University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Effective leadership practices of principals of low socioeconomic status high schools consisting of predominantly African-American and Latino students showing sustained academic improvement

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Effective leadership practices of principals of low socioeconomic status high schools consisting of predominantly African-American and Latino students showing sustained academic improvement

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Content EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 1
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF PRINCIPALS OF LOW SOCIOECONOMIC
STATUS HIGH SCHOOLS CONSISTING OF PREDOMINANTLY AFRICAN-AMERICAN
AND LATINO STUDENTS SHOWING SUSTAINED ACADEMIC IMPROVEMENT

by

Bobby Walker

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2015

Copyright 2015 Bobby Walker
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 2

Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to several family members who have transitioned. Although
they are not here on Earth to share this moment, I know that they are looking down on me and
are proud of my accomplishments. To my stepfather Herman Baker Jr., uncles Joe Stringfellow
and Frank Stringfellow Jr., my grandparents Frank and Carrie Stringfellow Sr., and Lila Johnson;
I know that you will always be with me in sprit forever.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 3
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Drs. Pedro Garcia, Rudy Castruita, and Andrew McTaggart for their
professional and personal guidance in completion of this dissertation. Additionally, I would also
like to thank Dr. Robert Yates for bringing out and instilling the confidence in my abilities
throughout the program here at the University of Southern California. Additionally, I would like
to thank my mother Barbara Baker for her unlimited love and encouragement; without true
motivation and commitment from her, this accomplishment would never be possible. To my wife
Karen; my rock and soul mate. She never allowed me to give up during this journey. My
daughter Alanna; she is and will always be my number one girl. I hope that daddy has made you
proud. Last, thanks to all my family and friends who have been extremely supportive throughout
this process.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2

Acknowledgments 3

List of Tables 7

Abstract 8

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 9

Background of the Problem 10

Statement of the Problem 18

Purpose of the Study 19

Research Questions 19

Significance of the Study 20

Methodology 20

Limitations 21

Delimitations 21

Definition of Terms 21

Organization of the Study 22

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 24

The History of School Principals 25

Leadership Styles in Education 26

Authoritative Leadership 27

Democratic Leadership 28

Laissez-Faire Leadership 28

Contingency Leadership 29

Transformational Leadership 30

Participative Leadership 30

Instructional Leadership 30

Moral Leadership 31

Managerial Leadership 31

Effective Leadership Practices 31

Characteristics of Effective Principals 40

Leading the Instructional Program 40

Effective Management of School Operations 41

Cultivating a Vision of Academic Success 41

Leading with Justice for all Stakeholders 42

Effective Collaboration with all Stakeholders 43

Perceptions of Leaders 43

Principals 43

Teachers 44

Parents and Community 45

Superintendents 46

Research Gaps 48

Summary of Literature 49

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 51

Method of Study 52

Sample and Population 52

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 5
Instrumentation 53

Qualitative Methods 53

Quantitative Methods 54

Data Collection 54

Interviews 55

Surveys 55

Data Analysis 56

Interviews 56

Surveys 56

Summary 57

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 59

Coding of Data 62

Analysis of Findings 63

Research Question One – What are the successful instructional and operational
strategies employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that
have shown sustained academic improvement? 63

Summary of Research Question One 78

Research Question Two - What support do these principals provide for the staff
to be able to implement instructional and operational strategies to improve
African-American and Latino student achievement? 79

Summary of Research Question Two 82

Research Question Three - What support does the central office provide for
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement in implementing instructional and operational strategies
to improve African-American and Latino student achievement? 83

Summary of Research Question Three 86

Research Question Four - How do these principals evaluate the success of
instructional and operational strategies they have implemented to improve
African-American and Latino student achievement? 86

Summary of Research Question Four 89

Discussion 90

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS 93

Summary of Findings 94

Research Question One - What are the successful instructional and operational
strategies employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that
have shown academic improvement? 94

Research Question Two - What support do these principals provide for the staff
to be able to implement instructional and operational strategies to improve
African-American and Latino student achievement? 95

Research Question Three - What support does the central office provide for
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement in implementing instructional and operational strategies
to improve African-American and Latino student achievement? 96

Research Question Four - How do these principals evaluate the success of
instructional and operational strategies they have implemented to improve
African-American and Latino student achievement? 97

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 6
Implications for Practice 98

Recommendations 98

Limitations 100

Future Research 100

Conclusion 101

References 104

Appendix A Teacher/Staff Survey 119

Appendix B Interview Protocol (Principals) 125

Appendix C Teacher Recruitment Letter 127

Appendix D Principals Recruitment Letter 128

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Analysis Plan 57

Table 2: Five-Year API Trend 60

Table 3: Students by Ethnicity and Free and Reduced-price Lunch 61

Table 4: Professional Experience of Principals in the Study 61

Table 5: Instructional and Operational Challenges of Principals in the Study 62

Table 6: California Education Code, UC, and CSU High School Graduation Requirements 68

Table 7: Survey Data from Questions 9, 24, and 28 (in percentage) 70

Table 8: Instructional Strategies employed by Principals 70

Table 9: Operational Strategies Employed by Principals 71

Table 10: Professional Development Employed by Principals in Study 81

Table 11: District Administrative Trainings of Principals in the Study 84

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 8
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify and investigate the effective leadership
strategies used by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have demonstrated
sustained academic improvement. Moreover, this study sought to examine 1) the successful
instructional and operational strategies employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high
schools resulting in sustained academic improvement, 2) the support principals provide for the
staff in implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement, 3) support provided to high school principals by the central office to
implement the selected strategies, and 4) the manner in which principals evaluate the success of
instructional and operational strategies they implemented to improve and sustain African-
American and Latino student achievement. This study consisted of a mixed-methods approach
in which four (4) high school principals participated in a structured interview using twelve (12)
open-ended questions. Additionally, teachers, staff, and other stakeholders from the four (4)
selected high schools completed a 50-question online survey to gain more information in order to
answer the research questions. Each principal interviewed provided descriptive details of the best
instructional and operational practices s/he employed at his/her respective schools. Upon
analyzing the data collected from the interviews and surveys, emergent themes were discovered
in terms of the best instructional and operational practices, the high priority given by central
office personnel to assist each principal in employment of their selected best practices, and the
positive outcome of African-American and Latino student achievement. Hence, this study
provides valuable information, insight, and optimism in that the correct utilization of effective
leadership practices can lead to closing the achievement gap for African-American and Latino
students.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
In 2001, President George W. Bush championed a historic piece of legislation designed
to close the achievement gap for students of underrepresented ethnic and low socioeconomic
backgrounds and disability status. Thus, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) or, the reauthorization of
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in 2002, set forth standards to ensure that
students in schools across the nation attain satisfactory academic progress (Causey-Bush, 2005).
Moreover, these standards demand that schools achieve satisfactory progress for students in
different subgroups each school year.
Today, many schools remain under extreme pressure from federal and local governments,
as well as the community, to ensure that students meet certain goals necessary to succeed in
today’s society. More importantly, America’s high schools are under increased demand to
produce tomorrow’s productive citizens for society. Hence, teachers and school administrators
continuously seek ways and methods to improve high schools in order to achieve school and
district goals. Sadly, many school districts fail to create higher performing schools (Ravitch,
2010). As a result, school districts across the nation frequently replace administrators of low
performing schools (Ravitch, 2010). In many instances, their successors are confronted with the
same issues and yield the same results.
By contrast, many high schools in America succeed in delivering high quality instruction
(Martineau, 2012). In addition, these schools employ successful strategies to improve and
maintain satisfactory levels of student achievement (Crum & Sherman, 2008). Although there are
many high schools across California that fail to achieve Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) and meet
the Academic Performance Index (API), some are regarded as successful schools. Thus, NCLB
policies would rank these schools as high performing institutions. As a result, high-performing
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 10
schools escape the harsh sanctions placed on low-performing schools under NCLB (Causey-
Bush, 2005).
Schools have an obligation to provide the best quality instruction to students. Most
critically, high school students are expected to yield great results in order for this nation to
succeed with the rest of the world. Henceforth, educators suggest that the improvement of
America’s high schools remains important for this nation to compete with the rest of the world
(Ravitch, 2011; Rumberger, 1987). Additionally, these improvements include meeting or
exceeding Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) and Academic Performance Index (API) targets as
described by the California Department of Education.
Background of the Problem
NCLB categorizes many high schools across America as low performing (Ravitch, 2011).
Moreover, NCLB mandates the placement of these schools in Program Improvement (PI) status.
Therefore, placement in this status subjects these institutions to sanctions that may lead to the
closure of the school. Since schools are a staple of the communities they serve, there exists great
urgency to improve the instructional practices of low performing schools (Elmore, 2003). In fact,
Elmore (2003) asserts that many of these schools, located in urban areas, possess the greatest
concentrations of students classified as holding low socioeconomic status. Moreover, many of
these students are of African-American and Latino ancestry (Elmore, 2003).
At present, many low performing high schools are staffed by teachers who lack
experience in the teaching profession compared to their counterparts at high performing schools
(Togneri, 2003). In fact, many teachers employed at low-performing or PI high schools have
fewer than five years of teaching experience compared to their higher performing counterparts
(Togneri, 2003). Moreover, McIver and Farley (2006) suggest that many teachers in low-
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 11
performing schools receive rudimentary and/or inadequate staff development. Hence, educators
who service students in low-performing schools fail to receive the proper and necessary training
and strategies to address the existing performance gaps to ensure student and school success.
Correspondingly, high schools serving low income students are more likely to have higher
percentages of teachers who lack the necessary qualifications to teach core courses such as
English and math (Amos, 2008).
Moreover, financial issues beset many schools, preventing the improvement of higher
educational outcomes from students. In particular, Yeboah, Faulkner, and Appiah-Danquah
(2010) assert that economic situation correlates with student performance. As a result, poorer
students are seven times more likely to fail in finishing high school requirements as compared to
their wealthier counterparts (Yeboah et. al., 2010). In this regard, in 2011, the state of California
ranked near the bottom in per pupil spending (Fensterwald, 2011). In fact, California spends
approximately 8,842 dollars per K-12 student, which is 28 percent below the national average
(Fensterwald, 2011). Additionally, California ranked near the bottom in the use of state and local
taxable resources towards education, currently at 2.9 percent (Fensterwald, 2011). Furthermore,
according to Borba (2003) sixty percent of all minority students in thirty-one states with high
minority enrollments receive fewer resources and less funding than districts with low minority
student enrollment.
From the time of implementation of NCLB, the charter school movement has stagnated
and harmed many schools in their quest for improvement. Ravitch (2010) asserts that charter
schools successfully managed to siphon talented students away from low performing public
schools. Sadly, many charter schools fail to fare better than low-performing schools. To this
effect, many parents return their students to public schools (Ravitch, 2010). Furthermore, when
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 12
some students return to low-performing public schools, they are worse off than before they left
(Ravitch, 2010). Nevertheless, Carpenter and Medina (2011) state many public school districts
fail to investigate why parents choose to take their children out of public schools and enroll them
in charter schools. Additionally, Carpenter and Medina (2011) add that, since many public
schools resent charter schools, public school administrators fail to investigate why parents are
enamored by what they offer students. Alas, if public schools fail to investigate and implement
strategies utilized by charter schools, public schools will experience declining enrollment and
lose talented students (Carpenter & Medina, 2011).
Additionally, flaws in NCLB augment various issues that remain detrimental to schools.
Under NCLB, schools face severe sanctions for failing to achieve certain academic goals. For
example, many schools resort to swift practices, such as test-prep strategies targeting low
performing students in an attempt to improve their scores and standing under NCLB guidelines
(Elmore, 2003). Therefore, according to Elmore (2003), many schools over-invest in testing and
other “quick fixes” to improve test scores, while failing to place emphasis on long-term solutions
to solve the achievement gap. Thus, Elmore (2003) suggest that schools only resort to these
tactics simply to raise test scores and improve short-term achievement.
Furthermore, major future implications remain at stake for high school students who fail
to obtain adequate educational credentials. According to a 2002 United States Census Bureau
report, high school graduates can earn up to $30,400 annually compared to $23,400 annually for
non-high school graduates (Day & Newburger, 2002). In fact, individuals stand to earn further
monetary compensation by furthering their educational endeavors. Actually, an individual can
earn up to $52,000 annually with a bachelor’s degree, up to $62,300 annually with a master’s
degree, and $89,000 to $109,600 annually with a professional degree or doctorate (Day &
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 13
Newburger, 2002). Notwithstanding, evidence suggests the impact of a solid education for an
individual offers enhancement of employment opportunities with above average compensation
(Amos, 2008; Day & Newburger, 2002). However, Ravitch (2011), states that low-performing
schools continue to lack the educational tools necessary to prepare students for future
employment endeavors. Thus, many high school students fail to receive adequate opportunities
to obtain gainful employment due to issues that persists in low-performing high schools (Amos,
2008).
Since a correlation exists between one’s educational attainment and monetary
compensation from employment, lower levels of educational attainment result in negative
consequences for the nation’s economy. For instance, non-high school graduates lack the skills
necessary to obtain employment; therefore, they create a burden on the economy (Rumberger,
1987). In fact, Stanard (2003) states that, in 2000, the unemployment rate was 56% for high
school dropouts as compared to 16% for high school graduates. Moreover, non-high school
graduates possess difficulties in obtaining and sustaining gainful employment and are more
likely to increase the demand on social services (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007).
Furthermore, many non-high school graduates are more likely to have children out of wedlock
(Rumberger, 2011). This situation tends to result in children born out of wedlock receiving
government assistance and creating an additional drain on social services (Rumberger, 2011).
Therefore, by low-performing high schools failing to prepare and graduate students, they further
contribute to society’s dependence on social services.
Additionally, diminished opportunities of employment for high school dropouts
contribute to the reduction of national income and tax revenues (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson,
2007). In fact, billions of dollars may potentially be lost in terms of personal income (Amos,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 14
2008; Christle et. al., 2007). As a result, U.S. personal income per capita is projected to decline
from $21,591 in 2000 to $ 21,196 in 2020 due to the increase of non-high school graduates
(Amos, 2008). Moreover, the current graduation rate at low-performing high schools the United
States is estimated to cost the United States Government over 3 trillion dollars in lost Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and tax revenue over the next decade (Amos, 2008).
Of similar importance, many low-performing schools service students of color, in
particular African-American and Latino students. In fact, according to the California Department
of Education (2012), the demographics of many low-performing high schools consist of over 90
percent minority students. As a result, Caucasian and Asian American students graduate at rates
higher than their African-American and Latino counterparts. In fact, Amos (2008) states that
African-American, Latino, and Native American students graduate at rates 20 percentage points
below their Caucasian and Asian American counterparts. In fact, the graduation gap between
Latino and African-American students is more than 25 percentage points lower as compared to
their Caucasian and Asian counterparts in some states while the graduation gap between Native
Americans and Caucasians graduation remains much wider (Amos, 2008). Moreover, in
California, the African-American high school graduation rate for the 2012 cohort was 65.7
percent, compared to 73.2 percent for Latinos, 86.4 percent for Caucasians, and 91 percent for
Asians (California Department of Education, 2012). Thus, the aforementioned data reveals that
high school graduation rates for African-American and Latino students lag far behind their
Caucasian and Asian peers.
In some cases, non-high school graduates are more susceptible to run afoul of the law
than high school graduates. Currently, the United States has the highest per capita prison
population in the world, followed by Russia and South Africa (Amos, 2008). While dropping out
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 15
of high school does not necessarily mean that an individual will lead a criminal life, African-
American and Latino high school dropouts are more susceptible to come into contact with law
enforcement than their Caucasian and Asian counterparts who graduate from high school. As a
result, high school dropouts are two times more likely to engage in criminal activity and face
severe lengths of incarceration (Rumberger, 2011). In fact, high school dropouts are more likely
to serve prison and jail sentences. According to Amos (2008), a federal report revealed that 75
percent of state and 60 percent of federal African-American male inmates did not receive a high
school diploma. Yet more alarming, many high school dropouts currently or previously
incarcerated between the ages of sixteen to twenty-four are African-American and Latino males
(Amos, 2008; Rumberger, 2011). As a further result, Rumberger (2011) states that African-
American and Latino males who lack a high school education face incarceration rates over three
times that of their Caucasian counterparts. Additionally, David Garland, as cited by Rumberger
(2011), states that African-American male high school dropouts face the lengthiest rates of
incarceration. In fact, Garland refers to this issue as “mass imprisonment of African-American
males in America” (Rumberger, 2011, p. 96).
Additionally, all schools are required to provide equal instructional time in a given
timeframe as compared to their high performing counterparts (Resnick and Hall, 2003). Hence,
all students across the nation possess a right to receive the maximum and equitable amount of
allowable education in a prescribed timeframe to ensure their success (Resnick and Hall, 2003).
However, due to budget constraints, many schools across the nation have limited instructional
time (Farbman, Christie, Davis, Griffith, & Zinth, 2011). In effect, these budget constraints
hindered academic the academic progress of students (Pennington, 2006). Since budgetary
constraints negatively affect low performing schools, several strategies and implementations are
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 16
necessary to improve student educational outcomes for overall school progress (Farbman, et. al.,
2011). Respectively, Pennington (2006) notes that the increase of instructional minutes remains
the only recommendation of the “Nation at Risk” report that have not been implemented by
schools.
Evidence suggests that a correlation exists between educational attainment and health.
Since a direct correlation exists between one’s educational attainment and employment
opportunities, high school graduates are more likely to gain solid employment with access to
health benefits (Rumberger, 2011). As a result, high school graduates are more likely to possess
lower mortality rates, are more likely to abstain from risky behavior (smoking, unprotected sex,
and poor nutritional habits), and receive preventative health care as compared to non-high school
graduates (Begier, Li, & Maduro, 2013; Rumberger, 2011). Additionally, college and high
school graduates are 95 and 77 percent more likely to have employer-sponsored health insurance
plans compared to 67 percent of non-high school graduates (Amos, 2008). Of similar
importance, the cognitive and metacognitive development an individual achieves while
participating in the full educational process allows them to develop positive psychological
growth (Rumberger, 2011). Thus, high school graduates possess lower possibilities of
developing psychological issues as opposed to non-high school graduates (Rumberger, 1987,
2011).
Research and evidence suggest that extracurricular activities play a key role in retaining
students and contributing to their matriculation from high school. In fact, schools that offer
extracurricular activities, such as athletics, music and other fine arts, are likely to have lower
non-graduate rates. Mahoney and Cairns (1997) assert that schools that offer a vast array of
extracurricular activities to high-risk students experience lower dropout rates than schools that
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 17
have little or no extracurricular activities for high-risk students. However, since many schools
have reduced staff funding, many schools have been forced to cut extracurricular activities that
keep children interested in school (Mahoney and Cairns, 1997). Moreover, extracurricular
activities, such as fine arts and academic organizations and programs, promote the rise of
academic skill and success in students (Holloway, 2000). Moreover, extracurricular activities
build students’ social skills because it allows them to interact with other students during
competition and other events (Darling, Caldwell, & Smith, 2005; Holloway, 2000). Furthermore,
data reveals that high school students participating in athletics are 40 percent less likely to drop
out of high school (Holloway, 2000). Thus, research and literature support the notion that at-risk
students’ participation in extracurricular activities assists them in remaining and graduating from
high school (Holloway, 2000; Mahoney & Cairns, 1997).
In addition, the role of counselors in ensuring that students achieve satisfactory academic
performance remains critical (White & Kelly, 2010). Although the role of the school counselor
has evolved of the years, there have only been minimal gains in the high school graduation rate.
In fact, the high school graduation rate has only risen 2 percentage points over the last several
years (Warren & Halpern-Manners, 2007; White & Kelly, 2010). In fact, over the last several
years, schools counselors have experienced a shift in the way they deliver services to students.
According to White and Kelly (2010), high school counselors have not only been forced to
ensure that students are programmed into courses ensuring their success, but they must offer
interventions designed to keep students from dropping out of high school. Although issues facing
many students remain systemic, high school counselors today must be trained, equipped, and
lead to assist as many students as possible so they may successfully graduate from high school
(White & Kelly, 2010).
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 18
Woefully, when students are successful in achieving satisfactory academic progress and
matriculate from high school, they remain unprepared for the rigors of college and/or university
coursework. Although many states attempt to entice colleges and universities to collaborate with
K-12 districts, local and state polices inhibit transformations necessary to improve students’
college readiness (Schroder, 2005). Clearly, this remains an important issue, as 73 percent of
future vocations in the United States will mandate that individuals possess postsecondary
education or training for consideration of employment (Moore, Slate, Edmonson, Combs,
Bustamante, & Onwuegbuzie, 2010). More importantly, clear indicators are needed so that high
school administrators and teachers can assist students in being accepted and successful in college
(Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). However, when high school students are successful in
college attainment, they are forced to take remedial courses that offer no credit towards
necessary degree requirements (Moore et. al., 2010). For this reason, over 50 percent of college
graduates fail to complete the requirement necessary to obtain a bachelor’s degree in 4 years
(Moore et. al., 2010).
Statement of the Problem
A larger number of high schools are low performing. More importantly, these schools
have low graduation rates, and their students are not excelling academically (Borba, 2003;
California Department of Education, 2012). Many of these students are of African-American and
Latino descent and come from low socioeconomic backgrounds. These results influence the
economy and the very social fabric of the country because there is a strong correlation among
low academic performance, involvement in the legal system, and lack of full income attainment,
which particularly affect African-Americans and Latinos (Amos, 2008; Rumberger, 2011).
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 19
On the other hand, there are many high schools experiencing high levels of poverty and
limited resources that serve African-American and Latino students who perform at high levels
(Lashway, 2004). This study investigated the effective leadership practices instituted by high
school principals in these high-performing low socioeconomic status high schools that mostly
serve African-American and Latino student populations.
Purpose of the Study
This study investigated and ascertained the effective strategies that principals employ at
low socioeconomic status high schools. Moreover, the most important strategies used by
principals in low socioeconomic status high schools that show sustained academic progress were
identified to solve key issues in low-performing high schools. Additionally, in order to obtain
different types of information to answer the research questions, a mixed-methods study was
conducted so that the effective practices of high school principals could be analyzed. Moreover,
this mixed-methods study will consist of interviews and surveys.
Research Questions
1) What are the successful instructional and operational strategies employed by
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement?
2) What support do these principals provide for the staff to be able to implement
instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
3) What support does the central office provide for principals low socioeconomic status
high schools that have shown sustained academic progress in implementing
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 20
instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
4) How do these principals evaluate the success of instructional and operational
strategies they have implemented to improve African-American and Latino student
achievement?
Significance of the Study
The demands of high school principals remain very high. Additionally, high school
principals are under increased pressure to graduate students and ensure they are ready for the
rigors that await them. Moreover, with common core standards on the horizon, the pressures to
ensure that high school students are ready and possess the 21
st
century skills they need for
success remain great.
Methodology
The researcher employed a mixed-methods study consisting of interviews of high school
principals and surveys of high school principals, teachers, and staff. Moreover, the interviews
focused on effective leadership practices and methods used by principals at low socioeconomic
status high schools that show sustained progress over a five-year period. Surveys of teachers and
staff regarding the employment of these strategies were also investigated for this study. The
selection of high school principals for this study was derived from information contained from
the California Department of Education’s (CDE) similar schools report of high schools of low
socioeconomic status revealing longitudinal academic growth over 4-5 years.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 21
Limitations
Since selection of high school principals depends on the sustained academic progress
over a five-year period, limitations regarding their level of experience, education, and ethnicity
exist.
Delimitations
For the purposes of this study, principals of low socioeconomic status high schools
showing sustained academic improvement were interviewed. Additionally, questioning of
selected principals of low socioeconomic status high schools consisted of questions relative to
the study. It was anticipated that principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that show
sustained academic improvement would provide honest responses and data for the study.
Moreover, selection of high schools possessing various levels of socioeconomic status among
their populations may be concluded in the study.
Definition of Terms
Academic Performance Index (API) – Refers to the overall academic performance of schools and
their comparative rank to similar schools. Schools that achieve API scores of 800 and above are
eligible to apply for California Distinguished School status.
1. Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) – Measurement of academic performance and growth of
twenty-one student subgroups as defined by the Federal No Child Left Behind Act.
2. College Readiness – denotes students who have graduated from an accredited high school
with the knowledge and tools necessary to successfully enter and graduate from a college
or university.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 22
3. High Performing Schools – Reference to schools that achieve higher API scores than
schools of similar rank and demographics. Furthermore, these schools are not placed in
Program Improvement (PI) status.
4. High School Dropout – Students who fail to matriculate from high school with their
incoming 8
th
grade class are considered high school dropouts.
5. Local Educational Agency (LEA) – Commonly known and referred to as a school district
governed by local elected board members.
6. Low-Performing Schools – Schools that possess lower API scores than schools of similar
rank and demographics. Additionally, these schools are considered as schools in Program
Improvement (PI) status.
7. Program Improvement (PI) – Schools that fail to reach required and projected yearly API
and AYP levels are subject to Program Improvement status. Schools placed on this status
must submit plans to their school district or Local Educational Agency (LEA) on what
and how they will improve their educational program.
Organization of the Study
This study consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 outlines the introduction of the NCLB law
and the need to improve low-performing high schools. Moreover, it also includes a statement and
background of the problem, which highlights the consequences of students’ attending low-
performing high schools. Chapter 2 of the study contains a review of the literature highlighting
current effective leadership practices of principals of high-performing high schools. The
methodology, located in Chapter 3, describes the instruments of measure and data reporting.
Chapter 4 contains the findings of the study from the research conducted. Finally, Chapter 5
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 23
summarizes the research, offers recommendations for improvement, and future implications
deserving of further study.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 24
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
It takes many years for schools to achieve high-performing status. Furthermore, skilled
leaders are needed to implement and guide effective strategies to build school capacity in order
to nurture students and teachers. In fact, Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) state that school
leaders and principals can greatly affect student academic achievement. In fact, research reveals
that improvement in leadership skills of school principals and leaders can increase student test
scores as much as ten percentage points (Marzano et al., 2005; Sanzo, Sherman, & Clayton,
2010). However, leadership styles and strategies must be tailored to fit the unique dynamics of a
school site (Marzano et al., 2005).
Since the signing of the 2000 Federal Elementary and Secondary Educational Act
(ESEA) or No Child Left Behind (NCLB), schools across America have until the 2013-14 school
year to bring students in all subgroups to proficiency (Ferrell, 2005). This element of NCLB
remains significant, as many low-performing high schools have not achieved success in reaching
targets of proficiency for all of their students. Moreover, with the constant financial constraints
that have plagued California schools in securing funding to improve student outcomes, the task
to turn high schools into high-performing schools remains arduous for principals.
Of significance, the myriad different rules and regulations that California school
administrators must follow requires strategies and skills. However, the state of California offers
little, if any, support for administrative capacity for school administrators to navigate the
assortment of restrictive rules and regulations related to school governance (Loeb, Bryk, &
Hanushek, 2008). Compounding this effect, California currently ranks near the bottom in per-
pupil spending, even though California generates more revenue than other heavily-populated
states such as Texas and Florida (Loeb et al., 2008). Hence, with the increased accountability of
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 25
school principals, the need for successful leadership skills and strategies becomes great (Sanzo et
al., 2010).
The History of School Principals
The evolution of the school principal underwent significant transformations throughout
the history of the American education system. However, during the 18
th
century, education was
not held in as great esteem as other professions in America (Marzano, Frontier, & Livingston,
2011). Thus, school principals were not in demand. Conversely, in the early part of the 19
th

century, teachers ran schools, as there were no principals (Goodwin, Cunningham, & Eagle,
2005). Additionally, according to Goodwin et al. (2005), teachers performed other non-teaching
tasks such as janitorial, clerical, and required administrative duties. However, as the population
and schools grew, the need for principal teachers arose (Goodwin et al., 2005). During this time,
teacher principals also performed multiple non-teaching duties. According to Drue (1981), in
addition to overseeing schools, teacher principals also served as the town clerk, court messenger,
and local mortician.
Towards the beginning of the 20
th
century, the role of the modern principal began to take
shape. In fact, during the mid-1800’s, local school boards began to define the duties and
responsibilities of school principals (Goodwin et al., 2005). During this time, organized interest
groups such as parents, teachers, and local elected officials demanded that school principals take
expanded roles in school governance (Katz, 2009). Moreover, during the second Industrial
Revolution in the United States, the demands for quality schools and the need for school
administrators grew along with the population in large urban areas (Marzano et al., 2011). The
need for school principals arose due to the professional qualifications they possessed. Marzano et
al. state that many school principals were trained or skilled in other professions such as law
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 26
enforcement or the clergy. Therefore, Katz (2009) laments that these groups sought a shift in
school paradigm structure from equity to quality. Therefore, the responsibilities of the school
principal expanded to duties beyond instructional ones. This leads to school principals being held
responsible for accounting, management of school records, and overall school governance (Katz,
2009; Ravitch, 2011).
In today’s educational setting, school principals are held responsible for daily school
operations, playing a large role in the success of students and teachers. Moreover, school
administrators face the enormous task of improving schools using strong instructional leadership
and innovative strategies (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, Meyerson, Orr, & Terry, 2007).
Furthermore, current school principals must lead schools that serve a vast array of students with
various needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007). Therefore, in order for school principals to reach
these goals and gain success in school improvement, they must be ambassadors of change,
experts in curriculum and assessment, and promoters of the development of teachers and staff
(Beatriz, Hunter, & Hopkins 2008; Darling-Hammond et al., 2007).
Leadership Styles in Education
Principals across the nation utilize different styles of leadership to improve schools.
Additionally, the task of the school principal today remains difficult, as they are responsible for
improving test results as opposed to running school operations (Fullan, 2007). While
accountability remains crucial under current federal legislation, the need for effective leadership
styles is important in effectively transforming schools into positive learning environments
(Elmore, 2003; Pepper, 2010). Although leadership and management are synonymous in the
daily operations of a school principal, there are differences between the two. In fact, Kotter, as
stated by Pepper (2010), asserts that leadership is a facilitated guided process for organizations to
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 27
change circumstances or to reach a goal. Conversely, the definition of management is processes
facilitated by an individual for the sole purpose of running an organization (Kotter, 1996).
Hence, Bolman and Deal (2008) assert that leadership and management are often confused
because leaders are not always managers.
Although various styles of leadership exist, only a few have been identified and utilized
early in the business and educational realm. The first attempt to ascertain and identify the
different styles of leadership occurred in the 1930’s at the University of Iowa (Lewin, Lippitt, &
White, 1939). Because of this study, the three varieties of leadership were revealed: authoritarian
leadership, democratic leadership, and laissez-faire leadership (Lewin et al., 1939).
Authoritative Leadership
Authoritative leaders are those who give direct and specific instructions and offer those
they lead no input (Goleman, 2000). Moreover, these types of leaders are power-oriented and
coercive, taking full control of all responsibilities of their followers (Bass & Bass, 2009). In fact,
authoritative leaders mobilize individuals towards a vision or goal via their position of power
(Goleman, 2000). In the case of school principals, they possess the ultimate authority to
complete all school-related tasks from beginning to end (Goleman, 2000). Additionally, Lewin et
al. (1939) and Goleman (2000) state that authoritative leadership strategies function best during
times when goals and visions need to be accomplished swiftly. Furthermore, individuals who are
visionaries and strong leaders mostly utilize authoritative leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008;
Goleman, 2000). However, it remains noted that authoritative leaders are not necessarily
managers; they are individuals who possess authoritative positions within an organizational
structure (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Goleman, 2000).

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 28
Democratic Leadership
Democratic leadership is the total opposite of authoritative leadership. Under the auspices
of democratic or egalitarian leadership, the promotion of group discussion, input, and decision
making remain important factors of its premise (Bass & Bass, 2009; Crippen, 2005). In order to
promote this theory of leadership, democratic leaders solicit opinions, advice, and ideas by using
their power to set constraints and by allowing followers to join the decision-making process
(Bass & Bass, 2009). However, individuals utilizing this form of leadership are viewed as
lacking the confidence and courage to make decisions without consultation with their followers
(Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2011).
Laissez-Faire Leadership
Laissez-faire leaders promote followers to complete tasks with the leader taking minimal
roles in setting or reaching goals (Glickman & Gordon, 2010). Moreover, central leadership is
minimal, as group members are left to exclusively complete tasks and goals (Glickman &
Gordon, 2010; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). However, the premise concerning the minimal
style of leadership reduces the ability of the leader to effectively managing organizational
operations in an efficient manner. As a result, this type of leadership style practiced by school
principals hampers their ability to successfully conduct school business (Lunenburg & Ornstein,
2008). However, the groundbreaking study of leadership conveyed by Lewin et al. (1939) asserts
that laissez-faire leadership can be effective. In fact, when team members operate in a cohesive
fashion and have mutual respect for one another, they become motivated and productive in
reaching organizational goals (Lewin et al. 1939).
Democratic and laissez-faire leaders have similarly striking features in that they are
employee-centered and solicit input from their stakeholders. As a result, the aforementioned
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 29
leaders take into account the needs of their followers and the advancement of their interpersonal
interactions (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). Hence, these types of leaders offer full support to
their followers, are employee-centered, treat their followers with mutual respect, and are very
amenable to their input to the organization.
Six leadership traits are associated with authoritative, democratic and laissez-faire
leadership. Leithwood, Duke (1999) and Northouse (2010) identify three of the six traits as
contingency, transformational and participative leadership. Furthermore, Leithwood and Duke
(1999) identify instructional, moral, and managerial leadership as the other three traits found in
the auspices of authoritative, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership. Leaders or school
principals are not restricted to a single style of leadership since these leadership traits can be
found in authoritative, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership (Leithwood & Duke, 1999).
Consequently, contingency, transformational, participative, instructional, moral and managerial
traits are discussed in further detail.
Contingency Leadership
Contingency leadership theory is based on the premise of matching leaders with
appropriate situations (Northouse, 2010; Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). Additionally, premises
based on this theory seek to match an individual’s leadership styles to appropriate situations.
Moreover, leaders under the guise of this theory analyze and solve issues in a proactive manner
before they become problems. Correspondingly, Northouse (2010) asserts that leaders possessing
contingency leadership characteristics are task- and/or relationship-motivated. Task motivated
leaders are concerned with reaching a goal, whereas relationship motivated leaders place
importance on building close personal relationships (Northouse, 2010).

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 30
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leaders are visionary individuals who possess charisma and empower
their followers (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2009). Bass, as told by Marzano et al. (2005), asserts the
hypothesis of this style of leadership is based on achieving results despite barriers. Moreover,
Bass (1985) identifies four factors that make up the characteristics of transformational
leadership: intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence. In addition,
Marzano (2005) notes that the aforementioned characteristics are considered the “Four I’s” of
transformational leadership.
Participative Leadership
Participative leadership allows subordinates to share in the decision-making process of an
organization (Northouse, 2010). In addition, this style of leadership is known as shared
leadership. In order to foster this style of leadership, leaders must maintain a high task/high
relationship with their followers in order to achieve organizational goals (Marzano et al., 2005).
Furthermore, mutual levels of respect amongst leaders and followers remain essential to
achieving the full effect of participative leadership (Northouse, 2010; Marzano, 2011).
Instructional Leadership
One of the main emphases of instructional leaders is student academic achievement. In
fact, instructional leadership remains the focus of educational administration essentially due to
the implementation of NLCB (Marzano et al., 2005). Under this philosophy of leadership, school
principals issue directives or mandates to teachers in hopes of improving student learning (Flath,
1989). Therefore, the school principal maintains open lines of communication, remains visible
on the campus and in classrooms, and is the primary provider of resources and materials
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 31
(Marzano et al., 2005). Thus, instructional leaders have the responsibility of leading staff and
students with the goal of improving student’s academic outcomes.
Moral Leadership
Moral leaders utilize values and ethics in practice in order to promote sound and ethical
outcomes from an organization (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008). In addition, moral leaders are
focused on promoting equality and justice for all followers and stakeholders. Furthermore,
individuals who lead with high moral values take into account the welfare and interests of all
stakeholders affected by the decisions they make (Greenfield, 2004). In fact, Kant, as told by
Sergiovanni (1992), states that decisions of moral worth must be duty-bound. Therefore, moral
leaders examine situations and apply righteous resolutions to rectify issues (Greenfield, 2004).
Managerial Leadership
Managerial leaders focus on operational aspects of an organization. Moreover, these
types of leaders ensure that daily operations are conducted as smoothly as possible with minimal
disruptions to an organization. To this end, managerial leaders engage in activities designed to
resolve conflicts by serving as mediators to promote organizational harmony and productivity
(Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2008).
Effective Leadership Practices
Through extensive research, Marzano et al. (2005) discovered that educational leaders
must display strong leadership traits and practices to improve student achievement. Marzano et
al. (2005) describe 25 categories of principal behavior that Cotton, as told by Marzano et al.
(2005), states are essential for successful principals:
1) Safe and orderly environment
2) Vision and goals focused on high levels of student learning
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 32
3) High expectations of student learning
4) Self-Confidence, responsibility, and perseverance
5) Visibility and accessibility
6) Positive and supportive climate
7) Communication and interaction
8) Emotional and interpersonal support
9) Parent and community outreach and involvement
10) Rituals, ceremonies, and other symbolic actions
11) Shared leadership, decision making, and staff empowerment
12) Collaboration
13) Instructional leadership
14) Ongoing pursuit of high levels of student learning
15) Norm of continuous improvement
16) Discussion of instructional issues
17) Classroom observation and feedback
18) Support of teachers autonomy
19) Support of risk taking
20) Professional development opportunities and resources
21) Protecting instructional time
22) Monitoring student progress and sharing feelings
23) Use of student progress for program improvement
24) Recognition of student and staff achievement
25) Role modeling
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 33
Each of the 25 categories of principal behavior reflects the growing accountability school
principals’ face when they are appointed to schools. Because of the NCLB law, school
accountability has become the primary focus of the principalship (Sanzo, Sherman, & Clayton,
2010). Actually, many individuals decline to seek principal positions due to the increasing
demands of the occupation (Casavant & Cherkowski, 2001). For instance, Evans (1999) asserts
that tensions have existed for many years between principals and staff. Furthermore, first-year
principals face the most pressure in operating schools (Casavant & Cherkowski, 2001; Duke,
1988). Therefore, it remains imperative that principals focus on the comprehension and
application of the 25 categories of principals’ behavior in order to retain opportunities for
success (Marzano et al. 2005).
Wang, Walters, and Thum (2012), expand on Marzano’s 25 categories of principal
behavior by noting that successful principals utilize distinct strategies to operate effective
schools. Wang et al. (2012) noted a few interrelated characteristics of successful principals. First,
they noted that successful principals employed safe learning environments designed to support
parents and academically motivated students. Second, strong instructional leadership by the
school principal, focusing on autonomous and firm instructional practices, assisted in promoting
self-efficacy in students and teachers (Sammons, Hillman, & Mortimore, 1995; Teddlie,
Reynolds, & Sammons, 2000; Wang et al., 2012).
School leaders become change agents in order to operate successful schools. Change
agents are leaders who lack the fear of challenging the status quo of school operations or culture
(Marzano et al., 2005). Marzano et al. discovered it was common for schools to retain unopposed
specific procedures or rituals that had been in place for years. Therefore, for effective change in
outcomes, school principals must be brazen, changing venerable school procedures that hinder
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 34
growth with those that are aligned with current students’ needs (Fullan, 2002). However, it must
be noted that principals who operate as change agents must be careful when interacting within
the school community (Karpicke & Murphy, 1996). In fact, Karpicke and Murphy (1996) assert
that people within the school community are smart, strong, and experienced, possessing formal
and informal comfort zones that require careful navigation.
Shaping a positive school climate remains another effective practice used by successful
school principals. According to Stronge, Richard, and Catano (2008), school climate is the
interworking and relationships among staff and administrators. Moreover, school leadership and
climate is a significant factor in schools’ effectiveness in operations (Marzano et al, 2005). In
order for school leaders to be successful in establishing positive school climates, they must
involve all stakeholders and possess knowledge of a school’s culture, rituals and practices (Piltch
& Fredericks, 2005; Cotton, 2003). In fact, Cotton (2003) elaborates that parent and community
outreach remains one of many essential traits principals must employ to promote a positive and
inviting climate in their schools. Additionally, promotion of trust among all stakeholders is
essential when attempting to create a positive school environment. Stronge et al. (2008) assert
that trust remains essential to success among members of an organization. Moreover, successful
school principals must possess many components of trust such as openness, reliability,
competence and honesty (Tschannen-Moran, 2004).
Consequently, effective school principals promote a positive school culture prior to
establishing the climate of the school. This effective practice remains an essential and necessary
skill that school principals must use to promote and understand the culture of a school (Marzano,
2005). Peterson and Deal (2009) define school culture as the historical rituals and traditions that
staff, students, and the community partake in. Additionally, school culture is also built on the
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 35
foundation of artifacts, symbols, distinctive language, and expected learning outcomes that shape
the schools’ being (Peterson and Deal, 2009). Henceforth, school culture promotes emphasis on
school-wide pride, with each school having a unique identity. Although school culture is
significant in many circles, many school principals concentrate their efforts on school safety.
A safe and orderly school environment remains imperative in creating conducive
environments for learning (Stronge et al., 2008). As a result, school principals must involve the
entire school community for the purposes of creating a positive and safe learning environment
(Marzano et al., 2005; Stronge et al., 2008). Additionally, this collaborative endeavor offers to
bolster a school’s efforts in teaching and learning, encouraging the involvement of community
members, soliciting of financial contributions from local businesses, and encouraging students’
active involvement in school activities (Stronge et al., 2008). In short, Marzano et al. (2005)
emphasize that possessing and maintaining a firm organizational structure creates orderly
conduct in an environment such as schools.
A major and key element of an effective school is an effective principal (Whitaker,
1997). Moreover, a school principal must be the person that teachers, staff, and students look to
for instructional leadership (Edmonds 1981). In fact, Marzano (2005) asserts the visibility of the
principal serves two purposes. First, it allows that principal to participate in daily interaction with
teachers and staff to deal directly with school instructional and operational issues. Second,
visibility of the principal shows that he or she is engaged in the operation of the school. While it
remains true that many school principals become occupied with discipline, paperwork, and office
duties, they exercise other responsibilities that promote visibility (Marzano, 2005; Whitaker,
1997). Thus, successful school leaders develop habits of visibility by attending afterschool and
weekend extracurricular activities, regular board meetings, and other events where students and
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 36
their parents may be present. As a result, attending these events offer school leaders the
opportunity to bolster their ties to the students, parents, and community (Whitaker, 1997).
Marzano (2005) stresses that effective school leaders possess a quality known as
situational awareness. Leaders who have situational awareness are cognizant of details and
undercurrents of the functions and operations of the school and use the information to address
current and potential problems (Marzano, 2005). Moreover, school principals who exercise
situational awareness possess behaviors and characteristics that predict daily issues, have
knowledge of staff relationships, and are aware of potential issues that could be detrimental to
their schools (Marzano, 2005).
Northouse (2010) notes that the situational approach to leadership requires leaders to
make decisions predicated on distinct situations. Most importantly, leaders must adapt their style
to the demands and needs of various situations (Northouse, 2010). Of similar importance,
Stogdill (1974) discovered that various leadership traits also must be relevant to certain
situations in which the leader performs. Stogdill (1974) elaborates further by stating that leaders
must exhibit a zest for possessing responsibility for completing assignments, show persistence in
completion of objectives, take risks when necessary, be willing to accept consequences for
failure, and foster relationships amongst staff (Stogdill, 1974).
Of similar importance, observations by Drolet and Turner (2010) revealed that principals
of schools that exit Program Improvement (PI) displayed differences in leadership qualities when
compared to principals of schools that did not. Successful principals possess skills and abilities
to move staff, promote strong lines of communication among all school stakeholders, and
possess knowledge of innovative and current issues in the educational arena (Drolet & Turner,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 37
2010). Therefore, successful leaders exhibit resilient leadership qualities that allow them the
ability to tackle and solve school issues with confidence.
School leaders indirectly influence student achievement in many ways, primarily via
encouragement (Crum & Sherman, 2008; Leithwood, Seashore, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom,
2004 :). Additionally, when the principal develops people, sets clear and concise goals, and
appropriates and uses the precise resources, schools have the chance to succeed (Crum &
Sherman, 2008). Furthermore, when principals develop human capital properly, teacher and staff
performance improves (Sherman & Crum, 2008). In addition, setting clear goals requires school
principals to promote a common belief, constant monitoring of teacher, staff and student
performance, and promotion of effective communication among all stakeholders (Leithwood et
al., 2004; Sherman & Crum, 2008). Most importantly, in order to cultivate and nurture a
productive school, the principal must utilize resources appropriately (Leithwood et al., 2004).
Coincidentally, secondary school principals have the greatest impact on student achievement due
to the alignment of students’ experiences in the secondary grades with their college admission
and other opportunities beyond high school (Jacobs & Kritsonis, 2006).
Efficient administrators must also possess leadership qualities that directly affect
instructional outcomes. Dinham (2005) developed a “model of leadership for outstanding
educational outcomes” and identified six essential attributes to teaching and students learning.
These six essential attributes are as follows:
1) External awareness and engagement;
2) bias toward innovative action;
3) personal qualities and relationships;
4) vision, expectations, and a culture of success;
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 38
5) teacher learning, responsibility and trust; and
6) student support, common purpose and collaboration.
In addition to Dinham’s findings, successful principals transform school structures and culture to
make them inclusive of the overall school community (Höög, Johansson, & Olofsson, 2005). In
order for principals to succeed as instructional leaders, they must establish learning trends and
cultures that promote “bottom up” and “top down” measures to ensure success (Crum &
Sherman, 2008). Additionally, it remains essential that principals focus primarily on people and
not programs (Whitaker, Whitaker & Zoul, 2007). Principals must also take into account all
adaptable uses of human capital, respect all stakeholders, develop teachers and staff, resolve
conflicts, and set clear goals and expectations (Whitaker et al, 2007). The aforementioned
strategies and assumptions provide the fundamental elements necessary to maximize instruction
and increase student-learning outcomes.
Of similar significance, Robinson (2007) described five behaviors principals exhibit that
influence students’ academic and non-academic outcomes. Hence, the establishment of goals and
expectations, strategic resourcing, planning, coordinating and evaluating teaching and the
curriculum, promoting and participating in teacher learning and development, and ensuring a
supportive and orderly learning environment contribute to student success (Robinson, 2007). In
fact, as school leaders focus their efforts on professional and student relationships and learning
and promoting good teaching practices, the prospects of student improvement remain high
(Robinson, 2007). Thus, various leadership practices have a significant impact on student
achievement. When utilized efficiently in the correct situations, the chances of high rates of
student success remain possible.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 39
Additionally, strong leader must possess traits that community members hold in high
esteem. Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) describe honesty, integrity, self-confidence, and cognitive
ability as traits that set great leaders apart from others. However, Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991)
state that charisma, creativity, and flexibility lack importance as traits sought by followers of
leaders. Nonetheless, they remain relevant traits in terms of building camaraderie amongst school
stakeholders. Since leadership remains demanding, it takes the right individuals to perform the
tasks of school leadership (Kirkpatrick &Locke, 1991).
Superintendents across the nation seek school principals who are well trained and
prepared for the rigors of school leadership. Additionally, there are increasing expectations for
school principals to arrive at school sites with commensurate skills to raise expectations and
school achievement (Cray & Weiler, 2011). Although test scores, grades, and attendance are
areas in which school principals must have expertise, they must also possess effective school
leadership and strong managerial practices (Cray & Weiler, 2011; Scribner, Crow, Lopez, &
Murtadha, 2011). Furthermore, superintendents seek school leaders who understand the demands
of the principal position, have in-depth knowledge of effective instructional practices and
knowledge of personnel management (Cray & Weiler, 2011).
Effective school principals possess the character and traits necessary to become
successful in transforming schools (Bottom, O’Neil, Fry & Hill, 2003). In fact, Leithwood and
Riehl (2004) maintain that school leadership remains the significant factor in student
achievement. As a result, school principals must be experts in instructional leadership,
community relations, and possess the tools necessary to maintain school operations.
Currently, effective high school principals remain concerned about increasing their
knowledge of leadership, best educational practices, and change (Valentine & Prater, 2011). As a
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 40
result, successful high school principals utilize transformational leadership strategies to improve
student performance (Leithwood, 1994; Valentine & Prater, 2011). In this regard, Leithwood
(1994) maintains that transformational approaches in educational leadership remain essential to
the challenges schools face in the 21
st
century. Furthermore, effective high school principals
discover leadership styles that achieve high educational outcomes for students, as no one style is
more effective than the other (Bamburg & Andrews, 1991; Cuban, 1988; Deal & Peterson, 1994;
Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Valentine & Prater, 2011).
Characteristics of Effective Principals
Substantial research indicates that strong school principals have a positive impact on
instruction and operate successful schools (Boyan, 1988; Dinham, 2005; Gurr, Drysdale, &
Mulford, 2005; Hallinger & Heck, 1998). Moreover, principals have various responsibilities and
tasks requiring their full and undivided attention (Marks & Printy, 2003). Hence, the literature
highlights five important effective practices that good principals utilize in their quest of
improving schools. The five effective practices used by principals consist of leading the
instructional program, effective management of school operations, cultivating a vision of
academic success, leading with justice for all stakeholders, and effective collaboration with all
stakeholders.
Leading the Instructional Program
School principals remain responsible for leading instructional programs. Most
importantly, during the turn of the 21
st
century, major emphasis has been placed on the
improvement of schools’ instructional programs (Stronge et al., 2008). Today, national and state
standards demand that school leaders ensure all students demonstrate mastery of curriculum
objectives (Stronge et al, 2008). Hence, according to Stronge et al. (2008), school principals’
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 41
primary focus is on teaching and learning. Consequently, Keefe and Jenkins (1997) state that
instructional leadership requires principals to provide direction, resources, and support to
teachers to improve students’ academic outcomes. Under this premise, principals continuously
work to assist teachers and students to improve their academic skills and their achievement.
Effective Management of School Operations
Principals must perform various tasks throughout the school day for which they remain
solely responsible (Stronge et al., 2008). Admittedly, basic managerial tasks may have an impact
on instruction at schools (Lashway, 2004). Therefore, effective school leaders must ensure that
teachers, students, and staff have a positive environment conducive to learning (Stronge et al.
2008). Moreover, principals must ensure that classroom and restrooms are clean, buildings have
adequate heating and lighting, that bells are programmed and in working order, and that the
campus remains clean on a daily basis (Lashway, 2004; Stronge et al., 2008). Additionally,
school principals, particularly high school principals, must maintain that students are
programmed into classes and courses necessary to matriculate from school. Therefore, it remains
important for school principals to ensure that the master schedule reflects school and district
requirements for the length and time spent in core subject areas (Stronge et al., 2008). In fact,
proper creation of master schedules reflects the correct nature and depth of instruction and
ensures that classes, hallways, playgrounds, and lunch areas are not overcrowded (Danielson,
2002; Stronge et al., 2008).
Cultivating a Vision of Academic Success
Principals must maintain leadership practices that promote the vision of the schools they
lead. Moreover, school principals must have a clear vision of what components of success will
look like in the future (Stronge et al., 2008). In order to construct and maintain the vision of a
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 42
school, principals must have two types of vision: the role principals play in their school and the
advancement of the change process (Manasse, 1985). Thus, effective school principals
acknowledge the importance of the establishment of clear learning and school wide goals and the
attainment of cooperation among all stakeholders to commit to the established goals (Stronge et
al., 2008). Coincidently, principals achieve the objective in the promotion of the school vision by
setting comprehensible goals and guidelines. Furthermore, Leithwood and Riehl (2003) state that
effective principals of high achieving schools develop a clear vision and goals for student
learning. Consequently, creating a vision of success in academic outcomes remains crucial in the
improvement of low-performing schools (Linn, 2000).
Leading with Justice for all Stakeholders
School principals must ensure that the rights of all school stakeholders are respected. As
such, Lashway (2004) argues that it is important for school principals to act with integrity and
fairness in an ethical manner. In fact, school leaders who fail to act in an ethical manner will fail
in operating effective schools (Stronge, et al., 2008). To that effect, successful school principals
achieve positive outcomes by refraining from immoral actions in order to increase academic
achievement. Moreover, in addition to providing the “moral center” to the school, school
principals must install practices to promote fairness and integrity and remove stakeholders’
temptation to commit unethical acts (Stronge et al., 2008; Fullan, 2002). Additionally, school
principals must behave and conduct themselves in a manner that builds trust amongst all
stakeholders. Moreover, principals must cultivate and maintain trust with all stakeholders for the
purposes of getting them to perform vital school functions. Furthermore, Tschannen-Moran
(2004) found that school principals possessed five key components of trust: benevolence,
honesty, openness, reliability, and competence. Since the principal sets the tone for the school,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 43
his/her behavior significantly influences the culture of a school (Stronge et al., 2008; Tschannen-
Moran, 2004).
Effective Collaboration with all Stakeholders
Over the years, school principals have been widely recognized by teachers, parents,
students, and other community stakeholders as the leader of the school (Cranston, 2007). This
recognition reveals the importance placed upon school leaders (Odhiambo & Hii, 2006).
Therefore, effective school principals have open lines of communication and employ
transactional leadership strategies designed to stimulate and bring all stakeholders together to
improve schools (Odhiambo & Hii, 2006)
Perceptions of Leaders
School leadership remains a high priority in the quest to improve student educational
outcomes (Odhiambo & Hii, 2006). Moreover, it remains important for school leaders to
distribute leadership and responsibility to all stakeholders to enhance school success (Gurr,
Drysdale, & Mulford, 20060. Although the public at large traditionally views school leaders as
individuals with formal authority, there are pertinent stakeholders who have different views of
leadership.
Principals
Smith and White (2009) describe school principals as the “lynchpin of success”. In fact,
principals, particularly at the secondary level, are under increased demand to improve student
outcomes (Odhiambo & Hii, 2006). Additionally, the rigor and intensity of a high school
instructional program remains a prime and accurate indicator of individual students’ future
academic success (Adelman, 1999). Research by Bloom and Owens (2011) revealed that
principals perceive themselves to be agents of change. Additionally, school principals believe
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 44
they have control over discipline and disbursement of funds (Bloom & Owens, 2011).
Furthermore, in order to achieve success, school principals believe they must have control over
curriculum and hiring practices (Bloom & Owens, 2011).
In addition, school principals view community relations as an essential quality of
effective leadership. Bartell (1994) notes that responding to the needs of the community greatly
enhances the ability to improve the climate and educational outcomes of the school. Moreover,
school principals must work with community stakeholders to garner outside support for their
schools (Bartell, 1994). In that sense, educational experts believe that students, families, and
educators must work in unison develop and sustain a positive school climate (Cohen, McCabe,
Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009).
During their research, Hsieh and Shen (1998) discovered that principals view their roles
as leaders differently that others in the educational organization. Correspondingly, Bush (1995)
notes that school principals perceive their roles as monitoring and maintaining values and
carrying out tasks in the school system. Even more important, school principals believe that
honesty, fairness, integrity, care, trust, and morality are essential qualities of exemplary school
leaders (Hsieh & Shen, 1998).
Teachers
Effective school principals maintain positive relationships with their teachers in order to
improve student academic outcomes. The maintenance of effective relationships between
principals and teachers differs among schools as well as between teachers at the same school,
affecting student achievement (Walsh, 2005). In fact, Odhiambo and Hii (2006) found that
teachers believed support from the principal positively affected their ability to deliver effective
instruction to their students. Additionally, positive relationships and support from the school
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 45
principals also affected many teachers’ decision to accept teaching assignments at certain schools
(Odhiambo & Hii, 2006). Thus, teachers view strong and effective principals as the key in
improving student performance (Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008).
Research suggests that teachers believe principals should be effective instructional
leaders (Hsieh & Shen, 1998). To this extent, teachers envision a school principal’s leadership on
a personal, rather than organizational, level (Hersey & Blanchard, 1996) and view good
educational leadership from the lens of personality and moral perspectives (Hsieh & Shen,
1998). Moral obligation, commitment to a school vision, knowledge of good teaching, expertise
in leadership, ability to involve all stakeholders, shared leadership, and active sharing of
knowledge are seven elements teachers look for in an effective leader or principal (MacNeill &
Cavanagh 2005).
Parents and Community
Parents and the community view the school principals as the face of the school and
consider their quality of leadership a gauge of school effectiveness (Odhiambo & Hii, 2006). As
a result, parents judge school principals on the quality of teacher’s skills and student outcomes
(Dinham, 2005: Fullan, 2002; Sergiovanni, 2001). Therefore, successful school principals realize
that building relationships among the school, parents, and the community is key to school
success (Warren, Hong, Rubin, & Uy, 2009).
Grissom and Loeb (2009) concluded that parents, teachers, and assistant principals
believed that maintenance of school facilities, monitoring of student learning objectives, and
school to parent communication were common practice for effective school principals.
Coincidentally, Warren et al. (2006) assert that, according to parents, effective principals
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 46
maintain lines of communication, take parent concerns seriously, are willing to share school
responsibility with parents, and promote and coordinate parent-based and community programs.
Parent involvement in education is a demanding and important task, which effective
school principals must master to improve school and parent relations (Warren et al., 2009).
Odhiambo and Hii (2006) noted that parents and community stakeholders felt it was important
for the school principal to promote a positive school climate. Furthermore, parents believe that a
positive school environment transforms schools into places that are conducive to student learning
and achievement (Casale, 2011). Hence, the institution of positive school environment greatly
enhances students’ academic outcomes and reduces student absenteeism and suspension rate
(Cohen et al., 2009).
Additionally, research reveals that the relationship between school principals and parents
assists in holding all stakeholders responsible for student achievement (Warren et al., 2009).
Cushman (1993) asserts that community involvement by school principals often remains
neglected due to the demands of the position. This misstep by school principals may cost them
the opportunity to transforms schools. In fact, Warren et al. (2009) state that galvanizing parents,
students, teachers, and other important stakeholders offers school principals the opportunity to
change the culture of a school and improve overall academic achievement.
Superintendents
Superintendents hold somewhat different views from those of teachers, parents,
community members and other stakeholders about principals. Since superintendents work with
the community and different kinds of interest groups, they struggle in the power structure (Hsieh
& Shen, 1998). Superintendents view leadership as a process of negotiation, bargaining with
unions and other entities, because they are responsible for the upkeep of school systems (Bush,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 47
1995). They also view leadership via the identification of values governing their actions,
developing moral visions along the way (Carlson, 1996; Craig & Norris, 1991). Therefore,
superintendents view and judge school principals based on the premise of political and moral
perspectives (Hsieh & Shen, 1998).
Effective leadership practices and strategies are necessary for principals to have success
in operating sound academic programs. Although many high schools in urban areas fail in
operating adequate educational programs due to the lack effective strategies, there are many
urban high schools across the United States that have attained academic success. For instance,
Cooper, Ponder, Merritt, and Matthews (2005) concluded that high-performing high schools in
North Carolina attained academic success amongst African-American and English Language
Learners (ELL) when compared to schools with similar demographics. Moreover, the strategies
principals of these schools employed were based upon the previously mentioned leadership traits
and high levels of accountability among all stakeholders. In fact, Cooper et al. (2005) stated that
many principals ensured they were surrounded by good people, offering them support and
direction in order to achieve positive student academic outcomes. Furthermore, principals at
other North Carolina high schools with populations of African-American and Latino students of
low socioeconomic status employed practices of creating student advisory boards (Cooper et al.,
2005). According to Cooper et al. (2005), this led to students, staff, and parents attributing their
success to caring and nurturing relationships spearheaded by the principal.
Successful principals, to improve student academic outcomes for poor African-American
and Latino students, have also used Professional Learning Communities (PLC). Maxwell,
Huggins, and Scheurich (2010) concluded that the use of PLC’s was the main factor in the
improvement of low-performing economically disadvantaged high schools in Chicago, Illinois.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 48
Furthermore, Maxwell et al. (2010) asserted that the use of PLC’s positively affected the “crisis”
of the dismal performance of schools and brought all stakeholders together for the purposes of
addressing students’ poor academic performance.
Research Gaps
Three distinct research gaps emerged from the literature that are important to school
achievement, but not evident:
1) Parents of low socioeconomic status involvement in school activities;
2) The function of classified and other support staff in school improvement; and
3) The role of superintendents and central office support for site administrators
Frew, Zhou, Duran, Kwok, and Benz (2012) assert that parent involvement in school-
sponsored activities is associated with specific student and family demographics. Thus, African-
American and Hispanic parents remain less likely than Caucasian parents to attend regular
school functions and events (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Furthermore, literature
suggests that socioeconomic status is directly correlated with parent involvement and academic
achievement (Frew et al., 2012) Hence, parents with high socioeconomic status are more likely
to engage in school-related activities than parents from low-socioeconomic status (Berends,
1996; Brody & Flor, 1998; Fan & Chen, 2001). Since parental involvement is important in
improving schools and educational outcomes for students, effective strategies to improve
parental involvement at low-performing low socioeconomic status high schools warrants
investigation.
Partial research is available regarding the use and perception of classified staff as pertains
to the school principal. Classified and support staff are essential members of the school,
providing support to educational programs, school operations, and assisting in ensuring the
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 49
safety of students. To that extent, Marzano et al. (2005) note that, if the school environment is
not safe and conducive for learning, students and teachers may not perform to desired outcomes.
Lastly, superintendents and essential central office personnel must provide school
principals with the support they need to obtain high student achievement and outcomes (Hsieh &
Shen, 1998). However, limited research has been piloted to ascertain what and how
superintendents assist school site leaders in the use of effective instructional and operational
strategies. Superintendents are the central leadership of principals and other site administrators.
They are essential to the growth and development of principals so that they can succeed in
improving educational outcomes for the students they serve.
Summary of Literature
School principals must employ effective leadership strategies to improve academic
outcomes for all students. Moreover, many strong principals employ strategies that turn low-
performing schools into high-performing schools. Factually, many successful school principals
assigned to low socioeconomic status schools are effective in improving students’ outcomes and
operate high performing schools.
To this extent, many schools fail to improve academic outcomes and are labeled low
performing as determined by NCLB. Additionally, low socioeconomic status low performing
high schools fail to properly serve students, particularly students of African-American and
Latino origin. As a result, students of these schools are ill-prepared for college and the
workforce. In contrast, many high performing low socioeconomic status high school principals
operate schools that perform at high levels. Principals of these schools employ effective
strategies necessary to achieve high educational outcomes for all. Furthermore, these principals
employ different strategies based upon the need of their students and staff. This study sought to
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 50
uncover certain strategies used by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that show
sustained academic improvement over a specified period. The academic improvements revealed
through this study may assist other high school principals in improving academic achievement,
leading to higher performing high schools that primarily service African-American and Latino
students. Most importantly, this study sought to uncover when and how these principals utilize
these strategies and how they evaluate their effectiveness in improving schools and students’
academic progress.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 51
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Educators across the United States constantly seek methods and strategies to improve
students’ educational outcomes, and this ideology is prevalent in today’s high schools. To this
point, America’s high schools are failing in their attempt to provide adequate educational
outcomes for students seeking to further their education or enter the workforce (Ravitch, 2011;
Rumberger 2011). Fortunately, successful leadership practices employed by high school
principals have been proven to promote increases in student achievement (Marzano, 2005).
The purpose of this study was to identify and investigate effective strategies used by
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that show sustained academic improvement.
The conceptual framework used by this study maintains that effective leadership practices
employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that show sustained academic
improvement warrants investigation to assist similar high schools performing below standards.
Four research questions guided this study to address the effective practices used by successful
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools:
1) What are the successful instructional and operational strategies employed by
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement?
2) What support do these principals provide for the staff to be able to implement
instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
3) What support does the central office provide for principals of low socioeconomic
status high schools that have shown sustained academic improvement in
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 52
implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-
American and Latino student achievement?
4) How do these principals evaluate the success of instructional and operational
strategies they have implemented to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
Method of Study
A mixed-method study was utilized, as according to Creswell (2009), this type of study
affords the researcher an opportunity to obtain qualitative and quantitative data through
interviews and surveys. Additionally, a mixed-methods approach allows the researcher to
triangulate the data to diminish bias and internal threats to validity (Creswell, 2009; McEwan &
McEwan, 2003). Most importantly, derivation of data relied heavily on the use of qualitative
methods. Creswell (2009) asserts that utilization of qualitative methods is more descriptive and
offers greater breadth and depth of the data.
First, this study used information and data obtained from interviews of four principals of
low socioeconomic status high schools that showed sustained academic improvement over a
five-year period. Second, online surveys from teachers and staff were distributed, collected and
analyzed for data and emergent themes related to the study. Thus, the use of these methods
allowed the researcher to collect the necessary in-depth data to produce a quality study.
Sample and Population
Since this study relied on information and data from high school principals employed at
high-achieving low socioeconomic status schools, unique purposeful sampling was used.
Merriam (2009) defines this method of sampling as being unique, atypical, in that the sample
chosen may possess rare and unique attributes, which may interest the researcher. Many high
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 53
schools attain academic success with respect to student achievement. However, very few high
schools attain high academic achievement while serving students of low socioeconomic status
(Sirin, 2005). Therefore, principals of low socioeconomic status high performing high schools
possess a unique stature when compared to similar underperforming high schools (Steinberg &
Almeida, 2008).
As a result, four successful principals of high schools that showed academic
improvement were selected based on the low socioeconomic status of their respective schools.
The criteria of selection for these schools consisted of the high number of students who received
free or reduced-price lunch as well as the Annual Performance Index (API) scores that revealed
improvement beginning from the 2009-2010 school year and encompassing a five-year period.
Furthermore, in order to preserve confidentiality, pseudonyms were used in place of the names of
participants and their respective schools.
Instrumentation
Qualitative and quantitative methods of inquiry were used to collect that data necessary
for the study. Furthermore, use of these methods assisted the researcher in confirming,
validating, and analyzing the effective strategies used by successful principals. Each instrument
used to collect and analyze data was created and piloted using investigated methods.
Qualitative Methods
For this study, twelve semi-structure interview questions were administered to four
selected principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that showed sustained academic
improvement. Furthermore, each research question was crafted using the methods prescribed by
Merriman (2009). Each question was piloted to ensure that valid information and data would be
collected during the administration of interviews with high school principals. By piloting the
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 54
interview questions, the researcher determined whether the interview questions were appropriate
and acceptable for use (Merriam, 2009). Additionally, development of the twelve interview
questions concentrated on obtaining information surrounding the strategies implemented by
successful principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that showed academic
improvement.
Quantitative Methods
Using the approach and method described by Fink (2013), the researcher created a survey
protocol containing fifty questions in an attempt to answer the four research questions. As a
result, the researcher employed a convenience sampling approach using questions rated on a
continuous numeric scale. Fink (2013) asserts that convenience sampling with use of a
continuous numeric scale can be tailored to divide information and responses into finer
increments. In addition, the researcher created survey questions derived from Powell (2004) and
the Five Domains of School Leadership. Thus, this approach allowed the researcher to collect the
desired targeted data more accurately. Moreover, the researcher piloted each survey question in
order to decrease any internal and external threats to validity. Additionally, after piloting the
survey questions, the researcher made the appropriate adjustment to the survey protocol to ensure
each survey question attempted to answer the four-research questions in their entirety.
Data Collection
Multiple data sources were used by the researcher to answer the research questions
efficiently. Each instrument used during data collection concentrated on the four research
questions. In addition, a review of the literature guided the researcher in identifying the
participants of the study and the criteria for selecting schools. Moreover, review of the literature
remained a force in the types of data needed for collection and analysis.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 55
Interviews
Once four principals were identified via purposeful sampling, each principal was
contacted telephonically to schedule interviews. Each principal was asked for permission and
granted consent for the interview. In addition, consent forms, available from the university, were
given to and signed by each principal, and each participant was asked for permission, which was
granted, to tape record interviews to capture all data necessary. Merriam (2009) asserts that voice
recording is the best method to capture data for analysis. Each interview took 90 minutes to
complete and used the twelve semi-structured question earlier mentioned. During each interview,
meticulous notes were taken to record each principal’s response and information. Upon
completion of each interview, the researcher thanked the interviewees and presented thank you
and $10 gift cards from a major coffee chain for their time. Although Weiss (1994) states gifts
are not necessary due to the fact that they do not add value to research, the gesture was most
appreciated by each interviewee. In addition, the researcher reviewed notes taken after each
interview to ensure all data and information was captured.
Surveys
Surveys were created using an online survey program with letters distributed to teachers
and staff. The letters contained information introducing the researcher, the purpose of the study,
the importance of their assistance, and the web address to complete the online survey. Of
importance regarding confidentiality, each participant was informed that the results of the
surveys would not be shared by school administration, colleagues, or anyone affiliated with their
respective school sites. Moreover, participants were also informed that the researcher would be
the only person with exclusive possession of the results of their respective surveys.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 56
Data Analysis
Once all instruments were used, the researcher analyzed the data and information derived
from the selected instruments to report the findings of the study. The instruments and the
methods of analysis are presented in the following sections.
Interviews
The researcher transcribed the interviews after all were completed. Afterwards, the
researcher reviewed each transcribed interview and notes to code and highlight themes,
similarities, and differences among interviews, surveys, and review of the literature. Some
interviews were reviewed several times in an attempt to gain accurate data and complete
understanding of the findings.
Surveys
Surveys were distributed to teachers and staff members and collected by the researcher
for analysis. Additionally, qualitative coding software provided by the survey website was used
to decipher and delineate data to ascertain findings. Table 1, the data analysis plan, shows each
research question in terms of the targeted participants, instruments used, and how the researcher
will analyze data collected.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 57
Table 1
Data Analysis Plan
Research Questions Instruments Participants Analysis
1. What are the successful instructional
and operational strategies employed by
principals of low socioeconomic status
high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement?

Interviews,
surveys
Principals Open-ended semi-
structured interview
protocol, survey
protocol using Likert
scale
2. What support do these principals
provide for the staff to be able to
implement instructional and operational
strategies to improve African-American
and Latino student achievement?
Interviews
Surveys
Principals
Teachers
Staff
Open-ended semi-
structured interview
protocol, observation
and survey protocol
using Likert scale
3. What support does the central office
provide for principals of low
socioeconomic status high schools that
have shown sustained academic
improvement in implementing
instructional and operational strategies
to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement?
Interviews

Principals,
Central
Office, and
Staff
Open-ended semi-
structured interview
and survey protocol
using Likert scale
4. How do these principals evaluate the
success of instructional and operational
strategies they have implemented to
improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
Interviews
Surveys
Principals Open-ended semi-
structured interview
and survey protocol
using Likert scale

Summary
Creation of the methodology required some thought and insight regarding the research
questions and what type of data needed to be collected. During the data collection process,
various steps were taken to ensure that valid and meaningful data were collected to complete the
study. Although this was a grueling task, the researcher gained valuable insight and knowledge
regarding the study, which enhanced the researcher’s professional knowledge base. After
collection of all data via interviews and surveys, each data source was analyzed and coded,
which led to emergent themes that allowed the researcher to discover connections necessary to
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 58
answer the questions of the study. Moreover, the connections discovered allowed the researcher
to offer recommendations to high school principals and future researchers regarding this topic.
Thus, detailed in chapter 4, are the results of the findings of the study.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 59
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Schools across the country persistently seek methods to improve schools for the purposes
of increasing student achievement. Most importantly, America’s high schools serve as the last
bastion for young people to gain primary entry into the workforce (Ravitch, 2011; Rumberger
2011). However, many African-American and Latino high school students are ill prepared for
society in large part due to lack of success in navigating and matriculating through the
educational process (Rumberger, 2011). This study revealed the instructional and operational
strategies used by successful principals at low socioeconomic status high schools that provide
educational services to African-American and Latino students. For the purposes of this study, the
researcher employed a mixed methodology as designed by Creswell (2009) and McEwan and
McEwan (2003). Personal interviews of principals and teacher surveys were administered in an
attempt to answer the following four research questions created by the researcher:
1) What are the successful instructional and operational strategies employed by
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement?
2) What support do these principals provide for the staff to be able to implement
instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
3) What support does the central office provide for principals of low socioeconomic
status high schools that have shown sustained academic improvement in
implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-
American and Latino student achievement?
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 60
4) How do these principals evaluate the success of instructional and operational
strategies they have implemented to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
For this study, the researcher visited four high schools that showed incremental gains in
student achievement. In addition, the basis and criteria for selection of these schools consisted of
their respective Academic Performance Index (API) scores from the school years 2009 to 2013.
For this reason, the API scores were retrieved from the California Department of Education
(2014a). Furthermore, the four high schools selected for this study were located in various
sections of Los Angeles County. Listed below in table 2 are the respective API scores from 2009
to 2013 for the high schools used in this study.
Table 2
Five-Year API Trend
School 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 API Increase
Dark Knight High 591 617 617 632 660 69
Blue Columbia High 558 568 577 595 606 48
Native American High 533 572 584 533 582 51
Scarlett High 563 626 621 605 613 50

Of particular importance, all four high schools selected met the criteria set by the researcher in
regards to the ethnicity of the students serviced: African-American and Latino students from low
socioeconomic status backgrounds. Table 3 reveals the ethnicity of the students in percentages,
data of students who qualify for the federal free and reduced lunch program in percentage, and
the enrollment of the school in the study (California Department of Education, 2014b).

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 61
Table 3
Students by Ethnicity and Free and Reduced-Price Lunch
School
African-
American
Latino
Asian/Pacific
Islander
Free and
reduced lunch
Enrollment
Dark Knight High 6% 94% 0% 82% 2331
Blue Columbia High 17% 82% 1% 83% 2224
Native American
High
33% 66% 1% 75%
1044
Scarlett High 15% 83% 1% 81% 2266

The high school principals selected for this study came from various ethnic backgrounds
and held various years of experience in education. Additionally, all principals possessed
extensive experience working in educational settings with minority students, specifically
African-American and Latino students. Table 4 lists the professional experience in the field of
education, years assigned at the school site, years as a school administrator, and the ethnicity of
the high school principals participating in this study.
Table 4
Professional Experience of Principals in the Study
School Principal Education
Current
School
Administrator
Ethnicity
Dark Knight High 23 4 8 Latino
Colombia Blue High 15 3 5 African-American
Native American High 44 3 38 African-American
Scarlett High 20 5 10 Latino

All principals indicated various challenges at their respective school sites before they
instituted the various instructional and operational strategies they selected. In fact, some indicted
their frustrations with their staff during and after instituting their selected instructional and
operational strategies. Table 5 lists the instructional and operational challenges that the principals
stated they faced when they arrived at their schools.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 62
Table 5
Instructional and Operational Challenges of Principals in the Study
School Instructional issues Operational issues
Dark Knight High
Program Improvement 5, low A-G
completion rate, low graduation
rate, low academic achievement
from subgroups (African-
American, Latino, ELL, and
SWD)
Camaraderie with staff,
staff and student
attendance
Blue Columbia High
School culture that did not support
high achievement, lack of rigor in
instruction, low rates of student
proficiency
Lack of positive and
sound infrastructure,
low staff attendance rate
(87%)
Native American High
School culture did not support
student learning,
Lack of communication,
distrust between
administration and
teaching staff,
Scarlett High
High failure rate of students in
core classes, lack of support from
Central office for instructional
issues
School aesthetics,
proper functioning of
equipment on campus
(i.e. computers, heat and
air in classrooms, and
etc.

An online survey was created using Powell’s (2004) Five Domains of School Leadership
and modified to reflect and capture the responses of teachers and staff to validate the leadership
styles and practices of the principals selected for the study. Letters introducing the researcher,
stating the purpose of the research, and providing the web address of the survey were created to
invite teachers and staff to participate in the survey. Sixty-nine teachers logged onto the website
and took the survey. Thus, in conjunction with the personal interviews of the principals, the
teacher and staff surveys were used to answer the four research questions.
Coding of Data
Upon completion of tape-recorded interviews of the four selected high school principals,
each was transcribed using an online transcription service. Afterwards, each interview was coded
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 63
for emergent themes. Moreover, all tape-recorded interviews were reviewed several times by the
researcher to ensure the accuracy of the transcriptions and that pertinent information was not
omitted. With respect to the surveys from teachers and staff, the results were collected and data
was delineated via an online site used to disseminate the survey. The results of the surveys were
reviewed to validate the information and findings derived from the principals’ interviews in
order to answer the following research questions.
Analysis of Findings
Research Question One – What are the successful instructional and operational strategies
employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement?
Research question number one investigated the successes of instructional and operational
strategies used by the principals selected for the study. All of the principals interviewed revealed
they utilized various instructional and operational strategies to improve student academic
outcomes. These instructional and operational strategies included the following items:
1) Enhancing Communication
2) Creating a Collaborative Environment
3) Instituting Safeguards to Enhance Instruction
4) Changes to the Instructional Program to Increase Student Achievement
5) Monitoring the Instructional Program
6) Building Capacity from Within
7) Changing school culture to an academic focus

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 64
Enhancing Communication. Marzano et al. (2005), notes that communication consists
of the 25 essential categories of principal behavior. As such, interviews of principals revealed the
main vehicle to disseminate and deliver information to teachers used by the selected principals
was communication and collaboration. Moreover, each principal interviewed expressed that
communicating and collaborating with their staff was key in informing teachers and students of
the school vision and the educational and instructional objectives for the week or any designated
period. As a result, principals used an array of strategies to improve communication on their
school campuses. As an example of these strategies, the principal of Columbia Blue High School
stated:
We began to use our weekly bulletin as a mean to effectively communicate to our
teachers on our instructional focus for the week. Additionally, we informed teachers that
we, as administrators, would be looking for that focus when visiting classrooms.
Additionally, the Principal of Columbia Blue High School reiterated, “by informing
teachers of our instructional focus, we were able to place an emphasis on targeting instructional
improvement of our students.” Similarly, the principal of Dark Knight High School uses as
different, albeit comparable, method of communication to teachers. He stated that instructional
walks are conducted by his administrators to effectively gauge the instruction delivered to
students. However, in order to ensure that effective instruction is delivered, the principal informs
the teachers of what they expect to observe during instructional walks. Additionally, he stated
that he communicates and visits the neighboring high school in his district to observe and
compare instructional practices to validate what his administration seeks when observing
teachers at his own school. He indicated, “We look at our other high school to calibrate what
good teaching looks like so that we can mimic the exact manner in which instruction is
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 65
delivered.” To accentuate this point, data collected from surveys of all schools revealed that 48
out of 69 teachers (70%) strongly agreed that principals provided clear and concise directions
with respect to the desired instructional strategies and outcomes.
Additionally, recognition of students and staff was also very important to the principals
interviewed. Recognition or acknowledgements of students and staff members for completion of
assignments and tasks are characteristics of Transactional Leadership (Odhiambo & Hii, 2006).
Additionally, Schmoker (2006) states that praise and recognition may be the single most
powerful strategy for educators to overcome resistance from their staff. To this effect, all survey
participants, by a margin of 70% (49 out of 69) strongly agreed that principals publicly
recognized the success of their students. The principals at Columbia Blue and Native American
High School expressed that recognizing students and staff for completing tasks and assignments
was very important. As an effective strategy, both principals expressed that they utilize some
form of praise during assemblies and staff events. In fact, the principal of Columbia Blue High
School gave recognition every chance she had to do so. However, she carefully noted, “At times,
if you're not equal in your distribution of either reprimands or kudos, then it can be perceived
there's favorites and individuals who get treated differently than others.” Moreover, many of the
principals noted that they were very careful in the way the communicated with the staff.
Additionally, information obtained from principals during personal interviews was validated by
the fact that 60 out of 69 survey respondents (87%) agreed or strongly agreed that principals
employ fair and effective judgment to resolve issues and affairs at their schools. Furthermore, the
overall stance of all of the principals was that they needed to be clear, concise, and fair when
communicating with the staff.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 66
Collaboration. An emerging theme that was mentioned by all principals was the
importance of building collaborative relationships with the staff. Building positive relationship
with teachers assists principals in establishing a positive school climate (Stronge et al., 2008).
Principals in this study felt that building positive relationships with the staff built trust and
capacity, which built positive relationships between the staff and school administration. A
perfect example of this theme came from the principal of Native American High School:
One of the things that we did was we looked at the whole process, and I said to staff
members, “It's not administration versus staff. It's what we can do to assist students, and
how can we help this school to move ahead?” Because, if this school fails, it's not the
principal that failed, it's the entire staff, which includes the clerical staff, students, and
parents.
Although, principals stated that the instructional practices they instituted were met with
apprehension and resistance, principals were able to institute various techniques to entice
teachers to induct practices to increase student achievement. For instance, the principal of
Columbia Blue High School instituted common prep periods and course-alike schedules to
increase student academic outcomes. However, to achieve this goal, she had to move teachers
around the campus to other classrooms. She stated, “We divided up the campus. Not only did we
rearrange the actual or physical location of teachers, I set it up so that the Math Department was
all in the Math wing.” By indoctrinating the aforementioned strategy, the Columbia Blue
principal attempted to create an atmosphere of collaboration she stated did not exist at the school
before her arrival. Similarly, the Dark Knight High School Principal built relationships amongst
staff to institute changes to the schools’ instruction program. Moreover, the Dark Knight High
School Principal proclaimed:
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 67
The thing I tried to do my first year here was to really adhere to staff request to kinda
build that relationship with them so that when we did decide to make some instructional
changes, there wasn’t so much resistance.
As stated earlier, collaboration remains a key component as a leadership trait for
principals. Data collected from surveys of teachers revealed that 48 out of 69 teachers (70%)
believed that it was highly likely that the principals collaborated with staff members with respect
to the devolving instructional and school plans. Therefore, the practice of collaboration in
schools assists teachers interact with their peers in order to perform their duties in a professional
manner (Cushman, 1993).
As mentioned earlier, building communication and collaboration remains an important
tactic of principals to improve educational outcomes for students. This is especially true for
urban schools that serve primarily African-American and Latino students. Additionally, effective
communication and collaboration is a practice that must be mastered by principals in order to
effectively run schools.
Instituting Safeguards to Enhance Instruction. An integral part of high school
instruction is A-G requirements, as students who complete A-G requirements are eligible to gain
entrance to California public universities provided they meet the required grade point, SAT
score, and other college entrance requirements (California Department of Education, 2014c). In
addition to improving API scores, principals stated that increasing A-G completion rates was
also important. Table 6 presents the A-G requirements for California High School Graduates
(California Department of Education, 2014c).

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 68
Table 6
California Education Code, UC, and CSU High School Graduation Requirements
Subject
State
Requirements
UC Requirements CSU Requirements
English Three years Four years Four years
Mathematics Two years Three years Three years
Social Studies/Science Three years Two years Two years
Science Two years Two years (1 with lab) Two years (1 with lab)
Foreign Language One year Two years Two years
Visual and Performing Arts One year One year One year
Physical Education Two years Not Applicable Not Applicable
Electives Not Applicable One year One year

Consequently, principals instituted various strategies to increase A-G completion rates.
The principal of Dark Knight High School noted his school and his school district’s approach to
solve this issue:
The board put out a resolution. Even though we haven’t changed the graduation
requirements, the course of study for every student is the A-G course of study. So, we
automatically program every student into A-G courses, so they can have the opportunity
to complete those requirements.
The completion of African-American and Latino students in completing A-G
requirements are very important, as the A-G completion rates of African-American and Latino
students across the state of California remain low. According to the University of California at
Berkeley (2012), in 2012, African-American and Latino students’ A-G completion rates stood at
29% and 28% respectively. Furthermore, their rates of completion of A-G requirements were far
behind those of their Caucasian and Asian peers, which stood at 45% and 63%, respectively
(University of California, Berkeley, 2012). Therefore, the low A-G rates of completion for
African-American and Latino students have crippling effects in terms of eligibility for colleges
and universities. To this effect, the principal made a decision that he felt would improve student
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 69
academic outcomes. The strategy reflects the results of survey question number 18, which
revealed that 64 out of 69 teachers (93%) agreed or strongly agreed that all principals made
specific academic decisions they deemed important for instruction.
Of similar importance is securing partnerships with outside organizations. According to
Bartholomew and Sandholtz (2009), the key to improving teacher professional development and
improving student outcomes is forming partnerships with local universities. To this effect, all
principals proclaimed that they seek some type of outside assistance. For example, the Native
American High School Principal stated that the school receives assistance from a local church.
Moreover, some members of the local church happen to be educators. As a result, these church
members offer afterschool and Saturday tutoring to students at the school. The principal also
stated that this was important, as the school does not offer afterschool credit recovery classes like
other high schools due to their low enrollment. Similarly, the principal of Columbia Blue High
School Partners with a local university to assist the school increase overall student math
achievement. She stated, “Our math scores were dismal. Therefore, we sought assistance from
Carson State University for all mathematics courses.” Securing outside resources remains key,
especially in terms of those that are closely connected to the community.
Marzano et al. (2005) maintain, and all principals stressed, that professional development
of remains vital to improving students’ academic outcomes. For instance, the Scarlett High
School principals stated that he used professional development sessions to discuss the high
failure rate for students at his school. Additionally, the principal of Dark Knight High School
centered professional development sessions on analyzing formative and summative data of
students in each of the core (English, mathematics, social science, and science) classes. As a
result, surveys questions numbers 9, 24, and 28 corroborated the aforementioned findings from
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 70
interviews of principals. Listed in Table 7 are the findings derived from the survey data of
teachers for survey questions numbers 9, 24, and 28.
Table 7
Survey Data from Questions 9, 24, and 28 (in percentage)
Survey Question Agree Strongly Agree
Q9. Teachers are encouraged by the Principal to
use assessment data to plan instruction.
22% 79%
Q24. Curriculum needs of the school determine
the type and frequency of staff development.
30% 54%
Q28. The Principal is an active participant in
staff development sessions.
23% 72%

Additionally, table 8 listed below, shows the remainder of the instructional strategies employed
by principals interviewed for the study.
Table 8
Instructional Strategies Employed by Principals
School
Instructional Strategies
Employed
Rationale for employing
Strategy
Dark Knight High
Heterogeneous grouping of
students by levels of ability
To increase A-G completion
rates
Blue Columbia High
Posting instructional focus on
weekly bulletins and in the
student restrooms
To ensure that all stakeholders
understood and mastered
instructional focus targeted
Native American High
Increase classroom visitations
by administration
To monitor and increase rigor in
classroom instruction
Scarlett High
Increase classroom visitations
by administration
To monitor and increase rigor in
classroom instruction

Furthermore, all principals expressed the importance of communicating the instructional
focus to all stakeholders. Coincidentally, 48 out of 69 teachers who participated in the survey
strongly agreed that principals clearly explained the instructional strategies and expected student
outcomes to teachers. By engaging in this practice, the principals attempted to promote self-
efficacy of all stakeholders by employing firm, but comprehensible, strategies to improve
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 71
instructional practices at their respective schools (Sammons, Hillman, & Mortimore, 1995;
Teddlie, Reynolds, & Sammons, 2000; Wang et al., 2012).
Of particular importance, the principals established operational procedures to improve
student achievement. Safe and orderly school environments are important in order to achieve
positive student academic outcomes and effective schooling (Marzano, 2005). To this extent, all
principals stated that they instituted some form of operational strategy to make their school
environments more orderly. It was the principals’ desire that the operational strategies selected
would have a positive impact of instruction and improve student academic outcomes. Table 9
shows the operational strategies employed by each principal and the rationale for employing the
strategy.
Table 9
Operational Strategies Employed by Principals
School
Operational Strategy
Employed
Rationale for employing
Strategy
Dark Knight High
Created on campus truancy
center
To improve students school and
class attendance
Blue Columbia High Tardy Sweeps
To improve students school and
class attendance
Native American High
Increase administrative
visibility on campus
To create positive relationships
with students and staff; to
spread the importance of school
and gaining an education to
students
Scarlett High
Created a processing center
on school campus
To address school-wide
discipline, reduce school wide
suspension to keep students in
school

Principals instituted other operational strategies such as ensuring the protection of
instructional minutes to minimize classroom disruptions, establishing procedures for visitors on
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 72
campus using sign-in logs, and ensuring that their schools bell schedules provide students the
maximum amount of instructional time.
Changes to the Instructional Program to Increase Student Achievement. Although
many educators attempt to change educational and instructional programs, many are short lived
(Cuban, 1987). However, principals must facilitate change when it becomes necessary to
improve schools (Beatriz, Hunter, & Hopkins 2008; Darling-Hammond et al., 2007). Interviews
of principals revealed that some kind of change was necessary to infuse in the existing
instructional program to improve student achievement. The Scarlett High School principal noted
that, before changes were made to the instructional program, a needs assessment of the schools
programs had to be done:
Everything is a needs assessment around here. By assessing programs, assessing students,
their academic performance, their academic levels, the different bands, far below basic,
below basic students and your proficient students, you're able to note what is needed.
Additionally, regarding his approach to assessing change in his school, the Scarlett High School
Principal elaborated:
It's all personal observation. You know that, in the beginning, while you're doing an
assessment of the school when you first arrive on the campus, you definitely don't want
change things too much. But, as you are observing school life, you begin to note what's
popular and what's not, and what's needed and what's not needed. That's your assessment.
It's a lot of personal assessing. Also, letting the school breathe. Let things happen
naturally, but, if they are a detriment to the students, you have to do away with.
Although the interviews revealed that principals created needs assessments at their respective
schools by using data, very few assessed existing programs like the Scarlett High School
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 73
Principal did. However, the Columbia Blue High School Principal made this assumption
regarding the assessment of a reading program at the school:
You can't just throw it out initially. You have to figure out if something is missing. So,
for example, with Read 180, we had a technology problem, so, sometimes, it would seem
as if it was ineffective because we didn't have the components of the program necessary.
So, to throw it out based on just the numbers alone would have been premature.
Although the Dark Knight High Principal failed to mention if he performed a needs assessment
of his school site, he did attest that changes needed to be made. He elaborated that the manner in
which classroom observations or walkthroughs lacked clarity. Thus, he decided to conduct visits
to the neighboring high school in his district to gain understand the proper methods for
classroom visitations. Additionally, he stated that this was necessary to “change the way teachers
are evaluated so that they can receive the proper feedback regarding their performance.” The
Dark Knight High Principal indicated:
We would walk through classes, and they would kind of calibrate as an administrative
team with the central office on our walkthroughs. We would make sure that, when we
were looking at a classroom and we were looking at instruction, that we all see the same
thing. So, if we see an outstanding teacher, all of us see that same teacher as an
outstanding teacher. If we see a teacher that needs improvement in a certain area, we all
calibrate and kind of see that same thing.
Although change in schools may be a difficult task for principals, it may come in the
form of simply modifying existing practices. For example, the Native American High School
Principal used analogy of this premise by stating, “you don’t necessary have to change
everything. It’s like cooking a can of soup; it’s the same soup, but, if you add your own
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 74
seasoning, it looks different, but it’s the same soup to everyone.” While all principals encounter
some instances of resistance to change, they were able to use their leadership abilities to
effectively promote some form of change in their schools.
Monitoring the Instructional Program. Improving instruction in schools requires that
principals closely monitor instruction. Moreover, this remains a very important part of ensuring
that instructional safeguards are in place. Furthermore, if data collected from monitoring the
instructional program fails to yield any results, then adjustments must be made to the curriculum
(Marzano, 2005). Elmore (2003) asserts that monitoring curriculum and instruction in schools
remains the primary practice in successful schools, and each school principal in this study
utilized some form of informal evaluative tool to monitor classroom instruction. For instance, the
Dark Knight High School Principal noted earlier that his administrative team visited other high
schools to ensure accuracy when evaluating teachers. Additionally, his administrative team was
provided with district-mandated forms to ensure this process. Additionally, the Scarlett High
School Principal also used classroom evaluations as a means to assist teachers and students by
listening to their needs:
We, the administration, were able to evaluate the needs according to what we saw in the
classrooms. Classroom visitations took place, whether they were both formal or informal.
Stepping into a classroom and noticing what teachers needed, or just having personal
conversations with teachers and department chairs in order to gauge where everyone was,
so to speak, and what their needs were. We did a lot of face to face interviewing with
staff.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 75
As stated earlier, communication remains vital to improving instruction. Additionally, the
Scarlett high school principal took extra care to monitor the instructional program while
gathering more information to improve the school as a whole.
The Scarlett principal stated, “since everything is a daily assessment to ensure that the students’
needs are met, constantly monitoring programs are important in urban schools.” Therefore,
Marzano (2005), Sherman and Crum’s (2008) premise of the importance of constant monitoring
of instructional programs are indisputable.
Building Capacity from Within. In order to build productive schools, it remains
necessary to expand on the human capital schools already possess. Furthermore, Zepeda (2013)
maintains that school improvement rests with teachers and that, through their actions, they can
improve teaching, curriculum, and aligned assessment of student learning. However, leaders who
fail to build capacity by not exploiting existing human capital fail to engage others to become
involved in the decision making process of schools (Zepeda, 2013). To this effect, each principal
stated that s/he used staff development and other communication opportunities to build capacity
among staff. Coincidently, the Native American High School Principal expressed this sentiment
vividly:
Give them (teachers) the total responsibility. In some cases I'll say, “It's yours.” I already
know, sometimes, the answer. But then I'll play like I don't know the answer. “You fix it.
You say that it'll work this way, you figure it.” Empowering others to do. I believe totally
in empowering others, and including my administrative staff. “Hey man, run with it. You
got a good idea? Run with it.”
On a similar note, the Columbia Blue High School Principal revealed that she frequently
uses staff-lead meetings regarding instructional issues at the school. By instituting this approach,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 76
the principal stated she took advantage of capitalizing on individuals at her school who were
experts. Moreover, by instituting this practice in her school, she was able to receive the necessary
support from her staff to improve instructional outcomes at the school. Furthermore, whenever
she sought assistance in implementing instructional, operational, and any other strategies she
stated:
I feel like the school staff was very supportive in that, if I asked for help, we received it.
It wasn't like people really told us no. In any schools site, you have a particular formula.
A third will be with you, a third will be antagonistic, and a third really won't care
what goes left or right. I focused on the third that was with this and tried to reach critical
mass and they actually had influence on the other two thirds.
According to Zepeda (2013), taking advantage of the skills and talents of existing human
capital within schools assists in building capacity of school staff. This also has the potential to
bring staff together in a quest for the common good of improving student academic outcomes.
However, school staff must be reminded of school improvement and what it means to schools. In
short, the Native American High School principal explained the need for his staff to improve
instruction this way:
One of the things that we did was, we looked at the whole process, and I said to staff
members, “It's not administration versus staff. It's what we can do to assist students, and
how can we help this school to move ahead? Because if this school fails, it's not the
principal that failed, it's the entire staff, which include the clerical staff, students, and
parents." My approach to the fact is, we need to win this, and we need to win this from a
team standpoint, to make sure that the school does not-- because if you also say that you
work here, you're part of the problem, just like the administrative staff is a part of the
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 77
problem. So, collectively I said, “It's our responsibility. You take ownership, in terms of
goals and objectives. You take ownership, in terms of instruction. And you take
ownership in terms of student behavior and school climate." And we just kept going at it,
and I said, "I will assist you in making sure that I make my rounds every day to see that
whether you're okay. You check on your partner to make sure that they're okay."
Furthermore, to affirm this finding, surveys from the staff concluded that 9 out of 12
(75%) of teachers at Native American High School agreed or strongly agreed that the principal
promoted capacity-building practices and strategies at the school. Additionally, 45 out of 69
(65%) teachers and staff surveyed from all high schools indicated that they agreed or strongly
agreed that principals also promoted building capacity at their school sites. Therefore, by
promoting and building capacity at their schools, principals were able to take advantage of the
professional talents of their staff.
Changing school culture to an academic focus. Positive school climate and culture
also remains an important factor in providing sound educational opportunities for students and
improving student learning outcomes (Marzano, 2005). Furthermore, Marzano (2005) proclaims
that promoting a cooperative atmosphere and a sense of unity among all stakeholders creates
culture within schools. In this respect, Columbia Blue High’s Principal instilled a practice of
infusing a different culture to the campus. The principal made it a practice as well when she was
visible to all at the school. As mentioned previously in this study, the visibility of school leaders
plays an important role in school improvement (Marzano, 2005; Whitaker, 1997). Additionally,
the principal of Native American High School also stated that visibility played an important role
in ensuring that students and staff realized the importance of improvement of the school, both
visually and by talking with students and staff between class periods.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 78
However, school leaders who attempt to change the culture of the school must be careful
to respect current rituals and practices while attempting to infuse new rituals and practices to
improve schools (Cotton, 2003; Piltch & Fredericks, 2005). Correspondingly, the Native
American High School Principal summed up the assertions of Piltch and Fredericks (2005) and
Cotton (2003) by stating:
You've got to know your limitation, and you've got to understand that, over a period of
time, it will happen. A lot of this stuff is just bodies of work. Go into a community or a
school, and figure out the culture of their school. Every school has a little hum and a
culture. And recognize when you go there, in working with folks - if you're the
administrator - accept their culture. Don't go and try to change somebody's culture. If
I'm living here in California and go down South, I am not going to New Orleans and try
to change those folks' culture, I want to add to it. I want to find out what's good about it.
Therefore, it is important to realize the delicacy of change culture in schools. To this
effect, changing the culture of a school and risking the possibility of disrespecting long-standing
traditions and practices acknowledged by the school and community at large can yield negative
results (Cotton, 2003; Marzano, 2005; Piltch & Fredericks, 2005). Thus, principals and school
leaders must proceed cautiously when changing school culture.
Summary of Research Question One
Additional information derived from the interviews of principals and teacher/staff
surveys revealed other important factors that principals use to improve students’ academic
outcomes. These instructional and operational strategies consisted of adjustments in monitoring
of instruction, changing the physical locations of teachers to promote collaboration, instituting
tardy sweeps, and installing school wide discipline polices in efforts to improve school
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 79
achievement. To this effect, Moore and Kochan (2013) state that principals use a various array of
strategies to facilitate success in classroom to foster high levels of student achievement. Thus,
the aforementioned statement rings true as determined from the information derived from the
findings for research question one.
Research Question Two - What support do these principals provide for the staff to be able
to implement instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement?
Effective professional development remains the key vehicle to improving instruction and
student achievement (Moore & Kochan, 2013). Effective professional development is key when
implementing instructional and operational strategies when attempting to improve schools.
According to Guskey (2000), best practices of effective professional development to increase
student achievement consist of the following:
1) Clearly defined and attainable goals and outcomes,
2) Adequate funding and administrative support,
3) Participants active engagement in professional development sessions,
4) Precise focus centering on few topics,
5) Collegiality and networking,
6) Immediate reflective opportunities for teachers after professional development
and,

7) Use of an outside facilitator.
The interviews derived from principals in the study yielded the finding that professional
development was the key source and method they provided support to teachers in executing
instructional and operational strategies to improve student achievement. In fact, each principal
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 80
noted that they utilized district and outside assistance as well as in-house professional
development.
District Professional Development. The main source of professional development for
principals in this study was district-provided professional development. All principals stated that
they received district support in providing professional development for their respective staffs.
Although the level of professional development varied amongst schools, the principals stated
their goal was to improve the overall delivery and rigor of classroom instruction. Most notably,
the principal of Columbia Blue High School noted the support their school received from the
district office regarding professional development:
Well, the central office conducted several professional developments. Some were whole
group… some were focused on the administrators, and some were specifically geared to
the teachers. They included, but were not limited to, information regarding common core.
They had organizations come and do full common core implementation or introduction
with rigor, relevance, relationship framework, and a myriad of other opportunities.
Additionally, The Dark Knight High School principal indicated that his district provides
coaching for teachers who struggle to implement the instructional and operational strategies
selected for the school. The principals of Scarlett, Native American, and Columbia Blue High
School echoed these same sentiments. Most importantly, with the implementation of common
core in California schools, all principals stated that their staff constantly received common core
training.
Outside Professional Development. Guskey (2000) maintains that using outside
facilitators to conduct some professional development sessions remains crucial to improving
schools, as school districts do not always possess the capacity to address all instructional and
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 81
operational issues. To this effect, each school in this study used outside resources in different
ways and areas. Listed below, in Table 10, are the schools, the professional development
administered to teachers, and the basis for implementing the professional development sessions.
Table 10
Professional Development Employed by Principals in Study
School
Professional
Development
Reason for implementation
Dark Knight High
Analyzing data to gauge
student improvement
Increase rigor in classroom
instruction and ensure heterogeneous
grouping of student by levels of
ability
Blue Columbia High Common core training
Promote district goal of
implementing common core in high
schools
Native American High Common core training
Promote district goal of
implementing common core in high
schools
Scarlett High
Common core training and
Positive Behavior
Intervention support
strategies
Promote district goal of
implementing common core in high
schools, reduce the number of
suspensions and infraction in school.

In-house professional development. Although it is clear that the principals in this study
used some form of district and outside resources to deliver professional development sessions to
teachers, they also used existing on site staff to provide development to teachers. This form of
transformational leadership is designed to build capacity and utilize the talent and existing
knowledge base of teachers to transform schools and improve student achievement (Frost and
Durrant, 2013).
To place the practice of in-house professional development into perspective, all schools
in this study use department chairs to disseminate and assist other teachers within their
departments. For example, the principal of Dark Knight High School meets with his department
chairs bi-weekly to disseminate information they receive from district trainings. Consequently,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 82
the department chairs also lead professional development sessions that usually involve a targeted
instructional strategy selected by either the school or district administration. However, in some
instances, the department chairs at each school cannot attend the various trainings offered in their
respective district due to conflicts in scheduling and trainings that take place simultaneously.
Thus, the principals at all schools utilize the “trainer of trainers” model that the Columbia Blue
High School Principal uses. The Columbia High School Principal provided this example of how
the “trainer of trainers” model operated when some of the school’s English Language
Development (ELD) teachers attended a district mandated training:
The EL teachers underwent training writing, and this was district initiated. They learned
Write To Learn, and so individuals were trained on how to deliver the model and they
came back to the staff and did that.
Of importance, the Columbia High School principal conveyed the importance of this strategy by
stating “the biggest strength is utilizing the talent that's there. Not only does it empower them,
but the staff is more likely to listen and adjust their practices if they are hearing it from someone
they respect”. To corroborate the aforementioned findings, information obtained from surveys
disclosed that 84% (58 out of 69) of survey respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the
curriculum needs of the students dictated the type of professional development.
Summary of Research Question Two
According to research, professional development of staff remains very important in
increasing student achievement (Moore and Kochan, 2013). In this respect, the principals in this
study use professional development sessions to provide information and training opportunities to
their staff. Moreover, these professional development sessions consisted of the previously
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 83
mentioned instructional and operation strategies selected by the principals as they felt necessary
to address challenges at their schools.
Research Question Three - What support does the central office provide for principals of
low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained academic improvement in
implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement?
In many school districts, the central office played a role mostly in ensuring the fiscal and
administrative operations for state and federal mandated initiatives (Honig, 2008). However, the
central office must take a role in providing ample support to principals to build their capacity and
improve instruction (Honig, 2012). Although principals in the study acknowledge that they
receive some form of support and training from their respective district office personnel, the
different levels of support varied from school to school. In fact, some principals received support
from their district office regarding site personnel issues and assistance and others explained they
received minimal support or training from their district office.
Assistance from Human Resources. The Dark Knight High School Principal explained
that he received support from the central office regarding issues related to teachers’ performance
and the delivery of instruction. The principal explained, “I have received a tremendous amount
of support from the central office in respect to teachers who weren’t cutting it in the classroom as
far as instruction was concerned.” Furthermore, he elaborated “our district has also provided
extra training and has given us (administration) the flexibility to place teachers on the PAR (Peer
Assistance Review) program in an effort to improve or replace teachers”. Of note, the Dark
Knight High School Principal was the only principal in this study who received district support
in this matter.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 84
District Administrative Training. All principals in the study conveyed that they
received some form of administrative training in respect to improving their competence.
However, some principals expressed the training they received was minimal. Both the Scarlett
and Columbia Blue High School principals expressed some of the training they received was
insufficient and that they needed more training to improve their capacity and practice. All
principals expressed a desire to receive more training and support from their respective district
office superiors. Depicted in table 11 is the assortment of district administrative training the
principals in the study received.
Table 11
District Administrative Trainings of Principals in the Study
School District Training Nature of Training
Dark Knight High Classroom observational training
How to conduct in al
classroom observations of
teachers
Columbia Blue High Pivot Training
Administrative, Common
Core, and techniques in
collaboration with staff
Native American High Pivot Training
Administrative, Common
Core, and techniques in
collaboration with staff
Scarlett High Pivot Training
Administrative, Common
Core, and techniques in
collaboration with staff

Support from Colleagues. All principals in the study conveyed that they received
support from their peers. Notably, all principals expressed the importance of seeking assistance
from other principals and assistant principals in solving instructional and operational issues.
Additionally, all principals stated that, if a principal had success in instituting a strategy at
his/her school, they did not hesitate to tailor and institute the same strategy at their school. For
instance, the Dark Knight High School Principal stated that a newly hired assistant principal
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 85
from another district used a strategy designed to retain students who transition from middle to
high school. Upon receiving this information, the Dark Knight High School Principal contacted
his district office and arraigned visits from the feeder middle schools to the high school. In
comparison, the Native American High School Principal conveyed his approach in utilizing the
successful strategies of other schools and instituting similar strategies at his school site:
I call on colleagues of mine within the district and outside the district, and I'll say, “What
are you doing, man? I got this problem.” And then, if they got a good thing, I might just
erase Columbia Blue and Scarlett’s name at the top, and put Native American there and
say I'm flying with this one. You can't re-invent the wheel, because there are some folks
out there that you don't have all of the answers, but they have an answer. Every school in
America got some basic little thing that they may be doing right. I'll just pick those
things, just like you do at a restaurant. Pick the good that fit my need. I'll run with it.
Notwithstanding, all principals stated that they relied on their counterparts for advice in
certain situations. For instance, the Scarlett High School Principal stated, “I have a mentor that I
call every morning, and he always helps me with any issue that I may have. I have about three
people that I call, and one person on site, that I always rely on to ensure that I am not going to
make a wrong decision regarding a certain issue.” Of similar note, the Columbia Blue High
School Principal affirmed that she also relied on colleagues for advice and support. Additionally,
she proclaimed “seeking the support of others in running a school is very important. It builds
collegiality and a support system, so that, if no one at the central office can assist you, then
others can.”
Information obtained from principals in this study suggests that soliciting the advice and
support from colleagues from within and outside of the school greatly assisted principals in
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 86
making decisions. As stated earlier, principals must be at the forefront of making sound decisions
to improve schools. However, without some type of support from any source, this makes their
jobs difficult.
Summary of Research Question Three
Research questions number three regarded the support principals received from various
sources. These sources included, but were not limited to, the central or district office, outside
consultants, and other colleagues and peers, although all principals only mentioned a few
instances where they received district support in instructional and/or operational areas. The
support was specifically targeted to address only one issue and not a plethora of issues.
Additionally, each principal stated s/he received outside assistance and training sponsored by
their respective districts. Furthermore, all principals stated that they have other colleagues and
mentors readily available to assist them with and issue or challenges at the school sites.
However, during all interviews, principals stated very little central office support other than for
basic instructional and operational procedures.
Research Question Four - How do these principals evaluate the success of instructional and
operational strategies they have implemented to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
The importance of evaluating educational programs in an effort to ascertain their
effectiveness is tantamount to the success of schools in improving student achievement. Tucker
and Stronge (2005) argued that evaluation systems should utilize both student gains in learning
and observations of classroom instruction. Principals in the study stated that they use a vast array
of informal methods to evaluate the instructional and operational strategies they selected.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 87
Methods Used during Administrative Observations. Although all principals remain
responsible for formal evaluations of teachers, the principals did not discuss the methods they
used to complete these evaluations. Furthermore, all principals declined to discuss the nuisances
of formal evaluations of teachers due to contractual obligations. However, all principals freely
discussed the manner in which they conducted informal evaluations of all teachers and unit
members. All principals used classroom observations to evaluate the success of the instructional
practices they inculcated at their school sites. Moreover, all principals used informal
observational forms that were provided to them by their district office. The Columbia Blue High
School Principal evidences explained the use of the district made forms by stating:
As a function of the schools site counsel, you have to do a program evaluation, which the
forms are provided to you by the office of special projects. In that form, it has
information that is standardized across the district. That's how you evaluate the
effectiveness of the program categorically. However, there is no generally accepted
method of evaluation, but the forms for categorical were transferable.
However, in terms of evaluation of the selected operational strategies, many principals
relied on home grown instruments to evaluate operational strategies or issues. For example, the
Scarlett High School Principal used operational evaluative tools left by a former plant manager
to evaluate plant issues. The Scarlett High School Principal explained his use of this evaluative
tool by stating:
In the past, the previous plant manager utilized the tool (form), but because he retired, he
was able to pass it onto me. There was a sheet that pertained to information regarding the
operation of the school - looking out for hazards, rating the cleanliness of certain areas,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 88
also rating the runs or the duties that each plant worker needed to fulfill in order to be
effective, so there is a tool that we have. It's existed here for quite a while.
In contrast, many principals just relied on first hand eye-to-eye observations in evaluating
instructional and observational strategies they installed at their school sites. As stated earlier by
the Scarlett High School Principal, “everything is a needs assessment”. Thus, all principals stated
that they constantly seek ways to improve their schools. In fact, all of the principals stated they
make it priority to visit as many classrooms as possible daily in addition to their other
supervisory duties.
Use of standard formative and summative data sources. The use of formative and
summative data remains important to formulate and gauge instruction. Most importantly, in order
to change or install educational strategies, it is important to track students at general levels
(Marzano et al., 2005). To this effect, all principals stated they used the following summative
and formative data sources to gauge instructional and operational strategies:
1) California Standards Test (CST) data of individual students and targeted sub-groups
2) Quarterly District Benchmark for core subjects
3) Teacher made exams, tests and quizzes
Further investigation revealed that principals use the aforementioned data sources in various
ways to improve instruction. As a point, the Columbia Blue High School Principal offered this
example of how she used existing data to evaluate and institute educational programs and
methods to improve the delivery of instruction:
“The evaluation comes through the data. So, for example, benchmark assessments were
looked at to see if, from the first benchmark, was there any improvement going into the
second? Formative and summative information is taken, and teacher
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 89
anecdotal observations were given from teachers. So, for example, there was a research
that indicated that children were more likely to pay attention if they received voice
amplified instruction. We purchased some voice amplifiers, and we did a survey about
whether you were engaged prior in a survey, whether you engaged more, were you more
likely to pay attention for a longer period of time. We were able to see that, yes, for the
most part, kids’ teachers were more apt to pay attention if they received instruction that
was amplified. It prevented them from wandering as easily.”
Thus, when principals used data to improve instruction, they also stumbled upon other ways to
improve instructional outcomes of students while evaluating instruction.
In addition, some principals expressed that their respective district offices have
indoctrinated computer programs to facilitate the use of formative and summative data. For
example, both the Scarlett and Columbia Blue High School Principals stated that their school
district uses a computer-based program to retrieve, disseminate, and aggregate students’ data to
improve their school instructional program. In fact, the Scarlett High School principal stated,
“By using the new OARS program, we are able to retrieve student CST and benchmark data and
analyze the effeteness of our instructional program.
Summary of Research Question Four
The importance of principals in evaluating instructional and operational strategies is key
in improving student performance (Tucker & Stronge, 2005). Therefore, principals in the study
used a several tools and resources to evaluate teacher and student performance. Consequently,
principals used different tools to evaluate the strategies they installed at their schools. Although
some principals used district mandated procedures and forms to document the evaluations of
instructional and operational strategies used, some used other methods that other colleagues used
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 90
at their respective schools. Additionally, some principals used their own instruments tailored for
their specific school sites to evaluate programs. Furthermore, principals stated that the use of
formative data, such as benchmark data, CST data, suspension rates, attendance, and other data
sources were used to evaluate instructional and operational strategies at their schools.
Discussion
The information derived from the personal interviews of principals in the study, teacher
and staff surveys, and review of the literature confirms the vast research regarding the practices
of effective principals. Moreover, all principals exhibited many of the 25 categories that
Marzano, 2005) states that principals must possess in order to be effective principals and
improve schools. Interpersonal relationships, the need to be resourceful, and old-fashioned
common sense were the commonalties conveyed by principals. However, the glaring themes that
emerged consisted of challenges that the principals expressed needed immediate attention.
Moreover, examples of these themes included building collegiality, developing relationships
with teachers, staff, and students, improving instructional programs, improving the aesthetics of
the campus, and attempting to connect the school site to the district office.
Many principals were recruited for this study; however, very few were willing to
participate. However, all four principals in the study brought a unique set of skills and strategies
they employed at their schools. Upon review of the interviews and transcriptions, the researcher
noticed how the literature reflected the views and mannerisms of the principals in the study. For
instance, the Native American High School Principal relied on building relationships and
building capacity to improve instructional outcomes at his school. Thus, reflecting on the review
of the literature, Crippen (2005), Bass and Bass (2009) stated the importance of soliciting
opinions of followers to make decisions as key to the premise of democratic leadership. Thus,
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 91
this is one distinct example of how the literature validated some of the findings of this
investigative process.
With respect to the overall findings of this study, the combinations of the interviews and
surveys validated previous research and literature regarding the effective leadership practices of
principals. However, the interesting facet of this study is how these leaders attempted to improve
educational outcomes for African-American and Latino students. As the review of the literature
often pointed out, a vast array of leadership traits, quality of leaders, and strategies used by
effective leaders promoted gains in student achievement. Although schools in this study may not
have achieved a great amount of success as schools that are more affluent, they have managed to
make strides in student improvement. Moreover, the tenor of the principals in this study relayed
that they will not relinquish their quest to improve their respective schools. In many ways, the
researcher believes that this may be due to the ethnicities of the principals participating in the
study. As a result, they all have an inherent investment in success of African-American and
Latino students. In fact, one principal conveyed that his success and the success of his students
were revealed if graduation rates increased from year to year. Although the literature revealed
that creating caring school environments were important to students’ success, the findings
revealed that caring people working in schools was also very important.
It remains necessary for principals to receive support and assistance from their superiors.
Although principals expressed that they received support for state and federal mandates, such as
common core training, they also expressed that they did not receive enough support. All
principals in this study expressed a need for more support. In fact, one principal in the study
stated that the support received from the central office was “minimal” at best. Moreover, another
principal expressed dissatisfaction with respect to the trainings that administrators and other
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 92
support staff received overall. Thus, principals should receive training they deem necessary in
order to improve their practice in a quest to improve instructional outcomes for students.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 93
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
Research affirms that successful leaders in high poverty schools face daily challenges that
those at other schools do not encounter (Muijs, Harris, Chapman, Stoll, & Russ (2004;
Sergiovanni, 1992). In fact, many principals of low socioeconomic status high schools face high
rates of crime and poverty over which they have no control over or they lack the necessary and
proper resources to combat these issues (Muijs, et. al., 2004). Therefore, it remains necessary for
high schools that face these issues to have principals who utilize effective instructional and
operational leadership strategies to improve the educational outcomes of the low-income
students they serve, particularly African-American and Latino students.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective practices used by high school
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools. This study examined the effective
leadership practice and strategies of four high schools located in urban areas of Los Angeles
County. During this study, four research questions were constructed to determine the effective
strategies used by successful high school principals to improve student achievement:
1) What are the successful instructional and operational strategies employed by
principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained
academic improvement?
2) What support do these principals provide for the staff to be able to implement
instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
3) What support does the central office provide for principals of low socioeconomic
status high schools that have shown sustained academic improvement in
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 94
implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-
American and Latino student achievement?
4) How do these principals evaluate the success of instructional and operational
strategies they have implemented to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
Summary of Findings
Effective instructional and operational strategies have been proven to increase schools’
test scores, thus improving students’ academic outcomes. However, selection and use of these
strategies by effective high school principals remain essential. Furthermore, the types of effective
instructional and operational strategies that must be used at schools of low socioeconomic status
that serve primarily African-American and Latino students remain essential to improve the future
outlook of these students. Therefore, this study may assist similar high school principals improve
the educational outcomes and the outlook for African-American and Latino students.
Research Question One - What are the successful instructional and operational strategies
employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown academic
improvement?
Research question 1 investigated the effective instructional and operational strategies
employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools. Analysis of data pertaining to
this question revealed several emergent themes, many of which were also discussed in the review
of the literature:
1) Enhancing Communication
2) Creating a Collaborative Environment
3) Instituting Safeguards to Enhance Instruction
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 95
4) Changes to the Instructional Program to Increase Student Achievement
5) Monitoring the Instructional Program
6) Building Capacity from Within, and
7) Changing school culture to an academic focus.
Principals in the study discussed the vast assortment of instructional and operational
strategies they employed at their schools. Many of the instructional strategies centered on
improving communication and collaboration among staff, monitoring and valuating instructional
programs, empowering teachers by giving them tools for and holding them responsible for
student achievement, and shifting the culture of schools by promoting more academic awareness.
In addition to the instructional strategies installed by principals in the study, operational
strategies were also installed to improve student achievement. Many of these operational
strategies included tardy sweeps, facility checks by administrators, installment of truancy
centers, and installing a school wide discipline plan. The use of these strategies may assist in
improving student achievement.
Research Question Two - What support do these principals provide for the staff to be able
to implement instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement?
Research question 2 examined the support that principals provide for their staff to
implement the selected instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement. The principals stated they used a variety of activities to create a
sense of collaboration amongst the staff. In addition, many principals expressed a willingness to
promote shared responsibility amongst teachers and administration to decide the type and scope
of staff development sessions.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 96
Subsequently, principals in the study provided various means of support for teachers.
However, the primary means of support principals offered to teachers was during professional
development sessions. Furthermore, these professional development opportunities consisted of
district-mandated professional development, professional development from outside sources, and
in-house professional development. Most importantly, these professional development sessions
were tailored to the specific needs of the school and teachers. In fact, principals in the study
suggested that the best professional development came from their own site staff or “in-house”. In
fact, principals stated that conducting in-house professional development with their staff was
more beneficial, as teachers were more apt to highly respect the information they received from
their colleagues.
Research Question Three - What support does the central office provide for principals of
low socioeconomic status high schools that have shown sustained academic improvement in
implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and
Latino student achievement?
Research question 3 required the response from central office administrators and their
efforts to provide high school principals with the necessary support to implement and execute
effective strategies. The central office provides trainings, monthly principals operations and
instructional meetings and trainings for teachers. Additionally, one principal expressed the
support they received from the central office most notably from the human resource department.
However, all principals stated they would like to receive more training and support from their
respective central offices.
Correspondingly, all principals in the study heavily relied on support received from other
administrative colleagues. For instance, one principal stated that he frequently maintained
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 97
contact with other colleagues in an effort to solve issues, validate decisions, or to ensure he
remained up-to-date on any educational rules or regulations. Further, all principals believed that
preserving lines of support from other administrators assisted greatly in employment of
instructional and operational strategies.
Research Question Four - How do these principals evaluate the success of instructional and
operational strategies they have implemented to improve African-American and Latino
student achievement?
Research question 4 examined the manner in which principals evaluated the instructional
and operational strategies they choose to employ. Many principals expressed that constant
classroom visitations were their main method in evaluating the strategies used at their schools.
Additionally, some principals conducted maintenance walks to evaluate the conditions of the
campus. Moreover, some principals examined various data sources such as suspension rates,
attendance rates, the number of referrals issued by teachers, and the number of students caught in
tardy sweeps.
Of similar importance, one principal stated that the use of formative and summative data
remained important in monitoring instructional and operational strategies. These formative and
summative data sources included CST scores, quarterly benchmark scores, attendance and
truancy data, and suspension rates. As such, these data sources remained instrumental in the
evaluation of instructional and operational strategies and programs in an effort to gauge their
effectiveness. Essentially, principals stated an instructional or operational strategy failed to yield
little or any results; they used the data derived from these strategies to make adjustments.
Therefore, it was revealed that the use of data dictated the employment and monitoring of
instructional and operational strategies employed by principals in this study.
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 98
Implications for Practice
Principals of urban schools face enormous challenges in pursuit of improving student
educational outcomes. In many urban schools, individuals chosen to improve schools last no
longer than their predecessors (Ravitch, 2010). Effective strategies by principals of low
socioeconomic status (SES) high schools that show sustained academic improvement warrants
inquiry. In addition, these strategies utilized by principals of low SES high schools that show
sustained academic improvement of African-American and Latino students offer hope that these
students can obtain high levels of academic achievement.
In contrast, many urban school districts seek individuals from more affluent districts to
spearhead and turn around urban schools. However, without knowing the culture and the needs
of schools, they often fail (Ravitch, 2011). Thus, this study was important on two premises. First,
seeking the insight and expertise of principals who were more connected by the ethnic
commonalties they had with students meant they had a larger stake in student academic
outcomes. Thus, these principals used effective strategies that any principal could employ to
achieve student success. Second, the researcher found vast amounts of research that disclosed the
improvement of schools. However, very few studies discussed the improvement of high schools
consisting of African-American and Latino students of low SES. Thus, the strategies used by
principals in this study may assist other principals in similar positions to improve schools and
academic achievement of African-American and Latino students.
Recommendations
The findings generated from the study revealed several recommendations that high
school principals could use to improve student achievement. In addition, there are
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 99
recommendations for all stakeholders involved in daily operations of high schools that serve low
SES African-American and Latino students.
1) High School Principals must receive more support from the Central Office. While
Central office personnel are responsible for ensuring that all state and federal
regulations are met, an open dialogue between site and district administrators must be
prevalent.
2) The Central/District Office must promote more teambuilding professional
developments at school sites to further build capacity. In place of professional
development sessions for teachers and administrators designed to ensure compliance
of district, local, state, and federal regulations, professional development sessions
designed to build capacity among site and administrative staff should be further
promoted.
3) Principals must be more assertive in their approach to dealing with staff issues. In this
study, a principal stated that he received support from the central office to place
teachers on Peer Assistance Review, but they should not have gotten that far.
Research contained in the literature review of this study asserts that principal are
instructional leaders in charge of ensuring that teachers are well equipped, trained and
supported to deliver quality instruction to students (Beatriz, Hunter, & Hopkins 2008;
Darling-Hammond et al., 2007).
4) Although a principal in the study realized the importance with respect to
understanding and respecting the culture of a school, principals who serve African-
American and Latino students of low SES must understand the culture of the students
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 100
they service. Additionally, this also includes the culture of the community in which
the school serves.
5) Principals of low SES high schools that serve primarily African-American and Latino
students must institute additional academic safety nets to ensure that these students
are eligible to attend college upon matriculation from high school. Although the high
school graduation rate for African-American and Latino students has improved, these
numbers are not reflected in the number of 1
st
time African-American and Latino
students entering colleges and universities. This is indicative of the 2012 University
of California Report that revealed only 29% of African-American and Latino students
completed the necessary A-G requirements to gain acceptance to the University of
California or California State University system (University of California, Berkeley,
2012).
Limitations
Although the schools in this study were located in poor or working class areas of
Southeast Los Angeles County, the researcher could not gain access to other schools that may
have possessed lower levels of socioeconomic status. Therefore, it is difficult to ascertain if the
same high school principals in low SES areas of Los Angeles County face similar situations,
issues, and challenges as the principals in the study.
Future Research
Although many issues remain out of principals’ control, there are investigations and
studies that could be accomplished to further address this issue. Therefore, the researcher offers
the two recommendations. Moreover, these recommendations center on the leadership and
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 101
training that principals of high schools with low SES and high African-American and Latino
enrollment must possess to be successful.
First, more studies on the successful instructional and operational strategies of high
school principals must be investigated further to improve educational outcomes for African-
American and Latino students. In doing so, vast amounts of information and strategies can be
offered for high school principals to institute in their schools. Currently, there is a great deal of
research regarding the academic improvement of African-American and Latino elementary and
middle schools students. However, many of the instructional and operational strategies offered
by these studies occasionally fail to transfer over to the high secondary or high school level.
Last, African-American and Latino principals and administrators serving low SES
schools warrant inquiry. Some research exists that demonstrates that African-American and
Latino students may tend to perform better if principals or other site administrative staff “looks
just like them”. However, the research that exists may not be substantial enough to corroborate
the claim of a boost in the self-efficacy of African-American and Latino students who attend
high schools that have African-American or Latino principals or administrators.
Conclusion
Sadly, research and data assert that African-American and Latino students attain the
poorest educational outcomes in the United States (Levin, Belfield, Muennig, & Rouse, 2007).
Therefore, it remains important that these students be offered the best possible educational
endeavors. Although many African-American and Latino students live in poverty, given the
proper resources and guidance, they have potential to earn educational credentials and become
productive citizens (Amos, 2008; Day & Newburger, 2002).
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 102
This study sought to discover the effective instructional and operational strategies
implemented by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that show sustained
academic improvement over a five-year period. Additionally, these high schools serve primarily
African-American and Latino students. Four high school principals were selected to answer the
four research questions. Each principal was interviewed using a structured interview protocol
consisting of twelve (12) questions. Additionally, to validate the review of the literature and to
triangulate data, a survey protocol consisting of fifty (50) questions was created and
disseminated to teachers at the principals’ schools.
Many of these assertions made by Marzano et al. (2005) and Marzano et al. (2011) rang
true during the coding process of the transcribed interviews. In fact, each principal exhibited
some of the 25 essential categories described by Cotton via Marzano et al. (2005). Thus, the
triangulation of survey data and information obtained from principals’ interviews, and
information obtained from the literature review corroborates the importance of skills needed by
principals to improve student achievement.
Ever since the release of the National Commission on Excellences’ report title “A Nation
at Risk”, elected officials and educational leaders have attempted to address its findings.
Eventually, this report led to a standards-based approach to education in the United States.
Although gains in K-12 education have been made, more and more African-American and Latino
children do not see these gains. However, George W. Bush’s reauthorization of the Early
Secondary Educational Act or No Child Left Behind sought to close the achievement gaps
among children of all ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds and disabilities. Even though the
academic gap between African-American and Latino students and their peers has somewhat
narrowed, it remains a gap that reflects a similar gap in economic attainment, as individuals who
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 103
are well educated tend to fare better than individuals who are not. Consequently, this issue places
severe economic and social consequences on American society.
Since high school serves as the last destination for young people to gain and hone
academic and social skills in order to succeed, it remains necessary for high school principals to
employ instructional and operational strategies that are proven to produce positive academic
results. Most importantly, these successful strategies are needed for high school principals who
serve African-American and Latino students. It is recommended that future studies will address
this issue further, as African-American and Latino students deserve the same educational and
economic opportunities their Caucasian and Asian counterparts currently enjoy.

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 104
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Appendix A
Teacher/Staff Survey
Survey Instructions
The following survey should take no more than 20-30 minutes. Please, answer each survey
question to the best of your knowledge; as your answers and responses are most important and
appreciated. In addition, before you complete this survey, please complete the following
information:

Years of service in the district_____________________________

Years of service in Education_____________________________

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 120

1) The Principal is visible throughout the campus. 1 2 3 4 5

2) The Principal knows what is going on in the school. 1 2 3 4 5

3) The Principal provides enough resources to deliver instruction. 1 2 3 4 5

4) The Principal expresses the vision of the school. 1 2 3 4 5

5) The Principal understands how students learn. 1 2 3 4 5

6) The needs of children come first. 1 2 3 4 5

7) The Principal uses many sources for funds to purchase resources. 1 2 3 4 5

8) The school is the center of the community. 1 2 3 4 5

9) Teachers are encouraged by the Principal to use assessment
data to plan instructions. 1 2 3 4 5

10) Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with one another to
discuss student’s instructional needs. 1 2 3 4 5

11) The Principal is an ethical leader. 1 2 3 4 5

12) There is an afterschool program for students to
reinforce student’s skills. 1 2 3 4 5

Survey Scale

(1) Strongly Disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neutral (4) Agree (5) Strongly Agree
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 121
13) Instructional strategies and outcomes are clearly articulated
by the principal. 1 2 3 4 5

14) Operational strategies and outcomes are clearly articulated
by the principal. 1 2 3 4 5

15) The school staff embraces the vision of the Principal. 1 2 3 4 5

16) The Principal encourages all teachers to ensure that
students are successful. 1 2 3 4 5

17) Instructional time is protected by the Principal. 1 2 3 4 5

18) The Principal makes specific academic decisions that
he/she deems important for instruction. 1 2 3 4 5

19) The Principal and staff encourage Parents to visit the school. 1 2 3 4 5

20) Parents are welcomed by the Principal when visiting the campus. 1 2 3 4 5

21) After-school programs are well attended by parents. 1 2 3 4 5

22) The school is a happy place for student learning. 1 2 3 4 5

23) The principal ensures that the school is safe. 1 2 3 4 5

24) Curriculum needs determine the type of and frequency
of staff development. 1 2 3 4 5

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 122
25) The Principal fosters and understanding of respect among
staff members and students. 1 2 3 4 5

26) Business partnerships or formed with the school. 1 2 3 4 5

27) The Principal knows that names of students. 1 2 3 4 5

28) The Principal participates in staff development. 1 2 3 4 5

29) The Principal spends more time in the classroom than
in the office. 1 2 3 4 5

30) The Principal encourages the input of the staff regarding
instructional and operational issues. 1 2 3 4 5

31) Students are assessed frequently. 1 2 3 4 5

32) Teaching methods are based of research provided
by the principal. 1 2 3 4 5

33) The Principal recognizes the successes of students publically. 1 2 3 4 5

34) The Principal ensures that students are on task daily. 1 2 3 4 5

35) The Principal is the instructional leader of the school. 1 2 3 4 5

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 123
36) There is a progressive discipline process
in place for students. 1 2 3 4 5

37) The Principal encourages the use of technology. 1 2 3 4 5

38) The Principal has established a positive culture for the school. 1 2 3 4 5

39) Community members are encouraged to volunteer at the school. 1 2 3 4 5

40) There is a Saturday school program at the school. 1 2 3 4 5

41) Parents are encouraged to attend parent conferences regarding
student progress. 1 2 3 4 5

42) Translators are provided for parents who do not speak English. 1 2 3 4 5

43) Leadership in the school is shared among the Principal
and the staff. 1 2 3 4 5

44) The Principal and the staff develop the school plan
collaboratively. 1 2 3 4 5

45) The Principal encourages positive relationships among
students an the community. 1 2 3 4 5

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 124
46) The Principal has input in the hiring process
of teachers. 1 2 3 4 5

47) The principal encourages teachers to attend extra
curricular activities at the school. 1 2 3 4 5

48) The teachers are honest and respectful
to parents regarding student progress. 1 2 3 4 5

49) The school has a website to disseminate information
to students and parents. 1 2 3 4 5

50) The Principal uses fair and effective judgment
to resolve school issues and affairs. 1 2 3 4 5

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 125
Appendix B
Interview Protocol (Principals)

1. How long have you been assigned to this school?

Probes: How long have you been a school administrator?
How many years have you been in education?

2. What were the biggest operational challenges you faced when you arrived at the school?

Probes: How did you handle those challenges?
What did you learn or take away when confronting those challenges?
Would you do anything differently? Why or why not?

3. What were the biggest academic challenges you faced when you arrived at the school?

Probes: How did you handle those challenges?
What did you learn or take away when confronting those challenges?
Would you do anything differently? Why or why not?

4. How did you determine what type of instructional strategies needed to be instituted at the
school?

Probes: What was the purpose?
What types of evidence or data did you use in determining these
strategies?

5. How did you determine what type operational strategies needed to be instituted at the
school?

Probes: What was the purpose?
What types of evidence or data did you use in determining these
strategies?

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 126
6. How do you determine the support and materials you need to implement these strategies?

Probes: What type of support did you receive from the Central office? School
Staff?

7. How do you evaluate the strategies implemented to gauge their effectiveness?

Probes: What type of training did you receive if any to evaluate any of the
strategies that you implemented?

8. How do you determine the tools needed to evaluate these strategies?

Probes: What type of training did you receive if any in using the tools you needed
to evaluate these strategies?

9. Should the strategies implemented fail to yield results, what steps do you take to rectify
this issue?

Probes: What type of assistance do you need? Is that assistance readily available?

10. How do you hold other stakeholders accountable when implementing the selected
strategies?

11. What type of assistance do you receive from the central office to implement the strategies
you selected?

12. Is there anything else you would like to share with me that may add to this interview or
study?

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 127
Appendix C
Teacher Recruitment Letter

Dear Teachers and Staff,

My name is Bobby Walker, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education
Ed.D program at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study, which
examines the instructional and operational strategies used at high performing high schools that
serve students of low socioeconomic backgrounds. I would like to cordially invite to participate
in this study. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete an online or in person 50
question survey. The survey is anticipated to take approximately 30 minutes to complete. Your
participation in this study is voluntary. To participate and complete this survey, please go to the
following link:
http://www.sogosurvey.com/k/RQsQWSTRsSsPsPsP
The data will be reported in the aggregate and will remain confidential at all times.
The aim of this study is to assist schools similar to yours in improving the educational process of
all students. If you have any questions, please contact me at (323) 697-6858 or email me at
bobbywal@usc.edu.

Thank you for your time.
Bobby Walker
Doctoral Candidate - Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES 128
Appendix D
Principals Recruitment Letter

Dear _____________________,

My name is Bobby Walker, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education
Ed.D program at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study which
examines the instructional and operational strategies used at high performing high school that
serve students of low socioeconomic backgrounds. I would like to cordially invite to participate
in this study. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to participate in an individual
interview anticipated to last no more than 1-hour. The interview will be audiotaped to capture
important information for this study. You may also be invited to participate in a 50-question
survey. The survey is anticipated to take approximately 30 minutes to complete. Your
participation in this study is voluntary. In addition, I would also like to obtain your permission to
distribute online/paper surveys to the teachers at your school. The data will be reported in the
aggregate and will remain confidential at all times. The aim of this study is to assist schools
similar to yours in improving the educational process of all students. If you have any questions,
please contact me at (323) 697-6858 or email me at bobbywal@usc.edu.

Thank you for your time.

Bobby Walker
Doctoral Candidate - Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify and investigate the effective leadership strategies used by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools that have demonstrated sustained academic improvement. Moreover, this study sought to examine 1) the successful instructional and operational strategies employed by principals of low socioeconomic status high schools resulting in sustained academic improvement, 2) the support principals provide for the staff in implementing instructional and operational strategies to improve African-American and Latino student achievement, 3) support provided to high school principals by the central office to implement the selected strategies, and 4) the manner in which principals evaluate the success of instructional and operational strategies they implemented to improve and sustain African-American and Latino student achievement. This study consisted of a mixed-methods approach in which four (4) high school principals participated in a structured interview using twelve (12) open-ended questions. Additionally, teachers, staff, and other stakeholders from the four (4) selected high schools completed a 50-question online survey to gain more information in order to answer the research questions. Each principal interviewed provided descriptive details of the best instructional and operational practices s/he employed at his/her respective schools. Upon analyzing the data collected from the interviews and surveys, emergent themes were discovered in terms of the best instructional and operational practices, the high priority given by central office personnel to assist each principal in employment of their selected best practices, and the positive outcome of African-American and Latino student achievement. Hence, this study provides valuable information, insight, and optimism in that the correct utilization of effective leadership practices can lead to closing the achievement gap for African-American and Latino students.

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Walker, Bobby E. (author)

Core Title Effective leadership practices of principals of low socioeconomic status high schools consisting of predominantly African-American and Latino students showing sustained academic improvement

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 01/15/2015

Defense Date 09/29/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag annual yearly progress,AYP,college readiness,high performing schools,high school dropout,Lea,local educational agency,low-performing schools,OAI-PMH Harvest,PI,program improvement

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member), McTaggart, Andrew (committee member)

Creator Email bobbywal@usc.edu,bwalker@prodigy.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-522662

Unique identifier UC11297703

Identifier etd-WalkerBobb-3116.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-522662 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WalkerBobb-3116.pdf

Dmrecord 522662

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Walker, Bobby E.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA