transformed a once agrarian economy into an
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 7
emerging hi-tech manufacturer (Larraín, Lopez-Calva, & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000; Monge-
Naranjo, 2007; Rodriguez-Claire, 2001).
At the center of the Costa Rican new economic strategy is the high level of Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) Costa Rica secured over the last two decades. This meant that, as FDI
increased, the presence of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) also increased in Costa Rica and
increased the demand for a knowledge-based workforce. However, Monge-Naranjo (2007)
suggested that, despite Costa Rica’s success in attracting FDI, the country was not able to meet
the growing demands for the knowledge-based workforce. As a result, the MNCs elicited the
support of institutions of higher education in Costa Rica to help increase the pipeline of
knowledge-based workers in the country (World Bank, 2006). This case study examined the
initiatives the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR) created in partnership with Intel to
instill within its student population the content knowledge and 21
st
century skills needed to
prepare them to enter the global economy and become part of the Costa Rican knowledge-based
workforce. In addition, this study examined how educational leadership in the country evolved
as a result of this partnership and the influence of MNCs and globalization.
Background of the Problem
In comparison to other countries in Latin America, Costa Rica has a significantly higher
literacy rate amongst its population. The reported 95% literacy rate was achieved due to a sound
investment in primary education that is grounded in the Costa Rican constitution’s allocation of
8% of the national GDP towards education (CINDE, 2011). The United National Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2003/2004 Education for All (EFA) Report
highlighted the success of this investment and showed that Costa Rica had the highest literacy
rate in the Central American region and was fourth among all Latin American countries;
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 8
Uruguay, Argentina and Cuba occupy the top three spots. In turn, the significantly higher literacy
rate that Costa Rica had in comparison to its neighboring countries made the country a more
lucrative choice for investment by MNCs (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001). Yet, despite the high
investment in education and the impressive literacy rate, the 2011 Estado de la Educación (EdE)
report showed that Costa Rica was experiencing a high dropout rate at the high school level that
prevented the country from creating a steady pipeline that would ultimately develop a strong
knowledge-based workforce. Since a high school diploma is a necessary requirement to enter a
university in the country, without a diploma many Costa Rican youth were unable to pursue
higher education. Consequently, a smaller student population’s being eligible to pursue higher
education meant a smaller current and future pipeline of knowledge-based workers in the
country. This high dropout rate could potentially foreshadow economic troubles for Costa Rica
as future generations will be unable to enter the workforce due to lacking the highly specialized
skills required by the hi-tech MNCs (Estado, 2011).
Statement of the Problem
The fiscal crisis of the 1980s had profound effects on the economic landscape of Costa
Rica. Due to a developed educational system and an increased cost of living in comparison to
other countries in the Central American region, a new economic policy was implemented to
attract hi-tech FDI to compete in an evolving global market (Larraín et al., 2000. The resulting
growth of technology as a major export gave new direction and opportunity to this small Central
American country. As more MNCs invested in Costa Rica, it became the responsibility of the
primary, secondary, and higher education systems to help students develop technical and inquiry
based 21
st
century skills needed to enter the global economy. However, despite having five
national universities, 51 private universities and a 95% literacy rate amongst its population, there
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 9
remained a low secondary graduation rate and, consequently, a smaller percentage of students
pursuing higher education in the country. As a result, there was a lack of knowledge-based
workers who are prepared to take on the new job opportunities in Costa Rica.
Purpose of Study
Costa Rica was extremely successful in attracting hi-tech FDI over the last two decades
(Larraín, et al., 2000; Monge-Naranjo, 2007; Rodriguez-Claire, 2001; Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003).
This success was due to a strategic economic policy that took advantage of tax incentives, the
country’s proximity to the US market, constant influx of passenger planes due to the country’s
booming tourism and the high literacy rate of the Costa Rican population. This success,
however, placed added pressure on the country’s educational system to strengthen the Costa
Rican workforce and transform it from the once agrarian labor force into a knowledge-based
workforce (Larraín, et al., 2000; Rodriguez-Claire, 2001; Monge-Naranjo, 2007. As a result, the
purpose of this study was to examine how the ITCR created academic initiatives in partnership
with Intel to address Costa Rica’s shortage of knowledge-based workers. Now that Costa Rica
found itself as a player in the global market, the first part of the study examined how
globalization and MNCs influenced the country’s structure and economic landscape. The second
part of the study examined how globalization and MNC influenced higher education in Costa
Rica and to what degree educational leadership evolved as a result of this influence. In
particular, to address the second part of this case study, the relationship between the ITCR and
Intel was the focal point.
As a direct result of the ITCR and Intel partnership, two academic programs emerged: the
Computer Engineering program and the Material Science with an emphasis in Microelectronics.
Wagner (2008) stated that, in order to effectively create a knowledge-based workforce, it was
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 10
important that students develop the 21
st
century skills imperative for success in today’s global
economy. Therefore, it became imperative that, in addition to the content knowledge Costa
Rican students needed to enter the knowledge-based workforce, they also developed the 21
st

century skills needed to excel in the global economy. As such, Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills
were used to determine to what extend the ITCR students gained 21
st
century skills. Finally, by
gaining the insight from educational leaders at ITCR, this case study helped determine how
educational leadership at the university level evolved as a result of globalization and the presence
of MNCs in Costa Rica.
Research Questions
The data collected via interviews, document collection and analysis, observations, and
survey answered the following research questions:
1. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2. What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3. How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that came
as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Importance of Study
With the increased presence of MNCs in Costa Rica, it became imperative for the country
to increase and strengthen its knowledge-based workforce. Spring (2007) stated that current
“global educational policy is centered on economic growth and preparation of workers for the
world’s labor market” (p.1). It is for this reason that Human Capital Theory has taken a front
row within educational discourse. Human Capital Theory, as described by Bowles and Gintis
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 11
(1975), described the worker’s labor power as a means of production that can ultimately
positively or negatively affect the economic outlook of a country. This means that, the more a
nation invests on developing a workforce either via traditional education or job training
programs, the higher the production of that workforce, which leads to a better economic output.
As a result, MNCs have turned to the Costa Rican educational system, both at the secondary and
higher education level, as potential allies to help enhance worker productivity and prepare the
next generation of knowledge-based workers needed in the country (World Bank, 2006).
Today’s global economy, however, demands more of a knowledge-based worker. In
addition to be able to perform the designated tasks, knowledge-based workers must also be open
to new and ever-changing technologies that are guided by the global economy. As a result, it is
imperative that today’s students master the 21
st
century skills they need to succeed within the
global economy. This case study highlights not only the 21
st
century skills that the knowledge-
based workers needs but also initiatives that a country’s educational system has put into place to
ensure youth develops such competencies. Since this case study highlights the partnership
between the ITCR and Intel, results that emerged could be used as guiding frameworks to
develop and/or evaluate partnerships between public and private sectors that ultimately benefit a
nation’s economic outlook.
Definition of Terms
Throughout this study, the following terms were utilized based on the definition outlined
below. The terms were defined to help the reader understand the direction of this study. These
terms were:
 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): a direct investment into production or business in a
country by a company in another country, either by buying a company in the target
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 12
country or by expanding operations of an existing business in that country. Broadly, FDI
includes mergers and acquisitions, building new facilities, reinvesting profits earned from
overseas operations and intracompany loans. In a narrow sense, FDI could also refer just
to building new facilities (Larraín et al., 2000).
 Globalization: Sassen, as quoted by Banks et al. (2003), defines globalization as the
“dynamic process of increasing interactions and interdependencies among people and
systems on Earth” (p. 18).
 Hi-Tech Multinational Corporation (MNC): the term hi-tech refers to technology that
is at the cutting edge: the most advanced technology available. It is often used in
reference to microelectronics, rather than other technologies. The adjective form is
hyphenated: high-tech or high-technology. Thus, a hi-tech multinational corporation is
an MNC which produces the most advanced technology available, such as Intel and its
microchips for cutting edge computer processing (Giuliani, 2008).
 Knowledge-Based Economy: use of knowledge and skills to produce economic benefits
as well as job creation in the global market. Knowledge resources such as know-how and
expertise are as critical as other economic resources in an interconnected, globalized
economy. A key concept of the knowledge-based global economy is that knowledge and
education (often referred to as human capital) can be treated as a productive asset; or as a
business product, as educational and innovative intellectual products and services can be
exported for a high value return (Wagner, 2008).
 Ministry of Education: the Costa Rican Ministry of Education (El Ministerio de
Educación Pública de la República de Costa Rica- MEP) is a world leader in providing
quality and accessible education to the children in K-12 public education in Costa
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 13
Rica. Its mission is to promote the development and consolidation of an exceptional
education system that provides access to quality education to the entire population,
centered on personal development and the promotion of a Costa Rican society united
through opportunity and social equality. The abolition of Costa Rica’s armed services in
1948 and the reallocation of military funds to programs in education and health have
allowed the MEP to successfully carry out its mission. Costa Rica’s Constitution
includes a provision requiring that 8% of the country’s GDP go to education, among the
highest in the world (Ministerio de Educacion Pública [MPE]; CINDE, 2011).
 Multinational Corporations (MNCs): will describe a corporation registered and
operating in more than one country at a time. Generally, the corporation has its
headquarters in one country and operates wholly or partially owned subsidiaries in other
countries. Its subsidiaries report to the corporation’s central headquarters.
(Brittanica.com)
 21st Century Skills: The essential critical skills of the knowledge-based global economy
which include (a) critical thinking and problem solving; (b) collaboration across networks
and leading by influence; (c) agility and adaptability; (d) initiative and entrepreneurship;
(e) effective oral and written communication; (f) accessing and analyzing information;
and (g) curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of Study
This case study included five chapters. Chapter One encompassed the background and
statement of the problem along with definition of key terms. Chapter Two included a background
of the literature with an analysis of the frameworks used to analyze globalization, 21
st
century
skills and the Four Frames of Leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2003). In addition, a discussion of
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 14
the economic development of Costa Rica and a description of the country’s educational system
was included. Chapter Three presents a description of the methodology, sample population and
data analysis that were part of this case study. Chapter Four describes the data analysis of the
data collected via interviews, document collection and document analysis. Chapter Five includes
recommendations and presents the conclusions found as a result of this case study.

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 15
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Without a doubt, globalization has an impact on education by influencing what we learn,
how we learn it, where we learn it and for what purpose (Banks, McGee Banks, Cortes, Hahn,
Merryfield, Moodley, Murphy-Shigematsu, Osler, Park, & Parker, 2003; Partnership, 2003). As
we move to a global economy, nations revamped their respective academic curricula to better
position themselves within the global arena and reap the economic benefits of open markets
(Monge-Naranjo, 2007; Spring, 1998). Technological advances blurred the classroom
experience and, as a result, the traditional classroom is no longer necessary as students in
Shanghai now have the ability to take an online class taught by a professor in Los Angeles or
Buenos Aires (Heubeck, 2008; Partnership, 2003). In essence, globalization strengthened
connections between nations and in a way created interdependency among them. Consequently,
it is to the benefit of the modern nation-state to further educate its laborers and help them
develop 21
st
century skills to successfully enter the global market, as failure to do so could have
serious economic repercussions (Monge-Naranjo, 2007; Partnership, 2003; Sanchez-Ancochea,
2003; Spring, 1998, 2008; Wagner, 2008).
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects globalization and Multinational
Corporations (MNCs) had on the country of Costa Rica, its educational system and educational
leadership. This chapter opens by discussing the growing relationship between globalization and
education. The four theoretical frameworks described by Spring (2008): World Culture, World
System, Postcolonialist and Culturist provided the background to understand the relationship
between the two. Since globalization created the need to reconsider what knowledge students
learn, Wagner (2008) identified Seven Survival Skills that have become imperative for students
to master within the context of today’s society and global economy. Leaders of both the public
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 16
and private sector echoed Wagner’s (2008) call for students to master 21
st
Century skills, as,
without them, the knowledge-based workforce needed for today’s global economy will not come
into existence (Partnership, 2003). As a result, Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival Skills became
the framework to examine the development of 21
st
century skills in Costa Rica.
To understand the impact globalization has on education in Costa Rica, a historical and
economic account of the country, to include a detailed description of the current educational
system, is provided in this chapter. By examining the influence Intel has had on one Costa Rican
university, we can understand the degree to which the university administration modified the
academic curriculum at the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR) to meet the workforce
demands of this particular MNC. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership,
Structural, Human Resource, Symbolic and Political, provided the organizational framework to
examine how the educational leadership succeeded in or failed to meet the demands of these
corporations for a knowledge-based workforce. The Estado De la Educación (2011) report
outlined the challenges the Costa Rican educational system faced and proposed systematic
solutions for the country to move forward and fully integrate the majority of the workforce into
the global economy. The aforementioned leadership framework shed light into the gap between
policy and practice to put forth solutions that create organizational change within the Costa
Rican educational system.
Globalization and Education
Although nations have interacted and shared knowledge with one another throughout
human history, globalization as we know it is a modern phenomenon. Stromquist (as quoted by
Spring, 2008), stated the “economist Theodore Levitt is credited with coining the term
globalization [emphasis in original] in 1985 to describe changes in “global economics affecting
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 17
production, consumption, and investment” (p. 331). Today, almost three decades after Levitt
coined the term, globalization not only encompasses the economic arena but also the
technological, educational, cultural and philosophical dimensions as well. Therefore, it might
not be a surprise that globalization is defined differently by individuals throughout the world.
For the purposes of this study, globalization is defined utilizing the definition provided by Saskia
Sassen. Sassen (as quoted by Banks et al., 2003) defines globalization as the “dynamic process of
increasing interactions and interdependencies among people and systems on Earth” (p. 18). By
describing globalization as a dynamic process between people and systems, it can be ascertained
that power dynamics between nations underscore the interdependency among them as
exemplified by trade agreements, migration patterns, cultural exchange and the like.
Consequently, Sassen’s definition of globalization helps in framing the relationship between
globalization and education as seen in Costa Rica in the Culturalist framework as described by
Spring (2008).
Spring’s Four Frameworks of Globalization
Spring (2008) described four frameworks to examine the relationship between
globalization and education: World Culture, World System, Postcolonialist and Culturist. Spring
described each the three frameworks other than the Culturist Framework as an unequal dynamic
between industrial and developing nations. For example, the World Culture framework views
the relationship between education and globalization as grounded on “Western ideas of mass
schooling, which serves as model for national school systems” (p. 334). In other words,
developing nations’ emulation of the school systems of industrialized nations when revamping
their own educational systems eventually moves the world towards “a single global culture”
(Spring, 2008, p. 334). The teaching of English as part of the core curriculum in many countries,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 18
for example, is an illustration of the educational systems evolving toward a single language
within this global culture. The World Systems framework, on the other hand, defines education
as a universal human right and, in a way, proposes world standards to ensure a quality education
for all. However, Spring highlighted that those educational standards tend to rely heavily on
Western ideology of education, as it recognizes “the globe as integrated but with two major
unequal zones” (Spring, 2008, p. 334). According to Spring (2003), despite recognizing
education as a human right, the World Systems framework fails to address the inherent
inequality between industrial and developing nations.
The Postcolonial framework sees globalization “as an effort to impose particular
economic and political agendas on the global society that benefit wealthy and rich nations at the
expense of the world’s poor” (Spring, 2008, p. 334). The name of this framework alone
highlights that it looks at globalization from the cultural exchange that has happened throughout
human history as civilizations came together and intermingled through conquest and
colonization. The history of colonization alone highlights that whenever a tribe, province,
country or empire was conquered by foreign civilization, that conquering civilization brought
with it its costumes, religion, traditions, value systems and, in some cases, language (Spring,
1998). Immediately following the conquest, those people subjugated to foreign rule had to
quickly learn and adapt to a new way of life to guarantee survival. Whether it is the Greek,
Roman, Spanish, Persian, or any other empire throughout history, through the process of
colonization, all of these empires forever changed the lives and culture of those under their rule
(Spring, 1998).
It is because of this history of imperialism and conquest that Postcolonialist scholars are
apprehensive to the idea of globalization and the influence that it has on education and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 19
curriculum development. Globalization scholars that subscribe to a Neo-Marxist framework
argue that despite nations’ being free from foreign rule, there is still a subtle power dynamic in
the form of cultural imperialism where “globalization endangers less commonly spoken
languages and cultural distinctions (Banks et al., 2003, p. 18). In his book, Education and the
Rise of the Global Economy, Spring (1998) argued that “[o]ne of the important consequences of
British and American imperialism and current expansionism has been to make English the global
language” (p. 7). The rise of global English, according to Sonntang (2003) gives English-
speaking nations an advantage within globalization as language “is both a medium of culture and
of economic transactions between individuals, whether those individuals are in local
communities or global institutions” (p. 4). Those who abide by this view of globalization argue
that where there was once the power of the sword that enslaved entire nations, and now there is a
hegemonic Americanization of the rest of the world (Sonntang, 2003; Spring, 1998; Spring,
2008).
A fundamental argument in support of the Postcolonialist view of globalization is the
growing gap between “rich capitalist” and the world’s poor. Sanchez-Ancochea (2003) states
that the “income gap between the 20% of the world’s population living the richest countries and
the 20% living in the poorest was 30 to 1 in 1960, 60 to 1 in 1990, and 74 to 1 in 1997” (p. 19).
Granted that technological advancements have contributed to keeping labor cost down and
helped increase profit margins for corporations, the growing income gap between the haves and
the have-nots suggests that globalization played a huge part in what some would consider the
exploitation of the world’s poor (Banks et al., 2005; Spring, 1998). As a result, it can be
suggested that current economic markets favor those at the top of the economic chain, making it
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 20
possible for this wage gap to have more than doubled within three decades. This growth far
surpasses reasonable levels of inflation (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003).
Grounded on the Culturalist Framework, this study viewed Costa Rica not as a passive
player within globalization but, rather, as an active participant within the global economy. Those
scholars who subscribe to this view of globalization “question the idea that [Western] models of
schooling are simply imposed on local cultures” (Spring, 2008, p. 336) and, instead, believe
“local actors borrow from multiple models in the global flow of educational ideas” (Spring,
2008, p. 336). For example, the integration of English teaching as part of the national curriculum
is not seen as a power dynamic but, rather, as a necessary tool to enter the global economy or
“liberalization.” Liberalization “means adopting and implementing economic policies that
promote integration into a global market economy” (Sonntang, 2003, p. 10) that allows nations
to ensure economic prosperity via trade agreements, investment and enterprise. Krueger (as
quoted by Robbins & Gindling, 1999, p. 1) suggests that “trade liberalization in developing
countries will generally compress the wage gap between the more- and less-skilled labor.” This
way, governments have the ability to improve the lives of their citizenry by providing adequate
training for their population so they provide a better quality of livelihood for themselves and
their families. Culturalist scholars argue that considering Third World people as victims of
globalization not only patronizes and disempowers them but also precludes “any potential for
radical change” (Sonntang, 2003, p. 4). Those who subscribe to this view of globalization do
acknowledge there will be some inherent inequalities and power dynamics between people, but
they also view individuals as people with agency who are fully capable of making a decision to
enter the global market and the extent to which they choose to do so.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 21
When developing nations implement strategic policies that allow them to enter the global
market, they do it so they can thrive from open market economics. For example, “the increasing
exchange of goods and services and financial resources between developed and developing
countries could potentially fix some of the traditional bottlenecks in developing countries
(Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003, p. 18). In addition, globalization can mobilize nations to improve
infrastructure, educational access and training to the masses to ensure a competent workforce.
Lindert and Williamson (as quoted by Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003) stated that “the nations that
gained the most from globalization are those poor ones that changed their policies to exploit it,
while the ones that gained the least did not” (p. 20). While developing nations could be (and
have been) exploited by scrupulous globalization practices, these two comments underscore the
fact that developing nations, like Costa Rica, can also become active participants in a dynamic
interdependence as described by Sassen. In the end, policy makers in developing countries need
to change or modify current policies to maximize return on investment and secure what is best
for their respective constituents while minimizing any potential exploitation of their people.
The Rise of Global English and Human Capital Theory
In today’s global economy, English is the language of power (Banks et al., 2003;
Sonntang, 2003; Spring, 1998). This is particularly true in the cultural and economic arena. It can
be argued that this elevation of English to elite status is a direct “result of British and U.S.
expansionism, commerce, motion pictures, broadcasting and popular music” (Spring, 1998, p.
27). As a result, globalization has pushed mastery of the English language to the forefront and
forced countries throughout the world to include it as part of their curriculum. Globalization
and English are now so interdependent on one another that “[c]ompetition in the global economy
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 22
is dependent on the quality of education” (Spring, 2008, p.6) or, indirectly, the mastery of the
language.
In addition to Global English, globalization has also propelled Human Capital Theory
and its relation to education to the mainstream consciousness. Former British Prime Minister
Tony Blair (as quoted by Spring, 1998) stated that “In today’s world there is no more value asset
than knowledge. The more you learn, the more you earn…Education is an economic imperative”
(p. 6). Human Capital Theory, as defined by Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis (1975) revolves
around the notion of individuals “exhibiting a particular subjective rate of time preferences, and
faced with an array of jobs…requiring certain skills, will embark upon a course of investment in
personal development” (p. 77). Though Bowles and Gintis criticize Human Capital Theory for
not addressing class in a Marxist sense, they do acknowledge that the theory highlights the
worker’s labor power as the “means of production, whose characteristics depend on the total
configuration of economic forces” (p.74). Consequently, if a nation state wants to enter the
global economy being aware that English is the language of power and commerce, then it makes
sense for that nation to invest in its workforce at all levels of production to ensure workers
master the language. As a result, “educational discourses around the world [that] often refer to
human capital, lifelong learning for improving job skills, and economic development” (Spring,
2008, p. 332) often include incorporation of the English language as part of the core curriculum.
Costa Rica is no exception and, in fact, the country created an educational agenda that includes
English language acquisition as part of the country’s core educational curriculum (Estado, 2011).
Aside from mastery of the English language, nation states must ensure their citizenry
(and students in particular) gain the necessary skills to be able to compete in the 21
st
century.
The need to develop a knowledge-based workforce moved technology to the forefront of the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 23
discussion within education (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Since today’s youth has grown with the
advancements in technology that have revolutionized the world, it makes sense to incorporate
technology into the current teaching pedagogy so students can master it along with other
fundamental sets of skills to successfully enter the global market (Partnership, 2003; Wagner,
2008).
21
st
Century Skills
To succeed in today’s global economy, students need to not only gain the theoretical and
practical background of their chosen professions but also the necessary skills to be able to
navigate through our ever-changing society (Partnership, 2003, Wagner, 2008). “Economic,
technological, informational, demographic and political forces have transformed the way people
work and live” (Partnership, 2003, p. 4). Therefore, it has become fundamental for people to
learn how to live in and adapt to our changing world. Flexibility and adaptability are important
in both in the professional and personal lives as the aforementioned changes continue to
accelerate (Partnership, 2003; Wagner, 2008). Nations and educational leaders throughout the
world, then, have the responsibility of preparing students to enter this changing society and
eventually the global market. To do so, educational leaders need to identify what set of skills, in
addition to core academic subjects, are necessary for students to learn and guarantee success.
This reflection may bring forth an evolution of pedagogy and a re-evaluation of what we
perceive students should learn and how they learn it. The Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills
(2003), a public-private organization formed in 2002 to create a model of learning that
incorporates 21
st
century skills, stated that asking educational systems to adapt to a changing
society is not a new phenomenon, as schools have adapted to meet the demands of “agricultural,
industrial and Cold War eras” (p. 6). However, for this change to occur, educational leaders
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 24
need to reflect on current pedagogy and determine whether or not they are appropriately
educating students to enter today’s global economy.
Wagner’s Seven Survival Skills
Wagner (2008) identified Seven Survival Skills that are fundamental for a
student’s success in this new millennium. Wagner (2008) identified these seven skills after
conducting extensive research on the subject and through personal interviews of private and
public industry leaders and educators. These Seven Survival Skills form part of the 21
st
century
skills that have become fundamental for students to “get—and keep—a good job in today’s
global knowledge economy, succeed in college…and [become the] leaders in our communities”
(Wagner, 2008, p.30). The Seven Survival Skills as identified by Wagner (2008) were 1)
Critical thinking and problem-solving, 2) Collaboration across networks and leading with
influence, 3) Agility and adaptability, 4) Initiative and entrepreneurialism, 5) Effective oral and
written communication, 6) Accessing and analyzing information and 7) Curiosity and
imagination.
Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving. As stated above, our society is continually
changing. It is for this reason that students must be able to “think critically and apply what
[he/she knows] to new problems” (Wagner, 2008, p. 30). The Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills
Report (2003) echoed this point by stating that students need “to know how to use their
knowledge and skills—by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing
information, comprehending new ideas…[and make] decisions” (p. 9). In the end, it is to the
benefit of students to gain these two very important skills as companies continue to look for
knowledge-based workers who “think how to continuously improve the companies’ products,
process, or services” (Wagner, 2008, p. 30).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 25
Collaboration across Networks and Leading with Influence. Despite the individualist
focus of educational systems that create competition among students for the highest grades, in
the professional arena, workers often tend to rely on teams and committees to accomplish a task
(Partnership, 2003; Wagner, 2008). It is for this reason that students must learn how to
effectively work well with other students. Most collaborative work found in secondary schools
in the United States, for example, is found in the extracurricular activities (Wagner, 2008) such
as sports and student organizations. Because teaching students how to collaborate with others is
not part of the core curriculum, students learn how to work individually. However, today’s
companies, both the local and the global need a knowledge-based workforce that can excel in
both (Partnership, 2003).
Agility and Adaptability. Today’s technological advancements revolutionized our
society similar to what the Industrial Revolution did for the 18
th
century (Salpeter, 2008). As
such, a knowledge-based worker must be ready to adapt to changing and emerging technologies
to be able to remain competitive in today’s global economy (Wagner, 2008). However, in order
for the knowledge-based worker to learn how to adapt to changing circumstances, schools must
teach them how to become lifelong learners. “Lifelong skills development must become one of
the central pillars of the new economy” (Partnership, 2003, p. 6) as it teaches a student the desire
to continue learning and adapt to changing circumstances. As a result, this particular survival
skill must be instilled within students early in their academic careers.
Initiative and Entrepreneurialism. Entrepreneurship has always been at the forefront
of innovation and change. As such, to become highly productive knowledge-based workers,
students need to learn how to foster and develop their individual creativity at an early age.
“Developing, implementing and communicating new ideas to others, staying open and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 26
responsive to new and diverse perspectives” (Partnership, 2003, p. 9) are fundamental aspects of
innovation that will eventually lead to entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs are responsible for the
technological changes that have revolutionized our society. Therefore, we must continue to instill
this creative skill in today’s students.
Effective Oral and Written Communication. Wagner (2008) stated that college
professors “report that poor writing skills are one of their major concerns about incoming
students” (p. 30). In addition to writing skills, effective oral communication is not only
fundamental to perform day-to-day responsibilities but it is also a requirement for leadership
positions. “Business leaders want employees who can …communicate effectively and work
independently” (Partnership, 2003, p. 10). Therefore, students must be able to develop these
skills early on both inside the classroom and in the extracurricular. In the case of those students
whose native language is not English, they must be able to communicate effectively both in
English and their primary language.
Accessing and Analyzing Information. One of the benefits of the internet age is that
there is an array of information readily available at our fingertips. A knowledge-based worker,
however, must be able to access this information and filter it accordingly to be able to achieve a
desired result. “Studies show the proportion of the labor force employed in occupations that
make extensive use of interactive and analytic cognitive skills has increased substantially”
(Partnership, 2003, p. 10). As a result, schools must teach students how to effective process all
information required to be able to filter it as such.
Curiosity and Imagination. Wagner (2008) stated that “[t]he questions that students ask
matter far more for learning than the answers they have memorized” (p. 30). This is because
curiosity leads to imagination, which, in turn, fosters innovation and entrepreneurship. However,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 27
for students to be able to develop an inquisitive nature, educators must also provide effective
learning environments that foster curiosity as part of the core academic curriculum.
Furthermore, by encouraging students to develop curiosity and imagination, they can further
develop problem solving skills that can potentially help them as they age to become the leaders
of the country in question.
Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival skills need to become an integral part of the academic
curriculum if a country wants to effectively create a knowledge-based workforce who will
succeed in today’s global economy. For a country like Costa Rica, for example, where MNCs are
beginning to demand these skills from the workforce, it becomes imperative for the educational
system to evolve and teach these skills to the youth and those already in the workforce.
However, as Monge-Naranjo (2007) suggests, “the education and training institutions of the
country are not showing signs of [addressing]…these problems” (p. 1).
History of Costa Rica
Costa Rica is a small country located in Central America. Costa Rica has a population of
4.6 million and a landmass of 51,100 sq. km (world factbook, 2012) or roughly the size of West
Virginia. The country was named shortly after Christopher Columbus arrived in Costa Rica on
September 18, 1502. Upon his departure from the region, Columbus noted how impressed he
was by the beauty of the area and abundance of gold found in it, thus dubbing the regions Costa
Rica or “Rich Coast” (Berigan, 2010). Today, “Costa Rica is Latin America’s oldest, most
stable democracy with elected governments for nearly all of the twentieth century” (Seligson &
Booth, 1993, p. 778) and is one of the top tourist attractions in the Central American region due
to its rich biodiversity and climate (Costa Rica, 2012).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 28
Costa Rica gained independence from Spain in 1821. Unlike other Latin American
countries that fought wars for their independence, Costa Rica experienced a relatively easy
transition from colony to independent nation (Berigan, 2010). Interestingly, the Costa Rican
leaders were hesitant to declare their independence from Spain. Some factions within the country
wanted annexation to México, others to Colombia, and yet another faction wanted the country to
be part of the Central American Republic along with the other regional countries. Costa Rica
became part of the Central American Republic in 1823, (Seligson & Booth, 1993) a Republic
that would eventually include Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua and remained
part of it until 1838. Due to a military coup led by Braulio Carrillo, the Republic of Costa Rica
was formed in 1848 (Berigan, 2010).
The 1940s gave way to a number of significant social movements that paved the way to
the Costa Rica of today. In particular, there were two driving forces behind these movements:
“the social reformism of Dr. Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia and the ‘developmentalism’ of the
social democratic movement” (López, 1996, p. 115). Dr. Calderón Guardia was the president of
Costa Rica from 1940 to 1944. While President, Dr. Calderón Guardia established Costa Rica’s
social security system, amended the constitution to protect the working class by establishing
minimum wage guidelines, regulated working conditions, and established the Labor Code which
made collective bargaining possible (López, 1996).
After the presidency of Dr. Calderón Guardia, Costa Rica experienced significant
changes under the leadership of President José Figueres Ferrer. President Figueres Ferrer was
Costa Rica’s president on three different occasions, from 1948 to 1949, 1953 to 1958 and from
1970 to 1974 (Britannica, 2012) “Don Pepe,” as he was “affectionately known to all Costa
Ricans” (Kantor, 1954, p. 12), is credited with initiating Costa Rica’s entrance into the global
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 29
market. Under President Figueres Ferrer, Costa Rica implemented significant social movements
such as Women’s Suffrage in 1949 and the abolition of the Costa Rican army (López, 1996).
The abolition of the Costa Rican army is one of the most noteworthy events in the country’s
history, as it allowed them to redirect part the federal budget to cover social services such as
education. This significant redirection of federal monies led to a significant investment in
education that, in turn, positioned Costa Rica as one of the countries in Latin American with the
highest literacy rates to date (UNESCO, 2003/4).
It was President Figueres Ferrer’s goal to “transform Costa Rica into a modern state
which provides a high standard of living for all its people” (Kantor, 1954, p. 11). Consequently,
he turned to education as a way to create the knowledge-based work force much needed to
stimulate different sectors of the Costa Rican economy. An agricultural engineer educated at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), President Figueres Ferrer wanted to “modernize
the production of coffee and other agricultural products traditionally produced, thereby increase
the yield per acre per man hour” (Kantor, 1954, p. 12). Due to his familiarity with agriculture,
President Figueres Ferrer successfully modernized the Costa Rican agricultural sector which, in
turn, increased the number of small farmers to enhance production and further stimulate the
economy. Lastly, President Figueres Ferrer is credited with stimulating the housing and tourism
markets, an impact that is still felt to this day.
Economic Development of Costa Rica
The year 1840 saw the beginning of the first surge of Costa Rica’s major export: coffee.
San Jose and Heredia began exporting coffee to countries like Chile and England beginning in
1843 with increasing demand in subsequent years (Gudmundson, 1983). “Coffee production
gave rise to the accumulation of wealth by the coffee exporters” (Berigan, 2010, p. 32),
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 30
intensifying the social stratification in the Republic. During this time, Costa Rica was mostly an
agrarian economy with two types of labor found with the labor power, “jornalero” and
“agricultor”. “Jornalero” refers to the poor, working hands responsible for the overall process
of coffee production whereas “agricultor” refers to the wealthier land owner who became
increasingly wealthy due to coffee production (Gudmundson, 1983). This two-tier class system
created social stratification that remained virtually unchanged until the late 1940s (Lopez, 1996).
The 1980s saw a change in the trading policies of Costa Rica (Monge-Naranjo, 2007).
The rationale was that “a shift from domestic and Central American markets to the markets in
developed countries could allow the [Costa Rica] to grow and even enter the ‘high road to
development’” (Monge-Naranjo, 2007, p. 6). To achieve this objective in “1984, Costa Rica
initiated a comprehensive structural adjustment program… [which included] trade liberalization”
(Robbins and Gindling, 1999, p. 141). Among the trade liberalization initiatives were “the
reduction of tariffs, the reduction of variance between tariffs, and the replacement of quantitative
imports limitations with tariffs” (Robbins & Gindling, 1999, p. 141) which coupled with the
“mini devaluations” enacted by the Bank of Costa Rica created a steady increase in exports
throughout the country. During this decade, Costa Rica relied on three main exports: sugar,
coffee and bananas to comprise half of the total exports (Monge-Naranjo, 2007; Sanchez-
Ancochea, 2003). Therefore, in order to diversify its export market, the Costa Rican government
began to look for alternatives which lead to the establishment of the Coalición Costarricense de
Iniciativas de Desarrollo (CINDE) in 1983 to explore other markets and secure foreign
investment on behalf of the country.
However, the lack of a knowledge-based workforce was a barrier Costa Rica had to
overcome. Dubbed as the “lost decade” by Andres Rodriguez-Claire (2001), the 1980s also saw
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 31
a significant drop in “high school enrollment rates” (p. 313). This unfortunate trend would only
be broken decades later due to the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) by high tech companies such
as Intel in the late 1990s, as this investment had a direct impact on the Costa Rican educational
system. As discussed in the section highlighting FDI within this chapter, the country’s new
strategy to lure hi-tech MNCs into Costa Rica did pay off as the “growth of industrial exports
grew…an average of 107.9%” (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003, p. 28) between 1991 and 2000.
Meanwhile, the revenue from coffee, for example, remained unchanged in the same time period
(Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003).
Costa Rica’s Educational System
The Costa Rican primary educational system ranks among the best in the world and is
considered the best in Latin America (CINDE, 2011; UNESCO, 2003/4). Although the country
has had compulsory free education since 1870, it was the abolition of the army in 1949 that had
the most significant impact on the development of education in the country. One direct result
was that “the government is constitutionally required to allocate at least 8% of the country’s
GDP…to educational programs” (CINDE, 2011, p. 1) which is significantly higher than that of
other countries: particularly in developing countries. El Ministerio de Educacion Publica
(MEP), or the Ministry of Public Education, oversees public education in Costa Rica to include
allocation of resources, curriculum development and teacher training (Estado, 2011). Yet,
despite having a significant percentage of its GDP allocated to education, figures available by
CINDE (2011) and 2011 Programa Estado de la Educación (EdE) highlight the challenges the
country faces to prepare a steady pipeline of knowledge-based workers that will allow the
country to enhance its place within the global economy.

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 32
Costa Rican Student Profile
Article 77 of the Costa Rican Constitution ratified in 1949 led the establishment of the
compulsory educational system that is present in the country today. However, despite having
education as a right for every single Costa Rican citizen, public education serves mostly those
from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Estado, 2011). The EdE (2011) report outlined that
most Costa Rican students in public education come from households where the parents did not
graduate high school or had even lower educational attainment. In addition, these students are
primarily from rural areas or the inner city (as defined by U.S. standards) and come from
households where high educational attainment is bunked by the need for the student to help
offset the family’s daily expenses. As a result, the country faces a high drop-out rate,
particularly at the high school level (starting at 7
th
grade). Throughout the world, education is
seen as a social equalizer, yet the Costa Rican educational system is not able to help a sizable
demographic of the population transcend socioeconomic barriers. The EdE (2011) makes this
point evident by stating that the average years of schooling for a farm worker is only five years,
whereas, for any individual of the upper socioeconomic bracket, the average is 15 years. As
explained by Human Capital Theory, higher levels of schooling lead to higher wages, and this
explains the growing wage gap between the different social classes in the country.
K-6 Educational System
One of the reasons Costa Rica has an impressive literacy rate is its extensive elementary
school system. In their 2011 report, CINDE highlights that the country has 2,809 preschools and
4,077 elementary schools (p. 1). In terms of enrollment, all of these schools enrolled a total of
465,493 students aged 7 to 12 years or 10.2% of the total population (Estado, 2011). Public
education in Costa Rica is divided into “ciclos” where elementary school is considered ciclo 1
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 33
(grades 1
st
-3
rd
) and ciclo 2 (grades 4
th
-6
th
). Education at this level is meant to be accessible to all
citizens regardless of socioeconomic status; consequently, 90% of the elementary schools are
public (CINDE, 2011). To ensure even the most remote rural areas have access to primary
education, a school may open even with only one teacher at the head of the campus who is
responsible for all of the primary education of the children attending (Estado, 2011). This type
of school is known as an “escuela unidocente.”
During the last decade, Costa Rica has seen significant changes in its primary schooling
(ciclos 1 and 2) enrollment patterns. The EdE (2011) report highlights that there has been a drop
in enrollment of Costa Rican children in elementary school throughout the country. Citing lower
birth rates as the main reason there are fewer Costa Rican children enrolled in elementary school,
the EdE (2011) emphasizes that this could be an opportunity that gives the MEP the chance to
address some of the challenges faced in this particular level of the educational system. For
example, the EdE (2011) report calls for smaller class sizes, an investment in school
infrastructure to produce an environment conducive for learning for all children. In addition, it
asks for the MEP to begin outreach efforts to different areas/districts throughout the country as
some campuses may have to close due to poor enrollment. This outreach can serve the dual
purpose of minimizing a potential pushback from the Costa Rican parents and the MEP can also
learn from the community members themselves about the potential impacts these closures may
bring. It is for these two reasons that the EdE (2011) suggests the MEP do a careful analysis of
enrollment patterns to ensure the potential schools closures do not affect the poor or rural areas
disproportionately in comparison to others from upper socioeconomic backgrounds.

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 34
High School
Unlike the United States and other parts of the world where there is a level between
elementary and secondary education, Costa Rica has a third cycle or “ciclo 3” that somewhat
resembles middle school but is part of the students’ high school experience. The EdE (2011)
report shows that in 2010, 418,821 youth were enrolled in the third cycle. In turn, they account
for a total of 9.2% of the country’s population. Upon completing the third year of high school
study (9
th
grade in comparison to U.S. standards), the students will enter the “ciclo
diversificado” or a 3-track program that will lead them to their desired professional aspirations
(Estado, 2011). One track is the academic track, which is the college preparatory track and
consists of two years. There is the artistry track, which is also two years, that offers a
professional certification. Finally, there is the technical/vocational track which offers a
professional certification for students to enter the workforce and requires three years to complete
(Estado, 2011). In addition to completing all necessary coursework based on their professional
aspirations, students are “required to pass tests on all subject studies” (CINDE, 2011, p. 3) to be
able to receive their high school diploma. This means that, if students do not demonstrate
proficiency on those tests, they will not receive their high school diploma despite having
completed all necessary coursework. In short, students who do not pass the examinations would
be considered high school dropouts. Ironically, a high school diploma is a requirement for
university admission, which means a significant number of Costa Rican students are kept from
higher education due to not being able to successfully pass this national exam.
As stated above, Costa Rica has a significant dropout rate. The EdE (2011) report
identifies 7
th
grade as the most difficult (possibly due to the transition between educational
institutions) in that it had a 16.1% drop out rate in 2009. It is projected that, between 1999 and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 35
2009, an average of 35,765 students left high school annually for a total of 393,412 over the 10
year period. Because students have the opportunity to enroll in continuation school or other
types of institutions, it is unclear how many of the aforementioned students came back into the
educational system (Estado, 2011). A survey conducted by the Instituto National de Estadisticas
y Censos of Costa Rica showed that the four main reasons students leave high school are 1)
Inability to pay for tuition, 2) Student is not interested in learning, 3) Student is not able to grasp
content and 4) would rather enter workforce (Estado, 2011). What is unfortunate about this
survey is that it lists reasons students do not persist in high school as opposed to identifying
barriers that students faced. Bensimon (2005) encourages educational leaders to not look at
student outcomes at face value but, rather, disaggregate the student data to ensure equity. For
example, instead of only presenting the reason Costa Rican students did not persist in high
school, educational leaders should disaggregate this data based on gender, socioeconomic status,
ethnic group, or other factors to gain a clearer picture of what affects student success based on
individual social condition. This way, any educational leader can successfully identify the
barriers each student faces and create intervention strategies that can potentially help address the
high drop-out problem in the country.
Technical Education
Technical education began in Costa Rica in the 1950s with the establishment of the
Colegio Vocacional de Artes y Oficios de Cartago and the diversification of the high school
curriculum (Estado, 2011; Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Following the establishment of this college
along with the Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje (INA) in 1970, Costa Rica began addressing the
labor needs imperative to enter the global market. Today, technical education in the country is
embedded into the high school curriculum as part of the 4
th
cycle of education or ciclo
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 36
diversificado. If a student selects the technical track, he/she will have an opportunity to graduate
with a skillset that allow him/her to enter the labor market upon graduation. It is important to
highlight that, in Costa Rica, technical education is not limited to hi-tech education such as
computer programing and microchip development, as defined in the United States and other
countries in the world. In Costa Rica, technical education also encompasses foreign language
development, tourism and the service industry. Consequently, based on the professional
aspirations of each student, there is an array of institutions that will give them the skills they
need to enter the workforce directly. As a result, due to the demand for a knowledge-based
workforce and broad definition of technical education, Costa Rica saw a 75.7% enrollment
increase between 1995 and 2010 (Estado, 2011).
Despite the growing demand for technical education, Costa Rica has a shortage of
students equipped to meet the demands of the hi-tech MNCs currently in the country. The EdE
(2011) reports that although 80% of the Costa Rican population possesses some sort of basic
technical skills, these skills are found at the lower certificate programs. The EdE (2011) points
out that, despite having a technology track in their high school system, most of the higher-skill
training, such as engineering and hi-tech technology, is housed at the university level.
Consequently, since a significant number of Costa Rican students do not reach higher education,
as Costa Rica has a significant dropout rate, the country needs to revamp technology education at
the high school level to ensure it can supply the knowledge-based labor force needed by the
MNCs. In other words, higher level certificate programs need to be offered at the high school
level to still be able to develop a knowledge-based workforce without requiring all students to
enroll in higher education to gain said skills.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 37
To be able to meet the demands for a highly skilled workforce, the Ministry of Education
established the Universidad Tecnica National (UTN). The UTN was established to offer
technological education in Costa Rica beyond the high school certificate programs (Estado,
2011). As stated above, students can choose the technological track that culminates with a
certificate program similar to an Associate’s Degree (AA) in the United States. Raising concerns
for not being able to meet the demands of the MNCs currently housed in the country, the
Universidad Tecnica National (UTN) was established to create a link between “formal” higher
education and technology education. This is due to the fact that, currently, the Instituto Nacional
de Aprendizaje (INA) is charged with most of the technology education outside of the high
schools (Estado, 2011). It is important to highlight that a student does not need to have passed
the high school exam to enroll at the INA (Estado, 2011), which, in turn, makes it difficult to
accurately determine how many students who dropped out of high school ended up returning to
schools like the INA to gain some sort of certificate program. As a result, the mission of the
UTN is to push technology education further than what the INA is able to offer in order to
increase the amount of knowledge-based workers within the country.
Higher Education
Similar to other countries, higher education in Costa Rica is highly selective with a 50%
acceptance rate of those students who graduate high school and pursue admission (Estado, 2011).
Currently, the country counts with five public and 54 private universities; the last private
university was established in 2010 and the last public in 2008 (Estado, 2011). Most campuses
enroll a traditionally-aged student body and enroll about 25.8% of the total population within this
age range. Furthermore, as of 2009, it is estimated that 6.4% of the total Costa Rican population
was enrolled in one of the 59 higher education institutions in the country (Estado, 2011).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 38
Similar to other countries, those from higher socioeconomic status tend to be
overrepresented in higher education (Estado, 2011; Long, 2010). In 2009, those from the lower
quartile of the socioeconomic status represented 5% of the total enrollment in public universities
and 4% in private universities while the top fifth quartile represented 30% of enrollment in
public and 35% in private universities. A positive sign in terms of access is that the four major
universities in the country saw an increase of 36.1% of total enrollment in the last decade. When
disaggregated by institution, the data show that the Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED) saw
an increase of 41%, the University of Costa Rica grew by 39.4%, the Universidad Nacional de
Aprendizaje (UNA) increased enrollment by 16.2% and the Institution Tecnologico de Costa
Rica’s student body grew by 3.5% (Estado, 2011). Furthermore, given the location on the UCR,
ITCR and INA in the greater San Jose Metropolitan area, 80.4% of total student enrollment is
found within this region.
Multinational Corporations in Costa Rica
MNCs decide to invest in developing countries due to strategic development plans and
greater return on investment. In the case of Costa Rica, the country has seen significant growth
in FDI in the last two decades as FDI went from “$294 million in 1993 to $2377 million in
2001” (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003, p. 29). This massive growth in FDI was heavily concentrated
in hi-tech companies that made the country part of their investment strategies. This was
possible as major companies arrived in Costa Rica as clusters or “global commodity chains.”
Gereffi (as quoted by Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003) stated that a global commodity chains consists
“of ‘nodes’ or operations that comprise pivotal points in the production process: supply or raw
materials, production, export and marketing” (p. 12). As a result of these global commodity
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 39
chains, various MNC arrived in Costa Rica, making it easier to create a “tightly linked
international sourcing” (Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003, p. 12) chain.
The establishment of the Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas de Desarrollo (CINDE) in
1983 began the modern influx of FDI into Costa Rica. CINDE “a private non-profit organization
founded…by prominent business people, supported by the Costa Rican government and financed
by grants from the USAID” (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001, p. 314) was created to stimulate FDI and,
in essence, circumvent red tape found within the Costa Rican government. Andres Rodriguez-
Claire (2001), former Coordinator of the Council of President Advisors in Costa Rica, stated that
“[i]n the early 1990s, CINDE realized that [Costa Rica] was losing competitiveness in unskilled-
labor intensive industries to other members of the [Caribbean Basin Initiative] and…NAFTA”
(p. 314). The Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) is an initiative that benefits 17 countries in the
Caribbean and Central America with “beneficiary countries with duty-free access to the U.S.
market for most goods” (CBI, 2012). Since Costa Rica was not a member of the CBI and wanted
to have greater access to the U.S. market, it became CINDE’s goal to fulfill this objective. As a
result, within “the strategic plan for 1993, CINDE focused on sectors associated with the
electrical, electronic and telecommunications industries” (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001, p. 315) as
opposed to pursuing investment opportunities in the low-skill sector.
In 1995, CINDE managed to secure a significant investment from DSC Communications
Corporations, which established a Phone exchange cards & boards manufacturing plant in the
country (www.costarica.com). The DSC investment was significant because it led to “the first
Printed Circuits Board assembly plant in the country” (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001, p. 323) marking
the beginning of hi-tech FDI investment in the country. A year later, CINDE began
conversations with Intel, one of the world’s biggest semiconductor chip makers to secure a $300
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 40
million investment in the country. In 1998, CINDE secured Intel’s investment, pushing
CINDE’s agenda from a single entity’s agenda to a “national strategy” (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001,
p. 317) that would benefit the entire country. Due to the success CINDE had in attracting FDI to
Costa Rica, Monge-Naranjo (2007) stated that it has motivated “other countries to create similar
institutions” (p. 25) hoping to achieve similar outcomes.
The Intel Effect
Intel’s investment in Costa Rica had profound impact not only on the economic
development of the country but also on its educational system. A MNC “invests abroad either to
exploit a foreign market…or to secure better access to certain inputs, especially cheap labor”
(Larraín, Lopez-Calva & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000, p. 3). One of the reasons Intel chose Costa
Rica was the location-specific advantage (it already had three plants in Asian countries), as it
provided easier access to the United States’ market (Monge-Naranjo, 2007). Since Costa Rica
already had tax incentives in place to attract FDI during the time Intel was searching for a
location, it propelled the country to the short list. These incentives, along with a stable
government and higher level of education within the labor force, made the country a highly
desirable investment. (Larraín et al., 2000).
Intel’s initial $300 million invest in Costa Rica was a significant amount for a small
country. At the time of the investment, Costa Rica’s “economy [had] a Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of $12.5 billion…and a labor force of just above one million people” (Rodriguez-Claire,
2001, p. 319). In other words, Intel’s investment was “equivalent to 2.1 percent of [Costa
Rica’s] GDP” (Larraín, et al., 2000, p. 3). Over the next two years, the total committed
investment rose to $600 million, which let one of Intel’s Vice Presidents to state that high of an
investment in such a small economy was like “putting a whale in a swimming pool” (Larraín et
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 41
al., 2000, p. 3). Understandably, the magnitude of the investment made Intel weary that the
Costa Rican economy would not be able to take such investment. However, as Larraín et al.
(2000) point out, in the two years following Intel’s arrival:
The growth rate of the Costa Rican Economy went from an average of 4.9 percent
between 1990 and 1996 to an average of 7.3 percent between 1997 and 1999. More
importantly, the growth rate in Costa Rica in the two years after Intel started operations—
8 percent in both 1998 and 1998—was the highest in Latin America; taking the two years
combined, it has been the highest in the last three decades in Costa Rica. (p. 11)
Given the success of this investment, Costa Rica became a possibility for other potential
investors. “In fact, a survey carried out in 1999 among possible investors, 72% of respondents
claimed that they had heard, seen, and read more about Costa Rica as an investment prospect
after Intel’s decision to set up a plant in the country” (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001, p. 319). It was
not only the magnitude of the investment that drew worldwide attention to Costa Rica but also
Intel’s reputation for thoughtful and rigorous selection process for FDI that motivated other hi-
tech companies to consider Costa Rica. “Intel is one of the leading firms in the current global
market. It is the world’s leading producer of microprocessors, selling 85% of the total”
(Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003, p. 29) sold. In short, Intel’s confidence in the Costa Rican economy
motivated other companies to follow.
Intel’s Impact on Education
As part of the agreement to settle in Costa Rica, Intel required improvements in
technology education within the educational system. Shortly after arrival, the “resulting flurry of
enhancements set the tone and framework for Intel’s continuing close cooperation with Costa
Rica’s universities and technological schools” (World Bank, 2006, p. 22). Some of these
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 42
enhancements were stronger curricula at the three major universities in the country: the ITCR,
UCR and INA. Since the ITCR is Costa Rica’s main technological university, Intel required that
the institution increased and enhanced its English development program to give students the
necessary language skills to be able to work for the corporation. Furthermore, Intel called for
support in the electrical, electronics, computer and industrial engineering fields (World Bank,
2006).
One of the strongest links that resulted from the “Intel Effect” is the partnership between
the MNC and the ITCR. As part of the agreement between the two, the ITCR received “Intel
Associate” status similar to Cal Tech in the U.S. As part of the status, the ITCR agreed to:
“i) the creation of an additional one year ‘certificate’ program for technical high schools
or academic high school graduates to update their technical skills; ii) the creation of a
one-year ‘associate degree” program for qualified applications and graduates of the one-
year ‘certificate program’ focused on manufacturing semiconductors and iii) a program
of language training that ITCR would provide to foreigners arriving in Costa Rica
(Spanish) and Intel employees hire in Costa Rica (English)” (Larraín et al., 2000, p. 18).
All of the aforementioned programs required approval by the MEP. As one of the immediate
benefits of being considered an “Intel Associate,” the ITCR immediately saw an increase in
student enrollment. For example, Larrain et al. (as quoted by Rodriguez-Clare, 2001) state that
“the number of students enrolled in engineering fields [at the ITCR] grew from 577 in the first
quarter of 1997 to 874 in the year 2000” (p. 321) as a result of Intel’s support. This surge in
student enrollment, in turn, increased tuition revenue that helped the ITCR improve “its financial
position” (Rodriguez-Claire, 2001, p. 320). This increase in both revenue and enrollment, along
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 43
with Intel’s support, gave the ITCR the opportunity to be at the forefront in the development of
the knowledge-based workforce needed in Costa Rica.
Leadership Frameworks

The EdE (2011) report highlighted some of the current challenges the Costa Rican
educational system faces today. Whether it is in primary, secondary or higher education, the
EdE (2011) report presents extensive data that can help any school administrator identify
national trends to help him/her create intervention strategies to maximize student performance.
However, having access to data would not help if administrators are not equipped with the tools
on how to utilize said data to create intervention strategies that bring forth positive change. It is
for this reason that this case study utilized Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership
to help school administrators, particularly those in higher education address some of the
challenges they face. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership can provide an
opportunity for university administrators to identify a pressing issue on their campus as it
pertains to student performance, to identify how the current organizational structure perpetuates
such inequality, and how to successfully address these issues.
Bolman and Deal Four Leadership Frames
Bolman and Deal (2003) described organization as complex entities. What makes
organizations complex is that they “they are populated by people, whose behavior is notoriously
hard to understand and predict” (p. 25). In addition, the bureaucracy created by some
organizations may actually hinder student performance, as it may add additional red tape needed
to maximize student potential. It is for this reason that Bolman and Deal (2003) present four
leadership frames that can help leaders identify roadblocks within their organizations so they can
address them to boost people’s potential and promote organizational change. The four frames as
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 44
presented by Bolman and Deal (2003) were the Structural, Human Resource, Political and
Symbolic frames.
Structural Frame. The Structural frame is the most common leadership frame utilized
by leaders. As it is stated by its name, the structural frame involves the organization’s structure
or “goals, emphasized roles and formal relationships (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 14), such as
those found in organizational charts. The Structural frame is more concerned with how the
“division of labor” is found within an organization and how this division supports the
organization’s goals. For example, the Costa Rican educational system is overseen by the MEP,
which, in turn, delegates responsibility to the cantons or school districts (to reference U.S.
standards). Within a canton, in turn, there is a bureaucracy that involves school leaders and
individual districts. The EdE (2011) reports that, in 2009 only 6.4% of the entire Costa Rican
population was enrolled in some form of higher education and that only 50% of high school
graduates who apply for admission actually enroll in an institution of higher education.
Consequently, if the MEP wanted to create an intervention strategy and funnel additional
resources to boost student enrollment at the university level, two possible interventions could
take place utilizing the structural frame. First, the MEP may look at the current structure of the
educational system and analyze how the organizational structure supports and hinders student
performance. This way, it can ensure additional resources reach students appropriately and
promptly. Another possible intervention could take place at the university level. The EdE
(2011) states that Costa Rica has a long way to go when it comes to securing assess to higher
education to students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. An analysis utilizing the structural
frame can identify what barriers the current system has in place that may prevent these students
from reaching higher education. Do universities have agreements with feeder schools to ensure
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 45
students have appropriate information regarding admission requirements? Do universities
provide an adequate number of scholarships or other funding sources for low income students?
These questions can become the guiding principles to understand the structural barriers for low
income students in Costa Rica.
Human Resource Frame. As stated above, one of the aspects that make an organization
complex is, in fact, the people within it. People within the organization may not support its goals
due to a lack of understanding of these goals or, simply, they may not have the training necessary
to be able to contribute towards the achievement of said goals. Bolman and Deal (2003) describe
that it is important to “tailor organizations to individuals—to find ways for people to get the job
done while feeling good about what they are doing” (p. 14). The Human Resource Frame asks
leaders to invest in their workforce to increase their knowledge base and their overall satisfaction
with the job at hand. Bolman and Deal (2003) state that a “company prospers because of having
a more talented, motivated, loyal, and free-spirited team than its competitors (p. 135). The EdE
(2011) stated that, in 2008, the MEP, with support from the Costa Rica Multilingüe (CRML) and
the Centro Costarricense Norteamericano, conducted an assessment of all English teachers in
the public education system. The MEP found that 48% of all of teachers assessed placed in the
intermediate proficiency level while 32% placed at the basic level and 17% at the advanced
level. Since English proficiency is a priority for the country, the MEP invested heavily in
professional development to enhance teacher proficiency in the English language. By 2010, the
majority of the 949 teachers who underwent the professional development tested in the advanced
level of English language. This intervention by the MEP shows that, even when an organization
(or in this case a country) has the vision to push a goal (English language development in
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 46
students), it is imperative that the member of the organization (teacher) have the necessary tools
to be able to carry on the desired agenda.
Political Frame. Inherently, organizations are bound to be political structures, as there
will always be competing interests for a limited amount of resources. Compulsory education,
unfortunately, since it relies on public monies to exist, is often found in the middle of political
struggles. It is for this reason that Bolman and Deal (2003) describe that, within organizations,
there is always a constant “[b]arganing, negotiation, coercion, and compromise” (p. 15) that are
habitual circumstances of everyday life. It is for this reason that leaders must possess the
“political skills and acumen” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 15) to be able to mediate conflict
between opposing views in order to be able to maximize student performance. Since the Costa
Rica constitution guarantees federal funds will be allocated towards education, public education
does not necessarily have to compete with other governmental agencies to secure funding.
However, the fact that the money is available does not necessarily guarantee that all institutions
have equal access to the public funds. The EdE (2011) describes that, in primary education, one
of the main complaints made by students in public institutions is inadequate facilities such as
leaky roofs or non-functional bathrooms. This problem is particularly strong in the rural areas of
Costa Rica. Consequently, school administrators, particularly in rural areas of Costa Rica, need
to develop the political acumen to lobby for additional resources aside from traditional
operational budgets in order to upgrade their school facilities. Inadequate facilities may have a
direct impact on student performance. As stated above, Costa Rica experiences a decline in
student enrollment at the primary level. If schools will, in fact, close due to enrollment, a strong
political acumen will be necessary in case there is backlash from communities throughout the
country.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 47
Symbolic Frame.¡Pura Vida! is a popular face within the Costa Rican vernacular. It is
used to describe the relaxed, carefree attitude that is often characteristic of the Costa Rican
people or Ticos (Berigan, 2010). ¡Pura Vida! has become a symbolic motto that both a Costa
Rican and a foreign visitor comes to embrace, as it has permeated the culture throughout the
country. Bolman and Deal (2003) describe that understanding symbols is important when
studying an organization, as they shed insight into the culture and values of the organization.
When defining culture, Bolman and Deal (2003) describe it as a product and a process. It is a
product because “it embodies accumulated wisdom from those who come before us. [In addition
it is a process as]…it is constantly renewed and re-created as newcomers learn the old ways and
eventually become teachers themselves” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 244). It is unclear to the
researcher how ¡Pura Vida! has permeated into the educational system. However, becoming
familiar with this and other symbols of the Costa Rican culture can bring forth a holistic
understanding of Costa Rican people.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to identify how globalization affected the country of Costa
Rica and its influence on the country’s higher education system and educational leadership. An
account of Costa Rica’s history and economic development was presented to give the reader an
opportunity to understand the country’s transformation and how globalization and MNCs have
affected its economic outlook. Spring’s (2008) Four Frameworks of globalization provided a
basis to understand how educational and political leaders perceived globalization to have
affected Costa Rica. Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival Skills provided an avenue to examine how
changes within the curriculum of the ITCR promote the development of 21
st
century skills.
Twenty first century skills are becoming a prerequisite for the knowledge-based workforce
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 48
needed by the MNCs already present in the country. Finally, Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four
Frames of Leadership helped understand how educational leadership has evolved and reacted to
the pressures of globalization in the new global economy.

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 49
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
With the understanding that it would not be able to compete for low-wage manufacturing
jobs as other countries in the region, Costa Rica implemented in the 1980s a new economic
strategy targeting hi-tech Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to diversify its economic influence
and enter the global market. Boasting a high literacy rate in comparison to other Latin American
countries, a strategic location easily accessible to the U.S. market and lucrative tax incentives,
Costa Rica has been extremely successful in encouraging Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
like Intel, Dell, and Microsoft to invest in the country. This significant level of FDI transformed
the country’s infrastructure to include the curriculum within the educational system (Larrain,
Lopez-Calva & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000; Monge-Naranjo, 2007; Rodriguez-Claire, 2001;
Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003). Monge-Naranjo (2007) suggested that, even though Costa Rica
continued to make a sound investment in education, the country failed to create the knowledge-
based workforce that the MNCs demand of the country. The 2011 Estado de la Educación (EdE)
Report suggested that since the country mainly focused on compulsory primary education, it
neglected the development of secondary, vocational training and higher education. Due to this
neglect of the secondary and higher education levels, Costa Rica has a shortage of knowledge-
based workers that threatens the country’s ability to remain a strong competitor within today’s
global economy. The purpose of this case study was to examine the effects globalization and
MNCs have had on Costa Rica and how educational leadership evolved as a result. In particular,
the partnership between Intel and the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR) was of special
interest to examine how the private and public sector came together to address the shortage of a
knowledge-based workforce in Costa Rica.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 50
Chapter two provided a summary of the literature highlighting the background and
frameworks for this case study. The chapter introduced the history of Costa Rica, its economic
development, the educational and how MNCs, with Intel in particular, changed the country’s
overall landscape. In addition, three frameworks were used to analyze the three different issues
that pertain to the research questions that were the focus of this case study. Spring’s (2008)
Frameworks of Globalization were used to assess Costa Rica’s response to the global economy.
Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival Skills was used to examine to what degree the new curriculum
implemented at the ITCR addresses the need to develop 21
st
century skills within higher
education. Finally, Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Leadership Frames served as the guiding
principle to examine how educational leadership at the higher education level evolved due to the
presence of globalization and MNCs.
Research Questions
This qualitative case study addressed the following three research questions:
1 What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2 What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3 How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that came
as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Research Design
This research study was conducted via purposeful sampling within a single descriptive
case study. Merriam (2009) defined a case study as “an in-depth description and analysis of a
bounded system” (p. 40). Yin (as quoted by Merriam, 2009) described a case study as “an
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 51
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p.
40). Both Merriam (2009) and Yin described the importance of research boundaries or
delimitations in order to designate any research design as a case study. It is for this reason that
this case study examined, primarily, the result that stemmed from the partnership between the
ITCR and Intel. Since this study aimed at understanding the effects of globalization and MNCs
within the educational system in Costa Rica, a single case study was the best approach to fully
examine the relationship between one institution of higher education and one particular
corporation. By focusing on the collaboration between ITCR and Intel, this case study provided
rich thick descriptions to fully evaluate the influence globalization and MNCs had on this
university campus but also how one particular institution was addressing the growing demand for
a knowledge-based workforce. Thick description is an anthropological term that means “the
complete literal description of the incident or entity being investigated” (Merriam, 2009, p. 43).
It is these thick descriptions that will ultimately provide an in depth analysis of the relationship
between ITCR and Intel and the how educational leadership evolved as result of this partnership.
Sample Population
To successfully answer all three research questions, the sample population included
political, industry and educational leaders. All of the potential respondents were identified via
purposeful and snowball sampling. Merriam (2009) describes a purposeful sample as the
researcher’s desire to “discover, understand, and gain… a sample from which the most can be
learned” (p. 77). Some of the participants were identified due to their position within the Costa
Rican political or educational arena. However, after a planning trip that took place in March
2013, a portion of the research team expanded beyond the pre-identified potential participants
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 52
due to referrals given to the research team by Dr. Leonardo Garnier, Costa Rican Minister of
Education, and Michelle Coffey, CRUSA Programs Director, among others.
To fully understand the level to which globalization and MNCs influenced educational
leadership and policy in Costa Rica, three different categories of participants were identified by
the research team: political leaders, industry leaders and educational leaders. Foremost, the
perspective of political leaders was important in order for the research team to understand how
the Costa Rican government and non-governmental organizations view the relationship between
globalization and education within the country. For the purpose of this case study, the
perspective of those governmental entities that were closely involved with securing FDI or
implementing educational policy was of the most importance. Second, the perspective of the
private sector or, in this case, industry leaders was important to examine how MNCs perceived
the impact they have had in Costa Rica, its economy, and educational system. Finally, as this
case study sought to examine how educational leadership evolved due to the presence of MNCs
in the country, the perspective of educational leaders became imperative to understand the Costa
Rica’s response to the global economy. Below is a detailed description of the participants
identified for this study:
Political Leaders. The first political/public figure identified as a potential respondent
was the current Costa Rican Minister of Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier. Dr. Garnier has been
the first two term Minister of Education in Costa Rica as Ministers of Education traditionally
only serve one term. Dr. Garnier is considered by many as an effective leader that will lead the
Costa Rican educational system in the right direction. Dr. Garnier was contacted as a potential
participant through an email sent to the Costa Rican Consulate in Los Angeles. In turn, the Costa
Rican Consulate provided Dr. Garnier’s email address for the team to contact him directly.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 53
Upon contacting Dr. Garnier in January 2013 to elicit his support as a potential participant, Dr.
Garnier agreed to first meet with part of the research team during the initial planning trip and
later agreed to become a participant in this case study during the official data collection phase.
Appendix A shows the letter sent to Dr. Garnier introducing him to the research team, the study
at hand and to solicit his participation for this case study.
Through an analysis of the literature, the Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas de
Desarrollo (CINDE) was described as the driving force behind Costa Rica’s success in securing
FDI. CINDE advertised the high literacy rate of the Costa Rican population as a marketing tool
to secure hi-tech FDI (CINDE, 2011). Consequently, to help triangulate data within this study, it
was important to speak with Ms. Gabriela Llobet, current CINDE Executive Director, to gain her
perspective on how globalization affected Costa Rica and whether or not it has benefited the
educational system in the country. Ms. Llobet was contacted by a member of the research team
and agreed to become a participant of the study.
The 2011 Estado de la Education Report (EdE) highlights that technical and vocational
education plays a pivotal role in the development of the Costa Rican knowledge-based
workforce. As a result, the current Head of Curriculum Development, Department of Technical
Specialization, Ms. Damaris Foster was asked to participate in this case study. Due to her role as
Head of Curriculum Development, Ms. Foster is at the forefront of the initiatives that Costa Rica
implements to revamp technical education and enhance the development of a bilingual workforce
in the country.
Industry Leaders. An important aspect of this case study is the partnership between
Intel and the ITCR. As a result, a key representative from Intel was asked to become a
participant on this case study to give voice to the MNCs and help triangulate data: Mrs. Mary
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 54
Helen Bialas, Academic Relations Chair for Intel. Mrs. Bialas serves as the primary contact
between the corporation and its educational partners in the country. Since Intel works with both
secondary schools and universities in the country, Mrs. Bialas provided access to higher
education leaders who work directly with Intel. In the case of the ITCR, Mrs. Bialas provided
insight as to how the partnership with the university began and evolved. In addition, due to her
familiarity with the U.S. educational system, Mrs. Bialas drew from this knowledge to help
explain some differences between the Costa Rica educational system and that of the U.S. This
particular insight allowed the research team to clearly understand terminology and concepts
within the Costa Rican educational system they were not familiar with. Furthermore, to assist
with the data collection of this case study and acting as a gatekeeper, Mrs. Bialas contacted her
partners at both the University of Costa Rica (UCR) and the ITCR to elicit their support and
become participants for this case study.
UCR Educational Leaders. Since the research questions examined the impact
globalization and MNCs had on the Costa Rican educational system and how educational
leadership evolved as a result, it was important to gain insight regarding this issue from faculty
and administrators from the University of Costa Rica (UCR). As such, faculty members from
the School of Education were selected to be participants due to the role they play in the
development and training of teachers in Costa Rica. Dr. Maria Martha Camacho was selected as
a participant due to her role as Director of Teacher Development, Department of Primary and
Secondary Education at the University. In her role as Director, Dr. Camacho has oversight of all
curriculum development that affects primary and secondary teacher development. Similar to Dr.
Camacho, Ana Maria Mora was selected as a participant due to her role as Director of Teacher
Development within the Department of Secondary Education at UCR. In particular, Ms. Mora is
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 55
charged with curriculum development at the graduate level. Esteban Murillo is a faculty member
within the Department of Teacher Development and has oversight of the Social Science teacher
development. Finally, Dr. Allen Pacheco is Academic Coordinator of English Department,
School of Modern Languages at UCR which helps with English language development of
teachers in Costa Rica.
ITCR Educational Leaders. One aspect of this study sought to examine the degree to
which educational leadership at the university level evolved due to the presence of MNCs in
Costa Rica. As such, it was important to identify administrators at the ITCR as participants for
this case study. Through personal communication between the research team and Mrs. Bialas, it
was discovered that Intel was fundamental in the development of two academic programs at the
ITCR: Material Science with an emphasis in Microelectronics and Computer Engineering. Even
when the ITCR already had a program in Material Science, the emphasis in microelectronics was
created as a result of the institution’s partnership with the Intel. As a result, those involved with
the development of the program, and their current administrators, became the ideal participants
for this case study.
Each of the four faculty members, Mario Conejo, Anibal Coto, Freddy Ramirez and
Emilia Zeledon have held or currently hold leadership positions at their schools during the
duration of the ITCR/Intel partnership in addition to their teaching responsibilities. Mario
Conejo is a former director and current faculty member in the School of Material Sciences. He
has been teaching at the ITCR for 26 years and currently represents the ITCR in the Atomic
Energy Commission of Costa Rica. Anibal Coto is Coordinator of the Master’s Program in
Electronics which is housed both at Intel headquarters and the ITCR. He was appointed to this
position a few months before his interview. Prior to his appointment as coordinator, he was a
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 56
faculty member and researcher at the ITCR. Freddy Ramirez is the Director of the School of
Computer Engineering. He has been working at the ITCR for 9 years and 5 of those have been
in his current role. Emilia Zeledon is a faculty member in the School of Computer Engineering.
She has been a professor for 16 years and the last three years she has been helping the ITCR as a
liaison to MNCs that are trying to establish partnerships with the ITCR.
Silvia Hidalgo and Jorge Quezada are administrators within the ITCR Center of
University-Industry Relations. As such, they are involved in the development of any
partnerships the institutions develops with MNCs. Ulises Rodriguez, in turn, oversees the Centro
de Desarrollo Academico (CEDA) at the ITCR, an entity that houses professional development
for faculty. As Directors of their respective units, Silvia Hidalgo and Ulises Rodriguez provided
rich insight into the influence MNCs have had on curriculum development and the evolution of
educational leadership within the ITCR.
Table 1 lists the name, titles and respective organizations of all participants of this case
study. In addition, their names are separated by the category of political, industry, or educational
leader due to the role they play within Costa Rica and this case study:
Table 1
Case Study Participants
Political Leaders
1 Foster, Damaris
Head of Curriculum Development, Department of
Technical Specialization
2 Garnier, Leonardo Minister of Education
3 Llobet, Gabriela
Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas de Desarrollo
(CINDE), Executive Director
Industry Leaders
4 Bialas, Mary Helen Intel, Education Manager

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 57
Table 1, continued
ITCR Administrators/Faculty
5 Conejo, Mario Faculty, ITCR School of Material Sciences
6 Coto, Anibal
Coordinator, Master’s Program in Electronics
at ITCR
7 Hidalgo, Silvia Director, Center for University-Industry Relations
8 Quezada, Jorge
Coordinator, Center for University-Industry
Relations
9 Rodríguez, Ulises Director, Centro de Desarrollo Académico (CEDA)
10 Ramirez, Freddy
Coordinator, School of Computer Engineering,
ITCR
11 Zeledon, Emilia Faculty, School of Computer Engineering, ITCR

University of Costa Rica
Administrators/Faculty

12 Camacho, Maria Martha
Director of Teacher Development, Department of
Primary and Secondary Education, UCR
13 Mora, Ana Isabel
Director of Teacher Development, Department of
Secondary Education, UCR
14 Murillo, Esteban Faculty, Teacher Development
15 Pacheco, Allen
Academic Coordinator of English Department,
School of Modern Languages

ITCR Partnership with Intel
As Costa Rica’s premier institution for the advancement of science, research and
technology, the ITCR played a pivotal role in influencing Intel’s decision to invest in this small
Central American country (Convenio, 2009; World Bank, 2003). Although Costa Rica had the
highest literacy rates in the region and one of the best in Latin America (UNESCO, 2003/4), Intel
executives had concerns regarding whether or not the country could sustain such corporation and
investment (Larrain, Lopez-Calva & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000). To ensure the development of a
knowledge-based workforce that would allow Intel to thrive in the country, former Costa Rican
president, Jose Maria Figueres made a strategic move and asked then ITCR Chancellor,
Alejandro Cruz to join the committee delegated with securing Intel’s investment in Costa Rica.
By incorporating the ITCR as part of the team charged with securing Intel’s investment,
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President Figueres hoped that it would ease the concerns Intel executives had as the presence of
the institution directly linked the university to the corporation. President Figueres’ strategy paid
off and shortly after its arrival in Costa Rica, Intel made the purposeful decision to create a
partnership with the ITCR—thus making it an Intel Associate in 1998 (Convenio, 2009; World
Bank, 2003).
Eleven years after the original agreement was signed, the 2009 agreement between the
ITCR and Intel outlined the mutual interest between the university and the corporation that
ultimately benefited the country of Costa Rica (Convenio, 2009). As expected, the most recent
agreement described the need to create a cohesive knowledge-based workforce to meet the
current labor demands of the country and the corporation. Within the 11 clauses of the
agreement, the document outlined that 1) both entities must mutually agree in regards to
potential areas and avenues of collaborations, 2) any funding provided by Intel will be project
specific, 3) no new projects will be implemented without both parties fully agreeing on the
appropriate parameters, 4) neither party is to represent the interest of the other, 5) the agreement
must be revisited and revised (if needed) every 10 years, 6) any matters regarding patents and
intellectual property that emerge from this partnership must be fully discussed and negotiated by
both parties (Convenio, 2009).
Instrumentation
Under the guidance of Dr. Michael Escalante, this case study was conducted by a
research team as a thematic dissertation. All of the data collected was the result of the
collaboration between the twelve members of the USC thematic dissertation group during a
single trip to Costa Rica in June 2013. A significant number of the interviews were done as a
collective with one member serving as the lead interviewer while the others were active listeners.
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Site specific data from primary, secondary or higher education institutions was collected by each
researcher based on his/her particular case study. In the case that a particular member was not
able to attend one of the designated group interviews due to conflicting site specific interview
schedules, he/she had access to a recording of the interview as well as the transcript that resulted
from it. Surveys were collected individually at each site and two databases were created—one
for primary and secondary education and another for higher education. This particular case
study did not draw from survey data collected from the primary and secondary survey database
and, instead, was based solely on the surveys collected from ITCR faculty along with documents
obtained during the visits to the university or after returning to the United States based on
participants’ referral. Furthermore, due to the sharing of interview and survey protocols there
may be some overlap in terms of data presented across all twelve case studies.
Survey Protocol. Fink (2013) describes surveys as “information collection methods
used to describe, compare, or explain individual and societal knowledge, feelings, values,
preferences and behaviors” (p. 2). As such, the survey protocol created for this case study was
meant to elicit the opinion of the three subject populations listed above (political, industry and
educational leaders) regarding the effects of globalization and MNCs had on Costa Rica and its
educational system. The survey questions were crafted utilizing Spring’s (2008) Four
Theoretical Frameworks of Globalization, Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival Skills, and Bolman
and Deal’s (2003) Four Frames of Leadership. Surveys were distributed to designated faculty
members via email once they had given consent to participate. To ensure accurate collection of
the data, a pilot test of the survey was implemented during the initial pre planning trip to Costa
Rica that four members of the research group took in March 2013. A pilot test as described by
Fink (2013) is a tryout, and its purpose is to help produce a survey form that is usable” (p. 7).
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Finally, once responses were collected, each researcher ensured survey results were kept
confidential to guarantee anonymity of respondents. Appendices B, C and D present the survey
protocols used for this case study.
Interview Protocol. The interview protocol is a cornerstone of qualitative research
(Merriam, 2009). Patton (as quoted by Merriam, 2009) states that the “purpose of
interviewing…is to allow us [as researchers] to enter into the other person’s perspective” (p. 88).
As such, for the research team to completely understand the effects globalization and MNCs had
on the Costa Rican educational system, it was imperative that this study include interviews. The
participants were chosen to interview were political, industry and educational leaders. Merriam
(2009) states that the interview enables the researcher to gain understanding of past events that
the research team is unable to replicate. Consequently, in order to gain insight as to how Costa
Rica, its educational system and educational leadership evolved as a result of globalization and
the presence of MNCs, it was important to cover these themes as part of the interview protocols.
Data was collected via a semi-structured interview process. Merriam (2009) described
that a semi-structured interview was the best way to gain insight into the participants’ view
regarding certain events or phenomena. Merriam (2009) suggested that a semi-structured
interview protocol allows the researcher to engage in a fluid, meaningful conversation with the
participants and gives the flexibility to capture more data. Because each researcher wanted to
completely understand each respondent’s view as it pertained to the research questions, he/she
had the opportunity to engage in follow up questions not outlined in the research protocol. These
follow-up questions were considered the “unstructured” part of the interview. The structured
part of the interview followed the protocol that was created by the entire research team.
Interviews were recorded and transcribed to be included as part of the data analysis of this case
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study. Interview recordings and transcripts were kept confidential by each researcher.
Appendices E, F and G show the interview protocols that were used for this study.
Observation Protocol. Merriam (2009) suggests that by conducting observations,
the research team is able to triangulate emerging themes or findings in the data. Creswell (2009)
describes qualitative observations as “those in which the researcher takes field notes on the
behavior and activities of individuals at the research site” (p. 181) or, in other words, records a
phenomenon as it takes place. Through observations of both the classroom setting and
instruction, the research team assessed the degree to which 21
st
century skills permeate the
curriculum taught at ITCR. In particular, classroom observations take place in courses housed
within the Material Science Department. Furthermore, by assessing the degree to which
technology is present on campus and its accessibility to students and faculty, the research team
can determined how much Intel has facilitated, if at all, access to high tech devices on campus.
Appendices H and I provide the observation protocols that will be used for this study.
Document Collection/Analysis. By securing public documents such as course catalogs,
mission statements, academic course plans and partnership agreements between the ITCR and
Intel, the research team learned the influence of globalization and MNCS had at the institution.
Bogdan and Biklen (2003) describe analyzing official literature as an opportunity for qualitative
researchers to gain insight into the “official perspective” of the school administration. Creswell
(2009) describes public documents as newspapers, meeting minutes, official reports, and similar
paperwork can be of great assistance to qualitative researchers. Document analysis was used in
this study to examine how educational leadership evolved as a result of the presence of MNCs
and how the effects of globalization were seen in universities in Costa Rica.

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Data Collection
Data for this study was collected during a single trip to Costa Rica in June 2013. Prior to
arriving in Costa Rica, the research team contacted all potential participants to ensure
appointments were scheduled and surveys were distributed. Upon approval of this case study by
the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Southern California, all pre-identified
participants received the consent forms required for their participation. Appendix H provides the
consent form that was emailed to all participants prior to the research team’s arrival in Costa
Rica. Moreover, for this qualitative research study, each researcher in the thematic group served
as the instrument to collect and analyze data. As such, each researcher came to the
understanding that his/her own individual life experiences and knowledge of the subject would
affect their perception and interpretation of the data. Therefore, it was important for each
individual in the team to check their own individual biases to ensure these experiences do not
affect data collection and/or interpretations (Creswell, 2009; Merriam, 2009).
Limitations
This case examined a singular relationship between a Costa Rica university and an MNC.
Some of the four other national universities and 54 private universities in Costa Rica developed
their own partnerships with Intel or other MNCs. Since this case study only analyzed the
partnership between one corporation and one university, it provides a limited scope of data. The
fact that ITCR is a technical university further limited the scope of the sample population. Since
there was no research currently available that highlights the partnerships between universities in
Costa Rica and MNCs, there was little or no data that showed best practices that came as a result
of said partnerships. It was for this reason that this study sought to contribute to the current
research available and highlight positive outcomes and areas of improvement that have resulted
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through the partnership between the ITCR and Intel. Furthermore, it can be ascertained that this
study may be used as a blueprint to enhance not only this partnership but that of other MNCs
already in Costa Rica.
Since the research team resided in the United States and the respondents in Costa Rica,
geographical differences posed a limitation for this case study. Since all of the members of the
research team were also working professionals, all of the data collection had to take place during
the projected eight day trip in June 2013. This small time frame posed a liability, as it left little
room for flexibility. As a result, there were no observations that were part of this case study
since the ITCR was on break during the research trip. Lastly, since Spanish is the national
language in Costa Rica, there was a language barrier between most of the research team and the
potential participants. Although a fraction of the team was fluent in Spanish, the research team
accounted and anticipated the language barrier that came about during data collection.
Delimitations
The sample population of this study purposefully did not include current ITCR students.
The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of globalization and how these effects were
seen in Costa Rican universities and educational leadership. Although important, the student
perspective would not add information pertinent to the scope of this study. Since the issue was
the lack of a knowledge-based workforce in Costa Rica, educators and policy makers were the
best participants to help answer the research questions.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter presents the results of the case study conducted in Costa Rica to examine the
effects globalization and multinational corporations (MNCs) have had in this small Central
American country in the political, cultural, and economic realms. Specifically, this case study
sought to examine how globalization and MNCs influenced the Costa Rican educational system
and how educational leadership evolved as a result. As such, the partnership between Intel and
the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR) is at the core of this case study to analyze how
the private and public sectors came together to increase the knowledge-based workforce Costa
Rica needs. Since the ITCR-Intel partnership was established shortly after the corporation
arrived in Costa Rica, it provided an opportunity to examine the progression of the country’s
educational system as a result of globalization and the presence of MNCs. The presentation of
the data collected is framed to answer the following research questions:
1 What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2 What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3 How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that came
as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Each research question was crafted to examine the effects globalization and MNCs have had
both at the macro and micro levels. The participants selected to be part of this case study were
political, industry and higher education leaders within Costa Rica who, due to their positions,
have influenced policies in the country or the educational system. Themes that emerged during
the data analysis are presented to answer each research question along with supporting data. The
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synthesis and analysis of the data provides an understanding on how globalization and MNCs
affected Costa Rica and the educational system utilizing the frameworks on globalization and
education (Spring, 2008), 21st century skills (Wagner, 2008), and the Four Leadership Frames
(Bolman & Deal, 2003). The chapter will conclude with a summary of the findings that answered
the three research questions.
Participants
Since this case study examined one particular university, the participants selected
provided insight into the issue as it relates to higher education in Costa Rica. All of the
participants selected were administrators within a higher education setting or political leaders
who have an impact on educational and/or economic policy in Costa Rica. Although in some of
the interviews the term education was discussed in its broadest form, the participants selected
provided insight into the development and growth of the higher education system in Costa Rica
and how it helped increase the knowledge-based workforce in the country. All 15 participants
were separated into three categories: political leaders, industry leaders and higher education
leaders from two universities, as outlined in the thematic group research protocols. To be
consistent with Institutional Review Board protocols, all of the names presented are the
participants’ real names, as no pseudonyms were assigned. Table 1, presented earlier, shows the
15 participants selected for this case study along with their titles and respective institutions or
roles within Costa Rica.
Political Leaders
To answer the research questions, the selection of political leaders who have influence on
the economic or educational landscape of Costa Rica was important. As such, the three political
leaders selected to be part of this case study exercised influence in either one of these arenas. As
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Executive Director of the Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas de Desarrollo (CINDE),
Gabriela Llobet has been at the forefront of increasing the number of MNCs in Costa Rica and
has lobbied with educational leaders both the ITCR and the University of Costa Rica (UCR) to
revamp educational programs to increase the pipeline of knowledge-based workers in Costa
Rica. Ms. Llobet is an attorney by training and has been part of CINDE since 2007. Prior to her
current role, she served as Vice Minister of foreign trade for Costa Rica. Under Ms. Llobet’s
leadership, CINDE has been able to grow its influence and expand the number of MNCs present
in Costa Rica.
Damaris Foster is an educational leader who oversees the development of technical
education within Costa Rica. As Head of Curriculum Development, Department of Technical
Specialization within the Ministry of Education (MEP), Ms. Foster is charged with ensuring all
new academic programs are aligned with the growing needs of knowledge-based workers in
Costa Rica. Given the growing demands for a bilingual workforce, Ms. Foster is leading
initiatives that have merged technical education with English Language development to further
prepare Costa Rican youth to successfully enter the global economy.
Dr. Leonardo Garnier, as Minister of Education, is the person ultimately responsible for
the direction of the Costa Rican educational system. Dr. Garnier is the only Minister of
Education who has served a second term due to his popularity within Costa Rica and has been on
the job since 2006. Under Dr. Garnier’s leadership, there have been initiatives at the primary
and secondary level to integrate the development of 21
st
century skills within the core curriculum
of the country. Dr. Garnier received his doctorate in economics from the New School for Social
Research in New York.

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Industry Leader
As the first major MNC that arrived in Costa Rica, Intel has paved the way for other
corporations to invest in the country. Mary Helen Bialas is the Education Manager for Intel and,
as such, is responsible for the management of many of the partnerships the corporation has with
educational institutions in Costa Rica. Since she has been working for the corporation for 16
years, Ms. Bialas has developed extensive relations with educational leaders throughout the
country. The partnerships that Intel developed with institutions of higher education, and the
ITCR in particular, were of interest to this case study. Prior to her work with Intel, Ms. Bialas
worked for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Peace Corps.
Educational Leaders
A total of 11 educational leaders were chosen to be part of this case study. Since the core
of this case study revolved around the partnership between the ITCR and Intel, the majority of
the interviews were with faculty and administrators from this particular institution. Faculty from
the Schools of Computer Engineering and Material Sciences were selected due to the existing
partnerships that both schools have with Intel.
Each of the four faculty members, Mario Conejo, Anibal Coto, Freddy Ramirez and
Emilia Zeledon have held or currently hold leadership positions at their schools during the
duration of the ITCR/Intel partnership in addition to their teaching responsibilities. Mario
Conejo is a former director and current faculty member in the School of Material Sciences. He
has been teaching at the ITCR for 26 years and currently represents the ITCR in the Atomic
Energy Commission of Costa Rica. Anibal Coto is Coordinator of the Master’s Program in
Electronics which is housed both at Intel headquarters and the ITCR. He was appointed to this
position a few months before his interview. Prior to his appointment as coordinator, he was a
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faculty member and researcher at the ITCR. Freddy Ramirez is the Director of the School of
Computer Engineering. He has been working at the ITCR for 9 years, and 5 of those have been
in his current role. Emilia Zeledon is a faculty member in the School of Computer Engineering.
She has been a professor for 16 years and, the last three years, she has been helping the ITCR as
a liaison to MNCs that are trying to establish partnerships with the ITCR.
Silvia Hidalgo and Jorge Quezada are administrators within the ITCR Center of
University-Industry Relations. As such, they play a pivotal role in the development of any
partnerships the institution develops with MNCs. Jorge Quezada is the Intel liaison for the ITCR
and helped the researcher gain access to the other administrators within the university. Ulises
Rodriguez oversees the Centro de Desarrollo Academico (CEDA) at the ITCR, an entity that
houses professional development for faculty. Mr. Rodriguez is at the forefront of a new
initiative that seeks to help ITCR faculty enhance their mastery of the teaching profession. As
Directors of their respective units, Silvia Hidalgo and Ulises Rodriguez provided rich insight into
the influence MNCs have had on curriculum development and the evolution of educational
leadership within the ITCR.
Four faculty and administrators from the University of Costa Rica (UCR) School of
Teacher Development were part of this case study because of the important role they play in the
formation of teachers within Costa Rica. Teachers play a pivotal role in the development of 21
st

century skills within students and contribute to the strengthening of the pipeline that universities
rely on when creating the knowledge-based workers Costa Rica needs. Consequently, the four
administrators chosen to be part of this case study spoke on the challenges Costa Rica faces from
the teacher preparation perspective. Maria Martha Camacho is the Director of Teacher
Development within the Department of Primary and Secondary Education. In addition to her role
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as Director, Maria Martha Camacho also oversees the National Science Fair sponsored by Intel.
Ana Isabel Mora has been at the university for 30 years in a variety of teaching and
administrative roles. She is currently the Director of Teacher Development within the
Department of Secondary Education and is charged with the development of graduate curriculum
at the school. Esteban Murillo is a faculty member within the Department of Teacher
Development and has oversight of the Social Science teacher development. Finally, Dr. Allen
Pacheco is Academic Coordinator of English Department, School of Modern Languages at UCR.
The School of Modern Languages is charged with the English Language development of
teachers.
In addition to the interviews presented in this case study, surveys were administered to
the faculty members of the ITCR School of Material Sciences. The school currently has 12
faculty members and each received an electronic survey to ensure confidentiality of results.
Seven surveys were received for a 58% return rate and responses are included as part of the
supporting data that answered the three research questions.
Results for Research Question One
Research Question One asked, “What results of globalization and the presence of MNCs
are seen in Costa Rica?” The first research question examined the effects MNCs had on Costa
Rica’s economic, political and cultural realms. The available literature showed that Costa Rica
was emerging as a leading hi-tech exporter as a result of the new economic policy the country
was pursuing (Larraín, Lopez-Calva, & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000; Rodriguez-Claire, 2011;
Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003). This policy aimed at diversifying the country’s exports to diminish
the reliance on agricultural goods and seeks hi-tech FDI, particularly in medical and
technological devices (CINDE, 2011). As such, Research Question One wanted to examine
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how Costa Rica changed, if in any way, as a result of the growing presence of globalization and
MNCs. Themes that emerged from this question highlighted that globalization and MNCs had
changed Costa Rica, as tangible indicators such as better standard of living, stronger presence of
the English language and American culture were referenced by the participants when describing
the presence of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica. Two prevalent emerging themes that
were referenced across interviews were the signaling effect of Intel’s arrival that was described
as the “pre and post Intel” phenomenon and enhancements to academic programs to strengthen
the knowledge-based workforce in Costa Rica.
“Pre- and Post-Intel” Phenomenon
Interview data supporting the profound impact Intel had on Costa Rica emerged as a
theme for Research Question One. The impact Intel had on Costa Rica was described as the
“pre- and post- Intel” phenomenon, as Intel’s arrival created an influx of foreign direct
investment (FDI) that led to economic, policy and cultural changes that changed the country’s
landscape (Larrain et al., 2000; 2000, Monge-Naranjo, 2007; Rodriguez-Claire, 2001; World
Bank, 2006). Although Costa Rica was no stranger to international trade and FDI since it had a
history of exporting agricultural products, Intel made it possible for other hi-tech and bio-tech
companies to consider Costa Rica as a viable option for foreign investment, which became
known in the literature as the “Intel Effect” (World Bank, 2006). In particular, the “pre- and
post- Intel” phenomenon helped further the new Costa Rican economic strategy as hi-tech
devices replaced agricultural products as Costa Rica’s leading exports and helped improve the
standards of living of some Costa Ricans.
Such was the impact Intel had on Costa Rica that six of the interviewees described the
MNCs arrival as the catalyst for globalization or the “pre- and post- Intel” phenomenon. For
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example, Freddy Ramirez stated that “the economy in Costa Rica [had] two moments, pre- and
post-Intel” (personal communication, June 26, 2013) and Silvia Hidalgo stated that after Intel’s
arrival “the vision of country changed” (personal communication, June 27, 2013) while Jorge
Quezada alluded to the arrival of Intel as “the catalyst that brought MNCs to Costa Rica”
(personal communication, June 27, 2013). Intel’s arrival helped usher Costa Rica’s evolution
from an agrarian economy into a leading exporter of hi-tech devises which reflected the new
Costa Rican economic strategy. To explain the evolution of the Costa Rican economic strategy,
Dr. Leonardo Garnier explained:
Starting in the late 70s, early 80 [Costa Rica] changed strategies…to transform [the]
external sector, [and] export different things, not just coffee and sugar. It [was] not just
about protecting the internal market. We [had] to be actually competitive…and…
international investment can be very useful for this. So, Costa Rica…and other
countries… started to attract foreign investment.
Echoing, Dr. Garnier’s point on the new Costa Rican economic strategy, Mario Conejo stated:
Back in the 70s and 80s, Costa Rica believed that the “best Minister of Economy was a
strong coffee harvest.” This was almost the antithesis to our [national motto] Pura Vida
as it left the country too vulnerable due to the overwhelming dependency on coffee.
Slowly, we began diversifying our exports and we began exporting machinery. Though
simple, they were created to help with the coffee harvest. Nicaragua and Panama were
the first to begin purchasing these machines, which helped Costa Rica make the jump
into tech exports.
Although agrarian products still play an important role in the Costa Rican economy, they are no
longer the most valuable exports produced in the country. In fact, coffee, banana, sugar, beef
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and other agrarian products account for only 13% of the total Costa Rican exports while hi-tech
exports now account for “40% of [Costa Rica’s] GDP [and] account for most of the economic
growth” (G. Llobet, personal communication, June 24, 2013).
A significant outcome of the “pre and post Intel” phenomenon was the increase of a
better standard of living for those individuals who were able to benefit from the arrival of MNCs.
Five of the participants described that due to the growing access to higher paying jobs, Costa
Ricans began to see tangible proof of the changes brought by globalization and Intel’s arrival.
Minister of Education, Dr. Garnier stated that “the standards of living [in Costa Rica] are better,
if you look at indicators like life expectancy, birth, GDP average, education, [and], it is better to
have lived now than to have lived 20 years ago” (personal communication, June 24, 2013). For
the average Costa Rican citizen, these better standards of living could be measured in a greater
family income (A. Pacheco, June 27, 2013) or access to travel opportunities and a newer car,
opportunities that were not as easily available before (A. Coto, June 27, 2013). In addition,
Costa Rican youth also benefited from the “pre- and post-Intel” phenomenon. Damaris Foster,
head of the curricular development section of the MEP Department of Technical Specialization
spoke to this point:
In prior years, before the 21
st
Century, if you did not have a college degree, you could not
work in certain jobs. Now there are kids who are 17, 18 years old that upon graduating
with their mid –level technical degrees are already incorporated into the [MNCs] as well
as the national corporations.
This new found income that Costa Rica youth now possessed allowed them to help support their
families and greater consumer power not present in previous generations, which further
highlighted tangible indicators to measure the impact globalization had in Costa Rica after the
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arrival of Intel and other MNCs. Unfortunately, this new access to a higher income also meant a
greater emphasis on consumerism in Costa Rica, as there was now a need for a bigger house or a
newer car, which is also beginning to create a retention problem at the ITCR (S. Hidalgo, June
26, 2013) and other higher education institutions in Costa Rica.
Aside from the monetary compensation that was earned by working for the MNCs,
workers gained a new skillset that became profitable and promoted entrepreneurial endeavors in
Costa Rica. To this point, Mary Helen Bialas stated that the 3% employee turnover rate that
Intel experienced is due to the employees’ desire to seek other professional ventures. She
explained:
Three percent generally goes out with acquired knowledge and skills that they create their
own companies, that they become investors, they become entrepreneurs or they transfer
their skills to another company that they are working with.
Echoing Mrs. Bialas’ point regarding startup companies, Mario Conejo stated that “[ITCR]
graduates often create small start-up companies to become suppliers to the MNCs” (personal
communication, June 27, 2013), therefore ,taking advantage the new economic landscape to
become active participants of the global economy and furthering the demand for a knowledge-
based worker.
Strengthening the Knowledge-based Workforce in Costa Rica
The development and enhancement of academic programs to strengthen the knowledge-
based workforce in Costa Rica emerged as a second theme for Research Question One. Ever
since Intel arrived in the country, all fifteen participants stated that the Costa Rican educational
system evolved to create the knowledge-based workforce that Intel and other MNCs needed.
Within higher education for example, the ITCR revamped academic programs to be able to meet
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the demand for and strengthen the knowledge-based workforce. All seven of the ITCR
administrators and faculty members stated that the changes to the academic programs were
implemented to be able to meet the new labor demands and create the engineers and other
knowledge-based workers Costa Rica needed. These changes were first implemented to meet
Intel’s particular needs but later evolved to meet the demands of all MNCs.
The two ITCR programs that saw the most changes were in material science with an
emphasis in electrical engineering and computer engineering. When describing what drove the
changes to the academic curriculum, Silvia Hidalgo stated:
When globalization begun, we began conversation regarding hi-tech manufacturing, and,
as a result, the labor force also had to change…. As a university, we had to be able to
address those changes to be able to adapt to the [technological] boom brought forth by
globalization.
Echoing Ms. Hidalgo’s point on the changing labor force demands, Freddy Ramirez, Director of
the ITCR School of Computer Engineering stated that “when Intel arrived, [the demand for] low
skilled labor decreased over the years” (personal communication, June 26, 2013). In a similar
manner, Emilia Zeledon, faculty member at the ITCR School of Computer Engineering stated
that “not just Intel, in general, foreign companies [when they arrive] are looking for a more
sophisticated work force” (personal communication, June 26, 2013) which reinforces the
growing demand for a knowledge-based workforce and subsequent need to revamp academic
programs.
Since Intel was the first major hi-tech MNC in the country, the changes the ITCR
implemented were first created to meet the specific of the corporation. As time progressed,
however, the academic curriculum evolved to prepare students to work at any of the MNCs in
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the country a sentiment shared by four of the ITCR faculty and administrators. To this point,
Mario Conejo explained:
When Intel arrived they made it clear that they needed personnel…to be…ready to work
for them…however, the corporation has realized that it is better for the ITCR to develop
mechanical, electrical, material science, chemical engineers that are well prepared in their
discipline as opposed to an engineer groomed to work for Intel. When you have a
content ready engineer, Intel can then bring them up to speed to the corporation’s needs
in a 3, 5 or 6 month training program.
Silvia Hidalgo stated that Intel agreed to invest in Costa Rica, since the ITCR agreed to help
“develop not just any electrical engineer but an engineer that would be ready to work for the
corporation” (personal communication, June 27, 2013). Therefore, it made sense to tailor
academic programs for this particular MNC. However, as time progressed, other MNCs showed
interest in other ITCR graduates. To this point, Emilia Zeledon stated:
Corporations have, for example, academic initiatives and are looking to strengthen
relationships with universities as they want name recognition with students to eventually
hire them upon graduation. There is a constant competition between MNCs, and our
graduates are highly coveted.
It is because of the growing number of MNCs and diverse needs between them that the ITCR no
longer caters to just Intel’s needs.
Intel had the most influence on the development of engineers in Costa Rica even when it
is no longer the only MNC in the country. To further support the development of more
engineers, Intel donated equipment and scholarships for low-income students to help them
pursue a degree at the ITCR to further expand the pipeline of electrical and other engineers. To
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demonstrate the influence Intel had on the development of electrical engineering in Costa Rica,
Anibal Coto, coordinator of the graduate program in Electrical engineering stated:
Before Intel arrived, I remember clearly we only used to enroll 60 students each year.
After Intel’s arrival, we started receiving 120 students. [The increased pipeline has
allowed the ITCR] to graduate more engineers but also…technicians in electronics.
Moreover, this growth in electrical engineers allowed for the creation of a Master’s program in
electrical engineering that is housed both at Intel and at the ITCR. This sizeable investment that
Intel has given the ITCR is recognized by faculty members and continues to make the
corporation “a strategic partner in every aspect” (J. Quezada, personal interview, June 27, 2013).
Discussion
The effects of globalization and MNC on Costa Rica were evident from the “pre- and
post-Intel” phenomenon. The arrival of Intel to Costa Rica positioned the country as a viable
investment option for other MNCs, which propelled the country’s new economic policy. Since
agrarian exports declined to 13% and hi-tech products became 40% of the total Costa Rican
exports, it was evident that the country evolved from an agrarian economy and entered the global
economy. Interview data suggested Intel was the catalyst for FDI in Costa Rica, and, as more
MNCs arrived, the average citizen witnessed the changes to the political, economic and cultural
areas. As result, the first finding is that, due to the decline of agricultural exports, the increased
presence of MNCs and their demand for a knowledge-based workforce that resulted from Intel’s
arrival, Intel did in fact position Costa Rica within the global economy.
The growing presence of MNCs in Costa Rica increased the demand for a knowledge-
based workforce. As a result, academic programs, particularly at the university level, had to
adapt to the new and growing labor force demands. At the ITCR, for example, the academic
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 77
curriculum in Material Sciences was modified, at first, to meet the labor needs of Intel.
However, with time, it was revamped to prepare students to be able to work in any MNC that
arrived after Intel. The resulting changes in the academic curriculum highlight the effect the
presence of globalization and MNCs had on the Costa Rican academic curriculum to strengthen a
knowledge-based workforce. Yet, the adjustment in the same curriculum to prepare students to
work at any MNC demonstrates that Costa Rica continues to maintain its agency when
implementing policy that directly affect its labor force. As a result, the second finding is that
Costa Rica is utilized a Culturalist frame within its educational system to strengthen the
knowledge-based workforce in the country.
Results for Research Question Two
Research Question Two asked, “What results of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica?” The second
research question sought to examine the direct impact globalization and MNCs had had on the
Costa Rican educational system. With a growing number of MNCs in Costa Rica, the demand
for a knowledge-based workforce increased therefore it became critical for schools and
universities to prepare students to successfully join this new labor force. As a result, Research
Question Two examined how the Costa Rican educational system fostered the development of
21
st
century skills imperative for a strong knowledge-based workforce (Partnership, 2003;
Wagner, 2008). In other words, how successful was the Costa Rican educational system in
adapting to meet the demands of a changing workforce? As a result, themes that emerged from
the data were the initiatives created to enhance teacher training and professional development
and the rise of English as an official requirement for university students.

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Enhancing Teacher Professional Development
The enhancement of Costa Rican teacher training and professional development
programs was a theme that emerged for Research Question Two. Because the development of
21
st
century skills is an important requirement for a strong knowledge-based workforce, it
became imperative that teachers themselves to be familiar with these skills so they can, in turn,
foster their development within students, yet five of the respondents highlighted that 21
st
century
skills were not being developed inside the classroom, as there was disconnect between the Costa
Rican teachers and the student body of today. In particular, this student- teacher disconnect was
most prevalent in the way students learn and the teaching methodologies used to teach them. As
a result, the training and professional development initiatives were created to close this student-
teacher gap.
Both in the secondary and higher education level, there was disconnect on how the
student of today learns and how the information was presented to them by teachers. To
emphasize this issue, Dr. Maria Martha Camacho, Director of Teacher Development at the
Primary and Secondary Level in the UCR School of Education stated “when we talk about
education we must ask about learning. There is no model in the world that connects the student
of today with the educational model that he/she requires” (personal communication, June 24,
2013). In addition to emphasizing a disconnect between the teaching methodologies currently
used and the way students learn, Dr. Maria Martha Camacho stated that globalization and how it
permeates throughout Costa Rica contributes to the to disconnect between teacher and students:
The other side of the equation is that students learn the skills needed in globalization
through two mechanisms: the formal and informal. The formal being inside the
traditional classroom while the informal through the internet and peer-to-peer interactions
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 79
To support Dr. Maria Martha Camacho’s point, Ana Isabel Mora, Director of the Department of
Teacher Development at the Secondary Level stated that “the immediate access to information is
an advantage that we have, but we also have to ensure that students only utilize what is of value
of the classroom” (personal communication, June 24, 2013). The divide between teachers and
students at the primary and secondary level that Dr. Camacho referred to was also evident in the
higher education level. To this point, Silvia Hidalgo stated:
[Globalization] is forcing [faculty] to be up to speed with most of the technological
advancements. It is not acceptable to stand in front of a classroom and not fully
understand how to operate your power point presentation or still expecting to use pen and
paper when the students are using a tablet or google docs. [The students] will run all over
you!”
Dr. Maria Martha Camacho shared Ms. Hidalgo’s sentiment when she stated:
The other challenge is how we integrate globalization in the classroom. Here in Costa
Rica, not all professors are bilingual but also don’t have the technology and cultural
knowledge they need which puts them at a disadvantage.
Dr. Camacho’s and Ms. Hidalgo’s statement further highlight the student-teacher gap present in
Costa Rica.
Since faculty members at the ITCR themselves do not have the skills to help foster 21
st

century skills within students, the students do not graduate completely ready to enter the global
economy. At the ITCR, it has been a challenge to incorporate the development of 21
st
century
skills within the ITCR students and faculty. It was for this reason that Silvia Hidalgo called 21
st

century skills, “the Achilles’ tendon” of the university. Since the Center for University-Industry
Relations has close ties to industry leaders, employers have shared with Ms. Hidalgo that despite
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students graduating with a mastery of their field, they were not fully able to incorporate critical
thinking, collaboration and other 21
st
century skills as part of their daily job responsibilities.
Interestingly enough, survey results showed that 5/7 ITCR faculty surveyed believed that
students did graduate ready and equipped with 21st century skills. This particular disconnect
between faculty beliefs and actual employer feedback motivated ITCR administrators to create a
professional development program for faculty to understand 21st century skills and help them
incorporate them into their classroom.
To help close the gap between students and faculty at the university, the ITCR turned to
the Centro de Desarrollo Academico (CEDA) as the avenue to help faculty incorporate 21
st

century skills into the curriculum. The CEDA is the center dedicated to the professional
development of the faculty at the ITCR. The center’s mission is to “contribute and promote the
integral development of the academy, through advice and support in the areas of curriculum,
self-assessment and accreditation, educational research, training and teacher training college”
(CEDA, 2013). After an internal review that examined the faculty’s ability to develop 21
st

century skills within the students, the CEDA created a program called Program of Teaching
Suitability. CEDA’s Director, Ulises Rodriguez, explained the rationale behind the development
of this program in 2009:
[The ITCR] like many other institutions hires professors that do not have a background in
teaching. Instead, [the institution] hires professors, or better yet, people that exercise the
art of teaching but are professionals in their own discipline but have never been groomed
to teach.
Echoing Mr. Rodriguez’ point, Dr. Maria Martha Camacho stated that there is a fundamental
difference between “knowing the content and…being qualified to be a teacher” (personal
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communication, June 24, 2013). It is for this reason that the Program of Teaching Suitability
aims at helping those professors that need to enhance their teaching skills become more effective
in their practice.
Dr. Maria Martha Camacho mentioned that students have access to an array of
information via the internet. As a result, teachers much learn how to utilize the internet and
other technologies as part of the learning environment. However, some Costa Rican teachers
may not know how to do so. During the research trip, an article in the Costa Rican newspaper,
La Nacion highlighted that Costa Rican teachers utilize technology and the internet within their
daily lives but “forget about the computer when it comes to teaching” (Ross, 2013, p. 11A).
Although the article did acknowledge that some schools may not have access to technology
within their classrooms, teachers may also lack the skills to successfully integrate the two. As a
result, the CEDA developed a learning module to help ITCR faculty learn how to successfully
navigate the internet and use it to their advantage within their classroom (CEDA, 2013).
English as an Unofficial Requirement
The need for a bilingual knowledge-based workforce emerged as a second theme for
Research Question Two. Due to the success Costa Rica had in attracting MNCs to the country,
the demand for a bilingual workforce increased; a sentiment that was shared by all the
participants. With the understanding that English language competency was now an integral part
of the labor market, Costa Rica revamped vocational and technical education to be able to meet
the demand for a bilingual knowledge-based worker. Bilingual programs within the secondary
level emerged and English became part of the core curriculum of some programs at the higher
education level. Nonetheless, despite the efforts to grow the bilingual workforce within the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 82
public education system, low-income students are still at a disadvantage in comparison to their
more affluent counterparts.
In an effort to increase a bilingual knowledge-based workforce, Costa Rica revamped
technical and vocational programs within the secondary level. As part of her responsibilities as
part of the MEP head of curricular section of the Department of Technical Specialization,
Damaris Foster stated that MEP had to modify several programs to incorporate English language
development as part of curriculum:
[We have had to] incorporate more English into the specialties to create bilingual
specialties…like bilingual secretary…like Executive Service Center, all of which are
needs of the [MNCs].
Esteban Murillo echoed the introduction of a bilingual curriculum by stating that “English as part
of instruction in the satellite campuses throughout the country” (personal communication, June
26, 2013). Ms. Foster later explained that, by incorporating English language development into
academic requirements of specific technical programs, students could have greater job prospects
and, perhaps, jobs security.
Echoing Ms. Foster’s concern for qualified bilingual students, the ITCR integrated
English as part of its degree programs. A significant number of the engineering degrees along
with business administration, education and sustainable tourism require one to three semesters of
English as part of their core academic curriculum (Catalogo, n.d.). To this point, Mario Conejo
stated:
Today, the university has made great strides to ensure we produce bilingual graduates.
Back in 1984, ‘85, it was still important to speak English…but even if you did not, you
would not face any major issues…[We] do not believe that the mere fact of being
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bilingual, the student is going to get hired but we are fully aware that without those
language skills, the student will not even get an interview.
Since those engineers working for the MNCs will be more required to write reports, connect with
sister companies within the US and Europe and converse with colleagues, it became imperative
to become fully bilingual in English. Ms. Foster shared a similar sentiment by stating “if the
jobs CINDE is looking to fill need that second language, even if a candidate has mid-level
experience, they will not qualify for the job” (personal communication, June 28, 2013).
Therefore, it became imperative to merge language English language acquisition with the core
curriculum both at the secondary and higher education levels.
Yet despite the ITCR’s efforts toward developing English language skills within the
student population, one to three semesters is not enough for those student who arrived at the
university without any formal introduction to the language. This was a particular issue for low-
income students and students who graduated from public high schools. To this point, Silvia
Hidalgo stated:
It is a challenge because students should be learning English in the k-12 setting. Those
who don’t [speak English] are playing catch up. Forty percent of students [enrolled in the
ITCR] come from private [high] schools, so that means those students already speak
English but the students who comes from public institutions are not at the same level.
They are at a disadvantage.
To help with this issue, Ms. Hidalgo shared that the “Consejo Nacional de Rectores (CONARE)
offered a special program that seeks to improve English language development” (personal
communication, June 27, 2013) that is supplemental to what is offered within the ITCR.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 84
Students had to voluntarily take these courses if they wanted to enhance their language skills and
be competitive for employment at a MNC. To this point Jorge Quezada stated:
To the individual, globalization opens an opportunity to become an active agent. If I want
to excel, be competitive, be an individual that contributes to the betterment of society,
and the economy, I need to study [and better prepare myself].
Or, in the case of the ITCR students, they need to study both their area of discipline and enhance
their English language skills to be able to secure a job at one of the many MNCs currently in the
country.
Discussion
The development of a knowledge-based workforce is at the core of the Costa Rica
strategy to become an active participant within the global economy. However, the current
disconnect between the teachers and the Costa Rican students threatens the development of this
knowledge-based workforce. As a result, the ITCR and other institutions implemented strategies
to help teachers integrate technology and new teaching methods to develop 21st century skills
within students. The CEDA’s Program of Teaching Suitability is an example of such an
initiative that challenges the current status quo to help propel a new teaching methodology that is
aligned with Costa Rica’s economic strategy. Therefore, the first finding is that Costa Rica
implemented new training and professional development programs to prepare current teacher
instill the 21
st
century skills required of a knowledge-based workforce.
By definition, MNCs conduct business in Costa Rica and abroad. Therefore, aside from
developing 21st century skills, if students want to become part of the Costa Rican knowledge-
based workforce, it is imperative they enhance their English language skills. Document analysis
highlighted that the ITCR and other academic institutions incorporated English language
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 85
development courses as part of the core curriculum. Interview data suggested that, even if
students graduate at the top honors of their class, unless they have strong English skills, they will
not be considered for employment within the MNCs which poses a problem for low-income
youth in the country. As a result, the second finding is that, although not clearly stated, aside
from 21
st
century skills, English has become an unofficial requirement for Costa Rican youth to
join the knowledge-based workforce in the country.
Results for Research Question Three
Research Question Three asked, “How has educational leadership been impacted directly
by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational
corporations?” Research Question Three examined how educational leadership evolved as a
result of the growing presence of MNCs and the governmental policies that resulted from
globalization. This particular question sought insight as to how leaders, in particular, reacted to
the growing influence of globalization and how their policies, whether proactive or reactive,
helped propel the Costa Rican educational system forward. As a result, the two themes that
emerged for Research Question Three were the direct conflict between globalization and Costa
Rican bureaucracy and the initiatives created to graduate more Costa Rican engineers.
Conflict between Globalization and Costa Rican Bureaucracy
The direct conflict between globalization and Costa Rican bureaucracy emerged as the
first theme for Research Question Three. Although the MEP enacted policies to improve the
curriculum and teacher preparation and training, the policies were reactionary and a result of
globalization as opposed to proactive in anticipation of the forthcoming changes. For example,
the ITCR and the MEP made it a priority to train teachers to help students develop the 21
st

century skills they will need to compete in a global economy, yet the procedure to hire new
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 86
teachers has not been revisited and, in the case of the MEP, are based on standards created in
1953. Hiring standards that are not up to par with the changing student demographics further the
student-teacher gap and create a direct conflict between globalization and the Costa Rican
bureaucracy when it comes to leadership development within the educational system.
By utilizing hiring standards that were in place prior to the arrival of MNCs, some of the
best qualified teachers are not within the Costa Rican classrooms. To this point, Ana Isabel
Mora explained:
The hiring of teachers is overseen by an office called “Civil Service.” The requirements
to be a teacher need to be revisited and that’s because the requirements have not adjusted
to the new degrees and certificates now available in Costa Rica (as suggested by Estado
de la Nación report). There are some people in Costa Rica with several degrees but have
to hide their degrees because they are often over qualified for jobs, which is a shame!”
To expand on this point, Estaban Murillo, professor of teacher training at UCR stated that since
“[under the] current standards…I have a BA, Masters and soon a PhD. If I wanted to work in the
public education system, my pay will be the same a teacher who only has a B.A.” (personal
communication, June 24, 2013). This meant there was really no incentive for students to further
their training to better their craft further hindering the development of 21st century skills within
the teaching staff and prohibiting the most qualified teachers to enter the Costa Rican
classrooms.
Since there is no added incentive for prospective teachers to get more training to be better
at their craft, they typically enter the field right after graduating college. This causes a problem
for the MEP, as they have to invest time and resources training teachers with the new teachers.
Dr. Allen Pacheco elaborated on this issue by stating:
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Most of the teachers that the MEP hires are not from public universities. They are from
private universities. There is a problem there… [UCR] students are [at the university] for
five years. They get training in English and their own major(s), but at a private university
they get out in 2 years. So what happens is they do not have enough skills and experience
to actually be prepared for what they have to do.
To explain why the MEP hired more teachers from private universities, Dr. Allen Pacheco stated
that the “MEP is hiring more [graduates] from private schools because it takes our students five
years to finish their [degree] requirements” (personal communication, June 27, 2013). Costa
Rican Minister of Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier did confirm that a significant number of
newly hired teachers come from private universities. To this point, Dr. Garnier stated:
The problem is that the kind of teachers we receive at the Ministry are not very good, so
we have to spend a lot of money re-training the teachers, and that’s not really fair. I
mean, if you give a lot of money and students pay a lot of money to private universities at
least they should prepare them for the classroom, but, if we have to spend more money to
train them, then I guess we have to.
What was not clear to the researcher were the reasons MEP continues to hire graduate from
private universities while being fully aware that they are not up to par compared to graduates of
public universities.
Aside from the lax hiring standards for new teachers, the bureaucratic structure of the
educational system also hindered creativity and leadership development. Dr. Garnier explained:
The problem is that you have a bureaucratic system based on fears, controls, rules,
standardization that is no very good for creativity. You have some people at the top of the
ministry saying, “listen, do your thing don’t really pay attention to all these things, we
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have created a lot of documents, instructions.” They even had instructions as to what
dictionary you should use.
Since the bureaucratic system of the MEP does not allow for innovation, it is difficult for future
leaders to develop within the cadre of teachers available in the country. To this point, Dr. Maria
Martha Camacho stated that what is missing “in Costa Rica is educational leaders. Leadership is
one of the skills that we need to instill within student teachers” (personal communication, June
24, 2013). Yet, the challenge is that leadership development was not part of the core curriculum
for teacher development. The lack of leadership development within the Costa Rican
educational system was a concern that the Ana Maria Mora highlighted by stating:
The UCR students are the future leaders but the traditional methods of teaching do not
allow that leadership to flourish. Inside the classrooms, we are giving students the
opportunity for their creativity to flow and for them not to see themselves as the
authoritarian teacher of the past. Sometimes, we struggle for them to step up in leaders’
roles, but, once they do step up to the challenge, the students do deliver.
Changing the leadership paradigm was important, as even school principals themselves did not
possess the leadership skills to be effective in leading their respective campuses. Esteban
Murillo stated:
Sometimes principals don’t have the leadership skills to be principals. In fact, they chose
to be principals because they hated teaching. They want to be principal to deal with the
bureaucracy instead. The school of education educates teachers. We are not in charge of
the leadership. School leaders are formed in another school called the Escuela de
Administracion Educativa (School of Educational Administration).
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Due to the decentralization of teacher training with principal training, leadership development
and curriculum were inherently separated. This meant that, unless a teacher wanted to become a
principal, s/he would have to go to another program to gain those skills.
Academic Initiatives to graduate more Engineers
The creation of academic initiatives to graduate more engineers emerged as a second
theme for Research Question Three. Since the deeply rooted bureaucracy permeated throughout
the educational system in Costa Rica, change has only been achieved through strategic initiatives
that circumvented the bureaucracy. The goal of these academic initiatives was to produce the
knowledge-based workforce the country needed, and these were successfully enacted through
negotiations, political influence and collaboration among different entities within the country.
These initiatives that got “things done” were what Bolman and Deal (2003) called elements of
“the political frame.” Bolman and Deal (2003) stated that “goals and decisions emerge from
bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for position among competing stakeholders” (emphasis in
original) (p. 186). Since Costa Rica needed to develop the knowledge-based workforce required
for the MNCs thrived, the negotiations of this academic initiatives took place between industry
and educational leaders.
Without a doubt, CINDE had been the driving force in ushering globalization and MNCs
into Costa Rica. Since CINDE was not a governmental agency, it did not really have direct
power to exercise influence educational institutions in Costa Rica. Instead, CINDE relied on
political acumen and relationship building to obtain buy-in from the different governmental
entities and educational institutions in Costa Rica. To this point, Gabriella Llobet stated:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 90
[At CINDE] we are trying to abstain ourselves from being considered political when we
have been able to pass the reputation or the credibility of an institutions that will not
favor one particular [political] party or that will not address thing from a political aspect
This neutrality allowed CINDE to develop the relationships with industry and educational
leaders to be able to push the creation of more engineers in the country. To his point, Silvia
Hidalgo, Director of the ITCR Center for University Linkage stated:
[The ITCR] has a strong relationship with CINDE, and every corporation that wants to
establish in Costa Rica passes through our office. We have met with the CEOs from
Intel, Boston Scientific, Volcano and IBM…Why do they come [to the ITCR]? Because
they are looking for talent, and the best engineers, I can firmly state, graduate from this
university. They are the most coveted.
In addition to Silvia Hidalgo, two other faculty members cited CINDE’s influence as a catalyst
for the growth and/or creation of new programs within the ITCR. Since Costa Rica needs to
graduate more engineers, it makes sense that the ITCR is a key partner in CINDE’s ability to
bring more MNCs into the country.
Due to the number of hi-tech MNCs that CINDE was able to attract, the need for more
engineers also increased, but Costa Rica has not been able to deliver. CINDE’s executive
director, Gabriela Llobet explained that “even though we have increased tremendously the
number of engineers, we are still not producing enough [and] that is a step that needs to be
taken” (personal communication, June 24, 2013). Echoing Ms. Llobel’s point, Mr. Ulises
Rodriguez stated that through the CEDA:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 91
We also teach [the professors] that their courses are not islands or standalone courses,
but, rather, their classes are part of an academic sequence and play a very important role
in meeting the objectives of the country.
The objective Mr. Rodriguez is referring to is the need for more engineers in Costa Rica.
However, all levels, primary, secondary and higher education, must communicate with one
another to increase the educational pipeline to produce the engineers the country needs. Damaris
Foster explained it best when she stated:
One of the things that I do consider crucial so our country can reach that climax that we
want is the unification of all of the forces and of the hierarchies of the universities of the
colleges, of the schools to speak the same language. When we achieve that, we are going
to have a much better education.
CINDE has been able to push the agenda, but, to truly have an impact, the bureaucracy within
the Costa Rica educational system has to evolve. To this point, Gabriella Llobet stated:
There are specific examples in which the companies will drive and will be the
champions… [and] Intel is a clear example…They want to work together to build a
pipeline, to ensure that there will be a pipeline in certain areas of interest.
Felipe Jaramillo, director of the World Bank in Latino America highlighted in an interview that
although Costa Rica has been successful in attracting FDI to the country, it still needs to improve
technical and college education to maintain its competitive edge in the region (Baquero, 2013),
again highlighting how the Costa Rican educational system has not fully evolved to address the
demands for a knowledge-based workforce.

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Discussion
The growing presence of MNCs in Costa Rica increases the demand for a knowledge-
based workforce. However, aspects of the bureaucracy within the Costa Rican educational
system have not adapted to the new labor demands. Interview data suggested that the current
hiring standards for teachers have become obsolete and do not provide an incentive for teachers
to better their craft or seek further professional development. In addition, since there is no
formal accreditation process for private universities in Costa Rica, they continue to graduate
teachers who are not fully equipped to enter the Costa Rican classrooms. This means that the
MEP has to invest resources to retrain graduates from private universities on how to be effective
teachers. As a result, the first finding is that there is a direct conflict between globalization and
the Costa Rican educational bureaucracy that has failed to adapt changing times.
Due to the slow change within the bureaucracy within the Costa Rica educational system,
most educational initiatives that have brought change have been created at the higher education
level. Since universities are autonomous in Costa Rica, the freedom the universities experience
has allowed them to directly create partnerships with MNCs for the benefit of their graduates and
the institutions overall. Interview data highlighted that CINDE has been at the forefront in
advancing the new Costa Rican economic strategy. As a result, CINDE has been instrumental in
connecting industry and academic leaders to ensure said partnerships are forged. As a result, the
second finding is that educational policies that have brought positive change were achieved
through a sophisticated level of negotiation and political acumen that circumvents the Costa
Rican educational bureaucracy.

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Summary
The purpose of this case study was to examine the effects globalization and MNC had on
Costa Rica. By examining the data collected through interviews, surveys and document analysis,
this case study found that globalization and MNCs have had a profound impact on the Costa
Rican political, economic and cultural landscapes. This case study found six themes that
emerged to answer the three research questions. The first theme that answered Research
Question One was the link between the arrival of globalization and the arrival of Intel to Costa
Rica, described as the “pre- and post-Intel” phenomenon. Citing Intel’s arrival as the catalyst that
started it all, participants provided a description of Costa Rica prior to the arrival of the MNCs
and the Costa Rica of today. Linking Intel’s arrival to the arrival of globalization, participants
provided tangible examples on how globalization changed Costa Rica culturally, politically and
economically. The second theme that arose, to answer Research Question Two, involved changes
to the academic curriculum to create the knowledge-based workforce the country needs. These
changes were created due to the partnership between the ITCR and Intel that originally benefitted
the corporation. Later, as more MNCs arrived in the country, the ITCR modified programs to
create content-ready engineers who were well prepared in their area of study as opposed to the
catering to the needs of one particular corporation. In the end, this new approach has benefitted
both the ITCR and the MNCs present in Costa Rica.
The economic, political and cultural changes brought forth by globalization to Costa Rica
were also felt within the educational system of the country. From data pertaining to Research
Question Two, teacher training and development and the need for a bilingual workforce emerged
as themes. Since a knowledge-based workforce requires that individuals demonstrate 21
st

century skills, teachers are now at the forefront of ensuring students develop these skills.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 94
Consequently, initiatives both at the secondary and higher education level were created to help
teachers integrate technology and other teaching methodologies into the classroom. The second
theme that arose was the need for a bilingual workforce. It is for this reason that technical
schools and universities integrate English language development into their core curriculum and
hope to graduate the bilingual workforce the country needs. Particularly at the higher
educational level, it is understood that students who graduate without being bilingual have little
chance of securing jobs with the MNCs in Costa Rica. This puts low-income students at a
disadvantage, as Costa Rican public high schools do not have strong English language
development programs in comparison to their private counterparts.
The influence of globalization and MNCs has not had a significant effect on educational
leadership. This is because the current bureaucratic system in Costa Rica leaves little room for
educational leadership to develop and thrive. When answering Research Question Three, the
two themes that emerged were the direct conflict between globalization and bureaucracy and the
educational initiatives that were created to graduate more engineers. Since the Costa Rican
bureaucracy has not adapted to the changes brought forth by globalization, it places it at direct
conflict with the changes that have taken place within the country. As a result, most of the
policies that have been implemented have been reactive as opposed to proactive. Finally,
educational initiatives have been successful in bringing change within the higher education level
due to the little oversight that universities experience within Costa Rica. This has given them the
opportunity to circumvent the bureaucracy in the country to be able to graduate the engineers the
country needs.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This case study examined the effects globalization and Multinational Corporations
(MNCs) had on the country of Costa Rica, its educational system and its educational leadership.
In recent decades, Costa Rica has been highly successful in attracting Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) as part of a new economic strategy that made the country a leading exporter of hi-tech
devices. The success in attracting FDI was due to Costa Rica’s high literacy rate in comparison
to the rest of the Central American region, the country’s proximity to the US market, constant
flow of passenger planes that cut down transportation costs and a stable democracy (CINDE,
2011; UNESCO, 2003/4). In turn, this influx of FDI managed to transform the historically
agrarian economy into a leading hi-tech exporter. However, despite having a 95% literacy rate
among its population, Costa Rica still had a shortage in knowledge-based workforce that the
MNCs present in the country needed. To determine how the private and public sector came
together to address the need to develop a knowledge-based workforce, the partnership between
Intel and the ITCR became the focal point of this case study.
Since the ITCR-Intel partnership began in 1998, there have been significant financial
investments in the form of equipment, scholarships, and faculty training the ITCR received from
the corporation. As such, these investments allowed the ITCR to revamp its curriculum and
expand two programs: computer engineering and material science with an emphasis in
microelectronics. Since these two areas are of particular interest for the corporation and the
success of the new Costa Rican economic strategy, analysis of these programs helped determine
the effects Intel and other MNCs had on the development of the educational system and
educational leadership in Costa Rica.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 96
A descriptive case study was the best method to collect and present the data that sought to
address the following research questions:
1 What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in Costa Rica?
2 What results of globalization and the presence of multinational corporations are seen
in schools and universities in Costa Rica?
3 How has educational leadership been impacted directly by policy decisions that came
as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational corporations?
Participants were selected via a purposeful sampling technique that included political, industry
and educational leaders within Costa Rica. The 15 participants were selected due to their roles
and positions of leadership within Costa Rica’s political or educational arenas. The data was
collected during a single trip to Costa Rica in June 2013 as part of a USC thematic dissertation
group. Data was collected via faculty surveys, in-person interviews, classroom observations and
document analysis. Although each of the 12 members of the thematic dissertation group had an
original case study, all of the members followed the same interview, observations and survey
protocols. This methodology guaranteed the ability to share data between case studies to ensure
meaningful data was produced. As such, there may have been some similarities in the data
presented. All interview data was triangulated against the literature to ensure findings were
consisted and objective when presented.
Discussion of Findings
Research Question One asked, “What results of globalization and the presence of
Multinational Corporations are seen in Costa Rica?” Upon analysis of the data, two themes
emerged that addressed Research Question One: the signaling effect of Intel’s arrival that was
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 97
described as the “pre- and post-Intel” phenomenon and enhancements to academic programs to
strengthen the knowledge-based workforce in Costa Rica.
The signaling effect described as a “pre- and post-Intel” phenomenon emerged as the first
theme for Research Question One. A review of the literature showed that during the 1980s, Costa
Rica began a new economic policy that aimed to diversify its exports (Monge-Naranjo, 2007;
Robbins & Gindling, 1999). Up to that decade, the country’s main exports were agricultural
products such as coffee, banana, beef and sugar (Gudmundson, 1983; Monge-Naranjo, 2007,
Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003). During the 1980s, the literature showed that the country engaged in a
new economic policy that sought to secure hi-tech FDI to help diversity the country’s exports
and eventually position Costa Rica as a leading hi-tech exporter (CINDE, 2011; Larrain, Lopez-
Calva & Rodriguez-Clare, 2000; Rodriguez-Claire, 2011; Sanchez-Ancochea, 2003). Intel’s
decision to invest in Costa Rica provided the catalyst to secure more FDI as more MNCs decided
to invest in Costa Rica (World Bank, 2006). Interview data confirmed that Intel’s investment,
indeed, helped propel the new Costa Rican economic strategy as agricultural goods now account
for 13% of the total Costa Rican exports while hi-tech devices account for 40%. Furthermore,
interview data was consistent with the literature as six participants in this case study stated
Intel’s arrival was the signaling effect that marked Costa Rica’s entrance into the global
economy as a hi-tech exporter due to the rise in the standards of living for some Costa Ricans
and the demand for a knowledge-based workforce accounts for the largest growth within the
Costa Rican labor force. As a result, it can be asserted that Intel did have a profound impact on
Costa Rica as demonstrated by the literature and interview data.
The enhancements to academic programs that strengthened the knowledge-based
workforce in Costa Rica emerged as the second theme to answer Research Question One. The
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 98
“pre- and post-Intel” phenomenon ushered changes to the academic curriculum at the ITCR to
give students the necessary tools to work for the MNCs in Costa Rica. The Intel-ITCR
partnership agreement highlighted that the institutions made a commitment to provide Intel the
knowledge-based workforce it needed to be fully operational in the country. As such, the ITCR
revamped existing academic programs and created certificate programs tailored to Intel’s needs
(World Bank, 2006). Although at the beginning the academic and certificate programs were
tailored to prepare students to work for Intel, that was no longer the case today. Through
interview data that was triangulated across several subjects, it was learned that the ITCR now
prepares students to work for any MNC present in the country, not just Intel. In addition, to
ensure faculty receive training necessary to prepare the best engineers, the ITCR sends promising
scholars to Taiwan, China, Germany , Italy and the USA. These findings supports Spring’s
Culturalist framework as Culturalist scholars argue that emerging nations are active agents
within the global economy and seek the knowledge that is most beneficial for them (Spring
2008; Spring 2009). Specifically, “local actors borrow and adapt multiple models from the
global flow of educational ideas” (Spring, 2009, p. 14) to make them fit their respective
economic and educational paradigms. The Culturalist framework suggests that developing
nations, such as Costa Rica, can retain their agency when developing educational policies that
allows them to benefit from the global economy. Due to these findings, it can be asserted that
aspects of the educational system have were modified as a result of the policies implemented to
create the knowledge-based workforce that Intel and other MNCs demand.
Research Question Two asked, “What results of globalization and the presence of
multinational corporations are seen in schools and universities in Costa Rica?” A review of the
literature revealed that the development of 21
st
century skills was imperative for students to be
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 99
fully engaged within the context of the global economy (Partnership, 2003, Wagner, 2008).
With technological advancements, multinational trade and immediate access to information, it
the future worker must be able to navigate the intricacies of the emerging global society and
labor force. As a result, the two themes that emerged from the data pertaining to Research
Question Two were initiatives created to enhance teacher training and professional development
and the push for English Language proficiency at the university level.
Initiatives for teacher development emerged as the first theme for Research Question
Two. Without a doubt, Costa Rican students need to develop the 21
st
century skills that will
allow them to succeed within the knowledge-based workforce. However, interview and survey
data suggested there was a student-teacher gap within Costa Rican classrooms, as teachers have a
difficult time connecting with the student of today. Document analysis and interview data
suggested that Costa Rican teachers fail to integrate emerging technologies as part of the course
curriculum which hinders student development within the knowledge-based workforce.
Furthermore, survey data highlighted that ITCR faculty members believe that students graduate
with the 21
st
century skills needed to enter the knowledge-based workforce while, in reality,
employers disagree. To help address this student-teacher gap, the ITCR created the Program for
Teaching Sustainability that aims to help professors integrate technology and 21
st
century skills
as part of their curriculum. The need for teachers to learn new and innovative ways to be able to
teach students is what the Partnership for 21
st
Century skills (2003) described as “lifelong
development.” Similarly, Wagner (2008) highlighted the importance of lifelong learning when
he called for the need to develop “agility and adaptability” within students as changing
technologies made it a as a pillar of the new global economy. As a result, it can be asserted that
teacher and professional development programs that seek to help faculty members develop and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 100
identify 21
st
century skills is a direct result of the presence of globalization and MNCs in Costa
Rica.
English language development emerged as a second theme for Research Question Two.
The literature reviewed highlighted the rise of global English as the new language of power
(Sonntang, 2003; Spring, 1998). Therefore, it is to the advantage of emerging nations to
integrate English language development programs as part of their core academic curriculum.
Interview data and document analysis were consistent with the literature and showed that English
language development has been incorporated as part of the core curriculum at the secondary and
higher education levels. The 2011 Estado de la Education (EdE) report highlighted that Costa
Rica revamped English language development programs as a result of the rising demand for a
knowledge-based workforce. Within higher education, the ITCR, incorporated 1 to 3 semesters
of English language courses to help students secure employment at one of the MNCs in Costa
Rica, since English is now an unspoken requirement for graduates. Although neither Wagner
(2008) nor the Partnership for 21
st
Century Skills (2003) called for the need to develop English
language skills, they did call for students to develop effective oral and written communication
skills to successfully enter the global market. In the case of Costa Rican students, however, the
21
st
century skills are now needed in two different languages. As a result, it can be asserted that
the demand for English language development is indeed a direct result of the influence of
globalization and MNCs in schools and universities in Costa Rica.
Research Question Three asked, how has educational leadership been impacted directly
by policy decisions that came as a result of the influence of globalization and multinational
corporations?” It has been established that globalization and MNCs in fact changed the
economic, cultural and political landscape in Costa Rica. By utilizing Bolman and Deal’s (2003)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 101
Four Leadership Frames as the analytical lens, interview data showed that the Costa Rica
educational system had a problem with the structural frame; therefore, it relied on the political
frame to create change in the educational system. As a result, the two themes that emerged from
data gathered to answer Research Question Three were the direct conflict between globalization
and Costa Rican bureaucracy and the initiatives created to graduate more Costa Rican engineers.
The direct conflict between globalization and Costa Rican bureaucracy emerged as the
first theme for Research Question Three. Interview data collected showed that leadership
development as a whole is stifled due to the bureaucracy that permeates throughout the
educational system in Costa Rica. Since leadership training is not included as part of the
curriculum of teacher development programs, students who wish to become educational leaders
need to enroll in another graduate degree to gain those skills. The issue, however, lies in the fact
that the country uses the same hiring standards from 1953 to hire new teachers, and these provide
no incentive to pursue additional training beyond the undergraduate degree. This is what
Bolman and Deal (2003) would describe as a structural frame issue and, in particular a
“professional bureaucracy issue” (Bolman and Deal, 2003). According to Bolman and Deal
(2003), a professional bureaucracy, “responds slowly to external change. Waves of reform
typically produce little impact because professionals often view any change in their surroundings
as an annoying distraction from their chose work” (p. 77). As such, due to interview findings, it
can be asserted that there is a direct conflict between the Costa Rican educational bureaucracy
and globalization’s demands for a knowledge-based workforce.
The political initiatives created to graduate more Costa Rican engineers emerged as a
second theme for Research Question Two. Due to the permeating bureaucracy that is present in
Costa Rica, any changes to the curriculum that have come about have been achieved through the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 102
work of CINDE. CINDE pushed for the new Costa Rican economic strategies that allow it to
revamp curriculum alongside universities to better prepare students to work for the MNCs.
Interview data shows that the ITCR has a positive relationship with CINDE and has been at the
forefront of these academic changes since Intel arrived in Costa Rica. Since there is no oversight
of universities by the MEP, it has been easier for CINDE to make these changes happen.
However, addressing changes at the higher education level does not help address the issue
completely, as the issue of a lack of a knowledge-based workforce stems from the secondary and
even primary levels.
Limitations
This case study examined the impact globalization and multinational corporations have
had on Costa Rica, its educational system and educational leadership. Since the core of the data
collection took place in Costa Rica, many potential subjects who could have benefitted from this
study were not included due to scheduling conflicts. A single trip did not provide ample time for
data collection, as it did not allow flexibility to accommodate schedules. Some members of the
thematic dissertation group were not present during some interviews to ask follow up questions
that could have benefitted individual case studies. In addition, some potential subjects who had
agreed to an interview were unable to be present due to scheduling changes. Within a small
window, it became difficult to reschedule those interviews at later a time/date. Moreover, a
language barrier was not an issue for the researcher, but, for some of the members who were not
fluent in Spanish, the language barrier was a limitation.
The researcher arrived at the ITCR when students were in final examinations. As a
result, classroom observations consisted of inspections of physical spaces as opposed to teacher-
student interactions. Having the ability to actually observe this interaction could have provided
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 103
additional insight into the development of 21
st
century skills and perhaps open the possibility of
interviewing faculty members not originally identified as participants. Although not being able to
conduct classroom observations was not detrimental to the development of this case study,
anyone who seeks to replicate this study should take into account university schedules to account
for university holidays and final examinations prior to scheduling a research trip.
Implications for Practice
This case study highlighted how the public and private sector can work together for the
development of a knowledge-based workforce. The success of the ITCR-Intel partnership can be
used as a model for other institutions of higher learning, in both developing and industrial
nations, that seek to establish similar partnership with the private sector. The partnership
allowed the ITCR to secure equipment, training and funding to ensure proper development of
academic programs that further prepare students to excel in their respective fields. In turn, the
partnership allowed Intel to secure the labor force it needed to be fully functional in Costa Rica.
This can be an effective model for other developing nations that seek to emulate the level of
success Costa Rica has had with FDI.
Interview data highlighted the importance of instilling the desire for lifelong learning
within both students and teachers in Costa Rica. Globalization and MNCs ushered a series of
changes that required individuals to learn new skills. However, as technologies continue to
evolve and another new series of skills will be required in the future, educational systems need to
instill within students the value of lifelong learning to ensure they adapt to changing demands of
the global economy. In the case of Costa Rica, the MEP needs to reevaluate teacher hiring
standards to ensure those who want to become better teachers are rewarded for pursuing more
training or graduate degrees.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 104
One of the things that can also be learned from this study is that educational systems need
to evolve to be able to meet the demands of globalization. Just like curriculum needs to grow to
help students develop the knowledge and 21
st
century skills needed to enter the global economy,
the structure of these educational systems also needs to adapt to the times. For example, the
accreditation of private universities in Costa Rica is something that must be addressed to ensure
college graduates enter the global economy fully equipped to practice their craft. Interview data
showed that graduates from private universities are not fully prepared to become teachers in
Costa Rica. Therefore, to ensure that the MEP or other governmental agency does not incur any
additional costs for having to re-train graduates from private universities, a series of minimum
standards or accreditation process needs to be put into place to ensure Costa Rican youth learn
from those best prepared to be in front of the classrooms.
Recommendations for Future Research
One of the major problems Costa Rica faces is the high dropout rate at the secondary
level coupled with the low college-going rate in the country, particularly with low-income
students (Estado, 2011). Both of these issues reduce the pipeline of students going to the
technical fields that would eventually prepare them to enter the labor force as a knowledge-based
worker. Without addressing these issues, Costa Rica will continue to find a shortage of highly
skilled workers. The Estado de la Educación report (2011) highlighted that the Costa Rican
workforce had a higher concentration of entry and mid-level technicians which furthers the need
for universities like the ITCR to attract students into the advanced technical fields. Furthermore,
some participants expressed concerns that low-income communities were being left behind as
Costa Rica engages further in globalization. For the country to truly prepare a knowledge-based
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 105
workforce, it is imperative that low income communities, both in the central region and the rural
outskirts of the country have access to the resources available to enter the global economy.
CINDE (2011) and the Estado de la Educación Report (2011) highlighted that there is a
decline on birthrates in Costa Rica. As a result, it is imperative that the country addresses equity
within its educational system. A decline on the country’s population will further impede the
development of a knowledge-based workforce the country needs to maintain. If all Costa Rican
children are not groomed to become knowledge-based workers as they progress through the
education system in the country, Costa Rica will face a further decline in this particular labor
force. As a result, it is important that children, both in the Central Region and the rural
communities of Costa Rica, are exposed to STEM education and English language development
programs from an early age as the country’s future may depend on it.
Conclusion
This case study examined the effects globalization and MNCs have had on Costa Rica, its
educational system and on educational leadership. With globalization becoming a major force
for economic change, developing nations need to quickly adapt in order to be able to gain access
to, and benefit from, the global economy. However, as in the case of Costa Rica, those nations
need to ensure that the country’s cultural richness is preserved despite any change that
globalization may bring. Judging from the Spring’s (2008) Culturalist framework, Costa Rica
has been effective in adapting its educational policies to benefit from the global economy while
maintaining its autonomy. The country has been effective in creating changes to the academic
curriculum to help further the development of a knowledge-based workforce.
There are two issues, however, that impede the strengthening of the development of a
knowledge-based workforce in Costa Rica: a teacher-student gap and educational equity. If
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 106
teachers are not equipped to instill within students the skills they need to enter the global
economy, it is then difficult for students to understand their value. As a result, teacher training
programs are an imperative but Costa Rica needs to secure teacher buy-in. If teachers do not see
a value for these training programs, then the cycle will continue. Furthermore, Costa Rican
leaders need to make sure that social stratification does not increase and that low-income
communities can also gain from the arrival of globalization and MNCs. Otherwise, what is the
point of creating an effective economic strategy that has revolutionized the country and its
future, if not every single Costa Rican citizen has an equal chance to benefit from it?

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 107
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Appendix A

Dear Mr. Leonardo Garnier,

A doctoral group at the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern California
(USC) is looking into an educational research study as a part of our dissertation process. The
purpose of our study is to understand what effects globalization and Multinational Corporation
have had on schools and universities in Costa Rica.Our study is asking the following questions:

Have policy decisions been influenced by the effects of globalization and multinational
corporations?
What role do school leaders play in this process?

As part of the study we are planning to visit Costa Rica for approximately two weeks to conduct
our research. This visit will occur in at the end of June/early July. We would appreciate an
opportunity to speak with you, other members of the Ministry of Education, and educational
leaders at district and school site levels.I It is our goal to survey and interview key individuals to
gather the data required for our study.

After speaking to a representative at the consulate, they suggested we contact you directly. We
know that you time is valuable, but we would appreciate any correspondence possible to go over
the purpose of our study.

Thank you for taking the time to read this request and feel free to contact us with any questions.
We are grateful for your help!

Sincerely,
Anita Arora, Sebastian Puccio, Josh Porter, Alex Macias
USC Doctoral Students

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 112
Appendix B
Survey Protocol for ITCR Faculty
Date:________________________ Location of Survey__________________
Directions: Rate your opinions regarding the following statements by circling the number that
best represents what you think.
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. Teacher training has changed to
promote twenty-first century skills such as
critical thinking, collaboration, and
communication

5

4

3

2

1
2. Collaboration amongst students takes
place daily

5

4

3

2

1

3. Technology is not used in your
classroom

5

4

3

2

1

4. Lessons promote higher level thinking

5

4

3

2

1

5. Curriculum reflects twenty-first century
skills such as critical thinking,
collaboration, and communication.

5

4

3

2

1

6. There is access to technology in the
classroom.

5

4

3

2

1

7. Intel has positively impacted your
school site.

5

4

3

2

1

8. Intel has not improved resources at
your school site.

5

4

3

2

1
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 113
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Students are college and/or career ready
with twenty-first century skills.

5

4

3

2

1

10. Teachers are held accountable to
implement twenty-first century skills in
the classroom.

5

4

3

3

1

11. The focus of education has changed at
your school site to incorporate twenty-first
century learning.

5

4

3

2

1

12. Educational decisions are not
influenced by multi-national corporations.

5

4

3

2

1

13. School site leaders are active
participants in implementation of twenty-
first century skills.

5

4

3

2

1

14. School site leaders communicate the
goals and the vision of the school to
teachers and students.

5

4

3

2

1

15. Is there evidence of the following can
be seen in your curriculum?

Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
16. Has the partnerships with Intel
impacted the following areas:

Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 114
Mathematics
Yes No
17. Has the minister of education
supported the emphasis on:

Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
18. Do you receive adequate support to
teach the curricula in following areas:

Science
Yes No
Technology
Yes No
Engineering
Yes No
Mathematics
Yes No
19. Do you believe that STEM education
is important to the economic future of
Costa Rica?

Yes No

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 115
Appendix C
Political/Policy Leader Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21
st

century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?
I. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.
1. What is your position and how is it connected with the education system in Costa
Rica?
2. How long have you been in your position?
II. Globalization
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 116
1. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
2. Do you feel that MNC's have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
3. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa
Rica?
4. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
5. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
6. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
III. 21
st
Century Learning
1. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
2. What is your influence on teacher training at schools and universities that promote
access and use of technology?
3. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
4. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel's
involvement?
5. Are you seeing a more prepared entry level worker?
IV. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of twenty-first century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. How have you impacted the focus of education at school sites?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 117
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current twenty-first century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of twenty-first century skills in
the classroom? How?
II. Document Collection
Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 118
Appendix D
MNC Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21
st

century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?
V. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.
3. What is your position and how is it connected with the education system in Costa
Rica?
4. How long have you been in your position?

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 119
VI. Globalization
7. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
8. Do you feel that MNC's have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
9. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa
Rica?
10. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
11. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
12. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
VII. 21
st
Century Learning
6. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
7. How has teacher training at schools and universities changed to promote the
access and use of technology?
8. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
9. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel's
involvement?
10. How are schools preparing students for entry level work for the twenty-first
century?
VIII. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of twenty-first century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at the school sites?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 120
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current twenty-first century
educational demands?
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of twenty-first century skills in
the classroom? How?
III. Document Collection
Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 121
Appendix E
School Leader Interview Protocol

Interviewer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Interviewee: __________________________ Location: __________________________
Job Title: _____________________ Contact Information: __________________________
Start Time: __________________________ End Time: __________________________

Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation].
During this conversation, we are hoping to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your
experiences with regards the changes in the education system in Costa Rica. This study’s
ultimate goal is to better understand how schools are preparing students to be prepared with 21
st

century skills.
I want to assure you that your comments will be strictly confidential. We will not identify you, or
your organization, by name. I would like to record this interview in order to have an accurate
record of our conversation. Would that be okay?
This interview should not take longer than 60 minutes. Do you have any questions before we
begin?
IX. Background
Before we ask you specific questions, we would like to start by asking you about your
background.
5. What is your position at [insert affiliation]?
6. How long have you been in your position?
X. Globalization
13. We define globalization as economic changes that have occurred as a result of a
global market. What changes have you seen in Costa Rica as a result of
globalization?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 122
14. Do you feel that MNC's have contributed to these changes in Costa Rica?
15. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the socioeconomic factors in Costa
Rica?
16. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the cultural factors in Costa Rica
17. How has globalization and MNC's impacted the political factors in Costa Rica?
18. How has globalization and MNCs directly affected your profession?
XI. 21
st
Century Learning
11. How has teacher training and curriculum at schools and universities changed to
promote 21st century skills? (such as critical thinking, collaboration and
communication)
12. How has professional development at schools and universities changed to
promote the access and use of technology?
13. How has globalization and the presence of MNCs affected educational policy?
14. What are the changes you have seen in school resources due to Intel's
involvement?
15. How are school's preparing students for the twenty-first century workforce?
XII. Leadership Traits
1. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of twenty-first century skills in
the classroom? How?
2. Has the focus of education changed at your school site?
3. Has educational leadership changed due to political influence of Intel?
4. Have the expectations changed in the hiring and training of teachers?
5. How have educational leaders changed to meet the current twenty-first century
educational demands?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 123
6. Who is accountable to ensure the implementation of twenty-first century skills in
the classroom? How?
IV. Document Collection
Does [Insert organization] have any documents that address the questions we have asked
you or that may provide additional information for this study?

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 124
Appendix F
Classroom Observation Tool
Date:________________________
Location of Observation__________________ Observer:_________________
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
1. The classroom reflects an emphasis on
bilingual education specifically towards
English

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
2. Collaboration amongst students takes
place in the classroom

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 125
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
3. Technology is used in the classroom

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
4. Lessons promote higher level thinking

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 126
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
5. Curriculum reflects twenty-first century
skills

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
6. There is access to technology in the
classroom

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 127
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
7. There is student work posted in the
classroom reflective of twenty-first
century skills

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
8. Students are engaged in the classroom

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 128
Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
9. Student desks are set-up in a
collaborative manner

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

Question Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly
Disagree
Don’t
Know
10. Student centered instruction is evident
in the classroom

4

3

2

1

0
Field Notes:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applied three frameworks to determine the effects globalization and Multinational Corporations (MNCs) have had on Costa Rica and its educational system. Spring’s (2007) framework examining the relationship between globalization and education framed Costa Rica’s response to the global economy. Wagner’s (2008) Seven Survival Skills highlighted the competences expected from a knowledge‐based workforce. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Leadership Frames examined how educational leadership evolved as a result of the influence of globalization and MNCs. Via interviews of political, industry and educational leaders, surveys of faculty members, classroom observations and document analysis, this case study examined the partnership between Intel and the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica to determine the level of said influence. Data was collected during a single trip to Costa Rica and coded to find emerging themes that answered the research questions. Findings from this study suggest that globalization and MNCs have influenced the Costa Rican political, educational and economic arenas. The presence of MNCs in particular helped propel Costa Rica’s transition from an agrarian economy to a leading exporter of hi‐tech devices. Changes to the academic curriculum, the push for a bilingual knowledge‐based workforce and teacher development programs are part of the initiatives created to give Costa Rica a competitive edge within the global economy. This study highlights that, despite the positive changes achieved, Costa Rica’s educational system has not fully evolved to meet the demands of globalization and MNCs within the country.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Martinez, Felipe (author)

Core Title The influence of globalization and multinational corporations on schools and universities in Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/24/2014

Defense Date 02/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Costa Rica,global economy,Globalization,ITCR,leadership,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Martinez, Brandon (committee member), McCarty, Cynthia (committee member)

Creator Email felipe0307@gmail.com,felipema@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-384783

Unique identifier UC11297457

Identifier etd-MartinezFe-2411.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-384783 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MartinezFe-2411.pdf

Dmrecord 384783

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Martinez, Felipe

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA